THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS HISTORY, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, BIOG- RAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ART, GOV- ERNMENT, POLITICS, INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE, SCIENCE, EDUCATION, NATURAL HISTORY, STATISTICS AND MISCELLANY EDITED BY HENRY W. RUOFF, M. A., D. C. L., Editor of "Century Book of Facts," "Universal Manual of Ready Reference," "Leaders of Men," "The Capitals of the World," "Masters of Achievement," Etc. THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY BUFFALO, N. Y. 1911 AS5 Copyright, 1908, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1909, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1910, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1911, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. AU rights reserved. EDITOR'S PREFACE IN the year 1900, the editor of this volume presented to the public a more or less comprehensive book of general information THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS which has since found a place in upward of half a million American homes. This immense circulation would seem to be conclusive that a work of this type meets with the intelligent approval of a large contingent of the book-buying public. There is additional evidence, however, that the demand for comprehensive, concise, reliable, up-to-date, books of reference and instruction, in almost every department of knowledge, is becoming more insistent. And it is in consequence of this demand, as well as the desire of the editor to enlarge and improve and standardize his original plan, that the present work has been prepared. The present work has been built entirely anew, guided by the defects and limitations of other books of reference, to be sure, but chiefly in the light of the advances of the past eight years. It is divided into Ten Books, covering the entire range of general knowledge, so classified as to bring to the reader or con- suiter the essentials of many diverse subjects in the most direct and expeditious manner. Numerous tabulations have been introduced which in themselves will be found valuable substitutes for volumes, even, along the same lines. The aim has been to adapt the work to the needs of all classes of readers to the home, to the school, to the office, to the library. Live, practical, every-day information, touching the manifold interests of the day, has been given a place alongside the previously recorded facts of history, literature, science, industry biography, and achievement. The past has been linked with the present in such fashion as to make the survey of the world's progress at once complete and concise. Many hundreds of volumes have been laid under tribute to complete the present work, and much valuable assistance has been rendered by many persons throughout the entire country, both by suggestion and contribution. To Miss Susan F. Chase, M. A., Pd. D., and Miss Helen L. Dunston, of the Buffalo State Normal School, in particular, the credit is due for the best features in the depart- ments of Literature and Language, respectively. While an earnest effort has been made to attain a minimum of error in the succeeding pages, it is too much to expect that all errors and inconsistencies have been removed. In so vast an array of facts some error is inevitable. This is due to a multitude of causes, chief of which is the absence of agree- ment among the very highest so-called authorities and the lack of uniformity in many statistical tabulations. We shall welcome, therefore, any intelligent criticism that will enable us to give to this work the greatest possible accuracy and usefulness. 223781 TABLE OF CONTENTS FIRST BOOK HISTORY DICTIONARY OF HISTORY Concise Histories op Countries and States: Alabama Argentine Republic Arkansas Austria-Hungary Belgium Brazil Cali- fornia Canada Chile China Colorado Connecticut Cuba Delaware Denmark Florida France Georgia German Empire Great Britain Greece Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Italy Japan Kansas Ken- tucky Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mexico Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Netherlands Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina North Dakota Norway Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Persia Portugal Rhode Island Rome Russia Servia South Carolina South Dakota Spain Sweden Switzerland Tennessee Texas Turkey United States Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyom- ing EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS GREAT BATTLES GREAT WARS IMPORTANT TREATIES OUTLINES OF AMERICAN HISTORY BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME RUINS RULERS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS, PAST AND PRESENT HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS AND TABULATIONS. SECOND BOOK LANGUAGE The English Language Use op Capital Letters Punctuation Right Use of Words Figures op Speech Synonyms Letter Writing Words and Phrases from the Classic and Modern Languages Abbreviations Mispronounced Words Forms of English Composition Travels Memoirs Biography History News Fiction Short Story Parables Allegories Description Exposition Essays Editorials Reviews Criticisms Argument Addresses Lectures Orations Sermons. THIRD BOOK LITERATURE Preliminary View of Literature Oriental Literature Literature of India Persia China The Hebrews Egypt Phenicia Assyrl^ Arabia Greece Rome Scandinavia Germany France Italy Spain Russia England America List of Books for Children's Library Family Libraries Books AND Authors, Classified Famous Poems, Authors and First Lines Pen Names of Noted Writers Mythology - Names in Fiction, Literary Plots, and Allusions FOURTH BOOK BIOGRAPHY Great Men and Women op the Past Great Men and Women op the Present Authors Statesmen Warriors Rulers Jurists Lawyers Physicians Scien- tists Educators Sculptors Painters Architects Preachers Invent- ors Discoverers Patriots Editors Philanthropists Actors Musicians Financiers Religious Leaders Philosophers Mathematicians Astron- omers Artisans Orators Engineers Merchants Geniuses Savants and Others. FIFTH BOOK GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE Selected Topics in Physical, Descriptive, and Political Geography Continents Oceans Rivers Mountains Lakes Countries States Cities Battle- fields Castles Cathedrals Churches Monuments Obelisks Palaces Shrines Museums Art Galleries Historic Buildings Historic Ruins Fashionable Resorts Architectural Structures Theaters Tabulations. TABLE OF CONTENTS 6 SIXTH BOOK GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Government of the Principal Countries of the World Government of the States of THE Union Government of Territories and Insular Possessions Government of Cities Abyssinia Afghanistan Alabama Argentine Republic Arizona Arkansas Austria-Hungary Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Cali- fornia Chile China Colombia Colorado Connecticut Corea Cuba Delaware Denmark District of Columbia Dominican Republic Ecua- dor England Florida France Georgia Germany Great Britain AND Ireland Greece Hayti Idaho Illinois India, Empire of Indiana Iowa Ireland Italy Japan Kansas Kentucky Liberia Louisi- ana - Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mexico Montana Montenegro Morocco Nebraska Netherlands Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York New Zealand North Carolina North Dakota Norway Ohio Oklahoma Oman Oregon Panama Paraguay Pennsyl- vania Persia Peru Portugal Prussia Rhode Island Rumania Rus- sia Scotland Servia Siam South Carolina South Dakota Spain Sweden Switzerland Tennessee Texas Turkey United States of America Uruguay Utah Venezuela Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Zanzibar Tabulations and Statistics. SEVENTH BOOK INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE Agriculture Banks Building Commerce Commercial Products Finance Fisheries Forestry Imports and Exports Insurance Inventions Iron AND Steel Labor Organizations Live Stock Industry Manufactures Merchant Marine Mining Money Occupations Railroads Transporta- tion Trusts World Marts World's Staples Tabulations and Statistics. EIGHTH BOOK SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION Branches of Human Knowledge Colleges and Universities Educational Systems and Topics Fine Arts Learned Societies Music Painting Religions and Religious Denominations Sculpture Topics in Physical Science, Medical Science, Biological Science, Electrical and Mechanical Science Scientific, Educational, and Religious Statistics. NINTH BOOK NATURAL HISTORY ANIMAL KINGDOM: Birds, Insects, Mammals, Reptiles MINERAL KINGDOM: Coals and Clays, Gases, Fossils, Liquids, Metals, Precious Stones, Rocks, Soils VEGETABLE KINGDOM : Cereals and Bulbs, Grasses, Flowers, Forests, Fruits CURIOSITIES AND WONDERS. . TENTH BOOK MISCELLANY Amusements Weights and Measures Names and Name Origins Vital Statistics Births, Deaths, Crimes Fraternal Organizations Disasters and Calamities, Fires, Floods, Earthquakes, Pestilences Burial and Mourning Customs Holi- days Weather Signals Poisons Popular Names of Cities Miscellaneous Facts and Figures. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Henry Woldmar Ruoff, the well-known American journalist and author, and the editor of The Standard Dictionary of Facts, was born in Germantown, Pa., 1867. He was graduated at Indiana University in 1890. After two years of post-graduate study in history, philosophy, and comparative religions at Harvard, he spent two years in economics, politics, and com- parative jurisprudence at Columbian (now George Washington) University, securing the degree of Doctor of Civil Law in 1901, and supplementing his education at Oxford, the University of Berlin, and ficole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Paris. In 1S92-93, he was an instructor in psychology, logic, and ethics at Pennsylvania State College. In 1904, Dr. Ruoff became an associate editor of the American Spectator, in 1906 of Ridgway's, and during 1907 he acted as editor of the Nashville Tenncssean. He has traveled very extensively in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is a member of the National Geographical Society, and of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Dr. Ruoff is probably the leading and best known editor of reference books, among his works being The Century Book of Facts; Leaders of Men; The Capitals of the World; Syllabus of American Politics, and Masters of Achievement, as well as the present volume. His books have come to be appreciated as models of compre- hensiveness, accuracy and breadth of view, with the result that their combined sale has reached a total of over one million copies. The constantly increasing demand bears witness that the eagerness with which they are accepted is only equalled by the satisfaction with which they are used. The Publishers. J < I t o D cq O o HISTORY Abdication is the act of giving up an of- fice. It is sometimes compulsory^ and some- times the result of vexation and disappointment. The following monarchs have abdicated : Abdul Hamid II. (forced) 1909 Amadeus 1. (duke of Aosla) of Spain 1873 Charles Albert of Sardinia (tmiH ) 1849 Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia 1802 Charles IV. of Spain (forced) 1808 Charles V. of Spain and Germany, 1556 Charles X. of France (forced) 1830 Christina of Sweden 1654 Diocletian and Maximian, 305, 308 Emperor of Corea 1907 FeUpe V. of Spain 1724 Ferdinand of Austria 1848 Francis II. of the Two Sicilies (forced), 1860 James II. of England (forced) 1689 Louis Bonaparte of Holland .1810 Louis Philippe of France (forced) 1848 Ludwig of Bavaria (forced) 1848 Manuel II. of Portugal (forced) 1910 Matilda (Lady of England) 1154 Milan of Servia, 1889 Napoleon I. of France (forced) 1814 Napoleon III. of France (forced) 1870 Oscar II. of Sweden 1907 Otho of Greece (forced) 1862 Pedro II. of Brazil (forced) 1889 Poniatowski of Poland (forced), 1795 Richard II. of England (forced) 1399 Stanislaus Leszczinski (forced) 1735 Victor Amadeus of Sardinia 1730 Victor Emmanuel, 1821 Several dethroned without even the mocking show of abdication, like Edward II. of England (1327); Henry VI. of England (1471); Emperor of Corea (1907); Abdul Hamid II.. Manuel II.. etc. Abyssinia. The oldest accounts of the Abyssinians are full of fables, but seem sufficient to prove that they attained some degree of civili- zation even in remote antiquity. Christianity was introduced about the middle of the Fourth Century, and soon prevailed extensively. Axum was at that time the capital. Two centuries later the Abyssinians were powerful enough to invade Arabia, and conquer part of Yemen. In the Tenth Century a Jewish Princess over- threw the reigning dynasty, the surviving repre- sentative of which fled to Shoa. After three centuries of confusion the empire was restored under Icon Amlac, and some progress was made in improvement. Early in the Fifteenth Cen- tury the Abyssinians entered into close relations with the Portuguese. Under the influence of the Portuguese missionaries the royal family adopted the Roman Catholic faith, and the old Coptic Chyrch was formally united to the See of Rome. The people and ecclesiastics obsti- nately resisted the innovation ; the emperor gave way; and ultimately, in 1632, the Romish priests were expelled or put to death. Though Christianity is still the professed religion of Abyssinia, it exists only in its lowest form, and is little more than ceremonial. The Church is national and independent, but the visible head, or Abuna ("our father"), is ordained by the Cop- tic Patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines of the Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic Church, especially in the monophysite heresy; but several peculiar rites are observed, including the rite of circumcision and observance of the Mosaic laws respecting food, etc.; love-feasts, and adult baptism. The oldest Abyssinian churches are hewn out of rocks. The modern churches are mostly round or conical buildings, thatched with straw and surrounded by pillars of cedar. Statues and bas-reliefs are not toler- ated in churches, but paintings are numerous. In 1860, King Theodore (born 1818, crowned 1855) felt himself insulted by the British Con- sul, whom he imprisoned with some missionaries. A large English force under Lord Napier then came to Abyssinia and captured the strong fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. On this Theodore committed suicide. After an interval of anarchy Prince Kassai assumed power as Johannes II., in 1872. He died in 1889, and was succeeded by Menelek II. Abyssinia then practically became an Italian protectorate. During 1895 a war prevailed between Abyssinia and Italy, which was closed in 1896. In 1906, an agreement between Great Britain, France, and Italy, as to their interests in Abyssinia, was concluded. In 1907, a decree was issued by Menelek II. announcing the formation of a cabi- net on European lines. Abyssinian War, TJie. Between the British and Theodore, King of Abyssinia. This expedition (for the release of missionaries, Cap- tain Crawford, and others) was under Sir R. Napier, who joined the army at Senafe, January, 1868. Colonel Phayre defeated Theodore at Magdala, 10th of April, which was bombarded and taken on 13th of April. The return of the British army commenced 18th of April, 1868. Aclifiean League, Tiie. A confeder- acy of the twelve towns of Achsea. It was dis- solved by Alexander the Great, but reorganized B. C. 280, and again dissolved B. C. 147. The second of these leagues, founded at Megalopolis, contained all the chief cities of Peloponnesus. It contended with the Macedonians and the Ro- mans for the liberty of Greece ; but, being beaten at Scarphea by Metellus, and at Leucopgtra by Mummius, it dissolved soon after the taking of Corinth. The twelve cities of Acha>a, in Ionia, were founded by the Heraclldae. Aciisean War, Tiie. Roman am- bassadors at Corinth enjoin the dismemberment of the Achaean League and are insulted (B. C. 147). Kritolaos, general of the league, at once besieged Heracleia (B. C. 146), but was defeated at Scarphea by Metellus, and slew himself. Diseos, successor of Kritolaos, was defeated at Leucopgtra by Mummius (B. C. 146); Corinth was then destroyed ; and all Greece was erected into a Roman Province, September, 146. Actiac War, The. This arose out of the rupture between Octavian and Antony, two of the Triumvirs (B. C. 33.) Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, and de- 10 THE aTANblARb DICTIONARY OF FACTS feated Antony/A A!>*iii?^v" ^d." Sepberribc;', p.-C. 31. Both Cleopatra and Antony killed 'them- selves. Alexandria was taken by Octavian, August 30th (B. C. 33), and Egypt was made a Roman Province, B. C. 30. ^^tollan Confederacy, The, B. C. 323, called into existence by the Lamian War. The states used to assemble annually in the autumn at Thermum, and the assembly was called the Pansetolicon. B. C. 189. the ^tolian states were subjected to the Romans. The object of the Lamian War was (on the death of Alexander the Great) to liberate Greece from Macedonia. The Athenians were the prin- cipal insurgents, but were defeated in 322 at Cranon, by Antipater. ^Etolian League, The. ^tolia joined the Greek confederates in the Lamian War, B. C. 313, but the ^tolian I^eague rose into no great prominence till the Macedonian War (B. C. 214), when Sparta joined it, and it became the antagonist of the Achaean League, which sided with Philip V. of Macedon. It was the unwise poUcy of the ^tolian League which made Rome master of Greece. Afghanistan. The history of Afghanis- tan belongs almost to modem times. The col- lective name of the country itself is of modern and external origin (Persian). In 1738, the coun- try was conquered by the Persians under Nadir Shah. On his death, in 1747, Ahmed Shah, one of his generals, obtained the sovereignty of Afghanistan, and became the founder of a dy- nasty which lasted about eighty years. At the end of that time Dost Mohammed, the ruler of Cabul, had acquired a preponderating influence in the country. On account of his dealings with the Russians the British resolved to dethrone him and restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In April, 1839, a British army under Sir John Keane, entered Afghanistan, occupied Cabul, and placed Shah Shuja on the throne, a force of 8,000 being left to support the new sovereign. SirW. MacNaghten remained as envoy at Cabul, with Sir Alexander Burnes as assistant envoy. The Afghans soon organized a wide-spread in- surrection, which came to a head on November 2, 1841, when Burnes and a number of British officers, besides women and children, were mur- dered, MacNaghten being murdered not long after. The other British leaders now made a treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of Dost Mohammed, agreeing to withdraw the forces from the country, while the Afghans were to furnish them with provisions and escort them on their way. On January 6, 1842, the British left Cabul and began their most disastrous retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food for the treacherous Afghans did not fulfill their promises and day after day they were assailed by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th, 20,000 persons, including camp-followers, women, and children, were de- stroyed. Some were kept as prisoners, but only one man, Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad, which, as well as Kandahar, was still held by British troops. In a few months General Pollock, with a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and soon finished the war. Shah Shuja having been as- sassinated. Dost Mohammed again obtained the throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in Afghanistan. He joined with the Sikhs against the British, but afterward made an offensive and defensive alliance with the latter. He died in 1863, having nominated his son Shere Ali his successor. Shere Ali entered into friendly re- lations with the British, but in 1878, having re- pulsed a British envoy and refused to receive a British mission (a Russian mission being mean- time at his court), war was declared against him, and the British troops entered Afghanistan. They met with comparatively little resistance, the ameer fled to Turkestan, where he soon after died; and his son Yakoob Khan having suc- ceeded him concluded a treaty with the British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a certain extension of the British frontier, the control by Britain of the foreign policy of Afghanistan, and the residence of a British envoy in Cabul, were the chief stipulations. The members of the mission were again treacherously attacked and slain, and troops were again sent into the coun- try. Cabul was again occupied, and Kandahar and Ghazni were also relieved; while Yakoob Khan was sent to imprisonment in India. In 1880, Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mo- hammed, was recognized by Britain as emir of the country, and has .since been on friendly terms with the British, by whom he is subsidized. Encroachments by the Russians on territory claimed by Afghanistan almost brought about a rupture between Britain and Russia in 1885, and led to the delimitation of the frontier of Afghanistan on the side next the territory now occupied by Russia. In 1897, a punitive ex- pedition was again sent against the tribes around the Khyber Pass, who disregarded their pledges. In 1905, the Ameer ratified a treaty with Great Britain agreeing to accept the advice of the Brit- ish Government in regard to his foreign relations, and was guaranteed against unprovoked ag- gressions on his dominions. Afghan War, The. A diplomatic con- test between France and Russia induced Dost Mohammed of Cabul to invite the friendship of Great Britain in 1836. This led to a diplomatic contest between Great Britain and Russia re- specting Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed joined Persia, and war was proclaimed against him at Simla by Lord Auckland, Governor-General of India, October 1, 1838. Dost Mohammed gave himself up at Cabul to Sir W. MacNaghten, No- vember 3, 1840; but his son Akbar Khan com- pletely outwitted General Elphinstone and the envoy. Sir William MacNaghten, both of whom were treacherously put to death. Negotiations for quitting Cabul were purposely delayed till winter had set in; and then the whole Brit- ish force, which, with women and children amounted to 20,000 souls, were as treacherously destroyed in the Khyber Pass, 1842. African War, The. The first African War was undertaken by the Romans for the restoration of Hiempsal to the throne of Nu- mantia. Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in Africa, had dethroned him, but Cneius Pompey slew Ahenobarbus, and restored Hiemp- sal, B. C. 81. The second African War was between Caesar and Scipio, B. C. 46. Caesar defeated the party HISTORY 11 of Pompey at Thapsus, in Africa, and thus put an end to the Civil War. The third African War was undertaken by the Romans against Tacfarlnas, a Numidian, in the reign of Tiberius. Tacfarlnas, having collected a large gang of freebooters, defied for some years the Roman arms in Numidia, but was ultimately overthrown and slain by Dolabella, A. D. 17-24. The fourth African War was between the Ro- mans and Vandals in Africa. The Vandals under Genseric took possession of the Roman dominions in Africa, and continued masters for 105 years (A. D. 429-534). Belisarius was sent into Africa by the Emperor Justinian to win back the Afri- can dominions, and he utterly overthrew the Vandals, took Carthage in 533, and returned to Rome in triumph in the autumn of the year fol- lowing, A. D. 534. Agrarian Agitation, B. C. 480. The great Roman agrarian agitation was set on foot by Spurius Cassius, who had been three times consul. To win popular favor, he told the peo- ple that the Senate ought to give an account of the land taken from the Volsci, which ought to have been equally divided amongst the whole people irrespective of rank. The Senate, to allay the popular clamor, promised to give the matter their best consideration, but arrested Cassius and hurled him from the Tarpeian Rock. Things went on till B. C. 464, when Herdonius, the Sa- bine, got possession of the capital. Then the Senate promised to pass an agrarian law, if the people would eject the invaders. The invaders were expelled, but it was not till B. C. 365 that Licinius Stolo, the plebeian tribune, got a law passed making it penal for anyone to hold more than 500 acres of the public lands. Alabama. The name, derived from the Indians, denotes "Here we rest." Originally a part of Georgia, the country included in Alabama and Mississippi was organized as a Territory in 1798. In 1812, that part of Florida, then belong- ing to Spain, lying between the Perdido and Pearl rivers on the Gulf Coast, was seized by the United States troops and annexed to the Territory. Alabama remained a Territory after the western portion was admitted as a State under the name of Mississippi, and was itself admitted as a State in 1819. On January 11, 1861, the Ordinance of Secession was adopted by the Secession Convention, and on February a provisional congress met at Montgomery and organized the Government of the Confederate States. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated Presi- dent of the Confederacy at Montgomery, Febru- ary 18, 1861, and the government seat was moved from Montgomery to Richmond in July, 1861. Mobile was finally captured by the Fed- erals, April 12, 1865, and on May 4th the State was included in the surrender made by General Richard Taylor. After the Confederate sur- render, the State passed under the phases of pro- visional and military government until 1868, when it was regularly reconstituted as a State in the Union. In 1901, a Constitutional Con- vention, called to regulate negro suffrage, was in session from May 21st to September 2d at Mont- gomery. On November 11, 1901, the new con- stitution was ratified by popular vote. In 1907, a notable effort was made by Governor Comer opposing federal interference in the regulation of the railroads of the State. Alamo, Tiie, a mission church at San Antonio, in what is now Bexar County, Texas, converted into a fort. In 1836 it was occupied by about 150 of the revolutionists in the Texan War of Independence. Though attacked by 4,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana, the Texans held it from February 23d to March 6th, when Santa Ana took it by storm. All but seven of the gar- rison perished, six of these being murdered after their surrender, and one man escaping to report the affair. In this garrison were the celebrated David Crockett, and Colonel James Bowie, in- ventor of the bowie-knife. The memory of this massacre became an incitement to the Texans in subsequent encounters, and " Remember the Alamo!" became a war-cry in their struggle for freedom. Alemanni, a confederacy of tribes which appeared on the banks of the Rhine in the Third Century, and for long gave no small trouble to Rome, but whose incursions were arrested, first by Maximinus, and finally by Clovis in 496, who made them subject to the Franks, hence the modern names in French for Germany and the Germans. AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Naval engagements are indicated by italics; * means that it was a drawn battle; t means a general estimate. Name op Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd July 2, 1898 Feb. 11, 1865 Aguadores (including July 1st), . . Spanish Conf. Conf. - Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. English English Conf. Conf. U. S. U. S. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. U. S. U. S. u. s. u. s. Eng. U.S. U.S. 6t 4 2 142 5 2 8 4 1 2,6i6 12 9t 25 352 2 20 2 16 8 3 9,4i6 10 31 338 3 11 8 2 32 6 1,842 30 160 May 5, 1864 Oct. 27, 1864 Oct. 5, 1864 Albemarle AUatoona 704 Nov. 13, 1776 Alfred-tra7isports, 10 May 28, 1781 Jan. 29, 1814 Alliance-squadron 30 14t March 2, 1815 Oct. 2, 1863 Aug. 12, 1776 Marchl7, 1813 Sept. 16. 1862 Sept. 17, 1862 America-Elizabeth Anderson's Cross-Roads Andrea Doria-Racehorse, Antelope-Zephyr Antietam (continued), Antietam (ended), 13 41 3 2 9,399 12 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Continued Date April 9. 1865 Aug. 14. 1813 July 15, 1862 Jan. 10, 1863 Jan. 11. 1S63 Oct. 12, 1863 Oct. 13, 1863 Oct. 9, 1779 July 14, 1813 Sept. July 23. 1864 22, 1864 Aug. 3. 1812 Aug. 3, 1804 Aug. 7, 1804 Nov. 29, 1813 Marchie, 1865 Feb. 1, 1864 Oct. 21, 1861 Keh. 4, 183 Aug. 5, 1862 Oct. 4, 1863 Aug. 27, 1863 Jan. 29, 1863 June 24, 1813 Nov. 6, 1861 Nov. 7, 1861 Aug. 16, 1777 MarchlS, 1865 MarchlS, 1865 May 26, 1864 May 27, 1864 May 28, 1864 May 29, 1864 .May 30, 1864 June 9, 1863 Jan. 11, 1865 July 26, 1864 Oct. 24, 1864 Oct. 25, 1864 June 25, 1876 May 17, 1863 Aug. 24, 1814 Feb. 13, 1862 Oct. 10, 1863 Sept. 8. 1862 April 3, 1780 June 3, 1776 Sept. 23, 1779 Oct. 12. 1800 March31. 1865 Sept. 11, 1777 June 10, 1864 April 29, 1862 Oct. 14, 1863 Aug. 4, 1812 Oct. 19, 1863 l-'eb. 22, 1847 Feb. 23 1847 July 21, 1861 Aug. 29. 1862 Aug. 30 1862 June 17 1775 July 1 1863 July 7 1862 Oct. 7 1812 Aug. 16 1780 June 11 1898 June 12 1898 June 13 1898 June 14 1898 Nov. 16 1863 Jan. 27 1814 April 23 1864 April 13 1813 March 1 1813 Nov. 20 18.56 Nov. 21 18.56 Nov. 22 18.56 April 26 1863 Jan. 14 1863 July 7 1777 Aug. 19 1780 Oct. 19 1864 Aug. 8 1862 Name of Battle Appomattox Argus-Pelican, ....<.... Arkansas, Arkansas Post (continued), . . Arkansas Post (ended), .... Arrow Rock (continued), . . . Arrow Rock (ended), Assault on Savannah, Asp, attack on the, Athens, Ala Atlanta, Hood's first sortie, . . Atlas-Planter and Pursuit, . . . Attack on Tripoli Attack on Tripoli, Autosse ; Averysboro, Bachelor's Creek, Ball's Bluff Batesville Baton Rouge Baxter's Springs Bayou Metea, Bear River Beaver Dam Belmont (continued) Belmont (ended) Bennington Bentonville (continued), . . . Bentonville (ended), Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (continued), Bermuda Hundreds (ended),. . Beverly Ford Beverly, W. Va., Big Creek, Big Blue (continued), Big Blue (ended), *. Big Horn Black River Bladensburg Blooming Gap, Blue Springs, Boat attack on Charleston, . . . Boats-Black Snake Boats-tender to Nautilus, . . . Bonhomme Richard-Serapis, . . Boston-Berceau, Boydton and White Oak Road, Brandywine, Brice's Cross-Roads, Miss., . . Bridgeport, Ala Bristow Station, Brownstown, Buckland's Mills Buena Vista (continued), . . . Buena Vista (ended) Bull Run Bull Run No. 2 (continued), . . Bull Run No. 2 (ended), . . . Bunker Hill Cabin Creek Cache Swamp Caledonia and Detroit-boats, . . Camden Camp McCalla (continued), . . Camp McCalla (continued), . . Camp McCalla (continued), . . Camp McCalla (ended), .... Campbell Station, Camp Defiance Cane River Canonnier-Medusa Canonnier-Warspitc, Canton Forts (continued), . . . Canton Forts (continued), . . . Canton Forts (ended), Cape Girardeau, Carney's Bridge Castletown Catawba Fords Cedar Creek Cedar Mountain (continued). . Victor CASUALTIES Opponent United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Conf. U. S. 203 297 189 386 English Eng. 6 17 2 5 Conf. U. S. 18 50 10 15 Conf. u. s. 6 25 lot 30t Conf. u. s. 129 831 60 78 Conf. Conf. Conf. u. s. 43 162 84 205 English Eng. 68 173 18 37 English Eng. 4 6 10 21 Conf. U. S. 12 18 Conf. u. s. 499 2,142 1,162 7,337 English U.S. 2 5 2 4 Tripoli tan * 1 13 60 70 Tripolitan * 22 6 50t 80t Indians u. s. 11 54 204 Conf. u. s. 77 477 86 632 Conf. Conf. 24 77 13 22 Conf. Conf. 223 226 58 242 Conf. u. s. 2 4 5t 7t Conf. u. s. 99 203 125 234 Conf. Conf. 80 21 12 32 Conf. u. s. 2 8 11 31 Indians u. s. 12 49 224 8 English Eng. 25 50t 30t 34 Conf. Conf. Conf. u. s. 90 i73' 231 682 English u. s. 30 41 59 81 Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. 191 1,108 267 1.381 Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. 201 998 864 2,136 Conf. Conf. 156 289 253 354 Conf. Conf. 5 20 3 6 Conf. u.-s. 18 32 48 102 Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 41 62 78 135 Indians Ind. 261 81 126 Conf. U. S. 29 242 40 186 English Eng. 30 42 183 297 Conf. u. s. 2 13 26 Conf. u. s. 33 62 48 94 Conf. Conf. 23 57 2 English u. s. 2 3 5 English u. s. 1 3 4 18 English u. s. 49 67 49 . 68 French u. s. 4 11 4 17 Conf. u. s. 177 1,134 236 998 EngUsh Eng. 289 568 98 398 Conf. Conf. 223 394 124 582 Conf. U. S. 3 8 31 42 Conf. * 50 150 150 250 English Eng. 17 30 Conf. Conf. 8 23 4 31 Mexican U. S. Mexican u. s. 267 456 568 1,241 Conf. Conf. 481 1,011 362 1,390 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 798 4,023 1,090 6,154 English Eng. 145 304 359 695 Conf. u. S. 8 15 42 108 Conf. u. s. 8 45 110 150 English U.S. 1 5 10 English Eng. 94 281 80 245 Spanish U.S. Spanish U.S. Spanish U. s. Spanish u. s. 6 11 60t 140t Conf. Conf. 112 186 136 214 Indians u. s. 17 132 37 Conf. U.S. 98 152 108 164 English Eng. 1 3 4 English Eng. 1 3 1 Chinese U.S. Chinese U.S. Chinese u. s. 12 28 400 540 Conf. u. s. 6 J? 22 43 Conf. u. s. 7 14 36 English Eng. 211 583 35 144 English Eng. U.S. 162 281 2 21 Conf. 688 3,516 961 3,239 Conf. Conf. HISTORY 13 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Continued Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Datk United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Aup. 9, 1862 April 18, 1847 May 16, 1863 April 30, 1863 May 1. 1863 May 2, 1863 May 3, 1863 May 4, 1863 Sept. 13. 1847 Cedar Mountain (ended) Cerro Gordo. Conf. Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Mexican English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Mexican English English Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Port'guese English English English English French French English English English Mexican English English Conf. Conf. English English Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. U. S. U. S. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. U. S. U. S. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. * Conf. Conf. Conf. U. S. U.S. * u. s. u. s. Conf. U. S. U.S. U. S. U.S. Conf. Conf. U. S. u. s. * Eng. u. S. U.S. U. S. U. S. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. Eng. u. s. u. s. Eng. u. s. u. s. u. s. * * U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. U.S. U.S. U.S. * * * Eng. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. u, s. Conf. U.S. Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U. S. 450 63 426 l',.5i2 116 1 5 "so 47 14 1,644 3 60 102 131 126 38 19 10 18 8 1,905 1 2 ] 49 11 2 14 7 9 4 20 11 1 'sis 12 115 125 16 1 232 4 8 6 39 1 4 3 1 16 422 41 38 13 1 88 2 20 3 660 368 1,842 9',5i8 671 4 8 '456 4,529 99 36 9,262 5 244 237 876 585 62 73 14 22 26 10,576 3. 8 2 34 19 3 25 7 25 10 40 54 3 l',8i2 3 60 418 498 98 3 1,062 16 9 31 8 396 3 7 8 3 60 2,380 79 64 42 6 356 2 75 4 223 loot 486 I'.ns i,ooot 3 15 '261 .... 850 24 42 6,660 33 199 22 l.OOOt 248 21 22 30 32 18 364 10 10 14 74 25 29 50 15 60 35 700 20 1 l',423 120 98 75t 29 22 2 249 4 18 18 46 lot '112 1 3 6 85 150 514 82 4 6 30 120 4 220t 92 1,060 oOOt Champion Hills Chancellorsville (continued) Chancellorsville (continued) Chancellorsville (continued) Chancellorsville (continued), .... Chancellorsville (ended) 1,954 10,563 2,000 June 4 Feb. 25 July 6 July 8 July 10 Nov. 23 Nov, 24 Nov. 25 June 1 Dec. 7 1782 1815 1864 1864 1864 1863 1863 1863 1813 1777 1863 1863 1863 1847 1814 1813 1847 1864 1863 1864 1865 1862 1864 1864 1864 1813 1814 1782 1775 1781 1799 1800 1812 1812 1815 1847 1814 1813 1862 1862 1812 1781 1862 1813 1862 1863 1865 1865 1865 1865 1812 1813 1776 1847 1805 1864 1864 1864 1813 1814 1812 1813 1863 1863 1862 1863 1864 1864 1813 1898 1862 1814 1780 Charming Sally-Revenge, Chasseur-St. Lawrence, Chattahoochee (continued) Chattahoochee (continued) Chattahoochee (ended) Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, Lookout Mountain, and Missionary Ridge (continued) Chattanooga, etc. (continued), . . . Chattanooga, etc. (ended), .... Chesapeake-Shannon, Chestnut Hill, 6 23 '462 2,i56 59 64 Sept. 18 Sept. 19 Sept. 20 Feb. 27 Chickamauga (continued) Chickamauga (continued) Chickamauga (ended) Chihuahua, io',666 67 July 5 Nov. 11 Aug. 20 May 9 Dec. 5 Chippewa Chrysler's Fields Churubusco Cloyd's M'tain and New River Bridge, 328 147 3,000t 652 32 June 5 April 16 Dec. 9 Columbia, Ark., Columbus, Ala., Col. Matthews, 81 50 68 .4pril 4 C!ol. Goodins; 39 June 2 June 3 Jan. 14 Cold Harbor (continued) Cold Harbor (ended) Comet-frigate, 1,336 14 Aug. 3 Comoeta Creek, 20 Dec. 1 April 21 Sept. 6 Commerce-brig and schooners Concord and retreat 24 199 31 Feb. 9 Feb. 2 Aug. 19 Dec. 29 Feb. 20 Aug. 19 Oct. 19 Feb. 23 Constellation-Insurgent Constellation-Vengeance Constitution-Guerriere, Constitution-Java, Constitution-Cyane and Levant, . . . Contreras Cook's Mills, 41 110 63 101 42 2,200 60 2 Oct. 3 Oct. 4 Feb. 29 Jan. 17 Corinth (continued) Corinth (ended) Courier- Andromache , 5,692 1 199 Sept. 14 Crampton Gap, . 342 June 22 June 8 Craney Island Cross Kevs 125t 302 Aug. 1 Feb. 21 Culpepper Court-House, Cumberland, Md., 104 8 Feb. 5 Feb. 6 Feb. 7 July 11 Dabney's Mills (continued), .... Dabney's Mills (continued), .... Dabney's Mills (ended;i Decatur-Commercf '75i 7 Aug. 5 June 17 Sept. 9 Decatur-Dominica Defense-transports Del Rsy 45 30t 89 April 27 Dec. 6 Dec. 8 Dec. 9 April 15 Aug. 22 Sept. 2 Derne, Deveraux's Neck (continued), . . . Deveraux's Neck (continued), . . . Deveraux's Neck (ended), Diligent-squadron, Diomede-Upton Dolphin-two ships Turkish Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians Spanish Conf. Indians English 20t '228 1 2 8 Jan. 25 June 28 Dolphin-squadron Donaldsonville 9 114 Feb. 3 May 15 Nov. 6 Dover, Col. Harding, Drury's Bluff, 400 1,086 158 May 5 18 Aug. 23 Dec. 23 July 1 Duvall's Bluff Econochaca, El Caney 33 400 Feb. 10 Elizabeth City 10 Jan. 22 Nov. 20 Emucfau, Ennoree Ford, 102 14 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Continued Date Jan. 24 Sept. 5 Aug. 1 Aug. 13 March 28, Sept. 8 July 28 Oct. 27 Oct. 28 July 13 Feb. 26 Feb. 28 Aug. 5 Oct. 7 April 18 April 1 April 9 May 20, Sept. 15 Sept. 27 Feb. 15 Aug. 15 Sept. 17 March 12 Dec. 24 Dec. 25 Jan. 13 Jan. 14 Jan. 15 May 27 April 2 Sept. 5 Aug. 28, Feb April 25 March 3 May 5 Oct. 6 June 28 March 1 1 March 12 March 13 March 14 March 16 May 10 April 12 April 11 Oct. 17 Aug. 6 July 27 March25 Aug. 2 July 18 April 17 Dec. 18 Jan. 6 April 10 Nov. 30 Dec. 11 Dec. 12 Dec. 13 Jan. 18, Jan. 22 May 23 June 27 Jan. Sept. 7 Aug. 26 June 4 Jan. 16 Sept. 21 Feb. 18 Oct. 4, July July July April Nov. Sept. 25 Nov. 2 April 29 Dec. 15 Nov. 17 June 17 , 1814 , 1813 , 1801 , 1812 , 1814 , 1781 , 1864 , 1864 , 1864 , 1863 , 1863 , 1862 , 1864 , 1863 , 1863 , 1865 , 1865 , 1863 , 1814 , 1864 , 1862 , 1814 , 1814 ,1864 , 1864 , 1864 , 1865 , 1865 , 1865 , 1813 , 1865 , 1812 , 1861 , 1862 , 1862 , 1863 , 1813 , 1777 , 1776 ,1863 ,1863 ,1863 ,1863 ,1863 , 1862 , 1864 , 1863 , 1862 , 1777 , 1864 , 1865 , 1813 , 1863 , 1864 , 1862 , 1813 , 1863 , 1864 , 1862 , 1862 , 1862 , 1813 , 1813 , 1862 , 1862 , 1863 , 1813 , 1814 , 1780 , 1864 , 1777 , 1815 , 1777 , 1863 , 1863 , 1863 , 1776 , 1813 , 1812 , 1813 , 1863 , 1775 , 1847 , 1815 Name of Battle Epotachopco Knterprise-Boxer Enterprise-Tripoli, Essex- Alert, Essex-Phoebe and Cherub, . . . Eutaw Springs Ezra Chapel Fair Oaks (continued), . . . . Fair Oaks (ended) Falling Waters, Falmouth, Farragut at Vicksburg, . . . . Farragut in Mobile Farmington, Fayetteville, Five Forks Fort Blakely Fort Blunt Fort Bowyer, Fort Davidson, Fort Donelson, Fort Erie Fort Erie (sortie) Fort De Russey, Fort Fisher (continued), . . . . Fort Fisher (continued) Fort Fisher (continued) , . . . . Fort Fisher (continued) , . . . . Fort Fisher (ended) Fort George, Fort Greggs and Alexander, . . Fort Harrison Fort Hatteras Fort Henry, Fort Macon, Fort McAllister, Fort Meigs, Forts Montgomery and Clinton, Fort Moultrie, Fort Pemberlon (continued), . . Fort Pemberton (continued), . . Fort Pemberton (continued), . . Fort Pemberton (continued), . . Fort Pemberton (ended) Fort Pillow Fort Pillow, Fort Pulaski Fort Ridgeley, Fort Schuyler Fort Smith Fort Stedman Fort Stephenson Fort Wagner Fort Wessels, Foster's Expedition (ended),. . Fox-Lapwing, Franklin Franklin, Tenn Fredericksburg (continued), . . Fredericksburg (continued), . . Fredericksburg (ended), . . . . Frenchtown, Frenchtown No. 2, Front Royal, Gaines Mill, Galveston Gen. Armstrong-Queen Gen Armstrong-British boats, . . Gen. Pickering-Achilles Gen. Sturgis, . Gen. Wayne, George Little-Granicua, Germantown, Gettysburg (continued),. . . . Gettysburg (continued) Gettysburg (ended) Glasgow, Globe-packets, Globe-Sir Simon Clark Governor Tompkins-Mary Ann,. Grand Gulf Great Bridge Guaymas Gurriere-Mashouda, Victor CASUALTIES Opponent United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Indians U.S. 40 60 200t English U. S. 2 10 4 17 Tripoli tan u. s. 20 30 English U.S. 3 Enghsh Eng. 58 66 5 10 English u. s. 130 349 85 402 Conf. u. s. 99 601 864 3,778 Conf. * Conf. * 120 783 150 301 Conf. U.S. 25 80 125 354 Conf. Conf. 5t 8t 6 8 Conf. u. s. 15 30 Conf. u. s. 145 170 12 20 Conf. u. s. 8 16 22 37 Conf. u. s. 4 26 17 36 Conf. u. s. 124 706 450 750 Conf. u. s. 113 516 242 874 Conf. u. s. 12 38 25 37 English u. s. 4 5 32 40 Conf. Conf. 47 154 245 756 Conf. u. S. 560 746 466 1,534 English U.S. 17 56 222 309 English U. S. 79 216 110 250 Conf. U.S. 18 29 14 33 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 20 63 3 55 Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. Conf. u. s. 184 749 150 249 English U.S. 39 121 108 163 Conf. U. S. 198 304 249 353 Indians u. s. 2 2 8 20 Conf. U.S. 4 25 Conf. U.S. 17 27 5 11 Conf. u. s. 3 7 18 Conf. Conf. 1 1 English u. s. 64 124 30t 60t English Eng. 84 166 62 141 English u. s. 11 26 68 437 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. , Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 7 19 3t 8t Conf. U. S. 4 2 1 Conf. Conf. 348 52 19 61 Conf. Conf. 1 3 1 7 Indians U, S. 1 6 44 108 English Eng. 120 268 86 204 Conf. Conf. 10 15 12 19 Conf. U. s. 68 337 134 698 English U. s. 1 7 50 101 Conf. Conf. 624 876 26 74 Conf. Conf. 20 31 29 42 Conf. U. s. 90 478 201 538 English U.S. 1 3 14 8 Conf. U.S. 17 20 79 163 Conf. u. s. 189 1,033 1,141 5,113 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 1,152 9,101 505 4,061 English U. S. 12 55 30t 50t English Eng. 357 64 150 155 Conf. Conf. 32 122 13 Conf. Conf. 3,000 4,600 2,000 4,000 Conf. Conf. 17 20t 26 117 English U.S. 1 10 19 English u. s. 2 7 137 107 English U.S. 1 3 8 12 Conf. u. s. 8 32 16 49 English Eng. 94 162 2 5 English Eng. 2 6 1 English Eng. 189 542 98 402 Conf. U.S. .... Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. 2,834 13,709 4,000 14,000 English Eng. 10 14 1 3 English u. s. 8 18 9 18 English u. s. 2 1 4 4 English u. s. 1 4 Conf. Conf. 19 57 8 16 English U.S. 24 81 Mexican u. s. 12 18 Algerine u. s. 3 11 12 18 HISTORY 15 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Continued Date Namk of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Marc May May May Sept. til5 21 11 27 16 13 5 1 7 10 27 11 il6 22 9 4 i21 5 22 17 18 25, 30 17 20 30 17 24, i23 i27 14, 4, 8, 15 24, 16, il9 4 7, 7, 19, 12 14 16 6, 1, 25, 30 31 1 31 19 10 30 3 i23, 7 14 6 17 29 i30, 3 14 11 11 10 28 24 21 5 22 7 23 19 20 17 12 12 10 17 27 14 17 1781 1863 1777 1862 1776 1863 1862 1864 1862 1863 1864 1863 1779 1812 1780 1863 1864 1779 1812 1813 1813 1781 1779 1781 1862 1864 1863 1813 1815 1814 1779 1862 1782 1779 1863 1776 1776 1804 1863 1862 1862 1863 1863 1863 1781 1779 1779 1864 1864 1864 1812 1864 1864 1862 1815 1862 1780 1862 1862 1863 1863 1814 1776 1814 1776 1814 1813 1813 1898 1863 1862 1776 1864 1862 1775 1777 1776 1861 1864 1863 1862 , 1776 1813 1864 Guilford Court-House, Gum Swamp, English Conf. English Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. English English English Indians English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Indians English Conf. English English Conf. English English Tripolitan Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English , English English English English English Spanish Conf. Qonf. English Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Eng. U.S. u. s. u. s. * Conf. U. S. U. S. Conf. u. s. * Conf. U. S. u. s. u. s. U.S. U. S. * u. s Eng. U.S. Eng. u. s. U. S. Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. u. s. u. s. * * u. s. u. s. Conf. * Eng. Trip u. s. u. s. U.S. U. s. U.S. Eng. Eng. u. s. U.S. U.S. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. * U.S. U. S. u. s. U.S. u. s. * u. s. Eng. u. s. Eng. Eng. U. S. U. S. U.S. u. s. Conf. Conf. * Conf. u. s. Eng. Eng. U.S. * u. s. u. s. Conf. Eng. Eng. Conf. 123 3 3 53 7 80 15 8 48 7 56 2 3 2 98 1 1 1 52 6 3 3 66 17 1 1 26 1 4 1 2 13 3 19 144 88 37 24 37 18 1 222 "6 1 13 24 1 103 28 90 28 24 24 8 6 30 52 27 10 16 140 4 1 36 11 7 3 2 42 22 12 62 8 314 8 5 344 8 120 32 24 102 69 1,047 6 5 7 4 152 3 3 7 3 141 16 1 4 645 60 4 11 106 4 3 11 1 1 6 3 18 32 598 765 228 76 81 12 3 978 l,i49 2 54 80 4 441 60 478 60 72 68 66 2 35 50 58 96 17 50 22 8 3 61 52 9 10 2 108 59 18 188 10 231 4 14 198 2 20 16 35 18 247 13 2 31 205 5 3 3 61 38 6 4 2 18 153 5 10 557 3 2 20 8 2 3 2 20 1 385 71 64 48 21 7 3 842 '498 9 22 3 80 168 71 180 18 259 11 3 17 15 84 41 12 28 3 3 2 12 49 2 5t 33 164 31 3 61 2 318 16 18 Hanover Court-House, ....... 732 20 June Oct. Harrisonburg Harrison 50 46 Dec. Hartsville 115 74 Oct 763 Jan. Marcl Hatteras- Alabama, Hazard- Active, 1 20 Feb. July July Marcl April July Feb. Nov. Hazard-Caledonia, Hazard-Duff, 11 64 Helena, Henderson's Hill Hibemia-brig of war Highflyer-Caledonia, Highflyer-Poictiers, 604 18 9 9 Hobkirk's Hill 104 July Feb. Holker-brig, 20 7 Dee. Holly Springs, 21 Nov. July Honey Hill, S. C 114 378 Feb. Hornet-Peacock, 33 28 Horseshoe Bend, April Jan. April Nov. Feb. Hunter-armed ship Huntersville, Va Hyder Ally-Gen. Monk Impertinent-Harlem Indianola, 6 4 33 3 5 8 Marcl Industry-brig 6 Sept. 30 April April Ironclads at Charleston Island No. 10 3 3 Sept. July luka, 692 504 May Jackson, 392 July James Island 152 July Nov. Jamestown Island, 49 9 July Jason-privateer 6 April Aug. Sept. Tnly Jenkins Ferry, Jonesboro, Ga. (continued), .... Jonesboro (ended) 1,458 1,562 3 June June Jan. Kearsarge- Alabama Kellar's Bridge, Kelly's Stores, 21 28 Dec. Marc Oct. Kemp-merchantmen (armed) Kernstown King's Mountain 8 342 284 Dec. Kingston 268 Aug. Kirksville, 498 Nov. Nov. Marc Knoxville Knoxville, La Colle Mill, . 64 432 47 June Dec. Lady W ashington-barges, Lake Borgne 11 77 Oct. Lake Champlain 26 Sept. Lake Champlain, 110 Sept. Lake Erie 94 Sept. Lake Ontario 20 June 124 Aug. 14 July Lebanon 4 Nov. Lee-ship, 8 Julv 25 May April Lewisburg, Lexington, 76 Sept. Lexington- Alert 3 April Sept. April Sept. Lexington-Edward Lexington, Mo., Lexington, Red River Little Rock 8t 65 341 45 Aug. Aug. London, Ky Long Island, 8 257 h'e.b. Lottery-hoots, 4 June Lynchburg (continued) 16 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Continued Date Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd June Aug. Sept. July 18, 1864 9. 1812 30, 1863 1, 1862 4, 1862 24, 1863 27, 1862 1, 1898 13, 1898 12, 1898 4, 1812 25, 1864 16, 1864 20, 1779 23, 1864 24, 1864 2, 1777 17, 1812 27, 1861 8, 1862 20, 1863 26, 1862 6, 1862 1 8, 1862 7, 1862 12, 1863 7, 1863 19, 1862 28, 1863 3, 1863 14, 1780 1 9, 1862 28, 1778 9, 1864 24, 1846 6, 1812 14, 1776 30, 1814 5, 1813 16, 1776 14, 1862 13, 1862 30, 1862 31, 1862 1, 1863 2, 1863 15, 1864 16, 1864 13. 1814 12, 1863 23, 1814 28, 1814 3, 1863 19, 1863 15, 1847 1 14, 1862 24, 1862 26, 1863 6, 1781 28, 1864 29, 1864 30, 1864 15, 1864 1, 1815 8, 1815 23, 1862 29, 1779 28, 1812 25, 1814 18, 1781 28, 1812 31, 1799 26, 1864 27, 1864 25, 1862 31, 1863 4, 1812 10, 1863 20, 1864 26, 1863 27, 1863 19, 1864 6. 1814 Lynchburg (ended) Maguaga, Major Montgomery Malvern Hill Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Spanish Spanish Spanish English Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. English Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English (>)nf. English Conf. Mexican English English English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. English English Conf. Conf. Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Indians English English English English Picaroons Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. U. S. Conf. U. S. u. s. u. s. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. U. S. Ctonf. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. Conf. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. Conf. U. S. U.S. u. s. U.S. U.S. u. s. Eng. U.S. U. S. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. u. s. Eng. Conf. U.S. u. s. U.S. U. S. U.S. u. s. u. s. Eng. Conf. Eng. u. s. * u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. U.S. Eng. U. S. u. s. u. s. Conf. u. S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Eng. u. s. U.S. U. S. u. s. u. s. Conf. U. S. U.S. Conf. U.S. u. s. u. s. U.S. 99 18 14 2,860 6 30 14 8 98 9 342 3 11 1 80 149 10 250 3 1 154 39 99 26 72 90 142 4 7 48 15 33 1,533 399 24 151 24 7 26 2 102 3 1 88 '3'98 120 11 4 37 8 8 171 48 3 223 51 23 5 193 653 6 503 58 40 3,500 8 59 28 7 40 142 18 3 "836 5 26 4 176 224 4 301 8 4 223 207 398 73 1 160 579 364 13 3 3 22 101 22 62 7,245 1,74 i 139 349 113 8 124 8 7 432 5 12 34 2,63 i 563 23 13 147 22 12 572 107 8 1,460 401 24 7 1,175 3'7i9 38 47 50 3,023 10 41 11 318 iot 126 32 2 "26 6 39 71 4 156 20t 8 11 18 148 192 121 8 3 294 78 200t 6 13 13 80 252 29 47 1^384 684 80 88 99 120 58 12 20t 50 4 22 86 399 . 96 20 700 12 12 14 201 24 7 65 304 60 3 4 150 1,632 70 157 75 2 4,077 Aug. July Aug. May Aug. Aug. Nov. April Malvern No. 2 18 79 Manassas Junction Manila, 16 298 Mamanillo Marengo- Leonidas Mark's Mills (?) 1 394 Marksville 64 Aug. July July Dec. Dec. 7 Martinsburg (continued) Martinsburg (ended), . Maasachuseita-Lawnadale Massasinewa 152 13 May McDowell's 390 McMinnville 8 236 30t Marcl Merrimac in Hampton Roads, . . . Middle Creek 11 32 32 June Milliken's Bend 294 Jan. Nov. Feb. April Marcl June July Sept. Dec. Feb Mill Spring (Logan Cross Roads),. . Mine Run (ended), Mingo Swamp Monk's Corner Monitor- Merrimac, Monmouth, Monocacy Monterey Montgomery, armed-ship Moore's Creek 132 432 20 6 2 170 322 450 21 22 20 Oct. Moravian towns 101 Nov. Sept. Jnfv Mount Washington, Mumfordsville, 448 31 103 Dec. Dec, Jan. Jan. Dec. Dec. Sept. July Dec. Dec. Murfreesboro (continued) Murfreesboro (continued) Murfreesboro (continued) Murfreesboro (ended) Nashville (continued) Nashville (ended) Near Baltimore 6,892 3,62! 301 Near Donaldsonville, Near New Orleans Near New Orleans 126 230 149 Nov, Near Opelousas 298 July June Near Pomeroy, Near Tabasco, 41 30t Marcl New Berne 152 May Jnlv New Bridge 15 43 Sept. New London 142 Sept. Sept. Sept. May Jan. New Market Heights (continued), . New Market Heights (continued), . New Market Heights (ended^, . . . New Market, Pa., New Orleans 1,60 i 306 30 1 Jan. New Orleans, 1,400 April New Orleans, 40 Aug. Nov. July June Newtown, Niagara batteries Niagara (Lundy's Lane) Ninety-six 34 30 559 61 Sept. Oct. Nonesuch-privateer Norfolk-Picaroons 16 70 May May June Jan. North Anna (continued) North Anna (ended) Oak Grove, near Richmond Off Charleston l',5i3 300 Oct. Ogdensburg, 6 Feb Old River 7 Feb Olustee 350 Nov. Nov. Sept. Operations at Mine Run, Va. (contin- ued), Operations at Mine Run (continued), Opequan 3,868 May Oswego 165 HISTORY 17 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Continued Date May 8, Dec. 31, Feb. 2, Aug. 18, Nov. 5, April 29, June 30, March 6, March 7, March 8, July 20, April 22, Oct. 8, April 2, June 19, June 20, June 30, July 31, Aug. 31 Oct. 30 Feb. 16 Oct. 20 June 5 Ian. 5 Oct. 25 Aug. 13 April 6 April 7 Sept. 11 April 8 April 9 April 20 Oct. 22 Oct. 23 May 1 March 13 June 14 May 27 June 9 Nov. 7 April 10 Dec. 7 Sept. 30 Oct. 1 June 23 Jan. 15 Oct. 9 Jan. 3 Dec. 4 Jan. 9 May 7 May 15 Feb. 7 Dec. 31 Oct. 13 Sept. 3 March 7 April 24 Oct. 16 May 5 Nov. 7 May 12 Aug. 25 Oct. 22 Jan. 14 April 7 April 26 May 13 May 9 March29 Aug. 30 Feb. 8 Feb. 12 Nov. 6 Sept. 16 Dee. 19 April 8 Sept. 8 Jan. 21 July 6 May 29 April 6 1846 1862 1864 1779 1812 1814 1815 1862 1862 1862 1864 1847 1862 1863 1864 1864 1864 1864 1864 1864 1804 1863 1864 1781 1863 1863 1862 1862 1814 1864 1864 1864 1862 1862 1863 1863 1863 1863 1862 1861 1863 1862 1864 1864 1812 1815 1814 1777 1781 1779 1779 1847 1832 1775 1812 1777 1778 1778 1776 1813 1863 1863 1864 1777 1865 1864 1864 1864 1847 1813 1862 1862 1864 1863 1812 1776 1864 1863 1863 1776 1813 1865 Name of Battle Palo Alto Parker's Cross-Roads, Paterson Creek Paulus Hook Paul Jones-Hassan,. ...'.... Peacock-Epervier, Peacock-Navtilus, I'ea Ridge (continued) Pea Ridge (continued) Pea Ridge (ended), Peach Tree Creek, Perote Perrjrville, Petersburg Petersburg (from June 15), . . . . Petersburg (continued to June 30), . Petersburg (ended), Petersburg (from July 1, exclusive of losses at the Crater and Deep Bot- tom) Petersburg (August 1 to August 31), Petersburg (September l-October 30) Philadelphia Ungate), Philadelphia, Tenn., Piedmont Pilgrim- Mary, Pine Bluff Pineville Pittsburgh Landing (continued), . . Pittsburgh Landing (ended),. . . . Plattsburg, Pleasant Hill (continued) Pleasant Hill (ended) Plymouth Pocotaligo (continued), Pocotaligo (ended) Port Gibson Port Hudson Port Hudson ' . . . . Port Hudson Port Republic, Port Royal Prairie d'Anne, Prairie Grove, .- Preble's Farm (continued) Preble's Farm (ended) President-Belvidere President-Endymion Prince de Neuchatel-Endymion, . . . Princeton, Prosperity-privateer Protector-Admiral Duff Providence-Diligent Puebla Qualla Battoo, Quebec Queenstown Raleigh-Druid Randolph-Yarmouth Ranger-Drake Ranger-privateer, . . . ." Rapids of Miami Rappahannock Station Raymond, Ream's Station, Red Bank, Red Hill ; Red River, Red River Resaca Resaca de la Palma Revenge-Narcissus, Richmond, Ky., Roanoke Island, Rock House, Rogersville, Rossie-Princess Amelia, Rover-Afnca, . . . . Sabine (5ross-Roads, ....... Sabine Pass, Sabine Pass Sachem-privateer , Sackett's Harbor Sailor's Creek Opponent Mexican Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Tripolitans Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English ' Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English English English English Mexican Malays English English English English English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Mexican English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Victor U.S. U.S. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U. S. U.S. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. Conf. u. s. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. U.S. U.S. u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. Conf. U. S. u. s. Conf. Conf. u. s. U.S. u. s. U.S. U.S. U.S. Eng. U.S. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. Eng. U. S. Eng. U.S. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. * u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. U.S. Eng. Conf. U. S. U. S. Conf. U. S. U. S. Conf. Conf. Conf. U.S. u. s. u. s. CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd 4 23 2 203 301 916 298 1,298 112 419 87 170 26 130 4 17 3 1735 37 "99 41 ' 84 130 8 250 263 67 8 8 167 141 3 24 7 31 3 1 4 18 2 18 90 1 311 2 3 80 149 69 127 11 7 23 17 598 39 199 47 3 5 199 17 1 1 21 166 42 139 3t 3 1 2 972 1,411 3 2.943 2,565 7,474 '506 2,076 484 822 1 73 650 16 40 18 7,882 62 '688 59 'i52 718 7 680 1,549 361 23 15 798 '788 19 56 23 64 8 3 10 62 11 42 160 2 6 11 101 250 341 546 21 27 39 31 2,147 83 3 689 198 5 12 8 3 893 19 3 3 84 1,014 Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd 102 48 4 6 1 8 6 1,040 880 980 341 984 '801 799 101 240 lOOf 34 633 13 39 28 l',i28 50 '348 125 "14 144 188 110 104 11 18 164 '214 2 11 33 49 4 140 8 83 120t 1 50 6 5 18 16 15 80 103 289 142 14 45 28 861 160 153 25 15 3 3 23 486 2 29 268 127 152 6t 12 1 15 8 3,638 3,916 4 1,520 3,092 6,721 1,4 i 7 4,023 605 761 62 2,337 22 111 92 8,612 1,654 174 '162 832 364 173 796 48 36 817 '686 22 14 37 151 9 3 19 142 200t 8 101 26 12 24 24 45 160 720 1,211 258 36 88 61 1,949 228 1 248 30 23 1 24 1,024 2 6 101 2,032 18 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Continued Date Name of Battle Feb. 3. 1865 Dec. 21, 1779 Jan. 12, 1S4S April 30, 1814 Jan. s, 1847 July 1, 1898 July 2, 1898 July 3, 1898 Feb. IB. 1847 Nov. 21, 1847 Jnlv 10, 1898 July 11, 1898 July 12, 1898 June 22, 189 Oct. 7, 1777 Dec. 22. 1778 Oct. , 1780 Dec. 10, 1812 April 30, 1814 Nov. 10. 1813 Oct. 3, 1814 Dec. 29, 1778 Oct. 8. 1779 Jan. 10, 1865 June 16, 1862 April 2, 1865 May 31, 1862 June 27, 1S63 July 15, 1863 May 12, 1780 May 3, 1863 Aug. 18. 1864 Aug. 19, 1864 Aug. 20, 1864 Aug. 21, 1864 March 30 1863 April 19, 1864 April 20, 1862 Sept. 14, 1862 March 26 1865 July 3, 1898 May , 1864 May 9, 1864 May 11, 1864 May 18, 1864 Jan. 8, 1863 March 5, 1863 June 17. 1863 Dec. 2fi, 1781 Sept. 19, 1777 June 28, 1779 Aug. 11, 1814 June ft, 1813 Jan. 23, 1813 July 29, 1863 Aug. 18, 1864 July 16, 1779 April 28, 1863 Jan. 28, 1815 Jan. 20 1864 May 9 1864 May 10 1864 Oct. 26 1846 Nov. 9 1813 Nov. 3 1813 June 30 1847 March 4 1863 March 5 1863 July 4 1863 May 10 1775 Nov. 7 1811 Nov. 12 1813 Feb. 20 1865 Dec. 25 1776 June 11 1864 June 12 1864 Aug. 7 1781 June 2 1780 April 9 1777 Feb. 22 1864 July 15 1864 April 18 1847 June 13 1776 Sakelhatchie Sally-transports San Bias Sandy Creek, San Gabriel, San Juan (continued), San Juan (continued) San Juan (ended), San Jose, San Josf' Santiago (continued), Santiago (continued) Santiago (ended) Santiago forts bombarded, Saratoga, Saratoga-Chance Saratoga-Molly, Saratoga-Morgiana Saucy Jack-Pelham, Saucy Jack-Sherbroke, Saucy Jack-troop ship, ...... Savannah Savannah Scottsboro, Secessionville, Selma, Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks Shelbyville Shepardstown Siege of Charleston (ended) Siege of Suffolk, N. C. (ended), . . . Six-Mile House (continued) Six-Mile House (continued), .... Six-Mile House (continued), .... Six-Mile House (ended) Somerset, : . . . Southfield- Albemarle, South Mills or Camden South Mountain, Spanish Fort (to April 8) Spanish squadron destroyed off Santiago Spottsylvania (continued), .... Spottsylvania (continued) Spottsylvania (ended) Spottsylvania (continued), .... Springfield, Spring Hill St. Charles St. James-ship (armed) Stillwater, Stone Ferry Stonington Stony Creek, Stony Creek, Stony Lake Strawberry Plains, etc Stony Point Streight's Raid (to May 3) Surprise-Star Sturgis' Raid (January 16-28),. . . Swift Creek (continued) Swift Creek (ended), Tabasco, Talladega, Talluschatches, Tamultay, Thompson's Station (continued), . . Thompson's Station (ended), . . . Tibb's Bend Ticonderoga, Tippecanoe ', Tom-Townsend Town Creek '...'. Trenton Trevilian Station (continued), . '. . Trevilian Station (ended), Trumbull-Iris Trumbull-Watt '.'.'. Trumbull-transports, . Tunnel Hill \ , \ Tupelo, Harrisonburg, and Old "Town Creek, Tuspan, '.'.'.'.'. Tyrannicide-Dispatch. ....'..'. Opponent Victor CASUALTIES United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Conf. U.S. 18 70 20 80 English * 5 12 6 11 Mexican U. S. 2 3 8 English U.S. 1 3 13 28 Mexican U.S. 2 9 70 150 Spanish U.S. Spanish U.S. Spanish U.S. 151 1,007 204 1,340 Mexican U.S. 3 8 13 30t Mexican U.S. 3 8 20 Spanish U.S. Spanish U.S. Spanish U. S. 2 13 Spanish * 1 11 (?) (?) English U.S. 32 61 98 156 English U.S. 4 9 5 13 English U.S. 2 4 6 10 English U.S. 3 7 2 5 English U.S. 2 9 4 11 English U.S. 3 2 5 English u. s. 8 15 3 2 English Eng. 28 69 7 19 English Eng. 98 136 20 35 Conf. U.S. 1 8 14 32 Conf. Conf. 137 438 63 141 Conf. U.S. 153 347 198 409 Conf. 891 3,627 1,987 2,233 Conf. U.S. 143 361 164 344 Conf. * 22 78 34 66 English Eng. 92 142 76 189 Conf. u. s. 15 94 898 1,202 Conf. U.S. Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 212 1,155 862 3,138 Conf. U.S. 11 38 24 73 Conf. Conf. 2 12 Conf. U.S. 15 98 12 67 Conf. u. s. 312 1,234 224 860 Conf. U.S. 99 695 152 401 Spanish U.S. 1 1 342 461 Conf. U.S. Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. 3,288 19,278 3,342 20,187 Conf. U.S. 2,031 7,956 1,7.52 7,248 Conf. U.S. 14 145 23 164 Conf. Conf. 8 14 1 4 Conf. U. S. 136 20 6 8 English * 1 4 3 8 English U.S. 98 252 161 328 English Eng. 51 99 31 63 English U.S. 1 5 21 55 English Eng. 17 38 20t 30 Indians Ind. 400 Indians U. S. 12 42 32 98 Conf. U.S. 401 1,754 338 762 English U.S. 20 70 63 31 Conf. U.S. 12 69 English U.S. 1 1 Conf. u. s. 6 17 30 62 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 90 401 124 376 Mexican u. s. 4 10 Indians U.S. 15 86 299 Indians u. s. 5 41 186 Mexican u. s. 6 53 42 103 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 99 301 152 453 Conf. U.S. 6 23 280 687 English . Indians U.S. U.S. 37 151 120 180 English U.S. 2 8 13 Conf. U.S. 5t 8t 8t 18t English U.S. 2 4 17 78 Conf. u. s. . Conf. u. s. 85 490 124 582 English Eng. 5 11 3 English * 19 20 39 52 English u. s. 7 8 9 14 Conf. U.S. 150t 200t sot 180 Conf. U.S. 85 563 184 516 Mexican U.S. 3 11 25 34 English U.S. 1 2 2 5 HISTORY 19 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED ^Continued Date March29 Jan. 5 Jan. 30 Jan. 26 Oct. 25 June 21 Nov. 19 Feb. 28 March20 Oct. lo Sept. 18 March24 April 16 May 19 May 22 May 25 Dec. 27 Dec. 28 July 4 Sept. 1 Oct. 6 Oct. 18 June 28 Oct. 27 Oct. 28 Oct. 29 May 15 June 17 June 2.'? May 7 June 29 Oct. 25 June 27 Sept. 3 Aug. 26 March 8 March 9 March 10 May 5 May May 7 Nov. 14 May 5 Feb. 8 Aug. 10 June 30, March 22 May 25 June 14 June 15 Feb. 19 Sept. 22 July July 16 July 18 Aug May 19 April 27 April 18 Oct. 19 . 1779 , 1813 , 1864 , 1813 , 1812 , 1863 , 1847 , 1863 , 1863 , 1779 , 1778 , 1847 , 1863 , 1863 , 1863 , 1863 , 1862 , 1862 , 1863 , 1814 , 1782 , 1812 , 1814 , 1863 , 1863 , 1863 , 1780 , 1863 , 1864 , 1862 , 1862 , 1776 , 1864 , 1863 , 1863 , 1865 , 1865 , 1865 , 1864 , 1864 , 1864 , 1813 , 1862 , 1865 , 1861 , 1864 ,1865 , 1862 , 1863 , 1863 , 1862 , 1862 , 1778 , 1863 , 1863 , 1812 , 1864 , 1813 , 1814 , 1781 Name of Battlk Tyrannicide-Revenge, UUor-hoais, Underwriter, Union-Iris United States- Macedonian, . . . . Upperville, Urias, Van Buren, Ark , Vaughfp Hill Vengeance-Defiance, . Vengeance-Harriet Vera Cruz, Vicksbiirg, Vicksburg (continued to May 22), Vicksburg (continued to May 25), Vicksburg (ended), . Vicksburg assault (continued), . Vicksburg assault (ended), . . , Vicksburg (ended), Wasp-Avon, Wasp-packet, Wasp- Frolic, Wasp-Reindeer Wauhatchie (continued), ... Wauhatchie (continued), ... Wauhatchie (ended) Waxhaws, Weehawken- Atlanta, Weldon Railroad, West Point White Oak Swamp, White Plains White River Whitestone Hill White Sulphur Springs Wilcox's Bridge (continued), . . Wilcox's Bridge (continued), . . Wilcox's Bridge (ended), . . . Wilderness (continued), .... Wilderne.ss (continued), .... Wilderness (ended) Wile Renard-ship, Williamsburg, ........ Williston Station, Wilson Creek, Wilson's Raid (June 22-30), . . Wilson's Raid (to April 24), . . Winchester, Winchester (continued),. . . . Winchester (ended) Winion, N. C Wood Lake Wyoming, or Fort Forty, . . . Wyoming- Japanese batteries, . . Wytheville, Yankee-Royal Bounty, Yellow Bayou, York York-Lord Somers Yorktown (ended) Opponent English English Conf. English English Conf. Mexican Conf. Conf. English English Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians English Japanese Conf. English Conf. English English English Victor U. S. u. s. Conf. Eng. u. s. U.S. U.S. U.S. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. U.S. Conf. Conf. u. s. Conf. Conf. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. U. S. u. s. u. s. u. s. * u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. Conf. * u. s. Eng. u. s. Conf. u. s. U.S. U. S. U.S. CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd 9 1 5 30 23 3 1 11 1,848 724 545 2 3 5 11 76 250 604 84 34 24 52 8 63 80 2,309 6 456 2 223 76 99 38 '203 8 225 6 21 42 66 8 8 2 20 3 7 70 3 33 5 3 56 3 2,378 990 3,688 1 10 5 15 339 130 2,494 110 42 66 148 23 144 12,188 40 1,400 3 721 265 598 154 397 24 4 62 2 108 203 16 Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd 11 1 6 36 50 8 2 63 4 3 981 7 1,420 ' 63 25 10 4 15 25 153 5 156 3 65 89 162 194 42 132 1,956 82 351 3 331 48 352 68 50 1 84 2 100 3 2 74 loot 6 199 22 7 32 2 68 100 12 5 241 11 8 2,000t 18 2,151 134 20 32 17 47 42 208 14 8 344 lot 86 144 341 42 75 643 10,444 1,403 6 764 252 1,231 329 81 4 138 8 200 8 7 158 302 12 353 Arabia. The history of Arabia before the time of Mohammed is involved in mystery. The aborigines of Arabia were probably Cush- ites, most of whom passed over into Abyssinia. A few. however, remained, who inhabited the west coasts. Subsequently another Semitic race, descended from Abraham, settled in the land. The oldest Arabian tribes are now ex- tinct, and only a traditional memory even of their names exists; but the Semitic chiefs, Joktan, or Kohtan, and Ishmael, are generally considered to be the fathers of the present in- habitants. Christianity found an early entrance into Arabia. The Jews, in considerable num- bers, migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and made many proselytes. The great diversity of creeds in the penmsula was favorable to the introduction of the doctrine of Mohammed, which forms the grand epoch in Arabian history, and brings it into close connec- tion with the general history of civilization. Now, for the first time, the people of Arabia became united, and powerful enough to erect new empires in the three quarters of the world. The dominion of the Arabs, from the time of Mohammed to the fall of the caliphate of Bag- dad in 1258, or even to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1492, is an important period in the history of civilization. But the movements which had such great effect on the destinies of other nations produced but little change in the interior of Arabia; and after the brilliant career of conquest was ended the penin- sula was left in an exhausted condition. Then 20 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS followed the subjugation of Yemen by the Turks in the Sixteenth Century; their expulsion in the Seventeenth Century; the dominion of the Portuguese over Muscat, 1508-1659; the con- quests of Oman and the temporary victories gained by the Persians at the close of the Six- teenth Century; and, lastly, the appearance of the Wahabees (1770), whose moral influence is still felt. The latter took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their progress was interrupted by Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who subjugated the coast-country of Hedjaz, with some parts of the coast of Yemen, and in 1818 gained a decisive advantage through the victory of Ibrahim Pasha. The subsequent events of the year 1840, in Syria, compelled Mehemet, howeyer, to concentrate his forces and to resign all claims upon the territories lying beyond the Red Sea. Politically, Hedjaz, Yemen, and El Hasa are really three Turkish Erovinces; the Sinaitic peninsula is in Egyptian ands; England exercises much influence in Hadramaut through her possession of Aden; the Sultan of Oman is practically independent, and in alliance with England; Nejd, the seat of the once powerful Wahabee state, may be said to be independent, though the Emir of Shomer, or Shammer, its most powerful potentate, pays a small annual tribute to the Sherif of Mecca, in recognition of Turkish supremacy. Arc no n i&r'kon). One of the chief magis- trates of the city and commonwealth of Athens. At first the Archon succeeded to the kings, and had regal power. Their authority was then divided among nine, and was made annual. In the time of the Romans, the archonship was merely titular and honorary. Argentine Republic. In 1515, Juan Diaz da Solis, while searching for a passage into the Great South Sea newly seen by Balboa, entered the Rio de La Plata. In 1526, Sebastian Cabot, son of the discoverer of Newfoundland, penetrated nearly to the confluence of the Parana and the Paraguay, being arrested by the rapids, which afterwards gave name to Corrientes. In 1535, Buenos Ayres was founded, to command, though indirectly, the most practicable channel of the only outlet of the country, a city, which, in conjunction with its own colony of Monte Video, on the opposite bank, has virtually monopolized the history of a region equal in extent to Western Europe. Gradually other cities were planted, partly by colonists from Spain, and partlv by adventurers from Peru, each city generally giving its own name to its own province. The chief staples of the country horses and cattle had been largely intro- duced before 1552. Down to 1775, the basin of the Rio de La Plata was a dependency of the viceroyalty of Lima. In that year, however, was erected the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, which, to the basin in question, added Bolivia, under the name of Upper Peru, thus embracing the headwaters of the Amazon, and also most of the plateau of Titicaca. The year 1806 ushered in a new order of things. Spain, as an ally of France, being then at war with England, both Buenos Ayres and Monte Video were occu- pied by the English a change which, brief as was its duration, virtually sowed the seeds of revolution. The colonists had felt the incon- venience of belonging to a state which left them, in a great measure, to defend themselves; they had successfully tried their strength against a foe more powerful than their own masters; and they had been encouraged not less by the say- ings, than by the doings, of their invaders to assert their independence. These influences were, in fact, instantaneously exemplified. The triumphant militia, after deposing and expelling the legitimate viceroy for cowardice, elected in his stead the French officer who had led them to victory. Thus had the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres become peculiarly ripe for taking its share in the outbreak, which Napoleon's dethrone- ment of the Bourbons, in the spring of 1808, almost immediately occasioned throughout Span- ish America. The constituents of the Argentine Republic did not, however, submit to the sov- ereignty of Joseph Bonaparte when he was shuffled on to the Spanish throne to replace Ferdinand VII. In 1810, they organized a gov- ernment in the name of the latter monarch. This arrangement, which lasted only for a short and inglorious period, ended, like a great many others, in utter confusion. In 1816, a General Congress declared the independence of the "United Provinces of Rio de La Plata"; but those provinces, in 1827, returned once more to a state of isolation. In 1831, Buenos Ayres, Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Santa F4, sometimes classed as the coast or riverine states, entered into a federal compact, and invited the others to form a voluntary alliance with them. This Argentine Confederation led to little but anarchy till 1835, when General Rosas was elected cap- tain-general or governor of it, with all but absolute power. He secured quiet and order for a time; but the great aim of his policy, both warlike and commercial, being to achieve the supremacy of Buenos Ayres, the struggles with this end in view, to which he was goaded on also by personal ambition and reckless daring, led to his ultimate overthrow in 1851. Buenos Ayres, refusing to submit to Urquiza, the next governor of the Argentine Republic, declared itself independent in 1854; but was compelled by a signal defeat at Cepeda in 1859 to reenter the confederation. Continuing restless, how- ever, another war, in which its army was ably led by General Mitre, placed that province in the position of supremacy which it still holds. In 1865, the Argentine Republic became in- volved along with Brazil and Uruguay in a war against Paraguay, which ended only with the death of Lopez, President of Paraguay, in 1870, and which accomplished little in the inter- est or to the credit of (he Argentine Republic. In 1881, the Argentine Republic, in conjunction with Chile, came into possession of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. A financial crisis in 1890 did much to temporarily retard the industrial progress of the republic. In 1906-07, immigra- tion was encouraged on an extensive scale, and railroad building received a renewed impetus. Arlcansas. The name, derived from the Indian, signifies "smoky water," with a French prefix meaning "bow." The State was origin- ally a portion of the Louisiana Territory pur- chased from the French in 1803. When the HISTORY 21 State of Louisiana was admitted, in 1812, the remaining portion was organized as Missouri Territory, which name it held till 1819, when Missouri formed a State Constitution, and Ar- kansas became a Territory under its present name. It became a State in 1836. The people passed the ordinance of secession on May 6, 1861. During the late Civil War the principal battles fought within the State boundaries were Pea Ridge, Prairie Grove, Arkansas Post, and Hel- ena. Arkansas was temporarily reorganized as a State in the Union in 1864, but it was rele- gated to military government under the recon- struction acts of 1867. The new constitution was adopted in 1868, and the State resumed permanent federal relations. In 1903, charges were preferred against Governor Jeff Davis, alleging gross official misconduct. In the fol- lowing election he received full vindication. Armada. A Spanish word, signifying gen- erally an armed force, but applied specially to the great naval expedition sent out against England by Philip of Spain, A. D. 1588. The object of the expedition was to strike a decisive blow at the Protestant interest. The expedition had been long in preparation, and consisted of no fewer than 132 vessels, chiefly galleons, which carried, besides 8,000 sailors and the galley- slaves, an army of 20,000 men. These were destined for the coast of Flanders, where Alex- ander Farnese, Prince of Parma, was to embark with 35,000 men in addition. The news of these hostile preparations aroused all the enthusiasm of England. Her navy, which had been reduced to thirty-six ships, was rapidly increased until 191 vessels were ready for sea. These were placed under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, under whom served Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and others. The command of the army was given to the Earl of Leicester. The main body of the ships was stationed off Ply- mouth, while a squadron, under Lord Seymour, was ordered to cruise off the coast of Flanders. The Armada set out from the Tagus on the 29th of May. On the 19th of July, the fleet (which had been delayed by storms) was observed en- tering the Channel. On the 23d, there was a whole day's fighting off Portland; and the 25th saw a siihilar scene with a similar result the capture or crippling of Spanish ships off the Isle of Wight. On the 27th, the fleet anchored off Calais. Two nights later, eight small vessels, daubed with pitch and resin, and filled with explosive substances, were drifted down with the tide towards the floating castles, and were set on fire. In the panic which the fire and the frequent crashes struck through the Spanish fleet, "many vessels cut their cables and cleared off from the shore, while others were disabled or seriously injured. Next morning the scattered vessels of the Armada fell an easy prey to the English ships, which, being much smaller in size than those of the Spaniards, had all along been more easily manoeuvred. Four thousand Spaniards were killed. Many of their vessels were either taken, sunk, or driven ashore. The rest fled northward at the bidding of their ad- miral, who saw no way home but round the northern coast of Scotland; and, at the end of September, fifty-three weather-beaten and muti- lated ships, all that remained of "The Invin- cible Armada," were brought to an anchor in Santander Bay. Assembly. The four great legislative bodies which succeeded each other during the period of the first French revolution are usually termed: (1) The National or Constituent Asserh- bly, commenced June 17, 1789, by the resolution of the deputies of the communes in the States- General, constituting themselves a national as- sembly, to which the deputies of the nobles and clergy afterwards adhered; termed Constituent Assembly from having framed a constitution; dissolved on the acceptance of the constitution by the king, September 30, 1791. (2) The Legis- lative Assembly It commenced its sittings Octo- ber 1, 1791; suspended the royal authority by its decree of August 10, 1792; and was dissolved September 21, 1792. (3) The Convention. It commenced its sittings September 21, 1792, with a proclamation of the Republic; was dis- solved 4 Brumaire, fourth year of the Repub- lic (October 26, 1795). (4) Two-thirds of this assembly were then included in the new body of the Corps Legislatif, which commenced its sittings October 27, 1795, forming the Council of the Five Hundred (des Cinq-Cents), and the Council of the Ancients (des Anciens), 250 in number. The latter body named the Directory. This assembly subsisted until the dissolution of the Directory by Bonaparte, 17 Brumaire, eighth year of the Republic (November 10, 1799). The term Assemblee Nationale was revived by the legislative body under the second Republic, Mav, 1848; and under the third Republic, 1870. Assyria (ds-slr're-ah). The name of the first great empire of antiquity recorded in Holy Writ. Assyria Proper was a region east of the Tigris, including Nineveh, and derived its name from Asshur, the second son of Shem. It ap- pears to have comprised the modern pashalics of Van and Diarbekr, with Pensarmenia, includ- ing at least part of Azerbijan; corresponding pretty exactly to modern Kurdistan. The first empire of Assyria was founded by Belus, B. C. 1993. Ninus, son of Belus (1968-1916), and his widow, Semiramis (1916-1874), were its most famous monarchs. The last of their successors, Sardanapalus, infamous for his luxury and volup- tuousness, was dethroned by his subjects, and burned himself in his palace, with his eunuchs, concubines, and all his treasures, about 820 B.C. The empire was then divided into Media, Assyria, and Babylonia. Salmanassar, or Shalmaneser, conquered Judea about 724 B. C. The second empire of Assyria finished with Nabopolassar, who united Assyria to Babylonia, B. C. 625. Assyria, with Babylonia, was conquered by Cyrus, B. C. 538, and became a province of Persia. Augur (au'gUr). A public officer appointed to interpret the will of the gods, as expressed by signs or omens, for national or individual guid- ance. Their office was one of great importance in the state, as no enterprises or ceremonies were performed unless they declared the omens fa- vorable. Accordingly, the members of their col- lege were always elected from the most honorable citizens. Their divinations were called auguries or auspices, between which there is sometimes a distinction made; the latter meaning such as 22 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS were derived from the inspection of birds, the former being extended to all omens or prodigies whatever. The Augurs bore a staff or wand as the ensign of their authority. From B. C. 300 to Sylla's time, the College of Augurs consisted of nme. They were then increased to fifteen. Julius Caesar added another. Their office was suppressed, 390 A. D. Aulic Council. One of the two supreme courts of the old Germanic, or Holy Roman, Empire, the other being the Imperial- Chamber. The nomination of the Aulic Coimcillors be- longed to the emperor, and each new emperor made a new appomtment. The Council, which was called into existence in 1501 by the Em- peror Maximilian, ultimately attained to great authority, and was held to be equal in dignity to the Imperial Chamber. At the extinction of the old Germanic Empire, by the renunciation of Francis II., and the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine under the protection of the Emperor Napoleon, in 1806, the Aulic Council ceased to exist. Austria -Hungary. The history of Aus- tria is the history of the House of Habsburg. When Rudolph of Habsburg became Emperor of Germany, and Ottokar, Kmg of Bohemia and Duke of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia, refused to take the oath of allegiance, the emperor succeeded in dispossessing him of his fiefs (1278), and subsequently conferred them, with the con- sent of the electors of the German Empire, on his son (1282). Thus the dynasty of Habsburg was founded. In the first half of the Sixteenth Century, Duke Ferdinand of Austria was elected King of Hungary by one party, while John Zapolya of Transylvania was chosen by another. After several wars, in which John was supported by the Turks, Ferdinand finally came out vic- torious and united Hungary to Austria. Thus possessed of a large territory, fertile and densely peopled, and regularly elected emperors of Ger- many, the House of Habsburg was, for several centuries, the richest and most powerful family in Europ)e. But humiliations came, thick and heavy, with Napoleon. Driven out of Germany, the Emperor Francis assumed, August 11, 1804, for himself and his successors, the title of Em- peror of Austria. But, besides Germany, he also lost his possessions in Italy, and was com- Kletely shut out from the sea. After the fall of fapoleon, Austria was restored to its former size, and under the administration of Metternich it also regained its former prestige in European politics. But it was internally weak, and its weakness became surprisingly apparent, first by the revolution of 1848, when only the support of Russia prevented the whole fabric from falling to pieces, and then after the battle of Sadowa, 1866, when, for the second time, it was driven out of Germany, and lost its hold on Italy. Since that time the Austrian Government has been principally occupied with the internal recon- struction of the empire, and it is now consti- tuted as a double state Austria and Hungary each with a representation of its own, out of which is formed a common representation, in which all common affairs, army and navy, for- eign policy, etc., are treated. In 1878, the aoministration of Bosnia and Herzegovina was fiven to Austria-Hungary. In 1882, the dual ingdom entered into the triple alliance with Germany and Italy. An anti-Semitic agitation assumed vast proportions in 1895, and resulted in the Czechs carrying the Bohemian Diet. More internal unrest has recently been displayed in Austria-Hungary than in any other nation of Europe, Turkey excepted. In 1907-08, socialist demonstrations in favor of universal suffrage were frequent and impressive. In 1909, Bosnia and Herzegovina became absolute possessions. Battles (The fifteen decisive), according to Professor Creasy: (1) Mardthon (B. C. 490), in which the Greeks, under MiltiSdSs, defeated Darius, the Persian, and turned the tide of Asiatic invasion. (2) Syraciise (B. C. 413), in which the Athenian power was broken, and the extension of Greek domination was prevented. (3) Arbela (B. C. 331), by which Alexander overthrew Darius, and introduced European habits into Asia. (4) Metaurus (B. C. 207), in which the Romans defeated Hannibal, and Car- thage was brought to ruin. (5) Armin'itis (A. D. 9), in which the Gauls overthrew the Romans under Varus, and established their in- dependence. (6) Chdlons (A. D. 451), in which Attila, "the Scourge of God," was defeated by Aetius, and Europe saved from utter devasta- tion. (7) Tours (A. D. 732), in which Charles Martel overthrew the Saracens, and broke from Europe the Mohammedan yoke. (8) Hastings (A. D. 1066), by which William of Normandy became possessed of the English Crown. (9) Orleans (A. D. 1429), by which Jeanne d'Arc raised the siege of the city, and secured the independence of France. (10) Armada (The), (A. D. 1588), which crushed the hopes of Spain and of the papacy in England. (11) Blenheim (A. D. 1704), in which Marlborough, by the defeat of Tallard, broke the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. (12) Pultowa (A. D. 1709), in which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and the stability of the Muscovite Empire was established. (13) Saratoga (A. D. 1777), in which General Gates defeated Burgoyne, and virtually decided the fate of the American Revolution. (14) Valmy (A. D. 1792), in which the allied armies, under the Duke of Brunswick, were defeated by the French revolutionists, and the Revolu- tion was suffered to go on. (15) Waterloo (A. D. 1815), in which Wellington defeated Napoleon, and rescued Europe from French domination. Belgium. The territory now known as Belgium originally formed only a section of that known to Caesar as the territory of the Belgae, extending from the right bank of the Seine to the left bank of the Rhine, and to the ocean. This district continued under Roman sway till the decline of the empire; subsequently formed part of the Kingdom of Clovis; and then of that of Charlemagne, whose ancestors belonged to Landen and Herstal on the confines of the Ar- dennes. After the breaking up of the empire of Charlemagne, Belgium formed part of the Kingdom of Lotharingia under Charlemagne's grandson, Lothaire; Artois and Flanders, howr ever, belonging to France by the treaty of Verdun. HISTORY 23 For more than a century this kingdom was contended for by the kings of France and the> emperors of Germany. In 953, it was conferred by the Emperor Otto upon Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, who assumed the title of archduke, and divided it into two duchies: Upper and Lower Lorraine. In the frequent struggles which took place during the Eleventh Century, Luxemburg, Namur, Hainaut, and Liege usu- ally sided with France, while Brabarit, Holland, and Flanders commonly took the side of Ger- many. The contest between the civic and in- dustrial organizations and feudalism, which went on through the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, and in which Flanders bore a leading part, was temporarily closed by the* defeat of the Ghentese under Van Artevelde in 1382. In 1384, Flanders and Artois fell to the House of Burgundy, which, in less than a century, acquired the whole of the Netherlands. The death of Charles the Bold at Nancy, in his attempt to raise the duchy into a kingdom (1477), was followed by the succession and mar- riage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, by which the Netherlands became an Austrian pos- session. With the accession, however, of the Austrian House of Habsburg to the Spanish throne, the Netherlands, after a brief period of prosperity, attended by the spread of the re- formed religion, became the scene of increas- ingly severe persecution under Charles V. and Philip II. of Spain. Driven to rebellion, the seven northern states under William of Orange, the Silent, succeeded in establishing their inde- pendence, but the southern portion, or Belgium, continued under the Spanish yoke. From 1598 to 1621, the Spanish Netherlands were transferred as an independent kingdom to the Austrian branch of the family by the mar- riage of Isabella, daughter of Philip II., with the Archduke Albert of Austria. He died childless, however, and they reverted to Spain. After being twice conquered by Louis XIV., con- quered again by Marlborough, coveted by all the powers, deprived of territory on the one side by Holland and on the other by France, the Southern Netherlands were at length in 1714, by the peace of Utrecht, again placed under the dominion of Austria, with the name of the Austrian Netherlands. During the Aus- trian war of succession the French, under Saxe, conquered nearly the wliole country, but re- stored it in 1748 by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. The Seven Years' War (1756-63) did not affect Belgium, and in that period, and during the peace which followed, she regained much of her Erosperity under Maria Theresa and Charles of orraine. On the succession of Joseph II., the "philosophic emperor," a serious insurrection occurred, the Austrian army being defeated at Turnhout, and the provinces forming them- selves into an independent state as United Bel- gium (1790). They had scarcely been subdued again by Austria before they were conquered by the revolutionary armies of France, and the country divided into French departments, the Austrian rule being practically closed by the battle of Fleurus (1794), and the French posses- sion confirmed by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lun^ville (1801). In 1815, Belgium was united by the Congress of Vienna to Holland, Jaoth countries together now forming one state, the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This union lasted till 1830, when a revolt broke out among the Belgians, and soon attained such dimensions that the Dutch troopn were unable to repress it. A convention of the great powers assembled in London, favored the separation of the two countries, and drew up a treaty to regulate it; the National Congress of Belgium offering the crown, on the recommenda- tion of England, to Leopold, Prince of Saxe- Coburg, who acceded to it under the title of Leopold I., on July 21, 1831. In November of the same year, the five powers guaranteed the crown to him by the treaty of London, and the remaining difficulties with Holland were settled in 1839, when the Dutch claims to territory in Limburg and Luxemburg were withdrawn. The reign of Leopold was for Belgium a prosperous period of thirty-four years. Leopold II. suc- ceeded his father in 1865. In recent years the chief feature of Belgian politics has been a keen struggle between the clerical and the liberal party. Till 1878 the clerical party maintained the upper hand, but to a large extent by corrup- tion at the elections. In 1877, a bill was passed to put down corruption, and to increase the number of town deputies to the Chamber of Representatives; and at the next elections, in June, 1878, the Liberals gained a majority, which they lost in 1884. In 1885, on the constitution by the Congress of Berlin of the Congo Free State, in which Leopold II. had shown an active inter- est, he was invited to become its sovereign. The Congo Free State passed under the suzerainty of Belgium in 1890, and in the years following the indignation of the civilized world was aroused by the reported atrocities under Leopold's rule. Finally, in 1908, the Congo Free State was annexed to Belgium. In 1909, Leopold died and was succeeded by his son Albert I. BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality St. Peter First Century A. D. A. D. 41 67 67 79 79-91 91-100 Second Century 100-109 about 109-119 119-128 Linus Cletus or Anacletus, .... Clement Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I 24 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Telesphorus Hyginu8, A. D. A. D. 128 139 139 142 142 157 157 168 168 176 177 190 190 202 202 217 Third Century 217 222 222 230 230 235 235 236 236 250 251 253 253 254 254 257 257 258 259 268 269 274 275 283 283 296 Fourth Century 296 304 304 309 309 310 314 . 314 335 336 337 352 352 366 366 384 384 398 398 401 Fifth Century 401 417 417 418 418 422 422 432 432 440 ' 440 461 461 468 468 483 483 492 492 496 496 498 Sixth Century 498 614 614 523 623 626 626 530 530 532 532 535 635 536 636 637 537 666 555 561 660 674 675 579 679 590 Seventh Century 590 B04 604 606 607 608 615 616 618 619 625 626 638 638 640 640 642 642 649 649 653 654 657 667 672 672 676 676 678 678 681 682 683 684 686 685 686 686 687 Greek. Syrian. Greek. Greek. Victor I .... African. Zephyrinus, Urban I. Roman. Roman. Greek. Probably Roman. Roman. Roman. Sixtus II Roman. Greek. Roman. Eutychianus, Uncertain. Roman. * Roman. Roman. Roman. Sylvester I Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Native of Albano. Greek. Roman. Roman. Sixtus III . . Roman. Leo I., " The Great," . . . Roman. Simplicius, Native of Tibur. Felix II., Gelasius, Roman. Anastasius II Roman. Symmachus, Native of Sardinia. Native of Frusino. John I., Tuscan. Felix III Native of Beneventum. Boniface II Roman. Agapetus I Roman. Sylyerius, Native of Campania. Peiagius I., Roman. John III Benedict I Roman. Peiagius II Roman. Gregory I., "The Great, " . Roman. Sabinianus Tuscany. Boniface III Roman. Boniface IV Native of Abruzzi. Deusdedit Boniface V Honorius, Native of Capua. Severinus Roman. John IV Theodore, ........ Greek. Native of Tudertum. Eugenius I Roman. Vitaliamis Native of Signia. Adeodatus, Roman. Donus I., Roman. Agatho Leo II Benedict II., Roman. John v., . . Native of Syria. Conon, Native of Thrace. HISTORY 25 BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Eighth Century A. D. A. D. 687 701 701 70.5 705 707 708 708 715 715 731 731 741 741 752 752 757 757 767 768 772 772 795 Ninth Century 795 816 816 817 817 824 824 827 827 827 844 844 847 847 855 855 858 858 867 867 872 872 882 882 884 884 885 885 891 891 896 896 896 897 897 897 898 900 Tenth Century 900 903 903 904 911 911 913 913 914 914 929 929 929 931 931 936 936 939 939 942 942 946 946 955 955 964 965 965 972 973 974 974 983 983 984 985 996 Eleventh Century 996 999 999 1003 1003 1003 1009 1009 1012 1012 1024 1024 1033 1033 1045 1045 1046 1046 1047 1048 1048 1054 1054 1057 1057 1058 1058 1061 1061 1073 1073 1085 1086 1087 1088 1099 Twelfth Century 1099 1118 1118 1119 Native of Palermo. Native of Greece. T^Vir. VTT Greek. Sisinnius . Constantinus I Gregory II Gregory III., Zachary Syrian. Roman. Syrian. Greek. Paul I Roman. Steven 'ill., Sicilian. Roman. Leo III .... Roman. Steven IV Eugenius II Gregory IV., Leo IV Nicholas I., Adrian II John VIII Adrian III Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Bishop of Parto. Steven VI Theodore II Roman. Native of Tiber. Benedict IV Roman. Native of Ardea. Sergius III., Roman. Native of Sabina. John X., . ... Roman. Leo VI Native of Rome. John XI Roman. Steven VIII Roman. Agapetus II JoTin XII Ottaviano Conti. He was the first who changed his name on his elevation. Roman. John XIII. Roman. Benedict VI., . (Conti) Roman. John XIV John XV., (Boniface VII., Franco, anti- pope.) Roman. Sylvester II Bruno. Gerbert, Native of Auvergne. John XVIII., . . Philagathus. Roman. Sergius IV John XIX Gregory VI Fasio Sylvester Giovanni Braziano Roman. Native of Tusculum. Roman. Damascus II Leo IX.. Pappo. Bishop of Toul. Bishop of Eichstadt. Abbot of Monte Casino. Native of Burgundy. Victor II Steven IX., Nicholas II Gebhard Frederick, Native of Milan. Gregory VII Hildebrand, Native of Tuscany. Native of Beneventum. Urban II.,* Otho or Endes, Native of France. Native of Tuscany. Gelasius, 26 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Calixtus II., . Honorius II., . Innocent II., . Celestine II., . Lucius II., . . Eugenius III., Anastasius IV., Adrian IV., Alexander III., Lucius III., . Urban III., . Gregory VIII., Clement III., . Celestine III., Innocent III., Honorius III., Gregory IX., . Celestine IV., Innocent IV., Alexander IV., Urban IV., . . Clement IV., . Gregory X., . Innocent V., . Adrian V., . . John XXL, . Nicholas III., Martin IV., Honorius IV., Nicholas IV., Celestine V., . Boniface VII I., Benedict XL, Clement V., . JohnXXIL, . Benedict XII.. Clement VI., . Innocent VI., . Urban V., . . Gregory XL, . Urban VI., . Boniface IX., . Innocent VII., Gregory XII., Martin V., . . Eugenius IV., Nicholas V., . Calixtus III., . Pius II Paul II Sixtus IV., . . Innocent VUL, Alexander VI., PiusIIL, . . Julius XL, . . Leo X.. , . . Adrian VI., . Clement VII., Paul III., . . Julius III., . . Marcellus, . . Paul IV., . . Pius IV., . . Pius V Gregory XII I. , Sextus v., . . Urban VII., . Gregory XIV., Innocent IX., Clement VIII., A. D. 1119 1124 1130 1143 1144 1145 1153 1154 1169 1181 1185 1187 1187 1191 A. D. 1124 1130 1143 1144 1145 1153 1154 1159 1181 1185 1187 1191 1198 Thirteenth Century 1198 1216 1216 1227 1227 1241 1241 1243 1254 1254 1261 1261 1264 1265 1268 1276 1271 1276 1276 1276 1277 1277 1281 1281 1285 1285 1288 1288 1292 1294 1294 1303 Fourteenth Century 1304 1314 1303 1305 1316 1334 1342 1334 1342 1352 1352 1362 1362 1370 1370 1378 1378 1389 1389 1404 Fifteenth Century 1406 1415 1431 1447 1455 1458 1464 1471 1484 1492 1503 1404 1406 1415 1431 1447 1455 1458 1464 1471 1484 1492 Sixteenth Century 1503 1503 1513 1521 1523 1534 1549 1555 1555 1559 1565 1572 1585 1590 1590 1591 1591 1513 1521 1523 1534 1549 1555 1559 1565 1572 1585 1590 1591 1605 Cardinal Lamberti Nicholas Breakpeare, . . . Cardinal Orlando Bandinello, Cardinal Ubaldo, Uberto Crivelli Paul, I '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. [ Cardinal Hyacinthua, . . . Cardinal Lotharius, .... Cardinal Savelli Cardinal Hugo Sinibaldo Fieschi Cardinal Rinaldo Conti, . . James, Patriarch of Jerusa- lem, Guy, Tebaldo Visconti Cardinal Peter, Ottobono Fieschi, .... Cardinal Orsini, Cardinal Simon de Brie, . . Cardinal James Sevelli, . . Cardinal Jerome Pietro da Morrone Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani, Cardinal Nicholas, .... Bertrand, removed Papal See to Avignon, . James, .... James Fournier, Pet^r Roger, . . Steven Aubert, . . William Grimoard, Peter Roger, . .\, Bartolomew Prignano, Peter Tomacelli, . . . Cosmo Migliorati, .... Angelo Corrari Otho Colonna, Gabriel Condulmero, . . . Cardinal Thomas Alfonso Borgia .ffineas Sylvius Piccolomini, Peter Barbo Francis della Rovere, . . . Gian Battista Cibo Rodrigo Lenzoli Borgia, . . Francis Todeschini Piccolo- mini, Julian della Rovere. Giovanni de Medici, . . . Guilio de Medici Alessandro Farnese, . . . Giovan Maria Giocci, . . . Cardinal Cervini, Gianpietro Caraffa, .... Giovanni Angelo Medichino, Michelo Chislieri Hugo Buoncampagni, . . . Felice Peretti of Montaito, Gian Battista Castagna, . . Nicola Sfrondati Gian Antonio Facchinetti, . Ippolito Aldobrandino, . . . Native of Burgundy. Bishop of Ostia. Roman. Tuscan. Native of Bologna. Native of Pisa. Roman. Englishman. Native of Sienna. Native of Lucca. Archbishop of Milan. Native of Beneventum. Bishop of Praenesie. Roman. Native of Signia. Roman. Native of Anagui. Native of Milan. Native of Genoa. Native of Anaqui. Frenchman. Native of St. Gilles, in Languedoc. Native of Placenzi. Native of Tarentaise. Native of Genoa. Native of Lisbon. Native of Rome. Frenchman. Roman. Native of Ascoli. Native of Abruzzi. Native of Anagui. Native of Treviso. Native of Bordeaux. Native of Cahoras in France. Frenchman. Native of Limoges in France. Native of Limoges. Frenchman. Frenchman. Neapolitan. Of Naples. Native of Sulmona. Native of Venice. Roman. Venetian. Native of Sargana. Spaniard. Native of Siena. Native of Venice. Genoese. Genoese. Spaniard. Genoese. Son of Lorenzo, the Mag- nificent. Native of Utrecht. Nephew of Lorenzo. Roman. Roman. Native of Montepulciano. Neapolitan. Native of Milan. Native of Alessandria. Native of Bologna. Native of March Ancona. Genoese. Native of Milan. Native of Bologna. Native of Fano. HISTORY 27 BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationalitt Leo XI PaulV Gregory XV., . Urban VIII., . . Innocent X., . . Alexander VII., . Clement IX., . . Clement X., . . Innocent XL, Alexander VIIL, Innocent XII., . Clement XL, . . Innocent XllL, . Benedict XIII. , . Clement XII., . Benedict XIV., . Clement XIII. , . elemental v., . Pius VI Pius VII Leo XII Pius VIIL, . . Gregory XVI., . Pius IX Leo XIII Pius X Seventeenth A. D. 1605 1605 1621 1623 1644 1655 1667 1669 1676 1689 1691 Century A. D. 1621 1623 1644 1655 1667 1669 1676 1689 1691 1700 Eighteenth Century 1700 1721 1721 1724 1724 1730 1730 1740 1740 1758 1758 1769 1769 1775 1775 1799 Nineteenth Century 1800 1823 1823 1829 1829 1830 1830 1846 1846 1878 Alessandro de Medici, . Camillo Borghese, . . Alessandro Ludovici, . Maffeo Barberini, . . . Gian Battista Pamfili, Fabio Chigi, Guilio Rospigliosi, . . Emilio Attieri, . . . . Benedetto Odescalchi, Pietro Ottobani, . . . Antonio Pignatelli, . . Gian Francesco Albani, Michael Angelo Conti, . Vincenzo Maria Orsini, Lorenzo Corsini, . . . Prospero Lambertini, . Carlo Rezzonico, . . . Gian Vencenzo Ganganelli Angelo Braschi 1878 1903 1903 Gregario Barnaba Chiara- monti, Annibale della Genga, . . . Cardinal Castigliani, . . . Mauro Cappellari, .... Giovanni Maria Mastai-Fer- retti, Gioacchino Pecci Guiseppe Sarto Native of Florence. Native of Rome. Native of Bologna. Florentine. Roman. Native of Siena. Native of Pistoia. Native of Rome. Native of Como. Native of Venice. Native of Naples. Native of Urbino. Native of Rome. Native of Rome. Native of Florence. Native of Bologna. Native of Venice. Born near Rimini. Native of Cesena. Native of Cesena. Native of Romagna. Native of Cingoli. Native of Belluno. Native of Sinigaglia. Native of Carpinetto. Venice. Blue Laws. The code of 1660, a compila- ! tion of the earliest laws and customs of Connec- j ticut. It is almost verbally copied from the j Mosaic Law. After the restoration of Charles ; II. "Presbyterian true blue" became a term of derision applied to anything which smattered of Puritanism, and "blue laws" simply meant puritanical laws, or laws with a blue tinge. These laws inflicted the penalty of death for worshiping any god but the God of the Bible; for speaking disrespectfully of the Bible, Christ, or the Holy Ghost; for witchcraft, adultery, theft, false-swearing, and disobedience to par- ents. Said to have been drawn up by the Rev. Samuel Peters, but generally supposed to be apocryphal. Boer War, The. The reinforcing of the British troops in South Africa, along the borders of the Transvaal Republic, together with differ- ences on the franchise question, coupled with grim recollections of former armed clashes be- tween Great Britain and the sturdy, patriotic Boers, all tended to hasten the conflict of 1899- 1900, one of the most sanguinary in the world's history. As an effort to avert war, a conference was held May 31, 1899, between Sir Alfred Milner, Governor of Cape Colony, and the Presi- dents of the Dutch Republics at Bloemfontein, in which terms for the adjustment of the claims of the Outlanders were discussed, but no agree- ment was reached. Between June 1 and Octo- ber 10, negotiations proceeded between the gov- ernments of Great Britain and the Transvaal, while the legislature of the latter adopted fran- chise laws which were not acceptable to Great Britain. In the meantime, both countries made energetic preparations for war, and the Orange Free State announced that in case of hostilities it would support the Transvaal. On October 10th, the Transvaal sent to the British Government an ultimatum demanding: That all points of mutual difference be regulated by friendly recourse to arbitration or by what- ever amicable way might be agreed upon by the governments concerned; that all British troops on the border of the Transvaal Republic should be instantly withdrawn; that Great Britain should withdraw all reinforcements of troops landed in South Africa since June 1, 1899, with assurance that during further nego- tiations the Republic would not attack any British possessions, and that upon compliance with the ultimatum the Republic would be pre- Eared to withdraw from the borders the armed urghers of the Transvaal ; that the British troops then on the high seas should not be landed m any part of Africa; that an answer to the ulti- matum be received by the Republic not later than 5 o'clock P. M. on October 11th; that an unsatisfactory answer would be regarded by the Republic as a formal declaration of war by Great Britain, as would also be a further move- ment, of British troops in a nearer direction to the Republic's borders. On October 12, 1899, the reply of the British having been unsatisfactory, the Transvaal Boers invaded Natal, advancing toward Newcastle, which was defended by the British general* White and Symons. The British evacuated Newcastle and fell back on Ladysmith, where, on October 13th, there was a strong British force. On October 20th, the Boers begun the siege of Kimberley, and on the same day in Natal was fought the battle of Dundee, in which the British repulsed the Boers, suffering a loss of 215 in killed and wounded. On October 21st, General French captured the Boers' position at Elandslaagte after a hard battle, with a British 28 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS loss of 257 killed and wounded. General White repulsed a Free State force at Rietfontein, near Ladysmith, October 24th. Five days later the Boers began the siege of Ladysmith. On Octo- ber 30th, in a sortie near Ladysmith, the British were entrapped and defeated, and the Boers captured 870 prisoners. Communication with Ladysmith was cut off by the Boers on Novem- ber 2d, and the next day the British evacuated Colenso, in Natal. The Boers shelled Mafeking November 6th, but were repulsed in an attack on the British position. The first British trans- port carrying reinforcements reached Cape Town on November 9th, and proceeded to Durban. The Boers wrecked a British armoi^eH^ train near Eastcourt, Natal, on November 16th, capturing fifty-six prisoners, including Winston Churchill. On November 23d, near Gras. Pan, Lord Me- thuen attacked the Boers and drove them from their position, and on November 26th the British won a sanguinary victory at Modder River. A series of Boer successes then followed. On De- cember 10th, the British, under General Gatacre, were led into a Boer ambuscade near Stormberg Junction and lost 1,000 men, including 672 cap- tured, while on the same and following day Lord Methuen failed to take the Boer position at Spytfontein after desperate fighting and heavy losses, General Wauchope being killed. On December 15th, General Buller was severely defeated while attemptmg to force the Tugela River, near Colenso, he losing 1,000 men and eleven guns. The British losses to this date were 7,630 men killed, wounded, and missing, and the attention of the civilized world was riveted upon the war. After BuUer's signal defeat, Field Marshal Lord Roberts was ordered, December 18th, to South Africa, to take com- mand of military operations, with Lord Kitch- ener as chief of staff, and with a reinforcement of 100,000 men. General French captured Colesburg on New Year's Day, 1900. On January 6th, Roberts and Kitchener arrived in South Africa, and on the same date the Boers were repulsed with heavy loss in an attack on Ladysmith. On January 23-25th, occurred some of the most desperate and famous fighting of the war, when a British storming party under General Warren captured Spion Kop, but, after heavy losses, withdrew. General Buller made a third attempt to relieve Ladysmith, but failed, February 9th, and Lord Roberts began an invasion of the Orange Free State on February 12th. General French relieved Kimberley on February 15th. On February 22-27th there was severe fighting between Roberts and Cronje, terminating with the capitulation of the latter, with 4,600 men and six guns. Lord Dundonald entered Lady- smith on February 28th, and General Gatacre occupied Stormberg on March 5th. On March 7th, Lord Roberts turned the Boer position near Modder River and advanced triumphantly on Bloemfontein, capital of the Orange Free State, which surrendered to the British on March 13th. The Boer Commander-in-Chief, General Joubert, died on March 27th, and Colonel de Villebois Mareuil, French officer with the Boers, was killed in a skirmish on April 5th. General Cronje and the other Boer prisoners were sent to St. Helena, where they arrived April 14th, and the demoralization of the Boers seemingly begun. On April 20th, Mr. Pettigrew, in the United States Senate, introduced a resolution of sympathy with the Boers, but it was voted down, 29 to 20. On May 3d, Lord Roberts began his advance on Pretoria. The Boers now turned to the United States and Europe for intervention, but the United States was the only government in the world of all those approached by the South African Republic which tendered its good offices to either of the combatants in the interest of the cessation of hostilities. So the war continued. On May 10th, the British crossed the Zand River and occupied Kroonstad, and on May 15th, General Buller occupied Dundee. The Boer envoys to the United States reached New York on May 16th, the day that Mafeking was relieved, after a siege of 217 days. President McKinley received the envoys unofficially, but they were officially informed by Secretary of State Hay that the United States could not intervene in the war. The end of the struggle was not yet, however, in sight. On May 28th, Lord Roberts pro- claimed the annexation of the Orange Free State to the British Empire. The British entered Johannesburg on May 30th, and on the same day President Kruger retired from Pretoria, which city surrendered on June 5th to the Brit- ish army. General Prinsloo and 3,348 Boers surrendered at Naauwpoort, and Harrismith surrendered to General Macdonald on August 4th. Several conspirators against the life of Lord Roberts were tried at Pretoria August 17th, and their leader was executed. Machadodorp, Kruger's new capital, was occupied by General Buller August 28th. On September 1st, the Transvaal was proclaimed a part of the British Enipire by Lord Roberts. Guerilla warfare, which had begun July 1st, was now general in i the Transvaal, and the Boer Generals DeWet and Botha continued to harass the British by sporadic raids. Ex-President Kruger, aband- oning the Transvaal, began his journey to Eu- rope September 12th. He arrived at Marseilles on November 22d, and had an ovation from the French people, the demonstrations of wel- come continuing through his journey to Paris, while the National French Assembly adopted resolutions of sympathy. On November 30th, the supreme military command in South Africa was turned over to Lord Kitchener by Lord Roberts, who departed for home, sailmg for England from Cape Town on December 12th. In the meantime, the German Government inti- mated to Mr. Kruger on December 1st, that a visit by him to Berlin would be inopportune. Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, on the contrary, welcomed Mr. Kruger at a dinner on December 15th. The British met with a severe reverse at Nooltgedacht December 13th, Colonel Legge being killed. On December 14th, Sir Alfred Milner was appointed Administrator of the Orange River and Transvaal colonies, and the year closed with both sides grimly deter- mined to continue the terrible warfare to a definite conclusion. The first battle of 1901 was at Lindley, HISTORY 29 Orange River Colony, where forty British officers and men were killed or wounded. On January 7th, the British position along Delagoa Bay Railway was unsuccessfully attacked by the Boers, who were also driven back on January 17th near Standerton, when they attacked a British column under General Colville. On January 18th, New Zealand troops and Bushmen, under Colonel Gray, routed 800 Boers near Veutersburg. On January 30th, the Bloem- fontein-Ladybrand line was crossed by DeWet near Israel's Poort, and the Boers captured the British post at Modderfontein, in the Transvaal, on February 3d, at about which time the British War Office decided to reinforce Kitchener with 30,000 additional mounted troops. General Smith-Dorrien was attacked by Louis Botha with 2,000 men at Orange Camp February 6th, but repulsed him. On the same date the Boers cut the Delagoa Bay Railroad, near Lorenzo Marques; ten days later DeWet crossed the railroad at Bariman's Siding and was engaged by Crabbe and an armored train, and on Feb- ruary 19th the Boers blew up a supply train at Clip River. Four severe Boer reverses then followed in quick succession. The Boers, 5,000 strong, were defeated by General French at Piet Retief, February 22d ; DeWet's force was scat- tered by Colonel Plummer at Disselfontein, Orange River, February 23d; General French captured 300 Boers, ammunition cattle, and, supplies at Middleburg, February 26th; Lord Kitchener drove DeWet north of the Orange River, with a loss of 280 men captured, March 1st. Lord Kitchener then granted General Botha a seven days' armistice to make commu- nication with other Boer leaders, after which truce hostilities were resumed. The Boers cap- tured a British supply train near Viaklaagte March 22d, but were defeated three days later near Vryheid by General French. On March 27th, Fourie's commando and Bruce Hamilton's command held a running fight for twenty miles. Commandants Prinsloo and Englebrecht surren- dered to the British March 30th, and the British reoccupied Pietersburg on April 9th, on which date the Boers captured seventy-five men of the Fifth Infantry and Imperial Yeomanry. Gen- eral Botha, on April 10th, renewed negotiations for peace. Sir Alfred Milner, returning home from South Africa, was received by the kmg and created a peer May 21st. The Boers, again for a time, rejoiced over successes. They attacked and partially destroyed the convoy of General Plummer's column May 25th; captured a Brit- ish post of forty-one men near Maraisburg, May 27th, and attacked General Dixon's brigade of the Seventh Yeomanry near Vlakfontein, May 29th, causing a heavy British loss. On June 3d, an attack by 700 Boers under Scheeper upon Willomore, Cape Colony, was repulsed after a nine hours' fight. The British and Boers lost heavily in an engagement between Elliot and DeWet near Reitz, June 6th, and on the same day Colonel Wilson, with 240 men, routed 400 Boers under Bever, near Warm Baths. The Boers captured 200 members of the Victoria Mounted Rifles at Steenkoolsprint, June 12th, and the Midland Mounted Rifles were overpowered by Commandant Malan at Waterkloof, June 20th. President Schalk-Burger, of the South African Republic, and President Steyn, of Orange Free State, issued a proclamation for "no peace with- out independence," June 20th, and on August 7th, Lord Kitchener issued a proclamation of banishment against all Boers in South Africa not surrendering by September 15th. In the meantime, General Benson repulsed the Boers in a mountain pass near Dullstroem, and, though the inevitable end of the warfare was becoming daily more apparent, fighting was continued. Fifty of General French's scouts were captured in Cape Colony August 16th; three officers and sixty-five British, north of Ladybrand, were captured August 21st; the Boers attacked a convoy near Kooipopje and killed nine men of the Seventy-fourth Yeomanry, wounding twenty- three, on August 24th; Colonel Vandeleur and nine men were killed and seventeen wounded by the blowing up of a train in the Transvaal, August 31st; Von Tonder and Delarey engaged General Methuen in the Great Maries valley, September 8th. Then, on September 16th, the British troops captured Lotter's entire command south of Pietersburg, and on the following day the Boers partially evened matters by ambush- ing and capturing three companies of British mounted infantry under Major Gough, near Scheeper's Nek, and also by capturing a company of mounted British infantry and two guns at Vlakfontein, September 20th. Two Boer com- mandos were captured September 21st, near Adenburg, and Colonel the Hon. A. Murray and Captain Murray, his adjutant, were killed in a fight with Krintzsinger, who crossed the Orange River. On September 29th, Commandant De- larey attacked Colonel Kekewich's camp at Moedwill, with loss on both sides. Martial law was declared throughout Cape Colony on October 9th. The following day General Sir Redvers Buller admitted, in a speech, that he advised the surrender of Ladysmith, and was severely criticised for his utterances. Commander Scheeper was captured October 12th, and Captain Bellew and four others were killed in a fight, October 16th, at Twenty-four Streams. On November 1st, in a heavy Boer attack on Colonel Benson's column near Brakenlaagte, the British lost twenty-five officers and 214 men in killed and wounded. During the next sixty days numerous small skirmishes were reported, and during the first three months of 1902 the war was more or less of a desultory character, negotiations for peace between the Boer leaders and the British Government beginning on March 23d, the latest notable Boer accomplishment having been the capture of General Methuen and 200 men, forty-one British being killed, on March 11th. On May 31, 1902, Lord Kitchener announced that a peace treaty had been signed between Great Britain and the Boers, Commandant-Gen- eral Louis Botha, assisted by General Delarey and Chief Commandant DeWet, acting for the Boers. Bohemia. The Boii, from whom Bohemia derives its name, settled in the country in the Second Century B. C, but were expelled by the Marcomanni about the beginning of the Christian era. The victors themselves soon gave place to 30 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS others, and as early as the Fifth Century A. D. we find Bohemia peopled by the Czechs, a Slavic race. In the latter part of the Ninth Century, Swatopluk, the King of Moravia, subjugated Bohemia and introduced Christianity. After his death, the Dukes of Prague, who, in 1061, had the title of king conferred on them by the Emperor Henry IV., ruled the country as a state in the German Empire, until 1306, when the last of the dynasty was assassinated. From 1310 to 1437, Bohemia was ruled by kings of the House of Luxembourg. In the time of Wenzel IV. (Wenceslas), a reformation of religion took place under John Huss and Jerome of Prague. After the death of Wenzel IV., the imprudent measures adopted by the Emperor Sigismund excited in Bohemia a war of sixteen years' dura- tion, which ended in making Bohemia an elective kingdom. In 1458, the shrewd and able Protest- ant noble, George von Podiebrad, ascended the throne. His successor, Ladislaus (1471-1516), was elected (1490) to the throne of Hungary, and removed the royal residence to Ofen, where also his son and successor, Louis (1516-26), resided. After his death in battle against the Turks at Mohacz (1526), Bohemia and Hungary passed into the hands of Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had married Louis' sister. From that time the history of Bohemia merges into the history of Austria. Boil. A Celtic people, who emigrated from Transalpine Gaul into Italy, where they occupied the old seat of the Umbrians, between the Po and the Apennines. In B. C. 283, the Boii were defeated by the Romans at the Vadimonian Lake, and thereafter prolonged through numer- ous campaigns, especially in support of Hannibal, but sometimes single-handed, their resistance to the Roman arms, till their complete defeat by Scipio Nasica, B. C. 191. They were subse- quently compelled to recross the Alps, and dwelt for more than a century in a part of modern Bohemia (which derives its name from them), but were ultimately exterminated by the Dacians. Bonaparte's [Egyptian Campaign (1799). Alexandria fell into his hands; he won the great battle of the Pyramids ; completed the subjugation of Egypt; passed into Syria, made himself master of Gaza and JafTa ; won the battle of Mount Tabor; returned to Egypt, attacked the Turks at Aboukir, and utterly destroyed their whole army, June 25, 1799. Bonaparte's Forty Days Cam- paign. He left Paris May 6, 1800; marched over the Alps, and reached Aosta May 23d; he entered Milan June 2d ; won the battle of Monte- bello over the Austrians, June 9th, and the great battle of Marengo, June 14th; returned to Paris, July 2d. The forty da.ys count from his arrival at Aosta, May 23d, to his return to Paris, July 2d. Bonaparte's Italian Campaign (1796-97). He was 27 years of age. April 11th, he defeated Beaulieu, the Austrian general, at Montenotte, in Sardinia; April 14th, he won the battle of Millesimo; April 15th, he won the bat- tle of Dego; April 22d, he won a victory over the Piedmontese at Mondovi; May 10th, he de- feated the Austrian general, Beaulieu, . at the Bridge of Lodi, and entered Milan; June 19th, he occupied Bologna, Ferrara, and Ancona; August 3d, he defeated the Austrian general, Wiirmser, at Lonato; August 5th, he defeated the same general at Castighone ; September 8th, he defeated him again at Bassano; November 17th, he won the great battle of ArcOla over Alvinzi, the Austrian general; January 14, 1797, he won the battle of Rivoli over Alvinzi and Wiirmser; January 15th, he won a battle at the faubourg of St. George, near Mantua; January 16th, he won a battle near the palace called The Favorite; March 16th, he defeated the Aus- trians, led by the Archduke Karl, at Taglia- mento; October 17th, the treaty of Campo Formio, and in December he returned to France. He had won fifteen battles; added Savoy and Nice to France, the Netherlands, and Italy; had obtained vast money compensations, and returned to France laden with treasures of art. Boxer Rebellion, The. The causes of the Boxer outbreak in China were cumulative. For three years prior to the enforced occupation of China by the powers, in 1900, a number of acts of foreign countries had a disquieting effect upon the empire. Since 1898, Russia had taken Port Arthur and the adjacent harbor of Talien- wan. Germany had leased Kiaochau and gained great concessions in the province of Shang Tung. France had suggested privileges in portions of Chinese territory adjacent to the French posses- sions of Tonquin. Great Britain, to cap the climax, had obtained from China a lease of Wei-Hai-Wei, on the south shore of the Gulf of Pechili, opposite Port Arthur, and thus com- manded the entrance to the gulf and the water approach to Peking. Many Chinese were re- sentful of these encroachments by foreigners, but the Dowager Empress did not oppose them, and hence she was bitterly arraigned by her people. The leader of this opposition was Prince Tuan, the sixth son of the Emperor Kwang-Su's grand- father. Prince Tuan had long been an athlete and had a following of many athletic young men in the kingdom, who, because of their ability in sports, were known as boxers, a name which Tuan's recruits adopted. Tuan pro- claimed his nine-year-old son heir presumptive to the throne. The emperor, then but a figure- head, dominated by the Dowager Empress, had little popular support. The Boxers revolted, massacred missionaries at many interior points of the empire, and finally made a concerted attack upon the foreign legations in Peking, in which movement the imperial troops eventually participated. The Chinese Tsung-li-Yamen, the equivalent to a responsible government ministry in Europe, was in sentiment hostile to foreigners, and hence either would not, or could not, protect the legations or escort them safely from the country. The civilized world received distress- ing reports of massacres and outrages, and was for several weeks in suspense as to the fate of the foreign ministers in China, their families, legation attaches, and converted Chinese under foreign protection. The offended powers de- cided upon concerted action and hurried vessels and troops to the ports nearest to the danger points. Upon Chinese resistance to the landing HISTORY 31 of marines at Taku, the forts were shelled by all the allies except Americans, and on June 17th, while the Chinese shelled the allies' fleet, the allied troops landed and captured the Taku forts, after a sanguinary conflict. On June 18th the Ninth United States Regiment was ordered from Manila to China, other troops following. On June 20th, German fury and general inter- national indignation was aroused when Baron von Ketteler, the German Minister, while pro- ceeding on a diplomatic mission to the Tsung- li-Yamen in Peking, was beset by Chinese sol- diers and butchered. On the same day an allied expedition under Vice-Admiral Seymour, of the British Navy, began a march upon Peking for the relief of the British legationers. Such count- less hordes of Chinese opposed him that he was obliged to turn back, suffering casualties of 374. The allied warships shelled Tien-tsin on June 21st, and the combined forces, two days later, occupied the foreign quarters of that city. The Chinese, on June 23d, requested an armistice through- Minister Wu at Washington. The United States promptly replied that free com- munication must first be allowed with the lega- tions, and on July 4th, Secretary of State Hay outlined to the powers the American policy. On July 13- 14th, occurred one of the noted conflicts of history, when the allied forces stormed the Chinese port of Tien-tsin, which they captured with a loss of 800 killed and wounded. Colonel E. H. Liscum, commanding the United States contingent, was among the slain. On July 19th, the Emperor of China appealed to President McKinley for peace. The advance of the allies upon Peking began August 4ti}, under command of Field Marshal von Wal- den-ee, of the German army, who was unani- mously selected to command the allied forces. The first news from the beleaguered foreigners reached the United States in the form of a cipher message from Minister Conger. It read: "Still besieged. Situation more precarious. Chinese Government insisting on our leaving Peking, which would be certain death. Rifle firing upon us daily by imperial troops. Have abun- dant courage, but little ammunition or provisions. Two progressive Yamen ministers beheaded. All connected with the legation of the United States well at present moment." The receipt of this message caused intense excitement throughout the United States, for, though it broke the long suspense, it added to public fury and anxiety. On August 8th, Li Hung Chang was appointed Envoy Plenipotentiary to pro- pose to the several powers for the immediate cessation of hostile demonstrations. On August '4th, Peking was captured by the allied forces .1 the Americans, British, Germans, French, Austrians, Italians, and Japanese. The American troops were the first to enter the city, and Cap- tain Reilly was the first victim. The emperor and empress had fled. The legationers were prompt- ly relieved and told thrilling stories of their danger and distress during the long siege. The Chinese, on August 16th, asked for an armistice, which was refused. Li Hung Chang's appeal was rejected by the United States, and China was informed that the demands of this Govern- ment must be complied with. At the same time General Chaffee was given full power to act. The American refugees from Peking reached Tien-tsin safely on August 25th. On November 19th, the negotiations between the allies and the Chinese authorities for terms of peace ai d compensation, which were begun when the r :ies took full possession of Peking, had progressed so far that the German Imperial Chancellor in the Reichstag announced that the allies had unanimously agreed upon the follow- ing as their demands upon China: First. China shall erect a monument to Baron von Ketteler on the site where he was murdered and send an Imperial Prince to Germany to convey an apology. She shall inflict the death penalty upon eleven princes and officials already named, and suspend provincial exami- nations for five years where the outrages occurred. Second. In future all officials failing to prevent anti- foreign outrages within their jurisdiction shall be dis- missed and punished. Third. Indemnity shall be paid to states, corpora- tions and individuals. The Tsung-li-Yamen shall be abolished and its functions vested in a Foreign Minister. Rational intercourse shall be permitted with the em- peror, as in civilized countries. Fourth. The forts at Taku and other forts on the coast of Chili shall be razed, and the importation of arms and war material prohibited. Fifth. Permanent legation guards shall be main- tained, and also guards of communication between Peking and the sea. Sixth. Imperial proclamations shall be posted for two years throughout the empire suppressing Boxers. Seventh. Indemnity is to include compensation for Chinese who suffered by being employed by foreigners, but not compensation for native Christians. Eighth. China shall erect expiatory monuments in every foreign or international burial ground where the graves have been profaned. Ninth. The Chinese Government shall undertake to enter upon negotiations for such changes in existing treaties regarding trade and navigation as the foreign governments deem advisable, and with reference to other matters having in view the facilitation of commer- cial relations. In December, 1900, the Chinese authorities had accepted all the foregoing conditions im- posed by the allies, and the preliminary note of the demands of the powers was signed by Li Hung Chang and Prince Ching. Peking was evacuated by the American cavalry and artillery May 5th, and General Chaffee embarked for the Philippines May 18th. The powers, on May 9th, demanded of China a formal indemnity of 450,- 000,000 taels (about $300,000,000), which was agreed to by China, and the powers, on July 26th, formally accepted China's offer to pay the sum named on time at 4^ per cent, interest. Prince Chun, at Berlin, September 4th, formally apolo- gized to Emperor William for the insult to Ger- man honor in the murder of Baron von Ketteler. On September 17th, the American and Japanese troops in Peking handed oyer the Forbidden City to the Chinese. Brazil. It was only in 1531 that the Portu- guese, busy as they were in India, here planted their first settlement. In 1578, Brazil fell with Portugal, under the power of Spain, and became a prey to the Dutch; and, though Portugal regained its own independence in 1640, it was not until 1654 that Brazil was entirely recovered from the Hollanders. In 1807, the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil; in 1815, the colony was declared "a kingdom"; and the Portu- guese court having returned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled at Rio de Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Dom Pedro, eldest son of King JoSo VI. of Portugal, was chosen "Per- 32 THE STANDARD piCTIONARY OF FACTS petual Defender" of Brazil. He proclaimed the independence of the country on September 7, 1822, and was chosen "Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender" on October 12th, fol- lowing. In 1831, he abdicated in favor of his only son, Dom Pedro II., who reigned until November 15, 1889, when he was dethroned, exiled, and Brazil declared a republic under the title of the United States of Brazil. A new con- stitution was adopted in 1891, and Fonseca elected first president. Admirals Mello and Da Gama rebelled, 1893. Rio de Janeiro several times bombarded. In 1906-07, Brazil took the lead in an effort to reach a better under- standing among the countries of North and South America. A great demonstration was given by the city of Rio de Janeiro, in 1908, to the United States Pacific squadron. A mutiny in the navy in 1910, in which the warships were seized, was met by granting the demands of the crews for better pay and treatment. Brunswick, The House of. The Duchy of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by Charlemagne, and governed afterward by counts and dukes. Albert-Azzo, Marquis of Italy, and Lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife, Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph, Duke of Ca- rinthia in Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was in- vited into Germany by Imitza, his mother-in- law, and invested with all the possessions of his wife's stepfather, Guelph of Bavaria. His de- scendant, Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 11. of England, and is always looked upon as the founder of the Brunswick family. His dominions were very extensive; but, having refused to assist the Emperor Fred- erick Barbarossa in a war against Pope Alex- ander III., through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed at the Diet at Wurtzburg, in 1180. The Duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria; the Duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the House of Anhalt; and his other territories to different persons. On this he retired to England; but, at the inter- cession of Henry II., Brunswick and Luneburg were restored to him. The House of Brunswick, in 1409, divided into several branches. Bruns- wick was included by Napoleon in the Kingdom of Westphalia, in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 1815. Buccaneers. A celebrated association of piratical adventurers, who, from the commence- ment of the second quarter of the Sixteenth Century to the end of the Seventeenth, main- tained themselves in the Caribbean seas, at first by systematic reprisals on the Spaniards, latterly by a less justifiable and indiscriminate piracy. Tne name is derived from the Caribbee boucan, a term for preserved meat, smoke-dried in a pecu- liar manner. The Buccaneers were also some- times called "Brethren of the Coast." The arro- gant assumption by the Spaniards of a divine right sanctioned by the pope's bull to the whole New World was not, of course, to be tolerated by the enterprising mariners of Eng- land and France; and the enormous cruelties practiced by them upon all foreign interlopers, of which the history of that time is full, natur- ally led to an association for mutual defense among the adventurers of all other nations, but particularly among the English and French. The fundamental principles of the policy were close mutual alliance, and war with all that were Spanish. The center of their predatory life was Tortuga. Their last great exploit was the capture of Carthagena, 1697. Bull Bun, or Bull's Run. A stream in Virginia, dividing Fairfax and Prince William counties, in the northeastern part of the State, and flowing into the Occoquan River, fourteen miles from the Potomac. On its banks were fought two of the most memorable battles dur- ing the Civil War. After a series of heavy skir- mishes, July 16-19, 1861, the Union army, under General McDowell, was on the 21st utterly routed by the Confederates, under the command of Generals Beauregard and J. E. Johnston. The Union loss was about 3,000 men, while that of the Confederates was estimated at nearly 2,000 men. The former lost, in addition, twenty- seven guns, besides an immense quantity of small arms, ammunition, stores, provisions, and accoutrements. On August 30, 1862, another great battle was fought here between the Union forces, commanded by General Pope, and the Confederates, under Generals Lee, Longstreet, and "Stonewall" Jackson, when the former were again defeated with heavy loss. The three battles of Groveton, Bull's Run, and Chantilly, fought in three successive days, cost the Union cause about 20,000 men in killed, wounded, missing, and prisoners, thirty guns, and 30,000 small arms. The first battle of Bull Run is sometimes known as the Battle of Manassas. Bunker's Hill, Battle of. A famous engagement between American and British troops, June 17, 1775. The former were com- manded by Colonel Prescott and General Put- nam, and the latter by General Howe. The British loss in killed and wounded was 1,054; that of the Americans, 450. Although the latter were driven from their position after their pow- der was exhausted, and the victory remained with the British, the moral effect of this first battle on the Americans, and the heavy loss to the enemy, made it equivalent to a victory for the Contmentals. On the ground where the hottest of the battle was fought a granite obelisk, 221 feet in height, has been erected at a cost of $100,000, raised by popular subscriptions. The corner stone was laid by General La Fayette, when on his visit to this country in 1825; it was completed July, 1842, and, on the occasion of its dedication, Daniel Webster delivered his famous oration, generally regarded as his best effort. Burmati. The Burmese Empire was found- ed in the middle of the Eighteenth Century by Alompra, the first sovereign of the dynasty, which fell in the person of King Theebaw in 1886. In 1824, the British commenced hostil- ities against Burmah, and captured Rangoon on May 11th. Successive victories led to the cession of Arracan in 1826. In 1852, further complica- tions resulted in the cession of Pegu to the Brit- ish Indian Empire. In 1885, King Theebaw, relying upon French assistance, interfered with a British trading company. The British Gov- HISTORY 33 ernment took up the case, and demanded of the Burmese monarch security for his future good behavior". Theebaw rejected these demands, whereupon the queen declared war on November 10th. On November 28th, General Prendergast entered Mandalay, the Burmese capital. The king surrendered on the following day, and was immediately deported to British territory. The government was thenceforth administered by a British resident, and on December 31, 1885, Burmah was formally annexed to British India, thus closing the history of Burmah as an inde- pendent kingdom. Cade's Kebellion. In June, 1450, Jack Cade, an Irishman who called himself Mortimer, with 15,000 or 20,000 armed men of Kent, marched on London, and encamped at Black- heath, whence he kept up a correspondence with the citizens, many of whom were favorable to his enterprise. The court sent to inquire why the good men of Kent had left their homes. Cade, in a paper entitled "The Complaint of the Com- mons of Kent," replied that the people were robbed of their goods for the king's use; that the men of Kent were especially ill-treated and overtaxed, and that the free election of knights of their shire had been hindered. The court sent its answer in the form of an army, before which Cade retreated to Sevenoaks, where he awaited the attack of a detachment, which he defeated. The royal army now objected to fight against their countrymen; the court made some concessions, and Cade entered London on the 3d of July. For two days he maintained the strictest order; but he forced the mayor and judges to pass judgment upon Lord Say, one of the king's hated favorites, whose head Cade's men immediately cut off in Cheapside. A promise of pardon now sowed dissension among his followers, who dispersed, and a price was set upon Cade's head. He attempted to reach the Sussex coast, but was followed by an esquire, named Alexander Iden, who fought and killed him July 11th. His head was stuck upon London Bridge as a terror to traitors, 1450. Calendar. A systematic division of time into years, months, weeks, and days, or a register of these or similar divisions. The present cal- endar was adopted in the Sixteenth Century, the Julian, or old Roman calendar, having become grossly erroneous. Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently called Aloysius Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan for amending the calendar, which, after his death, was presented by his brother to Pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the pope assembled a number of prelates and learned men. In 1577, the proposed change was adopted by all the Catholic princes; and in 1582, Gregory issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all Catholic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, under the name of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the "new style," as the other was now called the "old style." The amendment ordered was this: Ten days were to be dropped after the 4th of Octo- ber, 1582, and the 15th was reckoned immediately after the 4th. Every 100th year, which, by the old style was to have been a leap year, was now to be a common year, the fourth excepted; that is, 1600 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 1800, 1900 to be of the common length, and 2000 a leap year again. In this calendar the length of the solar year was taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 12 seconds, the difference between which and subsequent ob- servations is immaterial. In Spain, Portugal, and the greater part of Italy, the amendment was introduced according to the pope's instruc- tions. In France, the ten days were dropped in December, the 10th being called the 20th. In Catholic Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands, the change was introduced in the following year; in Poland, in 1586; in Hungary, in 1587. Protestant Germany, Holland, and Denmark accepted it in 1700, and Switzerland in 1701. In the German Empire a difference still remained for a considerable time as to the period for observing Easter. In England the Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1752, in accordance with an act of Parliament passed the previous year, the day after the 2d of Sep- tember becoming the 14th. Sweden followed in 1753. The change adopted in the English cal- endar in 1752 embraced another point. There had been previous to this time, various periods fixed for the commencement of the year in various countries of Europe. In France, from the time of Charles IX., the year was reckoned to begin from the 1st of January; this was also the popular reckoning in England, but the legal and ecclesiastical year began on March 25th. The 1st of January was now adopted as the beginning of the legal year, and it was customary for some time to give two dates for the period intervening between January 1st and March 25th, that of the old and that of the new year, as January 175%. Russia alone retains the old style, which now differs twelve days from the new. California. The name, signifying "hot furnace," is derived from the Spanish. Though discovered by Sir Francis Drake in 1578, it was first settled by the Spaniards in 1768, at San Diego. Lower California, however, was settled by the Jesuit missionaries in 1683. Spanish power was overthrown by the Mexican Revolu- tion of 1822. By the treaty of peace which followed the Mexican War, California was ceded to the United States for $15,000,000 in 1847. At this time the white population amounted to only 15,000. In February, 1848, gold was dis- covered by Colonel Sutter, a verification of Humboldt's prophecy more than a dozen years before. The emigration from all parts of the world was unparalleled, soon increasing the pop- ulation to a quarter of a million. The State was admitted to the Union on September 9, 1850. The history of the Chinese in Cahfornia has been more remarkable than that of any other foreign element. By 1860, the number of Chi- nese had reached 34,933; by 1870, 49,310; and by 1880, 75,218. A plebiscitum was taken, and the people of California voted with remarkable unanimity in favor of the restriction of Chinese immigration. In 1882, Congress passed the restriction law which, by successive renewals, has been kept in force till the present time. The Chinese population of California, by 1890, had declined to 71,006; and by 1900, to 45,753. 34 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS In 1900, the Japanese numbered 10,151, and within the last five years they have become much more numerous. They have largely taken the place formerly held by the Chinese as agri- cultural laborers and domestic servants, and quite recently there has commenced a new agi- tation in favor of the exclusion of all Asiatic immigration. In 1906, the State suffered from one of the most destructive earthquakes of modern times. Upward of half a billion dollars' worth of prop- erty was destroyed and many lives lost. Caliph, Kalif , or Khalif {K&'-Uf). The chief sacerdotal dignity among the Saracens or Mohammedans, vested with absolute authority in all matters relating both to religion and politi- cal affairs. The government of the original caliphs continued from the death of Mohammed till the 655th year of the Hegira, that is, from A. p. 632 to 1277. The Fatimite caliphs of Africa and the Ommiad sovereigns of Spain, each professed to be the only legitimate succes- sors of Mohammed, in opposition to the Abbas- side caliphs of Bagdad, which latter caliphate reached its zenith of power and splendor under Haroun-al-Raschid, in the Ninth Century. The title is now one assumed by the Turkish Sultans, as successors to the Prophet, and also by the Persian Sophis, as successors of Ali. Campus Martius (Lat., The field of Mars). In ancient times, a field by the side of the Tiber, where the Roman youth practiced themselves in warlike exercises. It was consecrated to Mars, the ^od of war, and a temple of that deity stood on it. During the earlier days of the Roman Republic, it was also made use of as a place for holding the comitia, or assemblies of the people; and, in after times, it was adorned with a great number of fine statues. It consti- tutes the principal part of the modern city of Rome. Canada. In 1534, Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, entering the St. Lawrence on the festival of the saint of that title, took nomi- nal possession of North America in the name of his king, . Francis I. In 1608, Quebec was founded by De Champlain; and here, fifteen years later, he built Fort St. Louis, from which stronghold France ruled for 150 years a vast region extending eastward to Acadia (now Nova Scotia), westward to Lake Superior, and ultimately down the Mississippi as far as Florida and Louisiana. The Recollet and Jesuit mis- sionaries traversed the country in all directions, and underwent incredible hardships in their zeal for the conversion of the Indians. These fearless priests were the pioneers of civilization in the far West, and to one of the most intrepid Lasalle is due the discovery of the Mississippi valley. In 1670, Charles II. granted to Prince Rupert and his company, known ever since as the Hudson Bay Company, the perpetual ex- clusive right of trading in the territory watered by all the streams flowing into Hudson's Bay. Garrisoned forts were now raised at suitable points, and the bitter enmity between the French and the English traders frequently led to bloody struggles, in which sometimes the Indians also took a part. The most warlike native tribe was that of the Iroquois, who were persistent ene- mies of the French, while the peaceful Hurons were steady allies. Meanwhile, the wars on the American continent followed the course of the wars in Europe, until the long struggle between France and England for the supremacy in Amer- ica came to a close on the " Plains of Abraham," in 1759, when General Wolfe defeated Montcalm. This victory opened the gates of Quebec. The capitulation of Montreal next year brought to a close the era of French dominion in Canada. The people of the conquered country were se- cured, by the terms of the treaty agreed to, in the free exercise of their religion ; and peace was concluded between Britain and France, * 1763, when Canada was formally ceded to England, and Louisiana to Spain. In the same year a small portion of the recently acquired territory was, by royal proclamation, organized under English laws. In 1774, the new province was extended by parliamentary enactment, and that under French laws, down the Ohio to its con- fluence with the Mississippi, and up the latter stream to its source. Finally, Canada receded to its present limits in 1783, giving up to the American Republic, at the close of the Revolu- tionary War, the sites of six States: Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In 1791, Canada was divided under separate legislatures into two sections the eastern re- taining French institutions, and the western receiving those of England; and these sections, again, after political discontent had in each ripened into armed insurrection, were reunited for legislative purposes in 1841. In 1867, March 28, the British North America act for confederation of the colonies passed the imperial parliament. It united Upper Canada, or Ontario, Lower Canada, or Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, into one territory, to be named the Dominion of Canada. New- foundland declared against joining the confed- eration, but with that exception all the British territory north of the United States was grad- ually included within the Dominion the Hud- son Bay Company territory by pupchase in 1868, British Columbia in 1871, Prince Edward Island in 1873. In 1870, an insurrection of the Red River settlers, who were under apprehensions as to how their titles to their lands might be affected by the cession of the Hudson Bay Company's rights, took place under the leadership of Louis Riel, and had to be suppressed by a military expedition under Colonel (now Viscount) Wolse- ley. To reassure the settlers, a part of the newly- purchased territory was erected into an inde- pendent province under the name of Manitoba, the unorganized territory beyond receiving the name of the Northwestern Territory. In 1871, the Washington Treaty arranged that the fish- eries of both Canada and the United States should be open to each country for the next twelve years, Canada receiving a compensation, afterwards fixed at five and a half million dollars, for the superior value of its fisheries. In 1884, considerable disaffection was caused amongst the half-breeds and Indians in the Saskatchewan and Assiniboine districts, on account of the diffi- culty of obtaining valid titles to their lands. The discontent at length took shape in an insur- rection, which Louis Riel was invited to head. HISTORY 35 The rebels seized the government stdres at Duck Lake and induced some of the Indian tribes to cooperate with them, with the result that a massacre of settlers took place at Frog's Lake. Within a few months an expedition under Gen- eral Middleton, who had under his command several thousand volunteers, suppressed the rebellion. Only the leaders were arrested. Riel was tried and executed at Regina on July 28, 1885. On November 7th, of the same year, the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed, being opened for through traffic the following year. After 1883, when the Washington Treaty ex- pired, disputes between the American and Can- adian fishermen became frequent, and several American fishing vessels were seized on the Brit- ish North American coasts, and others prevented from buying bait. For the adjustment of the difTerences connected with the fisheries a joint British and American commission was insti- tuted in 1887. A treaty was signed in Feb- ruary, 1888, but was rejected by the United States Senate. In 1887, also, an arbitration board was appointed to settle a dispute with the United States concerning the Behring Sea seal fisheries, and ten years later made an award in favor of the Canadian's claims. Later on, an- other commission, sitting in London (1903), decided the Alaskan boundary controversy in favor of the United States. In September, 1907, a serious riot, directed against the Japanese and Chinese, broke out in Vancouver, largely organized by the American labor agitators, but supported by the local rowdies of the city. The Dominion authorities at once suppressed the outbreak. In 1910, the Newfoundland fisheries contro- versy was very satisfactorily arbitrated at the Hague. In the same year the great eucharist congress of the Roman Catholic Church was held at Montreal. Carthage (called Carthago by the Romans, and by the Greeks, Karchedon). One of the most celebrated cities of the ancient world, situated on the north coast of Africa, on a penin- sula in what is now the state of Tunis. It was founded by the Phenicians of Tyre, about 100 years before the building of Rome, or, according to tradition, 853 B. C. The builder of the city was said to be Dido. It became the seat of a powerful kingdom; maintained three wars against Rome, which are usually called the three Punic Wars ; and in the third of these wars was totally destroyed by Scipio iEmilianus, 146 B. C. The greatness of the city at this time may be judged from the fact that it took seventeen days to burn. It is said to have been twenty-three miles in circumference, and to have contained within its walls a population of 700,000. Caesar afterwards planted a colony on the site, which he called Colonia Carthago. It became again the first city in Africa, and occupied an impor- tant part in ecclesiastical as well as in civil his- tory. It was taken by the Vandals, A. D. 439; was retaken by Belisarius, A. D. 533; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens, A. D. 698. Of this once splendid city there are now almost absolutely no remains. The Cathedral of Pisa is said to have been built out of the ruins of Carthage. Charter Oak, a tree which formerly stood in Hartford, Conn., in the hollow trunk of which the colonial charter is said to have been hidden. The story is that when Governor Andros went to Hartford in 1687, to demand the surrender of the charter, the debate in the Assembly over his demand was prolonged until darkness set in, when the lights were suddenly extinguished, and a patriot, Captain Wadsworth, escaped with the document and hid it in the oak. The venerable tree was preserved with great care until 1856, when it was blown down in a storm. C hile. Chile originally belonged to the Incas of Peru, from whom it was wrested by the Span- iards under Pizarro and Almagro, in 1535. From this period Chile continued a colony of Spain till 1810, when a revolution commenced, which terminated in 1817 in the independence of Chile. Several internal commotions have since occurred; but the country has been free from these compared with other South American States. A war begun with Spain, in 1865, led to the blockade of the coast by the Spanish fleet, and the bombardment of Valparaiso, in 1866. In 1879, a war broke out with Bolivia and Peru, in reference to the rights of Chile in the mineral district of Atacama. This war was virtually finished in 1881, and the victorious Chileans gained a large accession of territory from both Bolivia and Peru. In 1891, an in- surrection, headed by influential members of Congress, caused by dissatisfaction with President Balmaceda's administration, was successful and resulted in his overthrow. In 1907, a number of labor disturbances in the mining regions called for armed intervention. China. The early history of the Chinese is shrouded in fable, but it is certain that civiliza- tion had advanced much among them when it was only beginning to dawn on the nations of Europe. The Chow dynasty, which was founded by Woo-wang and lasted from about 1100 B. C. to 258 B. C, is perhaps the earliest that can be regarded as historic, and even of it not much more is historic than the name. Under Ling- wang, one of the sovereigns of this dynasty, Confucius is said to have been born, some time in the Sixth Century B. C. During the latter half of the period, during which this line of sovereigns held sway, there appear to have been a number of rival kings in China, who lived in strife with one another. Chow-siang, who was the founder of the Tsin dynasty, from which China takes its name, gained the superiority over his rivals, and died in 251 B. C. His great- grandson, a national hero of the Chinese, was the first to assume the title of "Hoang" (em- peror), and called himself Che-Hoang-ti. He ruled over an empire nearly conterminous with modern China proper. In his reign, the great wall, which was designed as a protection against marauding Tartars, was begun about 214 B. C. Buddhism was introduced in 65 A. D. Subsequently, the empire broke up into three or more states, and a long period of confusion and weak government ensued. In 960, a strong ruler managed to consolidate the empire, but the attacks of the Tartars were now causing much trouble. In the Thirteenth Century the Mongols, under Jenghis Khan and his son, Ogdai, 36 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS conquered China, and in 1259, the celebrated Kublai Khan, a nephew of the latter, ascended the throne and founded the Mongol dynasty. His ninth descendant was driven from the throne, and a native dynasty, called Ming, again succeeded in 1368, in the person of Hungwu. A long period of peace ensued, but was broken about 1618, when the Manchus gained the as- cendency, and after a war of twenty-seven years, founded the existing Tartar dynasty in the per- son of Tungchi, establishing their capital in the northern city of Peking, which was nearer their native country and resources than the old capital Nanking. The earliest authentic accounts of China, published in Europe, are those of Marco Polo, wno visited the country in the Thirteenth Century. The first British intercourse was at- tempted under Queen Elizabeth, in 1596, and a trade was subsequently established by the East India Company, but no direct intercourse be- tween the governments took place till the em- bassy of Lord Macartney, in 1792. A second embassy in 1816, by Lord Amherst, was treated with insolence; and, subsequently, the treat- ment of British merchants became such that a collision was inevitable. In 1840, the British, on being refused redress for injuries, partly real and partly alleged, proceeded to hostilities, and after scattering, almost without a struggle, every force which was opposed to them, were prepar- ing to lay siege to Nanking, when the Chinese found it necessary to sue for peace. A treaty was then concluded (1842), bv which the five ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to British merchants, the island of Hong-Kong ceded to the British in perpetuity, and the payment of 21,000,000 dol- lars agreed to be made by the Chinese. In 1850, an insurrection, headed by Hung-seu-tseuan, or Tien-te, broke out in the provinces adjoining Canton, with the object of expelling the Manchu dynasty from the throne, as well as of restoring the ancient national religion of Shan-ti, and of making Tien-te the founder of a new dynasty, which he called that of Tai-ping, or Universal Peace. After a long period of civil war, the Tai-ping rebellion was at length suppressed in 1865, chiefly by the exertions of General Gordon and other British and American officers at the head of the Chinese army. In October, 1856, the crew of a vessel belonging to Hong-Kong were seized by the Chinese. The men were afterwards brought back, but all reparation or apology was refused. In consequence of this, a war with China commenced, in which the French took part with the British. Peking had to be taken (in 1860) before the Chinese Government finally gave way, and granted a treaty securing important privileges to the allies. The child emperor, Tsaitien, succeeded in 1875, but only assumed the reigns of government in 1887, on reaching the age of sixteen. War was declared between China and Japan on July 31, 1894. Japan, by a series of brilliant victories, both on land and sea, brought the war to an end in April, 1895. Corea was declared independent, Formosa ceded to Japan, and China was forced to pay a very large war indemnity. The follow- ing succinct statement of recent progress in China was lately made by a missionary who has labored in that country since 1863: "Who among us, ten years ago, would have dared to imagine that to-day China would have (1) a national fleet; (2) the telegraph radiating to the most distant provinces; (3) government colleges for engineering, navigation, military tactics, electricity, and medicine; (4) the Kai-ping mines supplying steamers and the north ports with excellent and cheap coal." During 1898, both Russia and Germany had taken possession of certain provinces of China. In 1900, the Boxers rose against the foreigners, attacked the lega- tions in Peking, murdered the German and other attaches, a number of the missionaries and native converts, and destroyed the stations. A punitive war by the powers followed; indem- nity and future guarantees and punishment of the principals were demanded, and subsequently paid. In 1903, insurrection and rebellion kept sev- eral provinces in a state of disturbance during a greater part of the year. That in Kwang Si assumed the most alarming proportions, and lasted from January until May. Rebels in North China proclaimed Pu Chun, Prince Tuan's son, as emperor, but the movement was quickly suppressed. As a result of the rebellion in the Province of Kwang Si, the country was desolated and a serious famine threatened. It was reported that 1,000,000 per- sons were starving, and that men were selling their wives and children in order to get food. A complete crop failure in the region around Peking threatened to bring about the same con- ditions there. In 1907-'08, edicts were issued looking to the extension of self-government in the cities, and a larger degree of civil liberty. A grand council was instituted by the emperor, and in 1910 in response to popular demands he, through the council, announced the establish- ment of representative government in 1913. Cisalpine Republic. A former political division of Italy, embracing portions of Mantua, the Milanese, the Valteline, Venetia west and south of the Adige, Modena, and the northern Pontifical States. Inaugurated by Napoleon I. in 1797, it was named the Italian Republic in 1802, and three years later constituted the prin- cipal part of the Italian Kingdom. Cispadane Republic (sis' pah-dan). One of the embryo states the other being the so- called Transpadane Republic initiated by Na- poleon I., 1796; they were composed of Italian territory reconquered from the Austrians, etc., and, in 1797, became absorbed in the Cisalpine Republic, q. v.: so termed frohi being on that side of the river Po (Padus) nearest to Rome. Colorado. Colorado was first organized as a territory in 1861, from parts of Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Utah. A portion of it was derived from the Louisiana purchase of 1803, and a part from the Mexican cession of 1848. This region was first settled by Coronado in 1540. It was thoroughly explored by expe- ditions sent out by the government, under Major Zebulon M. Pike, in 1806; under Colonel S. H. Long, in 1820; and under Colonel J. C. Fremont, in 1842-44. The first American set- tlements were made by mining parties in 1858- 59, since which time Colorado ha^ become even HISTORY 37 more prolific than California in its yield of the precious metals. The State was admitted Aug- ust 1, 1876. The famous Leadville mines were opened in 1879, and the same year saw the Ute uprising. In 1891 the Cripple Creek gold dis- coveries were made. In 1894 the legislature passed a bill, making equal suffrage for men and women a law. Committee of Public Safety. A com- mittee of nine created by the French Conven- tion, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of the executive, "the conscience of Marat, who could see salvation in one thing only, in the fall of 260,000 aristocrats' heads." It was notable, therefore, for its excesses in that line; was not suppressed till October 19, 1796, on the advent of the Directory to power. Confederation of tiie Riiine. Dur- ing the war of 1805, so disastrous for Austria, several German princes, too weak to remain neutral, were forced to ally themselves with France. The first to do so were the Electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, who, in recompense of their services, were elevated to the dignity of kings by the Peace of Presburg, December 26, 1805. Some months after (May 28, 1806), the archchancellor of the empire announced at the Diet that he had chosen as his coadjutor and successor Cardinal Fesch, the uncle of Napoleon, a thing entirely contrary to the constitution of the Germanic Empire. Finally, at Paris, on the 12th of July, 1806, sixteen German princes formally signed an act of confederation, dissolv- ing their connection with the Germanic Empire, and allying themselves with France. These six- teen princes were: the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, the arch-chancellor, the Elector of Baden, the new Duke of Cleves and Berg (Joac- him Murat), the Landgraf of Hesse-Darmstadt, the princes of Nassau-Usingen, Nassau-Weilburg Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmar- ingen, Salm-Salm, Salm-Kyrburg, the Duke of Arenberg, the princes of Isenburg-Birstein and Lichtenstein, and the Count of Leyen. Connecticut. One of the thirteen original States. Its name was derived from the Indian, and signifies "Long River." The territory, originally claimed by the Dutch of New Nether- lands by right of prior exploration, was finally acquired by the English under a patent granted to Lords Say and Sele, and Brooke and asso- ciates, in 1631. Permanent settlements were made, 1633-36, by colonists from Massachusetts, at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. In 1638, New Haven was settled by a distinguished com- pany of emigrants from England. The first constitution was adopted in 1639, being the first time in history when a government was organ- ized and defined by a written constitution. Its leading features were afterward copied in the constitutions of the other States and of the United States, and it was the basis of the charter of 1662. The attempt to revoke and supersede this charter by James II. through his representa- tive. Sir Edmund Andros, in 1687, led to what might be called the first colonial act of rebellion against royal authority. During the Revolution no State furnished so large a proportionate body of soldiers to the Continental army. During the Civil War, 54,882 men were furnished by the State. Consul. The title of the two chief magis- trates of Rome, whose power was in a certain degree absolute, but who were chosen only for one year; they were instituted B. C. 509. The authority of the two consuls were equal; yet the Valerian law gave the right of priority to the elder, and the Julian law to him who had the greater number of children; and this one was generally called Consul major or prior. In the first ages of the republic, they were elected from patrician families; but in the year of Rome, 388, the people obtained the privilege of electing one of the consuls from their own body, and sometimes both were plebians. After the estab- lishment of the empire in 91, the office of consul became merely honorary; the last holder of the dignity at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Pauli- nus, A. D. 536; at Constantinople, Flavins Basilius Junius, 541. Consulate. A trio of three persons, to whom, after the dissolution of the French Direct- ory in 1799, the provisional government was intrusted. Napoleon, Cambac^res, and Lebrun, were elected as first, second, and third consul, respectively, with different degrees of authority, 1800; but the influence of the first becoming gradually augmented, the transition to imperial dignity became easy to him. On August 4, 1802, he was made consul for life; and on May 18, 1804, the title of emperor was substituted for that of consul. Continental System. A plan devised by Napoleon to exclude Britain from all inter- course with the continent of Europe. It began with the decree of Berlin of November 21, 1806, by which the British Islands were declared to be in a state of blockade; all commerce, inter- course, and correspondence were prohibited; every Britain found in France, or a country occu- pied by French troops, was declared a prisoner of war; all property belonging to Britons, fair prize, and all trade in goods from Britain or British colonies entirely prohibited. Britain re- plied by orders in council prohibiting trade with French ports, and declaring all harbors of France and her allies subjected to the same restrictions as if they were closely blockaded. Further de- crees on the part of France, of a still more stringent kind, declared all vessels of whatever flag, which had been searched by a British vessel or paid duty to Britain, denationalized, and directed the burning of all British goods, etc. These decrees caused great annoyance, and gave rise to much smuggling, till annulled at the fall of Napoleon, 1814. Convention, National. A revolution- ary convention in France, which, on September 20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed the republic, condemned the king to death, succeeded in crushing the royalists of La Vendee and the south, in defeating all Europe leagued against France, and in founding institu- tions of benefit to France to this day. It was dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way for the Directory. Corea or Itorea. The seeds of Chris- tianity were sown in Corea in 1592, by the invading army, composed chiefly of Christian converts of the Japanese usurper, Tiacosama. Hamel, a Dutch sailor, was wrecked here and 38 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS detained for thirteen years; from his narrative it was that, till very recently, most of our scanty knowledge of Corea was obtained. In 1784, Jesuit missionaries found their way into Corea and had great success among the people. From 1835 till 1860, several intrepid and devoted French missionaries contrived to find shelter, and, in spite of incessant persecutions, the Christian community continued rather to in- crease, rising in 1852 to 11,000 souls. The massacre of nine missionaries, in 1866, led to an invasion of Corea by a small French force, but without success. Nor did two successive Ameri- can expeditions, provoked by attack on an American vessel, succeed in breaking down the barriers that separated the Coreans from the rest of the world. The pseudonym of "Hermit Nation" has attached to Corea, not because of vast deserts and deadly jungles which interposed as physical barriers to constitute the Nile sources a region of myths and mysteries for Corea, situated in the open sea, had none of these to bar ingress but because of a persistent policy of isolation which, consecrated by time, became in fact, a sort of Corean religion. To be let alone by the So Yang Saram ("men from the Western Ocean"), this was the policy of govern- ment until our own day. About 1881, however, Corea made a treaty with Japan, and, later on, through Admiral Shufeldt, U. S. N., with the United States followed by others with Eng- land, Russia, France, Germany, and Italy. After Japan's victory over China, in 1895, Corea was made independent. In 1907, Corea practically passed under a Japanese protectorate and, in 1910, was annexed to that empire. Covenanters. In Scottish history, the name given to the party which struggled for religious liberty from 1637 on to the revolution; but more especially applied to the insurgents who took up arms in defense of the Presbyterian form of church government. The Presbyterian ministers who refused to acknowledge the bish- ops were ejected from their parishes and gath- ered around them crowds of their people on the hillsides to attend their ministrations. The first outbreaks took place in the hill country on the borders of Ayr and Lanark shires. The murder of Archbishop Sharp, on Magus Moor, and a skirmish near there alarmed the govern- ment, who sent troops to put down the insur- gents, who had increased in number rapidly. The two armies met at Bothwell Bridge, when the Covenanters were totally defeated, June 22, 1679. In consequence of the rebellious protest, called the "Sandquhar Declaration," put forth in 1680, by Cameron, Cargill, and others, as representing the more irreconcilable of the Covenanters, and a subsequent proclamation in 1684, the govern- ment proceeded to more severe measures. An oath was now required of all who would free themselves of suspicion of complicity with the Covenanters; and the dragoons, who were sent out to hunt down the rebels, were empowered to kill anyone who refused to take the oath. After the accession of William, some of the ex- treme Covenanters refused to acknowledge him, owing to his acceptance of Episcopacy in Eng- land, and formed the earliest dissenting sect in Scotland. Crimean War. In 1854, the Crimea be- came the theater of a sanguinary war, under- taken by England, France, Turkey, and Sardinia in support of the integrity of the sultan's power and to check the growing ascendency of Russia on the Black Sea. The allies landed near Eupatoria, and defeated the Russians at the River Alma, September 20, 1854; at Balaklava, October 25th; at Inkerman, November 5th; at the River Tchernaya, August 16, 1855. The siege of Sebastopol continued from October 9, 1854, to September 8, 1855, when the important fortresses known as the Malakoff and the Redan were stormed by the French and English, and the Russians evacuated the city. An armistice was concluded February 26, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in April of the same year. The British loss, during the war, was nearly 24,000,- of which number, however, 16,500 died of dis- ease and privation. The French lost about 63,500. The Russian loss was estimated at 500,000. Crusades (Lat. crux, a cross). The name given to the religious wars which were carried on during the middle ages between the Christian nations of Western Europe and the Mohamme- dans of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Originally, the object of the Crusades was to obtain free access for pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, but they afterwards developed into a contest for the possession of Jerusalem itself. The Crusades lasted for nearly two centuries. They are usually divided into eight, as follows: First (1096-1100), led by Godfrey of Bouillon, and preached up by Peter the Hermit; second (1147-1149), lecl by Louis VII. and the Emperor Konrad, at the instigation of St. Bernard ; third (1189-1193), led against Saladin, the Sultan of Syria and Egypt, by Richard the Lion-hearted of England and Philip Augustus of France; fourth (1202-1204), led by Baldwin of Flanders and the Doge of Venice; fifth (1217), led by John Brienne, titular sovereign of Jerusalem; sixth (1228-1229), led by Frederick II. of Ger- many; seventh and eighth (1248-1254 and 1268- 1270), to satisfy the religious scruples of Louis IX.- of France. Although the Crusades did not accomplish their main object, and the "Holy City" remained finally in the hands of the "Infidels," they yet called forth an amount of enterprise that has exerted a powerful influence upon modern civilization. On the other hand, they cost many millions of lives, and the deeds that were done during the Crusades in the sacred name of Christ would be altogether repugnant to all modem ideas of religion or even of human- ity. The name Crusades was derived from the symbol of the cross, which the warriors engaged in them wore over their armor. Cuba, spoken of as the "Queen of the An- tilles," was discovered by Columbus in 1492, the discoverer calling it "the most beautiful land that eyes ever beheld." It was first settled by Spaniards at Baracoa in 1511. Havana, first settled in 1519, was. reduced to ashes by the French in 1538, and again in 1554. For about one and a half centuries, Cuba was_ in constant danger from French, Dutch, English, and West Indian filibusters. In 1762, the Eng- lish, under Lord Albemarle, took Havana, HISTORY 39 which, however, was by the treaty of Paris next year restored to Spain. From 1789 to 1845, the island was a vast slave-trading center. Negro insurrections occurred in 1845 and 1848. In the latter year the United States offered $100,000,000 to Spain for the island. Rebel- lions against Spanish rule broke out in 1849 and in 1868. They were put down after long campaigns; another insurrection, begun in 1895, gained formidable proportions by 1898. The United States battleship "Maine," while on a friendly visit, was blown up in Havana harbor, February 15, 1898, and on April 19th, the Con- gress of the United States adopted resolutions declaring Cuba independent. War with Spain began at once. Cervera's Spanish fleet was destroyed at Santiago de Cuba, July 3d, and Santiago and its large army were surrendered on July 17th. The leading military events of the war, so far as Cuba was concerned, were the fights at El Caney and San Juan, the battle at Santiago, and the destruction of Cervera's fleet. A Constitutional Convention assembled in November, 1900, and adopted a constitution providing for a republican form of govern- ment, with a president, vice-president, senate, and house of representatives. Thereupon, the United States Congress authorized the transfer of the government to the people of Cuba on condition that: (1) No treaty should be made with any other foreign power impairing the independence of Cuba, or allowing military or naval occupation of the island; (2) the United States should have the right to intervene for the discharge of her obligations under the Treaty of Paris; (3) the United States should have certain naval stations (at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo). These conditions were included in the Law of Constitution, and confirmed in the permanent treaty between Cuba and the United States, which was signed in May, 1903. The formal transfer of the government to the Cuban authorities took place on May 20, 1902. Tomas Estrada Palma was elected first presi- dent, and Luis Esteves, vice-president. An insurrection broke out in August, 1906, and led to American intervention and the appointment of Hon. Charles E. Magoon as provisional governor. Cuban Government again became independent in 1909, with Jose Gomez as President. Czar, Tsar, Tzar (zahr), [Russ. tsar]. The Sclavonic form of Ccesar, the title assumed by the emperors of Russia, borne first by Ivan II. in 1579, as Czar of Muscovy. The eldest son of the czar was called Czarovicz, or, as we usually write it, Czarovitsch, or Cesarowitch; but this appellation was discontinued after . the murder of Alexis, the son of Peter the Great, until revived by Paul I. in 1799, in favor of his second son, Constantine. The consort of the czar is termed czarina. Decemviri (de-sem've-re). A body of men who were elected by the patricians, B. C. 451, for the purpose of drawing up a body of laws, founded on the most approved institutions of Greece. They compiled a code, which they in- scribed on ten tables, and stated that their labors were not yet complete. Next year, therefore, another body of ten, which probably included some of the patricians, was appointed with the same powers; and these added two more tables, altogether making the famous Twelve Tables, which were, from that time, the foundation of all Roman law. The second body of decemvirs attempted to prolong their period of office, committed some acts of violence, and altogether gave such dissatisfaction, that they were dissolved. The traditionary history of the decemviri is, however, very doubtful. There were other decemvirs, who were appointed for judicial and other purposes. Defenestration of Prague, The (May 23, 1618). That is, the ejection out of win- dows by the Bohemians. The Bohemians had two Protestant churches, one in the diocese of Prague, and the other in the territory of the abbot of Braunau. The Archbishop of Prague and the abbot pulled down these reformed churches, and when the Protestants remonstrated they were told it was the king's pleasure. So Count Thurn of Bohemia headed a deputation, which went to the royal castle of Prague to lay their grievance before the king. Being admitted into the council hall, they were so insolently received that they threw two of the councillors and the king's private secretary out of the win- dows into the moat. This was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. Delaware. Though the State was first discovered by the Dutch in 1609, Lord Delaware, Governor of Virginia, who visited it the follow- ing year, and afterward gave name to it, claimed it on behalf of England. In 1637, colonies were planted near Wilmington by the Swedish East India Company, which brought on a conflict with the Dutch and led to the expulsion of the Swedes in 1655. When New Netherlands was conquered by the English, this territory went with it. William Penn, having received the Pennsylvania grant, secured, also, from the Duke of York rights over Delaware by patent, and until the Revolution the territory was governed under the same proprietary. In 1776, the people declared themselves an independent State, and as such fought in the Continental ranks. Dela- ware was the first State to ratify the Federal Constitution, and its own constitution, adopted in 1792, still forms the fundamental law. Deluge. The Deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536, and began December 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. (Genesis vi, vii, viii). The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657, and Noah left the ark December 18th, following. The year corresponds with that of 2348 B. C. The following are the epochs of the Deluge, according to Dr. Hales: B. C. B. C. Septuagint, . . 3246 Clinton, .... . 2482 Jackson, . . . 3170 Play fair, . . . . 2352 Hales, . . . . 3155 Usher and E.Bible, 2348 Josephus, . . . 3146 Marsham, . . . . 2344 Persian, . . . 3103 Petavius, . . . . 2329 Hindoo, . . . 3102 Strauchius, . . . 2293 Samaritan, . .2998 Hebrew, . . . . 2288 Howard, . . .2698 Vulgar Jewish, . . 2104 In the reign of Ogyges, King of Attica, 1764 B. C, a deluge so inundated Attica that it lay waste for nearly 200 years. Buffon thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, 40 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS and arose from the Atlantic and Bosporus burst- ing into the Valley of the Mediterranean. The deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly is placed 1503 B. C. according to Eusebius. It was often confounded by the ancients with the general flood but considered to be merely a local inun- dation occasioned by the overflowing of the River Pineus whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha and some of their subjects, are stated to have saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. Denmark. The Kymri were the earliest known inhabitants of Scandinavia and made themselves formidable to the Romans 100 years B. C. To them succeeded the Goths who, under their mythical leader, Odin, established their rule over the Scandinavian lands. Odin's son, Skjold, is reputed to have been the first ruler of Denmark; but the little that is known of Danish history in these remote ages seems to indicate that the country was split up into many small territories, whose inhabitants lived by piracy. The people were divided into "Bonder " and "Traelle," freemen and bondmen. The former busied themselves with war and " Vikingetog," or piracy, and the government of the land; while to the latter were left the peaceful pursuits of hunting, fishing, and tilling the soil. The mission of Ansgarius the Apostle of the North to South Jutland, in 826, when he baptized Harald Klack, one of the Smaa Kongar, or the little kings of Denmark, was the means of first opening the Danish territories to the knowledge of the more civilized nations. The country was soon torn by civil dissensions be- tween the adherents of the ancient and modern faith. Gorm the Old, the first authentic King of Denmark, the bitter enemy of Christianity, died in 935, after having subjugated the several territories to his sway; and, although his death gave fresh vigor to the diffusion of the new faith, paganism kept its ground for 200 years longer, and numbered among its adherents many of those half-mythical heroes, whose deeds are celebrated in the Eddas and the Kaempeviser of the Middle Ages. The success that attended the f>iratical incursions of the Northmen drew them rom their own homes; and, while Gorm's descendants, Svend and Knud, were reigning in England, Denmark was left a prey to anarchy. On the extinction of Knud's dynasty, in 1042, his sister's son, Svend Estridsen, ascended the throne. Internal dissensions and external wars weakened the country, and the introduction of a feudal system raised up a powerful nobility and ground down the once free people to a condition of oppressed serfage. Valdemar I., by the help of his great minister. Axel Hvide, known in history as Bishop Absalon, subjugated the Wends of Riigen and Pomerania, and forced them, in 1168, to renounce the faith of their god, Svantevit, and accept Christianity. During the time of Knud VI., and in the early part of the reign of Valdemar II. sons of Valdemar I. the conquest of Denmark extended so far into German and Wendic lands that the Baltic was little more than an inland Danish sea. The jealousy of the German princes and the treachery of his vassals combined to rob Valdemar II. of these briUiant family conquests. His death, in 1241, was followed by a century of anarchy and inglorious decadence of the authority of the crown, during which the kingdom was brought to the brink of annihilation under the vicious rule of his sons and grandsons. Under his great-grandson, Valdemar III., the last of the Estridsen line, Denmark made a quick but transient recovery of the conquests of the older Valdemars, and the national laws were collected into a well-digested, comprehensive code. From his death, in 1375, till 1412, his daughter, the great Margaret, first as regent for her only and early lost son, Olaf, and later as sole monarch, ruled, not only Denmark, but, in course of time, also Sweden and Norway, with such consummate tact, and with so light yet firm a hand, that, for once in the course of their history, the three rival Scandinavian kingdoms were content to act in harmony. Margaret's successor, Erick, the son of her niece, for whose sake she had blended the three sovereignties into one, undid her glorious work with fatal rapidity, and after an inglorious war of twenty-five years with his vassals, the Counts-dukes of Schleswick-Holstein, he lost the allegiance and the crowns of his triple kingdom, and ended his disastrous existence in misery and obscurity. After the short reign of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria, the Danes, on the death of the latter in 1448, again exer- cised their long-dormant right of election to the throne, and chose for their king Christian of Oldenburg, a descendant of the old royal family through his maternal ancestress, Rikissa, the great-granddaughter of Valdemar II. Christian I., the father of the Oldenburg line, which con- tinued unbroken till the death of the late King of Denmark, Frederick VII., in 1863, laid the foundation of the Schleswick-Holstein troubles, which, after maturing for centuries, have ended in our own day in dismembering the Danish monarchy. The insane tyranny of the other- wise able and enlightened Christian II. cost him his throne. Christian III., in whose reign the Reformation was established, united the Schles- wick-Holstein duchies in perpetuity to the Crown in 1533. Frederick II., who increased the embarrassments connected with the crown appanages, by making additional partitions in favor of his brother (the founder of the Holstein- Sonderburg family), was succeeded by Christian IV., 1588, who was the ablest of Danish rulers. His liberal policy was, however, cramped by the nobles, by whose supineness Denmark lost all the possessions she had hitherto retained in Sweden. The national abasement which fol- lowed led, in 1660, under Christian's son, Fred- erick III., to the rising of the people against the nobles, and their surrender into the hands of the king of the supreme power. For the next 100 years the peasantry were kept in serfage and the middle classes depressed. The abolition of serfage was begun by Christian VII. in 1767; it was extended to the duchies in 1804. The reign of Christian's son, Frederick VI., brought the country to the verge of ruin. On the acces- sion of Frederick VII. half his subjects were in open rebellion against him. The liberal consti- tution granted by the king fully satisfied his HISTORY 41 subjects in Denmark proper, but the disaffection still smoldered in the duchies. On the death, in 1863, of Frederick VII., Prince Christian of Schleswick-Holstein-Gliicksborg ascended the throne under the title of Christian IX. In 1906, on the death of the latter. King Frederick VIII. succeeded his father. Deposed Kings of England. (I) Be- fore the Conquest: Sigebert of Wessex, A. D. 755; Alcred of Northumbria, 774; Ethelred I., 779; Eardwulf and Ethel wulf, 857; Edwy, 957; Ethelred II., 1013; Hardicanute, son of Canute, 1037. (2) Since the Conquest: Edward II., 1327; Richard II., 1399; Henry VI., 1460; James II., 1688. Euphemistically called his "abdication," Charles I. was not only deposed but tried for treason against his parliament and beheaded; Charles II. was not exactly deposed, but he was kept from the crown during the Commonwealth. The most absolute and tyrannical of British sovereigns have been the Welsh and Scotch dj'nasties, but Wales and Scotland are eminently democratic. The Stuarts claimed the "right divine" of kings, but James I. and Charles II. did no honor to the claim. Deposed Kings of France. Louis XVI., like Charles I., was not only deposed but executed, 1793; Napoleon I. (emperor) was twice deposed, 1814, 1815; Charles X. (1830). like James II., is said to have "abdicated"; Louis- Philippe (1848), also said to have "abdicated"; Napoleon III., 1872. Dictator {dik-td'tUr). A magistrate ap- pointed in times of exigency and peril, and in- vested with extraordinary powers. They acted as generals-in-chief of the army, and could declare war or make peace at their pleasure. They were originally selected from the patrician order, the first having been Titus Laertius, B. C. 501. In B. C. 356, however, the office of dic- tator was thrown open to the plebeians, and Marcius Rutilus, one of that class, received the appointment. For the space of 400 years this office was regarded with veneration, till Sylla and Csesar, by becoming perpetual dictator, converted it into an engine of tyranny, and rendered the very name odious. Hence, it became extinguished by decree of Mark Antony, B. C. 44. Directory, The. "Le Directoire," the executive of the Constitution of Year III. (October 27, 1795 November 9, 1799). The legislature consisted of two houses, the Council of Elders and the Council of 500. The number of the directors was five, named by the two councils, and they were elected for five years, without power of reelection. They appointed the ministers and les g^n^raux-en-chef. Abol- ished by Napoleon in November, 1799. The military glory of France was never greater than in the Directory. It had for its command- ers, Bonaparte, Kleber, Desaix, Massena, and Moreau. District of Columbia. The region of the Potomac River was originally a favorite camping and fishing ground of several Indian tribes who lived in its vicinity, and was called by them the "River ot Swans." As early as 1660, a portion of the tract was purchased by an Englishman named Pope, who named the whole tract Rome, a stream running through it the Tiber, and the principal eminence, on which the capitol now stands, Capitoline Hill, and signed all his letters and documients "The Pope of Rome." Some thirty years prior to this, the Potomac had bepn explored as far as Little Falls, beyond the limits of the District of Columbia, by an Indian trader named William Fleet, with whom Leonard Calvert treated, 1634. The Colonial Congress, for a number of years follow- ing its organization, had no permanent seat. The session of 1783 was begun in Philadelphia, but, being disturbed by a riotous demand of the soldiers for their overdue pay, Congress ad- journed first to Princeton, thence to Annapolis, and, subsequently, to New York. The question of a permanent seat of government, to be en- tirely under federal authority, which had been broached several times, was then considered to be urgent; and when the proposed Federal Con- stitution was being drafted (1787) a clause was inserted in Art. I, Sec. 8, establishing the power of Congress to exercise exclusive legislation over such a district as might subsequently be ceded to the government by particular States for a seat of the Government of the United States. As soon as the intention of Congress to select a site was known, the State of Maryland ceded sixty square miles on one side of the river, and the State of Virginia forty square miles on the other, to constitute the federal district. The site of the national capital was selected in 1790, and the first stone to mark the boundaries of the District of Columbia was set at Jones' Point, below Alexandria, April 15, 1791. The com- missioners appointed to lay out the district agreed that it should be called "The Territory of Columbia," and the federal city "The City of Washington." The city was laid out in accordance with the plans of Major L'Enfant, a French officer and engineer who had been wounded at Savannah, and who was one of Washington's favorite officers. Public buildings were erected, and official possession was taken, 1800, when Congress removed from Philadelphia and began holding its sessions there. Subse- quently, the whole territory was styled the District of Columbia, in memory of Christopher Columbus. In 1846, the area of 100 square miles was reduced to sixty-four square miles by retrocession to Virginia of the section previously included within the bounds of that State. Pre- vious to 1871, legislative power was exercised directly by Congress. An act adopted that year established a territorial form of government, and gave the citizens representation in Congress for the first time. The charters of Georgetown, incorporated December 25, 1789, and Washing- ton, mcorporated May 3, 1802, were repealed by the act, though both were allowed to bear the name of "city," and the corporations of the cities as well as that of Washington County, were merged into the new government. Alex- ander R. Shepherd became president of the Citizens' Reform Association, 1870, vice-presi- dent of the Board of Public Works under the new government, 1871, and governor of the district, 1873. In 1874, the territorial govern- ment was abolished, and since then all the public affairs of the district have been managed by a 42 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS board of three commissioners acting directly under the legislation of Congress. Divine Biglit of Kings, The. A Seventeenth Centurv dogma, implying the be- lief that kings hold their office by divine appoint- ment, and are the earthly representatives of Deity. So they are in a theocracy like Judaea and the popedom. The dogma was sanctioned in the book of the Canons of Convocation, 1604; but in the Bill of Rights, 1689, the right of the people to depose the monarch, to change the order of succession, and to confer the throne on whom they think proper is distinctly set forth. Dominican Republic, or Santo Domingo. A state formed by the Spanish, or eastern section of Hayti. Spain, in 1697, sur- rendered to France, by the Treaty of Ryswick, the western part of the island, retaining the remainder down to 1795. In the year last men- tioned, however, the Spanish portion became nominally French. In 1814, the West having vindicated its independence, France formally relinquished, in favor of Spain, all claim to the East. In 1822, the colony, in imitation of the continental possessions, threw off the yoke of the mother-country, to link itself, more or less closely, with its African neighbors. But in or about 1843, it assumed a separate standing as the Dominican Republic, the anarchy of which it exchanged in 1861 for the despotism of its former masters. In 1863, it again revolted, and Spain gave up the possession, and the republic has since mamtained a troubled existence. In 1907, a treaty between the Dominican Republic and the United States was ratified, under which the latter will collect the customs revenues, assist the Dominican Government to maintain peace, and act as intermediary between the republic and its foreign creditors. Dorr Rebellion. In 1840, Connecticut and Rhode Island were the only States that were still governed by their colonial charters. The charter of the latter State, imposing, as it did, a property qualification so high as to dis- franchise two-thirds of the citizens, was ex- tremely unpopular. A proposition of Thomas W. Dorr, of Providence, to extend the franchise was voted down. Dorr then took to agkation, and finally a convention prepared a constitution and submitted it to a popular vote. Its sup- porters claimed a majority for it, which its op- ponents, known as the law and order party, denied. Nevertheless, in 1842, the constitution was proclaimed to be in force. An election was held under it, only the suffrage party partici- pating. Dorr was elected governor. The suf- frage legislature assembled at Providence with Thomas W. Dorr as governor; the charter legislature at Newport, with Samuel W. King as governor. After transacting some business the suffrage legislature adjourned. The charter legislature authorized the governor to take energetic steps, and an appeal for aid was made to the National Government. The suffragists attempted armed resistance, but were dispersed. Dorr fled, but soon returned and gave himself up. He was convicted of high treason in 1844, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, but was par- doned in 1847, and in 1852 was restored to his civil rights. The charter party soon after the rebellion proposed a new constitution, largely extending the suffrage, which was carried and went into effect in May, 1843. Druids. The priests of the Celts of Gaul and Britain. According to Julius Caesar, they possessed the greatest authority among the Cel- tic nations. They had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, etc., superin- tended the affairs of religion and morality, and performed the office of judges. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who en- joyed his dignity for life. They took unusual care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of their religious doctrines little is known. Human sacrifice was one of their characteristic rites, the victims being usually prisoners of war. Eastern Empire. Commenced under Valens, A. D. 364, and ended in the defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him and possess himself of Constan- tinople; he laid siege to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the con- queror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and commenced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. Ecuador. After the conquest of the Inca dominions, the Kingdom of Quito was made a presidency of the viceroyalty of Peru, and re- mained under Spanish rule from 1533 to 1822. In 1809, it revolted, and after many fruitless struggles achieved its independence by the battle of Pichincha, May 22, 1822. The territory was incorporated into the Republic of Colombia, on the clisruption of which, in 1831, it became an independent republic under the name of Ecuador. But a series of civil wars ensued, lasting almost without intermission for more than twenty years. From 1852 to 1858, desultory hostilities existed with Peru. War was declared against New Granada, November 20, 1863, and the Ecua- dorian army was routed. In August, 1868, a very destructive earthquake occurred. In 1869, Garcia Moreno, the head of the clerical party, overthrew the government. He was assassi- nated in 1875, and Dr. Antonio Borrero, the candidate of the non-official party, was elected president. A constitution was adopted and a president elected, and until 1884 the republic enjoyed a reasonably peaceable government. In 1884, another constitution was formed, which, with modifications, in 1887 and 1897, has since been in force. Edict of Nantes {n&nts, Fr. nSnt). This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant sub- jects, in 1598. Itwasrevokedby LouisXIV.,Octo- ber 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to HISTORY 43 France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain:^ others planted "themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they excelled; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. Egypt. The Egyptians are the earliest Eeople known to us as a nation. When Abra- am entered the Delta from Canaan, they had been long enjoying the advantages of a settled government. They had built cities, invented hieroglyphic signs, and improved them into B liable writing, and almost into an alphabet, ley had invented records, and wrote their kings' names and actions on the massive temples which they raised. The arrangement of Egyp- tian chronology is still a much-disputed point amongst scholars. A list of the kings of Egypt, arranged in thirty dynasties, was given by the Priest Manetho (about 250 B. C), and this division is still used. His list, however, is in a very corrupt condition and his method is not strictly chronological. Hence, in the various systems of chronology adopted by Egyptolo- gists the dates assigned to Mena (or Menes) vary from, 5702 to 2440 B. C. According to tradition, Mena formed the old Empire of Egypt and founded its capital Memphis. The Fourth Dynasty is distinguished as the "Pyramid Dy- nasty." Three of its kings, Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinos), built the largest pyramids. The date assigned to these kings in the chronology of Lepsius is 2800-2700. About 2400 the government of the empire seems to have been transferred from Memphis to Thebes, and with the beginning of Dynasty Twelve, the Theban line was firmly established. The chief princes of this dynasty are Amenemhat I. (2380), who seems to have extended the power of Egypt over a part of Nubia; Usurtasan I., who made further conquests in this direction; and Amenemhat III. (2179), who constructed Lake Meri (Moeris), a large reservoir for regu- lating the water supply of the Nile. About 2100, Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos, or shepherd kings, who invaded Egypt from the east and established their capital at Tanis (Zoan). The Theban princes seem, however, to have preserved a state of semi-independence, and at last a revolt commenced which ended by the shepherd kings being completely driven out of Egypt by King Aahmes (Amasis) of Thebes (about 1600), the first of the Eighteenth Dynasty. With Aahmes and the expulsion of the shepherd kings began the reigns of those great Theban kings who built the magnificent temples and palaces at Thebes. The kings of the other parts of Egypt sank to the rank of sovereign priests. Thutmes (or Thothmosis II.) added Memphis to his dominions by his marriage with Queen Nitocris. Under Thutmes III. and his successors there were successful expeditions against the Syrians and the Ethiopians. Amen- hotep III. set up his two gigantic statues in the plain of Thebes, one of which the Greeks called the musical statue of Memnon. The Rames- sides form the Nineteenth Dynasty. They com- mence with Ramses I., who seems to have been of Lower Egyptian extraction. His grandson, the great Ramses II., or Sesostris, was successful against the neighboring Arabs, and covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. Ramses II. was probably the Pharaoh who oppressed the Hebrews, and the exodus may have occurred under his successor, Meneptah, or Merenptah. Under the later Ramessides the Egyptian Em- pire began to decay. A new dynasty, Twenty- first, came to the throne with King Hirhor. The seat of their power was Tanis in the Delta. During this period a great number of foreigners, Libyans as well as Asiatics, established them- selves in Egypt. About 961, Sheshenk I., the Shishak of the Bible, of a Shemite family from Bubastis, established a new dynasty (Twenty- second). He attempted to restore Egyptian rule in the East, and conquered and plundered Jerusalem. After his death, Egypt was torn by civil wars, and eventually the Ethiopians under Shabak (Sabako) conquered it (Twenty-fifth Dynasty). For a time it was subject alternately to Ethiopian and Assyrian princes, but in the Seventh Century the kings of Sais once more restored its independence and prosperity to Egypt. Psamethik I. (Psammetichus) warred successfully in Syria and Palestine. King Nekho (610-594) defeated Josiah, King of Judah, but his further progress was checked by Nebuchad- nezzar. His sailors circumnavigated Africa. Uahbra (the Greek Apries, the Hophrah of the Bible) ; and Aahmes II. (Greek Amasis) followed. About 523, Cambyses, King of Persia, overran Egypt and made it a Persian province. During the reign of Cambyses the Egyptians suffered much oppression. After the Persian defeat at Marathon, the Egyptians rose and recovered their independence for a short time, but were again subdued, and, in spite of two other revolts, Egypt remained a Persian province till Persia itself was conquered by Alexander the Great, B. C. 332. Egypt now became a Greek state, many Greeks having been already settled in the country, and the ' Egyptians were treated as an inferior race. Alexandria was founded as the new Greek capital. On Alexander's death, his general, Ptolemy, took possession of the throne and became the first of a Greek Dynasty that for three hundred years made Egypt one of the chief kingdoms of the world. The Ptolemies were magnificent patrons of letters and arts. Theocritus, Callimachus, Euclid the geometri- cian, the astronomers Eratosthenes and Aratus, etc., flourished under their rule. But while the Alexandrian Greeks managed to keep down the native Egyptians, they were themselves sinking under the Romans. Ptolemy Auletes went to Rome to ask help against his subjects, and the famous Cleopatra maintained her power only through her personal influence with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. On the defeat of Mark Antony by Augustus, B. C. 30, Egypt became a province of Rome. It was still a Greek state, and Alexandria was the cliief seat of Greek learning and science. On the spread of Chris- tianity the old Egyptian doctrines lost their sway. Now arose in Alexandria the Christian catechetical school, which produced Clemens and 44 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Origen. The sects of Gnostics united astrology and magic with religion. The school of Alex- andrian Platonics produced Plotinus and Proclus. Monasteries were built all over Egypt ; Christian monks took the place of the pagan hermits, and the Bible was translated into Coptic. On the division of the great Roman Empire (A. D. 364), in the time of Theodosius, into the Western and Eastern Empires, Egypt became a province of the latter, and sank deeper and deeper in barbarism and weakness. It was con- quered in 640 A. D. by the Saracens under Caliph Omar. As a province of the caliphs it was under the government of the celebrated Abbasides Harun-al-Rashid and Al-Mamun and that of the heroic Sultan Saladin. The last dynasty was, however, overthrown by the Mamelukes (1250); and the Mamelukes in their turn were conquered by the Turks (1516-17). The Mame- lukes made repeated attempts to cast off the Turkish yoke, and had virtually done so by the end of last century, when the French conquered Egypt and held it till 1801, when they were driven out by the British under Abercromby and Hutchinson. On the expulsion of the French a Turkish force under Mehemet Ali Bey took possession of the country. Mehemet Ali was made pasha, and being a man of great ability, administered the country vigorously and greatly extended the Egyptian territories. At length he broke with the Porte, and after gaining a decisive vic- tory over the Ottoman troops in Syria, in 1839, he was acknowledged by the sultan as viceroy of Egypt, with the right of succession in his family. Mehemet Ali died in 1849, having sur- vived his son Ibrahim, who died in 1848. He was succeeded by his grandson, Abbas, who, dying in 1854, was succeeded by his uncle. Said, son of Mehemet. Under his rule railways were opened, and the cutting of the Suez Canal com- menced. After Said's death, Ismail Pasha, a grandson of Mehemet Ali, obtained the govern- ment in 1863. His administration was vigorous but exceedingly extravagant, and brought the finances of the country into disorder. In 1866, he obtained a firman from the sultan, granting him the title of khedive. In 1879 he was forced to abdicate under pressure of the British and French governments, and was replaced by his son, Tewfik. In 1882 the "national party" under Arabi Pasha revolted and forced the khedive to fiee. On July 11th, a British fleet bombarded Alexandria and restored the khedive, and at Tel-el-Kebir Arabi's forces were totally crushed on September 13th. A rebellion in the Soudan, under the leadership of Mohammed Ahmed, the so-called mahdi, now gave the gov- ernment trouble. In 1883 the mahdi's forces annihilated an Egyptian force under Hicks Pasha in Kordofan. British troops were now despatched to Suakin and inflicted two severe defeats on the mahdi's followers there. But the British cabinet had resolved to abandon the Soudan; and General Gordon, already famous for his work in this district, was sent to effect the safe withdrawal of the garrisons (1884). By this time, however, the mahdi's forces were strong enough to shut the general up in Khartoum. For nearly a year he held the town, but perished (January, 1885) before the relief expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley could reach him. Since then the Anglo-Egyptian troops have reoccupied it. Prince Abbas succeeded as khe- dive in 1892 the British still retaining control. The predominant position of Great Britain in Egypt was formally recognized by France under the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904. El Caney (el-cd'-na), a fortified town of Cuba; on the main road, four miles northeast of Santiago. During the Spanish-American war it was the scene of a decided American vic- tory. At 6 A. M. on July 1, 1898, Captain Cap- ron's battery of four guns opened fire on El Caney from an elevation about a mile and a half distant. The guns were not heavy enough to destroy the enemy's works, and at eight o'clock General Lawton's infantry of Chaffee's brigade, consisting of the 7th, 12th, and 17th United States Infantry, assaulted and captured the hill with many prisoners. In 1901 the United States Government purchased the battlefield and ap- proaches for a public reservation. Electors, The, or Kurflirsts, of Germany, German princes who enjoyed the privilege of disposing of the imperial crown, ranked next the emperor, and were originally six in number, but grew to eight, and finally nine ; three were ecclesiastical the Arch- bishops of Mayence, Cologne, and Treves, and three secular the Electors of Saxony, the Palatinate, and Bohemia, to which were added at successive periods the Electors of Branden- burg, of Bavaria, and Hanover. Emancipation Proclamation, a proclamation providing for the emancipation of the slaves in certain parts of the Confederate States, issued as a war measure by President Lincoln, January 1, 1863. The number of slaves emancipated by this proclamation was, taking the census of 1860 as a basis, as follows: Alabama, 435,080 Arkansas, 111,115 Florida, 61,745 Georgia, 462,198 Louisiana 247,715 Mississippi, 436,631 North Carolina, 331,059 South Carolina, 402,046 Texas, 182,566 Virginia, ' 450,000 Total, 3,120,515 The number of slaves not affected by its pro- visions was about 832,000. The full text of the proclamation is as follows: Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclama- tion was issued by the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, to-wit: That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of State, the people whereof shall be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforth and forever free, and the Executive Government of the United States including the military and naval oflScers thereof, will recognize and maintain the ireedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such per- sons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof shall HISTORY 45 be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall, on that day, be, in good faith, represented in the Congress of the United States, by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall laave participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony be deemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States. Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and Government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the day of the first above-mentioned order, and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to-wit: Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Barnard, Plaque- mines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascen- sion, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the City of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty- eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are, for the present, left precisely as if this procla- mation were not issued. And by virtue of the power and for the purpose afore- said, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforth shall be, free; and that the Execu- tive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self- defense, and I recommend to them that, in all cases, when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. And I further declare and make known, that such per- sons, of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. [L. S.l Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty-seventh. By the President Abraham Lincoln. William H. Seward, Secretary of Stale. Eingland. The history of England proper begins when it ceased to be a Roman possession. On the withdrawal of the Roman forces, about the beginning 'of the Fifth Century A. D., the South Britons, or inhabitants of what is now called England, were no longer able to withstand the attacks of their ferocious northern neighbors, the Scots and Picts. They applied for assistance to Aetius, but the Roman general was too much occupied in the struggle with Attila to attend to their petition. In their distress they appear to have sought the aid of the Saxons; and accord- ing to the Anglo-Saxon narratives three ships, containing 1,600 men, were dispatched to their help under the command of the brothers Heng- est and Horsa. Vortigern, a duke or prince of the Britons, assigned them the isle of Thanet for habitation, and, marching against the north- ern foe, they obtained a complete victory. The date assigned to these events by the later Anglo- Saxon chronicles is 449 A. D., the narratives asserting further that the Saxons, finding the land desirable, turned their arms against the Britons, and, reinforced by new bands, conquered first Kent and ultimately the larger part of the island. Whatever the credibility of the story of Vortigern, it is certain that in the middle of the Fifth Century the occasional Teutonic incur- sions gave place to persistent invasion with a view to settlement. These Teutonic invaders were Low German tribes from the country about the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, the three most prominent being the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Of these, the Jutes were the first to form a settlement, taking possession of part of Kent, the Isle of Wight, etc. ; but the larger con- quests of the Saxons in the south and the Angles in the north gave to these tribes the leading place in the kingdom. The struggle continued 150 years, and at the end of that period the whole southern part of Britain, with the exception of Strathclyde, Wales, and West Wales (Cornwall), was in the hands of the Teutonic tribes. This conquered territory was divided among a number of small states or petty chieftaincies, seven of the most conspicuous of which are often spoken oi as the Heptarchy. These were: (1) The King- dom of Kent; founded by Hengest in 455; ended in 823. (2) Kingdom of South Saxons, containing Sussex and Surrey; founded by Ella in 477; ended in 689. (3) Kingdom of East Angles, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely (Isle of); founded by Uffa in 571 or 575; ended in 792. (4) Kingdom of West Saxons, containing Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, Hants, Berks, and part of Cornwall ; founded by Cedric 519; swallowed up the rest in 827. (5) Kingdom of Northumbria, containing York, Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northum- berland, and the east coast of Scotland to the Firth of Forth ; founded by Ida 547 ; absorbed by Wessex in 827. (6) Kingdom of East Saxons, containing Essex, Middlesex, Hertford (part); founded by Erchew in 527 ; ended in 823. (7) Kingdom of Mercia, containing Gloucester, Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Leicester, Rut- land, Northampton, Lincoln, Huntingdon, Bed- ford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford, Derby, Salop, Nottingham, Chester, Hertford (part); founded by Cridda about 584 ; absorbed by Wes- sex in 827. Each state was, in its turn, annexed to more powerful neighbors; and at length, in 827, Egbert, by his valor and superior capacity, united in his own person the sovereignty of what had formerly been seven kingdoms, and the whole came to be called England, that is Angle-land. While this work of conquest and of intertribal strife had been in progress towards the establish- ment of a united kingdom, certain important changes had occurred. The conquest had been the slow expulsion of a Christian race by a purely heathen race, and the country had returned to something of its old isolation with regard to the rest of Europe. But before the close of the Sixth Century Christianity had secured a footing in the southeast of the island. Ethelbert, king of Kent and suzerain over the kingdoms south of the Humber, married a Christian wife. Bertha, daughter of Charibert of Soissons, and this event indirectly led to the coming of St. Augustine. The conversion of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia was followed by that of Northumberland and 46 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS then by that of Mercia, of Wessex, of Sussex, and lastly of Wight, the contest between the two religions being at its height in the Seventh Century. The legal and political changes imme- diately consequent upon the adoption of Christi- anity were not great, but there resulted a more intimate relation with Europe and the older civilizations, the introduction of. new learning and culture, the formation of a written liter- ature, and the fusion of the tribes and petty kingdoms into a closer and more lasting unity than that which could have been otherwise secured. The kingdom, however, was still kept in a state of disturbance by the attacks of the Danes, who had made repeated incursions during the whole of the Saxon period, and about half a century after the unification of the kingdom became for the moment masters of nearly the whole of England. But the genius of Alfred the Great, who had ascended tlie throne in 871, speedily reversed matters by the defeat of the Danes at Ethandune (878). Guthrum, their king, embraced Christianity, became the vassal of the Saxon king, and retired to a strip of land on the east coast including Northum- bria and called the Danelagh. The two im- mediate successors of Alfred, Edward (901- 925) and Athelstan (925-940), the son and grand- son of Alfred, both vigorous and able rulers, had each in turn to direct his arms against these set- tlers of the Danelagh. The reigns of the next five kings, Edmund, Edred, Edwy, Edgar, and Edward the Martyr, are chiefly remarkable on account of the conspicuous place occupied in them by Dunstan, who was counsellor to Ed- mund, minister of Edred, treasurer under Edwy, and supreme during the reigns of Edgar and his successor. It was possibly due to his policy that from the time of Athelstan till after the death of Edward the Martyr (978 or 979) the country had comparative rest from the Danes. During the Tenth Century many changes had taken place in the Teutonic constitution. Feu- dalism was already taking root; the king's authority had increased ; the folkland was being taken over as the king's personal property; the nobles by birth, or ealdormen, were becoming of less importance in administration than the nobil- ity of thegns, the officers of the king's court. Ethelred (978-1016), who succeeded Edward, was a minor, the government was feebly con- ducted, and no united action being taken against the Danes, their incursions became more frequent and destructive. Animosities between the Eng- lish and the Danes who had settled among them became daily more violent, and a general mas- sacre of the latter took place in 1002. The fol- owing year Sweyn invaded the kingdom with a f)owerful army and assumed the crown of Eng- and. Ethelred was compelled to take refuge in Normandy; and though he afterwards re- turned, he found in Canute an adversary no less formidable than Sweyn. Ethelred left his king- dom in 1016 to his son Edmund, who displayed great valor, but was compelled to divide his kingdom with Canute; and when he was assas- sinated in 1017, the Danes succeeded to the sovereignty of the whole. Canute (Knut), who espoused the widow of Ethelred, that he might reconcile his new sub- jects, obtained the name of Great, not only on account of his personal qualities, but from the extent of his dominions, being master of Den- mark and Norway as well as England. In 1035 he died, and in England was followed by two other Danish kings, Harold and Hardicanute, whose joint reigns lasted till 1042, after which the English line was again restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. Edward was a weak prince, and in the latter years of his reign had far less real power than his brother-in-law Har- old, son of the great earl Godwin. On Edward's death in 1066 Harold accordingly obtained the crown. He found, however, a formidable oppo- nent in the second-cousin of Edward, William of Normandy, who instigated the Danes to invade the northern counties, while he, with 60,000 men, landed in the south. Harold vanquished the Danes, and hastening southward met the Nor- mans near Hastings, at Senlac, afterwards called Battle. Harold and his two brothers fell (Octo- ber 14, 1066), and William (1066-87) immediately claimed the government as lawful King of England, being subsequently known as William I., the Conqueror. For some time he conducted the government with great moderation; but being obliged to reward those who had assisted him, he bestowed the chief offices of the govern- ment upon Normans, and divided among them a great part of the country. The revolts of the native English which followed were quickly crushed, continental feudalism in a modified form was established, and the English Church reorganized under Lanfranc as Archbishop of Canterbury. At his death, in 1087, William II., commonly known by the name of Rufus, the conqueror's second son, obtained the crown, Robert, the eldest son, receiving the duchy of Normandy. In 1 100, when William II. was accidently killed in the New Forest, Robert was again cheated of his throne by his younger brother Henry (Henry I.), who in 1106 even wrested from him the duchy of Normandy. Henry's power being secured, he entered into a dispute with Anselm the primate, and with the pope, concerning the right of granting investure to the clergy. He supported his quarrel with firmness, and brought it to a not unfavorable issue. His reign was also marked by the Suppression of the greater Norman nobles in England, whose power (like that of many continental feudatories) threatened to overshadow that of the king, and by the sub- stitution of a class of lesser nobles. In 1135 he died in Normandy, leaving behind him only a daughter, Matilda. By the wall of Henry I. his daughter Maud or Matilda, wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and frequently styled the Empress Matilda, because she had first been married to Henry V., Emperor of Germany, was declared his successor. But Stephen, son of the Count of Blois, and of Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, raised an army in Normandy, landed in England, and declared himself king. After years of civil war and bloodshed an amicable arrangement was brought about, by which it was agreed that Stephen should continue to reign during the remainder of his life, but that HISTORY 47 he should be succeeded by Henry, son of Matilda and the Count of Anjou. Stephen died in 1 154, and Henry Plantagenet ascended the throne with the title of Henry II., being the first of the Plantagenet or Angevin kings. A larger domin- ion was vniited under his sway than had been held by any previous sovereign of England, for at the time when he became King of England he was already in the possession of Anjou, Nor- mandy, and Aquitaine. Henry II. found far less difficulty in restrain- ing the license of his barons than in abridging the exorbitant privileges of the clergy, who claimed exemption not only from the taxes of the state, but also from its penal enactments, and who were supported in their demands by the primate Becket. The king's wishes were formu- lated in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), which were first accepted and then repudiated by the primate. The assassination of Becket, however, placed the king at a disadvantage in the struggle, and after his conquest of Ireland (1171) he submitted to the Church, and did pen- ance at Becket's tomb. Henry was the first who placed the common people of England in a situ- ation which led to their having a share in the government. The system of frank-pledge was revived, trial by jury was instituted by the Assize of Clarendon, and the Eyre courts were made permanent by the Assize of Nottingham. To curb the power of the nobles he granted charters to towns, freeing them from all sybjection to any but himself, thus laying the foundation of a new order in society. Richard I., called Coeur de Lion, who in 1189 succeeded to his father, Henry II., spent most of his reign away from England. Having gone to Palestine to join in the third crusade he proved himself an intrepid soldier. Returning homewards in disguise through Germany, he was made pris- oner by Leopold, duke of Austria, but was ran- somed by his subjects. In the meantime John, his brother, had aspired to the crown, and hoped, by the assistance of the French, to exclude Rich- ard from his right. Richard's presence for a time restored matters to some appearance of order; but having undertaken an expedition against France, he received a mortal wound at the siege of Chalons, in 1199. John was at once recognized as King of Eng- land, and secured possession of Normandy; but Anjou, Maine, and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur, son of Goeffrey, second son of Henry II. On the death of Arthur, while in John's power, these four French provinces were at once lost to England. John's opposition to the pope in electing a successor to the See of Can- terbury in 1205 led to the kingdom being placed under an interdict; and the nation being in a disturbed condition, he was at last compelled to received Stephen Langton as archbishop, and to accept his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). His exactions and misgovernment had equally embroiled him with the nobles. In 1213 they refused to follow him to France, and on his return, defeated, they at once took measures to secure their own privileges and abridge the prerogatives of the crown. King and barons met at Runny- mede, and on June 15, 1215, the Great Charter (Magna Charta) was signed. It was speedily de- clared null and void by the pope, and war broke out between John and the barons, who were aided by the French king. In 1216, -however, John died, and his turbulent reign was succeeded by the almost equally turbulent reign of Henry III. During the first years of the reign of Henry III. the abilities of the Earl of Pembroke, who was regent until 1219, retained the kingdom in tranquillity; but when, in 1227, Henry assumed the reins of government he showed himself incapable of managing them. The Charter was three times reissued in a modified form, and new privileges were added to it, but the king took no {)ains to observe its provisions. The struggle, ong maintained in the great council (hencefor- ward called Parliament) over money grants and other grievances reached an acute stage in 1263, when civil war broke out. Simon de Montfort who had laid the foundations of the house of Commons by summoning representatives of the shire communities to the Mad Parliament of 1258, had by this time engrossed the sole power. He defeated the king and his son Edward at Lewes in 1264, and in his famous parliament of 1265 still further widened the privileges of the people by summoning to it burgesses as well as knights of the shire. The escape of Prince Edward, however, was followed by the battle of Evesham (1265), at which Earl Simon was de- feated and slain, and the rest of the reign was undisturbed. On the death of Henry III., in 1272, Edward I. succeeded without opposition. From 1276 to 1284 he was largely occupied in the conquest and annexation of Wales, which had become practi- cally independent during the barons' wars. In 1292 Balliol, whom Edward had decided to be rightful heir to the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief to the English king; but when, in 1294, war broke out with France, Scotland also declared war. The Scots were defeated at Dun- bar (1296), and the country placed under an Eng- lish regent; but the revolt under Wallace (1297) was followed by that of Bruce (1306), and the Scots remained unsubdued. The reign of Edward was distinguised by many legal and leg- islative reforms, such as the separation of the old king's court into the Court of Exchequer, Court of King's Bench, and Court of Common Pleas, the passage of the Statute of Mortmain, etc. In 1295 the first perfect parliament was summoned, the clergy and barons by special writ, the commons by writ to the sheriffs direct- ing the election of two knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough. Two years later the imposition of taxation without consent of parliament was forbidden by a special act (De Tallagio non Con- cedendo). The great aim of Edward, however, to include England, Scotland, and Wales in one kingdom proved a failure, and he died in 1307 marching against Robert Bruce. The reign of his son, Edward II., was unfor- tunate to himself and to his kingdom. He made a feeble attempt to carry out his father's last and earnest request to prosecute the war with Scot- land, but the English were almost constantly unfortunate; and at length, at Bannockburn (1314), they received a defeat from Robert Bruce which ensured the independence of Scot- 48 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS land. The king soon proved incapable of regu- lating the lawless conduct of his barons; and his wife, a woman of bold, intriguing disposition, joined in the confederacy against him, which resulted in his imprisonment and death in 1327. The reign of Edward III. was as brilliant as that of his father had been the reverse. The main projects of the third Edward were directed against France, the crown of which he claimed in 1328 in virtue of his mother, the daughter of King Philip. The victory won by Edward III. at Crecy (1346), the capture of Calais (1347), and the victory of Poitiers (1356), ultimately led to the Peace of Bretigny in 1360, by which Edward III. received all the west of France on condition of renouncing his claim to the French throne. Before the close of his reign, however, these advantages were all lost again, save a few principal towns on the coast. Edward III. was succeeded in 1377 by his frandson Richard II., son of Edward the Black 'rince. The people of England now began to show, though in a turbulent manner, that they had acquired just notions of government. In 1380 an unjust and oppressive poll-tax brought their grievances to a head, and 100,000 men under Wat Tyler, marched toward London (1381). Wat Tyler was killed while conferring with the king, and the prudence and courage of Richard appeased the insurgents. Despite his conduct on this occasion Richard was deficient in the vigor necessary to curb the lawlessness of the nobles. In 1398 he banished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke ; and on the death of the lat- ter's father, the Duke of Lancaster, unjustly ap- propriated his cousin's patrimony. To avenge the injustice Bolingbroke landed in England during the king's absence in Ireland, and at the head of 60,000 malcontents compelled Richard to surrender. He was confined in the Tower, and despite the superior claims of Edmund Morti- mer, Earl of March, Henry was appointed king (1399), the first of the House of Lancaster. Richard was, in all probability, murdered early in 1400. The manner in which the Duke of Lancaster, now Henry IV., acquired the crown rendered his reign extremely turbulent, but the vigor of his administration quelled every insurrections The most important that of the Percies of Northumberland, Owen Glendower, and Douglas of Scotland was crushed by the battle of Shrews- bury (1403). During the reign of Henry IV. the clergy of England first began the practice of burning heretics under the act de hceretico com- burendo, passed in the second year of his reign. The act was chiefly directed against the Lollards, as the followers of Wickliffe now came to be called. Henry died in 1413, leaving his crown to his son, Henry V., who revived the claim of Edward III. to the throne of France in 1415, and invaded that country at the head of 30,000 men. The disjointed councils of the French rendered their country an easy prey ; the victory of Agin court was gained in 1415 ; and after a sec- ond campaign a peace was concluded at Troyes in 1420, by which Henry received the hand of Katherine, daughter of Charles VI., was ap- pointed regent of France during the reign of his father-in-law, and declared heir to his throne on his death. The two kings, however, died within a few weeks of each other in 1422, and the infant son of Henry thus became King of England (as Henry VI.) and France at the age of nine months. England during the reign of Henry VI. was subjected, in the first place, to all the confusion incident to a long minority, and afterwards to all the misery of a civil war. Henry allowed himself to be managed by anyone who had the courage to assume the conduct of his affairs, and the influence of his wife, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of uncommon capacity, was of no advan- tage either to himself or the realm. In France (1422-1453) the English forces lost ground, and were finally expelled by the celebrated Joan of Arc, Calais alone being retained. The rebellion of Jack Cade in 1450 was suppressed, only to be succeeded by more serious trouble. In that year Richard, duke of York, the father of Edward, afterwards Edward IV., began to advance his pretentions to the throne which had been so long usurped by the house of Lancaster. His claim was founded on his descent from the third son of Edward III., Lionel, duke of Clarence, who was his great-great-grandfather on the mother's side, while Henry was the great-grandson on the fa- ther's side of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III. Richard of York was also grandson on the father's side of Edmund, fifth son of Edward III. The wars which result- ed, called the Wars of the Roses, from the fact that a red rose was the badge of the house of Lancaster and a white one that of the house of York, lasted for thirty years, from the first battle of St. Albans, May 22, 1455, to the battle of Bosworth, August 22, 1485. Henry VI. was twice driven from the throne (in 1461 and 1471) by Edward of York, whose father had previously been killed in battle in 1460. Edward of York reigned as Edward IV. from 1461 till his death in 1483, with a brief interval in 1471; and was succeeded by two other sovereigns of the house of York, first his son Edward V., who reigned for eleven weeks in 1483; and then by his brother Richard III., who reigned from 1483 till 1485, when he was defeated and slain on Bosworth field by Henry Tudor, of the house of Lancaster, who then became Henry VII. Henry VII. was at this time the representative of the house of Lancaster, and in order at once to strengthen his own title, and to put an end to the rivalry between the houses of York and Lan- caster, he married, in 1486, Elizabeth, the sister of Edward V. and heiress of the house of York. His reign was disturbed by insurrections attend- ing the impostures of Lambert Simnel (1487), who pretended to be a son of the Duke of Clar- ence, brother of Edward IV., and of Perkin Warbeck (1488), who affirmed that he was the Duke of York, younger brother of Edward V. ; but neither of these attained any magnitude. The king's worst fault was the avarice which led hipi to employ in schemes of extortion such instruments as Empson and Dudley. His admin- istration throughout did much to increase the royal power and to establish order and prosper- ity. He died in 1509. The authority of the English crown, which had been so much extended by Henry VII., HISTORY 49 was by his son Henry VIII. exerted in a tyran- nical and capricious manner. The most impor- tant event of the reign was undoubtedly the Reformation; though it had its origin rather in Henry's caprice and in the casual situation of his private affairs than in his conviction of the necessity of a reformation in religion, or in the solidity of reasoning employed by the reformers. Henry had been espoused to Catharine of Spain, who was first married to his elder brother Arthur, a prince who died young. Henry became disgusted with his queen, and enamored of one of her maids of honor, Anne Boleyn. He had recourse, therefore, to the pope to dissolve a marriage which had at first been rendered legal only by a dispensation from the pontiff; but failing in his desires he broke away entirely from the Holy See, and in 1534 got himself recog- nized by act of parliament as the head of the English Church. He died in 1547^ He was married six times, and left three children, each of whom reigned in turn. These were: Mary, by his first wife, Catharine of Aragon; Eliza- beth, by his second wife, Anne Boleyn; and Edward, by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Ed- ward, who reigned first, with the title of Edward VI., was nine years of age at the time of his succession, and died in 1553, when he was only sixteen. His short reign, or rather the reign of the Earl of Hertford, afterwards Duke of Somerset, who was appointed regent, was dis- tinguished chiefly by the success which attended the measures of the reformers, who acquired great part of the power formerly engrossed by the Catholics. The intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, during the reign of Edward, caused Lady Jane Grey to be declared his suc- cessor; but her reign, if it could be called such, lasted only a few days. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., was placed upon the throne, and Lady Jane Grey and her husband were both executed. Mary, a zealous Catholic, seems to have wished for the crown chiefly to aid in reestablishing the Roman Catholic faith. Polit- ical motives had induced Philip of Spain to accept of her as a spouse; but she could never prevail on her subjects to allow him any share of power. She died in 1558. Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary, was attached to the Protestant faith, and found little difficulty in establishing it in England. Having concluded peace with France (1559), Elizabeth set herself to promote the confu- sion which prevailed in Scotland, to which her cousin Mary had returned from France as queen in 1561. In this she was so far success- ful that Mary placed herself in her power (1568), and after many years imprisonment was sent to the scaffold (1587). As the most powerful Protestant nation, and as a rival to Spain in the New World, it was natural that England should become involved in difficulties with that country. The dispersion of the Armada by the EngUsh fleet under Howard, Drake, and Hawkins was the most brilliant event of a struggle which abounded in minor feats of valor. In Eliza- beth's reign London became the center of the world'9 trade, the extension of British com- mercial enterprise being coincident with the ruin of Antwerp in 1585. The parliament was increased by the creation of sixty-two new bor- oughs, and its members were exempted from arrest. In literature not less than in politics and in commerce the same full life displayed it- self, and England began definitely to assume the characteristics which distinguish her from the other European nations of to-day. To Elizabeth succeeded (in 1603) James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, son of Mary Queen of Scots and Darnley. His accession to the crown of England in addition to that of Scotland did much to unite the two nations, though a certain smoldering animosity still lingered. His dissimulation, however, ended in his satisfying neither of the contending ecclesiastical parties the Puritans or the Catholics; and his absurd insistance on his divine right made his reign a continuous struggle between the prerogative of the crown and the freedom of the people. His extravagance kept him in constant disputes with the parliament, who would not grant him the sums he demanded, and compelled him to resort to monopolies, loans, benevolences, and other illegal methods. The nation at large, however, continued to prosper through the whole of this inglorious reign. His son, Charles I., who suc- ceeded him in 1625, inherited the same exalted ideas of royal prerogative, and his marriage with a Catholic, his arbitrary rule, and illegal methods of raising money, provoked bitter hostility. Under the guidance of Laud and Strafford things went from bad to worse. Civil war broke out in 1642 between the king's party and that of the parliament, and, the latter proving victorious, in 1649 the king was beheaded. A commonwealth or republican government was now established, in which the most promi- nent figure was Oliver Cromwell. Mutinies in the army among Fifth-monarchists and Level- lers were subdued by Cromwell and Fairfax, and Cromwell in a series of masterly movements subjugated Ireland and gained the important battles of Dunbar and Worcester. At sea Blake had destroyed the Royalist fleet under Rupert, and was engaged in an honorable struggle with the Dutch under Van Tromp. But within the governing body matters had come to a deadlock. A dissolution was necessary, yet parliament shrank from dissolving itself, and in the mean- time the reformof the law, a settlement with regard to the Church, and other important matters remained untouched. In April, 1653, Cromwell cut the knot by forcibly ejecting the members and putting the keys of the house in his pocket. From this time he was practically head of the government, which was vested in a council of thirteen. A parliament the Little or Bare- bones Parliament was summoned and in December of the same year Cromwell was in- stalled Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. With more than the power of a king, he succeeded in dona- inating the confusion at home and made the country feared throughout the whole of Europe. Cromwell died in 1658, and the brief and feeble protectorate of his son Richard followed. There was now a widespread feeling that the country would be better under the old form of government, and Charles II., son of Charles I., was called to the throne by the Restoration of 50 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 1660. He took complete advantage of the popu- lar reaction from the narrowness and intolerance of Puritanism, and even latterly endeavored to carry it to the extreme of establishing the Cath- olic religion. The promises of religious freedom made by him before the Restoration in the Dec- laration of Breda were broken by the Test and Corporation Acts, and by the Act of Uniformity, which drove two thousand clergymen from the Church and created the great dissenting move- ment of modern times. The Conventicle and Five-mile Acts followed, and the " Drunken Parli- ament" restored Episcopacy in Scotland. At one time even civil war seemed again imminent. The abolition of the censorship of the press (1679) and the reaffirmation of the habeas corpus principle are the most praiseworthy inci- dents of the reign. As Charles II. left no legitimate issue, his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded him as James II. (1685-88). An invasion by an ille- gitimate son of Charles, the Duke of Monmouth, who claimed the throne, was suppressed, and the king's arbitrary rule was supported by the wholesale butcheries of such instruments as Kirke and Jeffreys. The king's zealous coun- tenance of Roman Catholicism and his attempts to force the Church and the universities to sub- mission provoked a storm of opposition. Seven E relates were brought to trial for seditious libel, ut were acquitted amidst general rejoicings. The whole nation was prepared to welcome any deliverance, and in 1688 William of Orange, hus- band of James's daughter Mary, landed in Tor- bay. James fled to France, and a convention summoned by William settled the crown upon him, he thus becoming William III. Annexed to this settlement was a Declaration of Rights circumscribing the royal prerogative by depriv- ing him of the right to exercise dispensing power, or to exact money, or maintain an army with- out the assent of parliament. This placed henceforward the right of the British sovereign to the throne upon a purely statutory basis. A toleration act, passed in 1689, released dissent from many penalties. An armed opposition to William lasted for a short time in Scotland, but ceased with the fall of Viscount Dundee, the leader of James's adherents; and though the struggle was prolonged in Ireland, it was brought to a close before the end of 1691. The following year saw the origination of the national debt, the exchequer having been drained by the heavy military expenditure. A bill for triennial parli- aments was passed in 1694, the year in which I Queen Mary died. For a moment after her death I William's popularity was in danger, but his suc- cesses at Namur and elsewhere, and the obvious exhaustion of France, once more confirmed his power. The treaty of Ryswick followed in 1697, and the death of James II. in exile in 1701 removed a not unimportant source of danger. Early in the following year William also died, and by the act of settlement Anne succeeded him. The closing act of William's reign had been the formation of the grand alliance between England, Holland, and the German Empire, and the new queen's rule opened with the brilliant successes of Marlborough at Blenheim (1704) and Ramil- lies (1706). Throughout the earlier part of her reign the Marlboroughs practically ruled the kingdom, the duke's wife, Sarah Jennings, being the queen's most intimate friend and adviser. In 1707 the history of England becomes the his- tory of Britain, the Act of Union passed in that year binding the parliaments and realms of Eng- land and Scotland into a single and more power- ful whole. The measure which declared the parliaments of England and Scotland united, and the two countries one kingdom, known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was passed, after violent opposition, in the reign of Queen Anne, 1st of May, 1707. This union, however, much it was opposed by the prejudices and interest of particular men or classes at the time, has con- tributed very much to the prosperity of both countries. The Grand Alliance, which it had been the aim of William's later years to form between Holland, Austria, and England against the threatening growth of French power, now held the field against the armies of France, and the victories of Marlborough at Blenheim and Ramillies, and the taking of Gibraltar and Bar- celona, ended in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, by which the British right of sovereignty over Hudson's Bay, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Minorca, and Gibraltar was acknowledged, and the foundation of Britain's imperial and colonial power securely laid. The remainder of Anne's reign was distracted by the never-ending alter- cations of domestic parties. She died on the 1st of August, 1714; and with her ended the line of the Stuarts, who had held the scepter of England 1 12, and that of Scotland 343 years. At her death, George I., elector of Hanover, maternally descended from Elizabeth, daughter of James I., according to the Act of Settlement, ascended the throne of Britain. The Whigs under this prince regained that superiority in the national councils of which they had long been deprived, and this, along with the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act and some other extreme precautionary measures, increased the irritation of the Tory and Stuart party. In 1715 the Earl of Mar in Scotland and the Earl of Derwent- water in England raised the standard of rebellion and proclaimed the Chevalier St. George (the Old Pretender) king. But the insurrection, feebly supported by the people, was soon sup- pressed. In 1716 the Septennial Act was passed, making parliament of seven instead of three years duration. In 1720 occurred the extra- ordinary growth and collapse of the South Sea Company. From this date till 1742 the govern- ment was virtually in the hands of Sir Robert Walpole, the first, we might say, of modern premiers, governing the cabinet and chiefly responsible for its doings. Walpole had great sagacity, prudence, and business ability, and could manage dexterously the king, the parlia- ment, and the people alike. It is true tnat in the case of the parliament he achieved this by undue influence in elections and a scandalous use of bribery. But the power he thus acquired was generally wisely used. The failure of the war with Spain into which he had reluctantly entered drove him from office, and in 1742 his long ministry came to an end. In 1743, George II., frightened at the dangers to Hanover, HISTORY 51 dragged Britain into the wars between France, Prussia, and Austria, regarding tiie succession of the Emperor Charles. George himself fought at the head of his troops at Detti;igen (1743), where he obtained a complete victory over the French, which was balanced, however, later on by the defeat at Fontenoy (1745). A fresh attempt was now made to restore the Stuart family to the throne of Britain. Charles Edward, son of tlie Old Pretender, having been furnished by France with a small supply of money and arms, landed on the coast of Loch- aber, in the Western Highlands, in 1745, and was joined by a considerable number of the people. Marching southwards with 1,500 High- landers, his forces increasing as he advanced, he entered Edinburgh without opposition ; and hav- ing defeated Sir John Cope near Prestonpans he marched into England. He now took Carlisle, and advanced through Lancaster, Preston, and Manchester, to Derby, within 100 miles of Lon- don ; but finding himself disappointed of expect- ed succors from France, and the English Tories, contrary to his expectations, keeping aloof, he commenced his retreat into Scotland, closely pursued by the king's troops, whom he again defeated at Falkirk. With this victory his good fortune terminated. The Duke of Cumberland having arrived from the continent put himself at the head of the forces which were destined to check the rebels; and the armies having met at CuUoden, near Inverness, Charles was completely defeated. After lurking for six months amidst the wilds of Invernesshire, he at length, with much difficulty, escaped to France. The war of the Austrian succession, which still continued and which was the cause of the hostili- ties between the French and British in India as well as elsewhere, was terminated by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. During most of this period Pelham and his brother, the Duke of New- castle, had been the ruling ministers, and in their hands the art of government had reached a low level both as regards morality and ability. In 1752, the New Style of reckoning time was intro- duced, and the Old Style being eleven days behind, the 3d of September, 1752, was called the 14th. At the same time the 1st of January was fixed as the opening day of the year, instead of the 25th of March. Soon after, the French, uneasy at the growing colonial power of Britain, made a determined effort against the British Colonies and possessions in North America and the East Indies, and at first the British met with several disasters in America. In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke out, Austria and France being allied on the one side, and Prussia and England on the other, and ill success attended the British arms in Europe also. Fortunately, a great war minister, William Pitt, now took the helm of the state. In 1758 the British made themselves masters of several French settlements in North America, while the attack made by Wolfe on Quebec in 1759 was completely successful, and gave Britain the whole of Canada. The same year the British and their allies defeated the French at Minden in Prussia. In the East Indies the French were even less successful than in America. Clive's victory at Plassey (1757) and Coote's at Wandewash (1760) secured the British empire in the east, and together with the naval feats of Hawke and Boscawen made England the greatest of mari- time and colonial powers. On the accession of George III. in 1760 hostili- ties were still carried on, generally to the advan- tage of the French as far as the theater of war in Germany was concerned, but still more to their loss in the other quarters of the world where they were engaged with the British in a struggle for supremacy, and this notwithstanding that Spain had now joined her forces to those of France. At length the success of the British arms induced France and Spain to accede to terms, and the war ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The French relinquished nearly all their possessions in North America ; Minorca was restored to Brit- ain ; in the East Indies they got back their fac- tories and settlements, on condition that they should maintain neither forts nor troops in Ben- gal ; Cuba and Manila were resigned to the Span- iards. In Europe everything was restored to the status quo. The expenses of this war, which had been undertaken partly for the defense of the Ameri- can Colonies, had added upwards of 72,000,000 to the national debt. It seemed to the British people to be just that the Americans should be taxed to assist in the payment of the interest. The Americans did not deny the justice, but replied that if they were to be taxed they had a right to be represented in parliament, in order that, like other British subjects, they might be taxed only in consequence of their own consent. Grenville, then the prime-minister, stood to his purpose, however, and introduced a bill for imposing certain stamp duties on the American Colonies. The Americans protested and resisted, and partly by the influence of the great Pitt, who had steadily opposed the measure, the bill was withdrawn. On the illness of Pitt, now Lord Chatham, in 1767, Townshend became premier, and again revived the project of taxing the Americans by imposing duties on tea; and in 1770, Lord North, as his successor, set himself to carry it out. The result was that in 1775 the Colonies were declared in a state of rebellion and a war began, in which both France and Spain joined the revolted Colonies, and of which the result was the recognition of the independence of the United States. On the American side of this struggle the great name is. that of George Washington. On the British side the war was unskillfuUy conducted, and though they gained some successes these were more than counter- balanced by such blows as the capitulation of Burgoyne with nearly 6,000 men at Saratoga (1777), and of Cornwallis at Yorktown with 7,000 (1781). Against their European foes the British could show such successes as that of Admiral Rodney off Cape St. Vincent (1780); the brilliant defense of Gibraltar by General Eliott (1779-82); and Admiral Rodney's victory over the French fleet in the West Indies (1782). The war closed with the Peace of Versailles in 1783. Britain finally acquired several West Indian Islands; Spain got Florida and Minorca, France Pondicherry and Chandernagore in India. The struggle had added over 100,000,000 to the British national debt. 62 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS From 178^ to 1801 the government of Britain was directed by William Pitt, the younger son of Lord Chatham, who when only twenty-four years of age was placed as first lord of the treas- ury and chancellor of the exchequer. The affairs of Ireland and India, and the impeachment of Warren Hastings, were among the first subjects which occupied the attention of Pitt's ministry. In 1782, the Irish had been able to extort from Britain, then engaged in her struggle with the American Colonies, the right to establish an inde- pendent parliament, so that from this year there were two independent governments in the British Isles till 1800, when Pitt, who had in the interval had experienced some of the difficulties arising out of two coordinate legislatures, contrived once more to unite them. In 1789, the French Revolution was begun. For a time there was considerable sympathy in England with this movement; but as the rev- lutionaries proceeded to extreme measures there was a reaction in English feeling, of which Ed- mund Burke became the great exponent, and the execution of Louis XVI. gave rise to diplo- matic measures, which finally terminated in the National Convention declaring war against Brit- ain, on the 1st of February, 1793. At first Brit- ain cooperated with Prussia, Austria, etc., against France, and successes were gained both by sea and land; but latterly on the Continent the armies of the French Republic were every- where triumphant, and in 1797 Britain stood alone in the conflict, and indeed soon found an EuTopean coalition formed against her. The war was now largely maritime, and the naval successes of Jervis off St. Vincent and Duncan off Camperdown were followed (when Bonaparte led an expedition to Egypt, having India as its ultimate object) by the victories of Nelson in Aboukir Bay, and Abercromby at Alexandria. In 1798, a rebellion in Ireland had to be crushed. Peace was made in 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens, only to be broken by another declaration of war in 1803, as the ambitious projects of Napoleon became evident. In spite of the efforts of Pitt (who died in 1806) in the way of forming and supporting with funds a new coalition against France, the military genius of Napoleon swept away all opposition on land, though the naval victory of Trafalgar (1805) established England's supremacy on the seas. Napoleon, who had assumed the title of Emperor of the French in 1805, and was now virtually the ruler of Europe, put forth his Berlin decrees (1807), probibiting all commerce with Great Britain wherever his power reached, set his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, and occupied Portugal. But the spirit of resistance had now taken deep root in the British people, and in 1808 troops were sent into Spain under Sir John Moore, and a year later Wellington, then General Wellesley, landed in Portugal. Then began that famous series of successful operations (the Peninsular War) which drove back the French into their own country, and powerfully contributed to undermine the immense fabric of Napoleon's conquests. The other chief European powers having united, Paris was occupied in 1814, Napoleon was de- posed and exiled to Elba, and Louis XVIII. placed on the throne of France. Escaping in 1815, Napoleon appeared once more in the field with a large army. Wellington and Blucher hastened to oppose him, and at Waterloo Na- poleon's long career of conquest ended in a crush- ing defeat. The restoration of Louis followed, and Napoleon was sent to the island of St. Helena. Of her conquests Britain retained Tobago, St. Lucia, Mauritius, the Cape of Good Hope, Dem- erara, Essequibo, Berbice, Heligoland, and Malta. Ceylon and Trinidad had been gained in 1802, and Britain emerged from this long struggle with a very great increase of territorial posses- sions and political importance. After the termination of the wars with Napo- leon many things concurred to make a troublous era in the home administration. The new bur- den of debt which the wars had left on the nation, the bad harvests of 1816 and 1817, a succession of governments which had no idea but that of absolute resistance to all reforms, etc. ; all these contributed to increase discontent. The result was a strong Radical agitation, accompanied often by serious' riots throughout the country, more especially in the large towns, and loud demands for reform in parliament and the system of representation. The death of George III. and accession of George IV. in 1820 made little change in this respect. From 1822 a succes- sion of able statesmen, Canning, Peel, and Lord Grey, gave the government a more liberal turn, and did much to satisfy the popular demands. The Catholics were admitted to parliament; the severity of the old restric- tions on commerce was relaxed; and in the face of a determined opposition Earl Grey car- ried the Reform Bill of 1832 (two years after the accession of William IV.), which gave large manufacturing towns a voting power in some proportion to their importance, and prac- tically transferred the center of political power from the aristocratic to the middle classes. The next great public measure was the aboli- tion of negro slavery in every British posses- sion in 1834. William IV. died June 20, 1837, and was suc- ceeded by Victoria. The year following is nota- ble as that in which the Chartists began their movement for reform, which continued more or less active, with popular assemblies, presenta- tions of monster petitions, and occasional tu- mults, till 1848, when it was without much trouble suppressed. The same years saw the struggle of the Anti-Com-law League, of which Cobden and Bright were the chiefs, and which were finally successful ; Sir Robert Peel, the leader of the Tory party, himself proposing the repeal of the com duties (1846). The principle of free- trade had further victories in the repeal of the navigation laws, and in the large abolition of duties made during Lord Aberdeen's ministry (1853). In 1852-53, dissension arose between Russia and Turkey regarding the rights of the Latin and Greek Churches to preferable access to the "holy places" in Palestine. The Emperor of Russia, resenting concessions made to French devotees, sent Prince Menschikoff to Constanti- nople to demand redress, and not being satisfied, war was declared, June 26, 1853. On the plea that it was impossible to leave Russia a free hand HISTORY 53 in dealing with Turkey, France and Great Brit- ain formed an alliance against Russia, March 28, 1854. The invasion of the Crimea followed ; sev- eral important battles (Alma, Balaclava, Inker- man) took place, resulting in favor of the allies, till at length Sebastopol fell (1855), and peace was signed the following year at Paris. Russia ceded a part of Bessarabia to Turkey, and con- sented to the free navigation of the Danube and the neutrality of the Black Sea. Immediately after the Crimean War came the mutiny of the Sepoys in India. Seventy thou- sand British troops were required to suppress the rebellion. In 1858, the sovereignty over the British possessions was transferred by parlia- ment from the East India Company to the Crown. Wars with China (1858 and 1860), during which Canton was bombarded and Pekin taken by the united forces of France and Britain, opened up five new Chinese ports to trade. The American Civil War seriously interfered with the cotton-trade in Lancashire, causing widespread distress. The Fenian movement (1861-7), whose object was the separation of Ireland from the United Kingdom, occasioned some excitement. Parliamentary reform was attempted by sev- eral governments without success, un+il the gov- ernment of the Earl of Derby in 1867 passed a measure establishing the principle of household suffrage. This year also saw the passing of the act by which the Dominion of Canada was con- stituted. In 1867, the Abyssinian expedition set out, and effected its object the relief of English captives in the spring of 1868. In the same year Lord Derby was succeeded by Mr. Disraeli as leader of the Conservative party, then in office. Before the end of the year a gen- eral election put the Liberals in power. In 1869, Mr. Gladstone's administration passed a bill for the disestablishment of the Irish Church. In 1870, an Irish Land Law Bill, for the regulation of the relations between landlord and tenant, became law; and an act of parliament estab- lishing a national system of education for Eng- land was passed. In 1871, the purchase of commissions in the army was abolished. Next followed the Ballot Act and the Scotch Educa- tion Act. Early in 1874, Mr. Gladstone dis- solved Parliament, and a large Conservative majority being returned, Mr. Disraeli (after- wards Earl of Beaconsfield) again became pre- mier. The Ashantee War, begun the previous year, was brought to a successful termination early in 1874. Tn 1876, the title of Empress of India was added to the titles of the queen. Dur- ing the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 Britain remained neutral, but took an important part in the settlement effected by the Berlin Congress, and acquired from Turkey the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. Then followed a war in Afghanistan, a war with the Kaffirs of Zululand, and a brief war with the Boers of the Transvaal. A new parliament was returned in 1880 with a large Liberal majority, and Mr. Gladstone once more became premier. This parliament passed a land-act for Ireland (1881), an act for putting down crime in Ireland (1882), a reform act equal- izing the borough and county franchise (1884), and a redistribution of seats act (1885) all important. The intervention of Britain in Egyp- tian affairs led to the bombardment of Alexan- dria by the British fleet (July, 1882) and the send- ing of an army into Egypt to quell the rebellion headed by Arabi Pasha; the rising under the Mahdi in the Soudan caused British troops tobe despatched to Suakim, and another force to be sent by way of the Nile (in the autumn of 1884) to relieve General Gordon at Khartoum, an object which it was too late to accomplish. A new parliament was elected in the end of 1885, and for a brief period Lord Salisbury was premier as he had latterly been in the preceding parlia- ment, but in February, 1886, he made way for Mr. Gladstone. On March 29th, Mr. Gladstone gave notice of his intention to introduce a bill which would establish a separate Irish legisla- tive body, and withdraw the Irish members from the Imperial Parliament. A determined opposition was organized, and a section of the Liberal party, headed by men mostly old col- leagues of Mr. Gladstone, operated with the Conservatives and succeeded in throwing out the bill on its second reading. The result was a general election, in which the Unionists, or those opposed to the bill, had a great majority. The Conservative party assumed office, with the Marquis of Salisbury as head. A criminal law amendment act for Ireland (1887), and a local government act for England (1888), were passed. In 1887, the jubilee of the Queen was celebrated. The elections in 1892 resulted in a Liberal victory and Mr. Gladstone became again premier. In 1893, Lord Salisbury was returned to power. October 11, 1899, war was declared by the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, the aim being the destruction of the British paramountcy in South Africa; this led to the annexation of those states by the British, after a fierce contest, in 1900. In 1900, a new parliament was elected, with a slightly increased Conservative majority. Victoria died January 22, 1901, and was succeeded by Edward VII. In 1902, a new ministry was formed, with A. J. Balfour as premier. The Balfour ministry was succeeded in 1905 by that of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, which, in turn, was suc- ceeded by the Asquith ministry in 1908. The visit of King Edward to Germany in 1906, and of Emperor William to England in 1907, did much to secure an amicable understanding between those two powers. The complete autonomy of Australia was recognized in 1907. In 1908, the Old Age Pensions act was passed. The rejection by the Lords of important meas- ures of social and industrial reform proposed by the government led, however, to demands for the curtailment of the powers of the Upper House. Parliament was finally prorogued in January, 1910, and in the new election the Liberals were returned with one vote over the Unionists, their opponents. The death of Edward, on May 16th, interrupted the political warring of the parties only temporarily, and George V. finally dissolved Parliament in November and summoned a new Parliament (elected in December) which met in January, 1911, in which the Liberals were again returned. The past two years have also witnessed increased and violent agitation by women suffragists. 54 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS I. FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST B. C. II. FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE PRESENT TIME A. D. Dates and events at the dawn of history are involved in much doubt. At best they are mere approxima- tions and must be interpreted in that Hght. The Samaritan Pentateuch places the Creation B. C. 4700; the Septuagint, 5872; Josephus, 4658; the Talmudists, 5344; Scaliger, 3950; Petavius, 3984; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here followed as the most generally accepted standard. B.C. FROM THE CREATION TO THE DELUGE 1656 TEARS 4004 Creation of the World. Fall of Man. Birth of Cain. 3875 Death of Abel, the first subject of death. Cain builds a city, which he calls According to Usher, the 3874 Seth born, third son of Adam. Enoch. antediluvian period was al- 3769 Enos born. He introduces use of weights and measures. most as long as that since the birth of Christ. Of the 3679 Cainan born. Polygamy introduced. progress of knowledge and 3609 Mahalaleel born. Jabal, the first to build a tent for the arts during that period 3544 Jared born. habitation, and to use cattle for nothing is known beyond purposes of husbandry. what is recited in the adja- 3382 Enoch born. Jubal invented the harp and the cent column, except that 3317 Methuselah born. organ, first stringed and wind ship-building, caulking, and 3130 Lamech born. instruments. the use of pitch, or paint. Tubal-Cain discovered the mode simple measures, and of doors 3074 Death of Adam at age of 930 years. of preparing and using iron. and windows, were known. 3017 Enoch translated. brass, and other metals. They imply, in their adapta- tion to the use of man, other 2948 Noah born. Naamah introduced the arts of spinning and weaving. arts, and a considerable ad- 2468 Building of the Ark begur . vance in science and mechan- 2348 2347 The Deluge. ics. FROM THE DELUGE TO TI3IE OF MOSES Arts of Civilization The Hebrews Asia Africa and Europe Wine made by Noah 2347. Dispersion of the 2356. Yaou extends from the grape. descendants of Noah. Those of Shem prob- ably in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Ja- phet in Europe. the Empire of China. 2247 Bricks made, and ce- ment used to unite them. 2247. Building of the Tower of Babel. 2245. Babylon founded 2234 Astronomical observa- by Nimrod, son of tions begun at Baby- Cush and grandson 2207. China. First lon. of Ham. imperial dynasty 2188. Misraim (Menes), Nineveh founded of Hia begins. the son of Ham, by Ashur, son of Fohi (probably builds Memphis, in Shem. Noah) is men- tioned as the first Chinese Monarch. 2124. Belus reigns in Egypt, and begins the Egyptian mon- archy. 2122 Athotes, son of Menes, invents hieroglyphics. Babylon. 2111. Thebes founded 2100 Sculpture and painting employed to commem- orate the exploits of Osymandyas. by Busiris. 2100. Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia and conquers Bactria. 2095 Pyramids and canals in Egypt. Geometry used. 2069. Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Nineveh. 2059. Ninus estab- lishes the Assy- rian Empire. 2017. Semiramis en- 2089. Sicyon, the first Kingdom of Greece, founded by Egialus, or Inachus. 2085. Egypt conquered by the shepherd kings of Phenicia; who hold it 260 years. 2048. Colony of Pheni- cians land in Ire- land (?). 2042. Uramus arrives in Greece. 1998 Ching Hong teaches the larges and embel- Chinese the art of hus- 1996. Abraham born. lishes Babylon, bandry, and how to and makes it the make bread from wheat seat of empire. and wine from rice. 1975. Semiramis in- vades Lybia, Ethiopia, and India. HISTORY 55 B. C. FROM THE DELUGE TO TIME OP MOSES B. C. Arts of Civilization Tlie Hebrews Asia Africa and Europe 1920 1891 1822 1588 1582 1580 1506 1494 Gold and silver first men- tioned as money. Letters first used Egypt by Syphoas. Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. Atlas, the astronomer. The chronology of the Arundelian marbles begins. The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. The flute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 1921. The call of Abra- ham. 1897. Sodom and Go- morrah destroyed. 1896. Isaac born. 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172'. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1699. Death of Jacob. 1635. Death of Joseph. 1577. Israelites perse- cuted in Egypt. 1574. Aaron born. 1571. Moses born. 1937. The Arabs seize Nineveh. 1766. The second Chinese Imperial dynasty begins. 1491. God sends Moses to Egypt to deliver the Israelites. The Ten Plagues in Egypt. The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. 1546. Troy founded by Scamander. The Chinese. Dark Ages. 1500. Northern In- dia invaded and conquered by the Aryans between this date and lOOfi. 1938. Lake Moeris con- structed. 1856. Inachus plants a colony in Argos. 1710. Colony of Arca- dians emigrate into Italy. 1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 1556. Rameses-Miamun reigns in Egypt. 1556. Athens founded by Cecrops. 1520. Corinth founded. 1516. Sparta founded. 1507. Areopagus estab- lished in Athens. 1493. Thebes, in Boeo- tia, founded by Cad. mus, a Phenician, who introduces the alphabet into Greece. FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS B. C. 1490 1486 1370 1263 Arts of Civilization t Crockery made by Egyptians and Greeks. Ericthoneus introduces first chariot. Bucklers used in single combat. Music and poetry cul- tivated in Greece. Temple of Apollo at Delphi built. Jason leads first naval expedition on record. The Hebrews 1491. Moses gives the law at Mt. Sinai. 1453. Death of Aaron. 1451. Death of Moses. Joshua conquers Canaan 1343. Eglon, King of Moab, en- slaves Israel. 1305. Israel subdued by King of Canaan. 1285. Deborah and Barak de- feat the Canaanites. 1249. Gideon conquers the Midianites. Asia and Africa 1491. Pharaoh and his army drowned in the Red Sea. 1485. Egyptus reigns and gives name to the country. 1449. Ericthoneus reigns in Troy. 1376. Sethos reigns in Egypt. 1374. Troas, King of Troy. 1322. Rameses II. (Sesostris) con- quers Ethiopia. 1314. Ilus, son of Troas, founds Ilium. 1252. Second Assy- rian dynasty. Europe 1457. Kingdom of Mycene founded. 1453. First Olympic games at Elis. 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 1397. Corinth be- comes a king- dom under Sisy- phus. 1356. Eleusinian mysteries insti- tuted by Eumol- pus. 1266. CEdipus, King of Thebes. 1263. Argonautio Expedition of Jason. 66 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACT9 B.C. FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS B. C. 1240 Arts of Civilization The Hebrews Asia and Africa Europe The axe, wedge, wim- 1240. Troy taken by ble, and lever, also the Argonauts. 1239. Latinus reigns masts and sails for in Italy. ships, invented by 1235. Theseus Daedalus of Athens. 1233. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. reigns in Athens for 30 years. 1225. First Theban 1224 Game of backgammon invented by Palame- 1220. Priam, King of War. des of Greece. Troy. 1194. The Trojan 1216. Second The- ban War. 1213. Helen of Troy carried off by 1161. Israel enslaved by the War begins. Theseus, mar- Philistines. 1140. Tiglath-Pile- ries Menelaus. Samson born. ser real founder 1136. Samson slays 1,000 of the Assyrian PhiUstines. Empire 1124. Troy taken. 1123. Chow dynasty 1152. Alba Longa built by As- canius. 1124. .lEolian migra- tion. 1116. Samuel, last Judge of begins in China. Thebes, capi- 1115 Mariner's compass known in China. Israel. tal of BcEotia, founded. 1104. Return of the 1100 Dictionary of Chinese Heraclidce. completed by Pa- 1095. Saul becomes King of End of King- out-she. Israel. 1085. David born. 1055. Death of Saul; accession of David. 1048. David King of all Israel. 1042. The Ark removed to Jerusalem. 1036. Revolt of Absalom. 1033. Solomon born. 1016. Death of David. 1044. Ionian emi- grants settle in Asia Minor. dom of Mycene. 1070. Heremon, of Gallicia, con- quers Ireland. 1060. Athens gov- erned by Archons. 1015 Minos gives Crete his code of laws. 1015. Solomon annointed ICing. 1012. Solomon begins the Temple. 1004. Dedication of Temple. 1000 Solomon extends his commerce to India, via Red Sea, and to the shores of the At- lantic, via Straits of Gibraltar; builds Pal- myra, Baalbec, and other cities. 1000. Solomon and Hiram, King of Tyre, form an al- liance ; also Solo- mon and Pha- raoh. 986. Utica built. Samos built. 976. Capys reigns in Alba Longa. 975. Death of Solomon. Revolt of the Ten Tribes. Two kingd oms formed. Israel Judah 975. Jero- 916 The Rhodians begin navigation laws. 971. Shishak, King of Egypt, takes Jerusalem. boam estab- lishes idola- try. 918. Ahaband Jezebel. 901. The Syri- ans besiege Samaria. 896. Elijah translated to heaven. 971. Shishak (Se- sostus of Egypt) plunders Jerusa- lem. Homer born (?). 935. Bacchus, King of Corinth. 895. Tiberinus, King of Alba, 886 Homer's poems brought into Greece. 888. Philis- tines plun- der Jerusa- drowned in the river Albula, which is thence lem. called the Tiber. 884 Lycurgus reforms the 884. Usurpa- tion and 884. Jehu, constitution of King. Sparta. death of At- 869 Gold and silver coined by Phidon, ruler of haUah. 864. Romulus, King of Alba Argos. 840. Jehoash defeats King Ben- hadad of 825. Dynasty of the Tanites in Egypt. 820. Arbaces, Longa. Syria. King of Assyria. HISTORY 57 B. C. FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS B. C. Arts of Civilization Judah Israel Asia and Africa Europe 814. The Kingdom 797. Ardyssus, first of Macedon 786 Corinthians employ tri- remes or vessels with three banks of oars. King of Lydia. founded by Caramus. 772 Sculpture first men- tioned among the 770. Pul in- Egyptian arts. vades Israel, 769. Syracuse and is bribed 767. Sardanapalus, founded by to depart. King of Nineveh. Media subjected to Assyria. 747. Era of Na- bonazzar, Assy- rian Empire de- Archias of Corinth. 753. Building of Rome. 750. Sabine War. 747. Union of Ro- mans and Sa- bines. 741. Pekah, stroyed. 743. First Messin- King of Is- ian War. rael, be- 737. Sebacon in- sieges Jeru- vades Egypt. salem, 120,- 736. Tiglath-pil- 000 of his eser conquers men slain. Syria and part 726. Heze- of Israel. kiah abol- 721 First eclipse of the ishes idola- 721. Samaria 721. Shalmanezer. ^ moon observed by try. taken by the Kingof Nineveh, the Chaldeans at Assyrians ; takes Samaria Babylon. 717. Heze- Tribes car- and carries the Religion of Buddha in- kiah, King. ried into Ten Tribes into 716. Romulus re- troduced in India. Hebrews captivity. captivity. puted murdered. 717. Sennachar ib. King of Nineveh. 712. Sennach- arib invades 710 Roman Calendar re- formed; year divided into 12 months in- stead of 10 as before. Judah. 711. His army (185,000) destroyed by pestilence. 710. Media bee omes a kingdom. 685 Iambic verse intro- 696. Manas- 685. Second Mes- duced. seh, King. sinian War. 680 Chess invented. 680. Babylon a nd Nineveh are united under Esarh laddon. 678. Argseus, first / 677. Manas- King of Macedon. 660 Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind. seh, carried to Babylon, is afterward Babylonia 648. Saracus, I 1. Cing Egypt 660. Psammet- 672. Tullius Hos- tilius. King of 640 Spherical form of the earth and true cause of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, who also discovered the electricity of restored. of Babylon a Nineveh. nd icus. King of Egypt. Memphis Rome. 664. First sea- fight on record becomes the capital. between the Corinthians and Corcyreans. 621 amber. Draconian code form- 612. Nineveh a second time 658. Byzantium founded. 610 ulated. Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Many lives lost in the attempt. He also sent out a Phenician fleet which circumnavigated 606. Conquest of Jerusalem by Nebu- chadnezzar. destroyed. 606. Nebuchad zar defeats > of Egypt, ii vades Judea takes Jerusa lez- 'echo 1- and lem. 610. Pharaoh- Necho, King of Egypt. 600. Psammis, King of Egypt. 640. Latins con- quered by the Romans. Philip I., King of Macedon. 616. Tarquinius Priscus, King of Africa. 591. Ezekiel prophesies in Chaldea. 604. Nebuchad nezzar, Kinj of Babylon. 599. Birth of C yins. Roriie. 602. Illyria con- quered by Macedon. 594 Solon's code supersedes 594. Pharaoh- 594. Solon, Archon that of Draco in 589. Invades Hophra, of Athens. Athens. 588. Captivity of Judah completed. Jerusalem destroyed and the Temple burnt. Phenicia. King of Egypt. 581. Egypt in- vaded by Nebuchad- nezzar. 578 Money coined at Rome by Servius Tullius. 579. Jews car- ried to Babylon. 578. Servius Tullius, King of Rome. 58 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS B. C. Arts of Civilization Persia Babylonia Egypt Europe 572. Takes Tyre. , 569. Amasis, 668 School of sculpture King of opened at Athens. Egypt, makes alliance with Greece. 536. Pythagorus 567. Conquest of the Etrurians by Rome. 565. First census 562 First comedy acted at 562. Croesus, visits Egypt. of Rome; Athens. King of Lydia, 84,700 citizens. Dials invented by 560. Cyrus, King subjects Asia Anaximander of of Persia. Minor. 539. The Phocians Miletus. 548. Cyrus con- einigrate to 540 Corinthian order-of quers Lydia. Gaul and build architecture invent- 538. Takes Baby - 538. Babylon Massilia (now ed by Calimaehus. Ion. taken by Marseilles). 535 Thespis performs first tragedy at Athens. Cyrus, the 535. Made tribu- Persian. tary by Cyrus. 536. Persian Empire founded by Cyrus, composed of Assyria, Media, and Persia. Captivity of the Jews ended. . 535. Temple rebuilt at Jerusalem. 529. Death of Cyrus; Cambyses, 528. Thrace comes King of Persia. into view. FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER B. C. Arts of Civilization Persia Greece Macedonia Rome, Etc. 530. Cadiz built 527 First public li- 527. Pisistratus by the Car- brary founded 525. Cambyses con- dies, after seiz- thaginians. at Athens quers Egypt and makes it a Persian prov- ince. Psammeticus, last King of Egypt. 522. Darius I., ing Athens. 522 Confucius, the Chinese philos- King of Persia. 510. Followers of opher. Pisistratus ex- 509 Abolition of regal pelled; Democ- 509. The Tar- government at 508. Darius con- racy established quins ex- Rome, and es- quers India. at Athens. pelled from Rome. tablishment of _ a Republic at Brutus and Rome. CoUatinus first Consuls. 507. The Capitol 500 Phenician letters 500. The lonians 497. Alexander I., King. finished. carried to Ire- revolt and burn land from Sardis. 494. Tribunes of Spain. the people The Temple of chosen. Minerva built. 491. Coriolanus 490. Darius sends 490. Battle of Mara- banished. an army of 500,- thon. 000 into Greece. 487. Egypt revolts 48,3 Etrurians excel in is subdued by 483. Aristides ban- music, drama, Xerxes. ished. and architec- 486. Xerxes, King ture. of Persia. 481. Expedition of Xerxes into 480. Battle of Ther- 480. Carthagini- Greece; destroys mopylse. ans defeated. Athens. Battle of Sala- mis and defeat of Persians. Hamilcar killed in battle. 479. Returns de- 479. Battle of feated. Platea ; Persian fleet destroyed at Mycale. 476. Themistocles rebuilds Athens. 465. Xerxes assas- 465. Third Messini- sinated. Artax- an War. erxes I., King. 461. Pericles im- 460 Voyage of the presses himself 460. Cincinnatus, Carthaginians 456. Esther. upon Greek af- Consul. to Britain for fairs. tin. 449. Persians de- feated at Sala- mis. 1 1 HISTORY 59 B. C. FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER B. C. Arts of Civilization Persia Greece Macedonia Rome, Etc. 457. Long walls of Athens begun. 456. Cincinnatus, Dictator. 451. Laws of 445. Jerusalem re- the 12 tables. 441 The battering built by Nehe- ram invented. miah. 440. Siege of Samos by Pericles. 431. Peloponnesian War. 429. Death of Peri- cles, having gov- erned Athens 40 years. 416. War with Sici- 413. Archelaus, 413. Egypt re- ly. "Patron of Learning," gains inde- pendence. 411. Athens gov- seizes the 411. Roman erned by the throne. famine. "400." Alliance of Spar- ta with Persia. 401. Cyrus the 408. Capture of Younger defeat- Byzantium. 407. Carthagin- ed. Retreat of ians War on the 10,000 under Sicily. Xenophon. 400. Delhi founded. ' 400. Return of the 399 Catapults invent- ed by Diony- 10,000. 399. Archelaus murdered. siua. 392. The Illy- rians invade 390. Rome de- stroyed by 387. Greek cities of Macedonia, the Gauls. 380 Treatise on conic Asia made tribu- and possess 376. War be- sections by tary to Persia. the throne. tween patrici- Aristseus. t ans and ple- bians. Lucius Sextus first 368 A celestial globe 370. Predominance plebian con- brought into of Thebes. sul. Greece from 371. Curule Egypt. magistrates 360 Philippics of De- 360. War of the 360. Philip II., appointed. mosthenes de- Allies against King; he in- 369. Military . livered. Athens. stitutes the tribunes abol- Decline of Gre- Macedonian ished. cian republics. phalanx; de- feats the Athenians. 356. Second Sacred 356. Philip II. War. conquers Thrace and lUyria. Birth of Alex- ander the 343 Aristotle writes Great. 343. Samnian his philosophi- 344. Aristotle visits 344. Philip subdues War, contin- cal works. Mitylene. Sparta. 339. War with 341. War against the Athenians. Siege of By- zantium. ued 53 years. 340. War with the Latins. 338. Royal family destroyed with Macedonia. 338. Philip master of poison. Greece. 338. Athenians and Thebans defeated at Chaeronea. 337. First plebian ptse- tor. 336 Eclipses calcu- 336. Darius III., 336. Philip slain. 336. Philip as- lated by Calip- King. sassinated by pus, the Athen- Pausanius; ian. - Alexander III., sur- named the Great, suc- ceeds to the throne. 60 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B.C. FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER B. C. 335 Arts of CiTilizatlon Persia Greece Macedonia Rome, Etc. Caustic art in- 335. Greeks con- 335. Enters vented. 334. Alexander the Great invades Persia. (See un- quered by Alex- ander the Great. Thebes destroy- ed. Greece, con- quers Greeks, and succeeds to head of army against Persians. 334. Invades Persia. Defeats der Macedonia.) Darius at 332. Caledonian 331. Darius III. Granicus. monarchy (Scotland) founded by murdered. Alex- ander founds the Grecian or Mace- ~ Fergus I. donian mon- 333. Battle of Issus. ' Roman treaty archy. Battle of Arbela. 332. Egypt conquered by Alexander, and Alexandria built. with Alex- ander the Great. 330. ^schines, the o rator. banished. 328 Voyage of Near- 327. Alexander invades India. 327. Second chus from the 325. Demosthenes banishedi 323. Ptolemy I. restores the independence of Egypt. Alexander the Great dies in Babylonia. The Grecian Samnite War. Indies to the Euphrates. cities revolt from Macedonia, and in 321 Antipater be- comes Regent of Greece. Persia was reconquered from the Greeks, and remained tributary to Parthia till about A. D. 250. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST B. C. Arts of Civilization Rome, Etc. Macedonia Greece Syria, Judea Egypt, Cartilage 321. Roman army sur- rencfers to 319. Poly- sperchon the Sam- succeeds nites. Antipater, 320 First work on 320. Sam- and pro- 320. Ptolemy mechanics nites de- claims lib- I. carries written by feated at erty to the 100,000 Aristotle. Luceria. Grecian cities. lews into Egypt. 317 Commerce of 317. Syra- 317. Cassan- 317. Deme- Macedon cuse and der as- trius Pha- with India, Sicily sumes the lerius gov- through usurped throne of erns Ath- Egypt. by Agath- ocles. Macedon. ens. 315. Cassan- der rebuilds Thebes. 312 The Appian 312. War 312. P.vrrhus 312. Seleucus I. retakes Way con- with the II., great- Babylon. > structed. Etruscans. est hero of 310 Aqueducts and baths in Rome. his time. 306. Democ- racy es- tablished 1 301. Battle of Ipsus, 301. Phenicia at Athens Alexander's empire united to 300 Euclid, the by Deme- divided anew into Egypt. celebrated trius. four parts: Syria, 300. Golden mathemati- Macedon, Greece, Age of the cian. 296. Philip IV 294. Deme- trius mur- ders Alex- Egypt. Ptolemies. 293 Sun-dial erect- ed at Rome, and time divided into hours. Fabius intro- ander and siezes throne of Macedon. 290 291. Seleucus founds duces paint- ing at Rome. 286. Law of Horten- 286. Lysima- chus, King Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea. 283. Death of The Colossus sius, by of Thrace, Soter. of Rhodes which the subjects built by decrees of Mace- Chares. the people had the force of those of the senate. donia. HISTORY 61 B.C. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST B. C. 285 Arts of Civilization Rome, Etc. Macedonia Greece Syria, Judea Egypt, Carthage Dionysius 287. Lysi- 285. The Scythians in- founds the machus vade Bosphorus. solar year. reigns. 283. Ptolemy to consist Philadel- of 365 days. phus. King 5 hours, and of Egypt. 49 minutes. 284 The Septua- gint begun at Alexan- dria. 284. The Achaean Republic. 283 The Pharos built at 281. The Tar- 281. Antiochus Soter Alexandria en tine 279. Irrup- succeeds Seleucus. first light- War. tion of the house on Gauls. record. 277. Reign of Antigonus. 274. Pyrolius invades Mace- donia, de- feats An- tigonus, and is proclaimed King. 272. Antigo- nus re- stored. 268. Second 268. Athens 269. Egypt first sends 267 Ptolemy incursion taken by embassa- makes a 266 Rome of the Antigonus. 262. Invasion of the dors to canal from mistress of Gauls. Gauls. Rome. the Nile to all Italy. the Red Sea. 266 Silver money first coined. 264. First 250. Parthia Punic War. revolts 255. Athens 246. Antiochus II. 246. Ptolemy from joins the poisoned by Eurgetes * 241. End of Macedon. Acha?an his wife. subdues first League. 226. Seleucus Syria. Punic War. III., King of Syria. 225. The 224 Archimedes makes Gauls re- pulsed in Italy. known his ' discoveries 221. Ptolemy in mechan- Philopa- ter. King. ics. 220. Philip 220, The So- 219 Art of sur- 219. Hanni- assists the cial War 219. War with gery intro- bal takes Achseans. begins. Ptolemy. duced. Saguntum, and crosses the Alps. 218. Second Punic War. Hanni- bal de- feats the Romans at Ticinus and Tre- bia. 216. Varro at Cannae totally de- feated by Hannibal. 211. Alliance of Philip and Han- 211. Antiochus the Great, King of Syria. 206 Gold coined 206. Cartha- nibal. 206. Spar- at Rome. ginians driven out of Spain. 204. Scipio carries the war into Africa. tans de- feated at Man tinea. 205. Ptolemy Epiphenes, Kmg. 204. Roman 203. Judea conquered general by Antiochus. Scipio de- feats As- doubal and Sy- phax of Carthage. 202. End of 202 Art of print- 202. Hanni- ing known in China. bal defeat- ed at bat- tle of Za- ma. End of war. Second Punic War. 62 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B.C. FBOM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH | OF CHRIST B. C. Arts of CiTilizatton Rome, Etc. Macedonia Greece Syria, Judea Egypt, Carthage 200. Second Macedoni- 199. Second 198 Books, with an War. War with 198. Acha- 198. Jews assist Anti- 198. Egypt leaves of Rome. ans and ochus in expelling loses her vellum, in- Spartans the Egyptian troops Syrian troduced by join the from Jerusalem. posses- Attalus, Romans 196. Hannibal joins sions. King of Per- against Antiochus. gamus. 188. Syria is made a Roman province. 179. Reign of Perseus. 171. Third War with Rome. Macedon. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus at Magnesia. 187. Antiochus killed. Syria becomes tem- porarily a Roman province. Syria Judea 185. Seleu- 181. Plague cusIV., 180. Ptolemy at Rome. King. 172. Antio- chus Philoma- ter. King. 174. Cato's 170 Paper invent- ed in China. 170. Tiberius IV., 170. Jeru- embassy and Caius King. salem to Gracchus. 168. Mace- don be- Greatly hated plun- dered Carthage. 167 First library 167. Census comes a by the by An- opened in of Rome, Roman - Jews. tiochus Rome. 327,000 citizens. province. 165. Romans Epipha- nes. 165. Judas 162 Hipparchus fixes the first degree of longitude and latitude; founds trig- onometry. enter Achaia. Macca- beus expels the Syrians. 161. Trea- ty with 159 Clepsydra in- vented by Scipio Nas- cia. 155. Romans unsuccessful in Spain. Rom- ans. 152. Massi- nissa de- feats the Cartha- ginians. 151. Joint reign of 146 Alexandria the center of commerce. 149. Third Punic War. Conquest of Carthage and Corinth. Greece annexed to the Roman Empire. 146. Corinth destroyed by the Romans. Greece becomes a 142. Antio- chus Philo- mater and Physcon in Egypt. 146. Car- thage tak- en and destroyed by the Romans. 140 Clock wheels invented by Ctesibius. Roman province under the VI., King. 134. Inva- 145. Ptolemy Physcon becomes sole King of Egypt. 133 Equestrian order a dis- 133. Spain becomes a Roman province. name Achaia. sion of Judea. 130 tinct class. Revival of learning in China. 130. Con- quered by Par- thia. 130. John Hyr- canus delivers 129. Re- Judea 129. Physcon gained from driven by De- Syria. from his metrius throne for II. cruelty. 120 Theory of eclipses known to Chinese. 123. Caius Gracchus, Tribune 113. First great migration o nations. f the German 128. Pesti- lence in Egypt. 123. Car- thage rebuilt. 116. Ptolemy Lathyrus, King of Egypt. HISTORY 63 B.C. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH | OF CHRIST B. C. 1 110 Arts of Civilization Rome, Etc. Syria Judea Egypt, Carthage First sumptu- ary law at Rome. 104. Teutoni defeat 80,000 Romans on banks 107. Alex- of the Rhone. 105 War ander I., 99. Birth of Julius Ca>sar. with Egypt. King of Egypt. 98 Roman schools of oratory on 97. Mith- ridates con- Greek mod- 91. Social War in Italy. quers els insti- Capido- 82. Revolt tuted. 88. War with Pontus. cio. in Upper 86 Libraries of 82. Sylla defeats Marius and is created per- 86. Takes Egypt. Thebes Athens sent petual dictator. Bythin- to Rome by Plunder of the temple of Delphi. ia. destroyed. Sylla. 81. Alex- 79 Posidoniua 79. Alex- ander II., calculates andra, King the height Queen of Egypt. of the at- of Jan- mosphere. 75. Bythinia a Roman province. neus, 74 The Romans possess gold mines in 66. De- governs Judea. Asia Minor, 65. Syria becomes a Roman province. feated 65. Ptolemy Macedonia, Cicero. Consul. by Auletes, Sardinia, Pom- King. and Gaul ; 63. Cataline's conspiracy detected and sup- pey, 63. Judea 55. Auletes and silver pressed by Cicero. Syria a restored. mines in passes Roman 46. The Afri- Spain. under prov- mce. can War. 62 Magnificent Rome. 45. Csesar houses for rebuilds Roman 60. First triumvirate Pompey, Crassus, and Csesar. Carthage. nobles 43. Cleopa- erected. tra poisons Also marble her theater of brother Scaurus to and rules hold 30,000 alone. 55 spectators. Iron chain 55. Csesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Gen Tians and Gauls, and in- 36. Cleopa- tra ob- cables used vades Britain. tains from by the Ve- 53. Crassus defeated and killed in Parthia. Antony a netians. 51. Csesar completes conquest of Gaul, which becomes a Roman grant of Phenicia, 50 A water mill province. erected on 49. Civil War between Casar and Pompey. Pompey defeated ; Csesar. Cyrene, the Tiber at Dictator. and Rome. 48. Battle of Pharsalia Pompey defeatec Pompey in Egypt. 1 by Cssar. Death of Cyprus. 31. Defeat 47 The Alexan- 47. Csesar takes Alexandria and conquers Egypt. at Actium. drian library 30. Suicide burnt of Antony 400,000 vol- and Cleo- umes. patra. 45 Caesar reforms 30. Egypt the calendar 44. Csesar assassinated in Roman Senat. / intony master of Rome. passes to by introduc- 43. Second triumvirate Octavius Csesar, Marc Antony, and Leoidus. Rome. ing the solar 42. Battle of Philippi; defeat and death of Brutus and Cassius. for the lunar 32-31. War between Antony and Octavius. By the battle of Ac- year. tium (31), Octavius acquires the Empire. 30 Direct trade of Rome with India. 30. Republic of Rome becomes a monarchy 4,100,000 citizens. . Population of Rome, Silk and linen fac- tories in the Empire. Treasures of 27 27. Titles of Augustus and Emperor confer ed on Octavius for ten Egyptian years. art brought to Rome. The Pan- theon built. 23. Agrippa subdues all Spain. 21. Athens fi nally subjected to Rome. 22 Pantomimic dances in- troduced on the Roman stage. Aqueducts 19 19. Death of Virgil. 18. Parthians defeated constructed by Agrippa. 64 THE STANDARD DiCTICfNARY OF FACTS B. C. FROI THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST B. C. 12 Arts of Civilization Rome. Etc. Roman legi- ons distrib- uted over 15. Cantabria, Auslria, and oth er territory conquered by Drusus, is added to the the prov- Empire. inces in fixed camps 13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. 1 which soon grew into 1 1 . Germany subdued by Germanicus. 5. Varrus appointed Governor of Syria, and | cities Cyrenius Governor of Judea. among 10. Egyptian religion displaces national religion. | them were Bonn and Mayence. 8 Calendar cor- rected by Augustus. 4 Birth of Je- 4. Cymbelene, King of Britain. sus, at Advent of Christ, four years before the so-called Christian Era. 1 Bethlehem, 3. Death of Herod. . in Judea. 2. Cscsar confirms the will of Herod. 1 (According to the chronology B.C. of Usher.) A. D. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME A. D. 1-476 Arts of Civilization Development of Ciirlstianlty The Roman Emipire 1. Caius Cffisar makes peace with the Parthians. Tiberius returns to Rome. 6. Varrus, encamped on the Weser, governs lower Germany like a Roman province. 8. Jesus reasons with 9 Celsus advances the the doctors. 14. Augustus dies at Nola; is succeeded by Tibe- science cf medicine. 25. Pontius Pilate, Gov- ernor of Judea. rius as Emperor. 19. The Jews are banished from Rome 26 The Druids in Ger- 26. John the Baptist 26. Thrace becomes a Roman province. many. begins his ministry. 27. Jesus baptized by . John. 29. Twelve Apostles sent abroad. 30. Crucifixion of the 30. Agrippina banished. Saviotir, Friday, April 3, at 3 P. M. 34. St. Paul converted j to Christianity. 37 Appion of Alexan- dria writes on 37. Tiberius succeeded by Caligula, noted for his 40. Disciples first called profligacy. grammar. Christians at Antioch. 41. Herod's persecu- tions. 48. Census, 6.900,000. 50 Columella, born in . Spain, writes on husbandry. 50. Paul preaches at Athens. 59. Paul appeals to Cspsar. 54. Nero, Emperor; a profligate and tyrant. 60. Paul imprisoned in Rome. 61. Revolt of the Britons under Queen Boadicea. 64 Nero's golden palace 64. First persecution of 64. Nero sets fire to Rome; accuses Christians. built of great Christians by Nero. extient. Paul visits Jerusa- lem. 66. Jews at war with Romans; Paul be- headed. 70. Destruction of Jeru- salem, by Titus. 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one 78 The Capitol at Rome rebuilt. day. 79. Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by Vesu- Circumnavigation vius. 80 of Scotland. Paintings executed 80. Agricola governs Britain, reduces Wales and for the baths of 95. Second persecution enters Caledonia. Titus; the group of of the Christians by the Laocoon. Domitian. "HISTORY 65 A. D. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME A. D. Arts of Civilization Development of Christianity The Roman Empire 120 132 180 215 235 274 284 290 323 330 366 The Ulpian library. Jurisprudence flourishes. Forum built. Pillar of Trojan, and Baths. Bridge built over the Danube. Great buildings of Palmyra. The Roman mosaics. Ptolemy, celebrated Egyptian astrono- mer and geogra- pher. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Caracalla grants right of Roman citizen- ship to all the provinces. Alexandrian School of Philosophy founded. Rome surrounded with a wall. Diocletian's Oriental form of govern- ment. Diocletian's Baths. The Gregorian Code. Church of St. Sophia erected at Constan- tinople. Constantinople a seat of art and litera- ture. Forts built on the Rhine. 107. Third persecution by Trajan. 118. Fourth persecution by Adrian. 134. Heresy of Marcion. 150. Canon of Scriptures fixed about this time. 202. Fifth persecution under Severus. 235. Sixth persecution under Maximinus. 250. Seventh persecution of the Christians. 262. Paul, bishop of Sa- mosatia, denies the divinity of Jesus Christ. 272. Persecution of Christians under Au- relian. 283. The Jewish Talmud composed. Religious ceremo- nies multiplied. Pagan rites imitat- ed by the Christians. 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 303. Persecution under Diocletian. 306. Persecution of Christians stopped by Constantius. 325. Council of Nice. 337. Eleventh persecu- tion. 373. Bible translated into Gothic language. Death of Athana- 98. Trajan, Emperor; Roman Empire at its greatest extent. 100. The Huns migrate westward. 117. Hadrian, Emperor; makes a journey through the provinces; visits Britain and builds there a wall from the Tyne to Solway Firth; builds a wall from the Rhine to the Danube. 138. Antoninus, Emperor; 145-152, defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians; stops the perse- cution of the Christians. 161. Marcus Aurelius, Emperor; 169, war with Marcomanni. 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by lightning. The Saracens defeat the Romans. 193. Septimus Severus, Emperor. A vigorous ruler. 194, besieges Byzantium; 202, persecutes the Christians; builds the wall of Severus in Britian; 211, dies at York, in Britain. 223. Artaxerxes begins the new kingdom of Persia. 232. Persian War. 241. The Franks first mentioned in history. 251. Confederacy of the Franks established between the Rhine and Elbe. The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 256-69. Goths conduct expeditions into Asia Minor and Greece. 26L Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and Cffisarea. 264. Alliance with Odenatus, King of Palmyra, who is succeeded by his wife Zenobia, who reigns with the titles of "Augusta" and "Queen of the East." 268. Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,000 Goths. 270. Aurelian, a great warrior, becomes Emperor; 271, defeats the Goths and Alemanni; 273, re- duces Palmyra, and takes Queen Zenobia prisoner; 274, Franks, Spain, and Britain re- duced to obedience; 275, Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 277. Probus, Emperor; 280, defeats the Persians. 284. Diocletian, Emperor. Sends ambassadors to China, 296. 291. The Franks master Batavia and Flanders. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the empire to Constantius and Galerius. 306. Constantine the Great, first Christian Emperor, defeats the Franks. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be destroyed. 337. Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons to the empire. 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of Valen- tinian and Valens, under whom the empire is divided. Western Empire 364. Valentinian, Emperor. 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are defeated by Theodosius. 375. Gains victory over the Germans ; succeeds to the Eastern Empire on the death of Valens. Eastern Empire 364. Valens, Em- peror. 376. Hungary (an- cient Pannonia) invaded by the Huns, from whom it is named. 66 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. ^ FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME A. D. Arts of Civilization Development of Christianity Western Empire Eastern Empire 379. Prerogatives of the 379. The I-ombards first 379. Theodosius the Roman See much en- leave Scandinavia, and Great becomes a larged. defeat the Vandals. zealous supporter 381. Second general of Christianity. Council of Constanti- nople. 384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate for 388. Theodosius de- Paganism against St. feats Maximus. the Tyrant of the Ambrose. 392. St.Chrysostom, Pa- 392. Theodosius becomes Western Empire. triarch of Constanti- sole Emperor of the East nople. and West. Complete downfall of Paganism. 394. Final division of em- 392 Impulse given to the aevelopment of pire between the sons of Theodosius. mathematics at 401. Europe overrun by the Alexandria Visigoths. 406. Vandals allowed to 'Set- tle in Spain and Gaul. 410. The Goths under Alaric sack and burn Rome. 412. Rise of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Burgundian Kingdom 408. Theodosius II., a child. Emperor. 416. The Pelagian heresy condemned. begun in Alsace. 414. Regency of the Emperor's sister. Pulcheria. 420. The Franks form a 420. Persian War. kingdom, under Phara- mond, on the lower Rhine. 424. Valentinian III., 425 Theodosius estab- lishes public schools and attempts the restoration of ' Emperor. 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 428. Romans defeated by learning. 431. Third general Coun- the Franks and Goths. 431. Armenia divided cil at Ephesus. Franks, under Clodion, by the Persians 432. St. Patrick preaches extend their conquests. and Romans. the gospel in Ireland. 433. Attila forms an im- 433. A great part of 435 Theodosian Code 435. Nestorianism pre- mense Empire from China Constantinople published. vails in the East. 443. The Manichapan books burned in Rome. 447. Eutyches asserts the existence of only one nature in Jesus Christ. to the Atlantic. 439. The Vandals, under Genseric, form Kingdom of Africa, take Carthage and plunder Italy. 441. Roman territories in- vaded by the Huns, Per- sians, and Saxons. 445. Famous embassy from Britain soliciting aid against the Picts. 448. MerovcEus I., first King of the Merovingians. destroyed by fire. 437. Pannonia, Dal- matia, and Nori- cum gained from the Western Em- pire. 450. Marcian, Em- 451. Fourth general 451. Arrival of Saxons in peror, refuses to Council at Chalcedon. Britain under Hengist pay tribute to the Huns. and Horsa. 452. City of Venice founded. 457. War with the 458. Franks, under Childeric Goths. I., conquer as far as the 461. Peace with the 465-476. Oligarchy of Loire and take Paris. Goths. 468 The principle of law the bishops of Rome, 468. The Visigoths under , established that the Constantinople, Alex- Eric establish their king- 474. Zeno, Emperor; accused shall be andria, Antioch, and dom in Spain. a turbulent reign tried by his peers, Jerusalem. marked by de- or equals. The Church now begins to assume a political aspect. bauchery and conspiracies. 475. Theodoric be- 476 Odoacer's sack of 476. Odoacer, King of the comes chief of the Rome changed the Herulii, takes Rome, and Ostrogoths and course of events in the Western Empire ends invades the em- Europe. The form 1228 years after the pire. of the old Roman founding of the city. government re- Commencement of the mained, but Italy, Kingdom of Italy under ravaged by a suc- Odoacer. cession of wars, plagues, famines, and every form of public tyranny. was almost a desert. HISTORY 67 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE A. D. 476-841 Arts of Civilization The Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and tlie Cliurch France 480. An earthquake destroys greater 481. Clovis I., part of Constanti- 484. Christians founder of the nople. persecuted by the Vandals. French mon- archy. 485. Battle of Sois- sons gained by 486 Rise of the feudal system in France, under Clevis. 487. The Sax- ons defeated by Prince Arthur. Clovis. 491. The Green and 490. Sussex be- 491. Clovis sub- Blue factions. comes a dues Thuringia. 493 Theodorie introduces Greelc architecture into Italy. 502. Invasions by the kingdom. 1 493. Italy con- quered by Theodorie. Odoacer put to death. 494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his supremacy. 496. Christianity introduced Persians. into France. 510. Clovis makes 511 The Salic law in 511. Great insurrec- Paris his capi- France. tion in Constanti- nople. tal. 614 Use of the burning glass in warfare. 514. Constantinople besieged by Vitali- 516 The Christian Era proposed and intro- anus, whose fleet is consumed by the duced by Diony- burning glass of sius, a monk. Proclus. 518. Justinian I. be- gins a brilliant reign over the Eastern or Byzan- tine Empire. 527. Celebrated Justi- nian code of laws. 519. Prince Ar- thur defeat- ed by Cer- dic, who be- gins the third Saxon 529 The schools of Athens 529. Belisarius, the Kingdom of 529. Order of the suppressed. famous general, Wessex. Benedictine defeats the Per- 530. Kingdom Monks insti- sians. of Essex. tuted at Monte 532. Burgundy 534. Defeats the Van- Cassino, near conquered by dals in Africa. Naples. Childebert. 535. Subdues Sicily. 536. Takes Naples. _ 536. Ostrogoths 537. Takes Rome. 537. Italy con- quered by Belisarius, for Justinian. 539. War, famine, surrender " their posses- sions in Gaul to the French King. 540. North Africa, and pestilence. Corsica, and Sar- 542. Prince Ar- Milan rav- dinia annexed to thur mur- aged by the the Eastern Em- dered in Goths. pire. Cornwall. 548. The Turkish 551 Manufacture of silk introduced from China into Europe monarchy founded in Asia. 554. Italy governed % by monks by Greek E.xarchs. 558. A plague extends over Europe and Asia and lasts 557. Church of St. Germain de Pres built at Paris. 558. Clotaire I., King. 559 The Saxon laws pro- 559. Saxon mulgated. The about 50 years. Heptarchy king's authority begins. limited by the Wittenagemot. Three orders: the noble, the free, and the servile. 568 The feudal system 568. Italy con- established in Italy 569. The Turks first quered by the by the Lombards. recognized as a na- Lombards. Written laws com- tion. They send piled by the Visi- an embassy to Jus- goths in Spain. tin II. and form an alliance. 68 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE DIVISION, OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE A. D. 476- S41 Arts of Civilization Tlie Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and tlie Cliurcli France 575. East Ang- 575. First monas- lia formed tery built in 580 Latin language ceases into a Bavaria. 583. Clotaire II., to be spoken in kingdom. King. Italy, and super- whence the sedes the Gothic in origin of the 590. Mass intro- Spain. name Eng- land. 591. Ethelbert, duced. 597 England relapses into King of 598. St. Augus- semi-barbarism, 600. Eastern Empire Kent, gains tine, first arch- after Saxon con- spread over Hun- the ascend- bishop of Can- quest. gary, Poland, and ancy. terbury, intro- The aristocracy ac- Prussia, under Ti- duces Chris- quire great power berius II. tianity into in France. 602. Invasion of the 604. St. Paul's Britain. Rites and supersti- Persians. Church tions increase all founded by over Europe. Ethelbert of Kent. 610. HeracHus takes 607. Suprem- 607. The Pan- Constantinople, acy of the theon of Rome kills Phocas, the Pope ac- dedicated to Emperor, and knowledged. Christianity. makes himself * King. 612. Mahomet pub- lishes the Koran. Syria ravaged by the Arabs. 614. Jerusalem taken 617 Ethelbert publishes by the Persians. 617. St. Peter's the first code of laws 622. The Hegira, or (now West- 625-40. Churches in England. Mahomet's flight minster Ab- of Jerusalem, from Mecca to Me- bey) found- Antioch. and 628. Dagobert I. dina. ed by Sa- Alexandria builds the 632 Islamism and the 632. Death of Ma- bert. King lost to the Church of St. power of the Ca- liphs established in homet. of Kent. Christian Denis, the sep- 633. Omar, Caliph, 633. Bretwold world by the ulture of the the East. In the takes Jerusalem," V. embraces sweep of French kings. Caliphs were united which is held by Christianity. Mohammedan- 638. Kingdom di- the highest spiritual the Saracens 463 ism. vided by Clovis and regal authority. years. 673. Siege of Con- II. andSigebert, the latter King 67'4 Stone buildings and glass come into use in England. The Anglo-Saxons stantinople by the Saracens, whose fleet is destroyed of Austrasia. by the Greek fire advance in civiliza- of Callinicus. tion and power by the introduction of 680. Kingdom of Bul- 680. The Sixth garia founded general Coun- Christianity. 690. The name cil called at 690. Pepin d'Her- In France, the Teu- England Constanti- istal, King. tonic language first used nople. supersedes the Latin. National assemblies established but confined to the aris- tocracy. In Persia the Magian religion gives 695. Childebert, place to the Mohammedan. III., King of Neustria. 698 Christianity greatly extended among 698. Carthage de- 698. Picts adopt stroyed by the 700. Anglo- Christianity. 700. Aquitaine, the German nations Saracens, and the Saxon Oc- Burgundy, and in the North of north coast of Af- . tarchy. 704. The first Provence be- Europe; but al- rica subjugated. 705. Alfred the province given come separate most exterminated 709. All Africa sub- Wise in to the Pope, dukedoms. in Africa by the dued by the Sara- Northum- John VI. 714. Charles Mar- progress of Moham- medanism. cens. bria. tel, Duke of Austrasia. 716 The art of making paper introduced by the Arabs. 716. Leo III., Em- 725. Charles Mar- peror. 726. The Emperor tel subdues Ba- The Saracens 727. Ina, King I^eo forbids varia. invest Constanti- of Wes.iex, image worship nople, by land begins col- and sea. City lection of saved by Greek Peter's fire. pence to support a college at Rome. , HISTORY 69 A. D. FROM THE FALL, OF ROME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE A. D. 476-841 Arts of Civilization The Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and the Church France 740 785 788 793 800 813 828 840 Saracens encourage learning. Ignor- ance, profligacy, and misery charac- terized the age pre- ceding Charle- magne. Golden period of learning in Arabia under the Caliph Haroun al Raschid. Pleadings in courts of justice first prac- ticed. Foundation of schools in monasteries and cathedrals by Char- lemagne. Agriculture and hor- ticulture encour- aged by Charle- magne; both flour- ish in Spain under the Caliphs. Arabian horses intro- duced into Spain. Transient revival of learning under Charlemagne. The reign of Caliph Mamun the golden epoch of Arabian literature. St. Mark's Church at Venice built. Feudal system in its power. 746. Saracens de- feated by Con- stantine V. 762. Caliph Almanzor builds Bagdad and makes it his capi- tal. 766. Asia Minor rav- aged by the Turks. 785. Empire invaded by Haroun al Ras- chid, Caliph of Bagdad. 735. Death of the vener- able Bcde. 787. First re- corded in- vasion of the Danes the Sea Kings and Vikings. 803. The Saracens ravage Asia Minor. 813. Egbert, King of Wes- sex, defeats the Britons. 822. Constantinople besieged by the Saracens. The Bulgarians raise the siege. 829. Theophilus, Emperor. 827. The seven kingdoms of Heptarchy united by Egbert under the name of England or the land of the Angles. Invasion of the Danes 838. Ethelwolf, King. Kenneth, King of the Scots, de- feats and ex- tirpates the Picts, and becomes sole monarch of Scotland. 752. The Pope de- thrones Chil- deric, King of France, by a papal decree. Pope Ste- phen III. at war with the Lombards. 755. Beginning of the Pope's temporal power. 787. Seventh gen- eral Council of Nice. 800. The Pope separates from the Eastern Empire and becomes Su- preme Bishop of the West- ern. Charlemagne reforms the Church. Many bishop- rics founded. 817. College of Cardinals founded. 824. Christianity carried to Denmark and Sweden. 732. Defeats the Saracens at Tours. 752. End of Mero- vingian line of French kings. Pepin, the Short, first of the Carlovin- gian line. 764. Extirpates the Huns. 791-96. Estab- lishes the mar- gravate of Aus- tria. 800. Charlemagne founds the New Western Em- pire and is crowned at Rome King of Italy, Germany and France. 802. Receives an embassy from Haroun al Ras- chid. 806. Charlemagne divides the em- pire among his sons, only one of whom sur- vived him Louis I. 817. Louis I. di- vides the em- pire. 841. Another di- vision of the empire. Charles I., King of France; Louis I., King of Germany; Lothaire, King of Italy. 70 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL | OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 841 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles Hereditary nobility and the clergy dominant in mat- 844. Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople. 844. Decline of the Cali- ters of state. phate begins. Fre- Persecution of the quent wars between Christians in Spain. the Greeks and the 846. The Saracens de- Saracens. stroy the Venetian 849. Alfred the Great fleet and besiege born. Rome. 850 Roman and Ck)mmon 850. Christianity propa- gated in Denmark Law introduced. and Sweden. 858. Nicholas I. first Pope to be crowned. 860. Schism of the Greeks begins. 864. Bible translated into Slavonian. 867. Eighth Council at 807. Basil inaugurates 867. The Danes con- Constantinople. the Macedonian dy- quer Northumber- nasty. land. 872 Clocks exported from Venice. 886. Leo VI., Emperor. 872. Alfred the Great defeats the Danes. 890 Oxford University 890. Southern Italy sub- founded by Alfred ject to the Greek Empire. 891. Renewed invasion the Great. of the Danes. Trial by Jury; fairs and markets in England. 900 England divided in- to counties, hun- 901. Edward the Elder dreds, and tithings. 904. Russian expedition the first to take the County courts es- under Gleg against Constantinople. title of "Rex An- tablished. glorum." 912. The Normans in France embrace Christianity. 915 University of Cam- bridge founded. 921. The Bohemians adopt Christianity. 917. Constantinople be- sieged by the Bul- garians. 919. Romanus, general of the fleet, usurps the empire and places his son, Con- 916. Agriculture at a low ebb. 929. Eudes, monk of Cluni. stantine VIII., on the throne. 937. Romanus gains a g.34. Athelstau, King. 939 Cordova, in Spain, becomes famous as a center of science, learning, industry, and commerce. naval victory over the Russians. 940 Mints established in England. 941 The figures of arith- metic brought into Europe by the Saracens. 945. The Empress Helen usurps the throne. 952. Malcolm I., King Linens and woolens 955. Baptism of Olga, of Scotland. manufactured in and conversion of 955. Dunstan, Abbot of Flanders. Russia to Christian- ity. Glastonbury, rises to great power. HISTORY 71 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL. OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 841 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Charles I. (the Bald), King. 841. Louis I., King. 842. Ramiro I. elected King of Oviedo. 846. The Saracens destroy the Ve- netian fleet and besiege Rome. 858 Invasion of Louis the German, who is defeated. 856. Louis 11. es- tablishes his court at Pavia, and rules Italy. 857. Garcia Ximines founds the Kingdom of Navarre. 862. Ruric the 860. Gorm united Jutland and the Danish Isles and becomes King of Denmark. 861. Iceland dis- covered. 868 I>orraine annexed to France. ~ Norman, Grand Duke ofNovgorod. 885 Paris besieged by the Normans. 879. Louis III. and Carloman reign jointly. 887. Arnold, Em- 873. Sancho Ini- go. Count of Navarre. 875. Harold, first King of Norway. 898 Charles III., King. 890. Arnold takes Rome. 899. Invasion of the Hunga- rians. 889. Arpad lays the foundation of Hungary. 912 The Normans, un- der RoUa, estab- lish themselves in Normandy. 912. Conrad I., Emperor. 910. Kingdom of Leon founded by Garcia. 912. Arabs build the splendid city and pal- ace of Zehra. 914. Beginning of the heroic age in Spain. 907. Oleg in- vades the Greek Em- pire. 901. Republics of Venice and Ge- noa founded. 923 Civil Wars. - 930. Harold VI.. first Christian King of Den- mark. 933. Eric, King of Norway. His cruelty leads to revolt of people. 936 Louis IV., King. 936. Otho the Great, Emper- or. 954 Lothaire I. confers the dukedoms of Burgundy and Aquitaine on Hugh the Great. 950. Bohemia an- nexed. 940. Ramiro, King of Leon, defeats the Moors at Simancus.. 955. Sancho I., King of Leon. 945. Swatoslav, King of Rus- sia. 72 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 1 OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A, D. 841-1453 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles 959. St. Dunstan, arch- 959. Emperor Romanus bishop of Canter- II. bury, attempts to reform the Church. 982 Dublin a trade cen- ter. 989. Greek Christianity propagated in Rus- sia by Waldimir. 985. Danish invasion under Sweyn. 993. First canonization of saints. 996. War with Bul- 697 Venice and Genoa rise to great im- portance in com- merce. 999. Hungary becomes a fief of the Church. garia. 1000 Firdusi, the Persian Homer, flourished. (940?-1020.) . 1002 Paper made of cotton rags. Churches first built in the Gothic stjle, of architecture. The French language begins to be writ- ten. 1002. Massacre of the Danes in England. 1003. Scotland ruled by Malcolm II. 1013. Danes, under Sweyn, become mas- , ters of England. j 1016. Edmund 11. fights Faint impulse given to art in Italy. 1018. Bulgaria again re- six battles with Ca- duced to a Grecian nute, King of the province. Danes, with whom he divides the king- 1054 i 1 I Musical scale of six notes invented by Guido Aretius. 1024. John XIX., Pope. 1048. Leo IX.. the first Pope to keep an army. 1042. First invasion of the Seljuk Turks. 1043. The Russians in- vade Thrace with 100,000 men and are repulsed by the Greeks. dom. 1027. Brian Boru, sole Monarch of Ireland. 1031. Canute subdues Scotland. 1034. Duncan, King of Scotland. 1039. Macbeth murders Duncan, and usurps the throne. 1042. The Saxon line re- stored under Edward the Confessor. 1051. William, Duke of Normandy, visits 1054. Excommunication 10.54. Theodora, last of England. of the Patriarch of the Macedonian dy- 1055 First age of scholas- tic philosophy. Constantinople and nasty. the Greeks. 1059. Quarrel between the Popes and the German Emperors. 1062 Surnames first used among the Eng- lish nobility. 1066. Pope Alexander II. deposes Harold, and 1066. Harold II., King, killed at the battle gives England to 1067. Emperor Romanus of Hastings. 1068 Shoeing horses intro- William the Con- III. defeated and William the Con- duced into Eng- queror. taken prisoner by queror, King. End land. The papacy at the height of its power. the Turks. of the Anglo-Saxon line. HISTORY 73 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL. OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 960 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Hugh Capet, Duke of France. 964. Italy united to the Empire of Germany. 973. St. Stephen, first hereditary Tuscany be- 976.. Hixem, Ca- King of Hungary. comes a Duke- liph of Cor- Gives it written dom. dova. . laws. 979. Otho at war with Lothaire. 981. Vladimir the Great, the first Christian 985. Sweyn I., of Denmark, in- 986 Louis v., last of the Carlovingians. ruler. vades England. 988 Hugh Capet, King, and founder of the Capetian line of French kings. 996 Robert II. succeeds his father on the throne. 1002. Henry II., Emperor. 998.' Division of the Moham- medan King- dom of Cor- dova. 1000. Sancho the Great, King of Navarre, 1010 Notre Dame, Paris, rebuilt. 1024. Conrad II., first of the Franconian line. takes the title of Emperor. 1015. Russia di- vided among the 12 sons of Vladimir. 1016. Canute II., King of Den- mark. 1019. Norway con- quered by Ca- nute. Danish as- cendancy. 1031 Henry I., King. 1032 Burgundy annexed. 1039. Henry III. defeats the Bo- hemians and Hungarians. 1035. Ramiro I., King of Ar- agon. 1036. Russia re- united by Jaroslav. 1046 Dispute between William the Con- queror and Wil- liam of Arques for the Duchy of 1053. Henry causes his son, Henry, Normandy. to be pro- 1054. Russia di- claimed King vided a sec- 1055. The Turks re- of the Romans. ond time. duce Bagdad and This title was Civil wars overturn the Em- applied for sev- eral centuries and great distress. pire of the Ca- liphs. to the Emper- 10.59. Ingo I., first or's eldest son. 1065. Alphonzo, King of Cas- tile and Leon. Christian King of Sweden. 1060. Robert Guis- card, Duke of Apulia. 1065. Jerusalem taken by the Saracens. 1066 William, DuKe of Normandy, claims the crown 1067. Polish con- quests in Russia. of England and 1068. Flight of 1068. Olaf III., wars on Harold Alphonzo to King of Norway. to obtain it. Toledo. 74 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 | Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles 1070. Lanfranc, Arch- 1070. Feudal system bishop of Canter- introduced. bury. 1073 Booksellers first 1073. Quarrel of Pope Gregory VII. (Hilde- heard of. 1074. Syria and Palestine brand) with the subdued by Melek Emperor Henry IV. Shah. 1075. The Pope sends legates to the various courts of Europe. 1076. Submission of 1076. Rebellion in Henry IV. to the Normandy. Pope. 1081. Alexius I. (Comne- 1084 Rigid poUce system established in Eng- 1084. Triumph of Henry nus), Emperor. Rob- IV. over Gregory. ert Guiseard invades 1087. William invades land. The order of the the empire and de- France and is killed U090 Fortresses at New Carthusians insti- feats Alexius. at Nantes. Castle and Carlisle tuted by Bruno. After the capture 1093. Malcolm III., of built. 1095. Peter the Hermit preaches against the Turks. of Jerusalem by the Turks, the Christian pilgrims are insulted and oppres.sed, which gives rise to the Cru- sades the great Scotland, invades England, and is slain near Alnwick Castle. struggle between 1096. The First Crusade. Christianity and Mo- hammedonism. Order, learning, and commerce re- vive in the last quar- ter of this century, and the empire is feared or respected by the nations of Europe and Asia. 1099. Invasion by the 1100 William of Poitou, 1100. Study of theology Crusaders. 1100. Henry I., King of first troubadour of receives new im- 1104. Battle of Acre. England, unites the note. pulse. 1109. Tripolis taken by Crusaders. Normans and Sax- ons. 1107. Henry quarrels with Anselm. 1118 Knights Templar 1118. John I. reforms the instituted. 1123. First Lateran, or manners of his peo- 1120 Scholastic philosophy ninth General Coun- ple. 1124. David I. promotes reaches a high cil. Tyre taken by civilization in Scot- point under Abel- 1127. Pope Honoriue II. Crusaders. land. ard. makes war against Aristotle's logic Roger, King of Sici- comes into repute. ly. 1139. Second Lateran, or 1140 Gratian collects the tenth General Coun- canon law. cil. 1147. The Second Cru- 1143. Manuel Comnenus, Emperor. 1150 Magnetic needle sade. known in Italy. 1154. Pope Adrian IV., an Englishman. 1156. Manuel forms the 1154. Henry II., King of England. 1158 Bank of Venice es- design of conquering 1158-64. Ascendancy of tablished. 1160. Waldenses and Italy and the West, Thomas a Becket, Colleges of theology, philosophy, ana law at Paris. Albigenses begin to but fails. Archbishop of Can- appear. terbury. Woolen manufac- tories established in England. HISTORY 75 A. D. 1070 FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 France Germany Rise of the trouba- dours in Provence. 1079 1087 1096 Birth of Abelard. War with England. Robert, Duke of Normandy, op- poses William Rufus. Many French no- blemen take part in the First Cru- sade. 1108 Abbe Sugar, minis- ter to Louis VI. of France. 1120 1147 Rivalry between England and France begins. Louis Vn. joins the Second Crusadfe War with the English. 1072. Henry IV. summoned be- fore the Pope for selling the investiture of bishops; treats the mandate with contempt. 1073. Summoned again. 1076. Henry sends an ambassador to depose the Pope, and is excommunicat- ed. Undergoes penance and submission. 1080. Henry de- grades the Pope and triumphs. 1093. The Popes continue their struggle against the empire. 1109. Henry V. en- ters Italy, takes the Pope prisoner, and compels him to crown him. 1114. Henry V. marries Matil- da, of England 1125. Lothaire II. opposed by Frederick, and Conrad, Duke of Suabia. 1141. Dissensions of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. 1152. Frederick I., Emperor of Germany and Italy. 1158. The Emperor Frederick re- ceives the title of King of Bo- hemia. Spain 1076. Time of the Cid. 1085. Toledo taken from the Moors by the Cid. 1086. Battle of Zalacca. 1094. Pedro I., King of Na- varre and Ar- agon. 1104. Alphonzo I., King of Navarre and Aragon. 1118. Alphonzo captures Sar- Russia U39. Portugal becomes a Kingdom un- der Henry of Besancon. 1157. Castile and Leon divided. 1128. Riga on the Baltic founded. 1147. Moscow founded. Lesser Countries 1070. Bergen, Nor- way, built. 1084. Bohemia made a kingdom by Henry IV. of Germany. 1090. Sicily taken from the Sara- cens by Roger the Norman. 1105. War between Norway and the Wends. 1119. War between Pisa and Genoa. 1150. Eric X., King of Sweden. 1158. Venice a great maritime power. 76 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL. OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles 1167. Rome taken by 1168 Colleges of law, phi- losophy, and the- ology at Paris. Frederick Barba- rossa. 1178. Renewed activity of the Waldenses, forerunners of Pro- testantism. 1179. Third Lateran, or eleventh General Council. 1172. Henry conquers Ireland. 1189. Richard I. engages in the Third Crusade. 1190 The Jews become 1190. Tliird Crusade. 1190. Iconium taken by the principal bank- Frederick Barba- 1193. John attempts to ers of the world. 1198. Power of the Pope rossa, but after- seize the crown in supreme over tem- wards restored. the absence of Rich- poral matters. ard. 1200 University of Bo- 1200. John, King of Eng- logna has 10,000 1202. The Fourth Cru- land. students. sade. Constantinople 1204. The Crusaders 1206 University of Paris founded. taken. plunder Constanti- nople. 1209 Period of the trouba- dours in France; the minstrels in England; minne- 1215. Fourth Lateran 1215. Magna Charta singers in Ger- Council, against the signed at Runny- many. Albigenses. 1217. Fifth Crusade. mede. 1216. Henry III., King. 1222 University of Padua founded. 1228. John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Emperor. 1243. Struggle of Pope Innocent IV. with 1246. Henry marries 1247 First war fleet in Spain. the Emperor Fred- eric. 1 260. Emperor Michael Eleanor of Provence. 1258. Famous parlia- ment at Oxford. 1261 Parliament estab- Palsologus recovers lished in England, 126.5. Dominion of Italy passes to the Pope. Constantinople. 1268. The Mongols in- vade Asia Minor and 1265. First regular par- liament. Civil War. 1273 First patent of nobil- ity granted in 1 274. Fourteenth general take Antioch. France. Council at Lyons. 1276. War between Eng- Literature and science 1281. Othman estab- land and Wales. flourish in Spain lishes an independ- 1283. England and Wales under Alphonzo ent rule in the north united. the Learned of Asia Minor. Robert Bruce and 1285 Institution of the three great courts of law in England. John Balliol contend for the crown of Scotland. Cimabue, the first of 1296. Struggle of the 1296. Scotland submits modern painters at Church with France. to England. Florence. 1299. Othman invades Nicomedia, and es- tablishes the Otto- man Empire. 1297. Scotland rebels. War between Eng- land and Scotland follows. HISTORY 77 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FAIX | OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - -A. D. 841-1453 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries 1167. Rome taken 1167. League of the ' 1170 Rise of the Wal- denses. by Frederick. 1174. Frederick's fourth expedi- tion into Italy. 1176. Defeated at the Battle of Legnano. Italian cities. 1171. Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, ex- tends his domin- ions. Conquers Syria, Assyria, and Arabia. 1183 The peace of Con- 1183. Italy inde- stance reestab- pendent by 1186. Incursion 1186. Directs all his Hshes the inde- treaty of Con- 1188. Alphonzo of Huns and efforts against pendence of the stance. IX., King of Poles into the Crusaders. ItaUan repubhcs. Leon. Russia. 1190 Phihp Augustus' 1190. Henry VI.. one of the lead- Emperor and 1 193. Battle of As- ers of the Third King of Italy. calon. Saladin Crusade. defeated. Death of Sala- din. 1204 Normandy reunit- ed to France. 1212. Frederick 1212. The Christ- 1206. Genghis Khan subdues the North of China. II., Emperor. ians gain the Battle of Navas de To- losa. 1217. Ferdinand, King of Cas- 1213. Jurje II. 1216. Tartaryover- ' run by Genghis Khan. tile. 1224. Mongolian 1222. Hungarian lib- 1223 Louis VIII. con- invasion. erty assured by ducts crusade known as Charter of An- against the Al- the "Golden drew II. bigenses. Horde." 1226 Louis IX., King. 1230. Castile and Leon united 1236. Second 1236. Mongolian in- by Ferdinand Mongolian vasion of Europe III., who invasion. under Batu takes large Moscow Khan. territory burned. from the 1238. Russian 1243. The Hanse- Moors. independ- atic League. ence over- thrown by 1248 Louis IX. leads the the Tartars. Seventh Crusade. 1250. Conrad IV., Khan of Emperor. 1253. TheAlham- bra founded. 1266. Henry of Kiptchak, Grand Duke. 1259. Kublai Khan builds Pekin and makes it his capital. 1267 Burgundy falls to the crown. Castile a Ro- man senator. 1270 Louis IX. sets out on the last Cru- 1273. Rudolph, sade. Emperor, 1274. Crown of 1276 France at war with founds House Navarre Castile. of Habsburg. passes to France. 1290. Khan of 1290. Wenceslas, 1291. James II., Kiptchak King of Bohemia, King of Ar- wields strong takes Cracow. agon. rule in Rus- 1297 Invasion of Flanders. 1298. Adolphus, Emperor, de- posed, and Al- bert I. en- sia. 1299. Foundation of the Ottoman Empire. throned. 78 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FBOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 1300 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire Tile British Isles Rapid advances in 1300. Silverplate used in civilization re- England. vival of ancient learning im- provements in the arts and sciences and general ex- pansion of liberty. 1302 Mariner's compass invented at Naples. 1303 University Avignon. 1303. Papal power de- clines. 1303. Genoese control trade of Black Sea. 1305 University Orleans. 1309. Seat of the Popes transferred to Avig- 1306. Robert Bruce pro- 1307 University Perugia. non. claimed King of Scot- land. War with Eng- 1308 University Coimbra. land continued. 1311 Governmental re- forms extorted from Edward II. in England. 1311. General Council at Vienna. 1320. Civil War in the Eastern Empire be- tween the Emperor and his son. 1326 Clocks constructed 1326. Orkhan, Sultan of on mathematical the Turks, makes 1327. Peace. Independ- principles. 1339. Struggle in Rome "Prusa his capital. ence of Scotland. 1338. Struggle for the French crown be- 1340 Gunpowder used at between the Colonna gins; lasts 120 years. battle of Cressy. and the Ursini. 1346. Battle of Cressy. 1347 Manufactures and commerce improve in England. 1347. Democracy in Rome under Rienzi, last of the Tribunes. 1354. Rienzi killed; pa- pal dominion re- 1355. John Palsologus, stored. Emperor. 1356. Edward, the Black Prince, wins the bat- tle of Poitiers. 1361 Parliament in Eng- 1373. Treaty with Mu- land receives added rad, the Ottoman 1376. Death of the Black powers. 1378. Schism of the West; Pope Urban VI. acknowledged in England; Clement Vn. in France, Spain, and Scotland. Emperor. Prince. 1384. The Scots, assisted by France, invade 1386 Jan Van Eyck in- vented oil painting. 1389. Bajazet, Sultan of the Turks. 1402. Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane, at the battle of Angora. 1403. Solymon I., Sultan England. 1399. Henry IV., King. House of Lancas- ter begins. of the Turks. 1406. James I., King of Scotland. 1409 University of Leipsic founded. 1409. The Council of Pisa. 1414. Council of Con- stance. 1416. Huss and Jerome burnt for heresy. 1414. Henry V. claims the French crown. 1415. Gains the battle of Agincourt. 1422. Death of Henry V. 1425 Arts promoted in 1425. Emperor John VII. Accession of Henry Italy. visits Italy to ob- tain help against the VI. War with France. \ Turks. HISTORY 79 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OP THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL \ OP THE EASTERN EMPIRE - -A. D. 841-1453 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries 1300. Dissensions 1300. Moscow in the Moor- made the ish state. capital. 1302 First convocation of the States- general in France. 1304 War with Flanders. 1304. Rise of the Swiss towns. 1306. Rudolf of Austria, Em- peror. 1308. Henry of Luxemburg, Emperor. General in- surrection in Switzerland. 1312. Alphonzo XL, King of Castile and Leon. 1307. Swiss Republic founded. 1315 Edict for the en- franchisement of 1314. Louis of Ba- varia and slaves. Frederick of 1318. Finland in- 1316 Philip V. succeeds Austria con- vaded by 1319. The Oligarchy by virtue of the tend for the Russians. of Venice estab- Salic law, now crown. lished. first established. 1322. Frederick of 1326. Tamerlane Austria de- 1327. Arrival of born at Kesh, 1332 Revolt of the Flem- ings. feated. 200,000 Moors to as- Tartary. 1338 War with England. sist Granada. 1346 Normandy overrun 1340. Moors de- by Edward of feated at 1353. Establishment England. 1355. Promulgation Tarifa. of the Ottomans 1356 King John defeat- ed and taken of the Golden in Europe. Bull. 1359. Hungarian con- prisoner at Poi- quests on the tiers. Charles, the Danube. Dauphin, Regent. 1360 John regains his liberty. Cedes 1365, War be- much territory 1378. Wenceslas tween Na- 1369. Tamerlane to England. (King of Bohe- varre and makes Samar- mia), Emperor. France. cand the capital 1380 Charles VI., King. 1380. Tartar of his new Em- Defeat of the War. Dimi- pire. Flemings at Ros- tri Ivano- becq. vitch checks them at the Don. 1382. Moscow burned. 1385. War between Austria and 1386 Fruitless attempt to invade Eng- 1394. The Emperor - Switzerland. land. imprisoned 1395. Tamerlane at Prague. invades Rus- 1399. Invasion of 1400. Robert, sia. India by Tamer- Count of Pala-' Russia lane. tine, Emperor. 1407. John II., King of Cas- under the Mongol Tar- tars until 1462. 1410 Civil War between Orleans and Bur- gundy. 1411. Sigismund (King of Hun- tile. 1415 Defeat by the Eng- lish at Agincourt. gary), Emper- or. . 1416. Alphonzo v.. King of 1419. The Hussite War in Bohemia. 1422 Henry VI. pro- claimed at Paris King of France and England. Aragon and Sicily. 1427 Orleans besieged by the English. 80 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE A. D. 841-1453 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Churcii Eastern Empire The British Isles 1429. Schism of the West ended. 1434 Invention of printing at Mayence. 1444. Vladislas, King of Poland, defeated and killed by the Turks. 1444. Truce with France. Marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou. 1447 Library of the Vati- can founded. 1448. Concordat of As- 1448. Constantine XII., 1450 Flourishing period of chaffenberg, by last of the Greek 1450. Insurrection of trade in Western which the liberties Emperors. Jack Cade. Wars of Europe particu- of the German 1453. Siege and capture the Roses. Richard, larly in Flanders, Church are com- of Constantinople by Duke of York, or modern Belgium promised. the Turks, ending claims the throne. the Eastern Empire. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 1453-1815 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal , 1454. Struggle 1454. Henry IV. between Cos- 1455. Wars of the 1462. The Emperor of Castile, mo de Medici Roses begin. besieged in King of and the aris- court at Vi- Spain. tocracy. 1458. The French enna. 1460 Wood engraving in- vented. rule in Genoa. 1460. James III., King of Scotland. 1461. Edward IV., 1463. Warof Ven- King. House of 1464 Post-offices in France and Eng- ice with the Turks. York. land. 1469. Lorenzo de 1469. Invasion of 1469. Marriage 1470 Beerhard invents Medici suc- 1470. Henry VI. re- the Turks. of Ferdi- the pedal to the ceeds Pietro stored by War- nand of Ar- organ. at Florence. wick. agon with 1471. Increase of 1471. Return of Ed- Isabella of 1473 Printed musical the power of ward IV. Deaths Castile. notes. Large the Medici. of Warwick and library founded Rise of learn- Henry VI. at Ofen. ing. 1475. Edward IV. 1477 Watches made at Sixtus IV., invades France. 1477. Marriage of Nuremburg. Pope. Maximilian and 1479. Union of 1480. War between Maria of Bur- Castile and England and gundy. Aragon. Scotland. 1492. Alexander 1492. Henry VII. in- 1492. Conquest 1493 Printing press at VI., Pope. vades France. , ' 1493. Maximilian of Granada. Copenhagen. I., Emperor. Discovery of Era of discovery in America by the New World Columbus. begins. 1500. Partition of 1498. Vasco de Gama 1502 St. Peter's and Naples be- reaches other great tween France India via churches built. and Spain. 1503. Naples an- nexed to the Cape of Good Hope. 1506. Columbus Spanish 1509. Henry VIII., dies at Val- crown. King. ladolid. Julius II., Pope. 1511. Council of 1512. War with 1512. Maximilian Pisa. France. divides the em- 1513. Pope Leo 1513. Battle of Flod- pire into 10 cir- X. patron of den; James IV. cles. literature killed. and the arts. 1515. Wolsey, chan- 1516. Charles, 1517 Luther and the Pro- cellor and cardi- 1517. Beginning of King of all testant Reforma- nal. the Reforma- Spain and tion. tion. the Nether- Hans Sachs founds lands. the German drama. HISTORY 81 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL | OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - -A. D. 841-1453 | 1429 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Saved by Joan of Arc. Charles VII. crown- , 1430. War be- ed at Rheims. tween Cas- 1431 Joan of Arc burned. 1438. House of tile and Granada. 1437-38. Rise of Por- Austria estab- 1441. Kiptchak tugal. lished. Albert Mongols di- II. (King of vide Russia. Bohemia and Hungary), Emperor. >. 1446. War with Hungary. 1452. Civil War in Navarre, 1450. Kingdom of Delhi enlarged. 1453 End of the French 1453. Austria made in which Cas- 1453. Poland's inde- and English wars. an hereditary tile and Ar- pendence con- Duchy by Em- agon join. firmed by Diet peror Freder- of Petrekin. ick III. FROM THE FALL O P THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL Ol ? NAPOLEON 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries ' 1454. Poland at war with the Teutonic Or- der. 1458. Greece sub- 1458. Hungary vig- orous under jected to the Turks. Mathias Cor- 1461 Louis XI., King. 1462. Ivan the Great takes 1464. War with vin. the title of Hungary. 1466. Prussia a fief Czar. 1470. Sten Sture, of Poland. 1468. Uzun Has- san, master of Persia. 1472. Ivan mar- Regent of ries Sophia, Sweden. niece of the 1475 War between France and Burgundy. Greek Em- peror. 1477 Artois and Burgundy 1479. Great in- united to France. vasion of the Tartars. 1480. Otranto taken. 1481. Power of 1481. John, King 1481. Bajazet II., 1491 Bretagne united to the Tartars of Denmark, Sultan. the crown. annihilated. partially ac- knowledged 1485. Mathias of Hungary takes in Sweden. 1493. War with Egypt, Hun- gary, and Ven- ice. Vienna. 1492. America dis- covered by Co- lumbus. 1499 Conquest of Milan. 1505. War with Persia. 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- pucci. 1502. Soufi sole Sovereign of Persia. 1510 Council of Tours. 1510. Renewed 1506. Poland un- Tartar inva- 1512. Selim I. de- der Sigismund sions. thrones and puts to death his father. the Great. 1511. Cuba con- quered. 1513. Christian 1514. Persians de- 1512. Florida dis- II., King of feated; Kurdis- covered. Norway and tan added to 1513. Discoveries 1515 Francis I. invades Denmark. the empire. of Balboa. Italy. 1516. Cairo taken. 1517. First patent granted by Spain for the importation of negroes into America. 82 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 1 FALL OP NAPOLEON 1453-1815 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal 1519. Charles V., 1519. Conquest King of Spain. of Mexico by 1521. Diet of Cortez. Worms. 1522 Circumnavigation 1529. Turks invade of the globe by 1525. Spanish as- Germany. Magellan. cendancy by Xavier plants the victory Christianity in of Pavia. 1532. The King mar- India. ries AnneBoleyn. 1530 Jorgens invents the 1535. Henry excom- spinning wheel 1540. Order of municated by the 1540. Lisbon, the for flax. Jesuits Pope. market of founded by 1543. Invasion of 1543. Alliance with the world. Loyola. France. 1547. Formal estab- England against France. 1545 Vasalius makes im- 1545. Council of lishment of Prot- portant contribu- Trent. estantism. tions to study of Edward VI., anatomy. King. 1548 Orange trees intro- 1551. Treaty of duced into Eu- 1550. JuHus III., Passau secures rope. Pope. 1553. Mary, Queen of England. 1554. Lady Jane Grey executed. 1555. Persecution of the Protestants. 1558. Elizabeth, religious liberty to the Protest- ants. 1556. Charles V. ab- dicates. 1559 Carriages intro- 1559. Termina- Queen. duced into Paris. tion of Rise of the Pu- 1560 Knives first made French wars ritans. in England. in Italy. 1564. Maximilian II., Emperor. 1564. Acquisi- tion of the Philippines. 1567. Duke of 1568. Mary, Queen of Alva Govern- 1569. Florence a Scots, takes ref- or of the grand duchy. uge in England. Nether- lands. 1570. War with Turkey. 1573 Titian, colorist Battle of painter, at height 1576. Rudolph II., Lepanto. 1 ^r of fame. King of Bohe- 1580. Portugal 1584. Raleigh's col- ony in Virginia. mia and Hun- passes under gary, Emperor. Spanish do- 1585. Pope Six- tus V. re- 1585. War with minion. 1586 Tobacco introduced Spain. into Europe. stores the 1588 First newspaper in Vatican li- 1588. Spanish Arma- 1588. Defeat of England. brary. da destroyed. the Spanish 1590 Telescopes invent- ed by Jansen, a 1592. The Rial to Armada. German. and Piazza di 1594. Union of Napier invents lo- San Marco 1599. Troubles with Protestants at garithms. built at Ven- ice. Ireland. 1600. English East India Company Heilbronn. 1602 English East India Company found- ed. chartered. 1603. Union of Eng- land and Scot- 1606 Gilbert's electrical discoveries. land. 1607. English settle- ment at James- town. 1608. Protestant union under 1609. Leghorn Frederick the 1609. Expulsion becomes the Elector. of the Moors. 1615 Coffee in Venice. emporium of the Levant trade. 1617. Sir Francis Ba- 1618 '" ^Harvey discovers 1618. Conspiracy con, lord chan- 1618. Thirty Years- the circulation of of Bedmar to cellor. War begins. the blood. subject Ven- 1620 Thermometers in- ice to Spain. ] 620. Pilgrims sail in 1620. Massacre of vented by Drebel. Mayflower. Prague. 1621. Dutch Negro slavery be- War. gins in Virginia. 1625. Charles I., 1625. Naval War 1626 Kepler's laws dis- 1626. St. Peer's King. ynth Eng- covered. dedicated. 1627. War with land. 1628. War fol- France. 1628. Victories of lowing death Wallenstein. of the Duke Mantua. HISTORY 83 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 1453-1816 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1519. Spaniards, under Cortez, , , 1520. Christian, 1520. Soliman the King of Swe- Magnificent, conquer Mex- den. Sultan. ico. 1521 First War with 1521. Gustavus 1521. Belgrade tak- Charles V. Vasa throws en. 1625 Francis defeated and taken prisoner at off the Dan- ish yoke. Pavia. 1523. Gustavus 1526. Invasion of 1527 Second War with Vasa, King Hungary. Charles V. of Sweden. 1529. Invasion of 1532-44 Struggle for posses- Union of Germany. sion of Italy. 1533. Ivan the Calmar dis- Siege of Vi- 1533. Cortez con- Terrible, solved. enna. quers Peru. Czar. 1532. Union of Norway and Denmark. 1543. First stand- 1535. Barbarossa siezes Tunis. 1545. Mines at Po- tosi discovered. 1547 Henry II., King; ing army in 1547. Turks invade Catherine de Sweden. Persia. Medici, Queen. 1551. Tripoli taken. 1552 Fifth War with Charles V. 1554. Siberia discovered. 1552. Invasion of Hungary. 1559. Military 1556. Akbar raises the Indian Em- pire to its greatest splen- dor. 1560. Eric XIV., power of the Turks at its 1564. Coligny sends King of Swe- a colony of Hu- den. greatest height guenots to 1562 Religious liberty granted to the Hu- guenots. Hugue- not Wars. 1571. Russia de- War be- tween Swe- den and Den- mark. 1570. Peace of Stettin. under Soliman. 1570. War with Venice. 1571. Battle of Le- Florida. 1572 Massacre of St. Bar- tholomew. vastated by the Tartars panto. 1576 The Catholic League. and Moscow 1577 Sixth Religious War. burned. 1578. Alliance of 1578. Alliance Sweden and with Poland. 1579. Beginning of the Republic of Holland. Poland against Rus- sia. 1585. Persia ac- 1588 Revolt of Paris. 1588. Christian quires great 1589 House of Bourbon be- IV., King of 1589. Revolt of power under gins with Henry Denmark. the Janizaries. Abbas the IV. Great. 1590 Siege of Paris raised by the Spaniards. 1595. Power in Hungary de- 1598 Edict of Nantes tol- 1598. Borus Go- clines; revolt eration granted to dunov be- of Wallachia. the Protestants. gins a new dynasty. 1604. Charles 1605. Revolt in 1605. Jehangir, Mo- IX., King of Syria. gul Emperor Sweden. 1606. Commercial of India,. 1609. Gustavus treaty with 1609. First English Adolphus, France and envoy of the King of Swe- Holland. East India 1610 Assassination of den. Company sent Henry IV. 1613. Michael- 1611. War be- to India. 1614 Last assembly of the Fedorovitz, tween Swe- States-general. Czar, founds the house of Romanoff. den and Den- mark. 1616. Sweden 1617. Finland dominates 1618. Great Per- ceded to the North. sian victory at Sweden. Shibli. 1624 Ministry of Cardinal 1620. War with Po- Richelieu. land. 1627 War with Eagland over '.he Hugue- nots. 84 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A.D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 1453-1816 Arts of CivillBation Italy and the Church Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal 1629. Gustavus 1630 Gazettes first pub- Adolphus lands , lished in Venice. 1631. Influenceof France in- in Germany. 1632. Battle of 1639 Printing in America. creases. Lutzen. 1639. Lofsofthe Japanese trade. 1640 Manufacturing in 1640. Frederick 1640. Portugal Sweden. 1642. Civil War and William of regains in- revolution. Prussia. dependence. 1643 Conde and Turenne the greatest gen- 1646. Revolt of erals of the time. Naples under 1648. Treaty of Massaniello. 1649. Commonwealth under Cromwell. 1652. War with Hol- land. 1653. Cromwell, Westphalia. 1654 Air pumps invented. Lord Protector. 1660. Charles II.. King. Stuarts re- stored. 1657. Leopold I., Emperor. 1654. Brazil re- covered from the Dutch. 1655. War with England. 1661. Invasion of Portugal. 1666 Canal of Languedoc 1666. Great fire in 1665. Tyrol united built. London. to Austria. 1667 Gobelin tapestry manufactured in 1668. Triple alliance Paris. 1669. Candia taken from Venice. 1670. War be- of England, Swe- den, and Holland against France. 1671 Foundation of the tween Genoa Academy of Ar- and Savoy. 1673. War of Aus- 1673. War with chitecture at tria and France to Paris. France. protect Hol- land. 1676. Messina 1676. General re- blockaded by 1679. Habeas Corpus volt of the the Dutch act passed. Hungarians. and Spanish 1680. Greater part 1681 Museum of Natural History founded in London. fleets. of Alsace seized by France. 1683. Siege of Vi- 1681 Jardin des Plantes 1685. James II., enna by the founded at Paris. King. Rise of the Whigs and To- ries. Turks. 1686. Buda taken after being held by the Turks 145 1687 The earliest tele- years. 1687. Joseph I., graph instru- 1688. Revolution. King of Hun- ments invented. 1689. Alexander 1689. William III., gary. 1689. Revolt in VIIL, Pope. King, and Mary II., Queen. War with France. Catalonia in favor of France. 1690 White paper first 1690. Battle of the 1690. Joseph I., elected King made in England. Boyne. James defeat- 1691. Incursion 1692 First opera in Lon- of the Romans. of the don. ed, returns to French into 1693 Bank of England 1693. Battle of France. Aragon. founded. Marsaglia. 1 697. General peace. 1697. Victories of Prince Eugene over the Sul- tan Mustapha at Zenta. 1701. War of the 1701. Hague alli- njl. Philip v.. Spanish succes- liance. King. 1702. French vic- sion. 1702. Queen Anne. 1703 Russian newspaper tory of Luz- War against established at St. zace over the France and Petersburg. imperialists. Spain. Flourishing period 1704. Gibraltar taken J of French litera- by English. 1705. Barcelona ture. . 1706. French driven from Italy by Prince Eu- 1 taken by the ( Allies. gene. HISTORY SSi A. D. FROM THE FALL, OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1632. War with 1632. Christina, 1638 Invasion of Spain. Poland. Queen of 1634. Murad in- Poles ad- Sweden; Ox- vades Persia. vance to enstiern. Re- 1637. Troubles on 1639. Great naval 1640 Turin taken by the Moscow. gent. the Tartar victory of Van French. frontier. Bagdad Tromp, of Hol- land, over the 1643 Louis XIV., King. taken by the Spanish fleet 1645. Peace be- Turks. at the Downs. 1648 Wars of the Fronde. tween Swe- 1645. War with 1640. Madras, In- 1649 Siege of Paris. den and Den- mark. Venice. dia, founded. 1653 Mazarin enters Paris 1653. John de Witt, in triumph. 1654. Russian Grand Pension- victories in 1657. War be- 1657. Alliance with ary of Holland. Poland. tween Den- mark and Sweden against Poland. 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees. Sweden. 1660. Arts and 1666. Sobieski, Po- sciences 1661. War with lish general, flourish. Austria. 1662. Invasion of Hungary. wins great vic- tory over the Tartars. 1667 War with Spain. 1671. The Cos- 1672 War with Holland. sacks subju- gated. 1672. Invasion of Poland. 1674. Sobieski, King of Poland. 1678 Peace with Holland and Spain restores tranquillity to Europe. France -the most for- 1678. First War with Russia. 1680 1680. Diet of midable power in 1682. Ivan and Stockholm. 1682. War with Europe. Peter, Czars. Austria. 1683.. Defeat at Vi- 1685 Revocation of the enna. Edict of Nantes. 1686. Russia de- clares war. 1687. Revolution in Constanti- nople, Soly- man II., Sul- tan. 1686. Dekkan. In- dia, conquered. 1688 War of the Allies 1690. Recovery of 1692. Mogul power against France. 1689. Peter the 1693. The King Belgrade from at its height in 1697 General peace of Rys- Great, Czar. of Sweden the Austrians. India. wick between 1692. First trade declared ab- Jesuits gain France and the with China. solute. large influence Allies. 1699. Charles 1699. Peace of Car- in China. XII. begins lowitz. The Ot- 1695. Brussels to reign. toman power bombarded by Denmark, broken. the French. Poland, and Russia form an alliance against Swe- den. 1700. Peter the 1700. Defeat of Great wars the Allies at with the Narva. Northern 1702 Invasion of Holland. Powers. 1702-6. Charles Revolt of the Hugue- 1703. St. Peters- XII. sweeps 1703. Mustaphall. nots. burg found- Poland and deposed by the 1704 Defeat at Blenheim. ed. Russia. Janizaries. 1704. Stanislaus I., King of Poland. 86 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 1453-1815 Arts of ClTlllzation , ^taly and the ^ Church \y Great Britain - Germany Spain and Portugal 1707. All Spanish 1707. Act of union of possessions in England and Italy aban- Scotland. doned. First united parliament of Great Britain meets. 1711. Charles VI., 1709 Prussic acid dis- covered. 1713. Peace of Utrecht. Eng- Emperor. 1714 Rise of commerce land acquires in Austria. large American / 1715. Siege of possessions. Corfu raised. MIS. War with / Spain. 1718. Quadruple ' alliance against . Spain. 1719. Sicily in- / V vaded by the Spanish. 1721 Inoculation for 1725. Alliance of 1725. Alliance small po.x intro- 1727. George II., Vienna, Spain, with Aus- duced. King of England. 1739. War with Spain. and Austria. tria. 1728 Behring Strait dis- / covered. 1730. Clement mS. War of the XII., Pope. Polish succes- 1734. Conquest sion. of Sicily and Vi740. War of the Naples by Don Carlos. 1740 Irish linen manu- Austrian suc- factories and 1744. Italy in- cession. English steel and cutlery factories vaded by the Maria The- French and resa succeeds flourish. Spaniards. 1745. Troubles in to the hei^di- tary States. 174.5. Francis I., 1746. French and Scotland. husband of 1746. Ferdinand Spaniards 1756. Alliance with Maria Theresa, VI., King. 1750 Franklin's discov- driven from Prussia. ,/ Emperor. 1756. Seven years' eries in electricity. Lombardy. 1762. War with 1761 Potatoes first Spain. war .Austria planted in France. 1763. Peace of Paris. 1775. War with the American Colo- and Prussia. n772. Dismember- ment of Po- 1 1767 First spinning ma- nies. land. 1767. Jesuits ex- chine in England. 1776. British army pelled from 1773. Jesuits ex- takes posscs.sion Spain. 1774 Spinning-jenny in- pelled from of New York. v' vented by Ark- Rome. Hessians hired 1778. War of the wright. for service in Bavarian suc- Steam engines im- America. cession. Bava- proved by Watt 1781. Surrender of ria seized by and Bolton. 1782. Pontine Cornwallis at Yorktown. 1783. Treaty of Ver- Germany. 1784 First American ves- Marshes sailles. sel in China. drained. Independence Institution for the of the United deaf and dumb States acknowl- 1 7S8. The Emperor 1788. Charles at Paris. edged. tries to control IV., King. 1786 Taylor's system 1786. Impeachment the universi- of stenography inventea. of Warren Hast- ties. ings. ,4792. War with France. 1793. First coalition 1793. First coali- against France tion against directed by Eng- France. land. / 1796-7. Napo- leon's Italian 1797. Nelson de- -1797. Napoleon s stroys French Austrian cam- campaign. fleet near Alex- andria. paign. 1Y98. Roman Re- 1798. Second coali- public pro- claimed by tion against France. the French. 1800. Union of Eng- land and Ireland. HISTORY 87 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1707. Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles XII. of Swe- den invades Russia. 1709. Is defeated 1713 Peace of Utrecht perpetual separa- tion of the crown of France and Spain. at Pultowa. 1714. Finland conquered. 1715 Louis XV., King. 1715. Charles re- 1715. Treaty of turns to Swe- 1717. Turks lose Antwerp with den. Belgrade. Austria. 1718 The Quadruple Alli- ance against Spain. 1718. Invades Norway and is killed at the siege of Fredericshall. 1720. Peace of 1721. Peter as- Stockholm. 1723. Turks and 1723. Christians ex- 1724 Congress of Cambray. sumes the Russians at- pelled from title "Em- tempt to dis- China. peror of all member Persia. the Rus- sias." 1725. Catherine I., Queen. 1726. Alliance . with Austria. 1727. Treaty with China. 1733 The Polish succession 1730. Peter II., 1730. Christian 1733. Frederick involves France in last of the VI., King of 1734. Turks driven Augustus II., war. Romanoffs. Denmark. from Persia by King of Poland 1740 Tbe Austrian succes- Nadir Shah. 1739. India invad- sion. 1740. Renewed in- ed by Nadir 1741. Swedes vasion of Tur- Shah,who takes driven out of key. Delhi. 1744 War with England Finland. 1745. Defeat of 1744. Hostilities and Austria. Turks at Kars. between the 1747 War with Holland. French and English in In- dia. 1760 Loss of all Canada. 1762. Catherine II. reigns. 1768. War with the Ottoman 1756. Calcutta taken by the Nabob of Ben- gal. 1765. Establish- 1770 Marriage of the Empire. ment of the dauphin to Marie 1772. Despotism English in In- Antoinette. re-estab- lished in Swe- den by Gus- dia. 1766. Power of the Mamelukes re- 1774 Louis XVI., King. 1774. Revolts of tavus III. vived in Egypt under, Rodfvan 1776 Franklin in Paris. the Cossacks. 17Z8 Alliance with Amer- 1784. The Crimea and Ali Bey. ica. ceded to Rus- 1774. Warren Hast- 1780 Rochambeau sent to sia. ings first gov- aid the Americans. 1787. War with 1787. Disastrous ernor-general the Turks. war with Aus- tria and Rus- sia. of India. 1776. Lord Pigot governor-gen- eral of the East J.789 French Revolution Indies. begins. Lafayette commander of the national guards. ^ 1792 War with Germany. 1792. Gustavus 1794. Polish revolt France declared a re- III. assassi- at Cracow. public. nated. 1793 King and Queen be- headed. Reign of Terror. Gustavus IV.. King. 1795 Napoleon Bonaparte commands the army. 1796 War in Italy. 1796. Unsuccess- , 1797 Napoleon in Austria. ful war with 1797. Swiss revolu- 1798 Expedition to Egypt. Persia. 1798. War with the tion. Helve- 1799 Swiss campaign. French in tian Republic declared. 1800 Battle of Marengo. Egypt. 88 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D.* FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 1453-1815 1801 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Churcli Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal Iron railways in England. 1802. Napoleon President of 1803. Successful war the Italian in India. h804. The Emperor Republic. 1805. Napoleon of Germany as- 1805. Napoleon de- sumes the title 1805. Battle of crowned feated at Tra- of Emperor of Trafalgar. King of Italy. falgar. 1806. Fourth coali- Austria. Battle of 1807 Fulton invents the tion against Austerlitz. steamboat. France. Confedera- 1808 Lithography in- 1808. Rome an- tion of the 1808. Madrid vented. nexed by Rhine. taken by the Napoleon to :i809. Peace of Vi- French. 1810 First successful the King- 1810. War with Swe- enna. Joseph steamboat built dom of Italy. den. Bonaparte, in Europe, King. 1812. War with the 1812. Austria in 1812. Battle of United States. alliance with Salamanca. 1814 Steam carriages in 1814. Fall of Na- France against England. Gas poleon. Russia. used for lighting Kingdom 1313. War of Ger- the streets in ceases. man independ- London. ence. 1814. Ferdinand VII. re- 1815 Safety lamp in- 1815. British defeat- 1815. German stored. vented by Davy. ed at New Or- leans. Wellington vic- torious at Wa- terloo. The Allies enter Paris, and Napoleon is ban- ished to St. He- League. Congress of Vienna. 1815 lena. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME j Arts of Civilization United States Great Britain Prussia Austria The abolition of the slave trade by the 1816. U. S. Bank in- 1816. Bombard- Congress of Vienna. corporated. ment of Al- 1817 Public schools estab- 1817. James Monroe, giers. The 1817. Population, lished in Russia. President. Dey com- pelled to abol- V' 28.000,000. 1818. The Zoll- 1818. Napoleon's ish slavery. verein son made 1823. The Cann- formed. Duke of 1819 The steamship "Sa- ing ministry. 1819. Death of Reichstadt. vannah" makes The Ashan- Marshal the first trip across tees in Africa Blucher. the Atlantic. 1821. Monroe reelect- defeated. 1821. Congress 1822 Hieroglyphics deciph- ered by Champo- ed. of monarchs Missouri com- at Laybach. lion. promise bill passed. Insurrec- tion in Mol- 1824 Inland navigation stimulated in the 1824. Visit of Lafay- davia and ette. Wallachia. United States. 1826. Erie Canal opened. Protective tariff enacted. 1825 Steam navigation on 1825. J. Q. Adams, the Rhine. President. 1828. Wellington Vast increase in peri- 1829. Andrew Jack- ministry. odical literature in son, President. Irish disturb- England, France, ances. Germany, United 1830. William States, etc. 1831. Northeastern IV., King. 1831. Austria in- 1832 Trades unions in Eu- boundary be- Difficulties terferes in rope. tween the U. S. and British prov- inces established. 1833. President Jack- with China. / Italianaffairs. son reelected. 1834. Robert 1834. Zollverein 1835 Slavery abolished in Bank deposits Peel, Pre- includes British Colonies. removed from mier. DiflB- most of the 1836 Founding of the the U. S. Bank. culties in German 1836. Visit of the Smithsonian Insti- Canada. States. Emperor of ^ tution. Russia. Luxor obelisk erected '. Ferdinand in Paris. I., Emperor. ABDICATION NAPOLEON AT FONTAINEBLEAU HISTORY 89 A. D. FROM THE FALL, OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OP NAPOLEON 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1801. Alexander, 1801. Denmark 1802 Napoleon President Czar. and Sweden of the Italian Re- accede to the 1803. Insurrection public. alliance be- of Mamelukes War with England. tween Eng- at Cairo. 1804 Napoleon I., Emperor of the French. 1804. War with Persia. land and Russia. 1805 Battle of Austerlitz. 1805. Russia joins the co- 1806. Louis Napo- leon, King of 1807 War with Russia. alition 1807. War against Holland. Invasion of Portugal. against 1808. Finland in- Russia and France. vaded by the England. 1807. Treaty of Russians. 1809 Battle of Wagram. Tilsit. 1809. Charles XIII., King 1809. Russians de- feated at Silis- 1810 Continental peace ex- cept with Spain. of Sweden. tria. 1812 Russian campaign. 1812. Invasion 1812. The Poles de- of Napoleon. 1813. Servia invad- clared a nation Moscow ed by Turkish by Napoleon. burned. army. Diet of War- saw. 1814 Allies enter Paris. 1814. Union of 1814. Malta falls to American House of Bourbon re- Sweden and England. war with Eng- v stored. Norway as land. ^ 1815 Napoleon returns 1815. The Holy two king- 1815. William I., from Elba. Alliance doms under King of the Hundred days' war. formed. one monarch. Netherlands. Battle of Waterloo and defeat of Na- poleon. Abdication of Napo- leon. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME France Spain and Portugal Italy and Greece Russia Lesser Countries 1815. Union of 1815. Kingdom 1815. Poland Portugal and of Two Sici- united to 1816. Lord Amherst's un- Brazil under lies restored. Russia. successful mission to John VI. China. 1817. Slave 1817. The Mahratta 1818 France joins in Holy Alliance. trade abol- ished. 1819. Establish- power completely overthrown in India by the British. 1819. Bolivar, President 1821 Death of Napo- 1821. Austrian ment of mili- of Colombia, South leon at St. invasion of tary colonies. America. Helena. Italy. 1822. Greek revo- lution. Liberty of the press in Poland nul- lified. Peru and Guate- mala independent. Brazil independent. 1822. Iturbide, Emperor of Me.xico. 1824 Charles X., Kinp. Declaration of Independ- 1830 Algiers taken by the French. ence. 1825. Death of Revolution and Ferdinand, 1826. Nicholas I. 1826. Missolonghi taken , abdication of after reign of crowned at by the Turks. Charles X. sixty-six Moscow. Louis Philippe, years. War against King. 1830. Salic 1827. Treaty be- tween Russia and Turkey Persia. 1829. Venezuela inde- pendent. law abol- respecting 1830. War against 1830. Polish struggles for 1 ished. Greece. Poland. nationality. 1831 Abolition of hered- 1833. Isabella 1831. Leopold I., King itary peerage II., Queen 1832. Kingdom 1832. Poland of the Belgians. in France. of Spain. Don Carlos claims the throne. of Greece, founded. made part of empire. 1834 Death of Lafav- ette. Portugal a constitu- 1833. Santa Ana, Presi- dent of Mexico. 1836 Insurrection at- tempted by Louis Napoleon at Strasburg. tional mon- archy. 1834. The Carlist War. 1836. Decree to expel all British and other for- eigners from China. 90 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 1837 Arts of Civilization United States Great Britain Prussia Austria Morse patents the 1837. Independence 1837. Victoria, telegraph invented of Texas ac- Queen. 1838. Commer- by him in 1832. knowledged. cial treaty 1840 Wheatstone's tele- Martin Van 1840. War with 1840. Frederick withEngland. graph patented in England. Buren, President. China over William, the opium trade. War in King. Syria; Great Britain an ally of Aus- tria and Tur- 1841. Chinese 1841. W. H. Harri- son, President. War ended. Death of Harri- son and succes- sion of John Ty- ler. 1845. Texas annexed 1844. Daniel 0'- to the U. S. Connell's 1845 Lord Rosse's tele- 1845. Treaty with trial. scope completed. China. Sentence Gutta percha used. James K. Polk, President. 1846. War with Mex- reversed by the House of Lords. 1846. Repeal of the English ico. 1846. The Oregon corn-laws. 1847 Great canal from Treaty with 1847. Severe fam- 1847. Austria Durance to Mar- Great Britain, ii>ein Ireland. takes posses- seilles completed. Railroad building in settling the sion of Cra- Northwestern cow. Germany. boundary of the Sewing machine in- United States. vented and patent- 1848 ed. Girard College opened. 1848. Treaty of Gua- 1848. Civil War 1^48. Insurrec- 1848. Revolution dalupe, Hidalgo, in Ireland. tion in Ber- in Hungary. ends Mexican Habeas lin. Francis Jo- war. Corpus Act seph, Em- Gold discov- suspended. peror. ered in California. Kossuth 300,000 emi- , withdraws grants arrive this hia army year. from Vienna. 1849 Tubular bridge in An- 1849. Zachary Tay- 1849. Mooltan in 1849. The King 1849. New Con- glesea, England. lor, President. India taken. declines the stitution pro- Magnetic clock in- Railroad from imperial mulgated. ! vented by Dr. Boston to New crown. Locke of Cincinnati. York. f Armistice between Prussia and Denmark. 1850 Great agitation on 1850. Attempted in- 18.50. The war in 1850. Hanover slavery in- United vasion of Cuba Lahore withdraws States. by filibusters. ended. from the The Pekin "Monitor," Death of Presi- The Punjaub Prussian al- a new paper, print- ed in China. dent Taylor; Mil- annexed to liance. lard Fillmore, the British Hesse- Woman's Rights con- President. Crown. Darmstadt vention at Worces- Texas bound- Death of withdraws. ter, Mass. ary settled. Sir Robert Treaty of Fugitive Slave Peel. peace with Denmark. Law passed. English forces de- New Con- feated in stitution for South Africa Prussia. by the Kafirs. 1851 Daguerre makes im- 1851. Erie Railway 1851. Continu- 1851. Louis Kos- portant contribu- opened. ance of the suth sen- tions to photog- Charleston Con- Kafir War. tenced to raphy. vention. Kossuth death at Railway between Mos- Vigilance com- visits Eng- Pesth. cow and St. Peters- mittee organized land. burg opened. Telegraphs across the in California. 1852 Kossuth arrives 1852. Emperor of English Channel. in New York. Austria visits Emperor of Prussia at 1853 First Norwegian rail- 1853. Franklin Pierce, 1853. Kafir War 1853. Plot to Berlin. way opened. President. ended. overthrow Perry's expedition to Gadsden Pur- Queen Vic- the govern- Japan. chase. toria visits Ireland. ment. 1 HISTORY 91 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME France 1838 Death of Talley- rand. 1844 WarwithMorocco. 1848 Abdication of Louis Philippe, and a reitublic proclaimed. Louis Napoleon, President. Bloody insurrec- tion in Paris. 1850 Jerome Bonaparte, Field-Marshal. Louis Napoleon declared Em- peror. Spain and Portugal 1837. The mon- asteries in Spain dis- solved. 1842. Insurrec- tion in Bar- celona. 1846. Marriage of Isabella to the Duke of Cadiz. Civil War in Portugal. Italy and Greece 1843. King Otho of Greece compelled to accept a con- stitution. 1848. Rising of the great Italian cities in revolution. Italian rev- olution. Ro- man republic overthrown. 1849. Catania, Syracuse, and Palermo taken by as- sault. Mazzini's proclama- tion of pro- visional gov- ernment. Victor Em- manuel, King. Rome sur- ^ders to the nch; Gari- "i leaves Bour- rule be- Vii man ^gl^^Rc ^^BBIffis. 1851. Death of Godoy, "Prince of Peace." Russia 1838. Smuggling carried on extensively. 1845. Emperor visits Eng- land. 1849. Aids Austria in subduing Hungary. 1850. Harbor of Sebastopol completed. 1853. War de- clared against Turkey. Lesser Countries 1839. Turkey at war vMh Egypt. 1840. William I. abdi- cates as King of Hol- land. 1842. Insurrection in In- dia. 1847. Soulouque, Presi- dent of HaytL 1848. Holland receives a constitution. Insurrection in Ceylon. Hungary declared independent. 1850. Death of Emperor Tau-Kwang of China. Battle of Idstedt, Denmark. 1851. Discovery of gold in Australia. 1851. Disturbances in south of China. 1852. Buenos Ayres taken by the liberat- ing army. War between the Turks and Montene- gro. 1853. Turkish-Russian War. 92 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME Arts of Civilization United States Great Britain Prussia Austria 1854 / Commercial treaty be- 1854. Treaty with 1854. Crimean ^854. Treaty 1854. Alliance tween United Japan. War. with Austria, with England States and Japan. Kansas-Ne- Treaty of offensive and and France. First railway in Bra- braska bill passed. alliance with defensive. zil. Ostend Mani- festo issued. France. 1855 Panama railway com- 1855. Panama rail- 1855. British fleet pleted. road completed. bombards Bessemer's steel pro- Troubles in and partially cess patented. Kansas. destroys Can- .1856 Submarine telegraph ton, China. 1856. Hungarians granted am- laid from Cape Bre- ton to Newfound- nesty. land. Dudley Observatory inaugurated at Al- bany, N. Y. 1857 Peabody Institute founded at Balti- 1857. Dred Scott de- 1857. Rebellion cision. in India be- more. James Buchan- an, President. Great financial panic. gins. King of Delhi pro- claimed Sov- ereign of In- dia. 1858. Completion 1858 Great Eastern launch- ed at London. of the Atlan- Laying of the Atlan- tic telegraph tic telegraph. Boston Public Li- brary opened. Telegraph communi- cable. 1859 1859. John Brown 1859. War with cation between In- captures Harpers France and dia and England. Ferry. Sardinia. Austrians 1860. South Carolina 1860. Rebellion defeated at passes ordinance in India sub- Montebella. of secession. dued. Neutrality proclaimed during the .American Civil War. Peace after Battle of Sol- ferino. Death of Prince Met- ternich. 1861 International exhibi- 1861. Secession of 1861. William I., 1861. New Con- tion at Ix>ndon. Southern States, and establish- ment of the Con- federate States under Jefferson Davis. King. stitution for the Austrian monarchy. Civil and political rights grant- ed Protest- Opening of the Civil War, 1861- ants. 65. 'l862. Bismarck, 1862. Amnesty to Abraham Lin- Premier. political of- 1863 Abolition of slavery coln, President. J863. King re- \/ solves to gov- fenders in in the United Hungary. States. ^ em without 1864 Convention between \ / parliament. /1864. War with Denmark. 18C4. Alliance France, Brazil, 1865. Assassination 1865. Fenian out-l with Pnissia Italy, Portugal, and of President Lin- breaks in Ire- against Den- Spain for telegraph coln; Andrew land. mark. to America. Johnson, Presi- dent. British and French gov- / 1866 Atlantic telegraph 1866. Civil Rights ernments re- 1866. Prussia 1866. War with successfully com- bill passed. scind their prepares for Prussia and pleted. Atlantic tele- recognition of war with Italy. ' graph completed. the Confed- erate States of America. Austria. Battle of Sadowa. Hanover annexed. First par- liament of the German . Confedera- ^ tion. 1867 Great Exposition at 1867. General am- 1867. North Ger- 1867. .Autonomy Paris. nesty proclama- man consti- for Hungary tion. tution ac- cepted. announced. Emperor crowned King of Hun- gary. 1868 Suez Canal formally opened. 1868. Burlingame Treaty with China. HISTORY 93 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 1854 France Spain and Portugal Italy and Greece Russia Lesser Countries War declared 1854. Military 1854. War with against Russia. insurrection under O'Donnell. France and England. Siege of Se- bastopol. Battle of Balaklava. 1855. Important concordat be- 1855. Death of 1855. Santa Ana abdi- Nicholas I. cates the presidency tween Italy Alexander of Mexico. and Austria. II., Emperor. 1856 Peace with Rus- sia. . 1856. Destruction *of Sebasfopol docks. Evacua- tion of Crimea. 1858. Partial emancipa- tion of the serfs. 1857. Mexican constitu- tion promulgated. 1858. Massacre of Chris*- tians in Turkey. Suez Railroad com- pleted. 1859 War with Austria. 1859. War with Morocco. 1859. War with Austria. ^ 1860 Commercial treaty 1860. Defeat of 1860. Garibaldi with England. the Moors. lands in Sici- ly, and as- sumes dic- tatorship. Sicily and Naples an- nexed to Sar- dinia. 1861. Annexa- 1861. Victor Em- 1861. Canton restored to tion of St. manuel, King the Chinese by the Domingo. of Italy. French and English. Interven- tion in Mex- ico. 1862 Great distress 1862. Garibaldi 1862. Nesselrode, caused by Amer- establishes a Chancellor. ican Civil War. provisional ^ 1863 The French oc- government. 1863. Termina- cupy Mexico. Insurrec- tion in Greece tion of Serf- dom. 1864 Maximilian ac- 1864. Rupture 1864. Florence 1864. Emigration 1864. Nankin, China, cepts Mexican with Peru. made the of Caucasian taken by Gordon for crown. capital of tribes into the Imperialists. 1865 Death of Proud- 1865. Dispute Italy. Turkey. Valparaiso bomr hon. with Chile. Ionian Isles made over to Greece. barded by Spanish fleet. 1866. Military 1866. Austrian 1866. Inaugura- insurrection War. Venetia tion of trial headed by proclaimed by jury. General a part of War with Prim. Italy. Bokhara. 1867 Great Exposition 1867. Death of 1867. Garibaldi 1867. Russian 1867. City of Mexico in Paris. Marshal and the Papal America sold evacuated by French O'Donnell. States. to the United States. troops. Egypt declared by^ the Sultan to be a separate sovereignty. Execution of Maxi- milian in Mexico. 1868. Queen de- posed. i>r^ 94 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 1869 Arts of Civilization United States Great Britain Prussia Austria French Atlantic tele- 1869. U. S. Grant, ^ graph completed. President. 1870 Railway from Cal- Union Pacific 1870. Irish Land 1870. War with 1870. Concordat cutta to Bombay. Railway opened for traffic. Act passed. France. with Rome Mount Cenis tunnel Battle of suspended. completed. Se^an. 187l|/King of Prussia pro- claimed Em- 1871. New Ger- man Empire recognized. peror of Ger- many. Germany 1871. William I., 1873. Payment of Emperor. 1873 European calendar introduced into Ja- pan. Alabama claims to the UnitedStates. 1876 Railway open be- tween Quebec and Halifax. Centennial Exposition at, Philadelphia. 1876. Queen Vic- toria pro- claimed Em- press of India. 1877 Telephone invented 1877. R. B. Hayes, 1877. Attempted by Bell. President. assassination 1878. Occupation 1881. James A. Gar- of Emperor. of Bosnia. fifeld, President. 1882. Attempt on 1882. 600th an- 1883 First electric street President Gar- life of Queen niversary of railway in United field assassinated. Victoria. the House of States at Balti- July 2d; Chester Habsburg. more. A. Arthur, Presi- dent. 1885 Revised version of the 1885. Grover Cleve- Old Testament pub- land, President. 1886. Army put lished. Apache Indian on war foot- 1887 Great railway bridge War. 1887. Queen's Ju- ing of 1,500,- at Lachine, Canada, bilee. 000 men. completed. 1888 Typesetting machines perfected. 1888. Accession 1889. Benjamin Har- 1889. Great labor and death of 1888 Pasteur discovers cure rison, President. strikes. Frederick for hydrophobia. Johnstown flood. III. William II., Emperor. 1890 Polygamy abolished 1890. McKinley Ta- 1890. Stanley re- 1890. Resigna- in Utah. rifif bill passed. turns from Africa. tion of Bis- marck as /chancellor. V1B91. Triple Al- liance re- 1891 Canadian Pacific rail- 1891. Renewal of way completed. Triple Alli- /newed. ance. 1893 World's parliament of 1893. Grover Cleve- 1893. Behring t*93. Anti-Jesuit religions at Chicago. land, President. Sea arbitra- law repealed. Electrical measure- Chinese Exclu- tion. / ments established. sion bill ap- 1894. Manchester t894. Commer- 1894. Commercial proved. ship-canal cial treaty treaty with World's Colum- opened. with Russia. Russia rati- bian Exposition New par- fied. at Chicago. liament house open- ed. 1895. North Sea 1895 Great refracting tele- 1895. Anti-Sem- scope made by and Baltic itic agitation. Clark for Lick Ob- Canal servatory. opened. Discovery of Roent- Restric- gen Rays. tions im- posed on /American / insurance \l companies. 1896. New civil 1896. Archduke 1897 Universal Postal Con- 1897. William Mc- 1897. Blackwell code for the Karl Ludwig, gress at Washing- Kinley, Presi- tunnel empire com- heir to the ton. dent. opened. The pleted. throne, dies. Hawaii an- Queen's Dia- / Millenial nexed. mond Jubilee Exposition at celebrated. Buda Pesth. 1898 Reform edict issued 1898. Destruction of 1898. Death of 1898. Death of 1898. Assassina- in China. the "Maine" at Gladstone. Bismarck. tion of the Havanna. Irish local Emperor Empress by War with Spain. government visits Con- an anarchist bill passed. stantinople at Geneva. Imperial and Jerusa- penny-post- lem. age goes into efifect. HISTORY 95 A. D. FROM THE FALL DF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 1869 France Spain and Portugal Italy and Greece Russia Lesser Countries New Constitution 1869. Vatican promulgated. Council open- 1870 War declared 1870. Isabella ed at Rome. 1870. Fenian raid in Can- against Prussia. II. abdi- 1870. Rome is an- ada. Battle of Sedan. cates. Ama- nexed to Surrender of Metz. deus. King. Italy. 1871 Capitulation of 1871. Sagas ta. Declared 1871. Electric 1871. Military revolt in Paris. Prime Min- the Capital telegraph be- City of Mexico sup- Peace ratified. ister. of Italy. tween Russia and Japan. pressed. 1872. Attempt to assassi- 1873 Marshal Mac- 1873. Khiva cap- nate the Mikado of Mahon, Presi- tured. Japan. dent. 1877. Waragainst 1874 Death of Guizot. 1874. Alfonso XII.. King. Turkey. 1874. Insurrection at Nagasaki, Japan. 1875. Civil War. 1878. Death of 1878. Spread of 1878. Montenegro, Ser- 1879 Jules Grevy, Victor Em- Nihilism in via, and Roumania President. manuel II. Humbert, King. Death of Pius IX. Leo XIII., Pope. 1882. Death of the empire. 1880. Many Ni- hilists im- prisoned and executed. 1881. Alexander II. assassi- nated. independent. 1883. Sagasta again min- Garibaldi. Ale.xander III., Em- 1883. Opening of the St. Gothard Railway ister. peror. from Milan to Lu- 1885. War with 1885. Ship canal cerne. Abyssinia. from St. 1886. Upper Burmah an- nexed to British In- Petersburg to Cronstadt . dia. opened. Trouble with the Af- ghans. 1887 Sadi Carnot, 1887. Alliance 1886. Russia in- President. 1889. Trial by with Austria- terferes in jury first Hungary and Bulgaria. put in force. Germany 1888. Central 1889. New constitution signed. Asian rail- promulgated in Ja- Crispi, way opened. pan. 1890 War with Daho- 1890. Castileo, Prime Min- 1890-92. Famine 1890. First Japanese par- mey. Premier. ister. 1891. Treaty til rough the empire. liament opened. 1892 Panama scandals. with Great 1893. War with Britain rela- 1893. Kruger, President Morocco. tive to East Africa. Triple Al- of the Transvaal. 1894 President Carnot 1894. Death of 1894. War between China assassinated at liance re- Alexander and Japan. Lyons. newed. III. 1895. Cecil Rhodes a M. Casimir- 1893. Pope's Ju- Nicholas power in South Af- Perier, Presi- bilee at II., Czar. rica. dent. Rome. Federation of Aus- Capt. Dreyfus tralia approved. tried and im- Congo State an- prisoned. nexed to Belgium. 1895 President Casimir- 1896. Peace with 1895. Diplomatic 1896. Jamieson raid in Perier resigns. Abyssinia. relations with South Africa. M. Felix Faure, 1898. Pope offers Abyssinia. President. to mediate Persecution Death of Pasteur. in the Cuban question. of the Jews. 1896. First official census of the empire. 1897. Judicial re- 1897. Turko-GrecianWar. 1897 Ten-hour law for 1897. .\ssassina- form in Si- railway em- tion of Pre- beria. ployees passed. mierCanovas 1898. Port Ar- 1898. Hawaii annexed to del Castileo. thur leased the United States. Scheme of from China. Switzerland votes Cuban Au- to take over all rail- tonomy ap- ways within her bor- 1898 Review of Drey- proved. 1898. Spanish- ders. Wilhelmina, Queen fus case grant- American of Holland. ed. War. Treaty of Paris. 96 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 1899 Arts of Civilization United States Great Britain Germany Austria The "Open-door" 1899. Cuba passes in- 1899. The Boer policy for China to American pos- War in South agreed to. session. Africa. Jubilee of the year Philippines and 1900 proclaimed Porto Rico ac- / by the Pope. quired. iX 1900 Opening of the Elbe 1900. Civil govern- 1900. Field-Mar- 1900. AboHtion 1900. Marriage of and Trove Canal, me^lt established shal Roberts qf the Rom- the heir Germany. in the Philip- takes com- an Law apparent pines. mand in throughout Francis Chinese trou- South Africa. Germany. Ferdinand. bles.\ 1901. PanAAmerican 1901. Census of 1901. Bicente- \ Exposition. Indian Em- nary of the Assasfynation pire. coronation of of McKibley. Death of the first King TheodoteRoose- Victoria; ac- of Prussia. velt, Presjdent. cession of Edward VII. 1902 Marconi wireless sys- 1902. Cuban in\Je- 1902. The Brit- 1902. Prince 1902. Triple Alli- tem established on pendence uhder ish-Japanese Henry of ance re- Italian warships. Piatt Amend- Alliance Prussia visits newed. ment. \ signed. the United The lan- President \ Boer War States. guage ques- recommends tne ended. tion between purchase of thV Marquis of Germany and Panama Canal. Salisbury re- signs as Pre- mier. Czechs. 1903 Completion of the Pa- 1903. Panama Canal 1903. King Ed- 1903. New tariff cific Cable. treaty signed ward visits bill. Message sent around with Colombia. the King of Visit of the the world in twelve Commercial Italy. Czar of Rus- minutes. Treaty with China signed. Iri.sh Land Bill passed sia. Independence the House of / of Panama rec- Parliament. ognized. 1904 New York subway 1904. Great Balti- 1904. Col. Young- 1904. German 1904. Ultimatum opened. more fire. husband en- troops de- to the Sultan Bill introduced in St. Louis Ex- ters Tibet. feated in issued. France for separa- position opened. Africa^ 190Aanterven- Great rail- tion of church and way strike. 1905 state. Gigantic power plants erected at Niagara 1905. Protocol with 1905. Resigna- 1905. Treaty with Santo Domingo. tion of Lord tion of Ger- Germany Falls. Curzon as many in ratified. Viceroy of Moroccan Universal India. afTairs. The new commercial treaties. Marriage of the Crown Prince. suffrage on an education- al basis advo- cated by Minister of the Interior. 1906 The Simplon Tunnel opened. 1906. Rio tat Browns- 1906. King Ed- 1906. Propagan- 1906. Prince ville, Texas. ward visits da against Schillingfurst Pan-American confer- The President Paris. Socialism. succeeds ence meets at Rio visited Panama. Baron de Janerio. Great earth- Gautch. Morrocan conference quake at San at Algeciras. Francisco. Wireless telegraphy President Palma conference at Ber- Un. The "Lusitania" of Cuba resigns. 1907 1907. Philippine 1907. King 1907. German 1907. Universal makes her first Assembly opened. Edward and Emperor Suffrage Bill ; voyage. Emperor visited passed. i 1908 Discoveries in the 1908. Voyage of the Franz Joseph London. 1 transmutation of Pacific fleet to meet at Ischl. ^ metals. Asiatic waters. 1909 Great progress in 1909. Wm. H. Taft. 1909. Czar visits 1909. Bosnia and aeronautics. President. England. Herzegovina Discovery of North Tariff revised. , acquired. Pole announced. 1910 Earth passed through 1910. Newfoundland 1910. Edward 1910. Roosevelt, tail of Halley's fisheries dispute VII. died; as private comet. settled by arbi- George V. as- citizen, re- Woman's suffrage tration at The cends throne. viewed Ger- agitation in Eng- Hague. Attempt to man army. land. limit power 1911 French Institute de- 1911. Panama libel of Lords. clares women suit dismissed. New elec- ineligible. tion of Com- monsordered. HISTORY 97 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME France Spain and Portugal Italy and Greece Russia' Lesser Countries 1899. Death of 1899. Czar pro- 1899. Venezuela-Guiana Premier poses univer- boundary line estab- Canovas of sal peace. lished. Spain. 1900. Assassina- tion of King Humbert. Victor Em- manuel III., King. 1900. Outbreak of the Boxers in China. 1901 Diplomatic rela- 1901. Count 1901. Submission of tions with Tur- Tolstoi China to the allied key suspended. excommuni- cated. powers. Federal govern- ment inaugurated in Australia. 1902 M. Combes forms 1902. Alfonso 1902. Venezuelan claims a new French XIII.. King. pressed by England ministry. and Germany. 1903 Dreyfus case re- 1903. Death of 1903. Peter I., King of opened. Pope Leo Servia. t President Loubet XIII. visits King Ed- Pope Pius ward. X. 1904 Arbitration treat- 1904. Death of 1904. King and 1904. War with 1904. President Diaz of ies with Hol- Ex-Queen Queen of Japan over Mexico reelected. land, Spain, Isabella at Italy visit Manchuria Death of Paul Kru- Sweden, Nor- Paris. England. begun. ger, in Switzerland. way, and the United State. 1905 The Moroccan sit- 1905. Attempted 1905. The rail- 1905. Railway 1905. Japan captures uation grows in assassina- way bills strike at St. Port Arthur. End complexity. tion of the passed in Italy. Petersburg, of war. King in Warsaw, and Paris. Moscow. Constitu- tion granted by Czar, and the Duma authorized. 1906 M. Fallieres. 1906. King Al- 1906. Sonnino, 1906. The Czar 1906. King Christian of President. fonso mar- Premier. opened the Denmark died. The Church con- ried to Interna- first Russian Norway and Swe- troversy. The Princess Vic- tional Exhi- Duma. den independent Pope's ency- toria of Eng- bition at Attempted kingdoms. clical. land. Milan. assassination Emperor of China M. Sareien, Pre- of Premier promises constitu- mier. Stolypin. tional government. First Persian par- liament opened. 1907 Wine growers' 1907. King and 1907. Italy signs 1907. Third 1907. Abdication of agitation. Queen visit arbitration Russian Korean Emperor. ; French occupation England. treaty with Duma con- Death of Oscar II. i of Morocco. 1908. Carlos assassinated. Manuel II., King. Argentine. vened. of Sweden. 1909. Abdication of Abdul Hamid II. 1910 Great railway 1910. Portugal 1910.' Cholera 1910. Japan annexes strike sup- becomes epidemic Corea. pressed by Premier Briand. republic. destroys Chinese senate Theophile 100,000. opened. Braga, Presi- Death of dent. Leo Tolstoi. 1911 Institute rejects Madame Curie. 98 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF THE NEW WORLD I. SEMI-HISTORICAL PERIOD 500 TO 1400 A. D. II. PERIOD OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY 1400 A. D. TO THE PRESENT TIME A. D. 500 503 600 861 982 985 1000 1492 1493 1494 1497 1498 1499 1500 1502 1504 1511 1512V| 1513 1517 1519 Pre-Toltec period. Mexican history begins. Toltecs established throughout Mexico. The Norseman, Nadodd, discovers Iceland. Eric the Red discovers and names Greenland. Bjarni sights land at Cape Cod or Nantucket. Leif Ericson sails for Western lands. 1002. Thorwald, Leif's brother, visits Vinland. 1004. Thorwald killed in a skirmish with' the natives. 1005. Thornfinn Karlsefne lands in Rhode Island. 1050. End of Toltec power in Mexico. 1090. Aztecs begin their journey toward Mexico. 1325. Aztecs found the City of Mexico. 1349. Esquimaux appear in Greenland. 1400. Communication with Greenland ceases. DISCOVERT, EXPLORATION, AND CONQUEST FROM 1492 TO 1600 A. D. Columbus sails from Palos, Spain, and discovers Cuba. Columbus sails on his second expedition. Cattle first brought to America. Columbus discovers Jamaica. John Cabot discovers the North American con- tinent. Columbus sails on his third voyage. First voyage of Amerigo Vespuccius. Caspar Cortereal discovers Labrador. Columbus sails on his fourth voyage. Cape Breton discovered by French fishermen. Velasquez subjugates Cuba; Havana founded. Florida discovered by Juan Ponce de Leon. The "Pacific Ocean discovered by Vasco de Balboa, Fernando de Cordova discovers Mexico. Hernando Cortez lands in Mexico; Panama set- tled. 1521. Cortez captures the City of Mexico; Mexico constituted a Kingdom. 1524. Verrazzano enters the Bay of New York. 1528. Spaniards land in Florida. - 1534. Jacques Cartier enters Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1535. Grijalva's expedition discovers California. 1540. De Soto conquers Louisiana. 1562. Jean Ribault explores coast of Florida. 1565. St. Augustine, Florida, founded by Menendez. 1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert takes possession of New- foundland. 1584. Raleigh's first expedition lands in Virginia. 1585. John Davis discovers Davis Straits. 1586. Sir Francis Drake visits Roanoke Inlet. 1587. Virginia Dare, first English child born in America. 1602. Bartholomew Gosnold discovers Cape Cod. 1605. De Montf takes possession of Maine. FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 1607-1776 1607 1614 1618 1619 1620 1621 1623 1627 1628 1629 1632 1633 1634 1636 1638 1639 British America English settlement at Jamestown. Captain John Smith rescued by Poca- hontas. New Amsterdam settled by the Dutch. Death of Powhatan, Indian chief. First slaves brought to Virginia by the Dutch. Mayflower lands at Plymouth, Mass. Peregrine White, first white child born in New England. Death of John Carver, first Governor of Plymouth Colony; succeeded by William Bradford. Miles Standish, Captain. Treaty between Plymouth Colony and Massasoit. Cotton-seed planted in Virginia. New Hampshire settled. Lord Baltimore founds a colony at Ferryland, Newfoundland. Swedes and Finns settle at Cape Henlo- Een. n Endicott Governor of Massachu- setts. John Winthrop Governor of Massachu- setts. Lord Baltimore receives the grant of Maryland. Connecticut settled by the English. Wouter Van Twiller Governor of New Amsterdam. Enghsh Catholics settle at St. Mary's, Maryland. Roger Williams settles Rhode Island. Pequot War begins in Massachusetts. Swedes settle Delaware. John Harvard bequeaths his library to found a college. New Haven settled. Printing press established by Stephen Daye at Cambridge, Mass. First constitution of Connecticut. French America 1608. Champlain settles Que- bec. 1611. French Jesuits settle at Port Royal. 1615. Indian missions estab- lished. 1620. Champlain Governor of Canada. 1628. Port Royal taken by the English. 1629. Sir David Kirke cap- tures Quebec. 1632. Richelieu obtains resto- ration of territory. 1639. Ursuline Convent estab- lished at Quebec. 1640. The French attempt a settlement at Green Bay, Wisconsin. Spanish America 1610. Leon, Central America, founded. 1611. Talamanca Indians, of Central America, mas- sacred by the Spanish. 1620. Buenos Ayres sepa- rated from Asuncion. 1630. Spaniards expel the Dutch from Brazil. Alvarado subdues Cen- tral American Indians. Hayti seized by French buccaneers. 1635-8. French, English, and Dutch make numerous settlements in the West Indies. 1640. Spanish fleet of 90 ves- sels arrives off coast of Brazil. HISTORY 99 A. U. FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 1607-1776 British America French America Spanish America 1641. Montreal founded. 1642 Sir William Berkeley Governor of Virginia. 1643 Swedes settle in Pennsylvania. 1645 Free schools established at Roxbury, Mass. 1647 Peter Stuyvesant, Governor of New Amsterdam. 1652 Mint established in Boston, John Hull mintmaster. 1653 North Carolina settled. 1655 Delaware brought under Dutch rule. 1656 Quakers arrive in Boston. 1659. Laval, first Bishop of Que- bec. 1661. Dutch give up Brazil. French fur traders explore 1663. Spain denies the right of England to the Prov- 1664 Fort Amsterdam surrendered to the Lake Superior. English. ince of Carolina. 1665 Provincial government established 1665. St. Augustine pillaged in Maine. 1668. Marquette establishes mis- sion at Sault Ste. Marie. 1669. La Salle sails down the Ohio to the Mississippi. by English buccaneers. 1670 South Carolina settled. 1670. Maine, east of the Penob- 1671 French settle in Michigan. scot, occupied by the French. 1672. Count de Frontenac Gov- 1671. Danes occupy St. Thomas. ernor of Canada. 1673 New York and New Jersey surren- 1673. Marquette and Joliet in dered to the Dutch. Iowa. 1675 King Philip's War in Massachusetts. Fort Frontenac (Kingston, 1676 Nathaniel Bacon's rebellion in Virginia. Ont.) built. 1679. French at Niagara Falls. 1681 William Penn receives charter for Pennsylvania. 1682. La Salle descends the Mis- sissippi to the Arkansas, and 1683 First assembly in New York under names the valley Louisiana. English rule 1685. French in Texas under La 1685. Dampier, English buc- Salle. caneer, sacks Leon. 1689. French occupy Hudson 1690 Colonial Congress called in New York. Bay territory. Iroquois capture Montreal and Lachine. 1691. Acadia retaken by the French. 1693. Gold mining begins in 1700 Williamstown made capital of Vir- Brazil. 1701 ginia. Philadelphia incorporated as a city. 1702. Settlement in Alabama on Mobile River. 1710. Port Royal captured by 1710. French capture Rio de English fleet. Janeiro. 1718. New Orleans founded. 1719 Scotch-Irish settle in New Hamp- 1719. French capture Pensa- shire. cola. 1722. Pensacola restored to Spain. Treaty between Chil- eans and Spanish. 1729 British Government formally recog- 1729. Massacre of French at 1729. Spaniards establish nizes colony of Newfoundland. Natches by Indians. themselves at Monte- 1732 First stage between Boston and New York. video. 1739 Richmond, Va., founded by William Byrd. 1740. Governor Oglethorpe 1744 Hostilities with the Six Indian Nations. attacks Florida. 1745 Louisburg captured by New England 1745. Louisburg captured by the troops. British. 1749. Fort Rouille (Toronto) built. 1752 Franklin experiments with electricity. 1752. Marquis Duquesne, Gov- 1753 Firsi theater opened in New York. ernor of Canada. 1754 Convention at New York to consider a Colonial Confederacy. French and Indian War. 1755 Braddock defeated at Ft. Duquesne. 1755. French defeat Braddock. Battle of Lake George. 1758 Fort Frontenac surrendered to the English. 1758. Jesuits expelled from 1759 Battle of Quebec Wolfe and Mont- 1759. Quebec surrenders to the Brazil. calm killed. English. 1760 Montreal surrendered to the British. 1760. Marquis de Vaudreuil, last France cedes Canada to the English. French Governor of Canada. 1762; Spain acquires Louis- 1762 English settle in New Brunswick. 1762. Louisiana ceded to Spain. iana from France. 1763. Florida ceded to Great 1763 Pontiac's War. 1763. Acadia permanently ceded Britain. Massacre of Wyoming. to the British. French Guiana colon- ized. 100 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE SETTLEMENT OP JAMESTOWN TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 1607-1776 1765 British America Canada Spanish America Delegates of the Colonies assemble in 1764. Population of Canada, New York to resist the Stamp Act. about 60,000. 1766. Large colony of Aca- dians arrive in Louisiana. 1768. Revolt of the French against Spanish rule in Louisiana. 1770 Boston Massacre. 1773 Tea thrown overboard in Boston Harbor. 1773. Santiago, Guatemala, destroyed by an earth- 1774 The Colonial Congress adopts a Declaration of Rights. quake. 1775 Beginning of the Revolutionary 1775. Gen. Montgomery captures 1776. Paraguay placed under War with the Battle of Lexington. Montreal and St. John. the jurisdiction of Bue- Articles of Union and Confederation Death of Montgomery at nos Ayres. adopted. Quebec and failure of Ameri- Buenos Ayres made Washington appointed commander- can campaign. capital of the viceroy- in-chief of the American forces. alty. 1776 First Union flag unfurled at Cam- bridge, Mass. British evacuate Boston. Declaration of Independence at Philadelphia. FROM THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE TO THE ADOPTION 1777 OF THE CONSTITUTION 1776-1789, A. D. United States Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Landing of Lafayette at Charleston. . Battle of Princeton. Battle of Brandywine. British Army occupies Philadelphia. Surrender of Burgoyne. Articles of Confederation adopted by the Thirteen Colonies. 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France. Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British. Seventh Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia. Battle of Monmouth. 1778. Frederick Haldinand, Governor of Canada. 1779 British driven from South Carolina. 1779. Library 1779. Baton Rouge Stony Point captured by Wayne. founded at captured from Paul Jones gains naval victory over Quebec. the British. the British off the coast of Scot- land. 1780 Major Andr^ hanged as a spy. 1780. Coteau du 1780. Insurrection of Battle of Kings Mountain, S. C. Sack Canal Peruvians under Benedict Arnold turns traitor. built. Amaru. 1781 Americans victorious at Cowpens. Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. Bank of North America established at Philadelphia. 1781. The English Admiral Rodney takes possession of Guiana. 1782 Holland recognizes the independence of the United States. British evacuate Charleston. French army embarks from Boston. Preliminary articles of peace signed at Paris. Denmark, Sweden, Spain, and Rus- 1783 1783. St. John, N. 1783. Limits of 1783. Dutch colonies sia recognize the independence of B., founded. Belize defined. restored to Hol- the United States. Kingston land. Treaty of peace signed with Great founded. Britain. Eighth Continental Congress meets at Princeton, N. J. 1784 Congress adopts decimal currency 1784. N. E. Loyal- 1784. Island of St. system. ists settle in Bartholomew Tenth Continental Congress meets Upper Canada. transferred to at Trenton, N. J. Liberty of Sweden. 1785 Thomas Jefferson appointed Minis- ter to France; John Adams to conscience pro- claimed in Great Britain. Newfoundland. 1786 Daniel Shay's rebellion in Massa- chusetts. United States Mint authorized. 1786. Pacifications of the negroes and tribes in Dutch 1787 Constitutional convention assem- bles at Philadelphia. Last Continental Congress adjourns. Guiana. 1788 1788. King's Col- lege, Windsor, Nova Scotia, founded. HISTORY 101 A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1789 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America George Washington, President; 1789. Settlers from 1789. Malaspina ex- John Adams, Vice-President. North Carolina plores the coast First Congress meets in New York. arrive in Louis- of South Amer- First Tariff bill passed. iana. ica. Cabinet departments and United States Supreme Court organized. 1790 Indian War in Northwest Territory. Death of Benjamin Franklin. First mechanical patent issued. Census enumeration ordered. 1791 Anthracite coal discovered in Penn- 1791. Canada di- 1791. Negroes of sylvania. vided into Up- Hayti revolt Vermont admitted as a State. per and Lower. against France. 1792 Corner stone of White House laid. Kentucky admitted. 1793 Whitney invents the cotton-gin. Washington receives all the electoral votes for reelection. Corner stone of United States Capi- tol laid by Washington. Political parties assume names of Republican and Federalist. Third Congress opens at Philadel- 1793. Toronto founded. Slav- ery abolished in Upper Can- ada. phia. 1794 Foundations of United States Navy authorized. Whisky insurrection in Pennsyl- vania. 1794. Jay's Treaty relative to com- merce, naviga- tion, and 1795 Anti-rent troubles in New York. boundary. 1795. Maroon War 1796 Tennessee admitted. in Jamaica. 1796. Guiana again Washington issues his " Farewell Ad- Sugar first in British posses- dress." produced from sion. 1797 John Adams, President; Thomas 1797. Sault Ste. cane in Louisi- Jeflerson Vice-President. Marie Canal ana. Special session of Congress to con- begun. sider relations with France. 1798 Alien and sedition laws passed. Commercial intercourse with France suspended. 1799 General post-office established. Death of George Washington. 1800 French spoliation claims adjusted. 1800. The Sault Ste. 1800. Louisiana Capital removed from Philadelphia Marie Canal in transferred to to Washington. Canada com- pleted. France by Spain. 1801 Thomas Jefferson, President; Aaron Burr, Vice-President. Congress establishes the District of 1801. Toussaint rOuverture founds repub- Columbia. Uc in San Do- 1802. The Dutch re- Tripoli declares war against the mingo. sume possession United States. of BritishGuiana. 1803 Louisiana purchased for $15,000,000. 1803. Slavery il- 1803. French quit 1803. British Guiana Ohio admitted. legal in Lower Hayti. finally acquired. 1804 Vice-President Burr kills Hamilton in a duel. , Canada. 1805 Jefferson re-elected; George Clin- ton, Vice-President. 1807 Embargo Act passed. Fulton's steamboat, "Clermont," steams from New York to Albany. 1807. Slave trade abolished in Dutch Guiana. 1808. Royal family of Portugal ar- rived in Brazil. 1809 James Madison, President: George Clinton, Vice-President. 1809. Steamer "Ac- 1809. Ecuador at- commodation" tempts to throw Embargo Act repealed. arrived at Que- bec from Mon- treal. off the Spanish yoke. 1810. Independence 1811 Trading posts first established among the Indians. Battle of Tippecanoe with Indians. First steamboat on the Ohio. of Argentine Re- public begins. Independence of Chile. 1812 Louisiana admitted. 1812. Sir George 1812. Spanish con- 1811. Paraguay de- War declared against Great Britain. Prevost, Gov- stitution pro- clares its inde- American vessel " Constitution " cap- ernor. mulgated in pendence of tures the British " Guerriere." Costa Rica. Spain. American vessel "Wasp" captures the British " Frolic." Venezuela pro- claims its inde- American vessel "United States" pendence; war captures the British " Macedo- ensues for ten nian." years. American vessel " Constitution " cap- tures the British "Java." Canada invaded. 102 THE- STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, | 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1813 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Commodore Perry captures the Eng- lish fleet on Lake Erie. 1813. Chile recon- quered by Spain. Madison re-elected: Elbridge Gerry, Vice-President. Toronto, Canada, captured. Battle of the Thames. 1814 Battle of Lundy's Lane. British capture and burn WashinR- ton. Hartford Convention to oppose war meets. Stonington, Conn., bombarded by British fleet. 1814. Montevides captured by the revolutionary army of Buenos Ayres. 1815 Jackson defeats the British at New Orleans. Treaty of Peace with Great Britain ratified. Algerian War. 1815. Brazil becomes . a kingdom. 1816 U. S. Bank chartered by Congress. The- " Ontario " first steamboat on Great Lakes. Indiana admitted. American Colonization Society form- ed; founds Liberia. 1816. Argentine de- clares its separa- tion from Spain. 1817 James Monroe, President; Daniel 1817. Ottawa 1817. Unsuccessful 1817. Chileans defeat D. Tompkins, Vice-President. founded. insurrection in Spanish and gain Mississippi admitted. First bank Mexico. their independ- First instruction of deaf mutes in note issued at ence. America by T. H. Gallaudet, at Montreal. Hartford, Conn. Seminole War. 1818 Illinois admitted. Pensions granted Revolutionary sol- diers. The "Savannah," the first transat- 1819 lantic steamship. W. T. G. Morton discovers the use of ether as an ana;sthetic. .Alabama admitted. Florida purchased by the United States. Maine separated from Massachusetts. Maine admitted. 1820 1820. Earl of Dal- 1821 Missouri Compromise Bill passed. housie, Gov- 1821. Mexico be- Missouri admitted. ernor. comes inde- Liberia purchased. pendent of Andrew Jackson appointed Governor Spain. of Florida. Costa Rica independent. 1822 Independence of Spanish South 1822. Mexico an 1822. Brazil declares American States recognized. empire under its independence. Gaslight introduced into Boston. Iturbide. Costa Rica united to Mex- ico. Pedro I., Em- peror. Ecuador inde- pendent. 1823 President Monroe proclaims the " Monroe Doctrine." 1823. Federal Re- public pro- claimed for 1824 Gen. Lafayette arrives in New York. 1824. Bolivar, Dic- Mexico. tator of Peru. 1825 John Quincy Adams, President; Federation of 1825. Argentine con- John C. Calhoun, Vice-President. Central Ameri- stitution decreed. Treaty with Russia ratified. can States. Upper Peru in- Erie Canal finished. 1826. First survey for Nicaraguan dependent, takes the name of Bo- livia. Republic of Central America. 1826. Gen. Sucre, President of Bo- 1827 First railroad in United States built in Massachusetts. . ship canal. livia; succeeded by Bolivar. War between Buenos Ayres and Brazil. 1828 Protective Tariff bill passed. 1828. Ecuador in- vaded by Peru. Uruguay inde- pendent. 1829 Andrew Jacltson, President; John 1829. Welland 1829. Expulsion of 1829. Venezuela sep- C. Calhoun, Vice-President. Canal from Spaniards from arates from Naw 1830 Great speeches of Webster and Port Dalhousie Mexico de- Grenada. Hayne delivered in the U. S. Sen- to Port Robin- creed. 1830. Death of Boli- ate. son completed. var. Gen. Flores first President of Ecuador. HISTORY 103 A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1831 United States of America Canada Spanisli Nortli America Spanish Soutti America First locomotive built in United 1831. Revolution in States. Brazil. Abdica- Chloroform discovered by Samuel tion of Don Pe- Guthrie. dro. 1832 First Democratic National Conven- 1832. Newfound- ^ 1832. Patagonia vis- tion. land obtains a ited by Charles Black Hawk War. colonial legis- Darwin, the sci- Nullification in South Carolina. lature. entist. United States Bank bill vetoed by the President. 1833 Jackson re-elected; Martin Van 1833. Constitu- 1833. Santa Ana, 1833. Chilean consti- Buren, Vice-President. tional govern- President of tution formed. Bank deposits removed from the Na- ment in New- Mexico. tional Bank. foundland. 1834 National debt extinguished. Whig party first takes its name. 1835 Attempted assassination of President Jackson. Seminole War begins. 1835. Texas de- clares her inde- pendence. 1836 Massacre at Alamo, Texas. 1836. First railway 1836. First Con- Arkansas admitted. in Canada gress meets in Sam Houston, first president of Texas. opened. Costa R,ica. 1837 Martin Van Buren, President; Richard M. Johnson, Vice-Presi- dent. Great commercial panic. Morse system of telegraphy invented. 1837. Papineau and Mackenzie re- bellion. 1838 "Great Western " and " Sirius " cross 1838. Canadian re- 1838. Mexico de- 1838. Buenos Ayres the Atlantic. bellion sup- clares war blockaded by pressed. against France. Slavery abol- ished in Brit- ish West In- dies. French fleet. 1839 Vulcanized rubber patented by Good- year. 1839. Termination of the Mexican- French War. 1840 Lieut. Wilkes discovers Antarctic con- tinent. 1840. Upper and Lower Canada 1841 William H. Harrison, President; John Tyler, Vice-President. Harri-son dies April 4th; Jolm Tyler, President. Elias Howe patents the sewing ma- chine. Failure of the United States Bank. reunited. 1842 Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. Ashburton Treaty with England signed. 1843 Bunker Hill Monument dedicated. 1843. McGill Uni- 1845. England and 1844 Texas annexed to the United States. versity, Mon- 1844. Dominican France blockade Morse telegraph completed from Bal- treal, opened. Republic pro- Buenos Ayres, timore to Washington. claimed in pending Civil 1845 James K. Polk, President; George M. Dallas, Vice-President. Florida admitted. United States Naval Academy estab- lished at Annapolis. Texas admitted. Petroleum discovered near Pittsburg. - Hayti. War. Venezuela's in- dependence rec- ognized by Spain. 1846 Mexican War begins. 1846. EarlofCath- 1846. Gen. Mcjia First application of ether by Drs. cart. Governor. of Mexico is- Jackson and Morton. sues proclama- Wilmot Proviso. tion of hostility Smithsonian Institution established to the United in Washington. States. War Iowa admitted. with United States. 1847 Salt Lake City founded by the Mor- mons- 1847. Mexico se- questers church property to raise war funds. Gen. Quit- man, Military- Governor of Citv of Mexico. 1848 Gold discovered near Colonia, Cal. Peace signed with Mexico. Acquisi- tion of New Mexico and California. 1848. Peace be- tween United States and Wisconsin admitted. - Mexico. Corner stone of Washington Monu- ment laid. 104 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1849 United States of Americ?. Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Zachary Taylor, President; Millard Fill- more. Vice-President. Rush of gold hunters to California begins. 1850 Death of President Taylor, July 9th; 1850. Riots in Mon- 1850. Cuba in- 1850. Steam- Millard Fillmore, President. treal; Parlia- vaded by ship line California admitted. ment House American fili- from Bulwer Clayton Treaty with Great Britain burned. busters under Brazil to signed. Canadian Lopez. Europe Fugitive Slave Bill passed. clergy reserves inaugu- Clay Compromise Bill passed. abolished. rated. 1851 Great fire in library of Congress. United States Mint established at San Fran- 1851. Second in- 1852 vasion of 1852. Slave cisco. Cuba; Lopez trade sup- Deaths of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. shot. Hayti an pressed in Brazil. 1853 Franklin Pierce, President; Rufus King, 1853. The " Gene- Empire under 1853. Civil Vice-President. va," first Solouque. War in Walker's filibustering expedition. transatlantic Argen- Gadsden purchase. steamer, arrives at Quebec. 1854. First petro- leum wells tine. 1854 Treaty between United States and Japan. 1854-60. Central Kansas-Nebraska Bill approved. Ostend Manifesto issued. America in- bored. vaded by American fili- busters under 1855 Completion of Panama Railroad. Troubles in Kansas. First agricultural college in United States established at Cleveland. 1855. Suspension Bridge at Ni- agara Falls opened. Walker. 1856 Civil strife in Kansas. 1856. Grand Trunk 1856. Ecuador First Republican National Convention. Railroad opened. adopts French 1857 James Buchanan. President; J. C. Bracken- ridge, Vice-President. Allan Steam- 1857. New Mexi- system of ship Line es- can constitu- coinage, Dred Scott decision. tablished. tion estab- weights. Great financial panic in United States. lished. and meas- First attempt to lay transatlantic cable. ures. 1858 Minnesota admitted. 1858. Ottawa made 1858. Mexican Second treaty with China signed. the capital. constitution First message over Atlantic cable. Decimal sys- tem of coinage adopted. annulled by Church party. Civil War in Mexico. Hayti a Republic. 1859 Oregon admitted. John Brown's raid. 1859. Juarez of Mexico con- fiscates Church prop- erty. 1860. Civil War in 1860 Morrill high tariff bill approved. 1860. Prince of 1860. Revolu- South Carolina, passes ordinance of secession Wales visits Mexico be- tions and from the Union. Canada. tween Zulo- insurrec- Abraham Lincoln, President; Hannibal Victoria rail- aga and tions pre- Hamlin, Vice-President. road bridge at Montreal opened. Miramon. vail in Uruguay for next thirty 1861 Secession of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, North 1861. Gold found 1861. Juarez, Dic- years. in Nova Scotia. tator of Mex- Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. ico. Attack on Fort Sumter. Mexican Kansas admitted. troubles with Southern States form a confederacy. England, McClellan appointed commander-in-chief. France, and Mason and Slidell taken from British vessel. Spain. Reunion of St. Domingo Confederate States with Spain. of America 1861. Jefferson Davis, Pre.sident; A. H. Stephens, Vice- President. Battles of Bull Run. 1862 Fight between the 1862. Capture of Ft. 1862. Macdonald, 1862. England " Merrimac " and Henry. Premier. and Spain dis- " Monitor." Grant takes Ft. approve Mex- Slavery abolished in Donelson. ican Mon- District of Columbia. archy for Maximilian. HISTORY 105 A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Confederate States of America 1862 Treaty with Great Brit- ain for suppression of slave trade. 1862. Battle of Shi- loh. Capture of Congress passes act to New Orleans by prevent polygamy in Farragut and the Territories. Butler. Gen. Jackson captures Battle of Fair Harpers Ferry. Oaks. Battle of South Moun- Robert E. Lee tain. in command of Battle of Antietam. Confederate ar- Greenbacks first issued. mies. Battles before Richmond. Battle of Mur- freesboro. 1863 Emancipation procla- 1863. Battle of Chan- 1863. Mexico oc- mation. cellorsville. cupied by West Virginia admitted. Siege of Vicks- the French Gen. Meade commander burg. under of the Army of the Battle of Chick- Bazaine. Potomac. amauga. Battle of Gettysburg. Battle of Look- out Mountain. 1864 U. S. Grant, Lieutenant 1864. Grant's Vir- 1864. Confederates 1864. Maximilian, 1864. Hostili- General. ginia campaign. in Canada plan Emperor of ties be- Fight between " Kear- Battle of Wil- raids. Mexico. tween sarge" and "Ala- derness. Paraguay bama." Bettle of Spott- and Fugitive Slave Law re- sylvania C. H. Brazil. pealed. Battle of Cold Ameri- Battle of Monocacy. Harbor. can Con- Premium on gold, 285 Atlanta cam- gress at per cent. paign. Lima, Nevada admitted. Capture of Mo- Peru. President calls for 500,- bile. 000 volunteers. Battle of Win- Grade of Vice-Admiral chester. 1865. Argen- established. Sherman's tine in- Additional call for 300,- march to the sea. vaded by 000 volunteers. Thomas de- feats Hood at Para- guans un- der Lo- Nashville. 1865 Lincoln re-elected; 1865. Confederate 1865. Confedera- 1865. Maximilian pez. Andrew Johnson, Congress ad- tion rejected proclaims War be- Vice-President. journs sine die. by New Bruns- Mexican- tween Peace conference at Richmond wick. French Brazil Hampton Roads. evacuated by War ended. and Uru- President Lincoln shot Confederates. United guay. at Ford's Theater, Lee surrenders States pro- Treaty Washington, April at Appomattox, April 9th. tests against between 14th. French occu- Brazil, Andrew Johnson, Johnston, Mor- pation of Uruguay. President; April 15th. gan, Taylor, and Mexico. and Ar- General amnesty proc- Kirby-Smith sur- Insurrection gentine lamation. render. in Jamaica. against Habeas Corpus restored Jefferson Davis Para- in Northern States. captured. guay. 1866. Invasion of Canada threat- 1866. Napoleon III. agrees Four years' war 1866 Civil Rights Bill passed over President's veto. ened by Feni- with United results. Fenian raid into Canada ans. States to Relig- Atlantic telegraph comp ieted. Canadian withdraw ious toler- Parliament French troops ation en- first meets at from Mexico. acted in Ottawa. Chile. 1867 Nebraska admitted. 1867. Dominion of 1867. Maximilian, Chile de- Alaska transferred by F ussia to the United Canada formed Miramon, and clares war States. by union of* Mejia tried in against Upper and Mexico and Spain. Lower Canada, shot. 1866. Span- iards Nova Scotia, Republic and New re-established bombard Brunswick. in Mexico. Valpara- Lord Monck, iso, Chile. Viceroy of Peru Canada. joins Chile New Parlia- in war ' ment at Ot- against tawa. Spain. 106 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, | 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1868 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America President Johnson" impeached, tried, 1868. Agitation 1868. Insurrection and acquitted. against confed- of Creoles in Southern States readmitted to rep- eration in Nova Cuba under resentation in Congress. Scotia. Cespedes. Burlingame treaty with China signed. Fenian raid XIV. Amendment adopted. repelled. Sir John Young, Gov- ernor-General. 1869 U. S. Grant, President; Schuyler 1869. Newfound- 1869. Filibusters 1869. Revolution in Colfax, Vice-President. land refuses to again attack Ecuador. Union Pacific Railroad opened for join the Do- Cuba. traffic. minion. Financial panic in New York. Hudson Bay Soldier's monument at Gettysburg territory pur- dedicated. chased by the Dominion. 1870 Northern Pacific Railroad begun. 1870. Rupert's 1870. Continual in- XV. Amendment ratified. Land made the Province of Manitoba. surrections in Cuba. 1871 Legal Tender Act decided constitu- 1871. British Co- 1871. Civil War tional. lumbia united and insurrec- "Tweed Ring " in New York exposed. to the Do- tions in Mexico. Great fire in Chicago. minion. District of Columbia a territorial gov- Departure of last battalion ernment. of Royal troops. Uniformity of currency es- tablished. 1872 Geneva award of $15,500,000 made to the United States. Great fire in Boston; loss $80,000,- OOO. Modoc War in California. 1872. Lord Duf- ferin, Govern- or-General. 1872 Grant re-elected; Henry Wilson, Vice-President. 1873 Credit Mobilier investigation by Con- 1873. Prince Ed- 1873. Slavery abol- 1873. Treaty be- gress. ward Island ished in Porto tween Argentine One cent postal cards issued. joins the Do- Rico. and Brazil. Financial panic in New York. minion. 1874. Religious or- Territorial government in District of ders suppressed Columbia abolished. in Me.xico. 1875 Act authorizing the resumption of specie payments. 1875. Icelanders settle in North- west Territo- ries. 1876 Massacre of Custer's troops by Sit- 1876. Intercolonial 1876. Porfirio Diaz, 1876. Venezuela re- ting Bull. railroad opened President of nounces papal Centennial Exposition at Philadel- from Quebec to Mexico. authority. phia. Halifax. Colorado admitted. 1877 Electoral Commission appointed. Rutherford B. Hayes, President; William A. Wheeler, Vice-Presi- 1877. Great fire at St. John, New Brunswick. dent. Great railroad strike. "Molly Maguires" hanged in Penn- sylvania. War with the Nez Percis Indians. Edison announces his phonograph. 1878 Bland Silver Bill passed over Presi- 1878. Marquis of 1878. Surrender of dent's veto. Lome, Govern- insurgent gov- Electric lighting introduced by Edi- or-General. ernment in son. Cuba. 1879 United States Government resumes 1S79. Industrial 1879. War between specie payment. Exhibition at Chile and Peru Women permitted to practice before United States Courts. Ottawa. and Bolivia. French Atlantic cable laid. 1880 The Kearney agitation in California. 1880. Royal Cana- 1880. Manuel Gon- 1880. Buenos Ayres dian Academy zales, President made the capital of Arts found- ed. 1881. Contract for of Mexico. of Argentine. 1881 James A. Garfleld, President; 1881. Lima occupied Chester A. Arthur, Vice-President. new Pacific by the Chileans. President Garfield shot, July 2d; railway rati- Patagonia di- Chester A. Arthur, President,- fied. vided by Chile September 20th. and Argentine. International Cotton Exposition at * Atlanta, Ga. HISTORY 107 A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OP THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1882 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Star Route trials begin. 1882. Northwest War with, the Apache Indians. Territory be- yond Manitoba divided into Assiniboia, Sas- katchewan, Al- berta, and Athabaska. First colony of Russians set- tle in North- west Territory. 1883 Northern Pacific Railroad completed. 1883. Conflicts be- 1883. Ancient city 1883. Peruvians de- Opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. tween Catholics discovered in feated with great and Orange- Sonora, Mexico. loss by Chile. men in New- foundland. Standard time adopted. 1884 Great floods in the Ohio Valley. 1884. Marquis of 1884. Porfirio Diaz, Financial crises in New York. Lansdowne, Governor-Gen- eral. President of Mexico. 1885 Grover Cleveland, President; 1885. The Riel in- 1885. Concessions Thomas A. Hendricks, Vice-Presi- surrection in to the Nicara- dent. Northwest. gua Canal Com- Apache War in New Mexico. pany granted World's Industrial Exposition at by Nicaragua. New Orleans. 1886 Railroad strikes and anarchistic riots. 1886. Fisheries dis- 1886. Slavery abol- Silver certificates authorized. pute with ished in Cuba. Bartholdi's Statue of Liberty un- United States. veiled. Vancouver City founded. 1887. Great rail- way bridge at Lachine com- pleted. Anthracite coal first mined in Canada. 1888 Chinese immigration prohibited. 1888. Lord Stanley, Governor-Gen- 1888. Slavery totally abolished in 1889 Benjamin Harrison, President; Levi P. Morton, Vice-President. Johnstown flood. Pan-American Congress meets in Washington. North and South Dakotas, Washing- ton, and Montana admitted. eral. Brazil. 1889. Revolution at Rio de Janeiro; emperor ban- ished; republic declared. First Brazilian Oklahoma opened for settlement. Congress meets. 1890 Idaho and Wyoming admitted. 1890. Dominion 1890. Union of Cen- 1890. Great financial People's Party convenes at Topeka, Commons pass- tral American , crisis in Argen- Kan. ed a resolution States formed. tine. McKinley Tariff goes into effect. of loyalty to Sioux War; Sitting Bull killed. Great Britain. 1891 Massacre of Italians in New Orleans. 1891. Canadian Pa- cific Railway completed. First Pacific mail steamer arrives at Van- couver from Yokohama. St. Clair tun- nel connecting Canadian and United States railways open- ed. 1892. Dominion 1891. Civil War in Chile. Mob at Valpa- raiso assaults United States sailors. 1892 Behring Sea dispute referred to arbi- 1892. Revolutions tration. discriminates against United States in use of Welland Canal. and insurrections in Brazil. 1893. Insurrections in Argentine. 1893 Grover Cleveland, President; Ad- 1893. Canal tolls Naval revolt lai E. Stevenson, Vice-President. arranged with in Brazil, led by Columbian Exposition opened at United States. Admiral de Chicago. Commercial Mello. World's Parliament of Religions treaty between meets at Chicago. France and Chinese Exclusion bill approved. Canada. Great financial depression. Silver Earl of Aber- bill approved. deen, Govern- or-General. 108 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1894 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Wilson Tariff bill passed. 1894. Intercolonial 1894. Naval scrim- Great railroad strike from Ohio to Congress open- mage between Pacific coast. ed at Ottawa. Admiral da Coal strike. Gama, Brazilian Republic of Hawaii recognized. insurgent, and New treaty with Japan. Admiral Ben- ham, United States Navy. 1895. Chile adopts 1895 Free silver movement an important 1895. First Exhibi- 1895. Renewed in- issue. tion in North- surrections in the gold stand- Special message of the President on west opened at Cuba against ard. the Venezuelan question. Regina. Spanish rule. Cuba de- mands auton- omy from Spain. Construction of Panama Canal in progress by the French. 1896 Treaty with the Choctaw Indians. 1896. Sir Charles 1896. Weyler issues 1896. Revolt of Tupper, Pre- his famous re- " Fanatics " in mier. concentrado Brazil. Newfound- order in Cuba. Chile signs land Govern- Uniform treaty of amity ment purchases education sys- with Bolivia. railway system. tem in Mexico. Gold mines of great value dis- covered in Peru. 1897 William McKinley, President; Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President. 1897. School ques- 1897. Wevler re- called from 1897. Venezuela rati- tion settled in fies boundary Universal Postal Congress meets in Manitoba. Cuba and treaty with Washington. Commission Blanco ap- Great Britain. Treaty for annexation of Hawaii for Yukon gold pointed cap- signed. region ap- tain-general. Extensive strikes among coal and pointed. Attempt to iron miners. British Sci- assassinate Dingley Tariff bill goea into eflfect. ence Associa- tion meets at Toronto. Joint com- mission ap- pointed to set- tle difficulties with United States. President Diaz of Mexico. United States of Cen- tral America formed. 1898 City government of Greater New 1898. Great influx 1898. Hostile dem- 1898. Argentine pro- York inaugurated. of miners to onstrations in vides for a com- Destruction of the "Maine" in Ha- Yukon gold Havana plete network of vana Harbor. region. against Ameri- railways. War with Spain; Congress orders Earl of Minto, cans. forcible intervention in Cuba. Governor-Gen- Battleship Admiral Dewey destroys the Span- eral. "Maine" ish fleet at Manila. blown up at Naval battle at Santiago; destruc- Havana. tion of Cevera's fleet. Invasion of Miles inva.des Porto Rico. Cuba and Por- Treaty of Paris: United States ac- to Rico by quires .sovereignty over Cuba, United States. Porto Rico, and the Philippines. Completion of great Mexi- can drainage canal. 1899 Aguinaldo foments the Philippine 1899. Adjournment 1899. Cuba and 1899. Venezuelan War. of the Joint Porto Rico boundary Appointment of the First Philippine High Commis- pass to United tribunal meets Commission. sion. States by in Paris. General Wood, Governor of Cuba. Treaty of Paris. Spanish power in Amer- ica ceases. 1900 Civil government established in the 1900. Great fire in 1900. Cuba consti- Philippines under act of Congress. Ottawa. tutional con- Galveston flood and hurricane. Parliament- vention meets. Civil government in Alaska. ary elections American forces sent to China under sustain the General Chaffee. Liberal minis- try in power. 1901 McKinley re-elected; Theodore 1901. Population 1901. War declared Roosevelt, Vice-President. of Canada, between Piatt Amendment relating to Cuban 5.338,883. Venezuela and independence passed. Toronto Ex- Colombia. President McKinley shot at Buffalo, hibition open- N. Y., September 6th; Theodore ed. Roosevelt, President, September 14th. Cuban autonomy granted. HISTORY 109 A. D. 1902 FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America President recommended purchase of 1902. Canadian- 1902. Revolution 1902. Gen. Uribe. the rights of the Panama Canal Australian in San Do- Colombian insur- Company for $40,000,000. cable laid. mingo. gent leader Civil government established in the Reciprocity Eruption of surrenders. Philippines and amnesty granted treaty between Mt. Pelee, St. End of revolu- pohtical prisoners. Newfoundland Pierre, with tion in Venezuela. Decision of United States Supreme and United 30,000 people Court in Northern Securities case. States. destroyed. 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor 1903. University of 1903. West Indian 1903. The republic of created. Ottawa found- hurricane Panama pro- Pacific cable completed. ed. destroyed claimed. Canal treaty with Panama. $15,000,000 in Canal treaty Cuban Reciprocity Treaty ratified by values and with United U. S. Senate. many lives. States ratified. Lieutenant-General Miles retired from Colombian head of the U. S. Army. Senate rejected Panama Canal .\laskan boundary tribunal in Lon- don decided in favor of the United Treaty. States. 1904 Commercial treaty with China. 1904. Earl Grey, 1904. Venezuelan Arbitration' treaty with France Governor-Gen- diplomatic diffi- signed. eral. culties with Great fire in Baltimore. Fire in To- ronto destroyed $10,000,000 worth of prop- erty. United States. 1905 Theodore Roosevelt, President; Charles W. Fairbanks, Vice-Presi- dent. President advocates control of rail- ways and corporate wealth. Arbitration treaties concluded with Great Britain, Germany, Italy, and other powers. 190.5. Decennial census act. 1906 Destruction of San Francisco by 1906. British pref- 1906. Revolutions 1906. Pan-American earthquake and fire. erential tariff in Central conference at Riot at Brownsville, Texas. debated. America. Rio de Janeiro. President Roosevelt visits Panama. Commission President Earthquake at appointed to Palma resigns Valparaiso, investigate and appeals to Chile. life insurance United States in Canada. for intervention in Cuba. 1907 Pure Food Law became effective. 1907. Riotous 1907. Tehuantepec 1907. Notable im- Great floods at Pittsburg. demonstrations National Rail- pulse given to Jamestown Exposition opened by against Japa- way opened by South American President Roosevelt. nese at Vancou- President Diaz trade and Standard Oil Company fined ver, British of Mexico. progress. $29,240,000. Columbia. Large part of Financial stringency in New York, Physical and Kingston, and many bank failures. military train- Jamaica, de- Oklahoma admitted as a State. ing introduced into schools and colleges. stroyed by earthquake. 1908 The Aldrich Currency bill introduced 1908. Tercentenary 1908. Nord Alexis 1908. Labor riot at in the U. S. Senate. celebration overthrown in Chilean mines. held at Quebec. Hayti. New government imder Gen. Simon. Vast Municipal improvements in Rio de Janeiro. 1909 William H. Taft, President; 1909. Unusual im- 1909. Earthquakes 1909: Anarchist up- James S. Sherman, Vice-President. migration from destroy 10,000 risings in Argen- Payne-Aldrich tariff. United States. in Mexico. tina suppressed. Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Progress in Meeting of Seattle. railway devel- Taft and Diaz Peary reported discovery of North opment. at El Chamizal. Pole, April 26. Roosevelt visited Africa. 1910 Insurgency in Congress. 1910. Death of 1910. President 1910. Mutiny of Roosevelt returned to United States. Goldwin Smith. Diaz re-elected. Brazilian navy. Sweeping Demecratic victory in Eucharist Revolution elections. congress of under Madero Commerce Court created. Roman Catho- suppressed. Thirteenth Census. lic church at Postal Savings Banks established. Montreal. 1911 Tobacco trust trials by Supreme Court. no THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Feudal System. The name generally given to the system of land tenure and social arrangements which prevailed in Europe during the period commonly known as the Middle Ages. Its essence lay in the close connection which existed under it between social status and the ownership of land. The man who held land from another was looked upon as the dependant and subordinate of the latter. In England the system was not unknown under the Anglo-Saxon kings, but it received its complete development only at the Norman Conquest. The death of Harold left V/illiam in possession of vast crown lands, which he bestowed upon his principal officers. What the king did for his great lords they did for their captains, and these, again, for their vassals. Counties were divided into manors, and manors into farms; and in the most commanding part of every manor a strong castle arose, in which the baron ruled all but supreme, surrounded by armed retainers, and having always at his call the franklins, or free- tenants, who held the lands which constituted his estate. Under the Feudal System both spear and plough helped to pay the rent. Knight Service and Socage were required from every tenant the former obliging him to serve, at the call of his landlord, for so many days each year in the field of battle ; the latter to give occa- sional days of labor on the castle grounds, or to send fixed supplies of such things as beef or poul- try, meal or honey, to the castle larder. Num- bers of serfs, called Villeins, tilled little patches of ground under certain conditions, and these were held nominally to be freemen; but the lowest class of serfs took rank with the oxen and the swine which they tended, being, like them, the property of the master. Under this system, Aids nad to be given to the crown; and also various Reliefs, or Fines, which were paid by an incoming heir before he could take possession of his estate, or when a tenant sold or gave any part of his lands to a stranger. The Feudal System, though it has so long ceased to exist as a system of political and social relations, still survives as the basis of most of the laws relating to land; and the laws both of escheat and copyhold, as they at present exist, are direct outgrowths of the Feudal System. Fifth-monarchy Men. A clique of political fanatics who sided with Cromwell dur- mg the Protectorate. They derived this epi- thet from their entertaining a belief that Crom- well's accession to supreme power was a mani- festation of the advent of the fifth monarchy, in which the Saviour should reign with the saints on earth for the period of one thousand years. Florida. The name Florida, derived from a Spanish word meaning "flowery," or perhaps because it was first visited on "Pascua Florida," or Easter Sunday, was originally applied to a much larger region than the present State, its boundaries extending to the Mississsippi, and on the north indefinitely. It was first discovered by Ponce de Leon in 1512, who landed near St. Augustine. It was subsequently visited by other Spanish adventurers, but it was not till 1528 that an actual attempt at colonization was made by Panfilo de Narvaez, who had received a large land grant from Charles V. He and his colonists were exterminated by the Indians. In 1539, Fernando de Soto explored the State, and a few years later many French Huguenots sought refuge here. They were massacred by the Spaniards. Spain had no permanent foot- ing till 1565, when the fort was built at St. Augustine. Pensacola was settled in 1696. In 1763, Florida was ceded to the English in ex- change for Cuba, but by the treaty of 1783 it was retroceded to Spain. A portion of Florida was seized by the United States in 1803, and in 1819, Spain formally ceded the whole province. Florida was admitted as a State in 1845, seceded January 10, 1861, and resumed federal relations, 1868. Forum (fo'rUm). In Roman cities, a public place where causes were judicially tried, and orations made to the people. It was a large, open parallelogram, surrounded by porticos. There were six of these forums, viz : the Roma- num, Julianum, Augustum, Palladium, Traja- num, and Sallustii forums. . The chief was the Romanum, called, by way of eminence, the forum. In it was the rostrum, or pulpit, where the Roman orators pleaded before or harangued the people. These forums were styled fora civilia, in distinction from another description of forum serving as markets, which were known as fora venalia. France. Gallia was the name under which France was designated by the Romans, who knew little of the country till the time of Csesar, when it was occupied by the Aquitani, Celtse, and Belgae. Under Augustus, Gaul was divided into four provinces, which, under subsequent emperors, were dismembered, and subdivided into seventeen. In the Fifth Century it fell completely under the power of the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Franks. In 486 A. D., Clovis, a chief of the Salian Franks, raised himself to supreme power in the North. His dynasty, known as the Merovingian, ended in the person of Childeric III., who was deposed 752 A. D. The accession of Pepin gave new vigor to the monarchy, which, under his son and successor, Charlemagne, crowned Emperor of the West in 800 (768-814), rose to the rank of the most powerful empire of the West. With him, how- ever, this vast fabric of power crumbled to pieces, and his weak descendants completed the ruin of the Prankish Empire by the dismember- ment of its various parts among the younger branches of the Carlovingian family. On the death of Louis V. the Carlovingian Dynasty was replaced by that of Hugues, Count of Paris, whose son, Hugh Capet, was elected king by the army, and consecrated at Rheims, 987 A. D. At this period the greater part of France was held by almost independent lords. Louis le Gros (1108-37) was the first ruler who succeeded in combining the whole under his scepter. He promoted the establishment of the feudal sys- tem, abolished serfdom on his own estates, secured corporate rights to the cities under his jurisdiction, gave efficiency to the central author- ity of the crown, carried on a war against Henry I. of England; and when the latter allied him- self with the Emperor Henry V. of Germany against France he brought into the field an army of 200,000 men. The oriflamm^ is said to have HISTORY 111 been borne aloft for the first time on this occa- sion as the national standard. Louis VII. (1137-80) was almost incessantly engaged in war with Henry II. of England. His son and successor, Pliilippe Auguste (1180-1223), recov- ered Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou from John of England. He took an active per- sonal share in the Crusades. Philippe was the first to levy a tax for the maintenance of the standing army. Many noble institutions date their origin from this reign, as the University of Paris, the Louvre, etc. St. Louis IX. effected many modifications in the fiscal department, and, before his departure for the Crusades, se- cured the rights of the Galilean Church by special statute, in order to counteract the constantly increasing assumptions of the papal power. Phihppe IV. (1285-1314), surnamed Le Bel, acquired Navarre, Champagne, and Brie by marriage. Charles IV. (Le Bel) (1321-28) was the last direct descendant of the Capetian line. Philippe VI., the first of the House of Valois (1328-50), succeeded in right of the Salic law. His reign, and those of his successors, Jean (1350-64) and Charles V. {Le Sage) (1364-80), were disturbed by constant wars with Edward III. of England. Hostilities began in 1339; in 1346 the battle of Crecy was fought; at the battle of Poitiers (1356) Jean was made captive; and before the final close, after the death of Edward (1377), the state was reduced to bank- ruptcy. During the regency for the minor, Charles VI. {Le' Bien Aime) (1380^1422), the war was renewed with increased vigor on the part of the English nation. The signal victory won by the English at Agincourt in 1415 aided Henry in his attempts upon the throne. But the extraordinary influence exercised over her countrymen by the Maid of Orleans aided in bringing about a thorough reaction, and, after a period of murder, rapine, and anarchy, Charles VII. {Le Victorieux) (1422-61) was crowned at Rheims. His successor, Louis XL (1461-83), succeeded in recovering for the crown the terri- tories of Maine, Anjou, and Provence, while he made himself master of some portions of the territories of Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- gundy. Charles VIII. (1483-98), by his mar- riage with Anne of Brittany, secured that pow- erful state. With him ended the direct male succession of the House of Valois. Louis XII. (1498-1515) {Le Pere du Peuple) was the only representative of the Valois-Orleans family; his successor, Francis I. (1547), was of the Valois- AngouUme branch. The defeat of Fran- cis at the battle of Pavia, in 1525, and his sub- sequent imprisonment at Madrid, threw the affairs of the nation into the greatest disorder. In the reign of Henri II. began the persecutions of the Protestants. Henri III. (1574-89) was the last of this branch of the Valois. The mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) was perpetrated under the direction of the queen-mother, Catha- rine de' Medici, and the confederation of the League, at the head of which were the Guises. The wars of the League, which were carried on by the latter against the Bourbon branches of the princes of the blood-royal, involved the whole nation in their vortex. The succession of Henri IV. of Navarre (1589-1610), a Bourbon prince, descended from a younger son of St. Louis, allayed the fury of these religious wars, but his recantation of Protestantism in favor of Catholicism disappointed his own party. Dur- ing the minority of his son, Louis XIII. (1610- 43), Cardinal Richelieu, under the nominal regency of Marie de' Medici, the queen-mother, ruled with a firm hand. Cardinal Mazarin, under the regency of the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, exerted nearly equal power for some time during the minority of Louis XIV. (1643- 1715). The wars of the Fronde, the misconduct of the parliament, and the humbling of the no- bility gave rise to another civil war, but with the assumption of power by young Louis a new era commenced, and till near the close of his long reign the military successes of the French were most brilliant. Louis XV. (1715-75) suc- ceeded to a heritage whose glory was tarnished, and whose stability was shaken to its very foundations during his reign. The Peace of Paris, 1763, by which the greater portion of the colonial possessions of France were given up to England, terminated an inglorious war, in which the French had expended 1,350 millions of francs. In 1774 Louis XVI., a well-meaning, weak prince, succeeded to the throne. The American war of freedom had disseminated republican ideas among the lower orders, while the Assembly of the Notables had discussed and made known to all classes the incapacity of the government and the wanton prodigality of the court. The nobles and the tiers etat were alike clamorous for a meeting of the states, the former wishing to impose new taxes on the na- tion, and the latter determined to inaugurate a thorough and systematic reform. After much opposition on the part of the king and court the Etats Generaux, which had not met since 1614, assembled at Versailles on May 25, 1789. The resistance made by Louis and his advisers to the reasonable demands of the deputies on the 17th of June, 1789, led to the constitution of the National Assembly. The consequence was the outbreak of insurrectionary movements at Paris, where blood was shed on the 12th of July. On the following day the national guard was con- voked, and on the 14th the people took posses- sion of the Bastile. The royal princes and all the nobles who could escape sought safety in flight. The royal family, having attempted in vain to follow their example, tried to conciliate the people by the feigned assumption of repub- lican sentiment; but on the 5th of October the rabble, followed by numbers of the national guard, attacked Versailles, and compelled the king and his family to remove to Paris, whither the Assembly also moved. A war with Austria was begun in April, 1792; and the defeat of the French was visited on Louis, who was confined in August with his family in the Temple. In December the king was brought to trial. On January 20, 1793, sentence of death was passed upon him, and on the following day he was beheaded. Marie Antoinette, the widowed queen, was guillotined; the dauphin and his surviving relatives suffered every indignity that malignity could devise. A reign of blood and terror succeeded. The brilliant exploits of the young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, in Italy, 11?! THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS turned men's thoughts to otlier channels. In 1795, a general amnesty was declared, peace was concluded with Prussia and Spain, and the war was carried on with double vigor against Aus- tria. The Revolution had reached a turning- point. A Directory was formed to administer the government, which was now conducted in a spirit of order and conciliation. In 1797, Bonaparte and his brother-commanders were omnipotent in Italy. Austria was compelled to give up Belgium, accede to peace on any terms, and recognize the Cisalpine Republic. Under the pretext of attacking England a fleet of 400 ships and an army of 36,000 picked men were equipped; their destination proved, how- ever, to be Egypt, whither the Directory sent Bonaparte; but the young general resigned the command to Kleber, landed in France in 1799, and at once succeeded in supplanting the Direct- ory, and securing his own nomination as consul. In 1800, a new constitution was promulgated, which vested the sole executive power in Bona- parte. Having resumed his military duties, he marched an army over the Alps, attacked the Austrians unawares, and decided the fate of Italy by his victory at Marengo. In 1804, on an appeal by universal suffrage to the nation, Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor. By his marriage with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Germany, Napoleon seemed to have given to his throne the prestige of birth, which alone it had lacked. The dis- astrous Russian campaign, in which his noble army was lost amid the rigors of a northern winter, was soon followed by the falling away of his allies and feudatories. Napoleon himself was still victorious wherever he appeared in person, but his generals were beaten in numer-, ous engagements ; and the great' defeat of Leipsic compelled the French to retreat beyond the Rhine. The Swedes brought reinforcements to his enemies on the eastern frontier, while the English pressed on from the west; Paris, in the absence of the emperor, capitulated after a short resistance, March 30, 1814. Napoleon retired to the island of Elba. On the 3d of May, Louis XVIII. (the brother of Louis XVI.) made his entry into Paris. On March 1, 1815, Napoleon left Elba, and landed in France. Crowds followed him; the soldiers flocked around his standard ; the Bourbons fled, and he took possession of their lately deserted palaces. The news spread terror through Europe ; and on the 25th of March a treaty of alliance was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, and preparations made to put down the movement in his favor and restore the Bourbon dynasty. At first the old prestige of success seemed to attend Napoleon; but on the 18th of June he was thoroughly defeated at Waterloo; and, having placed himself under the safeguard of the English, he was sent to the island of St. Helena, where, on May 5, 1821, he breathed his last. In 1824, Louis XVIII. died without direct heirs, and his brother, the Due d'Artois, succeeded to the throne as Charles X. His reign was abruptly brought to a close by the revolution of 1830, and the election to the throne of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, as king, by the will of the people. Louis Philippe having abdicated (February 24, 1848), a republic was proclaimed, under a provisional government. Louis Napoleon was elected president of the republic in December, 1848; but by the famous coupe d'etat of December 2, 1851, he violently set aside the constitution, and assumed dicta- torial powers; and a year after was raised, by the almost unanimous voice of the nation, to the dignity of emperor as Napoleon III. The result of the appeal made to the nation in 1870, on the plea of securing their sanction for his policy, was not what he had anticipated. The course of events in the short but terrible Franco- German War of 1870-71 electrified Europe by its unexpected character. On September 2, 1870, Napoleon, with 90,000 men, surrendered at Sedan. With the concurrence of Prussia, the French nation next elected representatives to provide for the exigency. A republic was proclaimed, and the first National Assembly met at Bordeaux in February, 1871. After receiving the resignation of the Provisional Government of Defense, the Assembly undertook to organize a republican government, and nominated M. Thiers President of the French Republic, but with the condition of responsibility to the National Assembly. The ex-Emperor Napoleon died in 1872, at Chiselhurst, England, where he had resided with his family since his liberation in I March, 1871. In 1873, M. Thiers resigned, and was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon, who re- signed in 1879, and was succeeded by M. Gr^vy. In 1887, Sadi-Carnot was chosen president. He was assassinated June 24, 1894. His successor was M. Casimir-Perier, who resigned January 15, 1895, and was succeeded by M. Frangois F^lix Faure, January 17, 1895. President Faure was assassinated in 1899, and his successor was M. : Loubet, during whose administration the famous Dreyfus case was reopened and disposed of. M. Armand Fallieres was elected to the presi- dency January 17, 1906, in succession to M. Loubet. The most important public act during his incumbency has been the enforcement of the Separation Law, which leaves the administration of the Church of France in its own hands, rather than in the Vatican at Rome. Serious disturb- I ances occurred during the same year (1907) in I the wine-growing districts. In 1910, the Seine I flooded Paris for a week, destroying over $200,- ] 000,000 worth of property. A strike of the j railway and electrical workers' unions threatened the very existence of the government, but was [ sternly suppressed by Premier Briand, himself a socialist. French Revolution, The First. From May 5, 1789, to July 27, 1794. Chief Leaders of the First French Revolution : Comte de Mirabeau, 1789-1791; Danton, from the death of Mirabeau to 1793; Robespierre, from June, 1793, to July 27, 1794. Next to these three were St. Just, Couthon, Marat, Carrier, Hubert, Santerre, Camille Desmoulins, Roland, and his wife, Brissot, Bemave, Sieyes, Barras, Tallien, etc. Greed Days of the First French Revolution : June 17, 1789, the Tiers Etat constituted itself into the "National Assembly"; June 20th, the day of the Jue de Paume, when the Assembly took an oath not to separate till it had given HISTORY 113 France a constitution; July 14th, Storming of the Bastille ; October 5th and 6th, the king and National Assembly transferred from Versailles to Paris. This closed the ancient regime of the court. June 20, 21, 1791, flight and capture of the king, queen, and royal family. June 20, 1792, attack on the Tuileries by Santerre: Au- gust 10th, attack on the Tuileries and downfall of the monarchy; September 2d, 3d, and 4th, massacre of the state prisoners. January 21, 1793, Louis XVI guillotined; May 31st, com- mencement of the Reign of Terror; June 2d, the Girondists proscribed; October 16th, Marie Antoinette guillotined; October 31st, the Giron- dists guillotined. April 5th, 1794, downfall of Danton ; July 27th, downfall of Robespierre. Frisians or Frisii (later called Frisones). An ancient Germanic people, who inhabited the extreme northwest of Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems, and were sub- jected to the Roman power under Drusus. They were subdued by the Franks, and, on the division of the Carlovingian Empire, their country was divided into West Frisian (West Friesland) and East Frisian (East Friesland). The language of the Frisians is intermediate between the Anglo-Saxon and the Old Norse. Our knowl- edge of the old Frisian is derived from certain collections of laws; as the "Asegabuch," com- posed about 1200; the " Brockmerbrief," in the Thirteenth Century; the "ffipnsiger Domen," about 1300, and some others. Fronde, a name given to a revolt in France opposed to the Court of Anne of Austria and Mazarin during the minority of Louis XIV. , The war which arose, and which was due to the des- potism of Mazarin, passed through two phases; it was first a war on the part of the people and the parliament, called the Old Fronde, which lasted from 1648 till 1649, and then a war on the fjart of the nobles, called the New Fronde, which asted till 1652, when the revolt was crushed by Turenne to the triumph of the royal power. The name is derived from the mimic fights with slings in which the boys of Paris frequently in- dulged, and which even went so far as to beat back at times the civic guard sent to suppress them. Garde Nationale, a guard of armed citizens instituted in Paris, July 13, 1789. At first it numbered 48,000 men, but was increased to 300,000 when it was organized throughout the whole country. Marquis de Lafayette was its first commander. It was reorganized by the Directory and by Napoleon, and again under the Bourbons and was dissolved in 1827. Under Louis Philippe it was resuscitated and contrib- uted to his overthrow. In 1 85 1 , the national guard was again reorganized, but in 1855 dissolved. In 1870, the national guard of Paris was formed for the defense of the city against the Prussians. The resistance of a section of the guard to .the decree of disarmament led to the communal war, at the close of which the guard was de- clared' dissolved by the National Assembly (1S71). Geneva Convention, a convention signed by the chief Europeans continental powers in 1864, providing for the succor of the sick and wounded in war. It has since been ratified by the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and about forty other nations. The chief provisions are: (1) The neutrality of ambulances and military hospitals. (2) The personnel of such ambulances and hospitals, including sanitary officers and naval and military chaplains, to be benefited by the neutrality. (3) The inhabit- ants of a country, rendering help to the sick and wounded, are to be respected and free from cap- ture. (4) No distinction to be made between the sick and wounded, on account of nationality. (5) A flag and uniform to be adopted, and an armlet for the personnel of ambulances and hos- pitals. The flag and armlet to consist of a red Greek cross on a white ground. The Turks use a red crescent in place of the cross. Other pro- visions have since been added intended to miti- gate the severity of naval combat, and cover cases of capture and sinking of vessels. To carry out the terms of this convention, the Inter- national Society for the Aid of the Sick and Wounded has been organized, with committees in the chief towns in the United States and in Europe. It first played an important part in the Franco-German War, every nation sending its contingent of ambulances, surgeons, etc. In the Spanish-American War the Cuban Central Relief Committee used the Red Cross Society as an agency in the distribution of relief. Georgia. Named after King George II. of England. Georgia was the latest settled of the thirteen colonies, which first formed the United States. The country was originally included in the charter of Carolina. In 1732 the territory was g"ranted to a corporation, which sent out the first colony under Sir James Oglethorpe the same year. In 1733 Savannah was founded. General Oglethorpe commanded the forces of Carolina and Georgia in the unsuccessful expedition against St. Augustine in 1739. In 1752, Georgia became a royal government under regulations similar to those of the other colonies. During the Revolution Georgia was overrun by the British, and Savannah captured in 1778. The Constitution of the United States was ratified January 2, 1788. The State seceded January 19, 1861. The principal military events were those about Atlanta, resulting in its evacuation, and Sher- man's March to the Sea, all in 1864. Georgia was formally readmitted to the Union July 15, 1870. An International Cotton Exposition was held at Atlanta in 1881, which gave a pronounced impulse to that industry in the South. The State enacted a law in prohibition of the liquor traflic in 1907. Germany. After the gradual retirement of the Romans from Germany the country became divided into petty states and govern- ments, where the influence of France was soon made apparent on both sides of the Rhine, asserting supremacy over the whole of the west of Germany. Charlemagne, extending his con- quests from the North Sea to the Alps, and from the Rhine to Hungary, laid the foundation of that long line of emperors and kings who occupied the German throne for upward of 1,000 years. On the extinction, in 911, of the Carlovingian dynasty, the archbishops, bishops, and abbots arrogated to themselves the right of electing their sovereign, who could not, how- ever, assume the imperial title till he was crowned 114 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS by the pope. At this period there were in Ger- many five nations the Franks, Saxons, Bava- rians, Swabians, and Lorrainers. Their choice of a ruler fell upon the Count of Franconia, who, under tiie title of Conrad I., reigned King of Germany from 911-18. He was succeeded by Henry, Duke of Saxony, who gained conquests over the Danes, Slavs, and Magyars, which was confirmed and extended by his son and suc- cessor, Otho I. (936-73), who carried the boun- daries of the empire beyond the Elbe and Saale. In 1039-56 Henry III. extended German supremacy over Hungary. In 1125 the male line of the Franconian dynasty became extinct by the death of Henry V. ; Lothaire of Saxony occupied the throne till 11 38, 'when the reins of power were assumed by Conrad III., Duke of Franconia, in whose reign the civil wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines began. He was the first of the Hohenstauffen dynasty. He was succeeded by the famous Frederick I., sur- named Barbarossa, who, with the flower of his chivalry, perished in the Crusades.: In 1273 Rudolf I., the first of the Habsburg line, which still reigns in Austria, began his reign, and restored order by destroying the strongholds of the nobles. For the next 200 years, counting from 1292, the period of the accession of Adolph- phus, the history of the German Empire pre- sents few features of interest. I In 1493 Maxi- mihan I., succeeded his father, Frederick III., married Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and became, consequently, involved in the general politics of Europe, while his opposition to the reformed faith preached by Luther embittered the religious differences which marked the close of his reign. He was succeeded by Charles V., who, although opposed to the Reformation, left the princes of Germany to settle their religious differences among them- selves, and to quell the insurrection of the peas- ants in 1525, which threatened to undermine society. He abdicated in favor of his brother Ferdinand in 1556, who granted entire toleration to the Protestants. Ferdinand's reign was dis- turbed by domestic and foreign aggressions. Anarchy, both civil and religious, now obtained in his dominions to such an extent as to culmi- nate in the Thirty Years' War, which closed under Ferdinand III. by the treaty of West- phalia, 1648. This terrible war depopulated the rural districts of Germany, destroyed its commerce, crippled the powers of the emperors, burdened the people with taxes, and cut up the empire into a. multitude of petty states, whose rulers exercised almost absolute power. The male line of the Habsburg dynasty expired with Charles VI., 1740. The reign of this potentate and that of his predecessor, Joseph I., were signalized by the victories won by the imperialist general, Prince Eugene, and Marlborough, over the French. During the Seven Years' War Frederick the Great, of Prussia, maintained his character for skillful generalship at the expense of Austria. During the life-time of Maria Theresa she retained her authority over all the Christian states, but on her death her son, Joseph II., was little more than nominal sovereign. In 1792 Francis II. was crowned Emperor of Germany; in 1804 he assumed the title Francis I. Emperor of Austria; in 1806 he resigned the German crown and assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, having suffered a series of defeats by the armies of the French Republic* From this period till 1814-15 Germany was almost wholly at the mercy of Napoleon, who deposed the estab- lished sovereigns, and dismembered the states in the interest of his own favorites. Of the 300 states into which the empire was divided there remained only forty a number subsequently reduced to thirty-five. The Diet was now reor- ganized by all the allied states as the legislature and executive organ of the Confederation. The French Revolution of 1830 reacted sufficiently to constrain the rulers of some of the German states to give written constitutions to their sub- jects. This was insufficient to meet the demands of the people as a whole, so that in 1848, by open insurrectionary movements was compelled the convocation, by a provisional self-consti- tuted assembly, of a national congress of repre- sentatives of the people. The Archduke John of Austria was elected vicar of the newly organ- ized government, but his action embarrassed the progressive tendencies of parhament and dampened the hopes of the progressionists. The refusal of the King of Prussia to accept the imperial crown which was offered him by the parliament was followed by a provisional regency of the empire; but as there was no cohesion among the members of the parliament, and as Austria had been shut out from the German Confederation by a majority of one vote, the assembly soon lapsed into anarchy, which led to its dissolution. In 1850 the Diet was restored by Austria and Prussia. In 1859 the whole federal army was mobilized, and the Prussian prince regent made commander-in-chief. There is little doubt that the feeling of the German people, as distinguished from the princes and Ijureaucracy, has, in recent times at least, been in favor of the purely German Prussia as their leader rather than Austria, the great mass of whose population are Slavs and Magyars. And when the Parliament of Frankfurt, in 1850, offered the imperial crown to the King of Prussia, the unity of Germany might have been secured without bloodshed had the monarch been resolute, or had he had a Bismarck for his adviser. But that opportunity being let slip, and the incubus of the Bund being restored, it became apparent that the knot must be cut by the sword. By the treaty of Gastein, Austria and Prussia agreed to a joint occupation of the Elbe duchies; but to prevent collision it was judged prudent that Austria should occupy Holstein and Prussia Sleswick. Already a difference of policy had begun to show itself; Prussia was believed to have the intention of annexing the duchies, while Austria began to favor the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustenburg, and wished to refer the disposal of the matter to the Bund. At this crisis England, France, and Russia invited the disputants to a conference. Prussia and Italy readily consented; but nothing came of it, through the obstinate pride of Austria, who would not allow her position in Italy to be even taken into consideration. In the sitting of the German Diet, June 1, 1866, Austria, disregarding the Convention of Gastein, placed the whole HISTORY 115 matter at the disposal of the ^und, and then proceeded to convoke the states of Holstein " to assist in the settlement of the future desti- nation of the duchy." Prussia protested against this as an insult and a violation of treaty. The Prussians lost no time, war was declared against Austria, and, following the example set by Frederick the Great, the troops immediately began to march into Bohemia, invading it at no less than three several points. This brief war ended in the utter defeat of Austria, and also in the restoration of Venetia to Italy. '. In 1870 the famous Franco-Prussian War opened, to the utter humiliation of the French arms, and the cession of Alsace and German-Lorraine, 62,000 square miles of territory, to the Germans, together with the payment of 5,000,000,000 francs as additional indemnity for the expense of the war. The Germanic Empire, recon- structed in 1870, as a result of this fierce con- flict, grew out of the North German Confeder- ation, established in 1866, by treaties between the King of Prussia and the governments of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse, ratified by the Diet of north Germany, Decem- ber 10, 1870. The legislative power of the empire is vested in a Federal Council represent- ing the twenty-five states of which the Confed- eration is composed. Prussia has seventeen votes, Bavaria six, Wiirtemberg four, Saxony four, Baden three, Hesse three, Mecklenburg- Schwerin two, Brunswick two, and the rest of the states one vote each, the total number being fifty-eight. The executive is intrusted to the emperor and a ministry selected by him and presided over by the chancellor of the empire; ministers are responsible to the emperor only. On January 18, 1871, King William of Prussia proclaimed his assumption of the imperial power for himself and his successors. Whatever spirit of opposition there may have been on the part of the antagonists of the supremacy of Prussia was smothered in the general acclamations of triumph. He died 1888, and was succeeded by his son Frederick William (Frederic III.), who, however, only reigned three months, dying the same year of a throat affection. He was suc- ceeded by his son William, as William II. The early years of the present emperor's reign were marked by the rise of the Social Democrats, the formation of the Triple Alliance (consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy); the acquisition, since 1884, of foreign dependencies and spheres of influence, and the retirement of Bismarck in 1890. In 1908, the emperor ac- quired a royal residence in the island of Corfu, whose climate it is thought, will alleviate a throat trouble to which his majesty has been subject for some years. Gettysburg, Battle of, fought July 1-3, 1863, between the Union Army under General Meade, and the Confederates under General Lee. During May the armies lay fronting each other upon the Rappahannock. Early in June Lee began his movement for the invasion of Pennsylvania, crossing the Potomac on the 24th and 25th, and reaching Chambersburg, Pa., on the 27th. General Hooker, then in command of the Army of the Potomac, moved in the same general direction, but on the 28th was relieved, and the command given to Meade. In order to prevent his communications from being severed, Lee turned back toward Gettysburg to give battle. Meade had intended to give battle at a spot several miles from Gettysburg, near which was, however, a small portion of his army. This came into collision a little before noon, July 1st, with the advance of Lee, and was forced back, taking up a strong position on Cemetery Hill, in the rear of Gettysburg. Hancock, who had been sent forward to examine the position, reported that Gettysburg was the place at which to receive the Confederate attack, and Meade hurried his whole force to that point. The action on the second day, July 2d, began about noon with an attempt made by Lee to seize Round Top, a rocky hill from which the Union position could be enfiladed. When this day's fighting closed Lee was convinced that he had greatly the advantage, and he resolved to press it the next day. On the morning of July 3d, an attempt was made upon the extreme Union right, but repelled. The main attack on the center was preluded by a cannonade from 150 guns, which was replied to by eighty, little injury being inflicted by either side. About noon the Union fire was slackened in order to cool the guns, and Lee, thinking that the batte- ries were silenced, launched a column of 15,000 or 18,000 against the Union lines. Some of this column actually surmounted the low works, and a brief hand-to-hand fight ensued. But the column was practically annihilated, only a small portion escaping death or capture. The forces on each side were probably about 80,000, though all were not really engaged. No official report of the Confederate loss was ever published; the best estimates put it at about 18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,600 missing, most of them prisoners. The Union loss was 23,187, 16,543 of whom were killed and wounded. Ghibellines (gWel-lcnz). The name of a celebrated political faction which existed in Italy during the Thirteenth Century and sprung out of the disputed succession to the imperial throne of Germany, vacated in 1137 by the death of Lothaire II. Conrad of Hohenstauflfen, his elected successor, found his claim disputed by Henry of Guelph (surnamed the Proud), Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. At the latter' s death his pretentions became personified in his son Henry the Lion, Duke of Brunswick, whose adherents called themselves Guelphs after his patronymic, in distinction from the Ghibellines, who derived their cognomen from Conrad's lordship of Weiblingen, 1140. Their feud after awhile extended to Italy, over which the German emperors claimed supremacy, against the popes: the Guelphs becoming there the supporters of the latter, This strife did not terminati until the French invasion of Charles VIII. in 1495. Girondists (ji-ron'dists), the name given to the moderate Republicans in the first French Revolution. The name was derived from the department of Gironde, which chose for its rep- resentatives in the Legislative Assembly five men who greatly distinguished themselves by their oratory, and who, being joined by Condorcet, Brissot, and the moderate Republicans who were the adherents of Roland, formed a powerful 116 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Conservative party. They fell during the Reien of Terror, and most of them perished on the scaffold. Gladiators^ in Ancient Rome, professional combatants, who fought in the arena for the amusement of the people. They were at first slaves, prisoners, or convicts; but afterwards freemen fought in the arena, either for hire or from choice. When a gladiator was severely wounded, so as to be unable to fight any longer, his antagonist stood over him with his sword lifted, and looked up to the assembly for its fiat. If the majority turned their thumbs downwards, that was the signal of death. The practice was defended, even by Cicero, as serving to keep up a martial spirit and a contempt of death among the people. Constantine prohibited gladiators' fights by an edict (A. D. 325), but the practice was not wholly extinct till the time of Theodoric (A. D. 500). God's Truce, or The Truce of God. A singular institution of the Middle Ages, which originated in a council assembled at Limoges at the end of the Tenth Century, and in the council of Orleans, 1016. It consisted in the suspension for a stated time, and at stated seasons and festi- vals, of that right of private feud for the redress of wrongs, which, under certain conditions, was recognized by mediaeval law or usage. It pre- vailed chiefly in France and the German Empire ; and fell gradually into disuse when the right of private redress was restricted, and at last en- tirely abolished by laws. Goths. A powerful German people, who originally dwelt on the Prussian coast of the Baltic, at the mouth of the Vistula, but after- wards migrated south. About the beginning of the Third Century we find them separated into two great divisions, the Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths, and the Visigoths or Western Goths. The former were settled in Mcesia and Pannonia, while the latter remained north of the Danube. At the beginning of the Fifth Century, the Visi- goths, under their King Alaric, invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome (A. D. 410). A few years later the;^ settled in the southwest of Gaul, and thence invaded Spain, where they founded a kingdom which lasted for more than two centuries. Meantime, the Ostrogoths ex- tended their dominion almost up to the gates of Constantinople, and, under their King Theodoric (A D. 489) obtained possession of the whole of Italy. Their dominion over Italy lasted, how- ever, only till 554, when it was overthrown by Narses, the general of Justinian. From this time, the Goths figure no longer in Western Europe, except in Spain, from which they were finally driven by the Arabs. But their name was perpetuated long after in Scandinavia, where a Kingdom of Gothia existed till 1161, when it was absorbed in that of Sweden. Of Gothic literature, in the Gothic language, we have the translation of the Scriptures by Ulphi- las, which belongs to the Fourth Century, and some other religious writings and fragments. Greece. Prior to the first recorded Olym- Eiad, B. C. 776, little is certain in Greek history, ong anterior to this the country had been in- habited, but fact and fable are so mingled in the accounts that have come down to us that it is impossible to distinguish the true from the false, ^tarting, then, from the period above indicated, we shall give a brief resume of the chief historic events up to the conquest of Greece by the Turks in 1456 A. D. Olympic Games revived at Elis, 884 B. C; the first Olympiad dates from 776 B. C; the Messenian Wars oc- curred from 743-669; the first sea-fight on rec- ord, between the Corinthians and the inhabitants of Corcyra, 664; Byzantium built, 657; the seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pitta- cus, Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourished about 593; Persian conquests in Ionia occurred in 544 ; Sybaris in Magna Grsecia destroyed, and 100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites, 508; Sardis burned by the Greeks, which causes an invasion by the Persians, 504; Thrace and Macedonia are conquered, 496; Athens and Sparta defy the Persians, 490; the Persians are defeated at Marathon, 491; Xerxes invades Greece, but is repulsed at Thermopylae by Leonidas, 480; battle of Salamis occurs, 480; Mardonius is defeated and slain at Plataea, and the Persian fleet is destroyed at Mycale, 479; battle of Eurymedon, which ends the Persian War, 466 ; Athens attempts to obtain an ascend- ency over the rest of Greece, 459; the first "sacred war" begun, 448; Corinth and Corcyra involved in war, 435, which leads to the Pelopon- nesian War, lasting from 431-404; the Athenian expedition to Syracuse ends disastrously, 415- 413; the retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon occurs, 400; Socrates dies, 399; great sea-fight at Cnidas, 394; the peace of Antalcid^s, 387; Thebes arrives at the height of its power in Greece between the years 370-360; the battle of Mantinea, and death of Epaminondas, 362; Philip of Macedon reigns, 353; the sacred war is stopped by Philip, who captures all the towns of the Phocseans, 348; battle of Chaeroneia, 338; Alexander enters Greece, conquers the Atheni- ans, and destroys Thebes, 335; he conquers the Persian Empire, 334-331; Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280; they are defeated at Delphi, 279; and finally expelled, 277; internal feuds lead to interference by the Romans, 200; Mum- mius conquers Greece, and makes it a Roman province, 147-146. Under Augustus and Had- rian Greece was prosperous, 122-133 A. D.; Alaric invades Greece, 396; it is plundered and ravaged by the Normans from Sicily, 1146; conquered by the Latins, 1204; the Turks under Mohammed II. conquer Athens and part of Greece, 1456; thence, till 1822, the country was a province of Turkey. The revolt of the Greeks from Turkish rule took place March 6, 1821, under Alexander Ypsilanti, and on January 1, 1822, they declared their independence. In 1825, the Turks partially reoccupied the country, but were finally forced to evacuate in 1828. At last, on February 3, 1830, a protocol of the allied powers declared the independence of Greece, which was recognized by the Porte on the 25th of April, of this year. The crown was offered to Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, and when he re- fused it, to Otho, a young prince of Bavaria, who was proclaimed king of the Hellenes at Nauplia in 1832. But his arbitrary measures, and the preponderance which he gave to Germans in the government, made him unpopular, and, although HISTORY 117 after a rebellion in 1843, a constitution was drawn up, he was compelled by another rebellion in 1862 to abdicate. A provisional government was then set up at Athens, and the National Assembly offered the vacant throne in succession to Prince Alfred of England and Prince William George of Denmark. The latter accepted it, and on March 30, 1863, was proclaimed as King George I. In 1864, the Ionian Islands, which had hitherto formed an independent republic under the protection of Britain, were annexed to Greece. From the first, Greece has sought an oppor- tunity of extending its frontier northwards, so as to include the large Greek population in Thessaly and Epirus. In January, 1878, after the fall of Plevna, Greek troops were moved into Thessaly and Epirus, but were withdrawn on the remonstrance of Britain. The promises held out to Greece by the Berlin Congress were in danger of being withdrawn, but the persist- ence of Greece led, in 1881, to the cession to her of Thessaly and part of Epirus, or about one- third less than the territory promised at Berlin. The situation, however, always remained some- what strained. The union of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria, in 1885, gave rise to a demand for a rectification of frontiers, and war with Turkey was only prevented by the great powers, who enforced the reduction of the Greek army to a peace footing by blockading the Greek ports. The same occurred in 1896, when war was de- clared against Turkey on the people of Crete demanding their right to become a portion of Grecian territory. The result was disastrous to their aspirations, Turkey pouring troops into Thessaly and defeating the Greek troops. The incompetency of the Greek generals was notori- ous in the nation. Prince George of Greece being held as mainly responsible. In 1904, the mili- tary service of the kingdom was reorganized, providing for an increased army and new armament. Gunpowder Plot, The. The name given to a conspiracy projected by Guy Fawkes and some revolutionary associates against James I. and the members of the two Houses of Parliament, with a design to their destruction by undermining the building in which they were expected to assemble, placing there charges of gunpowder, and firing the same, November 5, 1605. The plot, however, proved abortive, and the conspirators met the penalty of their crime. Hanse Towns. " The name given to cer- tain towns in Germany, so called from the Hanseatic League, which was forfiied in 1241, for the protection of the ports against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes. At first the League consisted only of towns situated on the coast of the Baltic; but it became so powerful, and exercised so many privileges, that ultimately it included many of the principal cities of Europe. The League consisted, in 1370, of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederate towns. The Thirty Years' War in Germany (1618-48) broke up the association, which had already begun to decline in the preceding century. The only towns now known as Hanse Towns are Ham- burg, Li'ibeck, and Bremen; and in their case the name has no significance, except so far as it indicates that they are still free cities. Habsburg, or Hapsburg (properly Habichtsburg or Habsburg, the hawk's castle). A small place in the Swiss Canton of Aargau, on the right bank of the Aar. The castle was built about 1027 by Bishop Werner of Strassburg. Werner II., who died in 1096, is said to have been the first to assume the title of Count of Habsburg. After the death, about 1232, of Rudolf II., the family divided into two branches the founder of one of which was Albert IV. In 1273, Rudolf, son of Albert IV., was chosen Emperor of Germany, and from him descended the series of Austrian monarchs, all of the Habs- burg male line, down to Charles IV. inclusive. After that the dynasty, by the marriage of Maria Theresa to Francis Stephen of Lorraine, became the Habsburg-Lorraine. Francis II., the third of this line, was the last of the so-called "Holy Roman Emperors," this old title being changed by him for that of Emperor of Austria. From the Emperor Rudolf was also descended a Spanish Dynasty which began with the Em- peror Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain), and terminated with Charles II. in 1700. The castle of Habsburg is still to be seen on the Wulpels- berg. In 1881 the Austrians proposed to pur- chase the castle of Habsburg and give it as a wedding gift to the Crown-prince of Austria; but the people of Aargau refused to hear of the sale. Helvetil. A powe -ful Celtic people, who dwelt in what is now the west of Switzerland. Their chief town was Aveniicum. About 58 B. C. they resolved, on the advice of Orgetorix, one of their chiefs, to migrate from their country with their wives and children, and to seek a new home in Gaul. They were, however, de- feated by Caesar, and driven back into their own territories, which became thenceforth a Roman colony. In the commotions that followed the death of Nero (A. D. 63) they were almost extirpated. Holland. Was an independent country from 863 to 1433; when Philippe of Burgundy united it to his vast estates. In 1477, Mary of Burgundy married Maximilian, and Holland, with many other estates, was united to Austria. After Karl V. it passed into the Spanish branch of the house, and in 1523, under the influence of Luther, it became Protestant. In 1579, Holland united with six other provinces in the " Union of Utrecht," threw off the Spanish yoke, and be- came a republic, called "The Seven Provinces," with William of Orange as stadtholder. In 1621, Holland was united to France. In 1806, it was erected into the Kingdom of Holland by Napo- leon I. and given to his brother, Louis Bonarparte. In 1810, it was again united to France, but after the battle of Waterloo (1814) it was united to Belgium and formed "The Kingdom of the "Netherlands." In 1830, Holland and Belgium were divided into two kingdoms, called the "Kingdom of Holland" and the "Kingdom of Belgium"; the King of Holland still calls him- self the "King of the Netherlands." See "Netherlands." Holy Alliance. The name given to S, treaty between the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, ratified in Paris after the fall of the Emperor Napoleon (Septem- 118 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS ber 26, 1815), the object of which was professedly to pledge the respective monarcKs to conduct their relations to each other under the guidance of Christian principles, but really to pledge each other to the maintenance of their respective dynasties. By the terms of this alliance, no member of the family of Napoleon was ever to occupy a European throne. Holy Roman Empire, The. The western part of the old Roman Empire, which was severed from the eastern part in 800, and was given by the pope to Charlemagne, who was crowned "Emperor of the Romans." When Charlemagne's empire was divided, Ludwig the German became kaiser; but on the death of Karl the Fat the title fell into abeyance for seventy years. In 962, John XII. gave the title to Otto I. the Great, and changed it into "The Holy Roman Empire." Francis II. re- nounced the titles of King of the Romans and Emperor of the Romans in 1806, and Napoleon added the Italian states to France, May, 1809. Home Rule League (1870). Projected by Mr. Butt, who stoutly opposed the repeal of the Union, but agitated for an Irish parliament which should have no power to touch upon imperial matters, but should be empowered to deal with matters of Ireland of a purely local character. On the death of Mr. Butt, in 1879, his scheme passed into the hands of the Land League, and their watchword, "Ireland for the Irish," meant separation from Great Britain. The term Home Rule survived the death of Mr. Butt, and in 1866, Mr. Gladstone, then prime minister, brought in a bill to give Ireland Home Rule, and exclude Irish members from West- minster. The measure broke up the great Whig party under the leadership of Lord Hartington, supported by Mr. Chamberlain (a Radical), Mr. Goschen, and others, who called themselves Unionists, and joined the great Tory party under the government of Lord Salisbury. Huguenots. A name formerly given to the Protestants in France. The story of the persecutions of the Huguenots is one of the sad- dest in history. In 1561 they took up arms against their persecutors; and the struggle con- tinued till the Edict of Nantes, establishing the rights of the Protestants, was signed by Henry of Navarre, April 13, 1598. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, in which, according to various authorities, from 2,000 to 100,000 Huguenots were murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instiga- tion of his mother, Catherine de Medici, began on the night of August 24, 1572. Hundred Years War, The (1336- 1453). Between England and France. From Edward III. to Joan of Arc. The origin of this long war was Edward's claim to the Crown of France. Philippe le Bel left three sons, all of whom died without male issue, and the nearest male heirs were Edward III. (who was the nephew of the three sons), and Philippe de VaJois (their cousin). The flaw in Edward's claim the Salic law, which passed over women, and Edward owed his blood relationship to his mother. Edward maintained that, though his mother was cut off, being a woman, the Salic law could not apply to him, being a man; but Philippe answered, if the mother was cut off, the son was cut off also. On this dispute began the war which lasted above a century. Hungary. The Magyars, an Asiatic people of Turanian race, allied to the Finns and the Turks, dwelt in what is now Southern Russia before they descended under Arpdd into the plain of the Danube, towards the end of the Ninth Century, and conquered the whole of Hungary and Transylvania. During the first half of the Tenth Century their invasions and incursions spread terror throughout Germany, France, and Italy; but at length their total defeat by Otho I. of Germany put an end to their maraudings, and under their native dynasty of Arpdds they settled down to learn agriculture and the arts of peace. Stephen I. (997-1030) was the first who was successful in extending Christianity generally amongst the Hungarians, and was rewarded by a crown from Pope Syl- vester II. and with the title of apostolic king (1000). Stephen encouraged learning and litera- ture, and under him Latin became not only the official language of the government, but the vehicle of Hungarian civilization, which it un- fortunately continued to be for the next 800 years. In 1089 King Ladislaus extended the boundaries of Hungary by the conquest of Croatia and Slavonia, and King Coloman by that of Dalmatia in 1102. During the Twelfth Century the Hungarians first attained, through French connections, a certain refinement of life and manners. About the middle of the Thir- teenth Century King Bela induced many Ger- mans to settle in the country which had been depopulated by the Mongol invasions. With Andrew III. (1290-1301) the male fine of the Arpdd Dynasty became extinct, and the royal dignity now became purely elective Charles Robert of Anjou was the first elected (1309). Louis I. (1342-82) added Poland, Red Russia, Moldavia, and a part of Servia, to his kingdom. The reign of Sigismund (1387-1437), who was elected Emperor of Germany, is interesting from the invasion of Hungary by the Turks (1391), and the war with the Hussites. Sigismund introduced various reforms, and founded an academy at Buda. Matthias Corvinus (1458- 90), combining the talents of a diplomatist and general, was equaHy successful against his ene- mies at home and abroad, and is even yet re- membered by the popular mind as the ideal of a just and firm ruler. He founded a university at Pressburg. During the reigns of Ladislaus II. (1490-1516) and Louis II. (1516-26) the rapacity of the magnates and domestic troubles brought the power of Hungary low, and the battle of Mohacs (1526) made a great part of the country a Turkish province for 160 years. The rest was left in dispute between Ferdinand of Austria and John Zapolya; but eventually, by the help of the Protestants, passed to the former, and has since remained under the scepter of the Habs- burgs. In 1686 Leopold I. took Buda and recovered most of Hungary and Transylvania. In 1724 Charles VI. secured by the Pragmatic Sanction the Hungarian Crown to the female descendants of the House of Habsburg, and the loyalty of the Hungarians to his daughter, Maria Theresa, saved the dynasty from ruin. Maria HISTORY 119 Theresa did much for the improvement of Hun- gary by the promulgation of the rural code called Urbarium, and by the formation of village schools. On the advent of the French revolu- tion, and during the wars which ensued, the Hungarians once more played a prominent part in support of the Habsburg Crown. Napoleon fell, but the revolution had given an impetus to ideas of national and popular rights which the Hungarians, long stifled under the Germanic traditions and tendencies of their rulers, were amongst the first to feel. For a time Francis I. and Metternich stood stiffly out against all concessions, and tried to govern by pure abso- lutism, but ended by sununoning in 1825 a new diet. The diet distinguished itself by adopting the Magyar language in its debates instead of the Latin to which it had been accustomed. Succeeding diets in 1830 and 1832 made new demands in the direction of religious equality, a popular suffrage, and abrogation of the privi- leges of the nobles. The Austrian Government attempted to repress the Hungarian national movement by imprisoning Deak, Kossuth, and others of the leaders. The struggle continued till 1848, when the French Revolution of that year gave the impulse for a similar rising in Vienna. Prince Metternich fled to London, and the Viennese court made a formal concession of all important demands ; but these had no sooner been granted than the government began secretly to work against their being put in operation. The dependencies of the Hungarian Crown, the Croats and the Wallachiansof Transylvania, were privately encouraged to revolt, and in December of the same year an Austrian army took the field with the avowed object of annihilating the independence of Hungary; but a series of pitched battles resulted on the whole so much m favor of the Hungarians that Austria was obliged to call in the aid of Russia, which was at once granted. After a heroic struggle the Hungarians had to succumb. The nation was reduced to the position of a province, and some of the greatest statesmen and soldiers of Hungary perished on the scaffold. But the struggle was continued by the Hungarians in the form of a constitutional agitation, and at last, when the battle of Sadowa, in 1806, separated Austria from Germany, Austria, left face to face with a nation almost as powerful and numerous as itself, felt compelled to submit. In 1867 a separate constitution and administration for Hungary was decreed, and on June 8th the emperor and empress were crowned king and queen of Hungary with the utmost pomp, ac- cording to the ancient ceremonies of a Hunga- rian coronation. The dualism of the Austrian Empire was thus finally constituted. It was indeed but the partial recognition of the fact that the empire was a heterogeneous assemblage of communities differing widely in race, lan- guage, social habits and customs, and bound together only by the accident of having fallen to the House of Habsburg. Huns. The name given to several nomadic Scythian tribes, which devastated the Roman Empire in the Fifth Century. They inhabited the plains of Tartary, near the boundaries of China, many centuries before the Christian era; and they were known to the Chinese by the name of Hiongun, and also Han. It was in order to jnit a stop to the continual aggressions of the Huns that the great wall of China was built; and after this the Huns split up into two sepa- rate nations, named respectively the Northern and the Southern Huns. The first-mentioned of these gradually went west to the Volga, where, they encountered the Alanni, whom they defeated. Here the Huns remained for about two centuries; but, under the Emperor Valens, they crossed the Bosphorus; afterward invading Rome, under their leader Attila. After the death of Attila the Huns broke up into separate tribes, and were driven back by the Goths beyond the Tanais. The Hungarians of the present day are the descendants of Huns, who once more immigrated into Europe. Hussites {hus'ltz). The followers of John Huss {q. v.), who avenged his death by one of the fiercest and most sanguinary civil wars ever known. They took the field under Ziska, 1418, gained the battle of Prague, July 14, 1420, and nearly annihilated the Imperialists at Deutschs- brod, January 8, 1422. After occupying the whole of Bohemia and Moravia, they threatened Vienna, and in 1426 gained the victories of Aussig and Mies. The Emperor Sigismund was at length too glad to come to terms with the Hussites, and the Treaty of Iglau, in 1436, ter- minated hostilities between Catholic and Prot- estant for the time being. Hyksos, The, or Shepherd Kings of Lower Egypt. A race of Arabs which invaded ancient Egypt, and continued dominant, according to Mangtho, for 500 years, but according to others about half that time (B. C. 1842-1591). They formed or were contemporary with the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Dynasties of Upper Egypt. Amosis drove them out and established the Eighteenth Dynasty in Thebais, contem- porary with the Nineteenth and Twentieth. They were driven from the Thebais by Tot- mosis or Thotmosis, but continued to hold cer- tain cantons of Egypt long afterwards. It is supposed that Abraham went to Egypt in B. C. 1806, while the Sixteenth Dynasty was regnant; and that Joseph was viceroy about B. C. 1713, in the same dynasty. Idaho. The region within the present lim- its of the State was included in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Idaho was included first in Oregon and subsequently in Washington. The first settlement of consequence was the Coeur d'Alene Mission, which was established in 1842. The permanent settlement of the territory did not begin until the discovery of gold in 1860. Idaho was created a Territory by an act of Congress March 3, 1863, and then embraced the present State of Montana and nearly all of Wyoming. It was admitted to statehood July 3, 1890. Illinois. The name is derived from that of an Indian tribe, Illini, signifying superior men. First explored in 1673 by Marquette, and in 1679 by La Salle. French settlements were formed at Crevecoeur, Kaskaskia, and Cahokia in 1682. With the subjugation of Canada, in 1763, the French dominion east of the Missis- sippi became English, In 1783 Illinois was 120 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS ceded to the United States by England and became part of the Northwest Territory in 1787. After the successive severance of Ohio in 1800, of Indiana in 1805, and of Michigan in 1809, the remainder of the Northwest Territory was reconstituted as lUinois Territory, then embrac- ing Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. On De- cember 13, 1818, Ilhnois with its present limits was admitted as a State, being the eighth adopted under the Federal Constitution. The early history was an unbroken contest with the savages, the most notable incidents being the Fort Dearborn Massacre, August 15, 1812, and the Black Hawk War, 1832 to 1844. During the last half century Illinois has had a phenom- enal record in growth and progress. Incas. A Peruvian Dynasty (1130-1571) which succeeded the Aymara Dynasty, and was reigning when (in 1533) Pizarro conquered Peru. The Incas called themselves descendants of the Sun. The first Inca was Manco-Capac, 1130, and his successors were Sinchi-Roca, Lloqui- Yupanqui, Mayta-Capac, Capac-Yupanqui, Roca Yanuar-Huacac, Viracocha, Pachacutec, Yapan- qui, Tupac-Yupanqui, Huayna-Capac, Huascar, and Atahualpa (taken prisoners by the Span- iards and put to death in 1533). Tupac-Amaru was beheaded in 1571. India> The country was entered and partly subdued by Alexander the Great. About 126 B. C. it was also invaded by the Tartars, or Scythians of the Greeks, and Sakasof the Hindus. From the Tenth to the Twelfth Century of the Christian era the Mohammedans overran and conquered considerable portions of Hindustan, and subsequently the Mogul Empire was formed. In 1498, India was first visited by Vasco de Gama, and later the Portuguese and Dutch established settlements on the peninsula, but the former never acquired more than a paltry territory on the west coast, and the latter a few commercial factories. The French influence in India, at one time considerable, also yielded to the superior enterprise of the British, and finally the French relinquished the field. In 1625, the first English settlement was made by a company of merchants in a small spot of the Coromandel coast, of five square miles, transferred in 1653 to Madras. A short time previous a settlement had also been obtained at Hooghly, which after- ward became the Calcutta station. In 1687, Bombay was erected into a presidency. In 1773, by act of the British Legislature, the three provinces were placed under the administration of a governor-general, and Calcutta was made the seat of a supreme court of judicature, the presidenceis of Madras and Bombay being made subordinate to that of Bengal. Hitherto the affairs of India had been managed by the East India Company, but in 1784 a board of control was appointed by the government, the president of which became secretary of state for India. From the year 1750, when the warlike acquisi- tion of territory commenced under Lord Clive, a succession of conquests, almost forced upon the British contrary to their inclinations, have now placed nearly all India under their sway. The Court of Directors of the East India Company had the power of electing the governor-general, subject to the approval of the government, und they had also the power of his recall. The company also held the patronage of other appointments till the expiry of the act in 1854; but in 1833 their exclusive right to trade was abolished in favor of free trade. In 1858, the direct sovereignty of India, and the powers of government hitherto vested in the East Indian Company, were vested in the British Crown. Lord Canning returned to Eng- land early in 1862, and was succeeded by thie Earl of Elgin, who died in 1863. Sir John (afterwards Lord) Lawrence was governor-gen- eral from 1863 to 1868, when he was succeeded by the Earl of Mayo, who did much to develop the material resources of the country by remov- ing the restrictions upon trade between the different provinces, and constructing roads, canals, and railways. He was assassinated by a Mohammedan fanatic in the Andaman Islands, February 8, 1872. Lord Northbrook became viceroy in 1872. During his administration a famine in Lower Bengal, successfully obviated by a vast organization of state relief (1874), the dethronement of the Gaekwar of Baroda for disloyalty (1875), and the tour of the Prince of Wales through India (1875-76), were the chief events. In 1876, Lord Lytton was ap- pointed viceroy, and on January 1, 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India at Delhi. In 1877-78, another disastrous famine occurred, and despite the most strenuous efforts of the government over five million persons are said to have perished. In 1878, the intrigues of Shir Ali, amir of Afghanistan, with Russia, led to a declaration of war on the part of the British. After two campaigns Abdurrahman Khan was established on the Afghan throne by British arms. In 1880, Lord Ripon succeeded as vice- roy; being followed in 1884 by Lord Dufferin, who annexed Upper Burmah, 1888. Marquis of Lansdowne, 1888. Hon. Geo. N. Curzon, of Salisbury's Cabinet, was appointed Viceroy, 1898, and in August, 1905, was succeeded by Lord Minto. In 1906, the twenty-second Indian National Congress was held at Calcutta for the purpose of discussing the political wants of all races, religions, and provinces of India Indiana. Originally settled by the French at Vincennes in 1702, but little is known of its early history. In 1763, it became a British pos- session, and in 1783, by treaty with Great Britain, it became part of the United States. In 1789, it was made part of the Northwest Territory, this term bemg applied to all the public domain north of the Ohio River. This region was much devastated from 1788 to 1791 by the Indians, but their defeat in the latter year gave the settlers peace for a time. Indiana was organized territorially July 4, 1800. In 1811, an Indian war, instigated by Tecumseh, broke out, but the power of the savages was broken at Tippecanoe. Hostilities did not en- tirely cease till 1815. The State was admitted December 11, 1816. In 1827, the Erie Canal opened an outlet for the produce of the West, and the national road was commenced. These stimulated immigration, and the new State grew rapidly. A new constitution was adopted in 1851, calculated especially to promote great HISTORY 121 public works. A free banking law was passed by the legislature the same year. Iowa. The name of the State, originally applied to the river so called, is derived from the Indian, and signifies "beautiful land." It was a part of the Louisiana Purchase, acquired in 1803. It was first visited by a Frenchman, who gave his name, Dubuque, to the place where he settled in 1788. In 1834, the territory now included in Iowa was placed under the jurisdiction of Michigan, and in 1836 under that of Wisconsin. In 1838 Iowa became a separate territory, including also the greater part of Minnesota and the whole of Dakota. The delimitation of the State occurred when it was admitted as such in 1846. The State capital was moved from Iowa City to Des Moines in 1857. It was the sixteenth State admitted under the Federal Constitution. Ireland. According to ancient native legends, Ireland was in remote times peopled by tribes styled Firbolgs and Danauns, eventu- ally subdued by Milesians or Gaels, who acquired supremacy in the island. The primitive inhabit- ants of Ireland are now believed to have been of the same Indo-European race with the original population of Britain. Although Ireland, styled lernis, is mentioned in a Greek poem five cen- turies B. C, and by the names of Hibernia and Juverna by various foreign pagan writers, little is known with certainty of her inhabitants before the Fourth Century after Christ, when, under the appellation of Scoti, or inhabitants of Scotia, they became formidable by their descents upon the Roman Province of Britain. These expedi- tions were continued and extended to the coasts of Gaul till the time of Laogaire McNeill, mon- arch of Ireland, 430 A. D., in whose reign St. Patrick attempted the conversion of the natives: From the earliest period each province of Ireland appears to have had its own king, subject to the Ard-Righ, or monarch, to whom the central dis- trict called Meath was allotted and who usually resided at Tara. Each clan was governed by a chief selected from its most important family, and who was required to be of mature age, capable of taking the field efficiently when occasion required. The laws were peculiar in their nature, dispensed by professional jurists styled Brehons, who, as well as the poets and men of learning, received high consideration, and were endowed with lands and important privileges. Cromlechs, or stone tombs and structures, composed of large uncemented stones, ascribed to the pagan Irish, still exist in various parts of Ireland; lacustrine habitations, or stockaded islands, styled Crannogs or Crannoges, in inland lakes, also appear to have been in use there from early ages. It is remarkable that a greater number and variety of antique golden articles of remote ages have been found in Ireland than in any other part of northern Europe ; and the majority of the gold antiquities illustrative of British history now preserved in the British Museum are Irish. In the Sixth Century exten- sive monasteries were founded in Ireland, in which religion and learning were zealously cul- tivated. From these establishments numerous missionaries issued during the succeeding cen- tury, carrying the doctrines of Christianity under treat difficulties into the still pagan countries of lurope, whose inhabitants they surprised and impressed by their self-devotion and asceticism. Among the eminent native Irish of these times were Columba, or Colum Cille, founder of the celebrated monastery of lona; Comgall, who established the convent of Bangor, in the County of Down; Ciaran of Clonmacnoise; and Adam- nan, Abbot of lona and biographer of Columba. Of the Irish missionaries to the continent the more distinguished were Columbanus, founder of Bobio; Gallus of St. Gall, in Switzerland; Dichuill, patronized by Clotaire; and Ferghal, or Virgilius, the evangelizer of Carinthia. The progress of Irish civilization was checked by the incursions of the Scandinavians, com- mencing towards the close of the Eighth Century, and continued for upward of 300 years. From the close of the Eighth to the Twelfth Century Ireland, although har- assed by the Scandinavians, produced many writers of merit, among whom were iEngus, the hagiographer ; Cormac McCullenan, King of Munster and Bishop of Cashel, the reputed author of Cormac' s Glossary; Cuan O'Lochain; Gilla Moduda; Flan of Monasterboice ; and Tighernach, the annalist. Of the Irish architec- ture of the period examples survive at Cashel. The well-known round towers of Ireland are believed to have been erected about this era as belfries, and to serve as places of security for ecclesiastics during disturbances. But this is mere surmise, the date of their erection having never been established nor their use satisfac- torily explained. The skill of the Irish musi- cians in the Twelfth Century is attested by the enthusiastic encomiums bestowed by Giraldus Cambrensis upon their performances. The first step toward an Anglo-Norman descent upon Ireland was made by Henry II. in 1155. The chief Anglo-Norman adventurers, Fitz Gislebert, Le Gros, De Cogan, De Lacy, and De Curci, en- countered formidable opposition before they succeeded in establishing themselves on the lands which they thus invaded. The govern- ment was committed to a viceroy, and the Norman legal system was introduced into such parts of the island as were reduced to obedience to England. The youthful Prince John was sent by King Henry into Ireland in 1184, but the injudicious conduct of his coun- cil having excited disturbances he was soon recalled to England. The country was wholly subdued in 1210; in 1315, it was invaded by Edward Bruce, who was crowned king 1316, and slain 1318. In 1361, the heiress of Ulster, Elizabeth de Burgh, married the'English Duke of Clarence. In 1394, Richard II. landed at Waterford with a large army, and gained the adherence of the people by his munificence. In 1494 was passed Poyning's Law, making the Irish Parliament subject to the English Council. In 1542, Henry VIII. assumed the title of king, instead of lord of Ireland. In 1534 Thomas Fitzgerald, son of the viceroy of Henry VIII., revolted, but not meeting with adequate support from his Anglo-Irish connections he was, after a short time; suppressed and executed. Henry received the title of "King of Ireland" in 1541, by an act passed by the Anglo-Irish Parliament 122 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS in Dublin ; and about the same period some of the native princes were induced to acknowledge him as their sovereign, and to accept peerages. The doctrines of the Reformation met little favor either with the descendants of the old English settlers or with the native Irish. The attempts of the English Government in Ireland to intro- duce the Reformed faith and English institutions stirred up great dissensions in Ireland. The country was divided into shires in 1569; printing in Irish characters introduced by Walsh, Chan- cellor of St. Patrick's, Dublin, 1571; in 1601-02 occurred the famous insurrection of Tyrone, who invited the Spaniards to assist him, but they were all defeated by the Lord Deputy Mount joy in the latter year. In consequence of repeated rebellions 511,465 acres of land in the Province of Ulster became forfeited to the English Crown, and James I. divided his land among such of his English and Scottish subjects as chose to settle there. In 1641 occurred More and Maguire's Rebellion, which was an endeavor to expel the Protestant settlers in Ulster, many of whom are believed to have been massacred. Between the years 1649-56, Cromwell and his son-in-law. General I re ton, reduced the whole island to subjection, and Ireland was compara- tively tranquil until the Revolution. At the Revolution the native Irish generally took the part of James II., the English and Scotch "colonists" of William and Mary; and the war was kept up for four years (1688-92). From this time till 1778 history records little beyond the passing of penal statutes against the Roman Catholics. In 1778, Parliament relaxed the stringent pressure of these acts; but the widely- spread disaffection which they caused gave birth to numerous societies, resulting in the rebellion of 1798, which was not suppressed till 1800. On January 1, 1801, the legislative union of Great Britain with Ireland was consummated, and from his period the history of the country merges in that of Great Britain. In 1879, Ireland suffered severely from famine, and since 1880 from agrarian and "home rule" disturbances. The latest home rule bill known as the Birrell Bill was defeated in 1907. Ironsides, Cromwell's troopers, a thousand strong, and raised by him in the Eastern counties of England, so-called at first from the invinci- bility displayed by them at Marston Moor ; were selected by Cromwell "as men," he says "that had the fear of God before them, and made conscience of what they did. . . . They were never beaten," he adds, "and wherever they were engaged against the enemy, they beat continually." Israelites (Hebrew Yisreeli), the descend- ants of Jacob, "the chosen people." The twelve tribes descended from Jacob's children were called " Israel " in Egypt, and throughout the Pen- tateuch, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The name was afterward given to the larger portion, or ten northern tribes, after the death of Saul, a distinction that obtained even in David's time. But more definitely was the name applied to the schismatical portion of the nation, including all the tribes save Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, which set up a separate monarchy in Samaria after the death of Solomon. After the exile the two branches became blended, and are again called by the old name by Ezra and Nehemiah. But by degrees the name "Jews" (q. v.) supplanted this appellation, especially among foreigners. The history of the Israelites, especially during the early periods, is inseparably bound up with that of their rulers, patriarchs, etc., as Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Joshua, the Judges, David, Solo- mon, etc., to all of which the reader is referred. The following is a short summary of the leading points in the history of the Israelites: Abraham called, B. C. 1921; Isaac born, 1896; Esau and Jacob born, 1837; death of Abraham, 1822; Joseph sold into Egypt, 1729; Moses born, 1571; institution of the Passover and the Exodus, 1491 ; promulgation of the Law from Sinai, 1491; the tabernacle set up, 1490; Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan, 1451; the first bondage, 1413; the second, 1343; the third, 1304; the fourth, 1252; the fifth, 1206; the sixth, 1157; Sampson slays the Philistines, 1136; Samuel governs as Judge, about 1120; Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon, 1117; Saul made king, 1095; David kills Goliath, about 1063; death of Saul and accession of David, 1055; David captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital, 1048; Solomon lays the- foundations of the temple, 1012; it is dedicated, 1004; death of Solomon and division of the kingdom, 975. In the reign of Solomon the prophet Ahijalti was intrusted with the announcement to Jero- boam that, in punishment for the many acts of disobedience to the divine law, and particularly of the idolatry so extensively practiced by Solo- mon, the greater part of the kingdom would be transferred to him. This breach was never healed. A spirit of disaffection had long been rife, even in the reigns of David and Solomon, fostered by various causes, not the least among which was the burdensome taxes imposed by the latter monarch for the support of his luxurious court and for the erection of his numerous build- ings. But however much these causes may have operated to create a breach between the North and South districts of Palestine, certain it is that God Himself expressly forbade all at- tempts on the part of Rehoboam or his succes- sors to subdue the revolted provinces, and, with slight exceptions, the subsequent history of the two nations still more widely separated them. The precise amount of territory contained in the Kingdom of Israel cannot be accurately ascer- tained; it was approximately as nine to four compared with the sister Kingdom of Judah; the ten tribes included in Israel, it is supposed, were Ephraim and Manasseh (East and West), Issa- char, Zebulon, Asher, Naphtali, Gad, Reuben, and part of Dan; the population was probably, at the separation, about 4,000,000 It was not long before the new kingdom showed signs of weakness. It developed no new power, which is not surprising when we consider that it was but a section of David's Kingdom shorn of many sources of strength. "The history of the King- dom of Israel is, therefore, the history of its decay and dissolution." The first symptom of decline was shown in the emigration of many families who adhered to the old religion of the Israelites back to Judah; and to check HISTORY 123 this Jeroboam set up rival sanctuaries with visible idols, 975 B. C, but which only in- creased the evil he wished to check. As soon as the golden calves were set up the priests and Levites flocked back to Judah, where they were warmly received. Jeroboam's whole policy aimed singly at his own aggrandizement. To supply the want of a priesthood, divine in its origm, a line of prophets was raised up remark- able for their purity and austerity. Jeroboam reigned twenty-two years; his son Nadab was violently cut off after a brief reign of two years, with all his house, and so ended the line of Jero- boam. The fate of this dynasty was but a type of those that followed. Domestic famine, the sword of the foreigner, and internal dissensions helped the tottering kingdom on its downward way, and only one brief era of prosperity oc- curred, under the sway of Jeroboam II., who reigned forty-two years. The Syrian invasion, under Phul, 771 B. C, compelled Menahem, the King of Israel, to pay heavy tribute, and in the reign of Pekah we find them leading many of the Israelites into captivity. In 721 Samaria was taken by Shalmaneser, the ten tribes were carried into captivity, and an end was put to the Kingdom of Israel. See Jews for the subse- quent history of the chosen people. Italy. The ancient history of Italy is more conveniently treated under Rome. We, there- fore, glance at more modern times, after the Western Empire had fallen before a mixed horde of barbarous mercenaries, chiefly com- posed of the Heruli. Under the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Italy enjoyed an interregnum from foreign rule of about sixty years, which, however, was wasted in suicidal conflicts between the two factions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. The most terrible incident of this period was the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Not- withstanding the inveterate internecine feuds of Italy, it was a period of great splendor and prosperity. The free cities or republics of Italy rivaled kingdoms in the extent and importance of their commerce and manu- factures, the advancement of art and science, the magnificence of their public edifices and monuments, and the prodigious individual and national wealth to which they attained. Unhappily, a spirit of rivalry and intolerance grew up during this period of mediaeval splendor, and in the arbitrary attempts of these states to secure supremacy over each other they gradually worked their own destruction. After the battle of Waterloo the final reconstitution of Italy was decreed by the Congress of Vienna. The accession of Pius IX., in 1846, seemed the inau- guration of a new era for Italy. A general amnesty was followed by wise, liberal measures, which were also adopted by Tuscany and Pied- mont, in emulation of Rome. By a simultane- ous outbreak in Sicily and Milan in January, the great revolution of 1848 was inaugurated in Italy. The revolution of France in February imparted a strong impulse to that of Italy, and speedily Naples, Piedmont, and Rome conceded constitutional rights to the popular demands. The Milanese unanimously revolted against Austrian rule on the 17th of March, and after five days of heroic fighting the Austrians were expelled from the city, and Radetsky, with 70,000 troops, compelled to retreat from its walls. On the 29th, Charles Albert entered Lombardy, the avowed champion of Italian independence and the leader of the national struggle. In the Congress of Paris, at the close of the Russian War (1856), Cavour forcibly exposed the un- avoidable dangers of a continuance of Austrian and papal misrule. He strongly urged the expediency of a withdrawal of French and Aus- trian troops from Rome and the legations. In the beginning of 1859, Victor Emmanuel pro- claimed from the Sardinian Parliament his in- tention of actively aiding in the deliverance of the oppressed Italian population from the yoke of Austria. The victories of Magenta and Sol- ferino were quickly followed by the abrupt and inconclusive Peace of Villafranca, July 11, 1859. On the 18th of March, Parma, Modena, and the Emilian provinces were incorporated with Sar- dinia, and the grand-duchy of Tuscany on the 22d. On the 17th of March, the law by which Victor Emmanuel assumed the title of King of Italy was promulgated amid universal rejoicing. On the 6th of the ensuing May, Garibaldi, with about 1,000 volunteers, set sail from Genoa for Sicily, where a revolutionary outbreak had taken place. His swift and comparatively bloodless conquests of the two Sicilies is one of the most extraordinary incidents in modern history. At the close of the German-Italian War, Venetia, on the 3d of October, 1866, became part of the Kingdom of Italy by treaty with Austria. Turin, the chief town of Piedmont, was the capital from 1859 till 1865; the court was trans- ferred to Florence during the latter year. In 1867, the French army was withdrawn from Rome. The last detachment left the pontifical territory on the 8th of August, 1870; and on the 20th of the following month the Italian troops, under General Cadrona, entered Rome after a short resistance by the pontifical troops, who ceased firing at the request of the pope. On the 2d of October, 1870, the Kingdom of Italy assumed the last of its extensive limits, when the whole of the papal states were absorbed by it, and Rcfme was its recognized capital. The last seven years of Victor Emmanuel's reign were uneventful, but were marked by the further consolidation and progress of the kingdom. In 1878, Victor Emmanuel died, and was succeeded by his son Humbert I., under whom the general history of the country has been uneventful. Bank scandals drove the Giolitti ministry from office in 1893, and Signor Crispi was invited by King Humbert to form a new cabinet. In 1896, attempting to establish a protectorate over Abyssmia, the Italians were defeated with ^reat loss, and Crispi was succeeded by Marquis di Rudini. Humbert was assassinated July 29, 1900 ; succeeded by Victor Emmanuel III. In 1907, the King and Queen of England were received by King Victor Emmanuel at Rome. The centenary of Garibaldi was celebrated through- out the kingdom on July 4th of the same year. Jacobins, the members of a political club which exercised a very great influence during the P>ench Revolution. It was originally called the Club Breton, and was formed at Ver- sailles, when the States General assembled there 124 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS in 1789. It then consisted exclusively of the members of the States General, all more or less liberal or revolutionary, but of very different shades of opinion. On the removal of the court and national assembly to Paris this club began to acquire importance. It now met in a hall of the former Jacobin Convent in Paris, whence it received the name of the Jacobin Club, which was first given to it by its enemies, the name which it adopted being that of the Society of Friends of the Constitution. It now also ad- mitted members who were not members of the National Assembly, and held regular and public sittings. It exercised a great influence over the agitation, of which the chief seat and focus was in the capital, and this influence was extended over the whole country by affiliated societies. Its power increased, until it became greater than that of the National Assembly. It reached the zenith of its power when the National Con- vention met in September, 1792. The agitation for the death of the king, the storm which de- stroyed the Girondists, the excitement of the lowest classes against the bourgeoisie or middle classes, and the reign of terror over all France were the work of the Jacobins. But the over- throw of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, gave also the death blow to the Jacobin Club; and on November 9, 1794, the Jacobin Club closed. The term Jacobin is often em- ployed to designate persons of extreme revolu- tionary sentiments. Janizaries (Turkish, Yetli-tcheri, new soldiers), an Ottoman infantry force, somewhat analogous to the Roman prfetorians, part of them forming the guard of the sultan. They were originally organized about 1330, and sub- sequently obtained special privileges, which in time became dangerously great. The regular janizaries once amounted to 60,000, but their numbers were afterwards reduced to 25,000. The irregular troops amounted to 300,000 or 400,000. Their power became so dangerous and their insurrections so frequent that several unsuc- cessful attempts were made to reform or disband them. At various times sultans had been de- posed, insulted, and murdered by the insurgent janizaries. At last, in June, 1826, they rebelled on account of a proposal to form a new militia, when the sultan, Mahmoud II., having displayed the flag of the prophet, and being supported by their aga or commander-in-chief, defeated the rebels and burned their barracks, ^vhen 8,000 of them perished in the flames. The corps was abolished, and a curse laid upon the name. As many as 15,000 were executed, and fully 20,000 were banished. Japan. Although Japan has passed through the successive eras of tribal government, pure monarchy, feudalism, anarchy, and modern empire, its ruling dynasty boasts of forty-six centuries of unbroken succession, and claims descent from Jimmu Tenno, first mikado, a fabulous warrior, whose descent from the sun goddess is a matter of faith with the Japanese, who base upon it their claim of the mikado's divinity. The empire claims to have had a previous existence of 2,479 years; but its history dates from Jimmu 667 B. C, and from his death until 571 A. D. thirty-one mikados ruled; the famous Yamato Dak6 and Sujin the Civilizer belong to this period. Jingu Kogo, Empress of Japan, 270 A. D., conquered Corea in person. In 552 A. D, Buddhism was introduced into Japan, and thenceforth became a potent influ- ence in the formation of character. About this time a succession of infant mikados contributed to loss of power in the mikadoate, and to the formation of noble families, who, one by one, gained ascendency, and ruled the mikados; the feudal system began its existence, and feuds between the rival families were constant. The Fujiwarra family were opposed by the Suga- wara, and succeeded by the Tairas and Mina- motos. In 1 184, Yoritomo became first shogun, (a term meaning general), the dual system of government, which ended only in 1867, began, and the shogunate monopolized the real power of the nation, of which the mikado was nominal and spiritual head. From 1199 to 1333 both the mikadoate and the shogunate were under the power of the Hojo family, who set up and removed rulers at their own pleasure; but they promoted the arts, and defeated an invasion of the Mongol Tartars. The Ashi-Kaga family next came into power, and occasioned a fifty-six years' war between the northern and southern dynasties, and strengthened feudalism at the time when all Europe was throwing off its chains. In 1536, Hideyoshi conquered the Coreans, and brought marine architecture to a higher state of perfection; he became taiko, and this period is called the age of taiko. In 1542, Europeans landed on Tanigashima; fire- arms were introduced, Portuguese merchants were attracted, ard in 1549, Francis Xavier landed, and with an interpreter preached Chris- tianity in various parts of the empire; he paved the way for the success of others, and priests and Jesuits flocked to Japan, when a total of 600,000 converts was recorded. Wabunaga protected the Christians, as the latter persecuted the Buddhists, whom he hated ; but by intrigues and quarrels among themselves the priests alienated the support of the shogun, who perse- cuted the native Christians. The Jesuits stirred them up to resistance, and after a brief battle between Hed^yori, leader of the Christians, and ly^sayu; during which 100,000 men perished, the priests were exiled from Japan, 1615. In 1624 all foreigners except the Dutch and Chinese were banished from Japan, the Japanese were forbidden to leave the country, and all larger vessels were destroyed. In 1637 the great mas- sacre of Christians began, the twenty or less Dutch traders were confined to the island of Deshima, and 100 years' intercourse with Chris- tian nations resulted only in the adoption of gunpowder, fire-arms, and tobacco. For two centuries and a half after lyesayu, Japan had peace; feudalism and anarchy were perfected, and the Tokugawa was the most prominent of a number of families who divided Japan; the power of the shogun increased, the last four rulers of the shogunate being known to Euro- peans under the title of "Tycoon." In 1853, Commodore Perry, with a fleet of American vessels, arrived at Yeddo, and the Perry treaty with the United States was concluded by him with the supreme ruler of Japan. This usurpa- HISTORY 125 tion of authority added fuel to the flames just ready to burst out and demolish the shogunate, and after a brief revolution feudalism was over- thrown, the tycoon retired, the government was changed to its ancient form, the mikado became the only ruler of Japan, and the empire took an important place in the family of nations. This occurred in 1868, since when the work of reform has gone on rapidly, the United States and its customs having served as models for many improvements. The United States opened Japan to the world after the failure of the Por- tuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and Russians to do so. Japan has grown more rapidly in one gen- eration than any European nation in a century. The Japanese rapidly became converted to west- ern ideas, both political and social. , In July, 1894, war was declared with China. The Japanese successes brought it to a trium- phant end in April, 1895. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki the terms of peace included recog- nition of Corean independence, which had been the chief cause of the war, the cession to Japan of Formosa and some smaller islands, with the peninsula of Liao-Tung, including Port Arthur, a large war indemnity, and a very great relaxa- tion of restrictions on foreign industry and commerce in China. In deference to the repre- sentations of the powers, Japan abandoned her claims on the mainland of China, but increased the indemnity. In 1904, war with Russia was brought about in consequence of the Manchu- rian situation, and continued until the fall of Port Arthur in 1905. (See Russo-Japanese War.) The protectorate then accepted over Corea was ended by the annexation of that nation in 1910. Jews (Heb. Yehuda). The subjects of the kings of Judah have been sometimes called Jews, as distinct from the seceding ten tribes, who retained the name of Israel. As the term is now used, however, the history of the Jews begins with the return of the remnant of the kingdom of Judah from the Babylonish cap- tivity in consequence of the Edict of Cyrus. Below will be found a brief resume of the chief historical events in the history of the Jews according to the biblical narrative. According to Eusebius, the Scripture history ends in 442 B. C, and thenceforward the Roman historians and Josephus furnish the best accounts. The Babylonish Captivity. Daniel prophesies at Babylon, B. C. 603; Obadiah prophesies, 587; Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall, 538; he prophesies the speedy return from bondage and the coming of a Messiah, 538. The Return from Captivity. Cyrus, ruler of all Asia, authorizes the return of the Jews and the re- building of the Temple at Jerusalem, 536; Haggai and Zechariah flourish, 520; the second Temple finished, 515; Ezra arrives in Jerusalem to correct abuses, 458 ; beginning of the seventy weeks of years predicted by Daniel, being 490 years prior to the crucifixion of Christ, 457; the waUs of Jerusalem rebuilt, 445 ; Malachi flourishes, 415. The Jews under the Macedonian Empire. Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to besiege it, but ultimately goes to the Temple and offers sacrifices to the God of the Jews, 332 ; Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter 320; the Scriptures translated (the Septuagint version) by seventy-two Jewish scribes, at the instance of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 277; Antiochus cap- tures Jerusalem, sacks the Temple, and massa- cres 40,000 of the people, 170; commencement of the government of the Maccabees, 166; a treaty, the first in Jewish history, made with the Romans, 161; Judas Hyrcanus assumes the title of "King of the Jews," 107; Jerusalem captured by Pompey, 63. The Jews under the Roman Empire. Antipater made ruler of Judea by Julius Csesar, 49; Herod, son of Antipater marries Miriamne, daughter of the king, 42 Herod decreed king by the Roman Senate, 40 Jerusalem captured by Herod and Sosius, the Roman general, 37 ; Herod rebuilds the Temple on a scale of greater magnificence than ever before, 18; Jesus Christ, the long-looked-for Messiah, born four years before 1 A. D., 4 B. C. ; Pontius Pilate procurator of Judea, A. D. 22; John Baptist commences his ministry, 25; is beheaded, 27; Christ's ministry and miracles, 27-29 ; his death and resurrection, 29 ; the Jews are persecuted for refusing to worship Caligula, 38; receive the right of Roman citizenship, 41; Claudius banishes them from Rome, 50; Titus captures Jerusalem, the city and Temple sacked and burned, and 1,000,000 Jews perish, 70; Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, names it Elia Capi- tolina, and erects a temple to Jupiter, 130; the rebellion of Bar-cocheba, 135-36; final deso- lation of Judea, more than 500,000 Jews are slain by the Romans, they are banished from Judea by an edict of the Roman Emperor, and are forbidden to return upon pain of death, 136. From this time the nation has been scattered among all other nations. From the latest esti- mates (1907) we gather the following figures as to the number of Jews in the world at the present time: Africa, 392,482 Asia, 347,410 Australia, 17,403 Austria-Hungary, 2,076,277 Belgium, 4,000 Denmark, 3,476 France, 95,000 Germany, 586,948 Great Britain, 220,304 Greece, 8,350 Holland, 103,988 Italy, 35,617 Palestine, 100,000 Russia, 5,082,342 Sweden and Norway, 4,554 Switzerland, 12,264 Turkey, 282,277 United States, 1,777,185 It is estimated that there are enough Jews not enumerated in the above table to swell the total to 11,600,000. This people now scattered over the globe has suffered much even in modern times and especially in Russia at the hands of the oppressor. In America only have the Jews enjoyed at all times perfect freedom and all the rights of citizenship. The Jews born in Eng- land stand nearly if not wholly on the same footing as any other of the natives, although this result, like most of the liberties enjoyed m 126 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS that country, is the outcome of a series of con- cessions from the Crown. Full emancipation was granted to the Jews in England in 1858. Kansas, derived from an Indian name meajiing "smoky water," was visited by the Spaniards in 1541; afterward by the French in 1719. It came to the United States through the Louisiana Purchase, and was a portion of the territory which, by the Missouri Compro- mise of 1820, was always to remain untouched by slavery. When the territory of Kansas was organized, in 1854, it was declared by Congress that the Missouri Compromise was abolished. This led to the Kansas troubles, which lasted till 1859, with various vicissitudes, when a free constitution was adopted, forever prohibiting slavery. This imbroglio played an important part in inflaming the passions of North and South, and ripening the conditions which made our late Civil War inevitable. Kansas was admitted to the Union in 1861. During the Civil War the State was the scene of irregular warfare, known as "jay-hawking," carried on by Confederate raiders from Missouri and Ar- kansas and the Unionists who opposed them. The only battle of prominence took place at Lawrence on August 21, 1863. In 1880, the constitution was amended, prohibiting the liquor traffic. Kentucky. The name Kan-tuck-kee sig- nifies "darkened bloody ground," and the coun- try now included in the State was originally the common hunting-ground for the Indian tribes living north and south of it. The first white visit was that of John Finley and others, from North Carolina, in 1767. Daniel Boone made a permanent settlement in 1769. Colonel James Knox planted a Virginian colony in 1770, fol- lowed by others in 1773-74, and James Harrod founded Harrodsburg in 1774. The irruption of whites was met by the Indians in a series of fierce and bloody conflicts. In 1775, the Chero- kees ceded the country to Boone, who acted as agent for Colonel James Henderson and his com- pany. Kentucky was a part of Virginia till 1790, when it became a separate Territory. It was admitted as a State into the Union in 1792, being the second admitted. A second constitu- tion was adopted in 1800, and the pjresent one in 1850. Kentucky during the Civil War en- deavored to hold a position of neutrality. The chief battles fought in the State were Mill Spring, January 19, 1862, and Perryville, October 8, 1862. In 1864, martial law was declared, and civil authority was not restored until October, 1865. In 1900, William Gobel,. contesting can- didate for governor, was assassinated, and laid the foundation for a series of notable trials. Khyber Pass, The. Obtained great notoriety because a British army of 16,000 men was here annihilated in the month of January, 1842, during the retreat from Kabul. The only persons who escaped were Dr. Brydon (a regi- mental surgeon) and a private soldier. In 1838, Lord Auckland, Governor-General of India, declared war against the Afghanistans because their ruler. Dost Mohammed, had unlawfully attacked a British ally, and because Dost Mo- hammed had usurped the throne of Shah Sujah, who was under British protection. On July 21st, Shah Sujah was restored to the throne of Kabul, and the British thought the matter was ended. This was a grand mistake, for at the beginning of winter Akbah Khan, the son of Dost Mohammed, attacked the British army in Kabul, and slew several of the officers. A capit- ulation was made, and when the British army were in the Khyber Pass on their way home they were cut to pieces. With women, chil- dren, and camp followers, 20,000 were slain in the Pass. Lake Dwellings. The earliest account of lake dwellings is to be found in Herodotus, who describes a Thracian tribe living, in 520 B. C, in a small mountain lake of what is now Rumelia. The custom of constructing these habitations has come down to the present day. The fishermen of Lake Prasias, near Salonica, still inhabit wooden cottages built over the water, as the Thracian tribes did, and in the East Indies the practice of building lake settlements is very com- mon. The lake dwellings proper of Switzerland came to light during the winter months of 1853-54, when the water of the lakes fell much below its ordinary level. Dr. Keller, who first described these lake dwellings, says that the main plat- form was made of round timbers, rarely of split boards, covered with a bed of mud;, the walls and sides were in great measure of interlaced branches, the interstices filled with moss, and daubed with clay. In his opinion, all the evi- dence goes to show that they were rectangular in shape. It is probable that the huts were thatched, and the parts used as dormitories strewn with straw or hay. Also, artificial islands found principally in Ire- land, where they served the purpose of strong- holds. In this case " the support consisted not of piles only, but of a solid mass of mud, stones, etc., with layers of horizontal and perpendicular stakes, the latter serving less as a support than to bind the mass firmly together." They are of much later date than the lake dwelling proper, some being depicted in Johnson's " Piatt of the County Monaghan," a map of the escheated territories made for the English Government in 1591. Lancaster, the name of a royal English house which flourished in two lines in the Thir- teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries. The first commences with Edmund, son of Henry III. and Eleanora of Provence, and brother of Edward I. Thomas, his son and successor in the earldom, cousin-german to Edward II., headed the confederacy of barons against Piers Gaveston, and finally shared the responsibility of his death with Hereford and Arundel. Henry (previously Earl of Leicester), brother and heir of Thomas, joined the conspiracy of Isabella and Mortimer against Edward II., and received the king into his cus- tody at Kenilworth. Henry, his son (previously Earl of Derby), after vainly endeavoring to make peace with John, King of France, under the medi- ation of the pope at Avignon, was sent with an army into Normandy, and took part in the vic- tory of Poitiers and the subsequent French wars. The next Duke of Lancaster commences a new lineage, that of the princes opposed to the house of York. The first in the line was John of Gaunt. HISTORY 127 orGhent, fourth son of Edward III. His name is one of the most celebrated in English history and in the chivalry of the Middle Ages. Henry of Hereford, the successor of John of Gaunt in the dukedom, was son to him by his first wife. He claimed the crown by descent, by the moth- er's side, from Edmund the first earl, who was popularly supposed to be the elder brother of Edward I., and to have been deprived of the suc- cession by his father for personal reasons. He became king by deposing Richard II., 1399, and was a prince of great ability and valor. He reigned as Henry IV. till his death in 1413, and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. The son of the latter also inherited the crown as Henry VI., and in his reign the feuds of York and Lancaster broke out, which ended in the union of the two houses in the person of Henry VII. Latin Union, Tlie, a combination formed in 1865 by France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzer- land. These countries entered into an agree- ment by which the amount of silver to be coined yearly was fixed for each member of the union. The coinage of all the countries was of like charac- ter, and to be received without discount through- out the union on public and private account. Greece joined theunionin 1868, Spain in 1871, and subsequently Servia and Rumania also became members. Some of the South American States also used the Latin Union coinage. Spain alone of the countries of the union coins a gold piece not used by the others. The unit of coinage in the Latin Union is the franc; it has different names elsewhere, as, in Italy the lira; in Servia, the dinar; in Spain, the peseta; but the value is always the same. It is the most widely circu- lated coinage system' in Europe, being used by about 148,000,000 people. Lexington, a town of Massachusetts, ten miles northwest of Boston, noted as the scene of the first fight between the British and Americans in the war of the Revolution, April 19, 1775. On the evening of April 18th, General Gage, the British commander in Boston, sent 800 soldiers, under Major Pitcairn, to destroy the American supplies at Concord. Paul Revere, of Boston, escaping their sentinels, galloped out to Lexing- ton and Concord with the news, so when the British reached Lexington at daybreak, they found about seventy Americans waiting for them on the village common. Captain John Parker, their commander, ordered them not to shoot until the English did. Major Pitcairn rode forward and called out: " Disperse ye reb- els!" but though the Americans were outnum- bered ten to one, they stood firm. Then Pitcairn ordered his men, to fire, and four Americans were killed and nine wounded. Some shots were fired in return, and three English soldiers were wounded ; but after that the Americans retreated some being- killed as they ran. The British marched on to Concord, but meanwhile the whole country was aroused, and as they came back, hundreds of Americans attacked them from behind the houses and stone walls by the road- side. They were only saved from destruction by the arrival of reinforcements under Lord Percy. Though not a very great battle, this was one of the most important ones that ever was fought. As soon as the Americans found that the war had really begun, hundreds of men hurried to the army, and not long after the Brit- ish were driven out of Boston. Lepanto (anciently Naupactus, now called by the Greeks Epakto), a small town of Greece, and the seat of a bishop ; on the north side of the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Near Lepanto took place the celebrated naval battle between the Turks on the one side and the papal galleys and those of the Venetians and the Spaniards on the other, on October 7, 1571, in which the Christians, commanded by Don John of Austria, achieved a decisive victory. Of the Turks 30,000 fell or were taken prisoners, while 130 Turkish vessels were captured, and 12,000 Christian slaves liberated; the Christians lost 8,000 men and fifteen galleys. In this battle Cervantes lost an arm. The town became Greek in 1829. Lollards, The (Idl'lardz}. A sect of early Reformers in Germany and England. The name was given in the first place to a class of persons in Germany and the Low Countries, who, in the Fourteenth Century, undertook spiritual offices in behalf of the sick and the dead, and were greatly beloved by the people. Later, the term was conferred opprobriously upon heretics and schismatics in general, more particularly those who followed the teachings of John Wick- liffe. Lombards. A German people of the Suevic family, not very numerous, but of dis- tinguished valor, who played an important part in the early history of Europe. The name is derived from Longobardi, Langobardi, a Latin- ized form in use since the Twelfth Century, and was formerly supposed to have been given with reference to the long beards of this people, but is now derived rather from a word parta, or barte, which signifies a battle-ax. About the Fourth Century they seem to have begun to leave their original seats (on the Lower Elbe, where the Romans seem first to have come in contact with them about the beginning of the Christian era) and to have fought their way south and east till they came in close contact with the eastern Roman Empire on the Danube ; adopted an Arian form of Christianity, and, after having been for some time tributary to the Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of their power, and of that of the Gepidse, shortly after the middle of the Sixth Century, to the position of masters of Pannonia, and became one of the most wealthy and powerful nations in that part of the world. Under their king, Alboin, they invaded and conquered the north and center of Italy (568-569). The conversion of the Arian Lombards to the orthodox faith was brought about by the policy of Gregory the Great and the zeal of Theodolinda,wife of Autha- ria, and subsequently of his successor, Agilulf (590-615). Longobardi (iQn-go-b&r'de). A German tribe, of supposed Scandinavian extraction, which made their first appearance in history during the reign of Augustus, and in that of Justinian I., settled in Noricum and Pannonia. Led by their chief, Alboni, they successfully invaded Italy in 568, and there founded the Kingdom of Lombardy. 128 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS LOST CITIES * The cities designated by asterisks were afterward rebuilt under the same name. Cities Founded By Whom Date Destroyed How By Whom Date Abydos, in Asia Minor, on the Helles- pont; burned by Darius ; conquered by Philip II.; by the Romans 188 B.C., . Aegina,'*' on the island of the same name, Greece; subjected by Pheidon 748 B.C., captured by the Athenians 455 B. C. ; by Pubhus Sulpicius 210 B. C Agrigentum, in Sicily, subjected by Pha- lans 570 B. C. ; destroyed by Cartha- ginians 406 B. C. ; captured by Romans 262 B. C. ; again destroyed by Cartha- ginians 255 B. C, Alexandria,* in Egypt, scene of a fright- ful massacre by Ptolemy Physcon 141 B.C. ; captured by Julius Ca!sar 48 B.C. ; 50,000 persons killed by earthquake .365 A. D.; captured by Chosroes II. 616 A. D. ; by Amrou 640 A. D. ; destroyed by the Turks 868 A. D., Antloch,* in Syria; conquered by Pom- pey 64 B. C. ; destroyed by Chosroes I. 641 A. D. ; captured by Chosroes 11.611 A. D. ; Saracens 638 A. D. ; Turks 1084 A. D.; Crusaders 1098 A. D.; de- stroyed by Bibars, Sultan of Egypt, 1268 A. D Argos,* in Greece, under Phidon about 750 B. C. leading state of the Pelopon- nesus; lost Cynuria in wars with Sparta 550 B. C. ; fell into decay after defeat near Tiryns 524 B. C, Arsinoe, in Egypt, not far from Lake Moeris; received its name from Ptole- my Philadelphus in honor of his sister Arsinoe, originally called Crocodipolis by the Greeks ; the ruins are near Medi- net-el-Fayoom, Athens,* in Greece; captured by Xerxes 480 B. C; burnt by Mardonius 479 B.C. ; rebuilt by Themistocles 478 B.C. ; 439 B. C. at the height of its prosperity; taken by Lysander 404 B. C. ; walls re- louilt by Conon 393 B. C; submits to Alexander the Great 335 B. C. ; con- quered by Cassander; surrendered to Antigonus Gonatas 200 B. C. ; partly destroyed by Philip of Macedon 200 B.C.; subdued by the Romans 146 B.C. ; walls and fortifications destroyed by Sulla 86 B. C Baalbec* or Heliopolis, in Asia Minor; sacked by the Moslems 748 A. D. ; by Timour Beg 1400 A. D Babylon, in Asia; captured by Tiglath- Pileser 1. 1130 B.C.; by Cyrus 538 B.C.; walls destroyed by Darius 518 B. C; taken by Alexander III. 331 B. C; by Seleucus Nicator 312 B. C, who de- stroyed Babylon to build Seleucia. Ex- plored by Rich, Kerr Porter, Layanl, Frazer, Chesney, Botta, Loftus, and Rawlinson, Byzantium, in ancient Thracia (modern Turkey) ; captured successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spartans; by the Romans 73 A. D.; destroyed by Severus 196 A.D. It was refounded 324 A. D. and called Constantinople, . . . Carthage, city in Africa; captured by Scipio after the battle of Zama 201 B.C. burned by the Romans 146 B. C. rebuilt as a Roman colony 123 B. C. captured by Genseric 439 A. D.; by Belisarius 533 A. D.; sacked by the Arabs 647 A. D. ; destroyed by Hassan 698 A. D Corinlh, in Greece; captured by the Dorians 1074 B. C; by the Macedo- nians 338 B. C. ; by Aratus 243 B. C. ; Antigonus Doson 223 B. C. ; destroyed by L. Mummius 146 B. C. ; rebuilt by Julius Csesar 46 B. C. ; sacked by Alaric 396 A. D Milesians. Dorians. Colony from Gela. Alexander the Great. Seleucus Nicator. Inachus. Pharaoh in the 12th Dynasty of Manetho. 715 B. C. 582 B. C. 332 B. C. 300 B. C. 1856 B. C. 2300 B. C. War. War. War. War. War. War and Decay. Decay. Turks. Turks. Carthaginians. Turks. Chosroes I. and Bibars. 1330 A. D. 1536 A.D. 406 and 205 B. .C. 868 A. D. 541 and 1268 A. D. 524 B. C. Cecrops. 1558 B.C. Nimrod. Megarius under Byzas. Dido Phenicians. 2247 B. C. 667 B. C 878 B. C. 1520 B. C. War. War. War. War. War. War. Sulla. Timour Beg. Seleucus Nicator. Severus. Romans and Hassan. L. Afummius and Alaric. 86 B. C. 1400 A. D. 312 B. C. 196 A. D. 146 B. C. and 698 A. D. 146 B. C. and 396 A. D. HISTORY 129 LOST CITIES Continued Cities Founded By Whom Date Destroyed How By WJiom Date Ctesiphon, in Assyria; captured by Tra- jan 116 A. D.; by Severus 198 A. D.; destroyed by Omar 637 A. D., .... Delphi, in Greece; temple burned 548 B. C, and rebuilt by the Alcmaeonidse ; Elundered by the Phocians 357 B. C. ; y Sulla 82 B. C; by Nero 67 A. D.; temple suppressed by Theodosius I., . Ephesus, in Asia Minor; burned by the Amazons 1141 B. C; rebuilt by the lonians 1045 B. C; captured by Croesus 559 B. C. ; by Cyrus 554 B. C. ; destroyed by an inundation 322 B. C. ; rebuilt 300 B. C; nearly destroyed by an earthquake 17 A. D., Herculaneum, in Italy; its foundation ascribed to Hercules; partly ruined by an earthquake 63 A. D.; completely buried by an eruption of Vesuvius 79 A. D.; a second settlement buried by Vesuvius 472 A. D. Fragments of statues were discovered 1709 A. D.; theater discovered 1738 A. D Jerusalem,* in Palestine; captured by David 1049 B. C; sacked by the Phi- listines and Arabs 887 B. C; by Nebu- chadnezzar 586 B. C; by Antiochus Epiphanes 170 B. C; captured by Pompey 63 B. C; by Herod 37 B. C; destroyed by Titus 70 A. D., .... Memphis, in Egypt; partly destroyed by the Persians 525 B. C. ; captured by Antiochus Epiphanes 171 B. C. ; re- stored by Septimus Severus 202 A.D.; decayed under the Arabs in the Seventh Century, and Cairo built from its ruins, Mycenae, in Greece; destroyed by the Argives 468 B. C. ; explored by Dr. Schliemann, who discovered tombs with immense treasures in 1877 A. D., Nineveh, in Assyria; received its name from Ninus 2182 B. C; destroyed by Cyaxares and Nabopolassar from 625 to 606 B. C. Layard began explor- ing the ruins 1840 A. D., Numantia, in Spain, destroyed by Scipio the Younger 134 B. C, . . . . Palmyra, Syria; submitted to Hadrian 130 A. D.; destroyed by Aurelian 274 A. D.; restored by Justinian I. 527 A. D. ; again destroyed by the Saracens 744 A. D. ; ruins discovered 1691 A. D. ; explored by Wood and Dawkins 1751 A. D Persepolis, in Persia; supposed to have been founded by Jemshed; burned by Alexander III. 331 B. C Petra, in Arabia, captured by the Naba- thaeans in the Fourth Century B. C. ; by Cornelius Palma 106 A. D.; fell into decay and is not mentioned after the Sixth Century A. D.; ruins discovered by Burckhardt 1812 A. D Pompeii, in Italy; date of its founda- tion unknown ; said to have been con- quered by the Samnites 440 B. C. ; cap- tured by the Romans 360 B. C. ; al- most destroyed by an earthquake 63 A.D. ; completely buried by an eruption of Vesuvius 79 A. D.; accidentally dis- covered 1748 A. D.; excavations com- menced 1755 A. D., Saguntum, in Spain ; said to have been founded by a colony of Greeks ; burned by its citizens before surrendering to Hannibal 218 B. C, ...;... . Samaria, in Palestine; captured by Shalmaneser IV. 721 B. C; by Alex- ander III. 336-332 B.C.; destroyed by John Hyrcanus 109 B. C Sardis, in Asia Minor; captured by the Cimmerians about 635 B. C; by the Persians 554 B. C; burned by the Greeks 499 B. C. ; it was rebuilt ; cap- tured by Alexander III. 334 B. C; by Amphictyons. 1263 B. C. Hercules. Menes or Misraim. Perseus. Ashur. Solomon. Jemshed. About 1913 B.C. 3890 B. C or 2188 B.C 1431, 1313 or 1282 B. C About 2245 B. C. About 1001 B. C. Greeks. Omri. About 925 B. C. War. War and Decay. Inundation and Earthquake. Vesuvius. War. War and Decay. War. War. War. War. Decay. Omar. Titus. Argives. Cyaxares and Nabopolassar. Scipio. Aurelian and Saracens. Alexander. Fire. War. Earthquake and Vesuvius. . Citizens. John Hyrcanus. 637 A. D. 395 A. D. 322 B. C. and 17 A. D. 79 and 472 A. D. 70 A. D. 600 to 700 A. D. 468 B. C. 625 to 606 B. C. 134 B. C. 274 to 744 A. D. 331 B. C. After 600 A. D. 79 A. D. 218 B. C. 109 B. C. 130 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS LOST CITIES Continued Founded Destroyed Cities By Whom Date How By Whom Date Seleucua I. 283 B. C; by Antiochus 214 B. C; by the Romans 190 B. C; destroyed by an earthquake 14-37 A.D. under Tiberius, who rebuilt it; cap- tured by the Turks in the Eleventh Greeks 499 B. C. Century; destroyed by Tamerlane War and and and 1402 A. D Earthquake. Tamerlane. 1402 A. D. Sodom and Gomorrah, cities of Pales- tine; destroyed, according to the bibli- cal account, by fire from heaven 1897 B. C Fire. 1897 B. C. Su'sa, in Persia; mentioned on monu- ments 660 B. C.; captured by Alexan- der III. 331 B. C; by Antigonus 315 ' B. C; by the Arabs 652 A. D.; after that it decayed ; ruins were discovered After by Williams and Loftus 1853 A. D Decay. 652 A. D. Sybaris, in Greece; destroyed by the Crotoniats 510 B. C. by turning the course of the River Crathis, Archseaus. 720 B. C. War. Crotoniats. 510 B. C. Thebes, or Luxor, in Egypt; flourished from 1600-800 B. C; captured by the Persians 625 B. C; destroyed by Ptolemy. Ptolemy Lathyrus 86 B. C Menes. 2717 B.C. War. Lathyrus. 86 B. C. Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; destroyed by the Greeks about 1184 B. C; Dr. Schliemann discovered ruins, 1872 A. D. ; which he considers ancient Troy, War. Greeks. 1184 B. C. Tyre, in Asia Minor; destroyed by Neb- uchadnezzar 572 B. C. ; rebuilt; cap- Antigonus315 B. C; by Antiochus III. 218 B.C.; by the Crusaders 1128 A.D.; Nebuchad- 572 B. C. by Chalid 1291 A. D.; destroyed by About nezzar and and the Turks 1516 A.D 2750 B. C. War. Turks. 1516 A. D. Veil, in Italy; destroyed by the Romans after ten years' siege 396 B. C War. Romans. 396 A. D. Louisiana. In 1541, De Soto discovered the Mississippi and in 1682 La Salle voyaged down this river to its mouth, naming the country Louisiana and taking possession of it in the name of the King of France. In 1716, Bienville estab- lished Fort Rosalie in the Natchez country and in 1718 founded New Orleans. In 1717, the Mississippi Company was formed by John Law for colonization purposes, and in 1732 resigned its claim to the territory, and Louisiana became a royal province. In 1733, the first settlement was made at Baton Rouge. In 1750, the culti- vation of cotton was begun in the territory. In 1755, Louisiana received a large increase in population from the Acadians, who were driven from their homes in Canada. By a secret treaty in 1762, France ceded Louisiana to Spain, and in 1768 the French drove the first Spanish Gov- ernor, Don Antonio de Ulloa, from the colony. In 1800, Louisiana was ceded to Napoleon by Spain, and in 1803, on April 30th, was purchased from France by the United States for 60,000,000 francs. In 1806 and 1807, Aaron Burr's scheme to set up an independent nation in the Mississippi Valley caused much disturbance in New Orleans, and in 1810 residents of eastern Louisiana formed the Republic of West Florida in an attempt to overthrow the Spanish Government there. The district was taken under the con- trol of the United States and made part of Louisiana during the same year after some trouble. In 1812, Louisiana was admitted to the Union as a State, with boundaries as they are now. That same year the first steam vessels on the Mississippi arrived from Pittsburg. The battle of New Orleans between the British and Ameri- cans was fought January 8, 1815, and it was the last battle of the War of 1812. During the period from 1815 to 1860 there was continual industrial activity and Louisiana soon became one of the leading agricultural States. In 1850, Baton Rouge became the seat of State govern- ment. On January 26, 1861, Louisiana passed the Ordinance of Secession. The first gun cast for the Confederate navy was made at Gretna, near New Orleans. Port Hudson, the last Con- federate stronghold on the Mississippi, was cap- tured by General Banks July 8, 1853, and on May 26, 1865, the war in Louisiana was ended by the surrender of General Kirby Smith. From 1865 to 1874 a period of carpetbag government caused many disturbances, and on September 14, 1S74, it was overthrown and a representative government established. In 1884, the Industrial Cotton Exhibition was opened at New Orleans, celebrating the centennial of the first exporta- tion of cotton from the United States. In 1890, Chief of Police David C. Hennessy, of New Or- leans, was killed by an Italian criminal. In 1891, an organized band of citizens killed eleven Italian prisoners in the parish prison at New Orleans. Lundy's Lane, a locality in the province of Ontario, near the Falls of Niagara. Here, July 25, 1814, an obstinate and undecisive en- gagement was fought between an American force, numbering 3,000 men, under General Brown, and a body of about 2,000 British troops commanded by General Drummond. The loss HISTORY 131 of the Americans was 743 men ; that of the Brit- ish 878 men. Lutzen, a small town in the Prussian prov- ince of Saxony, famous for two great battles fought in its vicinity. The first, a brilliant victory of the Swedes in the Thirty Years' War, took place November 16, 1632. The battle on May 2, 1813, was fought somewhat farther to the south, at the village of Grosgoschen. It was the first great conflict of the united Russian and Prussian army with the army of Napoleon in that decisive campaign; and the French were left in possession of the field. Maine. Various but unsuccessful attempts at colonization in Maine were made between the years 1602 and 1620 by both the French and English. In 1620, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, as head of the Plymouth Company, received a patent of all the region between 40 and 48 north latitude. In consequence of disputes afterward with the Massachusetts Colony, the company was dissolved, and in 1639 Gorges received a formal charter of the region between the Piscataqua and Kennebec, under the title of Maine. Internecine quarrels between the different settlements, on points of jurisdiction, caused the Massachusetts Colony in 1651 to set up a claim to the province under her charter, and parliament sanctioned it. In 1677, all claims of other grantees were purchased. From this time the history of the province was prac- tically merged in that of Massachusetts. The final separation occurred in 1820, when Maine was admitted to the Union, being the tenth under the constitution. In 1842, the boundary dispute between Maine and Great Britain was settled. The "Maine Liquor Law" was passed in 1851. It was repealed in 1856 and passed again in 1858, being made a part of the Consti- tution in 1884. The death penalty was abol- ished in 1876, restored in 1883, and again abol- ished in 1887. The growth of the wood-pulp and paper-mill industry began about 1880, and in 1890 there was a rapid development of the lumber, granite, ice, and fishery trades. In 1879-80 occurred a notable contest for the governorship between the Republicans and Fusionists. Mamelukes (m&m'a-lookz). Originally, male slaves imported from Circassia into Egypt by the rulers of that country. They were in- structed in military exercises, but soon exhibited a spirit of insubordination, assassinating the Sultan, Turan Shah, and, in 1258, appointing Ibegh, one of their own number, Sultan of Egypt. They were at length conquered by Selim I., and Cairo, their capital, was taken by storm, after they governed Egypt 263 years. During the French invasion of Egypt by Napo- leon I., the Mamelukes formed a fine body of cavalry, and for a time seriously annoyed the invaders, though many afterwards joined them. In 1811, Mehemet Ali annihilated their power by treacherously inveigling and destroying 470 of their chief leaders. Manila Bay, Battle of. A remarkable engagement between the American Asiatic squadron, under command of Commodore George Dewey, and a Spanish naval force, under com- mand of Admiral Montojo, supported by land batteries, fought on May 1, 1898. When it became evident, in March, 1898, that war be- tween the United States and Spain was inevit- able, Commodore Dewey began to mobilize his vessels in the harbor of Hong Kong preparatory to striking a blow at the Philippine Islands on the breaking out of hostilities. By April 1st, he had gathered there his flagship, the "Olym- pia," a steel protected cruiser; the "Boston," a partially protected steel cruiser; the "Raleigh," protected steel cruiser; the "Concord," steel gunboat; and the "Petrel," steel gunboat. Toward the close of the month, the "Baltimore," a steel protected cruiser the "Hugh McCulloch," revenue cutter, and two newly-purchased ships loaded with coal and other supplies, joined the fleet. Lying in Manila Bay, one of the largest and most important in the world, was a Spanish squadron, comprising, the "Reina Christina," steel cruiser; "Castilla," wood cruiser; "Ve- lasco," iron cruiser; "Don Antonio de Ulloa," iron cruiser; "Don Juan de Austria," iron cruiser; "Isla de Cuba," steel protected cruiser; "Isla de Luzon," steel protected cruiser; "Gen- eral Lezo," gunboat; "El Cano," gunboat; "Isla de Mindanao," auxiliary cruiser; "Mar- ques del Duero"; and two torpedo boats. It was supposed that the harbor had been planted with mines and torpedoes and supplied with numerous searchlights, and that the forts on the shore had been strengthened in anticipation of an attack. The United States squadron entered the bay on the night of April 30th, and at 5 o'clock on Sunday morning, May 1st, opened fire on the Spanish squadron and the forts. Two engage- ments were fought, and during the brief interval the United States squadron drew off to the east side of the bay to enable officers and men to get their breakfast. The entire battle lasted less than two hours. The Spanish flagship, "Reina Christina," was completely burned; the "Castilla" suffered the same fate; the "Don Juan de Austria " was blown up by a shell from one of the United States vessels; one or more ships were burned; and the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed. After his second attack, in which he destroyed the water battery at Cavite, Commodore Dewey anchored off the city of Manila and sent word to the governor-general that if a shot was fired from the city at the fleet, he would lay Manila in ashes. The Spanish loss was about 2,000 officers and men. The United States squadron did not lose a ship or a man. Two vessels were damaged in theit upper works, and eight men were variously injured. Maryland. One of the original thirteen States, it was named after the mother of Charles II. The State was settled by Lord Baltimore in 1632, under a grant from Charles II. Puritan and Virginian colonies disputed the authority of the proprietary governors, and it was not till 1714, after many broils and considerable blood- shed, extending over three-quarters of a century, that the rights of the Calvert family were finally settled. In 1649, the Assembly passed an act allowing Christians of all sects the public exer- cise of their faith. Baltimore was founded in 1730. The Virginia boundary was adjusted in 1668, that of Delaware and Pennsylvania, 132 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS known in our history as "Mason and Dixon's Line," in 1760. A republican constitution was adopted in 1776. The "Maryland Line" was famous in the Revolutionary War for its gal- lantry. The Federal Constitution was adopted in 1788. In the War of 1812, Maryland suffered much from Admiral Cockburn's fleet; French- town, Havre de Grace, and Frederick were burned, and Fort McHenry unsuccessfully bom- barded. The only important battle fought within the State during the late Civil War was that of Antietam, in September, 1862. Mason and Dixon's Line. This line was originally the parallel of latitude 39 degrees, 43 minutes, 26.3 seconds which separates Penn- sylvania from Maryland. It received its name from Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English mathematicians and astronomers, who traced the greater part of it between the years 1763 and 1767, though the last thirty-six miles were finished by others. It was practically the dividing line between the free and the slave States m the East. During the discussion in Congress on the Missouri Compromise, John Randolph, of Roanoke, Virginia, made free use of the phrase, and thereafter it became popular as signifying the dividing line between the free and slave territory throughout the country. The boundary, as thus extended by popular usage, followed the Ohio River to the Mississippi, and west of that was the parallel of 36 degrees, 30 minutes, the southern boundary of Missouri, though Missouri itself was a slave State. Massachusetts was one of the thirteen original States. Though first visited by the English under Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, the first permanent settlement was made by the Puritan colony, which landed from the "May- flower" at Plymouth in 1620. The expedition commanded by John Endicott, which arrived in 1628, acting under the auspices of the Massa- chusetts Bay Company, which had received a royal charter, gradually planted settlements at Charlestown, Boston, Watertown, Dorchester, Roxbury, Salem, Mystic, Saugus (Lynn), and other places. The restoration of the Stuarts threatened the rights of the colonists, but their charter was finally confirmed in 1662. King Philip's War occurred in 1675-76, and put the colonists in great peril. In 1684, the Massachu- setts charter was declared forfeited to the CrowTi under James II., but it was restored at the acces- sion of William and Mary. In 1692, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth were con- solidated. Tfie provmce took active part in the various French and Indian wars, and contrib- uted largely to the expedition which captured Louisburg in 1745. The Boston Massacre in 1770, the destruction of the tea in 1773, and the Port Bill in 1774 were important incidents pre- ceding the Revolution. At Lexington and Con- cord, in 1775, Massachusetts made the final appeal to arms. At this time the population of the province was 352,000. The State Constitu- tion, still essentially the organic law, was formed in 1780, and the Federal Constitution was rati- fied in 1788. The total expenditures of the State on account of the late Civil War amounted to $30,162,200. Mecklenburg Declaration. This dec- laration was adopted, it is said, in May, 1775, at a midnight meeting of representatives of the militia of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. It declares that the people of that county are free and independent of the British Crown, and not only is its general tenor that of the Declara- tion of Independence, but many phrases are word for word as they appear in that document. The minutes of the midnight meeting are said to have been destroyed by fire in 1800. Whether the Declaration of Independence followed the words of the Mecklenburg Declaration or whether the latter, having probably been replaced from memory, was tiA,ctured with the former, is a disputed question. Mexico. The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely differing peri- ods that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. The Eighth Century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the North. Their capital was established at Tula, north of the Mexican Valley. Their laws and usages stamp them as a people of mild and peaceful instincts, industrious, active, and enter- prising. It is related that a severe famine and pestilence all but destroyed the Toltec people in the Eleventh Century, and near the end of the next century, a fresh migration brought, among other kindred nations, the Aztecs into the land. Within two centuries and a half this last people had become predominant. But their rule was, in a great degree, a reversion to savagery. The Aztecs founded, about 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico; a hundred years later they had extended their sway beyond their plateau valley, and on the arrival of the Span- iards, their empire was found to stretch from ocean to ocean. Their government was an elective empire, the deceased prince being usually succeeded by a brother or nephew, who must be a tried warrior; but sometimes the successor was chosen from among the powerful nobles. The monarch wielded despotic power, save in the case of his great feudal vassals; these exercised a very similar authority over the peasant class, below whom, again, were the slaves. The Mexicans apparently believed in one supreme invisible creator of all things, the ruler of the universe ; but the popular faith was polytheistic. At the head of the Aztec pantheon was the frightful Huitzilopochtli, the Mexican Mars. The victims were borne to the summit of the great pyramidal temples, where the priests, in sight of assembled crowds, bound them to the sacrificial stone, and, slashing open the breast, tore from it the bleeding heart and held it up before the image of the god. Cortez landed at Vera Cruz in 1519. Before his energy, and the superior civilization of his followers, the power of the native empire crum- bled away. In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver's Island under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys appointed by the mother country. The intolerant spirit of the Catholic clergy led to the suppression of almost every trace of the ancient Aztec nationality and civilization, while the commercial system crippled the resources of the colony; for all foreign trade with any coun- HISTORY 133 try other than Spain was prohibited on pain of death. Mexico ranked first among all the Spanish colonies in regard to population, mate- rial riches, and natural products. In 1810, the discontent broke into open rebellion, and a guerilla warfare was kept up until, in 1821, the capital was surrendered by O'Donoju, the last of the viceroys. In the following year, General Iturbide, who, in 1821, had issued the plan de Iguala, providing for the independence of Mexico under a prince of the reigning houses, had him- self proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Ana raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Return- ing the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established. For more than half a century after this the history of Mexico is a record of nearly chronic disorder and civil war. In. 1836, Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States; but its western boundary was not settled, and war ensued between Mexico and the United States. From the fall of Santa Ana in 1855, down to 1867, great confusion prevailed. In 1853, Benito Juarez became president, but his claims were contested by General Miramon, the head of the reactionary or clerical party, and the country was plunged in civil war. Dur- ing this period of internal disorder, the Cortes passed an act suspending all payments to for- eigners for two years; the result was the dis- .patch of a fleet of English, French, and Spanish ships into the Mexican Gulf for the purpose of enforcing satisfaction. In April, 1862, Emperor Napoleon formally declared war against Mexico ; but the French finally had to withdraw, without permanent success, in 1867, largely because of the attitude of the United States. Maximilian, who had become Emperor of Mexico under French support, was executed in the same year, and Juarez returned to power. On his death in 1872, the chief justice, Lerdo de Tejada, assumed the presidency, in which, after a revolution, he was succeeded in 1876 by General Porfirio Diaz, one of the ablest of Mexican soldiers and admin- istrators, who has since then, with the exception of one term, been regularly reelected. In Novem- ber, 1901, the Pan-American Congress, with rep- resentatives from all the countries of the West- ern Hemisphere, convened in the City of Mexico. In 1907, an increase and reorganization of the army was effected. In 1910, a rebellion was started under Madero, but Diaz immediately took steps to suppress it. American citizens [and property were reported to be endangered, but intervention on the part of the United States was found unnecessary. Michigan. The name is derived from Indian words, meaning "a weir of fish." The State was the thirteenth admitted under the Federal Constitution. Though visited as early as 1610 by French missionaries and fur-traders, the first European settlement w^as made at Sault Ste. Marie by Father Marquette in 1668. Fort Michilimackinac, now Mackinaw, was estab- lished three years later. In 1701 Antoine Cadil- lac founded Detroit. With other French pos- sessions it came into the ownership of England in 1763. This was followed by the conspiracy of Pontiac, and the massacre of the garrison at Michilimackinac. After the Revolutionary War, Michigan did not come into the possession of the United States till 1796, and it was thjn included in the government of the Northwest Territory. The Territory of Michigan was formed in 1805. In the War of 1812-15 it was the scene of several bloody contests and butch- eries perpetrated by the British and their Indian allies. Between 1819 and 1836 the Indians ceded their title to all of the Lower and part of the Upper Peninsula. In 1836. Congress passed a bill admitting Michigan as a State on condition that she gave up a claim made on a strip of Ohio, and accepted the whole region known as the Upper Peninsula instead. Minnesota. The name is derived from an Indian word, signifying "cloudy water." Hennepin and La Salle visited the region as early as 1680. Within the present century. Pike, Long, Keating, Nicollet, Schoolcraft, Owen, and others explored it thoroughly, but it was not until 1812 that the United States had any authority within its limits. Fort Snelling was established in 1819, .and in 1837 lumbering in- dustries began to attract immigration. The Territory established in 1849 embraced about twice the limits of the present State, the western limit extending to the Missouri and White Earth rivers. In 1851, the Sioux ceded all their lands west of the Mississippi to the Big Sioux River. The State was admitted to the Union May 11,. 1858. The portion of the State lying west of the Mississippi originally belonged to the Louis- iana Purchase, and the eastern portion was a part of what was known as the "Northwest Territory." Minnesota was the nineteenth State admitted. It was the scene of the Sioux War and massacre in 1862-63. Mississippi. This region was first trav- ersed by De Soto in 1542, and in 1682 La Salle descended ihe Mississippi (the name derived from Indian words meaning "great water"), took formal possession, and called the adjacent country Louisiana. Iberville built a fort on the Bay of Biloxi in 1699, and in 1716 Fort Rosalie was erected on the site of Natchez. After the cession of the east portion of Louisiana (includ- ing what is now Mississippi) to Great Britain, in 1763, and until the Revolutionary War, immi- gration proceeded very slowly. The Territory of Mississippi was organized in 1798. In 1804 the boundaries were enlarged, and Mississippi was made to comprise the whole of the present States of Alabama and Mississippi north of the 31st parallel. The region south of that line between the Pearl and Perdido rivers was added in 1812, though claimed by Spain. Alabama was organized as a Territory in 1817, and Mis- sissippi was admitted as a State, the seventh under the Federal Constitution. A new consti- tution was formed in 1832. The ordinance of secession was passed January 9, 1861. The principal military events within the State during the war of 1861-65 were the battles of luka and Corinth and the siege of Vicksburg, which sur- i 134 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS rendered on July 4, 1863. The State was form- ally readmitted to the Union in 1870. On Jan- uary 29, 1903, the Yazoo Canal was opened, restoring to Vicksburg the water front it lost during 1876, when the Federal Government attempted to dredge a canal through six miles of forest, tapping the Yazoo River above that city and diverting the flow of the Mississippi. Missouri. The name of the State signifies "big muddy." The settlement and progress of Missouri were at first slower than in the lower portions of French Louisiana. Its oldest town, Ste. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. In 1762, France ceded to Spain the portion west of the Mississippi, and to England the section east of the river. Numbers of French Canadians had settled along the whole line of the river, and an active trade had been carried on between upper and lower Louisiana. With liberal grants of lands to colonists, immigrants flocked hither from Spain. In 1775, St. Louis, originally a depot of the fur-trade, contained 800 inhabitants, while Ste. Genevieve had only 460. Spain sided with the colonists during the Revolution, and her arms were successful m lower Louisiana and Florida. In 1780, however, St. Louis was at- tacked by a force of English and Indians from Michilimackinac, and was only relieved by the arrival of General Clarke ^rom Kaskaskia with American assistance. With the retrocession of Louisiana to France in 1800, and its subsequent sale to the United States by Napoleon three years later, its political ownership became fixed. Missouri was included in the Territory of Louis- iana, which had been set off in 1805, with St. Louis as the seat of territorial government. In 1812, with the admission of the present State of Louisiana into the Union, the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri. With rapid immigration the population had swelled in 1817 to 60,000. In 1820, by the celebrated compro- mise, Missouri was admitted ^o the Union as a slaveholding State, on condition that slavery should never exist north of latitude 36 30', in lands farther west, out of which new States should be formed. During the late Civil War repeated efforts were made to force secession on Missouri, but unsuccessfully. Though no great battles were fought within the State limits, it was the field of active military operations and, in many sections, of bloody guerilla-fighting. The battle of Wilson's Creek, on August 10, 1861, where General Lyon, the Federal com- mander, was killed, and the capture of Lexing- ton by the Confederate general. Sterling Price, on September 20, 1861, were the most important events of the first year of the conflict. Several times General Price held more than half the State in his hands, and it was not till 1864 that the Confederates were finally expelled. In June, 1865, a new constitution was ratified by the people. The fifteenth amendment to the Fed- eral Constitution was adopted by the legislature in 1869. Missouri was the eleventh State admitted under the Federal Constitution. Montana. In 1743, Chevalier de la Veren- drye, with a party of French Canadians, entered Montana and discovered the Rocky Mountains, but made no attempt at settlement. The coun- try came into the possession of the United States by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1804 and 1806, Lewis and Clark made exploring expe- ditions up the Missouri and across the mountains to the Pacific, crossing Montana twice. Alex- ander Henry, in 1808, led a party of fur-traders into the Yellowstone country, and in 1806-1810, John Colter, of Lewis and Clark's expedition, engaged in hunting and trapping in the territory. Fort Union, the first permanent fort in Montana, was built in 1829 by Kenneth Mackenzie, and in 1832 the first steamer ascended the Missouri into Montana. Fort Benton was built in 1846 by Alexander Culbertson. In 1853-54, Mon- tana was explored by a scientific and military expedition sent out by Governor Isaac J. Stevens, of Washington Territory. The Gold Creek mines were discovered in 1862, and in the same year the development of the mines of Beaver- head Valley and Bighole River began. In 1864, Montana was organized as a Territory and Helena and Butte City were founded. From 1864 to 1879 there was war with the Sioux, Blackfeet, and Cheyennes. In 1874, Helena was made territorial capital. The battle of Little Big Horn, when General Custer and his men were massacred, occurred in 1876. In 1881, the first railroad reached Helena, and in 1883 the Northern Pacific Railroad was completed to this point, relieving the financial distress. In 1889, Montana was admitted as a State. The Montana State University was opened at Helena in 1891. Nebraska. The name first applied to the river is of Indian origin, and signifies "Shallow Water." When originally organized as a Ter- ritory in 1854, it extended from latitude 40" north to the northern national boundary and west to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The Territory of Colorado was set off from this on February 28, 1861, and that of Dakota a few months later. At the same time Nebraska re- ceived from Utah and Washington Territories a tract of 15,378 square miles, lying on the south- west slope of the Rocky Mountains, which, how- ever, was taken from her with an additional portion in 1863 to form the Territory of Idaho. Nebraska was thus cut down to its present Hmits. Measures to form a State government were made in 1860 and in 1864, but the first was defeated by the popular vote, and the second (being an enabling act of Congress) was not acted on. The Civil War and Indian hostilities checked the growth of the Territory during 1861- 65. In 1866, a constitution was framed and ratified by popular vote, and in 1867 Nebraska was admitted as a State, being the twenty- fourth under the Constitution. Nevada. The region within the limits of Nevada forms part of the Mexican cession of 1848. It was organized by act of Congress as a Territory in 1861, from a portion of Utah, and embraced the region bounded north by the pres- ent boundary of the State, east by the 116th meridian, south by the 37th parallel, and west by California. A portion of California which had been included, the latter-named State re- fused to transfer, and by an additional act of Congress, in 1861, a further portion of Utah was added, extending the east boundary the distance of one degree. Nevada became a HISTORY 135 State October 31, 1864. In 1866, a third portion of Utah was added, extending the east boundary to the 114th meridian, and at the same time the portion of the State south of the 37th parallel was added from Arizona. The earliest settlements were made by the Mormons in 1848. Gold was discovered in 1849; but the rapid advance in population dates from the .discovery of silver in 1859. Among the earliest discover- ies was that of the world-renowned Comstock lode. In 1906-07 rich discoveries of gold were made at Goldfields and other points. The State was the twenty-fifth admitted under the Con- stitution. New Hampshire. One of the thirteen original States, the first settlements were made within the limits of New Hampshire at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. The district was annexed to Massachusetts in 1641, became a royal province in 1679, and was again annexed to Massachusetts in 1689. It became a separate f)rovince in 1741 and remained so till the Revo- ution. Indian atrocities were frequent till the English conquered Canada. It was supposed till 1764 that the present State of Vermont was included in the province. The territory, how- ever, was claimed by New York; the contro- versy lasted till the independence of Vermont was acknowledged in 1790. In 1776, New Hamp- shire declared its independence and established a temporary government of its own. It took an active part in the Revolutionary War, and the battle of Bennington was fought within its limits. The Constitution of the United States was ratified in 1788. During the Civil War New Hampshire furnished 34,606 men to the Union cause. New Jersey. The State of New Jersey, one of the thirteen original States, was originally a part of New York, and was first settled about 1617 by the Dutch. A patent granted by Charles II. of England, to his brother, the Duke of York, in 1664, gave the latter a claim on all the country between the Delaware and Con- necticut rivers. An expedition under Colonel Nicolls conquered the whole territory. The portion of the province now named New Jersey received its name from Sir George Carteret, to whom the Duke of York had sold his claim, in memory of the Island of Jersey of which the former had been governor. A constitution was formed for it in 1665 as a separate colony. In 1776, a State constitution was formed, and dur- ing the Revolution the battles of Trenton, Princeton. Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth were fought within the State limits. 'The Fed- eral Constitution was ratified December 18, 1787, the State capital established at Trenton in 1790, and the present constitution August 13, 1844. The State furnished 79,511 fully equipped troops to the Union army and navy during the Civil War. New York. The Bay of New York and the river emptying into it were explored by Hendrik Hudson, a navigator in the employ- ment of the Dutch East India Company, m September, 1609. In 1614, the Dutch made settlements on Manhattan Island, and the name New Netherland was extended to all the uncon- quered regions lying between Virginia and Can- ada. Seven years later the Dutch West India Company was incorporated and took possession. In 1623, settlements were made at Albany and on Long Island, and in 1626, Peter Minuit, the Director-General, bought Manhattan Island of the Indians. In 1629, the company passed the act under which the manorial monopolies in land were established. In spite of Indian wars the colony grew so fast that it came in collision with the English on the Connecticut and the Swedes on the Delaware River. The claims made by the English to New Netherland on the score of Cabot's prior discovery were finally enforced in the charter granted by Charles II. to the Duke of York, and the armed expedition of Colonel Nicolls in 1664. The Dutch under Governor Stuyvesant surrendered, and New Netherland became New York, though the Dutch reconquered and held the province for a short period, before English rule became permanent. The tyranny exercised over the province by Francis Nicholson, the lieutenant of Andros, who had been appointed to be governor, caused the revolt in 1689 headed by Jacob Leisler, which was at first successful, though Leisler was two years later executed for treason. In 1687 began the series of French and Indian wars in which the New York colonists bore so important a part. The first of these closed in 1697, with the Peace of Ryswick. The second, or Queen Anne's War, lasted from 1702 to 1713. The most important act in this long conflict between the French and English for the sovereignty of North America, and the end of the historic drama, began in 1754. The contest lasted with varying fortunes until the French were finally driven from their line of fortresses on the lake and the war was ended by General Wolfe's expe- dition, which resulted in the capture of Quebec and the final overthrow of French power in Canada in 1759. The province of New York entered zealously into the Revolutionary cause, though it contained a large loyalist faction. Many of the most important military operations were conducted within its limits. The two lead- ing battles fought were that of Long Island on August 27, 1776, whereby the British secured and held possession of New York City till the end of the war; and the battle of Saratoga, on October 17, 1777, which occasioned the surrender of General Burgoyne's army. On November 25, 1783, New York was evacuated by the British. In 1790, the conflicting claims of New York and New Hampshire were settled by the erection of the disputed territory into the State of Vermont. In 1797, Albany was made the capital of the State, and slavery was abolished in 1817. Dur- ing the War of 1812 the more notable incidents within State limits were the battle of Lundy's Lane, on the Niagara frontier, fought by General Winfield Scott, and Commodore McDonough's naval defeat of the British on Lake Champlain, both in 1813. The Erie Canal, originally pro- jected in 1800, was, through DeWitt Clinton's influence, completed in 1825. During the Civil War, the State furnished 455,568 Union troops. Nonconformists. In English history, those who declined to conform their worship to that by law established. They were of two kinds: First, those who, being religious, wor- 136 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS shiped nowhere; second, those who attended the services of some other religious denomina- tion than the EstabHshed Church. It was more frequently used of the latter class. The name was first applied to those who declined to con- form to the enactment of the Act of Uniformity of Edward VI., passed in 1549. It was revived and applied to the 2,000 clergymen, who had to surrender their livings on account of their in- ability to conform to the more celebrated Act of Uniformity of Charles II., first enforced on August 24, 1662. Etymologically viewed, a Dissenter and Nonconformist somewhat differ. The former word denotes that he feels differ- ently from Churchmen, that his sympathies go in a different direction; the latter word refers, not to his feelings, but to his action with respect to public worship. The laws formerly existing required him to conform to that of tne Estab- lished Church by attending the services and partaking of the communion. The two words, dissenter and non-conformist, as generally refer- ring to the same individual, became inter- changeable. Normandy. An ancient northwest pro- vince of France, extending along the English channel, from a point south of the mouth of the Somme to the bay of Cancale, now divided into the departments of Seine-Inf^rieure, Eure, Cal- vados, Orne, and La Manche. Rouen was the capital and the chief town of Upper Normandy, and Caen the chief tow^n of Lower Normandy. The Romans included the territory in Gallia Lugdunensis Secunda. It formed part of Neus- tria under the Merovingians, and received the name of Normandy from the Northmen, who occupied it in the beginning of the Tenth Century. In 912, Charles the Simple gave his sanction to their conquests, and Rollo, their chief, received the title of Duke of Normandy. The sixth suc- cessor of Rollo, William, became in 1066 the conqueror and first Norman king of England. On his death (1087) England and Normandy were separated, the latter reverting to Robert Courte- heuse, while William Rufus seized upon the former. Henry I. ruled over both, but his daughter Matilda was only Duchess of Normandy. Her son, Henry II., accomplished another re- union. From King John Normandy was wrested by Philip Augustus of France; but it was twice again held by the English, first under Edward III., and a second time, from 1417 to 1450, under Henry V. and Henry VI. Charles VII. of France made it an integral portion of his kingdom. North Carolina. In 1663 eight noble- men received from Charles 11. the patent of the province of Carolina, but a few years prior to this settlements had been made by Dissenters from Virginia and from New England. Albemarle, the name given to the portion now North Carolina, was rapidly augmented by settlers from Virginia, New England, and Bermuda. In 1729, Carolina became a royal government, all but one of the proprietors having sold out to the Crown, and North and South Carolina were formally declared distinct provinces. In 1765, North Carolina received large accessions in parties of Irish Presbyterians, Scotch High- landers, and Moravians. In 1769, the Provincial Assembly declared against the right of taxation without representation, and in' 1774 represen- tatives were sent to the first Continental Con- gress, which adopted the declaration of colonial rights. Scotch Loyalists, under McLeod and McDonald, were defeated by the Whigs or Pa- triots at King's Mountain in 1775, the first bat- tle of the Revolution. In 1776, North Carolina united with the other colonies in the Declaration of Independence, and a State constitution was formed the same year. Aside from partisan warfare, the only battle fought in the State was that of Guilford Court-House in 1781, between Generals Green and Cornwallis. The State seceded from the Union May 21, 1861, and the military operations which followed were notable. The most important were the capture of Fort Hatteras in 1861, of Roanoke Island and Fort Macon in 1862, and the combined land and naval assault ending in the capture of Fort Fisher in 1865. The State ratified the 14th Amend- ment in 1868, and the 15th Amendment in 1869. North Dakota. The Territory of North Dakota, of which North and South Dakotas were formed, originally constituted part of the Territory of Minnesota, which was organized in 1849 from part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1854 the Territory of Nebraska was formed, comprising then the present State of Nebraska and all of Dakota. On March 2, 1861, the Territory of Dakota was organized, com- prising then the States of Montana and Wyom- mg. The first permanent settlements by whites were made in 1859 in Clay, Union, and Yankton counties. On November 2, 1899. the Ter- ritory was divided and the States of North and South Dakota formed and admitted to the Union at the same time. The history of the settlement and growth of the country is identical with that of the territories of which it originally formed a part. North German Confederation, The, was formed after the famous "Seven Weeks' War " and the " Peace of Prague," when Austria was entirely excluded from Germany. The con- federation included Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- sau and Frankford (all incorporated with Prus- sia), and the states north of the Main united to Prussia in a bund. Strictly speaking, therefore, the confederation was Prussia and the states north of the Main. In 1870, during the Franco- German War, the "North German Confedera- tion," being joined by Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt, became the "Ger- man Confederation," and two months afterwards (January 18, 1871), the King of Prussia had the title of "German Emperor" given him. Northmen. A name applied to the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia, or Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, but more generally restricted to those searovers called Danes by the Saxons, who sailed on piratical expeditions to all parts of the European seas, made their first appear- ance on the coast of England in 787, and from the year 832 repeated their invasion almost every year, till they became masters of all the country under their King Canute, and reigned in England during the next fifty years, down to 1042, when the Saxon Dynasty was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. In 885, they laid siege to Paris, but were at length HISTORY 137 bought off by Charles the Fat. Rollo, one of the most renowned of the Norman chieftains, after ravaging Friesland and the countries watered by the Scheldt, accepted the hand of a daughter of Charles the Simple, and received with her, under the tie of vassalage, possession of all the land in the valley of the Seine, from the Epte and Eure to the sea, which then went by the name of Normandy. They rapidly adopted the more civilized form of life that pre- vailed in the Frankish Kingdom its religion, language, and manners but inspired every- thing they borrowed with their own vitality. Their conquest of England, in 1066, gave that country an energetic race of kings and nobles on the whole well-fitted to rule a brave, sturdy, but somewhat torpid people like the Anglo- Saxons. Norway. The early history of Norway is comprised in that of the other Scandinavian countries, and is, like theirs, for the most part fabulous. It is only towards the close of the Tenth Century, when Christianity was intro- duced under the rule of Olaf I., that the mythical obscurity in which the annals of the kingdom had been previously plunged begins to give place to the light of historical truth. The introduction of Christianity, which _was the result of the intercourse which the Norwe- gians had with the more civilized parts of Europe, through their maritime expeditions, destroyed much of the old nationality of the people with the heathenism which they had hitherto cherished, although the sanguinary feuds which had raged among the rival chiefs of the land can scarcely be said to have lost their ferocity under the sway of a milder religion. Olaf II., or the Saint (1015-1030), who zealously prosecuted the. con- version of his countrymen, raised himself to supreme power in the land by the subjection of the small kings or chieftains, who in the times of heathenism had subdivided the kingdom among them. The war between Olaf and King Knud the Great of Denmark, which terminated in 1030 with the battle of Sticklestad, in which the former was slain, brought Norway under the sway of the Danish conqueror; but at his death in 1036, Olaf's son, Magnus I., recovered possession of the throne, and henceforth, till 1319, Norway continued to be governed by native kings. The death in that year of Hakon v., without male heirs, threw the election of a new king into the hands of the National Assem- bly, who, after many discussions, made choice of Magnus VIII., of Sweden, the son of Hakon's daughter. He was in turn succeeded by his son Hakon, and his grandson Olaf IV., who having been elected King of Denmark in 1376 became ruler of the sister Scandinavian kingdoms on the death of his father in 1380. This young king, who exercised only a nominal sway under the guidance of his mother, Queen Margaret, the only child of Valdemar III. of Denmark, died without heirs in 1387. Margaret's love of power and capacity for government brought about her election to the triple throne of the Scandinavian lands, and from this period till 1814, Norway continued united with Denmark; but while it shared in the general fortunes of the latter state, it retained its own constitutional mode of gov- ernment, and exercised its right of electing to the throne, until, like the sister kingdom, it agreed of its own free will to relinquish this privilege in favor of hereditary succession to the throne. The Napoleonic crisis may be said to have severed this union, which had existed for more than 400 years, for Denmark, after having given unequivocal proofs of adhesion to the cause of Bonaparte, was compelled, after the disastrous War of 1813, to purchase peace at the cost of this long united partner of her state. Crippled in her resources, and almost a bankrupt, she saw herself constrained to sign the treaty of Kiel in 1814, by which it was stip- ulated by the allied powers that she should resign Norway to Sweden, receiving in return, by way of indemnity, some portion of Swedish Pomerania and the island of Riigen, which were subsequently exchanged with Prussia for Lauen- burg on the payment by that state of two million rix dollars. The Norwegians, having refused to admit the validity of the treaty of Kiel, nominated Prince Christian, the heir-pre- sumptive to the throne of Denmark, regent and subsequently King of Norway. This nomina- tion was made by the National Diet, or Storthing, which met at Ejdsvold, where they drew up a constitution based on the French Constitution of 1791. These measures found, however, neither supporters nor sympathizers among the other nations; and with the sanction of the great allied powers, Charles John Bernadotte, Crown-Prince of Sweden, led an army into Norway, and after taking Frederickstad and Frederickshald, threatened Christiania. Den- mark being unable to support the cause of Prince Christian, and Norway being utterly destitute of the means necessary for prosecuting a war, resistance was of no avail, and the Nor- wegians, in this untoward conjuncture of affairs, were glad to accept the proposals made to them by the Swedish King for a union with Sweden, on the understanding that they should retain the newly promulgated constitution, and enjoy full liberty and independence within their own boundaries. These conditions were agreed to, and strictly maintained; a few unimportant alterations in the constitution, necessitated by the altered conditions of the new union, being the only changes introduced in the machinery of government. Charles XIII. was declared joint King of Sweden and Norway in 1818. After the union, Norway firmly resisted every attempt on the part of the Swedish monarchs to infringe upon the constitutional prerogatives of the nation; and during the reign of the first of the Bernadotte Dynasty, the relations be- tween him and his Norwegian subjects were marked by jealousy and distrust on both sides; but after his death, the people generally became more contented and Norway continued to make rapid progress towards a state of political security and material prosperity far greater than it ever enjoyed under the Danish dominion. The dissolution of the union with Sweden which had endured since 1814, took place June 7, 1905, following a dispute between the two countries as to their diplomatic representation abroad. Prince Charles of Denmark became King, as Haakon VII. 138 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY Dates Historic Name Leading Battles Chief Leaders B. C. 1193-1184 743-669 604-469 595-586 448-447 357-346 431-404 334-331 343-290 264-146 200-146 112-106 90-88 88-63 73-71 58-51 50-31 A. D. 70 86-100 409-553 710-1492 1095-1291 1336-1453 1385-1389 1419-1436 1455-1485 1562-1598 1567-1609 1618-1648 Trojan War. Greeks capture Troy. Messenlan War. Sparta conquers Messenia. Perso-Greclan War. Greece suc- cessfully resists Persian invasion. Sacred Wars of Greece. Largely intestinal, and without results. Peloponnesian War. Athens con- quered by Lacedeemonia. Greco-PersIan War. Greece con- quers Persia. Satnnlte War. Romans conquer Samnites. Romans destroy Punic Wars. Carthage. Greco-Roman War. Greece sub- dued by Rome. Jugurthlne War. Romans con- quer Numidia. Roman Social War. Right of Ro- man citizenship granted the Socii. Mithridatlc War. Mithridates, King of Parthia, defeated. Gladiatorial War. Gladiators de- feated. Gallic War. Cuesar. Gauls conquered by Roman Civil War. Roman Em- pire established. Jewish-Roman War. Jerusalem taken ; temple destroyed. Dacian War. Country beyond Danube conquered. Barbarian Wars. Teutonic hordes capture Rome and ravage Italy. Saracen Conauests. The Saracens occupy Northern Africa and Spain ; defeated in France. The Cmsades. Christians capture Jerusalem and ports of Spain; but finally repulsed. Hundred Tears' War. England lost all her possessions in France. Austro-Swlss War. Independence of Switzerland. Hussite War. Religious toleration secured. War of the Roses. House of York supplants that of Lancaster on English throne. French Civil War. Edict of Nantes Protestant toleration. Spanish-Netherlands War. In- dependence of the Netherlands achieved. Thirty Tears War. Religious free- dom secured. Siege of Troy. Marathon ; Thermopylae ; Salamls; Platea; Mycale. Battles chiefly naval. Granicus; Issus; Arbela. Caudine Forks; Sentium. Ticinus; Trebia; Thrasy- menus; Carmal; Metau- rus; Zama. Cynocephalse ; Pydna. Muthul; Cirta. Chferonea; Cabira. Petelia. Pharsalia; Thapsus; Mun- da; Phillipi; Actium. Siege of Jerusalem. Sack of Rome. Xeres; Tours; Tarifa; Gre- nada. Siege of Jerusalem; Acre. Crecy; Calais; Poitiers; Agincourt. Sempach; Nafels. Prague. St. Albans* Bloreheath; Wakefield ;Towton; Bar- net; Tewksbury. Dreaux; St. Denis; Jarnac; Moncontour; Ivry. Zutphen; Nieuport; vari- ous sieges and naval con- flicts. Dessau; Leipsic; Sech; Liit- zen ; N ordlingen. Hector; Agamemnon. Miltiades; Leonidas; Themis- tocles; Pausanius. Pericles; Alcibiades; Lysander, Alexander the Great; Darius. Fabius Maximus ; Caius Pontius. Fabius; Scipio; Hannibal. Flaminius; jEmilius; Paulus; Mummius; Perseus. Jugurtha; Metellus; Marius. Samnites; Marsians. Lucullus; Pompey; Sulla. Spartacus; Crassus. Csesar. Casar; Pompey; Brutus; Cas- sius; Antony; Augustus. Titus. Trajan. Alaric; Genseric; Attila. Musa; Tarik; Charles Martel; Cid Rodrigo. Geoffrey of Bouillon; Conrad III.; Louis VII.; Fred- erick II. ; Philip Augustus; Richard the Lion-Hearted; Louis IX.; Edward I.; Sala- din. Edward III. of England; Ed- ward the Black Prince; Henry V. of England; Joan of Arc. Arnold Von Winckelried; Leo- pold II. John Ziska; Sigismund. Richard, Duke of York; Ed- ward, Duke of York; Earl of Warwick; Queen Margaret; Henry VI. Duke of Anjou; Henry III.; Henry IV.; Cond^. William of Orange; Maurice of Nassau; Duke of Alva; Alex- ander Farnese; Duke of Par- ma. Gustavus Adolphus; Wallen- stein; Tilly; Turenne. HISTORY NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY Continued 139 Dates A. D. 1642-1649 1701-1714 1700-1709 1740-1748 1756-1763 1775-1783 1792-1799 1800-1815 1812- -1815 1821- -1828 1846 -1847 1854- -1856 1859 1861- -1865 1866 1870 1877 1894-1895 1898 1904-1905 Historic Name English ClvH War. English Com- monwealth established. Spanish Succession. French and Spanish crowns disunited. Prot- estant succession in England. Swedish-Russian War. Defeat of Charles XII. Austrian Succession. Many pre- vious treaties affirmed; Maria Theresa Empress of Austria. Seven Tears' War. Prussia gains a high rank. American Revolutionary War. United States achieve their inde- pendence. French Revolution, Bourbons de- feated. Napoleonic Wars. France ad- vances to the first place in Europe. War of 1813. United States en- tirely independent of Great Brit- ain. War for Greek Independence. Greece independent of Turkey. Mexican War. Boundary between United States and Mexico estab- lished. Crimean War. Independence of Turkey guaranteed. Peace of Paris. Italian War. Papal States and two Sicilies annexed to Italy. American Civil War. of slavery. Abolition Seven Weeks' War. Prussia de- feats Austria and unifies Germany. Franco-Prussian War. Paris taken and Alsace and Loraine added to German Empire. Russo-Turkish War. Rumania, Servia, Montenegro, independent of Turkey. Treaty of San Stefano, Berlin. China-Japanese War. Indemnity to Japan; independence of Corea. Spanish-American War. End of Spanish rule in America; Cuba, Porto Rico, and Philippines pass to United States. Russo-Japanese War. Mutual concessions, confirmed by treaty of Portsmouth. Japan a world power. Leading Battles Edgehill; Marston Moor; Naseby; Dunbar; Wor- cester. Blenheim; Ramillies; Tu- rin; Oudenorde, Malpla- quet. Narva; Pultowa. Dettinger; Fontenoy; Pla- ceutia; Laffeldt. Prague; KoUin; Rosbach; Lissa; Torgau. Bunker Hill; Saratoga; Monmouth; Yorktown. Valmy; Jemappe; Wattig- nies; Lonato; Lodi; Ar- eola; Pyramids. Marengo; Trafalgar; Aus- terlitz; Jena; Eylau; Friedland; Wagram; Bo- rodino; Leipsic; Ligny; Waterloo. Battles chiefly naval; New Orleans; Burning of Washington. Missolonghi; Navarino. Buena Vista ; Cerro Gordo ; Capture of Mexico City. Alma; Balaklava; Inker- man ; Malakoif . Magenta; Solferino. First and Second Bull Run ; Shiloh; Seven Days; An- tietam ; Murfreesboro ; Chancellorville; Vicks- burg ; Gettysburg ; Chick- amauga ; Chattanooga ; Virginia Campaign; At- lanta Campaign. Langensalza; Koniggratz ^ or Sadowa. Worth; Gravelotte; Sedan; Metz; Capture of Paris. Plevna; Shipka Pass; Kars. Occupation of Corea by Japanese; Port Arthur; WeiHaiWei; Nieuchang. Manila Bay; Santiago; San Juan; El Caney. Destruction of Russian fleet; Liaoyang;Mukden; Siege of Port Arthur; Shako ; Telissu ; Wafang- kan; Yalu. Chief Leaders Prince Rupert; Fairfax; Charles I. ; Cromwell. Duke of Marlborough; Prince Eugene; Marshals Tallard and Villars. Charles XII. of Sweden; Peter the Great. Marshal Saxe; George II. of England; Duke of Cumber- land. Marshal Dann; Frederick the Great. Washington; Greene; Bur- goyne; Cornwallis; Clinton; Howe; Lafayette; Gates; Montgomery. Kellerman; Dumauriez; Jour- dan; Morcan; Hoche; Bona- parte. Napoleon ; Wellington ; Nelson ; Blucher; Alexander I.; Francis I.- Frederick Wil- liam III. ; Ney. Com. Perry; Admiral Cock- burn; Ross; Jackson. Admiral Canaris; Byron; Ibra- him Pasha. Taylor; Scott; Santa Ana. Lord Raglan; St. Armand; Prince Menchikoff ; Gen. Can- robert. Napoleon III.; Victor Emman- uel; Franz Joseph I. McClellan; Grant; Sherman; Sheridan; Jackson; Thomas; Lee; Johnston; Meade. Marshal Benedek; William I.; Benst. William I.; Von Moltke; Fred- erick of Prussia; Prince Fred- erick Charles; Napoleon III.; MacMahon; Bazaine; Trochu. Good Duke Nicholas; Gourko; Skobeloff; Todleben; Osman Pasha; Muktar Pasha. Oyama; Prince Arisugawa; Prince Komatsu. Admirals Dewey, Schley, Samp- son, Montejo Cervera; Gen- erals Shafter, Toral. Admiral Makaroff, Kuropatkin; Linievitch; Stoessel; Oyama; Kuroki; Admiral Togo; Ad- miral Kamimura; Admiral RojestveHsky; Nogi; Oku; Admiral Uriu. 140 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Ohio. The French made the first explora- tions in what is now Ohio, La Salle's discoveries dating from about 1680. The English, whose patents covered a portion of the region which the French traders aimed to monopolize, came in hostile contact with the latter. It was in this connection that Washington's name first became notable through the Braddock Expedi- tion. In 1763 Canada, and the whole region West to the Mississippi previously claimed by France, were surrendered to Great Britain. After the Revolutionary War, the United States assumed control over the region afterward known as the Northwest Territory, acknowledg- ing the claim made by Virginia to 3,709,848 arifs near the rapids of the Ohio, and a similar claim by Connecticut to 3,666,621 acres near Lake Erie, which became known as the " Western Reserve." These claims were admitted in the sense of ownership, but in no way as question of State jurisdiction. The first permanent settle- ment was made at Marietta, in 1788. The early years of the Northwest Territory were harrassed by Indian warfare, which did not cease till the crushing defeat inflicted on them by General Anthony Wayne in 1794. In 1799, the Northwest Territory was organized, and shortly afterward Ohio (the name being derived from the Indian signifying "beautiful river") was formed into a separate territorial government. In 1803, the Territory was admitted as a State, the fourth under the Federal Constitution The seat of government was in Chillicothe till 1810, in Zanesville till 1812, and in Chillicothe again till 1816, after which the State capital was fixed at Columbus. In 1818, the first steamboat, the " Walk on the Water," was launched on Lake Erie. In 1836, the first western railroad was opened, from Toledo, Ohio, to Adrian, Michigan, with horse power at first and, in 1837, with steam power. The State began to be noted for wheat growing about 1840, and in 1863 her coal and iron mines began to be developed. Manufactur- ing became an important industry about 1865, and for a decade grew rapidly. The Standard Oil Company was formed in 1870, and during the next two decades the State's oil fields were rapidly developed. During the Civil War Ohio furnished one-eighth of the federal troops. Oklahoma. The history of Oklahoma before it was constructed into a separate Terri- tory is identical with that of the region of which Texas and New Mexico formed a part. When Indian Territory was created as a home for all the Indian tribes most of what is now Oklahoma was within its bounds. Some time in the early seventies the name first appeared in political history, the occasion being a bill intro- duced into Congress to create a Territory out of part of Indian Territory, to be known as Oklahoma. The measure failed of passage and for more than a decade nothing was heard of the country. It was not forgotten, however, as in March, 1889, an amendment was tacked on to the Indian Appropriation Bill providing for the opening to homestead settlers of the little area of land embracing less than 3,000,000 acres and lying in the center of what is now the great State. The land was opened in April, 1889, and the first rush of Oklahoma "boomers" took place. In June, 1890, the territorial govern- ment first came into existence, and by the act which brought this about a strip of land known as "No Man's Land," consisting of 3,681,000 acres, was added as Beaver County. Other sec- tions were added from time to time until the Territory contained 24,933,120 acres. In 1906, Congress provided an enabling act whereby Oklahoma and Indian Territory might be created into a State and admitted into the Union. On November 16, 1907, the conditions of this act having been complied with, the President of the United States signed the Constitution of Okla- homa, and issued a proclamation announcing its admission. The first State legislature con- vened December 2, 1907. Oregon. The original region named Ore- gon was the whole province claimed by the United States on the Pacific Coast, extending from latitude 42 to 54" 40' north. Until 1846 joint possession was held by Great Britain and the United States, and then the latter, by the northwest boundary treaty, abandoned all claim to the country north of the 49th parallel, and the name Oregon was restricted to the region ?outh of that line, which was given up by Great Britain. The first accurate knowledge of the territory was brought back by Captain Rolaert Gray, an American navigator, who entered the mouth of the Columbia River in 1792, and gave the name ot his ship to it. The sale of Louisiana to the United States, in 1803, endowed this country with a title of ownership, and the expe- dition of Lewis and Clarke, in 1804-1806, strengthened the claim. Though a trading-post was established in 1811, by the Pacific Fur Company, under the Astor regime, at the mouth of the Columbia River, the region was largely inhabited by Indians and the employes of the Hudson Bay Fur Company until the active emigration of Americans, between 1833 and 1850, introduced a new element. The territorial organization took place in 1848. In 1853, Washington Territory was instituted out of the region north of the Columbia River on the west and of the 46th parallel on the east. In 1858, Oregon was admitted as a Stat^ the twentieth under the Constitution. A Lewis and Clarke Centennial Celebration was held at Portland in 1905. Pennsylvania. Delaware River and Bay were first explored under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company, from 1604 to 1624, and military jurisdiction was established. Till 1664 they continued in possession of both sides of the bay without much colonization, though a Swedish colony settled at Chester, on the west bank of the river, in 1638, where their industry and peacefulness prefigured the characteristics of the Quakers, who were to come later. Under a charter given by Charles II., in 1681, the region west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, the Quaker, who colonized it and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Under this grant was included Delaware, and the whole region was ruled under the same proprietary until 1699, when a separate legislature, though not a sepa- rate governor, was allowed to this section of the province. This union lasted till 1776. The letter of the Penn charter included territory HISTORY 141 already covered in the vague grants made to the New England colonies Virginia and Maryland. All the boundary-lines, however, were easily settled, except that separating Pennsylvania and Maryland, which was not defined until the completion of the Mason and Dixon Survey, in 1767. The original Swedish immigrants readily coalesced with the Quaker colonists, and the remarkable thrift of the people, com- bined with their peaceful Indian policy, soon made Pennsylvania a flourishing region. Large additional bodies of immigrants, Scotch-Irish between 1715 and 1725, and Germans from 1730 onward, rapidly swelled population and wealth. The government instituted by William Penn remained in force until 1776, when the province joined the other colonies in the fight for inde- pendence, and a provisional constitution was made by a convention presided over by Benjamin Franklin. Philadelphia was occupied by the British forces from September, 1777, to June, 1778. All the earlier sessions of the Contihental Congress were held in this city. The battle of Germantown was fought within the present chartered limits of the city in 1777. From 1790 to 1800 it was the seat of the Government of the United States. In 1790, a new State constitu- tion was formed. In 1794 occurred the disturb- ance known as the "Whiskey Rebellion" in the western part of the State, growing out of oppo- sition to the excise laws. In 1799, the seat of the State government was removed to Lancaster, and thence in 1812 to Harrisburg, which still remains the capital. In 1862, during the late Civil War, the State was threatened with inva- sion by the Confederates, but the tide of attack then stopped with invading Maryland. In 1863 General Lee carried out his interrupted purpose, and overran the south portion of the State to within a short distance of Harrisburg. On his retreat General Meade joined battle with him at Gettysburg, near the Maryland line. The battle, beginning July 1st, lasted three days, resulting in the Confederate defeat. This Fed- eral victory was probably the important turning- point of the war. As the seventh in the geo- graphical order of the original States, Pennsyl- vania has become historically the "Keystone" State. Disastrous riots occurred about Pitts- burg and elsewhere in 1877 and 1892. In 1908, the famous "State House Cases" were brought to trial, as the result of an alleged $5,000,000 steal by the contractors of the new State capitol, at Harrisburg, and their accomplices. Persia. The original country of the Per- sians occupied a small portion of modern Persia on the north of the Persian Gulf. After being under the Assyrians, and next under the Medes, Cyrus (B. C. 559-529), by conquering and unit- ing Media, Babylonia, Lydia, and all Asia Minor, became the founder of the Persian Empire. The empire was further extended by his son and successor, Cambyses (B. C. 529-522), who con- quered Tyre, Cyprus, and Egypt; and by Darius I., who subdued Thrace and Macedonia, and a small part of India. His son Xerxes (486-465 B. C.) reduced Egypt, which had revolted under his father, and also continued the war against the European Greeks, but was defeated at Thermopylae and at Salamis (480 B. C), and obliged to defend himself against their attacks in a disastrous war. Artax- erxes I. (465-425 B. C.) had a long and com- paratively peaceful reign. Artaxerxes was fol- lowed by Darius II. or Darius Nothus, Artax- erxes II. (Mnemon), Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), and Darius III. (Codomannus, 338-330 B. C), the last of this dynasty, known as the Achae- menian Dynasty. He was defeated by Alex- ander the Great in three battles, lost his life, and the empire passed into the hands of his conqueror. On the dissolution of the Mace- donian Empire, after the death of Alexander (323), Persia ultimately fell to his general, Seleucus and his successors, the Seleucidae (312). They reigned over it till 236 B. C, when the last Seleucus was defeated and taken prisoner by Arsaces I., the founder of the dynasty of the Arsacidse and of the Parthian Empire, of which Persia formed a portion, and which lasted till 226 A. D. the supremacy was then recovered by Persia in the person of Ardishir Babigan (Artaxerxes), who obtained the sovereignty of all Central Asia, and left it to his descendants, the Sassanidffi, so called from Sassan, the grand- father of Ardishir. This dynasty continued to reign for about 417 years, under twenty-six sovereigns. The reign of Sapor II., called the Great (310-381), and that of Chosroes I. (Khos- ru, 531-579), were perhaps the most notable of the whole dynasty. The latter extended the Persian Empire from the Mediterranean to the Indus, from the Jaxartes to Arabia and the con- fines of Egypt. He waged successful wars with the Indians, Turks, Romans, and Arabs. Chos- roes II. (591-628) made extensive conquests, but lost them again in the middle of the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. His son, Ardishir (Artaxerxes) III., but seven years old, succeeded him, but was murdered a few days after his accession. He was the last descendant of the Sanssaidaj in the male line. Numerous revolutions now followed,' until Yezdigerd III., a nephew of Chosroes II., ascended the throne in 632, at the age of sixteen. He was attacked and defeated by Caliph Omar in 639-636, and Persia became for more than 150 years a prov- ince of the Mohammedan Empire. The Arab conquest had a profound influence on Persian life as well as on the language and religion. The old Persian religion was given up in favor of Mohammedanism, only the Guebres, or Parsees, adhering to the faith of their fathers. About the beginning of the Ninth Century the Persian territories began to be broken up into numerous petty states. The Seljuks, a Turkish Dynasty, who first became powerful about 1037, extended its dominions over several Persian provinces, and Malek-Shah, the most powerful of them, conquered also Georgia, Syria, and Asia Minor. Through Genghis Khan the Tartars and Mongols became dominant in Persia about 1220, and they preserved this ascendency till the beginning of the Fifteenth Century. Then ap- peared (1387) Timurlenk (Tamerlane) at the head of a new horde of Mongols, who conquered Persia and filled the world from Hindustan to the extremities of Asia Minor with terror. But the death of this famous conqueror in 1405 was followed not long after by the downfall of the 142 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Mongol dominion in Persia, where the Turlio- mans thenceforward remained masters for 100 years. The Turkomans were succeeded by the Sufi Dynasty (1501-1736). The first sovereign of this dynasty, Ismail Sufi, pretended to be descended from Ali, the son-in-law of Moham- med. He assumed the title of shah, and intro- duced the sect of Ali (the Shiite or Shiah sect). The great Shah Abbas (1587-1628) introduced absolute power, and made Ispahan his capital. Under Snah Soliman (1666-94) the empire declined, and entirely sunk under his son Hus- sein. A period of revolts and anarchy followed until Kuli Khan ascended the throne m 1736 as Nadir Shah, and restored Persia to her former importance by successful wars and a strong government. In 1747 Nadir was murdered by the commanders of his guards, and his death threw the empire again into confusion. Kerim Khan, who had served under Nadir, succeeded, after a long period of anarchy, in making him- self master of the whole of Western Iran or modem Persia. He died in 1779. New dis- turbances arose after his death, and continued till a eunuch, Aga Mohammed, a Turkoman belonging to the noblest family of the tribe of the Kaiars, and a man of uncommon qualities, seated himself on the throne, which he left to his nephew, Baba Khan. The latter began to reign in 1796 under the name of Futteh Ali Shah, and fixed his residence at Teheran. This mon- arch's reign was in great part taken up with disastrous wars with Russia and Turkey. In 1813 he was compelled to cede to Russia all his possessions to the north of Armenia, and in 1828 his share of Armenia. Futteh Ali died in 1834, leaving the crown to his grandson, Me- hemet Shah. He died in 1848, and was suc- ceeded by his son, Nasr-ed-Din, born 1829. He had to suppress a number of insurrections, and in 1851 a serious rebellion of the pure Persian party in Khorassan, who refused obedience to the Kajar Dynasty on religious grounds. In May, 1852, he annexed the Sultanate of Herat, but was compelled to relinquish it by the Brit- ish, and a second occupation in 1855 resulted in the landing of a British force on the Per- sian Gulf, the capture of Bushire, and the Peace of Paris (March 3, 1857). Persia has since come into the possession of portions of territory formerly belonging to Oman, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan. On the north- east the boundary between Persia and the Russian territory beyond the Caspian, after re- maining long uncertain, was settled in the end of 1881, the lower course of the river Atrek, and farther east certain mountain ridges north of that river, forming the new boundary. Shah Nassr-ed-Din visited Europe thrice, and his successor, Muzaffer-ed-Din, in 1905. Upon the death of the latter he was succeeded in January, 1907, by Mahommed Ali, who, after an attempt to overcome the constitution granted by his father, abdicated in 1909 in favor of Ahmed Mirza. Philippine War. When the Philippines were taken by the United States an insurgent army was operating against Spain. After assist- ing the United States troops, Aguinaldo turned upon them, desiring absolute freedom of control. February 4, 1899, Aguinaldo's army of Filipinos made a night attack near Manila. Although the insurgents were driven back with great loss, the Americans lost forty-nine soldiers, and 148 were wounded. Admiral Dewey's ships could not begin their firing until daylight, their second Sunday morning engagement in Eastern waters. Then they did effective work in shelling the trenches of the insurgent army. About 13,000 men of the Eighth Army Corps, under Major- General E. S. Otis, participated in this initial fight of the new conflict in the Philippines. From this time on with general success the Americans gained ground, though slowly. April 26th the insurgents, using artillery for the first time, were defeated by Colonel Funston, who captured many prisoners. May 23d, Lawton, under orders of General McArthur, arrived with his command at Malolos, having marched 120 miles in twenty days ; had twenty-two fights, captured twenty-eight towns, destroyed 300,000 bushels of rice, killed 400 insurgents, wounded double that number, and lost only six men killed and wounded. July 30th, near Calamba, an American detachment suffered a loss of seven killed and twenty-three wounded. In August a treaty-like arrangement was made with the Sultan of the Sulu Islands; a part of the agreement provides for the United States continuing the pension of $4,000 per annum formerly paid by Spain; the United States flag to be paramount, and the Sultan to repress piracy, being among the stipulations. In this month, also, Agui- naldo, the insurgent chief, was successful in eluding all efforts to capture him, until April, 1901, when he was secured by means of a strata- gem by General Funston, of Kansas Volunteers; he was rewarded by being breveted Brigadier- General in the regular army. December 3, 1900, the gallant General Lawton was killed while assisting a wounded soldier. A series of desul- tory skirmishes have since occurred with the half:-civilized natives, which could not be inter- preted as actual warfare. Portugal. The name Portugal is a cor- rupted form of that of the hill fort, Partus Cale, which stood on the south bank of the Douro, and is now one of the suburbs of Oporto ("the harbor"). The Carthaginians under Hamilcar subdued the region, and were followed by the Romans. In the Fifth Century A. D., Lusi- tania, like the rest of the peninsula, was overrun by the Visigoths, and in the Eighth Century was conquered by the Arabs. The warlike Fernando, King of Leon and Castile, in the course of marauding expeditions conquered and occupied the important city and stronghold of Coimbra, in 1064. His son, Alonso IV., seized his brother's territory of Galicia, which included part of the north of Portugal. Meanwhile the long wars were attracting to the Christian courts and camps of Spain the flower of European chivalry. Two knights of the House of Burgundy, Counts Raymond and Henri, acquired the highest favor with Alonso. Count Raymond received, with the hand of the king's daughter, the government of Galicia and Portugal, but after a terrible defeat near Lisbon, in 1095, he was deemed too weak to hold the outlying viceroyalty, which was given to Count Henri, the husband of HISTORY 143 Alonso's natural daughter. Henri was made governor of the whole district between Minho and Tagus, and died in 1114. Alfonso I. de- feated a large Saracen army in the plain of Ourique, Alemtejo, in 1139, took the great stronghold of Santarem, and with the aid of a fleet of English, German, and Flemish crusaders carried Lisbon itself by siege in 1147. Before his death, in 1185, he had kindled the fire of patriotic loyalty in the nation, which his sword had extended to the Mediterranean Sea. The Burgundian Dynasty founded by him con- tinued to rule Portugal till 1580. The war with the Infidels was continued by Alfonso's immediate successors, and Alfonso III. was called the Restorer, on account of his recon- quest of Algarve. His son, Dinis, the founder of the university at Lisbon, and a liberal pa- tron of learning, laid the foundation of the commercial greatness ^f Portugal in the next century. Henrique the Navigator gathered together voyagers and men of science and sent forth the various expeditions which explored the west coast of Africa, and discovered the Azores, Madeiras, Canaries, Cape Verde, and other islands. The prince bore the expense of these expeditions till a national interest was awakened in the West African trade. Maritime discovery and colonization continued during the reign of Alfonso v., and culminated during that of Joilo II., one of the ablest of Portuguese mon- archs. In 1486-87 Bartholomeo-Diaz doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and sailed along the Kafir coast as far as the Great Fish River in two small vessels fitted out by JoSo. In 1495 Manoel succeeded Joio, and in his reign Vasco de Gama made his famous voyage to India, and Cabral discovered Brazil (1500). The great navigator Magalhaens was a Portuguese. The cradle of discovery and home of commerce, Portugal at this period attained its greatest intellectual eminence. Its plate and goldsmith's work had great artistic value, its Burgundian Gothic style in architecture was noted for no- bility of proportion and richness of tracery, and, above all, its glory had been sung in the Lusiads of Camoens. When Joao III. ascended the throne in 1521, Portugal was one of the first kingdoms in Europe, and Lisbon one of the wealthiest cities; but in 1536 the Inquisition was put in force against the Jews, and this was followed by the first admission of the Jesuits. Under their influence JoSo's grandson, Sebastian, a youth of fourteen years, started on a Quixotic expedition to Africa against the Infidels, which ended in the defeat of the Portuguese and the loss of their king at Alcazar, in 1578. Cardinal Henrique, Sebastian's uncle, reigned only till 158P, and his death marks the extinction of the old Burgun- dian line. The nation clung to the hope that Sebastian was still alive in the hands of the Infidels and would return, but, meantime, num- erous aspirants were struggling for the throne, and eventually Philip II. of Spain annexed Portugal to his own dominions. Portugal was now worse ruled than ever, and was burdened with much of the expense and misery of the Spanish wars in Germany and the Netherlands. Moreover, as a penalty of its identification with Spain, it lost to the Dutch great part of its foreign possessions. But at last, after a shame- ful union of sixty years, Portugal regained its liberty by a conspiracy which placed Joao de Braganga, a descendant of the royal family, on the throne in 1640. After a war which lasted till 1668, Spain ceded all claims to Portugal by the Treaty of Lisbon. The Dutch also restored Brazil to the Portuguese, and in 1683 a com- mercial alliance was entered into with England; but nothing could bring back to Portugal her old prosperity. In the reign of Jose I. the minister Pombal effected certain reforms and procured the expul- sion of the Jesuits in 1759. But Portugal lapsed into maladministration during the reign of Maria Isabella (1777-89). In the -war between France and Spain Joao VI. was ordered by Napoleon to seize the British merchandise in Portugal, and on his refusal was declared to have forfeited the throne. He solicited the protection of England, and, setting sail with his family, trans- ferred the seat of government to Rio de Janeiro in 1807. The French occupied Portugal, but were forced to withdraw on their defeat at Vimiera by the English and Portuguese allies, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, in 1808. Welling- ton's defense of the triple lines of Torres Vedras against Marshal Massena (1810) completed the deliverance of Portugal from Napoleon's tyranny. Joao continuing to reside in Brazil, a revolution took place at Lisbon in 1820, when, without bloodshed, a constitution was proclaimed in place of the old absolute monarchy. In 1821 Joao returned, but was not allowed to land till he had ratified the acts of the Cortes. Adopting a liberal policy, he accepted the constitution, and in 1825 acknowledged the independence of Brazil, under his brother, Dom Pedro, retaining himself merely the imperial title. Joao was succeeded in 1826 by Pedro IV., who organized the state and then abdicated in favor of his daughter, Dona Maria de Gloria. In 1828, Miguel the "absolutist," uncle of Dona Maria, usurped the throne, and plunged Portugal into three years of anarchy. In 1832, Dom Pedro landed with a strong force (partly English) and after a feeble resistance Miguel capitulated. Pedro died in 1834, and Dofia Maria, who had assumed royal authority, married Prince Ferdi- nand of Saxe-Coburg in 1836. The disorders of her reign were checked, but only for a time, by the armed intervention of the great powers in 1847. Maria died in 1853, and her son ascended the throne as Pedro V. On the death of the latter in 1861, his brother became king as Luis I. Under constitutional government, Portugal remained tranquil until recently. Some years ago, the country took an honorable part in the work of African exploration, and thereby se- cured valuable colonial possessions. In 1907, there were numerous riotous outbreaks in Por- tugal, which culminated in the assassination of King Carlos and the Crown Prince on Feb. 1, 1908. Manuel II. succeeded to the throne, but a revolution in 1910 turned the monarchy into a republic under the presidency of Theophile Braga. The young king sought refuge in England. 144 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED Name 1. George Washington 2. John Adams, . . 3. Thomas Jefferson, 4. James Madison, . 5. James Monroe, . . 6. John Quincy Adams 7. Andrew Jackson, . 8. Martin Van Buren, . 9. William H. Harrison, 10. John Tyler, . . . 11. James K. Polk, . 12. Zachary Taylor, . 13. Millard Fillmore, . 14. Franklin Pierce, . 15. James Buchanan, . 16. Abraham Lincoln, 17. Andrew Johnson, 18. Ulysses S. Grant, . 19. Rutherford B. Hayes 20. James A. Garfield, 21. Chester A. Arthur, 22. Grover Cleveland, 23. Benjamin Harrison, 24. Grover Cleveland, 25. William McKinley. 26. Theodore Roosevelt 27. William H. Taft, . When 1732 1735 1743 1751 1758 1767 1767 1782 1773 1790 1795 1784 1800 1804 1791 1809 1808 1822 1822 1831 1830 1837 1833 1837 1843 18.58 1857 BORN Where Bridge's Creek, Va., Braintree, Mass., . . Shadwell, Va Port Conway, Va., . Westmoreland Co., Va Quincy, Mass., ... Mecklenburg Co., N. C Kinderhook, N. Y., . Berkeley, Va Charles City Co., Va.. Mecklenburg Co., N. C Orange Co., Va., . . Summer Hill, N. Y., Hillsborough, N. H., Stony Batter, Pa., . Nolin Creek, Ky., Raleigh, N. C, . . Point Pleasant, Ohio Delaware. Ohio, . . Orange, Ohio, . . . Fairfield, Vt Caldwell, N.J North Bend, Ohio, . Caldwell, N. J Niles, Ohio New York City, N. Y., Cincinnati, Ohio, . . . PARENTS Father Augustine John, . Peter, . James, Spence, John, . Andrew, Abraham, Benjamin, John, . . Samuel, . Richard, . Nathaniel, Benjamin, James, Thomas, . Jacob, . . Jesse Root, Rutherford, Abram, . William, . Richard Falley, John Scott, Richard Falley William. Theodore Alphonso Mother Mary Ball, . . . Susanna Boylston Jane Randolph, . Nelly Conway, Eliza Jones, . . Abigail Smith, ElizabethHutchinson Maria Hoes, . . Elizabeth Bassett, Mary Armisted, . Jane Knox, . . . Sarah Strother, . Phebe Millard, . Anna Kindreck, . Elizabeth Speer, Nancy Hanks, Mary M'Donough, Harriet Simpson, Sophia Birchard, Eliza Ballou, . . Malvina Stone, . Anna Neal, . . . Elizabeth Irwin, Anna Neal, . . . Nancy C. Allison, Martha Bullock, . Louise M. Torrey, Paternal. ANCE8TRT English, English, Welsh, . English, Scotch, . English, Scotch-Irish, Dutch, . . English, . English, . Scotch-Irish, English, . English, . English, . Scotch-Irish, English, . English, . Scotch, . . Scotch, . . English, . Scotch-Irish, English, . English, . English, Scotch-Irish, Dutch. . . English, . PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED Name 1. George Washington, 2. John Adams 3. Thomas Jefferson, . 4. James Madison, . . 5. James Monroe, . . . 6. John Quincy Adams, 7. Andrew Jackson, . . 8. Martin Van Buren, . 9. William H. Harrison, 10. John Tyler, | 11. James K. Polk, . . 12. Zachary Taylor, . . 13. Millard Fillmore, . | 14. Franklin Pierce, . . 15. James Buchanan, . . 16. Abraham Lincoln. . 17. Andrew Johnson, . . 18. Ulysses S. Grant, . . 19. Rutherford B. Hayes, 20. James A. Garfield, . 21. Chester A. Arthur, . 22. Grover Cleveland, . 23. Benjamin Harrison, ] 24. Grover Cleveland, . 25. William McKinley, . 26. Theo. Roosevelt, . j 27. William H. Taft, . . Mar- ried 1759 1764 1772 1794 1786 1797 1791 1807 1795 1813 1844 1824 1810 1826 18.^8 1834 1842 1827 1848 1852 1858 1859 1886 1853 1896 i87i 1883 1886 1886 Wife's Name Mrs. Martha Custis, . . . . Abigail Smith, Mrs. Martha Skelton, . . . . Mrs. Dorothy Todd Eliza Kortwright Louisa C. Johnson Mrs. Rachel Robards Hannah Hoes (Goes), . . . .\nna Symmes, Letitia Christian Julia Gardiner Sarah Childress Margaret Smith, ...... Abigail Power, .' Mrs. Caroline Mcintosh,. . . Jean Means Appleton, . . . Unmarried Mary Todd Eliza McCardle Julia Dent , Lucy Ware Webb Lucretia Rudolph Ellen Lewis Herndon, . . . Frances Folsom , Caroline Lavinia Scott. . . Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick, (See above) , Ida Saxton Alice Lee Edith Carow, Helen Herron CHILDREN Inaug- urated Residence When Elected Age When Inaug- Boys Girls urated 3 2 1797 Mt. Vernon, Va., . . Quincy, Mass., . . . 57 62 6 2 1801 1809 1817 Monticello, Va., . . Montpelier, Va., . . Oakhill, Va 58 58 59 3 1 1825- 1 Quincy, Mass 58 3 1829 Hermitage, Tenn., . 62 4 1837 Kinderhook, N. Y.. . 55 6 4 1841 North Bend, 0., . . 68 3 4 u 1841 Williamsburg, Va., . 51 1 3 1845 18 Nashville, Tenn., . . Baton Rouge, La., . 50 65 1 1850 Buffalo, N. Y 50 3 1853 Concord, N. H., . . 49 1857 Wheatland, Pa., . . 66 4 1861 Springfield, 111., . . 52 3 3 7 4 2 1 1 1 1865 1869 1877 1881 Greenville, Tenn., . Washington, D. C, . Fremont, Ohio,. . . Mentor, Ohio, . . . 57 47 54 49 1 1 1881 New York City, 51 2 3 1885 Buffalo, N. Y 48 1 i S 2 1889 Indianapolis, Ind., . 55 d 1893 1897 New York City, . . Canton, Ohio, . . . 56 54 4 { } 1901 Oyster Bay, N. Y., . 43 2 1 1909 Cincinnati, Ohio, . . 51 HISTORY 145 STATES TABLE I Father's Business Planter, Farmer, Planter, Planter, Planter, Lawyer, Farmer, Farmer, Statesman Jurist, . Farmer, Planter, Farmer, Farmer, Merchant, Farmer, Sexton, Farmer, Merchant, Farmer, Clergyman, Clergyman, Farmer, Clergyrnan, Iron Manfr Merchant, Lawyer, . Educational Advantage Common School, Harvard College, 1755 College of William and Mary, 1762, Princeton College, 1771 Entered College, William and Mary, Harvard College, 1787 Self Taught, Academy, Entered Hampden-Sidney College, College, William and Mary, 1806, . University of North Carolina, . . Common School, Public School, Bowdoin College, 1824 Dickinson College, 1809 Self Taught Self Taught West Point Military Academy, 1843, Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842, . . . Williams College, 1856 Union College, 1848 Common School, Miami University, Ohio, 1851, . . Common School, Entered Allegheney College, . . . Harvard Yale, 1878 Early Vocation Surveyor,' Teacher, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Medicine, Lawyer, Lawyer, Soldier, Tailor, Lawyer, Lawyer, Farmer, Ti^r, Tanner, Lawyer, Teacher, Teacher, Teacher, Lawyer, Teacher, Lawyer, Publicist, Lawyer, Poli- tics Fed., Fed., Rep. Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem., Dem., Whig, Dem., Dem., Whig, Whig, Dem., Dem., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem., Rep., Dem., Rep., Rep., Rep., Profession Planter, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Politician, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Army, . Lawyer, Lawyer, Army, . Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Politician _Army, . Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Publicist, Lawyer, Religious Connections Episcopalian, Unitarian, Liberal, . . . Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Unitarian, Presbyterian, Reformed Dutch Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Liberal, . . , Liberal, . . , Methodist, . . Methodist, . , Disciples, . , Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Presbyterian, Presbyterian, Methodist, . , Reformed Dutch Unitarian, . . Name Washington. Adams. Jefferson. Madison. Monroe. Adams, J.Q. Jackson. Van Buren. Harrison. Tyler. Polk. Taylor. Fillmore. Pierce. Buchanan. Lincoln. Johnson. Grant. Hayes. Garfield. Arthur. Cleveland. Harrison. Cleveland. McKinley. Roosevelt. Taft. STATES TABLE II Served as President 7 yr., 10 mo., 4 d. 4 yr., 8 yr., ..... 8 yr 8 yr 4 yr., 8 yr 4 yr., 1 mo 3 yr., 11 mo.. 4 yr 1 yr., 4 mo., 5 d., . 2 yr., 7 mo., 6 d., . 4 yr., ...... 4 yr., 4 yr., 1 mo., lid., . 3 yr., 10 mo., 19 d. 8 yr 4 yr 6J mo 3 yr., 5i mo.. 8yr., 4 yr., 4 yr., 6 mo., 10 d. 7 yr., 5 mo., 20 d. Died 1799 1826 1826 1836 1831 1848 1845 1862 1841 1862 1849 1850 1874 1869 1868 1865 1875 1885 1893 1881 1886 1908 1901 1901 .\ge at Death 67 90 83 85 73 80 78 79 68 72 53 65 74 64 56 63 71 49 56 71 67 58 Cause op Death Acute laryngitis. Natural decline. Chronic diarrhoea. Natural decline. Natural decline. Paralysis, . . Dropsy, . . Asthma, . . Pleurisy fever. Bilious attacks, with bron- chitis, Chronic diarrhoea Cholera morbus and ty- phoid fever, Paralysis Dropsy and inflammation of stomach, Rheumatic gout, .... Assassinated by Booth, . Paralysis, Cancer of the tongue, . . Neuralgia of the heart. Assassinated by Guiteau, Bright's disease, culminat- ing in paralysis and apo- plexy Heart failure Pneumonia, Assassinated by Czolgosz, Place of Death Mt. Vernon, Va., Quincy, Mass., Monticello, Va., Montpelier, Va., New York City, Hall of Congress, Wash- ington, D. C, ... Hermitage, near Nash- ville, Tenn., .... Kinderhook, N. Y., . . White House, Washing- ton, D. C Ballard House, Rich- mond, Va., Nashville, Tenn White House, Washing- ton, D. C, Bufifalo, N. Y Concord, N. H Lancaster, Pa Washington, D. C, . . Greenville, Tenn., . . . Mt. McGregor, N. Y., . Fremont, Ohio, .... Elberon, Long Branch, N. J., ...... . New York, N. Y., . . . Princeton, N. J., . Indianapolis, Ind., Bufifalo, N. Y., Place of Burial Mt. Vernon, Va. Unitarian Church, Quincy, Mass. Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va. Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va. Originally, 2d Avenue Ceme- tery, N. Y. Transferred, 1858, to Hollywood Ceme- tery, Richmond, Va. Unitarian Church, Quincy, Mass. Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. Village Cemetery, Kinder- hook, N. Y. North Bend, Ohio. Hollywood, Richmond, Va. Nashville, Tenn. Near Louisville, (Springfield). Kentucky Forest Lawn. Buffalo, N. Y. Minot Cemetery, Concord, N. H. Woodward Hill Cemetery, Lancaster, Pa. Oak Ridge Cemetery, Spring- field, ill. Greenville, Tenn. Riverside, New York City. Fremont, Ohio. Lake View Cemetery, Cleve- land, Ohio. Rural Cemetery, Albany, N.Y. Princeton, N. J. Crown Hill Cemetery, Indian- apolis, Ind. Cemetery, Canton, Ohio. 146 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Rhode Island. Supposed to be identical with the ancient Vinland of the Icelandic Sagas, historians credit the first discovery of Rhode Island to the Norsemen about 1000 A. D, The navigator Verrazzano visited Narragansett Bay and its shores in 1524. The State was settled at Providence in 1636, by Roger Williams and his companions, who had been banished from Massachusetts by religious intolerance. In 1638, the Island of Aquidneck, afterward called Rhode Island, was settled at Newport and Portsmouth. A third settlement was formed at Warwick in 1643. The same year Roger Williams went to England and obtained a patent for the united government of the settlements. In 1663, this patent gave way to a charter by Charles II., mcorporating the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which remained in force for 180 years. The colony suffered severely in King Philip's War, 1675-76, which resulted in the destruction of the Wampanoag and Narra- gansett tribes of Indians. In 1687, Sir Edmond Andros, who had been made Governor of New York, New England, etc., abrogated the charter, but it became again the ruling constitution after his recall. In the wars between France and England, Rhode Island furnished valuable aid by land and sea for the expeditions against Louisburg, Crown Point, Oswego, and Canada. In 1756, she had fifty privateers at sea. During the War of the Revolution the State supplied many ships and sailors for naval operations. Rhode Island was invaded by the British, and vain attempts were made for several years to drive them thence by Count d'Esting's fleet and General Sullivan's army. The State was the last to accept the Federal Constitution, May 29, 1790. Dorr's insurrection occurred in 1842, an imbroglio growing out of the bigoted suffrage laws, an inheritance from colonial times. It was only in 1861 that the boundary line be- tween Rhode Island and Massachusetts was finally settled. In 1901, Massachusetts re- voked the edict of banishment against Roger Williams, which had stood for nearly three cen- turies. RULERS OF THE WORLD ROMAN EMPERORS Name Augustus Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius Nero Galba Otho, ....... Vitellius, Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Titus Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius An- toninus, Commodus Pertinax, Didius Julianus, . . Septinius Severus, . . Caracal la Macrinus Heliogabalus (Elagabalus), . . . Alexander Severus, . Maximin, Pupienus and Balbinus, . . . Gordian PhUlip Decius Callus Aemilianus Valerian, Gallienus, Flavius Claudius, . . Aurelian Tacitus Florian, Probus Carus, Lineage THE C^SARS A title conferred by the Senate, Stepson of Augustus, Youngest son of Germanicus, nephew of Tibe- rius Grandson of Tiberius Son of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Was proclaimed Emperor, . . Was proclaimed Emperor Was proclaimed Emperor, Was proclaimed Emperor, Son of Vespasian, Second son of Vespasian, THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS Was proclaimed Emperor, Adopted son of Nerva, Nephew of Trajan Adopted son of Hadrian, Nephew of Antoninus Pius THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM Son of Marcus Aurelius Was proclaimed Emperor, Was proclaimed Emperor Was proclaimed Emperor, Son of Septinius Severus Was proclaimed Emperor First cousin of Caracalla, Cousin of Heliogabalus, by whom he was adopted. Was elevated by soldiers, Appointed by the Senate Grandson of Gordianus I Murdered Gordian and usurped the throne, . Proclaimed Emperor by the army, . . . . . Was elected Emperor by Senate and soldiers. Son of Valerian Was designated by Claudius, Proclaimed Emperor, . . . . Choice of the army, Elevated to throne by soldiers. Period of Rule Birth Death B.C. A.D. B. C. A. D. 30 14 63 14 A. D. 14 37 42 37 37 41 12 41 41 54 10 A. D. 54 54 68 37 B. C. 68 68 69 3 A. D. 69 69 32 69 69 69 15 69 70 79 9 79 79 81 41 81 81 96 51 96 96 98 32 98 98 117 53 117 117 138 76 138 138 161 86 161 161 180 121 180 180 193 161 192, Dec. 31 193 126 193 193 193 193 212? 146 211 212 217 188 217 217 218 164 218 218 222 2057 222 222 235 205 235 235 238 238 238 238 (238 1238 238 244 224 244 244 249 . , 249 249 251 , . 251 251 254 . . 254 254 208? 254? 254 260 269 260 268 268 268 270 214 270 270 275 212 275 275 276 200 276 276 277 ? 277 282 282 282 283 222 283 HISTORY 147 ROMAN EMPERORS Continued ' Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth 1 Death Carinus and ( A. D. 283 284 305 306 336 361 363 364 375 383? 383? 388 394 395 423 455 455 457 461 467 472 473 473 475 A. D. 284 305 306 336 361 363 364 375 383 388 394 395 423 455 457 461 467 472 473 475 476 A. E < . 1" i25( 27: 31' 33 33: 32 35f ? 37 34( 38-^ 4K 39. >. A.D. 285 Son of Carus, ) Diocletian and j Maximian, . . . ( Constantius and ) Galerius, . . . ) Constantine the Great, Constantius II Julian the Apostate, . Was proclaimed Emperor by the army, . . j Was made Csesar by Diocletian ) Was created Csesar, 5 313 310 ) 306 Eldest son of Augustus Constantius Chlarus, . Third son of Constantine the Great J 337 7 361 363 Jovian Valentinian I Gratian, Elevated to the throne by the army ROMAN EMPERORS OF THE WEST Proclaimed Emperor by the army, Son of Valentinian I., I 364 375 ) 383 Maximinius Made Emperor by the legions in Britain, 398 392 Eugenius, Theodosius the Great, Assumed the purple, Son of Flavins Theodosia, ) 395 1 423 Valentinian III., . . Son of Constantius, ) 455 )? 455 Avitus, 457 ? Severus, Anthenius Olybrius Glycerus, Raised to imperial dignity by Ricimer Son-in-law of Emperor Marcian, Made Emperor by Ricimer, Proclaimed Emperor, 465-7? ? ? ? Nepos, Romulus Augustulus. Proclaimed Emperor by order of Leo Son of Orestes, 480 476 Augustus is deposed and banished by Odoacer, who thus puts an end to the Western Empire of Rome. 1 KINGS, EMPERORS, AND PRESIDENTS OF FRANCE Name Pharamond, . Clodian, . . . Meroveus', . . Childeric, . . Clovis I., . . Childebert I.,. Thierry I., . . Clodomir and Clothaire I., . Charibert, . . . Grothan, . . . Chilperic I., . . Sigebert, . . . . Childebert II., . Clothaire II., . Dagobert I., . . Clovis II. and Dagobert II.,. Clothaire III., . Thierry II., . . Clovis III Childebert III., Dagobert III., . Chilperic II., . . Thierry IV., . . Childeric III., . Pepin the Little (or Short) Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, Louis le Debonnaire, . Charles the Bald, . . , Louis II., Louis III., and Carloman, . . . . Charles the Fat, . . , Count Eudes, . . . , Charles the Simple, . , Raoul (Rudolf of Bur- gundy), ..,..., Louis IV., , Lothaire, ..'..., Louis V Lineage THE MEROVINGIANS Son of Pharamond (obscure), .... Founder of the Merovingian Dynasty, Son of Meroveus, King of the Franks, Son of Childeric, . Son of Clovis Son of Clovis, Son of Clovis Fourth son of Clovis, Kingdom Divided into Four Parts: Reigns at Paris King of Orleans and Burgundy King of Neustria at Soissons, King of Austrasia at Metz, Son of Sigebert I. of Austrasia Son of Chilperic I Son of Clothaire II., " The Young " son of Dagobert I Son of Clovis II., King of Neustria, King of Neustria, King of Neustria, Son of Dagobert III., Son of Childeric II. (obscure), . . . THE CARLOVINGIANS Son of Charles Martel Son of Pepin the Short Son of Charles the Great carlovingian kings Younger son of Louis le Debonnaire, Son of Charles the Bald, Sons of Louis II., Reigns two years Son of Louis the German Son of Louis the Stammerer, Son of Charles the Simple, Son of Louis IV., .... Son of Lothaire, .... Period of Rule A. D. A.D. 420 428 428 448 448 457 458 481 481 511 511 558 558 'sei 562 584 584 628 628 638 638 665 665 673 673 691 691 695 695 711 711 715 715 720 720 747 747 751 751 768 768 814 814 840 843 877 877 879 879 884 884 888 888 898 898 922 922 936 936 954 954 986 986 987 Birth A. D. 465 495 497 1570 1584 602 633 I 652 652? 652? 681 699 ? 7i2 ? 714 742 778 823 846 863 ? 839? ? 879 ? 921 941 966 148 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS KINGS, EMPERORS, AND PRESIDENTS OF FRANCE Continued Name Hugh Capet Robert II Henry I Phillip I Louis the Fat Louis VII Phillip Augustus, . . . Louis VIII Louis IX., or St. Louis, Phillip the Bold. . . . Phillip the Fair, . . . Ix)His X., Phillip the Hardy. . . Charles the Fair, . . . Phillip of Valois, . . , John the Good, . . , Charles the Wise, . . , Charles VI., Charles the Victorious, Louis XL, , Charles VIII , Louis XII , Francis I , Henry II., . . . . , Francis II., ..*.., Charles IX , Henry III Henry IV.,. Louis XIIL, Louis XIV.. Louis XV.,. Louis XVI., National Convention. Directory nominated. Bonaparte, . Cambaceres, Lebrun, . . Bonaparte, . Bonaparte, . Napoleon I.. Napoleon II., Louis XVIII. Charles X.. Louis Phillipe, Provisional Government formed. Louis Napoleon. . . . Napoleon III. Committee of Public De- fense L. A. Thiers Marshal McMahon. . . Jules Grevy Marie F. S. Carnot, . . Jean Cassimir Perier. . Felix Francois Faure. . M. Emile Loubet, . . . Armand Clement Fal- lieres, Lineage HOUSE OF CAPET Son of Hugh the Great, Son of JIugh Capet, Son of Robert II Son of Henry I Son of Philhp I Son of IvOuis VI Son of Louis VII Son of Phillip Augustus Son of Louis VIII.. Son of Ixjuis IX Son of Phillip III Son of Phillip IV Second son of Phillip IV Youngest son of Phillip the Fair. HOUSE OF VALOIS Son of Charles of Valois Son of PhiUip VI Son of John II., ; . Son of Charles V Son of Charles VI Son of Charles VII Son of Louis XI A descendant of the younger son of Charles V.. Son of Charles. Count of Angouleme. .... Son of Francis I Eldest son of Henry II Second son of Henry II ~. . . . Third son of Henry II HOUSE OF BOURBON Son of Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre. Son of Henry IV Son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, . . . Great-grandson of Louis XIV Grandson of Louis XV FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1792 TO THE FIRST REPUBLIC First sat September 21, 1792 November 1, 1795, THE CONSULATE December 24, 1799 Consul for ten years. May 6, 1802, Consul for life. August 2, 1802. . THE EMPIRE Decreed Emperor. May 18, 1804, Never reigned, THE RESTORATION Brother of Louis XVI., re-entered Paris May 3, 1814 ^ . . . . Younger brother of Louis XVIII. , deposed July 30, 1830 HOUSE OF ORLEANS Son of Phillipe Egalite, abdicated February 24, 1848 THE SECOND REPUBLIC Elected President THE SECOND EMPIRE Nephew of Napoleon I., elected Emperor, posed 1870 De- THE THIRD REPUBLIC Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected President, President, President, President, President, President, President, Elected President, Period of Rule A. D. A. D. 987 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1321 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1615 1547 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1792 1795 1799 1804 1814 1824 1830 Feb. 22, 1848 1848 1852 1870 1871 1873 1879 1887 1894 1895 1899 1906 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1321 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1547 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1793 1795 1799 1804 1814 1824 1830 1848 Dec. 19, 1848 1852 1870 1871 1873 1879 1887 1894 1895 1899 1906 Birth Death A. D. 7 971 1011? 1052 1078 1120 1165 1187 1215 1245 1268 1239 1294 1294 1293 1319? 1337 1368 1403 1423 1470 1462 1494 1519 1543 1550 1551 1553 1601 1638 1710 1754 1769 1753 1739 1811 1755 1757 1773 1808 1808 1797 1808 1807 1837 1847 1841 1838 1841 A. D. 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 131^ 1322 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1547 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1793 1821 1824 1824 1832 1824 1836 1850 1873 1873 1877 1893 1891 1894 ? 1899 HISTORY 149 SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA Name Ivan the Great, . . Vasily IV Ivan the Terrible, . Feodor I Boris Godonof, . . Demetrius, . . . Zuiski (Vasily IV.), An Interregnum, . Michael Romanoff, Alexis, Feodor II. Ivan v., and Peter Peter the Great, . Catharine I Peter II Anna, Ivan VI., . . . . Elizabeth, . . . . Peter III., . . . . Catharine II., . . Paul Alexander I., . . Nicholas Alexander II.. . . Alexander III., . . Nicholas II Lineage HOUSE OF RURIC Grand Duke of Moscow, . Son of Ivan the Great, Son of Vasily IV Son of Ivan the Terrible, . Was elected to the throne. Usurped the throne, . . HOUSE OF ROMANOFF Unanimou.sly elected Czar, Son of Michael Feodorovitch, Eldest son of Emperor Alexis, Half-brother of Peter the Great, in whose favor I he resigned \ Son of Alexis, Was married to Peter the Great in 1707, . . . Grandson of Peter the Great, Daughter of Ivan V Son of Antoin Ulrich Leopoldovina and Anna, Daughter of Peter the Great, Son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein, Wife of Peter III., Son of Peter III., Son of Paul, Third son of Paul I Son of Nicholas I Son of Alexander II Son of Alexander III Period of Rule A. D. 1462 1505 1533 1584 1598 1604 1606 1610 1613 1645 1676 1682 1689 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 1762 1796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 A. D. 1505 1533 1584 1598 1604 1606 1610 1613 1645 1676 1682 1689 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 1796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 Birth A. D. 1438 ? 1629 1557 1552 1598 1629 1656 1666 i672 1679? 1715 1693 1740 1709 1728 1729 1754 1777 1796 1818 1845 1868 Death A. D. 1505 7 1584 1598 1605 1606 1645 1676 1682 1696 i725 1727 1730 1740 1764 1762 1762 1796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 EMPERORS OF GERMANY Name Louis, "The German' and Lothaire, . . . , Louis II Charles the Fat, Arnolph Louis the Child, Conrad I., . . . Henry the Fowler, Otho the Great, . Otho II Otho III., . . . Henry the Saint, Conrad II., . Henry III., . Henry IV., . Henry V., . Lothaire II. Conrad III Frederick Barbarossa, Henry VI Otho IV. and Phillip Swabia, . . Frederick II An Interregnum, . . Rudolph of Habsburg, Adolph, Albert, . Henry VII. Lineage CARLOVINGIAN EMPERORS Son of the Emperor Louis I. He is regarded as the founder of the German Empire Son of the Emperor Lothaire I., Son of Louis, the German Illegitimate son of Karlmann, Son of the Emperor Arnolph HOUSE OF FRANCONIA Duke of Franconia HOUSE OF SAXONY Son of the King of Saxony, Son of Henry I., Son of Otho I Son of Otho II Son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, HOUSE OF FRANCONIA Was crowned Emperor Son of Conrad II Son of Henry III Son of Henry IV HOUSE OF SAXONY Was elected King and crowned by the Pope, THE HOHENSTAUFFENS Elected in an irregular manner, Nephew of Conrad III., Son of Frederick Barbarossa, Second son of Henry the Lion Youngest son of Frederick Barbarossa, . . . Son of Henry VI HOUSE OF HABSBURG Son of Albert IV HOUSE OF NASSAU Elected, HOUSE OF AUSTRIA Eldest son of Rudolph I., HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of the Count of Luxemburg, . . Period of Rule A. D. A. D. 843 855 855 875 887 898 875 887 898 911 911 919 919 936 973 983 1002 936 973 983 1002 1024 1024 1039 1056 1106 1039 1056 1106 1125 1125 1138 1138 1152 1190 1152 1190 1197 1197 1208 1218 1250 1250 1273 1273 1291 1291 1298 1298 1308 1308 1313 Birth A. D. 804 795 822 839 850 893 876 912 955 980 972 1017 1050 1081 1093 ? 1165 1174 1177 1194 1218 1252 1250 1262 Death A. D. 876 855 875 911 Dec, 918 936 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 Dec, 1137 1152 1189 1197 1218 1208 1250 1291 1298 1308 1313 160 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS EMPERORS OF GERMANY Continued Name Louis V. or IV. Charles IV., . Wenceslaus, . Rupert, . . . Sigismund, . . Albert Frederick III., Maximilian, . Charles V., . . Ferdinand I., . Maximilian II., Rudolph II., . Mathias, . . . Ferdinand II., Ferdinand III., Leopold I., . . Joseph I., . . Charles VI., . Charles VII., . Francis I., . . Joseph II., . . Leopold II., . Francis II., William the Victorious, William II.,* .... Lineage HOUSE OF BAVARIA Son of the Duke of Bavaria HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of John of Luxemburg Son of the Emperor Charles IV., HOUSE OF PALATINATE Was chosen King, HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of Charles IV HOUSE OF HABSBURG Third son of Frederick I., Was elected Emperor Son of Frederick III., Son of PhilHp of Burgundy Younger brother of Charles V Son of Ferdinand I Son of the Emperor Maximilian II Younger son of Maximilian II., Son of Charles, Duke of Styria Son of Ferdinand II Second son of Ferdinand III., Son of Leopold I Son of Leopold I., ., HOUSE OF BAVARIA Son of Maximilian Emmanuel HOUSE OF LORRAINE Son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine Son of Francis I., Third son of Francis I Son of Leopold II., THE CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE THE GERMANIC CONFEDERATION THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN Second son of Frederick William III Son of Frederick III. and Grandson of William I.. Period 3f Rule A.D. A. D. 1313 1347 1347 1378 1378 1400 1400 1410 1410 1438 1438 1440 1440 1493 1493 1519 1519 1556 1556 1564 1564 1576 1576 1612 1612 1619 1619 1637 1637 1657 1657 1705 1705 1711 1711 1741 1741 1745 1745 1765 1765 1790 1790 1792 1792 1806 1806 1815 1815 1866 1866 1871 1871 1888 1888 Birth A. D. 1286 1316 1361 1352 1361 1414 1415 1459 1500 1503 1527 1552 1557 1578 1608 1640 1678 1685 1697 1708 1741 1747 1768 1797 1859 Death A. D. 1347 1378 1419 1410 1438 1486 1493 1519 1558 1564 1576 1612 1619 1637 1657 1705 1711 1740 1745 1765 1790 1792 1835 1888 KINtiS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND Name Lineage Period of Reign Birth Death Egbert Ethelwulf ANGLO-SAXON KINGS A.D. 827 838 857 860 866 871 901 925 940 946 955 959 975 978 1016 1017 1035 1040 1041 1066 1066 1087 1100 1135 1154 A.D. 837 857 860 866 871 901 924 940 946 955 959 975 978 1016 1017 1035 1040 1042 1066 1087 1100 1135 1154 1189 A.D. 775? 849 870? 8957 923 939? 943? 961? 989 995 i6i9 1004 1022 1027 1056 1068 1105 1133 A.D. 837 858 < Ethelbald, . . . I Ethelbert, . . . Ethelred I Alfred the Great . . . Son of Ethelwulf, 860? Second son of Ethelwulf, Third son of Ethelwulf, , 866? 871 901 Edward the Elder, . . Son of Alfred 924 Athelstan Edmund I., Edred Eldest son of Edward Brother of Athelstan, 941 946 or 8 955? Edwy Edgar Son of Edmund I Second son of Edmund I., 959 975 978 Ethelred II., ..... Half-brother of Edward 1016 1017 DANISH KINGS 1035 Harold I. (Harefoot), . 1040 1042 SAXON KINGS Son of Ethelred II 1066 Harold II. 1066 William I William II NORMAN KINGS Obtained the Crown by conquest Third son of William I Youngest .son of William I 1087 1100 1135 Stephen Henry II Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois THE PLANTAGENETS Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, 1154 1189 Frederick III., son of William I., was emperor Irom March 9 to June 15, 1888. HISTORY 151 KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND Continued Name Lineage Period of Reign A. D. A. D. 1189 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1399 1399 1413 1422 1413 1422 1461 1461 1483 1483 1483 i485 1485 1509 1547 1553 1558 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 1603 1625 1625 1649 U649 1660 1660 1685 1685 1688 i689 1702 1702 1714 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 1901 1901 1910 1910 Birth Death Richard I. the Lion hearted John Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III., . . ; . Richard II Henry IV., Henry V., ..... Henry VI.. Edward IV Edward V., . . . . Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Mary I EUzabeth James I., Charles I., Commonwealth, . . . Charles II James II., William III. ( and < Mary II., ( Anne George I., George II 'George III., George IV., WilUam IV Victoria EdVard VII George V Eldest surviving son of Henry IL, Youngest son of Henry II Eldest son of John, Eldest son of Henry III., Eldest surviving son of Edward I Eldest son of Edward II. , Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III HOUSE OF LANCASTER Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., Eldest son of Henry IV., Only son of Henry V., HOUSE OF YORK His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, fifth son of Edward III.; and his grandmother, Anne, was great-granddaughter of Lionel, third son of Edward III., Eldest son of Edward IV., Younger brother of Edward IV HOUSE OF TUDOR Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by Katharine, widow of Henry V.; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, Only surviving son of Henry VII., Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour Daughter of Henry VI II . by Katharine of Aragon , Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, . . HOUSE OF STUART Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV., and Margaret Only surviving son of James I Commonwealth declared May 19 Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector HOUSE OF STUART RESTORED Eldest son of Charles I Second son of Charles I., Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of Charles I Eldest daughter of James II., Second daughter of James II HOUSE OF HANOVER Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., .... Only son of George I Grandson of George II., Eldest son of George III., Third son of George III., Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George 111., HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG Son of Victoria Son of Edward VII., A. D. 1157 1166 1207 1239 1284 1312 1366 1366? 1388 1421 1441 1470 1452 1457 1491 1537 1516 1533 1566 1600 1599 1626 1630 1633 1650 1662 1665 1660 1683 1738 1762 1765 1819 1841 1865 A. D. 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1400 1413 1422 1471 1483 1483 1485 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 1625 1649 1658- 1712 1685 1701 1702 1694 1714 1727 1760 1820 18.30 1837 1901 1910 GOVERNORS-GENEBAIi OF CANADA G OVEKNOR-G EN ERAL Lineage Term of Office 1867 1869 1869 1872 1872 1878 1878 1883 1883 1888 1888 1893 1893 1898 1898 1904 1904 Birth Death The Right Hon. Vis- count Monclc, G. C. M. G The Right Hon. Lord Lisgar, G. C. M. G., . The Right Hon. the Earl of Dufferin, K. P., K. C. B., G. C. M. G., . The Right Hon. the Mar- quis of Lome, K. T., G. C. M. G., P. C, etc.. The Most Hon. the Mar- quis of Lansdowne, G. C. M. G The Right Hon. Lord Stanley of Preston, G. TheRight Hoia. the Earl of Aberdeen, K. T., G. C. M. G The Right Hon. the Earl of Minto, G. C. M. G., The Right Hon. the Earl Grey, G. C. M. G., . Charles Monck, British statesman, made a peer of the United Kingdom in 1866 Baron Lisgar, a British poUtician (Sir John Young) Was created Marquis of Dufferin in 1888 (Fred- erick Temple, Hamilton Blackwood), . . . Eldest son of the eighth Duke of Argyll (John George Henry Douglas Sutherland Camp- bell) Fifth Marquis of Lansdowne (Petty-FitzMau- rice, Henry Charles Keith) Sixteenth Earl of Derby (Frederick Arthur Stanley), Seventh Earl of Aberdeen (John Campbsll Hamilton Gordon), Fourth Earl of Minto (Gilbert John Elliot- Murray Kynynmound), Fourth Earl Grey (Albert Henry George), . . 1819 1807 1826 1845 1845 1841 1847 1845 1851 1894 1876 1902 1908 152 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS PREMIERS OF CANADA Service Born Died Terna Years Rt. Hon. Sir John A. Mocdonald Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, 1867-1873 1873-1878 1878-1891 1891-1892 1892-1894 1894-1896 1896-Jan. 15 to July 8, 1896-. . . . 6 5 3 1 2 2 is' 1815 1822 (see above) 1821 -1844 1823 1821 1841 1891 1892 (see above) 1893 1894 Rt. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald Hon. Sir J. J. C. Abbott Rt. Hon. Sir J. S. D. Thompson Hon. Sir Mackenzie Bowell, Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, Bart Rt. Hon. Wilfrid Laurier Russia. The origin of the Russian Empire is involved in much obscurity, but it is usually regarded as having been founded by Rurik, a Scandinavian (Varangian), about 862, his domin- ions and those of his immediate successors com- prising Novgorod, Kieff, and the surrounding country, Vladimir the Great (980-1015), the Charlemagne of Russia, introduced Christianity and founded several cities and schools. But from this period down to the time when the country was overrun by the Tartars, Russia was almost constantly the scene of civil war. For more than two centuries Russia was subject to the Tartars. But Russia's real foundation may be said to date from the accession of Peter the Great in 1689, who first secured to the country the attention of the more civilized nations of Europe. His first military achievement was his conquest of Azov from the Turks in 1696, which, however, he lost again in 1711. He also completed the conquest of Siberia; and, what was of more importance, obtained from Sweden by the Peace of Nystadt, in 1721, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, or part of Karelia, the Territory of Viborg, Oesel, and all the other islands in the Baltic from Courland to Viborg. Catharine I., widow of Peter I., succeeded on the death of the latter, but died after a reign of only two years. The throne was then occupied successively by Peter II., 1727-30; by Anna, 1730-40; by Ivan VI., 1740-41; by Elizabeth, 1741-62; by Peter III,, about six months in 1762; by Catharine II., wife of Peter III., 1762-96; by Paul, 1796-1801 ; by Alexander I., 1801-25; by Nicholas, 1825- 55; by Alexander II., 1855-81. During all these reigns the growth of the empire was con- tinuous. The Kirghiz Cossacks were subdued in 1731, the Ossetes in 1742; the Finnish Prov- ince of Kymenegard was gained by the Treaty of Abo in 1743. The three partitions of Poland took place under Catharine II. in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Russia acquired nearly two-thirds of this once powerful state. By the Peace of Kut- chuk-Kainarji in 1774, the Turks gave up Azov, part of the Crimea (the other part was taken possession of in 1783), and Kabardah; and by the Peace of Jassy in 1792, Oczakov. Georgia also came under the protection of Russia in 1783, and Courland was incorporated in 1795. A por- tion of Persian Territory had already been ac- quired; and in 1801 the formal annexation of Georgia was effected. The Peace of Fredericks- haven, 1809, robbed Sweden of the whole of Finland, which now passed to Russia; the Peace of Bukarest, 1812, took Bessarabia from the Turks; that of Tiflis, 1813, deprived the Per- sians of parts of the Caucasus; and then the Vienna Congress of 1815 gave the remainder of Poland to Russia, After fresh wars, the Persians lost the provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan in 1828; and the Turks lost Anapa, Poti, Akhal- zik, etc., by the Peace of Adrianople in 1829. The desire to possess further dominions of the sultan led to a war against Turkey in 1853, in which England, France, and Sardinia also took part in 1854, and which ended in the Peace of Paris, 1856. The Russians were compelled to restore to .Moldavia the left bank of the Danube in Bessarabia. This district, however, was again restored to Russia by the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which followed the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. In 1858, Russia acquired by agree- ment with China the sparsely populated but widely extended district of the Amur; the sub- jection of Caucasia was accomplished in 1859 and 1864, and considerable conquests have fol- lowed since 1866 both in Turkestan and the rest of Central Asia. A ukase of 1868 annihilated the last remains of the independence of Poland by incorporating it completely in the czardom. On the other hand, Russian America was sold to the United States in 1867, The following table will show at a glance the extent of these continuous accessions of territory: The extent of Russian Territory under Ivan the Great, . . 1462, about 382,716 sq. m. Vassili Ivanovitch, . 1505, Ivan the Terrible, . 1584, Alexis Michaelovitch, 1650, Peter I.,. . . . Anna, .... Catharine II., , Alexander II., . Alexander II., . Alexander III., , Nicholas II., 510,288 1,530,864 5,039,094 5,953,360 1689, 1730, 1775, " 7,122,770 " 1868, " 7,866,940 " 1881, " 8,325,393 " 1892, " 8,644,100 " 1908, " 8,647,657 " The population from 14,000,000 in 1722 has grown to 129,562,718 in 1908. The extension of the Russian Empire in the East is still going on. In 1881, the Tekke Turcomans were sub- jected; in 1884, Merv was cen, and Penjdeh was occupied and annexed if[l885, which led to considerable friction between^ussia and Britain. Of late years a great disturbing element to the Government of Russia has sprung up in Nihilism. Alexander II. was killed by their agency, and many attempts have been made to murder the succeeding emperors. In 1891, flour and grain were sent by the United States to relieve distress caused by failure of the harvest. Oppressive measures against the Jews have excited unfav- orable comment, Alexander III. died Novem- ber 1, 1894, and was succeeded by his son, Nicho- las II. In 1900, following the Boxer Rebellion, China gave to Russia exclusive mining and rail- way privileges in Manchuria, and the command HISTORY 153 of all the Chinese troops there to the Russian authorities. This occupation was to end in three years, and the delay in the withdrawal of Russian troops led to open hostilities between Russia and Japan in 1894. (See Russo-Japanese War.) During 1905-06, Russia was much per- turbed by internal and insurrectionary disturb- ances. In October of 1905 the Czar issued a manifesto, assuring civil liberty, freedom of the press, extension of the suffrage, and limited representative government. A continual strug- gle has existed between the Imperial Govern- ment and the Duma since that time as to how this manifesto should be interpreted, and to what extent it should be made operative. Russo-Japanese _War. A war between Russia and Japan, waged in Manchuria (1904-05). The chief cause of the war was the occupation (continued notwithstanding repeated promises of withdrawal by the Russian Government) of Manchuria by Russia after the Boxer uprising of 1899-WOO, with the consequent endanger- ment of the Japanese preponderance in Corea, which was regarded by Japan as essential to her safety. An earlier cause of irritation was the action of Russia, Germany, and France in pre- venting the retention by Japan of Port Arthur and the Liao-taing peninsula after the Chinese- Japanese War of 1894-95, and the subsequent leasing of this territory from China by Russia. The principal events of the war were the follow- ing: rupture of diplomatic relations with Russia by Japan, February 6, 1904; attack by torpedo- boats of the Japanese fleet under Admiral Togo upon the Russian squadron under Admiral Stark at Port Arthur, February 8, 1904 ; general attack by the Japanese fleet, February 9, 1904; these two attacks resulting in great injury to the Russians ; naval fight off Chemulpo, result- ing in the destruction of the Russian cruiser " Variag" and the gunboat "Korietz," February 9, 1904; war declared by Japan, February 10, 1904; Admiral Makaroff succeeded Admiral Stark, Februarjr 17, 1904; General Kuropatkin appointed Russian commander-in-chief in Man- churia, February 21, 1904; agreement between Japan and Corea signed at Seul, February 23, 1904; Vladivostok bombarded by Admiral Kamimura, March 6, 1904; Port Arthur bom- barded, March 21-22, 1904; Wiju occupied by the Japanese, April 6-7, 1904; destruction of the Russian battle-ship " Petropavlovk " by a mine and death of Admiral Makaroff, April 13, 1904; Russian Vladivostok squadron appeared off Yuen-san, April 25, 1904; defeat of the Rus- sians under Sassulitch by the Japanese First Army under Kuroki, May 1, 1904; the entrance to Port Arthur blocked for battle-ships and cruisers. May 3, 1904; Japanese battle-ship "Hatsuse" sunk by a mine, May 15, 1904; Japanese victory at Kin-chau (capture of Nan- shan Hill), May 27-28, 1904; occupation of Dalny by the Japanese, May 29-30, 1904; Rus- sians defeated at Telissu and Wafangkau, June 14-15, 1904; unsuccessful sortie of Russian fleet from Port Arthur, June 23, 1904 ; investment of Port Arthur (after severe preliminary fighting), July 31, 1904- January 1, 1905; sortie of the Port Arthur fleet, resulting in a sea- battle, in which most of the Russian vessels were driven back "to Port Arthur and the rest dispersed with the death of Admiral Withoft, August 10, 1904; Vladivostok squadron defeated by Admiral Kamimura ("Rurik" sunk), August 14, 1904; battle of Liao-yang, resulting in the success of the Japanese under Oyama, the Russians retir- ing upon Mukden, August 27-September 4, 1904 ; battle of the Shaho, in which the Russian attack was repulsed, October 9-14, 1904; the Baltic fleet under Rozhestvensky sailed for the Far East, October, 1904, and attacked the Hull fish- ing fleet on the Doggerbank, on the night of October 21-22, 1904; Port Arthur surrendered, January 1, 1905; Russians crossed the Hun River and attacked the Japanese at Haikautai, but were repulsed January 25-29, 1905; battle of Mukden, resulting in the complete defeat of Kuropatkin and the capture of the city, Feb- ruary 19-March 10, 1905; Kuropatkin relieved of his command and succeeded by Linievitch, March 16, 1905; the Baltic fleet reached Kam- ranh Bay, April 12, 1905; battle of the Sea of Japan and the annihilation of the Baltic fleet by Admiral Togo, May 27-28, 1905; President Roosevelt urged the Russian and Japanese Gov- ernments to negotiate for peace, June 8, 1905; plenipotentiaries met at Portsmouth, New Hamp- shire, August 9, 1905; treaty of peace signed, September 5, 1905. Sabines. An ancient people of Italy, sup- posed to have been named from "Sabus," one of their deities. Little is known of their history. They were at war with the Romans at a very early period. A contest broke out between them 504 B. C, and a body of the Sabines mi- grated to Rome, where they were welcomed, and founded the powerful family and tribe of Claudii. The Sabines carried their ravages to the very gates of Rome, 469 B. C. On their defeat by Marcus Horatius, 449 B. C, their camp was found full of plunder obtained in the Roman territories. They were again at war with the Romans, 290 B. C., and having been vanquished, many of them were sold as slaves. The remain- ing citizens received the Roman franchise. St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, a massacre of the Huguenots which took place in Paris, France, beginning on the night of August 23-24 (St. Bartholomew's Day), 1572. A large number of prominent Huguenots had been invited to the royal palace to participate in the wedding festivities of Henry of Navarre. While these guests were in the palace they were slaugh- tered without mercy, and at a signal the massacre quickly spread over the city. The anti-Hugue- not leaders were Charles IX., the Queen-mother Catherine de Medici, and the Duke of Guise. The massacre spread over France and it is vari- ously estimated that 2,000 to 100,000 lives were lost. Salic, or Salique Law, The (s&l'-ik). An ancient fundamental law of the Ripuarian Franks, which excluded females from inheriting the French throne. It is supposed to have been established by Pharamond or Clovis, and to have derived its name from the River Saale, in Saxony, whence those ' Franks originally came. This body of law was revised and reconstituted by Charlemagne ; according to it " no portion of Salic land can fall to females;" but what was 154 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS meant by Salic land has been long debated among French antiquaries. It was the cause of long wars between England and France, when, in opposition to it, Edward III. claimed the throne of France by a title prior to that of Philip of Valois. It has been recognized in all countries of which the crown has devolved on a member of the blood-royal of France; and formed the foundation of the pretensions of Don Carlos to the Spanish Crown. It was observed with reference to the great fiefs which had been granted to princes of the blood, by way of appanage; and hence, on the death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, without a male heir, that duchy reverted to Louis XI. Scotland was first visited by the Roman troops under Agricola, who penetrated to the foot of the Grampian Mountams. It was after- ward exposed to the ravages of the Norwegians and Danes, with whom many bloody battles were fought. Various contests were also maintained with the kings of England. Robert Bruce, how- ever, secured the independence of the country and his title to the throne by the decisive battle of Bannockburn in 1314. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stewart, and he by his eldest son, Robert. The latter was a weak prince, and the government was seized by the Duke of Albany, who stoned to death the eldest son of the king. James, his second son, to escape a similar fate, fled to France; in the year 1424 he returned to Scotland, and having excited the jealousy of the nobility, he was assassinated in a monastery near Perth. James II., his son, an infant prince, succeeded him in 1437. He was killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of the castle of Roxburgh. James III. ascended the throne at the age of seven years. His reign was weak and inglorious, and he was murdered in the house of a miller, whither he had fled for protection. James IV., a generous and brave prince, began his reign in 1488. He was slain at the battle of Flodden. James V., an infant of less than two years of age, succeeded to the crown. He died m 1542, and was succeeded by his daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary. She was succeeded by her son James, who, in 1603, ascended the throne of England, vacant by the death of Queen Elizabeth, when the two king- doms were united into one great monarchy which was legislatively united in 1707. At the union of the kingdoms the political system of Scotland was almost entirely incorporated with that of England. The Court of Sessions is the Supreme Civil Court of Scotland. The Court of Justiciary, or Criminal Court, composed only of judges of the Court of Sessions, is supreme in the highest sense, since its decisions in criminal cases are not sub- ject to any review. The principal subordinate judicatories are sheriff courts, established in each county or stewartry. Sheriff-substitutes, or judges ordinary, one or more holding separate courts in differents districts, decide in the first instance, subject to the review of the principal sheriff or sheriff depute, whose decisions, though final within the limits of his jurisdiction, are reviewable by the Court of Sessions. Besides the sheriff court, each county or district of a county has its justice of peace courts, in which judges decide on principles of equity in minor crimes; and in every town of any importance are bailie, dean, or guild, and police courts, with limited jurisdictions. Seven Years' War, The (1756-63), was the third, last, and most terrible of the con- tests between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa (with the other powers of Europe on one side or the other) for the pos- session of Silesia. In 1763 Maria Theresa, sorely against her will, was finally compelled to conclude the peace of Hubertsburg, which acknowledged Frederick as Lord of Silesia. This long and desperate conflict made no change in the territorial distribution of Europe, but it increased tenfold the moral power of Prussia, and gave its army a prestige which it retained till the battle of Jena. It cost Europe 1,000,000 lives, and prostrated the strength of almost all the powers who had engaged in it. Shays' Rebellion. At the close of the Revolution, the United States were burdened with a very heavy foreign and domestic debt. They were impoverished by the long war, and it was difficult to raise the means to meet the arrears of pay due the soldiers of the Revolution. On the recommendation of Congress, each State endeavored to provide means for raising its quota by a direct tax. This effort produced much excitement in some of the States, and, finally, in 1787, a portion of the people of Massa- chusetts openly rebelled. Daniel Shays, who had been a captain in the Continental Army, marched at the head of a thousand men, took possession of Worcester, and prevented a ses- sion of the Supreme Court. He repeated his performance at Springfield ; and the insurrection soon became so formidable that the governor was compelled to call out several thousand militia under General Lincoln, to suppress it. This was speedily accomplished. Though some of the insurgents were sentenced to death, none were executed. A free pardon was finally given to all. Sicilies, The Two, a former kingdom of Italy, consisting of Naples (or South Italy) and Sicily. In 1047, while Greeks and Saracens were struggling for the possession of Lower Italy and Sicily the twelve sons of Tancred de Haute- ville, a count in Lower Normandy, came in with their followers. Robert Guiscard, one of these brothers, subdued Apulia and Calabria, taking the title of duke, and his youngest brother. Count Roger, conquered Sicily. Roger's son and successor, Roger II., completed the conquest of all Lower Italy by subduing Capua, Amalfi, and Naples, at that time celebrated commercial republics, and in 1130 took the title of king, calling his kingdom the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1759, when Charles IV. ascended the Spanish throne under the name of Charles III., he conferred the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies on his third son Ferdinand, and decreed at the same time that it should never again be united to the Spanish Monarchy. The reign of Ferdinand extended through the stormy period of the French Revolution and the subsequent European commotions. A varied experience followed, during which the country was succes- sively subject to Germany, France, and Spain. HISTORY 155 In 1860, an insurrection broke out in Sicily, and an expedition of volunteers from Piedmont and other Italian provinces under Garibaldi sailed from Genoa to the assistance of the insurgents. The result was that the Neapolitan troops were driven from the island. Garibaldi, following up his success, crossed over to the mainland, where he met little or no opposition; Francis II. fled from Naples; the strong places in his hands were reduced; and by a popular vote the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist as such and became an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy. Sicilian Vespers, the name given to a massacre of the French in Sicily, March 30, 1282. On the evening of Easter Monday the conspira- tors were already assembled at Palermo; but the massacre was precipitated by an outrage offered by a Frenchman to a Sicilian bride, who was passing along the streets with her train. Instantly the Frenchman was killed, and, the populace being aroused by the conspirators, all the French who could be found in the city were slaughtered. Eight thousand were slain in Palermo alone, and the massacre afterwards spread over the island, the French being even dragged out of the churches to which they had fled for protection. The six hundredth anni- versary of the Sicilian Vespers was celebrated with much enthusiasm at Palermo in 1882. Slavery. The establishment of one man's right to control the liberty, property, and even life of another. Slavery probably arose at an early period of the world's history out of the accident of capture in war. Savages, in place of massacring their captives, found it more profitable to keep them in servitude. All the ancient Oriental nations of whom we have any records, including the Jews, had their slaves. In Greece in general, and especially at Athens, slaves were mildly treated, and enjoyed a large share of legal protection; while by the Romans they were used with considerable rigor. The English word slave is simply the name of the Sclavonian race. The wars of the Frankish kings and emperors filled Saracenic Spain with Sclavonic -captives to such an extent that in its language, as well as in those of other European countries, a natural name meaning, in its own tongue, glorious, became the title of servitude. The African slave-trade was commenced by the Portuguese in 1442; it was, however, of only trifling extent till the Sixteenth Century. But the importation of negroes into the West Indies and America having once begun, it gradually increased, until the vastness and importance of the traffic rivaled its cruelty and guilt. The slave-trade was abolished in England in 1807 but it was only in 1834 that slavery itself was abolished throughout the British dominions. Long before that time, several of the North American States had decreed the extinction of slavery. Vermont abolished it in 1777, before she had joined the Union. Pennsylvania in ] 780, Rhode Island and Connecticut shortly after. New York in 1797, and New Jersey in 1804, provided for the gradual emancipation of their slaves. In Massachusetts the Supreme Court declared that slavery was abolished by the act of adopting the State Constitution of 1780. In 1820, the United States passed a law declaring the slave-trade to be piracy, but no conviction was obtained under the statute until November, 1861, when Nathaniel Gordon, master of a vessel called the "Erie," was convicted and hanged at New York. Finally, the abolition of slavery, cause and fruit of the gigantic war of secession, was definitively consecrated in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. The French emancipated their negroes in 1848, and the Dutch in 1863. Slavery was also partially abolished in Brazil in 1871, and gradual emancipation has been adopted in Cuba. South Carolina. The first attempt to colonize the territory now included in South Carolina was made by Jean Ribault, a French- man, in 1562. The first permanent settlement was made by English colonists, who planted themselves on the banks of the Ashley in 1670, but removed to the site of Charleston in 1680. The province was created by Charles II. in 1683. Both the Carolinas were included under a com- mon name and proprietary government till 1729, when the king formed the province into two royal colonies. Large numbers of French Hugue- nots had arrived in 1685, and subsequently Swiss, Irish, and German colonists. South Carolina suffered severely from Indian depreda- tions, and joined with Georgia, under Oglethorpe, in a contest with Spanish Florida. She took an active part in the Revolution, and the battles of Fort Moultrie, Charleston, Camden, King's Mountain, Cowpens, Eutaw Springs, etc., were fought on her soil. The United States Constitu- tion was ratified in 1788. In 1832, the State passed the Nullification Act, which threatened civil war, then happily averted, but afterward precipitated in 1861 by the firing on Fort Sum- ter. The important military operations were the capture of Hilton Head in 1861, the unsuccessful attack on Charleston in 1863* and the march of General Sherman in 1865. The State was readmitted to federal relations in 1868. From 1865 until 1871 there were reconstruction trou- bles, ending with the election of Wade Hampton as Governor of the State and his recognition by President Hayes. In 1886 Charleston suffered from a severe earthquake which caused much property loss. A State dispensary law for the regulation of the liquor traffic was j)assed in 1892. The present State constitution was adopted in 1897. South Dakota. South Dakota became a State November 2, 1899, when the Territory of Dakota was divided into two States. The history of that part of the country will be found under Minnesota, Nebraska, and North Dakota. Spain, the Spania, Hispania and Iberia of the Greeks, and known to the Romans hy the same names, is supposed to have been origmally inhabited by a distinct race called Iberians, upon whom a host of Celts are supposed to have descended from the Pyrenees. These two races coalesced and formed the mixed nation of the Celtiberians. About the middle of the Third Century B. C. the Carthaginian influence began to be felt in Iberia, and a considerable tract of territory was brought under subjection to Carthage by Hamilcar, who founded the city of 156 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Barcelona. The Romans had driven the Car- thaginians from the peninsula in 206 B. C, and the country was erected into a Roman Province. From the time of the complete supremacy of the Romans till the death of Constantine the con- dition of Spain was eminently prosperous. Everywhere throughout the country towns of purely Roman character sprang up, and numer- ous aqueducts, bridges, amphitheaters, etc., were built. Spain was for three centuries the richest Province of the Roman Empire. In 409 A. D., ordes of barbarians, Alans, Vandals, and Suevi, crossed the Pyrenees and swept over and des- olated the peninsula. About 412 tne .Visigoths invaded the country, and their king, Athaulf, established the Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. In 711 the Moors obtained mastery of nearly the whole of Spain. The Moors held Spain for the first few years as a dependency of the province of North Africa; but after the down- fall of Musa the country was governed (717) by emirs appointed by the Caliph of Damascus. During the period of Moorish domination the small independent kingdom of Asturias, or Leon, had been growing in power and extent. In 758 a second mdependent Christian Kingdom was founded in Sobrarve, which was in 801 swallowed up by the caliphate of Cordova. Thirty-six years afterward was founded the third Christian Kingdom, that of Navarre, and in 933 another independent monarchy was founded in Castile, which, from its central position and consequent greater facilities for expansion, soon became the most powerful of the Spanish states. The Kingdom of Aragon was the last Christian kingdom formed in Spain. The rest of the history of the Spanish kingdoms before their union is undeserving of a detailed account. Ferdinand II , the last sovereign of Aragon, by marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile, in 1469, by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and that of Navarre in 1512,- united the whole of Spain (and French Navarre) under one rule. Charles I. (Charles V. of Germany) succeeded Ferdinand, and in his reign Mexico and Peru were added to the possessions of Spain. Philip II., by his enormous war expenditure and maladminis- tration, laid a sure foundation for the decline of the country; and the reigns of Philip III. and IV. witnessed a fearful acceleration in the decline. That of Charles II. was still more unfortunate, and the death of the latter was the occasion of the War of the Spanish Succession. Philip V. was the first of the Bourbon Dynasty who occupied the throne of Spain. Under Charles III. (1759-88) the second great revival of the country commenced, and trade and com- merce began to show signs of returning activity. During the inglorious reign of Charles IV. (1788-1808) a war broke out with Britain, which was productive of nothing but disaster to the Spaniards and by the pressure of the French another arose in 1804. and was attended with similar ill success. Charles's eldest son ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. Forced by Napo- leon to resign all claims to the Spanish Crown, Ferdinand became a prisoner of the French, and Joseph, the brother of the French Emperor, was declared Kirig of Spain and the Indies. But before this time an armed resistance had been organized throughout the whole country. The various provinces elected juntas, or councils, consisting of the most influential inhabitants of the respective neighborhoods, and it was their business to administer local rule. The Supreme Council of Seville declared war against Napoleon and France in 1808. England, on solicitation, made peace with Spain, recognized Ferdinand VII. as king, and sent an army to aid the Spanish insurrection. After many bloody campaigns the French were driven from the country. The reign of Ferdinand's daughter, Isabella II., was disturbed by the Carlist rebel- lion, 1834-39. Frequent changes of ministry, occasional revolts, the banishment of Queen Christina, the war with the Moors, the annexa- tion of St. Domingo in 1861, and the quarrels between Spain and her former colonies, Peru and Chile, were the most marked events in the more recent history of Spain. In 1868, Isabella was driven from the throne by a general revolt; and the Cortes, in 1871, elected Prince Amadeo of Italy to be king. Finding the task of ruling constitutionally hopeless, Amadeo abdicated in 1873, upon which the form of government was changed into a republic. During the remainder of 1873, and the whole of 1874, Spain was the scene of general anarchy and much bloodshed. In December, 1874, Alfonso, son of ex-Queen Isabella, was declared King of Spain at Santan- der, under the title of Alfonso XII. He died in 1886, and his widow. Queen Maria Christina, was chosen regent during the minority of the infant Prince Alfonso XIII. The Prince reached his majority. May 17, 1902, and assumed charge of the kingdom as Alfonso XIII. On May 31, 1904, he married Princess Ena of Battenberg, and as the king and queen were returning to the palace, they narrowly escaped death from a bomb thrown by an anarchist. Spanish -American War. In 1898, a crisis in Cuban affairs brought on war with the United States, known as the Spanish-American War, which from its opening to its close lasted 114 days. In that time the United States land and sea forces destroyed two Spanish fleets, received the surrender of more than 35,000 Spanish soldiers, took by conquest the fortified cities of Santiago de Cuba, in Cuba, Ponce, in Porto Rico, and Manila, on the island of Luzon, in the Philippines, and secured con- trol, pending negotiations of peace, of the entire Spanish possessions in the West Indies, the Philippines, and Guam of the Ladrone Islands. The Americans suffered no loss of ships or territory and but 279 killed and 1,465 wounded in battle, while the cost to Spain, aside from prisoners, ships, and lost territory, was 2,199 killed, and 2,948 wounded. The cost to the United States in money was $141,000,000. The principal events preceding and during the war and the dates on which they occurred are as follows: February 15th The United States battleship "Maine" was blown up in the harbor of Havana. According to the report of the Court of Inquiry appointed by the United States the explosion was due to an external mine. HISTORY 157 April 20th President McKinley, authorized by Congress to intervene in Cuba, using the United States military and naval forces, sent an ultimatum to Spain. The Spanish minister at once left Washington, and the next day the United States minister left Madrid. April 22d A proclamation was issued by the President blockading the principal ports of Cuba. April 23d^President McKinley issued a call for 125,000 volunteers to serve for two years. April 27th The batteries of Matanzas, Cuba, were shelled by Admiral Sampson's flagship, the "New York," with the monitor "Puri- tan" and the cruiser "Cincinnati." April 29th ^The Spanish fleet, commanded by Admiral Cervera, consisting of the "Cristo- bal Colon," the "Almirante Oquendo," the "Maria Teresa" and the "Viscaya," and the torpedo Uoats "Furor," "Terror," and "Pluton," left the Cape Verde Islands for Cuba. May 1st Commodore Dewey, commanding the United States Asiatic squadron, destroyed the entire Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, Philippines, without losing a man. May nth The "Wilmington," "Winslow," and "Hudson" engaged the Spanish batteries at Cardenas. Ensign Bagley and four of the "Winslow's" crew were killed. Major- General Wesley Merritt was ordered to the Philippines as military governor. May 12th A United States fleet, commanded by Rear-Admiral Sampson, bombarded the fortifications of San Juan, Porto Rico. May 19th Admiral Cervera's fleet reached San- tiago de Cuba, and a few days later was "bottled up" there by the "flying squad- ron " of Commodore Schley. May 25th^President McKinley called for 75,000 more volunteers. Twenty-five hundred United States troops sailed from San Fran- cisco for Manila, several thousand more following at a later date. May 31st The "Massachusetts," "Iowa," and "New Orleans" bombarded the fortifica- tions at the mouth of Santiago Harbor. They were bombarded again several times after Admiral Sampson took command of the fleet. June 3d Assistant Naval Constructor Hobson with seven men ran the coUier "Merrimac" to the mouth of Santiago Harbor and sank her in the channel under the fire from the Spanish forts Hobson and his men were taken prisoners. June 10th Six hundred marines were landed at Caimanera, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, where sharp skirmishing continued for several days, several Americans being killed. June 12th The 5th Army Corps, commanded by General Shafter, sailed from Tampa on twenty-nine transports for Santiago, arriv- ing off there on June 20th. June 13th President McKinley signed the War Revenue Bill, providing for the raising of revenues by a stamp tax and providing for a popular bond loan which was immediately subscribed. June 17th A Spanish fleet under Admiral Camara left Cadiz for the Philippines, but returned after passing through the Suez Canal. June 22d General Shafter's troops began dis- embarking at Daiquiri and Siboney, near Santiago. June 14th Roosevelt's Rough Riders were at- tacked while advancing toward Santiago; sixteen Americans were killed and forty more wounded before the Spaniards were repulsed. July 1st General Lawton took El Caney, near Santiago, and General Kent, commanding the 1st division of the 5th Army Corps, which included the 2d, 6th, 9th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 24th infantry, and the 71st New York volunteers, took San Juan Hill after heavy fighting. Official reports gave the American losses 231 killed and 1,364 wounded and missing. July 3d Admiral Cervera's squadron made a dash out of Santiago Harbor, and every vessel was sunk or disabled by the American fleet. General Shafter demanded the sur- render of Santiago. The seizure of Guama, in the Ladrone Islands, by the "Charles- ton" was reported at this time. July 7th President McKinley signed resolutions passed by the Senate annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, and the " Phil- adelphia " was ordered to Honolulu to raise the American flag. July 17th General Toral, in command of the Spanish troops at Santiago, General Linares being wounded, surrendered his forces and the east portion of the province of Santiago de Cuba to General Shafter. July 21st General Leonard R. Wood, formerly colonel of the 1st Volunteer cavalry, was appointed military governor of Santiago. July 25th United States troops, under General Nelson A. Miles, landed at Guanica, Porto Rico, the town having surrendered to the "Gloucester." July 26th Through the French ambassador, the government of Spain asked President Mc- Kinley on what terms he would consent to peace. July 28th Ponce, the second largest city in Por- to Rico, surrendered to General Miles, and he was received by the residents with joyful acclamations. Capture of several other towns, with little or no fighting, followed. July 30th President McKinley's statement of the terms on which he would agree to end the war was given to the French ambassador. The President demanded the independence of Cuba, cession of Porto Rico and one of the Ladrones to the United States, and the retention of Manila by the United States pending the final disposition of the Philip- pines by a joint commission. July 31st United States troops engaged the Spaniards at Malate, near Manila, in the Philippines, and repulsed them, with some loss on both sides. August 9th The French ambassador presented to President McKinley Spain's reply, accepting his terms of peace. 158 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS August 12th Protocols agreeing as to the pre- liminaries for a treaty of peace were signed by Secretary Hay and the French ambas- sador. United States military and naval commanders were ordered to cease hostili- ties. The blockades of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Manila were lifted and hostilities ended. August 13th Manila surrendered after a com- bined assault by the army under General Merritt and Dewey's fleet. Sparta or Laced semon. A celebrated city of ancient Greece; capital of Laconia and of the Spartan state, and the chief city in the Peloponnesus; on the west bank of the Eurotas River, and embraced a circuit of six miles. Sparta was a scattered city consisting of five separate quarters. Unlike Athens, it was plainly built, and had few notable public build- mgs; consequently, there are no imposing ruins to be seen here as in Athens, and the modern Sparta is only a village of some 4,000 inhabitants. The Spartan state was founded, according to tradition, by Lacedsmon, son of Zeus. The most celebrated of its legendary kings was Menelaus. Shortly after their settlement in the Peloponnesus it is probable that the Spartans extended their sway over all the territory of Laconia, a portion of the inhabitants of which they reduced to the condition of slaves. They also waged war with the Messenians, the Arca- dians, and the Argives, against whom they were so successful that before the close of the Sixth Century B. C. they were recognized as the leading people in all Greece. Early in the following century began the Per- sian wars, in which a rivalry grew up between Athens and Sparta. This rivalry led to the Peloponnesian War, in which Athens was humil- iated and the old ascendency of Sparta regained. Soon after this the Spartans became involved in a war with Persia, and Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and some of the Peloponnesian States took this opportunity to declare war against them. This war, known as the Boeotian or Corinthian War, lasted eight years and increased the reputation and power of Athens. To break the alliance of Athens with Persia, Sparta, in 387 B. C, con- cluded with the latter power the peace known by the name of Antalcidas; and the designs of Sparta became apparent when she occupied, without provocation, the city of Thebes, and introduced an aristocratical constitution there. Pelopidas delivered Thebes, and the celebrated Theban War (378-363) followed, in which Sparta was much enfeebled. During the fol- lowing century Sparta steadily declined, though one or two isolated attempts were made to restore its former greatness. Stadtholder (Dutch, Stadhouder), the name formerly given to the chief magistrate of the United Provinces of Holland. The last Stadtholder was William V., who had to fly to England in 1795, at the invasion of the French Republican army. After the Congress of Vienna (1815), Holland, with Belgium, was erected into a kingdom, and William V., was the first king, under the name of William I. Star-Chamber, an ancient English tribu- nal, said to have 'existed from a very early period, but revived during the reign of Henry VII. One derivation of the name is from the star-covered roof or ceiling of the room in which the tribunal assembled ; but this derivation is at least doubt- ful. The tribunal consisted of privy councillors, and of certain judges, who acted without the intervention of a jury. As this was a violation of Magna Charta, and as the tribunal had been guilty of the most grave excesses, especially in the time of Charles I., the Star Chamber was abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641, at the same time as the High Commission Court. Sumter, Fort (named after General Thomas Sumter, 1734-1832), an American fort associated with both the beginning and the end of the Civil War; built of brick, in the form of a truncated pentagon thirty-eight feet high, on a shoal partly artificial, in Charleston Harbor, three and one-half miles from the city. On the withdrawal of South Carolina from the Union in December, 1860, Major Anderson, in command of the defenses of the harbor, aban- doned the other forts, and occupied Fort Sumter, mounting sixty-two guns, with a garrison of some eighty men. The attack on the fort was opened by General Beauregard April 12, 1861, and it surrendered on the 14th; this event marked the beginning of the war. The Confed- erates strengthened it, and added ten guns and four -mortars. In April, 1863, an attack by a fleet of monitors failed. In July batteries were erected on Morris Island, about 4,000 yards off, from which in a week 5,000 projectiles, weighing from 100 to 300 pounds, were hurled against the fort ; at the end of that time it was silenced and in part demolished. Yet the garrison held on amid the ruins and in September beat off a naval attack ; and in spite of a forty days' bombard- ment in October-December, 1863, and for still longer in July and August, 1864, it was not till after the evacuation of Charleston itself, owing to the operations of General Sherman, that the garrison retired, and the United States flag was again raised April 18, 1865; an event soon fol- lowed by the evacuation of Richmond and the Confederate surrender. Sweden. When we first hear of Sweden the country was inhabited by numerous tribes, kindred in origin, but politically separate. Two principal groups are recognizable, Goths in the South and Swedes in the North. Ingiald Hrada, the last ruler of the old royal family of the Ynglingar, who drew their origin from Njord, sought to establish a single government in Swe- den and perished in the attempt. To the Ynglingar followed, in the Upland, the dynasty of the Skioldungar. Erik Edmundsson acquired the sovereignty of the whole of Sweden about the end of the Ninth Century. The dawn of Swedish history now begins. Efforts to introduce Christianity were made as early as 829 A. D., but it was not till 1000 A. D., that Olaf Skotko- nung, the Lap King, was baptized. Erik undertook a crusade against the pagan Finns, and having compelled them to submit to bap- tism, and established Swedish settlements among them, he laid the foundation of the union of Finland with Sweden. Erik's murder in 1160 by the Danish prince, Magnus Henriksen, who had made an unprovoked attack upon the Swe- HISTORY 159 dish king, was the beginning of a long series of troubles. In 1389, the throne was offered by the Swedish nobles to Margaret, Queen of Den- mark and Norway, who threw an army into Sweden, defeated the Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, and by the union of Calmar, in 1397, brought Sweden under one joint scepter with Denmark and Norway. In 1523, Sweden emancipated itself from the union with Denmark, which had become hateful to the Swedes, and rewarded its deliverer, the young Gustaf Vasa, by electing him king, and declaring its independ- ence of Denmark. Gustaf Vasa, on his death, in 1560, left to his successor an hereditary and well-organized kingdom, a' full exchequer, a standing army, and* a well-appointed navy. Sigismund, grandson of Vasa, who had been elected king of Poland through the influence of his Polish mother, was compelled to resign the throne in 1599 to his uncle Karl. The deposition of Sigismund gave rise to the Swedo-Polish War of Succession, from 1604-60; and on the death of Karl, in 1611, his son, the great Gustavus Adol- phus, found himself involved in hostilities with Russia, Poland, and Denmark. The young king soon concluded treaties of peace with his northern neighbors, and placed the internal affairs of his kingdom in order, and, although he ranks as one of the greatest military connnanders of his age, the extraordinary number of benefits which he conferred on every department of the administrative system of Sweden entitle him to still greater renown as the benefactor of his native country. The reign of Christina was disastrous. Karl X. was occupied in generally unsuccessful wars against Poland and Denmark ; while the long rule of his son, Karl XI, from 1660-97 was characterized by success abroad and in the augmentation of the regal power, which was declared by Charles XII. In 1697, the male line of the Vasas expired, and his sister and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, were called to the throne by election. The weak Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, who was called to the throne on the death of Frederick in 1751, did little to retrieve the evil fortunes of the state; but his son, Gustavus III., (1771-92), skillfully recovered the lost power of the Crown. Gustavus IV. was forcibly de- posed in 1809, and obliged to renounce the Crown in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The dominant party in Sweden elected General Bernadotte to the rank of crown-prince, the latter assumed the reins of government, and by his steady support of the allies against the French Emperor secured to Sweden, at the Con- gress of Vienna, the possession of Norway, when that country was separated from Denmark. Under the administration of Bernadotte, who in 1818 succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV., the united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway made great advances in material prosperity, and in political and intellectual progress; and although the nation at large entertained very little personal regard for their alien sovereign, his son and successor, Oscar (1844-59), and his grandsons, the late king, Charles XV., and the late king, Oscar II., who came to the throne in 1872, so identified themselves with their sub- jects that the Bernadotte Dynasty secured the loyal affections of every section of the united nations of Sweden and Norway down to 1903. In that year serious difficulty arose between Norway and Sweden, owing to the desire of the former for autonomous government. In 1905 the two nations separated, and Oscar II. con- tinued monarch of Sweden until his abdication and death December 8, 1907, when he was succeeded by his oldest son, Gustave V. Switzerland was in Roman times inhab- ited by two races the Helvetii, supposed to have been Celts, on the northwest, and the Rhaetians on the southeast. After the conquest of Gaul both races adopted the language and habits of Rome. When the invasions took place the Burgundians settled in Western Switzerland, while the Alemanni, another Germanic tribe, took possession of the country east of the River Aar. A third Teutonic people, the Goths, en- tered the country from Italy and took possession of the country of the Rha;tians. The Helvetii retained their old pagan creed until the Seventh Century, when they were converted by Irish monks. During the Eleventh and Twelfth Cen- turies the greater part of Switzerland was ruled on behalf of the emperors by the lords of Zahr- ingen, who, however, became extinct in 1218. In 1273, Rudolf of Habsburg, a Swiss nobleman, became emperor. Schwyz, Uri, and Unter- walten, with Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Berne, eight cantons in all, in 1352, entered into a perpetual league which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. In 1415 the people of the cantons invaded Aargau and Thurgau, parts of the Austrian territory, and annexed them; three years later they crossed the Alps, and annexed Ticino, and constituted all three sub- ject states. In 1481 the towns of Freiburg and Soleure were admitted into the confederacy. Basel and Schaffhausen (1501) and Appenzell (1513) were next received into the confedera- tion, and its true independence began. War broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and Protestants, and the former were successful. During the Thirty Years' War Berne and Zurich contrived to maintain the neutrality of Switzer- land, and in the Treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, it was acknowledged by the great powers as a separate and independent state. In 1798, Swit- zerland was seized by the French. At the peace of 1815 its independence was again acknowledged. In 1847, the Jesuits were expelled and the monas- teries were suppressed. An attempt was made by diplomatic notes to intimidate the Swiss Government, but the revolution of 1848 broke out and prevented further interference. In the same year the radical party carried the consti- tution of 1848. After a rebellion against the King of Prussia, as Prince of Neufchatel, the canton was declared a republic, with a constitu- tion similar to that of the other Swiss states. Tarpeian Rock (t&r-pe' yan), a precip- itous rock forming part of the Capitoline Hill at Rome over which persons convicted of treason to the state were hurled. It was so named, according to tradition, from Tarpeia, a vestal virgin of Rome, and daughter of the governor of the citadel on the Capitoline, who, covetous of the golden bracelets worn by the Sabine soldiery, opened the gate to them on the promise of receiv- 160 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS ing what they wore on their left arms. Once inside the gate they threw their shields upon her, instead of the bracelets. She was buried at the base of the Tarpiean Rock. Tartary, properly Tatary, the name under which, in the Middle Ages, was comprised the whole central belt of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, from the Sea of Japan to the Dnieper, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turk- estan, Independent Turkestan, the Kalmuck and Kirghiz steppes, and the old khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crimea, and even the Cossack countries; and hence arose a distinction of Tartary into European and Asiatic. But lat- terly the name Tartary had a much more limited signification, including only Chinese Turkestan and Western Turkestan. It took its name from the Tatars or Tartars. Temple, Solomon's, the building reared by Solomon as a habitation for Jehovah. David had planned the Temple, but was divinely for- bidden to erect it, as he had shed so much blood in his wars. He made great preparations for his son and successor, who, he learned from the prophet Nathan, was destined to achieve the work. It was built on Mount Moriah, chiefly by Tyrian workmen, and had massive foundations. The stone for its erection was dressed before its arrival, so that the edifice arose noiselessly; the floor was of cedar, boarded over with planks of fir; the wainscoting was of cedar, covered with gold, as was the whole interior. It was modeled inside on the tabernacle, which was Jehovah's dwelling while journey ings were con- tinually taking place. There was a Holy and Most Holy Place. The temple was surrounded by an inner court for the priest. There was also a Great or Outward Court, called specially the Court of the Lord's House. This temple was destroyed by the Babyloniai.s during the siege of Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar., On the return from Babylon, a temple, far inferior to Solomon's was commenced imder Zerubbabel, B. C. 534, and, after a long intermission, was resumed B. C. 520, and completed B. C. 516, under Darius Hystaspes. The second temple was gradually removed by Herod, as he pro- ceeded with the building or rebuilding of a temple designed to rival the first rather than the second. The work was commenced B. C. 21 or 20; the temple itself was finished in about a year and a half, the courts in eight years, but the subse- quent operations were carried on so dilatorily triat the Jews reckoned forty-six years as the whole time consumed. In the courts of this temple Jesus preached and healed the sick. It caught fire during the siege of Jerusalem under Titus, and was burned to the ground. Tennessee. The name is derived from "Tanase," the Indian appellation of the Little Tennessee River. The first permanent white settlement was made on the Tennessee River, about thirty miles from the site of Knox- ville, and Fort Loudon built. Indian wars lasted till 1761, when the savages were reduced to terms. From 1777 to 1784 the territory formed a portion of North Carolina. During the four years subsequent, the settlers maintained an organization as the State of Franklin, but were reunited to North Carolina in 1788. In 1789 the Territory, with that of Kentucky, was organ- ized by the United States Government, which had received its cession from North Carolina. In 1794, a distinct territorial organization was made, and in 1796 Tennessee was admitted as a State, the third under the Federal Constitution. The State seceded in June, 1861. The principal miUtary events within her limits during the Civil War were the capture of Forts Henry and Donel- son, in February, 1862; the battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, in April, 1862; the battle of Murfreesboro, in January, 1863; the battle of Chickamauga, in September, 1863; the battles about Chattanooga, and the battles of Franklin and Nashville, in November, 1864. State was readmitted in 1866. TRe Centenary of the State was celebrated by an Exposition at Nash- ville in 1897. In 1907 the National Rivers and Harbors Convention met at Memphis and was attended by the President. Teutones, a tribe of Germany, which, with the Cimbri, invaded Gaul in B. C. 113. In B. C. 102, they were defeated with great slaughter near Aquae Sextiae (Aix in the department of Bouches du Rhone) by the Roman general Mari- us. A tribe of the same name is mentioned by Pliny and others as inhabiting a district north of the Elbe, which appears to have been the original settlement of the Teutones before their invasion of Gaul. Teutonic Knights, a military religious order of knights, established toward the close of the Twelfth Century, in imitation of the Templars and Hospitallers. It was composed chiefly of Teutons or Germans who marched to the Holy Land in the Crusades, and was established in that country for charitable purposes. In the Thirteenth Century they acquired Poland and Prussia, and they long held sway over a great extent of territory in this part of Europe. The order began to decline in the Fifteenth Century, and was finally abolished by Napoleon in 1809. Texas. The first attempt at colonization known to history was made by La Salle, who sailed into Matagorda Bay, and erected Fort St. Louis on the Lavaca in 1685. Four years later the French were ousted by the Spaniards. The two nationalities contested the dominion of the country with bitterness, though the right of pos- session was for the most part with the Spaniards. In 1715, the name of New Philippines was given to the country, and the Marquis de Aguayo was made governor-general, under whose rule Span- ish settlements were rapidly multiplied. In 1762-63, France settled the feud by her cession of the Louisiana territory to Spain. The reces- sion of Louisiana to France in 1803, and the sale by the latter power to the United States, still left the boundary of the old Spanish possessions west of Louisiana open to controversy, as there had previously been no well-defined line. In 1806, the territory between the Sabine and Arroya Honda was established as a neutral ground by the Spanish and American generals commanding on the frontier. In the absence of any national settlement, a series of revolutionary intrigues began with the projected movement of Aaron Burr in 1806. Filibustering expeditions into Texas from the United States led to several severe battles, and it was not till 1819 that the HISTORY 161 Sabine River was finally established as the Teian boundary. The revolutionary spirit, which made Texas a region of turmoil, did not cease when Mexico became independent under the leadership of Iturbide. Invasions from the United States continued, and, though several peaceable and thrifty American colonies had been planted, the dictator Bustamante, in 1830, forbade the people of the United States from further immigration. The long bitterness be- tween the two races culminated in 1835, and the Americans in the province, after fighting several engagements, organized a provisional govern- ment, with Sam Houston as Commander-in-Chief of the Texan forces. A series of sanguinary battles ensued between the Mexican troops under General Santa Ana and the Texan revo- lutionists, and the atrocities of the Mexicans awakened deep sympathy for the Texans. The issue of the contest was practically settled with the battle of San Jacinto, April 21, 1836, when Santa Ana was taken prisoner. General Houston was elected president of the Texan Republic the same year, and in March, 1837, the United States formally recognized the new gov- ernment. Intermittent hostilities continued be- tween Mexico and Texas, which, in 1839-'40, had been recognized by the leading European governments; but the threats of the former nation to subjugate the Texans was rendered negative by her own weakness and the growing power of the young State. The annexation of Texas to the United States, which led to the Mexican War, occurred by her admittance as a State in 1845, the fifteenth under the Constitu- tion. After the election of Abraham Lincoln the State seceded, February 23, 1861, by force of a popular vote, ratifying the ordinance of the con- vention called for that purpose. General Twiggs, on February 18th, surrendered to the State au- thorities all the United States posts, troops, and munitions of war in the department. No yery im- portant military operations occurred within the State limits during the war. The last fight of the war took place in Texas, ending in a Federal defeat, on May 13, 1865, and General Kirby Smith surrendered the last Confederate army here on May 26th. Texas was readmitted to her full rights in the Union, March 30, 1870. A period of lawlessness existed in the State for a number of years, but was finally suppressed by the Texas Rangers in 1879. A storm and tidal wave destroyed Galveston in 1900. In the next year vast oil fields were discovered near Beau- mont. Colored United States soldiers engaged in a riot at Brownsville in 1905, and were dismissed from the service by the President. Thebes (thebz). The principal city of Beotia, seated on the River Ismenus. Its fame was great in legendary Greece; it was built by Cadmus; Amphion reared its walls: the Sphinx, (Edipus, and the fatal combat of Eteocles and Polynices, figured in its story. It played a subordinate part in the histoiy of Greece, until the times of Epaminondas, when by his genius it was raised to the first rank among the states of Hellas. But it fell with his death, and never recovered from the destructive siege by Alex- ander the Great, in 336 B. C. A city of Egypt, on the Nile, called No in the Old Testament, and in the Iliad celebrated for its 100 gates, and its vast military forces. Amun, or Ammon, was especially worshiped there. Among its ruins are the magnificent temples of Luxor and Kar- nak, on the east bank of the Nile. Thermopylae, a celebrated pass of Ancient Greece, leading from Thessaly into Locris, between Northern and Southern Greece. It lay between Mount CEta (celebrated mytho- logically as the mountain on which Hercules burnt himself to death) and a morass which fringed the Malic or Maliac Gulf; both the east- ern and the western entrance to the pass approach- ing so close to the morass as to leave room for only a single carriage. In this pass, Leonidas, King of Sparta, was appointed to oppose the invading armies of Xerxes (480 B. C). These were driven back with immense slaughter, in their repeated attempts to force the pass; till at last Ephialtes, a Malain, guided a body of Persians over the mountain, and thus enauled them to fall on the rear of the Greeks, who were all slain (Leonidas included), with the exception of one man. The pass derived its name from the hot springs, sacred to Hercules, by which it was distinguished. Thirty Tyrants of Rome. The collect- ive title given to a set of military usurpers who sprung up in different parts of the empire during the fifteen years (253-268 A. D.) occupied by the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, and, amid the wretched confusion of the time, endeavored to establish themselves as independent princes. The name is borrowed from the Thirty Tyrants of Athens, but, in reality, historians can only reckon nineteen: Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista, Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East ; Postumus, Lollianus, Victorinus and his mother Victoria, Marius, and Tetricus, in the West; Ingenuus, Regillianus, and Aureolus, in Illyricum and the countries about the Danube; Saturninus, in Pontus; Trebellianus, in Isauria; Piso, in Thes- saly; Valens, in Achaea; iEmilianus, in Egypt; and Celsus, in Africa. Thirty Years' War (1618 to 1648), a war in Germany, at first a struggle between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Subse- quently it became a struggle for political ascend- ency in Europe. On the one side were Austria, nearly all the Roman Catholic princes of Ger- many, and Spain; on the other side were, at different times, the Protestant powers and France. The occasion of this war was found in the fact that Germany had been distracted ever since the Reformation by the mutual jeal- ousy of Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. Certain concessions had been made to the Prot- estants of Bohemia by Rudolph 11. (1609), but these were withdrawn by his successor Matthias in 1614, and four years afterward the Bohemian Protestants were in rebellion. Count Thurn at the head of the insurgents repeatedly routed the imperial troops, compelling them to retire from Bohemia, and (1619) invaded the archduchy of Austria. Matthias having died in 1619, he was succeeded by Ferdinand II., who was a rigid Catholic, but the Protestants elected as their king, Frederick, Elector Palatine, who was a Protestant. Efforts at mediation having failed, the Catholic forces of Germany marched 162 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS against Frederick, who, with an army of Bohemi- ans, Moravians, and Hungarians, kept the field till November 8, 1620, when he was totally routed at Weissenberg, near Prague, by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. The Protestant cause was now crushed in Bohemia, and the people of that province were much embittered. The dominions of Frederick, the Palatinate of the Rhine included, were now conquered, the latter being occupied by Count Tilly, assisted by the Spaniards under Spinola. At the Diet of Ratis- bon (March, 1623) Frederick was deprived of his territories, Duke Maximilian receiving the Palatinate. Ferdinand, whose succession to the throne of Bohemia was thus secured, sought for- eign assistance, and a new period of war began. Christian IV. of Denmark, induced partly by religious zeal and partly by the hope of an ac- quisition of territory, came to the aid of his German co-religionists (1624), and being joined by Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into lower Saxony. There they were met by Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland, who in 1626 defeated Mansfeld at Dessau, while Tilly was also successful in driving Christian back to Denmark. In the peace of Lubeck which followed (May, 1629), Christian of Denmark received back all his occupied territory, and undertook not to meddle again in German affairs. After this sec- ond success, Ferdinand again roused his people by an edict which required restitution to the Roman Catholic Church of all church lands and property acquired by them since 1552. To the assistance of the Protestants of Germany came Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who landed (1630) with a small army on" the coast of Pomerania. Joined by numerous volunteers, and aided by French money, he advanced, and routed Tilly at Breitenfeld (or the battle of Leipsic, September, 1631), victoriously trav- ersed the Main and the Rhine valleys, defeated Tilly again near the confluence of the Lech and the Danube (April, 1632), and entered Munich. Meanwhile the emperor sought the aid of Wal- lenstein, by whose ability and energy Gustavus was obliged to retire to Saxony, where he gained the great victory of Lutzen (November, 1632), but was himself mortally wounded in the battle. The war was now carried on by the Swedes under the chancellor Oxenstiema, till the rout of the Swedish forces at Nordlingen (September, 1634) again gave to the emperor the preponderating power in Germany. The Elector of Saxony, who had been an ally of Gustavus, now made peace at Prague (May, 1635), and within a few months the treaty was accepted by many of the German princes. The Swedes, however, thought it to their interest to continue the war, while France resolved to take a more active part in the conflict. Thus the last stage of the war was a contest of France and Sweden against Austria, in which the Swedish generals gained various successes over the imperial forces, while the French armies fought with varied fortunes in West Germany and on the Rhine. Meanwhile the emperor had died (1637), and had been suc- ceeded by his son, Ferdinand III. The struggle still continued till, in 1646, the united armies of the French under the great generals Turenne and Conde, and the Swedes advanced through Suabia and Bavaria. The combined forces of Sweden, Bavaria, and France were then about to advance on Austria, when the news reached the armies that the peace of Westphalia (1648) was concluded, and that the long struggle was ended. Tlconderoga, a village in Essex County, N. Y., on Lake Champlain. Ticonderoga fig- ured prominently during the colonial and revo- lutionary periods. In 1755 the French erected a fort here and named it Carrillon. Two years later Montcalm started from this place with 9,000 men and captured Fort William Henry on Lake George. In 1758 General Abercrombie endeavored to take the French fort, and was repulsed after losing 2,000 men; but in 1759 it fell into the hands of General Amherst together with Crown Point. Both were then enlarged and strengthened at a heavy expense. In 1775 the works were taken by Ethan Allen while weakly garrisoned. Two years later the fort surrendered to General Burgoyne, and after being dismantled was abandoned. Tiers Etat {ie-arz a-tah'). [Fr., the third estate.] This term was universally applied in France to the mass of the people under the old regime. Before the cities rose to wealth and influence, the nobility and clergy possessed the property of almost the whole country, and the people were subject to the most degrading hu- miliations. But as trade and commerce began to render men independent, send they were able to shake off their feudal bonds, the Tiers Etat gradually rose into importance; and at length the third estate, during the Revolution, may be said to have become the nation itself. Tilsit, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East Prussia, on the river Niemen, about sixty miles northeast of Konigsberg. It is celebrated for the Peace concluded in the town, in 1807, between the Emperor Napoleon, the Emperor of Russia, and the King of Prussia. The three monarchs met on a raft moored in the river. The population of the town at last census was 34,539. Toleration, Act of, an Act of Parlia- ment passed in the reign of William and Mary (1689), and confirmed by Anne, relieving all f)ersons who dissented from the Church of Eng- and (except Roman Catholics and persons who denied the doctrines of the Trinity) from many of the disabilities under which they had been placed by the acts of former reigns. By the Act of Toleration, such persons were to be no longer prevented from assembling for religious worship according to their own forms, but they were to be required to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to subscribe a declaration against transubstantiation ; and Dissenting min- isters were to be also required to subscribe to cer- tain of the Thirty-nine Articles. The benefits of the Act were subsequently (in 1813) extended to persons who deny the doctrine of the Trinity. Most of the remaining disabilities of Nonconform- ists have been removed by later legislation ; and the disabilities of the Roman Catholics (which were continued by the Act of Toleration) were repealed in 1829 by the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act. Toltecs, a Mexican race who are supposed to have been supreme in Central America from HISTORY 163 the Seventh to the Eleventh Centuries. They were completely obliterated by the Aztecs and Tezcucans, who held the countiy when the Spaniards first landed. The latter races were of a martial spirit, but they were indebted for their arts, their civilization, and their religion to their milder predecessors. The Toltecs present striking analogies to the Etruscans, and in a less degree to the Egyptians and Assyrians. They were great builders, and their religion was a mystic system of great complexity, intimately connected with the study of astronomy, and interpreted by a priesthood, who formed an exclusive caste. Tory, a political party name of Irish origin, first used in England about 1679, applied origin- ally to Irish Revolutionary Catholic outlaws, and then generally to those wno refused to concur in the scheme to exclude James II. from the throne. The nickname, like its contemporaneous oppo- site. Whig, in coming into popular use became much less strict in its application, till at last it came simply to signify an adherent of that politi- cal party in the state who disapproved of change in the ancient constitution, and who supported the claims and authority of the king, church, and aristocracy, while their opponents, the Whigs were in favor of more or less radical changes, and supported the claims of the democracy. In modern times the term has to some extent been supplanted by Conservative. Tournament, or Tourney, a common sport of the middle ages, in which parties of mounted knights encountered each other with lances and swords in order to display their skill in arms. Tournaments reached their full per- fection in France in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries where they first received the form under which they are known to us. They were introduced into England soon after the Conquest by the Normans. Jousts were single combats between two knights, and at a tournament there would often be a number of jousts as well as combats between parties of knights. The place of combat was the lists, a large open place surrounded by ropes or a railing. Galleries were erected for the spectators, among whom were seated the ladies, the supreme judges of the tournaments. A knight taking part in a tournament generally- carried some device emblematic of a lady s favor. Tournaments gradually . went out with the decline of chivalry, and are rare, except in America, where they are a form of sport. Tower of London. The most ancient, and historically the most interesting pile in the English metropolis; a mass of buildings on the north side of the Thames, immediately to the east of the ancient city walls, its ramparts and gates surrounded by a dry ditch in pentagonal shape; in outer circuit measuring 1,050 yards. Within this the whole of the buildings are en- circled by a double line of walls and bulwarks, in some places forty feet high and twelve feet thick; the space between the walls being known as the outer ward, and the interior as the inner ward. The inner ward was formerly the royal quarter. The outer ward was the folk's quarter. The inner ward is defended by twelve massive and conspicuous towers, stationed at unequal distances, and possessing distinctive names and formations. In the center, rearing its head proudly above them all, stands the main quad- rangular building and great Norman keep, known as the White Tower. To the north are the barracks, and to the northwest the Church of St. Peter and Vincula. The entrance to the buildings is on the west side by the Lion's Gate For centuries the tower was a palace, a prison, a fortress, and a court of law. Here the Plan- tagenet kings held their gay tournaments, mag- nificent revels, and pompous religious cere- monials. Here also tragedy succeeded tragedy, and the innocent blood of many of England's bravest and most beautiful poured forth in a cruel stream. Wise statesmen, fair queens, child princes, noble warriors, and priests were slain, their only crimes, in many cases, being their rank, their patriotism, and their faith. "No sadder spot on earth," says Macaulay, of England. . . . "Death is there associ- ated . . . with whatever is darkest in hu- man nature and in human destiny, with the savage triumph of implacable enemies, with the inconstancy, the ingratitude, the cowardice of friends, with all the miseries of fallen great- ness and of blighted fame." The tower is now chiefly used as an arsenal, and has a small military garrison of the yeomen of the guard. The governorship is still a post of distinction. Treaty, A, in public law, is an agreement of friendship, alliance, commerce, or navigation, entered into between two or more independent states. Treaties have been divided by pub- licists into personal and real, the difference being that the former relate exclusively to the per- sons of the contracting parties t. g., treaties guaranteeing the throne to a particular sovereign and his family, and the latter are treaties for national objects, independent of the rulers of the state. While personal treaties expire with the death of the sovereign, or the extinction of his family, real treaties bind the contracting parties independently of any change in the sov- ereignty of the states. The constitution of each particular state must be looked to to determine in whom the power of negotiating and contract- ing treaties with foreign powers resides. In monarchies, whether absolute or constitutional, it is usually vested in the sovereign. In repub- lics the chief magistrate, senate, or executive council is intrusted. The Constitution of the United States of America (Article II, Section 2) vests it in the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. No special form of words is necessary for the validity of a treaty; but modern usage requires that an agreement which has originally been verbal should, as soon as possible, be committed to writing. Treaties of alliance may be offensive or defensive; in the former the ally engages to cooperate in hos- tilities against a specified poWer, or against any power with which the other may be at war; in the latter, the engagements of the ally extend only to a war of aggression commenced against the other contracting party. Treaties, Coalitions, Conventions, and Leagues. The principal treaties of history are the following: Adrianople, 1829, Adrianople restored by the Rus- sians to Turkey. 164 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Aix-L>a-Chapelle< 1748, celebrated treaty between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and Genoa. A number of previous treaties renewed and con- 6rmed. Aix-La-Chapelle, 1818, between the Allies and France. The latter pays 265,000,000 francs to the Allies. Amiens, 1803, Treaty of Peace between Great Britain and Holland, France, and Spain. Augsburg, League of 1686, between Holland and other European powers to enforce respect for the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen. Baden, 1714, terminating the War of the Spanish succession, between France and the Emperor. Basle, 1795, treaties between France and Prussia and between France and Spain. Berlin, decree, 1806, issued by Napoleon I., against the commerce of England. Breda, 1667, treaty between England, Holland, France, and Denmark. Bresiau, 1742, between Maria Theresa of Austria and Frederick II. of Prussia. Bretigny, 1360, treaty of peace that interrupted the Hundred \ ears' War between England and France. Calmar, Union of, 1397, United Denmark, Sweden, and Norway under Queen Margaret of Denmark. Cambray, 1508, league against Venice, comprising the Pope, tne Emperor, and the Kings of France and Spain. Cambray, Peace of, 1539, between Francis I. and Charles V. Campo Formio, Peace of, 1797, between France and Austria. Carlowitz, Peace of, 1699, between Turkey and Austria, Poland and Venice. Humiliating concessions made by Austria. Carlsbad, Congress of, 1819, held by the German powers to protest against the progress of free institutions and popular rights. Coalitions Against France, 1793, 1799, 1805, 1806, 1809, 1813, led by England and entered into by the great powers of the Continent to break down F'rench influence in Europe. Concordat, 1801, between Napoleon 1. and Pius VII., whereby the former was made in effect head of the Galilean Church. Constance, 1183, between Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombartl cities. Copenhagen, 1660, treaty between Denmark and Sweden. Fontainebleau, 1807, treaty between Napoleon and the royal family of Spain. Frankfort, 1871, conclusion of the preliminary treaty of Versailles. Gastein, Convention of, 1865, between Prussia and Austria. Ghent, 1814, treaty of Peace between United States and England, closing War of 1812. Hague, 1659, between England, France, and Hol- land, with a view to preserve the equilibrium of Northern Europe. Hamburg, 1341, league with Subeck, giving rise to the Hansiatic League. Holy Alliance, 1815, a league between the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound themselves to Christian principles in political matters. Hubertsburg, 1763, peace between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. Jay's Treaty, 1794, between the United States and Great Britain. Kiel, 1814, between Denmark, Sweden, and England. Norway and Sweden united. Kutchuk-Kainardji, 1774, between Turkey and Russia. Ijcague, Catholic, 1576, formed to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France. London, 1840, quadruple treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Ru.ssia on the one hand, and Turkey, touching the states of Egypt. Lunevllle, 1801, between France and Austria and the German Empire. Madrid, 1536, treaty between Charles V. and Francis I. Munster, 1648, between France and the Emperor of Sweden. By this peace, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Nankin, 1843, ended the opium war between Great Britain and China. Nantes, Edict of, 1598, by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to the Huguenots. Nj[stadt, 1731, closed the war between Sweden and Russia. Paris, Treaties of: 1763, terminating the Seven Years' War, in Austria, the French and Indian War. 1783, terminating the American Kevolulionary War. 1814-15, between France and the Coalition. 1856, terminating the Crimean War. 1898, terminating the Spanish-American War. Partition of Poland: 1773, secret treaty between Russia and Prussia at St. Petersburg. 1795, between Ru.ssia, Austria, and Prussia. Passau, 1553, securing the liberties of German Lutherans. Perry's Treaty, 1854, commercial treaty between United States and Japan. Portsmouth, 1905, treaty between Japan and Rus- sia, closing the Russo-Japanese War. Prague, 1866, peace between Prussia and Austria. Presburg, 1805, peace between France and Austria; ancient states of Venice ceded to J taly, and independence of Switzerland stipulated. Pretoria, 1903, terminated the Boer War between Great Britain and the Transvaal. Pyrenees, 1659, between France and Spain; mutual concessions of territory made. Quadruple Alliance, 1718, celebrated treaty be- tween Great Britain, France, the Emperor, and Holland, for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families in Great Britain and France, and set- tling the partition of the Spanish Monarchy. Rastatlt, 1714, between France and Austria. Rastadt, Congress of, 1797, between France and the Empire, established a general peace with the Ger- manic powers. Ratisbon, 1806, secession of the Germanic princes from the Empire, to the cause of Napoleon, forming the Rhine, Confederation of, 1806. Ryswick, 1697, peace between France and the allied powers, closing the war of the "Patch Note." St. Clair-Sur-Epte, 911, terminated the war be- tween the Norse under RoUa and Charles the Simple of France. Saint Germain, 1570, peace between the Cathohcs and Huguenots. San Stefano, 1878, this treaty, supplemented by the Congress of Berlin closed the Russian-Turkish War. Schonbrunn, 1809, treaty between France and Aus- tria. Shimonoseki, 1895, closed the war between Japanese and China. Thorn, 1466, settled the terms of the Polish conquest of Western Prussia. Tientsin, 1858, between China aftd each of the nations of Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. Tilsit, 1807, treaty concluded between France and Russia, whereby Napoleon restored to the Prussian Monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recog- nized the Confederates of the Rhine, and the elevation of Napoleon's brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome to the thrones of Naples. Holland, and Westphalia. Tolentlno, 1797, between the Pope and the French Republic. Triple Alliance, 1668, the celebrated alliance be- tween the States-General and England against France for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands. Sweden afterward joined the league. Triple Alliance, 1879, between Austria, Germany, and Italy. Troyes, 1430, between England, France, and Bur- gundy, whereby Henry V. of England succeeded to the throne of France. Ulm, 1630, by wliich Frederick V. lost Bohemia. Utrecht, 1713, terminated the wars of Queen Anne of England, and secured the Protestant succession in England, and enlarged British colonization in America. Utrecht, Union of, 1579, foundations of the Dutch Republic laid. Valencay, 1813, between Napoleon and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter restored full possession of his kingdom upon agreeing to maintain its integrity. Verdun, Contract of, 843, concluded the war be- tween Lothaire, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald, and settled their respective imperial dominions after the death of their father, Louis the Pious. Verona, Congress of, 1833, held by the great powers to adjust Spanish and Grecian disturbances. Versailles, 1783, between Great Britain and the United States at close of American Revolution; the treaty was signed in Paris. 1783, between Great Britain, France, and Spain. 1871, between France and Ger- many: William I., proclaimed Emperor of Germany. Vienna, 1735, treaty between the Emperor of Ger- many and the King of Spain, settling the sovereignty History 165 over certain parts of the Spanish dominions. 1731, treaty of alliance between Germany, Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was granted, and the Spanish succession settled. 1738, treaty of peace between Germany and France; Loraine ceded to France, and France guaranteed the Pragmatic sanction. 1809, treaty of peace between Napoleon and Francis I, of Austria. Austria ceded to France the Illyrian Prov- inces. 1815, treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming the treaty of Chaument. 1815, treaty between the Low Countries, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, agreeing to the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange. 1815, Federative constitution of Germany signed. Warsaw, 1683, alliance between Austria and Poland against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna. 1768, treaty between Russia and Poland. Washington, 18412, Ashburton treaty defined the northwestern boundary between the United States and Canada. Washington, 1871, between Great Britain and the United States to adjust the Alabama claims. Westphalia, 1648, treaty of peace between France, Germany, and Sweden, terminating the Thirty Years' War. Worms, Concordat of, 1123, between the Emperor and the Pope, closed the long strife called the War of Investitures. Worms, Diet of, 1531, imperial conclave before whom Luther was summoned and presented. Zurich, 1859, closed the dispute between Austria and France and Sardinia. Tribune (tribunus), in Roman antiquity, originally an officer connected with a tribe, or who represented a tribe for certain purposes; especially, an officer or magistrate chosen by the people to protect them from the oppression of the patricians or nobles, and to defend their liberties against any attempts that might be made upon them by the senate and consuls. These magistrates were at first two, but their number was increased to five, and ultimately to ten. This last number appears to have re- mained unaltered, down to the end of the em- pire. There were also military tribunes, officers of the army, each of whom commanded a division or legion, and also other officers called tribunes; as, tribunes of the treasury, of the horse, etc. Triumvirate, a coalition of three men in office or authority; specifically applied to two great coalitions of the three most powerful individuals in the Roman Empire for the time being. The first of these was effected in the year 60 B. C, between Julius Csesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who pledged themselves to support each other with all their influence. This coali- tion was broken by the fall of Crassus at Carrhae in Mesopotamia ; soon after which the civil war broke out, which ended in the death of Pompey, and establishment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator. After his murder, 44 B. C, the civil war again broke out; and after the battle of Mutina, 43 B. C, Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus coalesced, thus forming the second triumvirate. They divided the provinces of the empire; Octavius taking the West, Lepidus, Italy, and Antony, the East. Troy, or Ilium (Greek, Troia or Ilion), an ancient city in the Troad, a' territory in the northwest of Asia Minor, south of the western extremity of the Hellespont, rendered famous by Homer's epic of the Iliad. The region is for the most part mountainous, being intersected by Mount Ida and its branches. There have been various opinions regarding the site of the Homeric city, the most probable of which places ancient Troy at the head of the plain bounded by the modern river Mendereh, supposed to be the Scamander of Homer, and the Dombrek, probably the Homeric Simois. The Ilium of history was founded about 700 B. C. by iEolic Greeks, and was regarded as occupying the site of the ancient city, but this is doubtful; it never became a place of much importance. The ancient and legendary city, according to the Homeric story, reached its highest splen- dor when Priam was king; but the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta, by Paris, one of Priam's sons, brought about its destruction. To revenge this outrage, all the Greek chiefs afterwards famous in history, banded themselves against the Trojans and their allies, and went against Troy with a great fleet. The first nine years of the war were spent by the Greeks in driving the Trojans and their allies within the walls of the capital. The tenth year brought about a quarrel between Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks, and Agamemnon, the Greek commander-in-chief, which proved for a time disastrous to their party, and which forms the subject of the Iliad. In the end, the city was taken by means of a large hollow wooden horse, in which a number of the bravest of the Greek heroes concealed themselves, while the rest retired to their ships. Thinking that the Greeks had given up the siege, the Trojans in- cautiously drew the horse within the city, and gave themselves up to revelry. The Greeks within the horse issued from their concealment, and being joined by their companions without the walls, Troy was taken and utterly destroyed. This is said to have occurred about 1184 B. C. Not only has the site of the ancient city been disputed, but the legends connected with it are held by some scholars to have no historical foundation; nor has this view been altered by the excavations of Schliemann, and his dis?- covery of the remains of a prehistoric city or cities at Hissarlik, the site of the historic Ilium. Tudor, the name of one of the royal families of England allied to the race of Plantagenets. The line embraced five sovereigns, and com- menced in 1485 with Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the grandson by his wife, of Sir Owen Tudor, a Welsh knight of distinction, the widow of Henry V., and who, after the battle of Bosworth Field, was proclaimed king by the title of Henry VII. From him the crown descended to his son Henry VIII., whose son Edward VI. succeeded, and after him his two sisters, Mary and Elizabeth ; the Tudor dynasty expiring with the death of the latter in 1603, when the house of Stuart succeeded. Tuilerles (twe'le-riz), the residence of the French monarchs; on the right bank of the Seine, in Paris. Catharine de Medici, wife of Henry II., began the building (1564); Henry IV. extended it, and founded the old gallery (1600); and Louis XIV. enlarged it (1654), and completed that gallery. The side toward the Louvre consisted of five pavilions, and four ranges of buildings; the other side had only three pavilions. During the revolution of 1830 the palace was sacked. It was restored by Louis Philippe to its former splendor, but in 1848 it was again pillaged. The Tuileries then 166 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS became a hospital for wounded soldiers, a picture gallery, and the home of Louis Napoleon in 185^. On May 23, 1871, it was almost totally destroyed by fire (the work of the communists), and the remaining portions were removed in the year 1883. Turkish, or Ottoman, Empire com- prises the territories in Europe, Asia, and Africa more or less under the sway of the Turkish sultan. In Europe, besides the immediate provinces in the Balkan Peninsula, are Bulgaria (with Eastern Roumelia), and Bosnia, Herze- fovina, etc., held by Austria; in Asia, Asia linor, Syria, including Palestine, Mesopotamia, part of Arabia, Candia, and others of the islands of the archipelago; in Africa, Egypt, over which there is a nominal suzerainty, and the vilayet of Tripoli. Formerly the empire was much more extensive, even in recent times com- prising Greece, Rumania, Servia, Bessarabia, Tunis, etc. We shall here give a brief sketch of the history of the Ottoman Empire, referring to the article Turkey for information regarding the geography, constitution, etc., of Turkey proper. The Ottoman Turks came originally from the region of the Altai Mountains, in Central Asia, and in the Sixth Century A. D., pushed onward to the west in connection with other Turkish tribes. Early in the Eighth Century they came in contact with the Saracens, from whom they took their religion, and of whom they were first the slaves and mercenaries, and finally the successors in the caliphate. In the Thirteenth Century they appeared as allies of the Seljukian Turks against the Mongols, and for their aid received a grant of lands from the Seljuk sultan of Iconium in Asia Minor. Their leader, Othman or Osman, of the race of Og- huzian Turkomans, became the most powerful emir of Western Asia, and after the death of Ihe Seljuk sultan of Iconium, in the year 1300, he proclaimed himself sultan. He died in 1326. Thus was founded upon the ruins of the Saracen, Seljuk, and Mongol power the Empire of the Osman or Ottoman Turks in Asia; and after Osman, the courage, policy, and enterprise of eight great princes, whom the dignity of caliph placed in possession of the standard of the Prophet, and who were animated by religious fanaticism and a passion for military glory, raised it to the rank of the first military power in both Europe and Asia (1300-1566). The first of them was Orkhan, son of Osman. He subdued all Asia Minor to the Hellespont, took the title of Padishah, and became son-in- law to the Greek Emperor Cantacuzenus. Ork- han's son, Soliman, first invaded Europe in 1355. He fortified Gallipoli and Sestos, and thereby held possession of the straits which separate the two continents. In 1360 Orkhan's second son and successor, Amurath I., took Adrianople, which became the seat of the Em- pire in Europe, conquered Macedonia, Albania, and Servia, and defeated a great Slav confedera- tion under the Bosnian King Stephen at. Kos- sova in 1389. After him Bajazet, surnamed Ilderim {Lightning), invaded Thessaly, and also advanced towards Constantinople. In 1396 he defeated the Western Christians under Sigis- mund, King of Hungary, at Nicopolis, in Bul- garia; but at Angora, in 1402, he was himself conquered and taken prisoner by Timour, who divided the provinces between the sons of Ba- jazet. Finally, in 1413, the fourth son of Ba- jazet, Mohammed I., seated himself upon the undivided throne of Osman. In 1415 his vic- torious troops reached Salzburg antl invaded Bavaria. He conquered the Venetians at Thessalonica in 1420; and his celebrated grand- vizier Ibrahim created a Turkish navy. Mo- hammed was succeeded by his son, Amurath II., who defeated Ladislaus, King of Hungary and Poland, at Varna, in 1444. Mohammed II., the son of Amurath, completed the work of conquest (1451-81). He attacked Constanti- nople, which was taken May 29, 1453, and the Byzantine Empire came finally to an end. Since that time the city has been the seat of the Sublime Porte or Turkish Government. Mo- hammed added Servia, Bosnia, Albania, and Greece to the Ottoman Empire, and threatened Italy, which, however, was freed from danger by his death at Otranto in 1480. His grandson, Selim I., who had dethroned and murdered his father in 1517, conquered Egypt and Syria. Under Soliman II., the Magnificent, who reigned between 1519 and 1566, the Ottoman Empire reached the highest pitch of power and splen- dor. In 1522 he took Rhodes from the Knights of St. John, and by the victory of Mohacz, in 1526, subdued half of Hungary. He exacted a tribute from Moldavia, made Bagdad, Mesopo- tamia, and Georgia subject to him, and threat- ened to overrun Germany, but was checked before the walls of Vienna (1529). Soliman had as an opponent Charles V. of Germany, as an ally Francis II. of France. From his time the race of Osman degenerated and the power of the Porte declined. In the latter part of the Sixteenth Century, and most of the Seventeenth Century, the chief wars were with Venice and with Austria. The battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the Ottoman fleet was overthrown by the combined fleets of Venice and Spain, was the first great Ottoman reverse at sea; and the battle of St. Gothard (1664), near Vienna, in which Montecuculi de- feated the Vizier Kiuprili, the first great Otto- man reverse on land. In 1683 Vienna was be- sieged by the Turks, but was relieved by John Sobieski and Charles of Lorraine; in 1687 the Turks were again defeated at Mohacz, and in 1697 (by Prince Eugene), at Szenta. Then fol- lowed the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, by which Mustapha II. agreed to renounce his claims upon Transylvania and a large part of Hungary, to give up the Morea to the Venetians, to restore Podolia and the Ukraine to Poland, and to leave Azov to the Russians. Eugene's subse- quent victories at Peterwardein and Belgrade obliged the Porte to give up, by the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, Temeswar, Belgrade, with a part of Servia and Walachia; but the Turks on the other hand took the Morea from Venice, and by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 regained Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wallachia, while for a time they also regained Azov. Russia, which had been making steady ad- vances under Peter the Great and subsequently, now became the great opponent of Turkey. In HISTORY 167 the middle of the Eighteentli Century the Otto- man Empire still embraced a large part of Soutliern Russia. The victories of Catharine II. 's general Romanzoff in the war between 1768 and 1774 determined the political superiority of Russia, and at the Peace of Kutchuk-Kain- arji, in 1774, Abdul-Hamid was obUged to re- nounce his sovereignty over the Crimea, to yield to Russia the country between the Bog and the Dnieper, with Kinburn and Azov, and to open his seas to the Russian merchant ships. By the Peace of Jassy, 1792, which closed the war of 1787-91, Russia retained Taurida and the coun- try between the Bog and the Dniester, together with Otchakov, and gained some accessions in the Caucasus. In the long series of wars which followed the French revolution the Ottoman Empire first found, herself opposed to France, in consequence of Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, and finally to Russia, who demanded a more distinct recognition of her protectorate over the Christians, and to whom, by the Peace of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, she ceded that part of Moldavia and Bessarabia which lies beyond the Pruth. In 1817, Mahmud II. was obliged to give up the principal mouth of the Danube to Russia. Further disputes ended in the Porte making further concessions, which tended towards loosening the connection of Servia, Moldavia, and Wallachia with Turkey. In 1821, broke out the war of Greek independence. The remonstrances of Britain, France, and Russia, against the cruelties with which the war against the Greeks was carried on, proving of no avail, those powers attacked and destroyed the fleet of Mahmud at Navarino (1827). In 1826, the massacre of the Janizaries took place at Con- stantinople, after a revolt. In 1828-29, the Russians crossed the Balkans and took Adrian- ople, the war being terminated by the Peace of Adrianople (1829). In that year Turkey had to recognize the independence of Greece. In 1831-33, Mehemet Ah, nominally Pasha of Egypt, but real ruler both of that and Syria, levied war against his sovereign in 1833, and threatened Constantinople; when the Russians, who had been called on for their aid by the sultan, forced the invaders to desist. In 1840 Mehemet AU again rose against his sovereign; but through the active intervention of Great Britain, Austria, and Russia, was compelled to evacuate Syria, though he was, in recompense, recognized as hereditary viceroy of Egypt. The next important event in the history of the Ottoman Empire was the war with Russia, in which Turkey became involved in 1853, and in which she was joined by England and France in the following year. This war, known as the Crimean War, speedily terminated with the defeat of Russia, and the conclusion of a treaty at Paris on the 30th of March, 1856, by which the influence of Russia in Turkey was greatly reduced. The principal articles were the aboli- tion of the Russian protectorate over the Dan- ubian principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia, united in 1861 as the principahty of Roumania), the rectification of the frontier between Russia and Turkey, and the cession of part of Bessarabia to the latter power. In 1875 the people of Herzegovina, unable to endure any longer the misgovemment of the Turks, broke into rebeUion. A year later the Servians and' Montenegrins likewise took up arms, and though tlie former were unsuccessful and obliged to abandon the war, the Montene- grins still held out. Meantime the great powers of Europe were pressing reforms on Turkey, and at the end of 1876 a conference met at Con- stantinople, with the view of making a fresh settlement of the relations between her and her Christian provinces. All the recommendations of the conference were, however, rejected by Turkey ; and in April following, Russia, who had been coming more and more prominently forward as the champion of the oppressed prov- inces, and had for months been massing troops on both the Asiatic and the European frontier of Turkey, issued a warlike manifesto and com- menced hostile operations in both parts of the Turkish Empire. She was immediately joined by Roumania, who on the 22d of May (1877) declared her independence. The progress of the Russians was at first rapid; but the Turks of- fered an obstinate resistance. After the fall of Kars, however, November 18th, and the fall of Plevna, December 10th, the Turkish resistance completely collapsed, and on the 3d of March, 1878, Turkey was compelled to agree to the Treaty of San Stefano, in which she accepted the terms of Russia. The provisions of this treaty were, however, considerably modified by the Treaty of Berlin, concluded on the 13th of July following, by which Roumania, Servia, and Monte- negro were declared independent; Roumanian Bessarabia was ceded to Russia; Austria was empowered to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina; and Bulgaria was erected into a principality. The main events in the history of the Otto- man Empire since the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin are the French invasion of Tunis in 1881, which soon after was formally placed under the protectorate of the French; the treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of the great powers in 1881, by which Turkey ceded to Greece almost the whole of Thessaly and a strip of Epirus; the occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882; and the revolution at Philippopolis in 1885, when the government of Eastern Roumelia was overthrown, and the union of that province with Bulgaria proclaimed. The results of the revolution were recognized by an imperial firman in 1886, and Eastern Roumelia has since for all practical purposes formed part of Bulgaria. In 1903, serious revolts broke out in Bulgaria and Albania, attended with massacres and atrocities. In 1909, Abdul Hamid II. was dethroned by the Young Turks, and Mehmed Y. made sultan. Tuscany (Italian, Toscana), formerly a grand-duchy, now a department of Italy; area, 9,289 square miles; population, 2,340,100. The chain of the Northern Apennines forms a considerable portion of its northern boundary, the sea being its boundary on the west. The principal river is the Arno. Cereals cover a large area, and vineyards, olive-yards, and orchards are numerous. The manufacture of silk is considerable. The marble of Tuscany, especially that of Siena, is well known. Tuscany 168 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS corresponds to the ancient Etruria, which was, however, of wider extent. After the fall of the Western Empire (476) it passed successively into the hands of the Ostrogoths, Byzantine Greeks, and Lombards. Charlemagne made it a Frankish province, and it was governed by marquises or dukes until the Twelfth and Thir- teenth Centuries, when it became broken up into a number of small republics, four of which were Florence, Pisa, Siena, and Lucca. From the first, Florence occupied the leading place, and it gradually extended its territory. In 1569 Pope Pius I. granted to Cosmo I. the title of Grand-duke of Tuscany, and this position was retained, with interruptions, by the celebrated Medici family, until 1737, when it passed to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine. In 1859, when under his descendant, the Grand-duke Leopold, it was annexed to Sardinia by a popular vote, and in 1861 became, with Sardinia, part of the kingdom of Italy. United States of America. When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprise.d within the United States was exclu- sively inhabited by the race commonly called American Indians. According to the Scandi- navian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of New England. In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus, John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24th discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southward nearly 1,000 miles. In 1498, his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from the same port in search of a north- west passage to China; but finding the ice im- penetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as Chesapeake Bay. In 1512, the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539, took place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who, in the course of two years, penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to a point 200 miles beyond the Missis- sippi. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augus- tine, the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585, an expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roa- noke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607, the English founded Jamestown on James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement. The master spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith, Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 1620 by the "Pilgrim fathers of New England," a body of Puritans led by John Carver and others, who sailed from England in the "May- flower." Salem was settled by John Endicott in 1628. In 1630, John Winthrop settled Bos- ton. In 1692, Plymouth Colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover in New Hampshire were settled in 1623. The first per- manent English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These settlements ulti- mately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachu- setts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-36 by emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode Jsl^n^ was first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623, permanent settle- ments were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by a Dutch army. The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1632 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River, near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who, in 1733, founded Savannah. The principal Indian wars were those of 1622 and 1644-46 in Virginia; thePequot War (1636-37) and King Philip's War (1675-76) in New England ; that with the Corees and Tuscaroras in 1711, and that with the Yemas- sees in 1715, in the Carolinas. Toward the close of the Seventeenth Century the Indians on the northern and western frontiers began to receive aid from the French in Canada, who, whenever their mother country was at war with England, carried on hostilities with the English colonies, and frequently, accompanied by their savage allies, made destructive and bloody in- roads into New England and New. York. The first conflict with the French, known as King William's War lasted seven years, terminating in 1697. Queen Anne's War (1702-13) was marked by the conquest from the French in 1710 of Acadia (Nova Scotia). The principal event of King George's War was the capture (1745) of Louisburg, the chief stronghold of the French in America, which was restored to the French at the close of the war (1748). Disputes having arisen with the French on the Ohio, an expedition under Washington, was sent toward that river, which, on May 28, 1754, cut to pieces a French detachment under Jumonville, who was slain. This affair began the long contest known as the French and Indian War. Among its prominent events were Braddock's defeat (1755) near Fort Duquesne, when Washington distinguished himself by covering the retreat; the capture by the French of Oswego (1756) and Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George (1757); and the taking of Louisburg after a siege of seven weeks by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, and the repulse of an attack on Ti- conderoga made by a powerful army under General Abercrombie and Lord Howe (1758). The crowning exploit of the war was the taking of Quebec (1759) by an army led by General Wolfe. In 1763, by the Treaty of Paris, Canada and its dependencies were formally ceded to Great Britain. The transfer from the French to the English of the posts between the Great HISTORY 169 Lakes and the Ohio led (1763) to a war with the Indian tribes, of which the master spirit was Pontiac. The sentiment of- poUtical free- dom was strongly developed among the colo- nists, and republican ideas and feelings trans- mitted from the period of the commonwealth in England were widely diffused, though at the same time a warm attachment existed for the mother country and a devoted loyalty to the Crown. The .first opposition was aroused by an act of parliament in 1761, authorizing sher- iffs and officers of the customs to use "writs of assistance V or general search warrants. These writs were resisted in Massachusetts, where the rights of the people were defended by James Otis. In 1765 the Stamp Act was passed, which declared that every document used in trade or legal proceedings, to be valid, must have affixed to it a tax stamp of the minimum value of one shilling, and increasing indefinitely according to the value of the writing. To enforce the act parliament authorized the ministry to send troops, for whom the colonies were required to provide quarters and various necessaries. These acts created great excitement and indignation in America. Everywhere the people determined not to use the stamps, and associations calling themselves "sons of liberty," were organized in opposition to the act and for the general defense of the rights of the colonies. In Octo- ber a congress of delegates from nine colonies assembled in New York or. the invitation of Massachusetts, and drew up a declaration of rights, a memorial to parliament, and a petition to the king, in which they claimed the right of being taxed only by their own representatives. The merchants of the principal cities agreed to purchase no more goods in England till the act was repealed, and the people pledged themselves to use no articles of English manufacture. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but the next year parliament passed an act imposing duties on paper, glass, tea, and some other articles imported into the colonies. The colonies in return revived with renewed vigor their non- importation associations. Massachusetts, and especially Boston, was foremost in the opposi- tion. A military force under General Gage was sent to occupy the town in 1768. A collision took place March 5, 1770, between the soldiers and a crowd of citizens, in which three of the latter were killed and eight wounded. The "Boston Massacre," as this was called, caused great excitement throughout the country. In April, 1770, the government removed all the duties except that of threepence a pound on tea. Combinations were now formed against the importation and use of tea, and measures taken to prevent its being either landed or sojd. At Boston, December 16, 1773, a band of men disguised as Indians went on board three tea ships which had recently arrived from England, and emptied the tea into the water. Parliament thereupon, in 1774, passed the "Boston Port Bill," which closed that port to all commerce, and transferred the board of customs to Marble- head and the seat of colonial government to Salem. Other repressive bills were also passed. On September 5th the "Old Continental Con- gress" met in Philadelphia, in which all the colonies were represented except Georgia. A declaration of rights was agreed upon, in which was set forth the claim of the colonists as British subjects to participate in making their own laws and imposing their own taxes, and to the rights of trial by a jury of the vicinage, of holding public meetings, and of petitioning for redress of grievances. The maintenance of a standing army in the colonies without their consent was protested against, as were eleven acts passed since the accession of George III. in violation of colonial rights and privileges. The first con- flict occurred, and the first bfood of the Revolu- tion was shed, on April 19, 1775. (See under Lexington.) On the night of the day fol- lowing the action the king's governor and army found themselves closely beleaguered in Boston. The people everywhere rose in arms, and before the close of summer the power of all the royal governors from Massachusetts to Georgia was at an end. Volunteer expeditions from Vermont and Connecticut, led by Ethan Allen and Bene- dict Arnold, seized the important fortresses of Ticonderoga (May 10th) and Crown Point (May 12th). The second Continental Congress assem- bled on May 10th at Philadelphia, in the State house, now known as Independence Hall. It sent another petition to the king, denying any intention of separation from England, and ask- ing only for redress of grievances; but measures were taken to raise an army, to equip a navy, and to procure arms and ammunition. The forces before Boston were adopted as the Conti- nental army, and Washington was nominated and unanimously chosen (June 15th) as com- mander-in-chief. Before he could reach the seat of war the battle of Bunker Hill had been fought, June 17th. He regularly beleaguered Boston till March 17, 1776, when the British evacuated it and sailed for Halifax. Meantime, an inva- sion of Canada under General Montgomery re- sulted in the capture of Montreal and a repulse from Quebec, which was attacked December 31, 1775, by parties led by Montgomery and Arnold. On June 28, 1776, a British fleet attacked Charleston, S. C, and was repulsed with great loss by a small force in Fort Sullivan (afterward Fort Moultrie), commanded by Colonel Moultrie. On July 4th the Declaration of Independence written by Jefferson, was adopted, and in this document the colonies were first designated the "United States of America." Soon after the evacuation of Boston by the British, Washing- ton transferred his army to New York. On June 29th the late garrison of Boston arrived from Halifax, and soon after other British troops from Europe and from the South. The cam- paign began on Long Island, where, on August 27th, the Americans were defeated with heavy loss, and forced to abandon that island, and soon after the city of New York. Having fought another unsuccessful battle at White Plains (October 28th), Washington early in December was compelled to retreat beyond the Delaware at the head of but 3,000 men. About the same time the British seized and held the island of Rhode Island. On the night of December 25th Washington crossed the Delaware in open boats with 2,400 men, and falling upon the British forces at Trenton, captured about 1,000 Hessians. 170 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS On January 3, 1777, he defeated the enemy again at Princeton, taking 230 prisoners. A movement threatening Philadelphia called Wash- ington south. In the battle on the Brandywine, September 11th, he was outnumbered and com- pelled to retreat with a loss of nearly 1,000 men. On the 26th, the British took possession of Philadelphia without opposition. On Octo- ber 4th, Washington attacked the British at Germantown, seven miles from Philadelphia, but was repulsed with heavy loss; and soon afterward both armies went into winter quarters, the Americans at Valley Forge, on the Schuyl- kill, twenty miles from Philadelphia. Mean- time, a British army, 7,500 strong, besides In- dians, commanded by General Burgoyne, ad- vanced from Canada by Lake Champlain, and took Ticonderoga, Fort Independence, and Whitehall. Strong detachments, which were sent to Bennington, Vt., to destroy a collection of stores, were met there (August 16th) and defeated with the loss of about 200 killed and 600 prisoners by the Vermont and New Hamp- shire militia led by General Stark. Burgoyne was encountered by General Gates, to whom, after the battles of Stillwater (September 19th) and Saratoga (October 7th), he capitulated at Saratoga (October 17th) with his whole army. The consequences of this victory were apparent in the signing, in February, 1778, of treaties of alliance and of amity and commerce with France. The British evacuated Philadelphia in the night of June 17th with more than 17,000 men. Washington pursued, and on the 28th the two armies engaged in battle on the plains of Mon- mouth, near Freehold, N. J. The Americans remained masters of the field, while the British retreated to New York. An attempt made in August, with the assistance of the French fleet under Count d'Estaing, to drive the British from Rhode Island, proved a failure. On December 29th the British, having defeated the American forces at Savannah, took possession of the city. In September, 1779, Savannah was besieged by a French and American force, and on October 9th an assault was made upon it, which was repulsed with a loss to the allies of nearly 800 men, among them Casimir Pulaski. About this time the British evacuated Rhode Island, to concentrate their forces at New York. One of the most brilliant achievements of the war was the storming (July 16, 1779) of Stony Point on the Hudson by General Wayne. On the ocean, which swarmed with American privateers, Paul Jones chiefly distinguished himself. Charleston, S. C, after a feeble defense of several weeks, was surrendered to the British on May 12, 1780, by General Lincoln. The rest of South Carolina nominally submitted to the royal authority; but a guerilla warfare was kept up by Sumter, Marion, and other partisan leaders. Congress sent General Gates to recover South Carolina. On his first encounter with Cornwallis at Cam- den, August 16th, he was routed with great loss, and with the remnant of his force fled to North Carolina. Early in September Cornwallis marched into North Carolina, where, on October 7th, at King's Mountain, a detachment from his army was totally defeated by 900 militia, who killed and captured upward of 1,100 of the enemy. Cornwallis withdrew to South Carolina. On July 10th, a French fleet arrived at Newport, bringing the Count de Rochambeau and 6,000 soldiers. In September a treasonable plot schemed by Arnold was discovered. The prin- cipal military operations of 1781 were in the south, where Greene had superseded Gates. At the Cowpens, S. C, on January 17th, General Morgan won a brilliant victory over the British under Colonel Tarleton. On March 15th, the British gained a victory at GuilforH Court House, N. C, but drew from it no advantage; and on September 8th occurred the drawQ battle of Eutaw Springs, which nearly terminated the war in South Carolina. Cornwallis, having ad- vanced into Virginia in April, was opposed by Lafayette, Wayne, and Steuben, and fortified himself at Yorktown. Meanwhile, the American army under Washington and the French army of Rochambeau had formed a junction on the Hudson. The allied army arrived before York- town September 28, 1781, and began a regular siege, which lasted till October 19th, when Corn- wallis surrendered with his whole force of 7,247 men, besides 840 sailors; 106 guns were taken. This victory substantially terminated the con- test. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, November 30, 1782, by Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Laurens. On September 3, 1783, a definitive treaty was signed at Versailles, by which the United States were formally acknowl- edged by Great Britain to be free, sovereign, and independent. New York, the last position held by the British on our coast, was evacuated No- vember 25, 1783. On June 12, 1776, while the resolution of independence was under considera- tion in Congress, a committee of one from each colony was created to draft a form of confedera- tion, and the articles reported by it were adopted November 15, 1777. Having been ratified by all the States, they went into effect on March 1, 1781. Dissatisfaction with the confederation, owing to the weakness of the central government under it, soon became widespread, and in 1786 a convention of delegates from several States at Annapolis, Md., recommended the calling of a convention of delegates from all the States to propose changes in the articles of confederation. This plan was approved by Congress on February 21, 1787, and the convention organized at Phila- delphia on May 25th, by the choice of Washing- ton as president. It remained in session until September 17th, when it adjourned after adopt- ing the Constitution. All the States were repre- sented except Rhode Island. Having been rati- fied by the requisite number of States, the Con- stitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. At the first election Washington was chosen presi- dent and John Adams vice-president, and Wash- ington was inaugurated in New York on April 30th. In the summer of 1790 an Indian war broke out with the tribes of the northwest, who, after inflicting defeats on Generals Harmar and St. Clair, were finally quelled by General Wayne, and peace was restored in August, 1795. At the second presidential election in 1792, Washington again received the unanimous votes of the elec- toral colleges, and Adams was reelected vice- president. The whiskey insurrection against an unpopular excise law in 1794 threw Western HISTORY' 171 Pennsylvania into confusion, but was energet- ically suppressed by the president. Two parties had sprung up, the Federalists, supporters of the Constitution as it was, and the Republicans or Democrats, who desired to limit the federal power. The Republicans were active in their sympathy for the French Republic. At the third presidential election (1796) the Federalists, among whom Alexander Hamilton was promi- nent, supported John Adams and the Republi- cans Thomas Jefferson. Adams, who received seventy-one electoral votes, was chosen president while Jefferson, who received sixty-eight, the next highest number, became, by the Constitu- tion as it then was, the vice-president. At the beginning of the administration the relations with France were threatening, and envoys were sent to adjust the difficulties; but the French Government refused to receive them. This ex- cited great indignation in the United States, and Congress made preparations for war. The meas- sures adopted were not without effect. A fresh embassy was sent, and a treaty was concluded in 1800. During the troubles with France two acts were passed by Congress, known as the alien and sedition laws : the first, which was lim- ited to two years, empowering the president to order aliens who were conspiring against the peace of the United States to quit the country; the other, which was to remain in force till March 4, 1801, providing among other things for the punishment by fine and imprisonment of seditious libels, upon the government. These laws became exceedingly unpopular, and were bitterly denounced as harsh and unconstitutional. They contributed largely to the dissatisfaction with Mr. Adam's administration, which led in the next presidential election to the success of the Republican candidates, Jefferson and Burr, each of whom received seventy-three votes. The tie threw the election into the House of Representatives, where, on the thirty-sixth bal- lot, Jefferson was chosen president and Burr vice-president. This contest led to the adop- tion of the twelfth amendment of the Constitu- tion, requiring the electors to designate which person is voted for as president and which as vice-president. Jefferson's administration for the most part was marked by vigor and enlight- ened views, and in 1804 he was reelected, with George Clinton as vice-president. The vast ter- ritory then called Louisiana was purchased from P'rance in 1803. A war with Tripoli, ended in 1805, humbled the Barbary pirates. In 1806 Aaron Burr secretly organized a military expe- dition, chiefly in the western States, which led to his arrest and trial at Richmond in 1807, on a charge of attempting to dismember the Union and to establish an independent dominion west of the Alleghanies; but no overt act being proved against him, he was acquitted. The relations with Great Britain began in 1805 to be disturbed by the unfriendly acts of that power directed against American commerce, and by the exercise of the asserted right to search American vessels for suspected deserters from her navy. In 1806, an act was passed prohibiting the importation of certain articles of British production. In 1807, Congress laid an embargo, which prohibited the departure from American ports of vessels bound for foreign countries. This measure was vehem- ently denounced by the Federal party, and was repealed in 1809. In the presidential election of 1808 the Republican candidates, James Madison for president and George Clinton for vice-presi- dent, were elected. Congress continued the non- importation system. A long negotiation was carried on with the English Government without result, and on June 18, 1812, war was declared against Great Britain. In the summer of 1811, hostilities, excited as was alleged by British emis- saries, were begun by the Indian tribes north of the Ohio under the lead of Tecumseh. William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, defeated them on the banks of the Tippecanoe River, November 7, 1811. The campaign of 1812 closed with little or no credit to the Ameri- can arms on land, the principal event being the surrender of Detroit (August 16th) by the Ameri- can General Hull to General Brock. But the navy achieved a series of brilliant victories, which were followed by others during the suc- ceeding years of the war. The campaign of 1813 was marked by alternate successes and reverses. The principal events were the defeat of General Winchester at the River Raisin by the British and Indians, the capture of York (now Toronto) and of Fort George in Canada by the Americans, the repulse of a British attack on Sackett's Har- bor, and the defeat of the British and Indians near Thames River, Canada, by General Harri- son, Tecumseh being slain. On Lake Erie, Sep- tember 10th, a British fleet of six vessels was captured after a severe contest by Lieutenant O. H. Perry. On July 5, 1814, the British were defeated at Chippawa by General Brown, and on the 25th at Bridgewater or Lundy's Lane by Generals Brown and Winfield Scott. On Sep- tember 11th the United States fleet, under Com- modore Macdonough, totally defeated the Eng- lish fleet on Lake Champlain; and on the same day the British army, which had invaded New York and laid siege to Plattsburgh, retreated to Canada. In August, a British fleet arrived in the Chesapeake with an army of 5,000 men com- manded by General Ross, who marched on Washington, and, after putting to flight the militia at Bladensburg, took possession of the federal city on the 24th, and burned the capitol, the president's house, and other public build- ings. On the next day the British retired to their ships, and on September 12th- 13th attacked Baltimore, where they were repulsed by the citizens, and General Ross was killed. After protracted negotiations a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814, which pro- vided for the mutual restoration of all territory taken during the war. Nothing was said of the impressment of American seamen, one of the main causes of the war, but the practice was dis- continued. Before the news of peace could cross the Atlantic, a British army, 12,000 strong, was defeated at New Orleans (January 8, 1815) by fewer than 5,000 men under General Jackson. In the same year Commodore Decatur compelled the rulers of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli to make indeinnity for former outrages, and to agree to abstain from depredations on American com- merce. The presidential election of 1812 had resulted in the reelection of Mr. Madison. El- 172 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS bridge Gerry was chosen vice-president. At the presidential election of 1816 James Monroe of Virginia, and Daniel D. Tompkins of New York, Democrats, were elected president and vice- president, respectively. Monroe's administra- tion began under very favorable circumstances. Party distinctions had so nearly disappeared, that Democrats and Federalists combined to support the government. He was reelected in 1820 by all the electoral votes except one. Daniel D. Tompkins was reelected vice-president. The main event of Monroe's administration was the Missouri controversy, by which, for the first time, the country was disastrously divided upon the slavery question. In the session of 1818-19 a bill was introduced in Congress au- thorizing the Territory of Missouri to form a constitution, whereupon James Tallmadge of New York moved in the House of Representatives to insert a clause prohibiting any further introduc- tion of slaves, and granting freedom to the chil- dren of those already in the Territory on their attaining the age of 25. This motion was car- ried, but the Senate refused to concur. In the session of 1819-20 the debate was long and acri- monious. The Senate sent to the House the Missouri bill with the prohibition of slavery in that State struck out, but with the proviso that it should not thereafter be tolerated north of latitude 36 30'. This compromise was at length agreed to. The other great event of- Mr. Mon- roe's administration was the recognition (1822) of the Spanish American republics, which had declared and maintained their independence for several years. In 1823 the president in his an- nual message put forth a declaration, famous as the "Monroe Doctrine," in which it was an- nounced that any attempt on the part of Euro- pean governments to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere would be considered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States. In 1819, Florida had been ceded by Spain. In the presidential election of 1824 none of the four candidates (Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay) had a majority of the electoral votes, and Adams was elected by the House of Representa- tives. John C. Calhoun had been elected vice- president by the electoral colleges. Adam's ad- ministration was remarkable for order, method, and economy^ but party spirit was higher than it had been for many years. At the election of 1828 General Jackson was chosen president, while John C. Calhoun was reelected vice-presi- dent. In his first annual message (December, 1829) the president took strong ground against the renewal of the charter of the United States bank, as not being authorized by the Constitu- tion. Congress, in 1832, passed a bill to re- charter it, but Jackson vetoed it ; and the char- ter expired by limitation in 1836. The com- mercial part of the community generally took the side of the bank, and the party formed in oppo- sition to the president assumed the name of Whigs, while his supporters adhered to the old name of Democrats. In 1832 arose the so-called nullification movement in South Carolina, grow- ing out of the tariff acts of that year and of 1828. A State convention held in November declared these acts unconstitutional and, therefore, null and void, and proclaimed that any attempt by the General Government to collect duties in the port of Charleston would be resisted by force of arms, and would produce the secession of South Carolina from the Union. Jackson had just been reelected for a second term, while Martin Van Buren was chosen vice-president. The firmness of the president gave an effectual check to the incipient rebellion, and the affair was finally settled by a proposition brought forwaril in Congress by Henry Clay, the leading cham- pion of the protective system, for the modifica- tion of the tariff by a gradual reduction of the obnoxious duties. Other events of Jackson's administration were the removal of the public funds from the United States bank, the extinc- tion of the national bank and the beginning, toward the close of 1835, of a war with the Seminole Indians in Florida. In the presidential contest of 1836, Mr. Van Buren, who was sup- ported by the Democrats, was elected. No can- didate having been elected vice-president, Rich- ard M. Johnson was chosen by the Senate. The new administration began under most untoward circumstances. Within two months after the inauguration the mercantile failures in the city of New York alone amounted to more than $100,000,000. The war with the Seminoles was not ended till 1842. At the election in 1840, Harrison and Tyler, the Whig candidates for president and vice-president, were chosen. Gen- eral Harrison was inaugurated March 4, 1841, and died on April 4th. The presidential office devolved on John Tyler, who soon developed a policy in relation to a national bank much more in accordance with the views of the Democratic party than with those of the Whigs. A treaty was concluded in 1842 with Great Britain by Daniel Webster for the settlement of the north- eastern boundary. The Texas question (see Texas) became the prominent issue in the presi- dential contest of 1844, the Democratic party supporting and the Whigs opposing annexation. The Democratic candidates, James K. Polk for president and George M. Dallas for vice-presi- dent, were elected over Henry Clay and Theo- dore Frelinghuysen. Joint resolutions for an- nexing Texas as one of the States of the Union were signed by President Tyler March 1, 1845, which led to a war with Mexico in 1846. Gen- eral Zachary Taylor defeated the Mexicans at Palo Alto May 8th, at Resaca de la Palma May 9th, at Monterey in September, and at Buena Vista February 23, 1847. General Scott landed near Vera Cruz on March 9th with about 12,000 men, immediately besieged that city, which sur- rendered before the end of the month, and en- tered the city of Mexico on September 14th, after a series of hard-fought and uniformly suc- cessful battles. A treaty of peace was nego- tiated at Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848, by which Mexico granted to the United States the line of the Rio Grande as a boundary, and ceded New Mexico and California. The Oregon dispute with Great Britain, which claimed the whole region, while the United States claimed as far north as latitude 54 40', was settled by the treaty of 1846, which adopted the boundary of the parallel of 49, with a modification giving to Great Britain the whole of Vancouver Island. HISTORY 173 In the Democratic National convention of 1848, Lewis Cass was nominated for president, and William O. Butler for vice-president. By the Whig convention Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore were nominated. The question of slavery had a powerful influence on the political combinations of this period. In 1846, during the Mexican War, a bill being before Congress authorizing the president to use $2,000,000 in negotiating a peace, David Wilmot, a Demo- cratic representative from Pennsylvania, moved to add thereto a proviso prohibiting slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. This pro- viso was adopted in the House, nearly all the members from the free States voting for it, but failed in the Senate from want of time. Several delegates seceded from both the Whig and Dem- ocratic conventions of 1848, on the failure of those bodies to pronounce in favor of the prin- ciple of the proviso. These, with the Liberty party, formed in 1840, organized a free-soil or free Democratic party, and Martin Van Buren was nominated for president and Charles Francis Adams for vice-president. Van Buren and Adams received at the election, in November, a popular vote of 291,263, but secured no electoral vote. Taylor and Fillmore were elected. The application in 1850 of California for admission as a State roused the slavery controversy, and the difficulty was complicated by the application of New Mexico for admission, and by a claim brought forward by Texas to a western line of boundary which would include a large portion of New Mexico. Finally, a compromise was pro- posed by Henry Clay in the Senate as a final settlement of the whole question of slavery, and after a long discussion the result aimed at was attained by separate acts, which provided for: (1) the admission of California as a free State; (2) Territorial Governments for New Mexico and Utah without excluding slavery, but leaving its exclusion or admission to the local population; (3) the settlement of the Texas boundary ques- tion; (4) the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; (5) the enactment of a stringent law for the arrest and return of fugitive slaves. President Taylor died July 9, 1850, and was succeeded by the vice-president, Millard Fillmore. The whole weight of his administra- tion was given to the support of the compromise measures. The Democratic National Conven- tion of 1852 nominated for president Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, who was known to hold opinions satisfactory to the South on the subject of slavery, and William R. King of Ala- bama for vice-president. The Whig National Convention nominated for president General Winfield Scott, and for vice-president William A. Graham of North Carolina. The National Convention of the Free-soil party nominated John P. Hale for president, and George W. Julian for vice-president. Pierce and King were elected. The passage in 1854 of a bill for the organiza- tion of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, by which the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820 was repealed, roused great excitement and in- dignation in the free States. The struggle in Kansas between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery parties (see Kansas) and the assault by Brooks on Sumner (see Sumner, Charles) added to the feeling. Preparatory to the presidential canvass of 1856 the Republican party was formed, which absorbed the entire Free-soil party, the greater part of the Whig party, and considerable acces- sions from the Democratic. That portion of the Whig party opposed to anti-slavery measures was merged, especially at the South, in an organ- ization called the American party, from its oppo- sition to foreign influence, and particularly to Roman Catholic influence, in our political affairs, but popularly known as the "Know-Nothing Party" from the secrecy of its organization and the reticence of its members. This party nomi- nated Millard Fillmore for president, and An- drew J. Donelson of Tennessee for vice-president. The Democratic National Convention nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania for president, and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for vice- president. The Republican National Conven- tion nominated John C. Fremont of California for president, and William L. Dayton of New Jersey for vice-president. Buchanan and Breck- enridge were elected. The chief interest of Mr. Buchanan's administration centered around the slavery controversy. A constitution for Kansas framed at Lecompton in 1857 was laid before Congress in the session of 1857-58, and its dis- cussion resulted in a schism in the Democratic party, and eventually in its division into two bodies, one of which looked upon Stephen A. Douglas as its leader, while the other supported Breckenridge for the presidency. The Demo- cratic National Convention met at Charleston, April 23, 1860, and a controversy on t^e subject of slavery immediately arose. A non-committal platform having been adopted, most of the Southern delegates withdrew and adopted a plat- form of their own, denying the right of Congress to interfere with, and asserting its duty to pro- tect, slavery in the Territories. The convention adjourned May 3d, reassembled in Baltimore June 18th, and nominated Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois for president, and Benjamin Fitzpat- rick of Alabama for vice-president. The latter afterward declined, arid Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia was substituted. A convention called by the seceding delegates convened at Baltimore on June 23d, and nominated John C. Brecken- ridge for president, and Joseph Lane of Oregon for vice-president. The "Constitutional Union " party, composed mainly of the American party, nominated for president John Bell of Tennessee, and for vice-president Edward Everett of Massa- chusetts. The Republican National Convention assembled at Chicago on May 16th, and nomi- nated for president Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and for vice-president Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. In the election, November 6th, Mr. Lincoln received the electoral votes of all the free States (except three in New Jersey), 180, and was elected. Mr. Bell received the votes of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, 39; Mr. Douglas the 9 votes of Missouri and 3 from New Jersey; and the remaining Southern States cast their 72 electoral votes for Breckenridge. A convention was at once called in South Carolina, and on December 20th unanimously adopted an ordinance of secession from the Union. Before the end of May, 1861, eleven States had passed ordinances of secession (South Carolina, Missis- 174 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina). On February 4th a Congress met at Montgomery Ala., and framed a constitution for the "Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen president, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia vice-presi- dent. After governmental organization, the first warlike act was the bombardment by the Con- federates of Fort Sumter, which surrendered April 13, 1861. On July 21st was fought the battle of Bull Run, near Manassas Junction, Va., the first of any magnitude during the war, in which the Union forces under General McDowell were defeated by the Confederates under Gen- eral Beauregard, and fell back in disorder to Washington. Soon after General McClellan, who had cleared West Virginia of Confederate troops, was placed in command of the army of the Potomac. On August 10th, a battle was fought at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Mo., between the Confederates under General Mc- Culloch and the Federals under General Lyon, who fell. This was followed by a varying and indecisive warfare in that State. On August 29th, Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C, were taken by General Butler and Commodore String- ham; and on November 7th, Port Royal, S. C, by Commodore Du Pont and General T. W. Sherman. On October 2 1st, a portion of General Stone's command, having crossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff, about midway between Harper's Ferry and Washington, was defeated by the Confederate General Evans, with a loss of 1,000 out of 1,960 men. On February 6, 1862, the Federal Commodore Foote, with a fleet of gun- boats from Cairo, reduced Fort Henry on the east bank of the Tennessee River in Tennessee; and on the 16th Fort Donelson, on the west bank of the Cumberland, surrendered with about 13,000 men to General Grant. The Confeder- ates under McCulloch and others, just driven out of Missouri, were defeated at Pea Ridge, Ark., March 7th-8th. In the night of April 7th, Island No. Ten in the Mississipp, a few miles above New Madrid, Mo., surrendered, after a series of operations by General Pope and Commodore Foote, lasting over a month. The Federal fleet was now enabled to proceed down the river as far as Vicksburg, Miss., receiving the surrender of Memphis, Tenn., June 6th. The battle of Shiloh, Miss., raged two days (April 6th and 7th), when the Confederates under Beauregard fell back to Corinth, leaving the field in the posses- sion of the Union army under Generals Buell and Grant. Corinth was evacuated after some operations against it under General Halleck. An important event of the year was the capture of New Orleans toward the close of April by naval and land forces under Captain Farragut and General Butler. Early in the year Roanoke Island, New Berne, Beaufort, Washington, Ply- mouth, and other places on the coast of North Carohna were occupied by the Federals. On April 11th, Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah River, was reduced. Toward the end of August the Confederate General Bragg started on an invasion of Kentucky from East Tennes- see. He captured Richmond, Lexington, and Munfordsville, and on October 1st entered Frankfort. The Union forces under General Buell moving against him, he slowly retreated to Perryville, where, on the 8th, a severe battle was fought. During the succeeding night Bragg continued his retreat, and passed into East Ten- nessee. About the end of September the Con- federates under Generals Price and Van Dorn advanced against Corinth, Miss., now defended by General Rosecrans. Their assaults (October 3d, 4th) were repulsed with great loss. General Rosecrans, having superseded Buell, moved into Tennessee, and marched upon Murfreesboro, where Bragg's forces were concentrated, reach- ing Stone River near that place on December 29 and 30th. Here bloody engagements occurred December 31, 1862, and January 2, 1863, which resulted in Bragg's retreat. Still greater ope- rations took place on the eastern theater of the war. Brisk fighting occurred in the Shenandoah Valley (March-June), with decided advantage on the whole to the Confederate General Jackson over Banks, Fremont, and others. About April 1, 1862, General McClellan transferred his forces to Fortress Monroe, near which a remarkable naval duel had taken place (at Hampton Roads) and began a movement upon Richmond up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, fighting at Yorktown, Williamsburg, Seven Pines Fair Oaks, and Mechanicsville, and, during a retrograde movement to Harrison's Landing on the James, at Cold Harbor, Savage's Station, Frazier's Farm, and, finally (July 1st), at Mal- vern Hill. About the middle of August his army was transferred to the Potomac. The Confed- erate army, commanded by General Robert E. Lee, who had succeeded J. E. Johnston, had retired to Richmond, to assume the offensive against Washington. On August 9th an inde- cisive battle was fought by General Banks against Jackson at Cedar Mountain; and on August 29th and 30th occurred the second battle of Bull Run, between the Union army under Pope and the Confederate forces under Jackson and Longstreet, in which the latter had the advantage. Lee moved to the Potomac above Washington and crossed into Maryland. Jack- son captured Harper's Ferry with 11,500 men. McClellan, advancing to meet Lee, found him on September 15th strongly posted across Antie- tam Creek near Sharpsburg, where, on the two following days, a bloody battle was fought. In the night of the 18th, Lee retreated into Virginia. McClellan crossed the Potomac about November 1st. On the 7th he was superseded by General Burnside, who moved down the Rappahannock to Fredericksburg. Lee had made a parallel movement down the south bank and strongly intrenched himself on the bluffs behind the town. On December 13th, Burnside crossed the river and made repeated attacks on the enemy's posi- tion, but was repulsed with great slaughter, and on the 15th returned to the north bank. On January 26, 1863, Burnside was superseded by General Joseph Hooker. About the close of April Hooker began to cross the Rappahannock, and concentrated his forces at Chancellorsville, where a bloody engagement ensued. May 2d-4th, in which the Union army was worsted by the forces under Lee, Hooker recrossing to the north side of the river. General Jackson was mortally HISTORY 175 wounded. About the beginning of June, Lee again assumed the offensive. The main body of the Confederate army crossed the Potomac above Harper's Ferry, June 24th-25th, and march- ing across Maryland entered Pennsylvania. Hooker moved north, so as to cover Washington, and on the 26th crossed the Potomac about half way between Washington and Harper's Ferry. On the 28th he was succeeded by General Meade. The latter advanced into Pennsylvania, and on July 1st, 2d, and 3d the two armies met in the great battle of Gettysburg, which ended in the discomfiture of the Confederate army. On the 4th, Lee began his retreat, and on the 13th re- crossed the Potomac. Meade crossed on the 18th, and reached Warrenton on the 25th, where he was soon confronted by Lee on the other side of the Rappahannock. In the west important operations had taken place under Generals Grant and Sherman against Vicksburg. Close pressed, on July 3d, General Pember- ton surrendered that Confederate stronghold, with 27,000 men, to General Grant, who, on the 4th, occupied the city. The result of this cam- paign rent the Confederacy in twain, and de- cided its fate. Port Hudson, La., on the Mis- sissippi, surrendered after a siege to General Banks, July 8th. Rosecrans remained quietly at Murfreesboro till June 23, 1863, when he ad- vanced, forcing Bragg to retreat to Chattanooga, which was occupied by a detachment on Sep- tember 9th, Bragg retiring into Georgia and posting his troops in the vicinity of Chicka- mauga Creek, east of Trenton. Here, Septem- ber 19th and 20th, occurred a severe engage- ment, in which the Federals were, worsted and fell back to Chattanooga, where they were be- sieged by Bragg. On October 23d, General Grant arrived and took command. A series of move- ments was at once initiated, which resulted in driving Bragg from Chattanooga (November 25th) and forcing him to retreat into Georgia. An army under General Burnside, which had occupied Knoxville, and was besieged there by Longstreet, was relieved at the beginning of December. All Tennessee was now recovered. In Arkansas, General Steele had captured Little Rock, September 10th. Fort Wagner, on Mor- ris Island at the entrance of Charleston Harbor, after vigorously repelling a heavy assault, had about the same time been reduced by a regular siege under General Gillmore. On April 20, 1864, Plymouth, N. C, was compelled to sur- render to a Confederate force under General Hoke, and as a consequence Washington, N. C, was evacuated 'by the Federals eight days later. On October 31st, Plymouth was retaken by the Federal fleet. On April 12th Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi about forty miles above Mem- phis, was taken by assault by the Confederates under General Forrest, and many of its colored defenders were killed after the capture. In August, Forts Gaines and Morgan, commanding the entrance to Mobile Bay, were reduced by a fleet under Admiral Farragut, aided by a land force under General Granger, and the Confed- erate fleet there was destroyed.- West of the Mississippi, the most important movement in 1864 was Bank's disastrous Red River campaign in the early spring. In September and October, General Price with a considerable force made a raid through Missouri. In Virginia, General Grant, who had received the chief command of the Union armies, began on May 4th to cross the Rapidan and advance into the "Wilderness." Here (May 5th and 6th) and at Spottsylvania Court House near by (May 8th-21st) followed a series of sanguinary engagements, which baffled the direct advance. Grant then advanced by a succession of flank movements to the Chicka- hominy, where, on June 3d, he suffered a dis- astrous check in the second battle of Cold Har- bor. On the 12th, having determined to attack Richmond from the south, he began to move, crossing the Chickahominy below Lee's position, and effecting the passage of the James, June 14th-15th. Lee thereupon retired within the in- trenchments covering Richmond. On the 15th and 16th a part of the Union forces unsuccess- fully assailed Petersburg, and on the 19th Grant began a regular siege. An invasion of Mary- land under General Early in July, which threat- ened Washington, failed, and led to operations in the Shenandoah Valley, in which General Sheridan nearly destroyed Early's forces at Winchester. On May 5, 1864, General W. T. Sherman started from Chattanooga on his cam- paign against Atlanta, in which he was ably opposed by Johnston, and vainly assailed by his successor in command, General Hood. At- lanta was evacuated by the Confederates on September 1st. Near the middle of November he started for the coast. Marching through the heart of Georgia without opposition, he reached the vicinity of Savannah, capturing Fort Mc- Allister December 13th, and occupying the city December 21st. On December 15th and 16th, Hood, who had marched north with his army, suffered a bloody repulse before Nashville by Thomas. An attempt in December, by a fleet under Admiral Porter and a land force under General Butler, to reduce Fort Fisher at the mouth of Cape Fear River, commanding the approach to Wilmington, N. C, failed; but on January 15, 186^, it was carried by an assault under General Terry, aided by the fleet. The Federal forces occupied Wilmington on February 22d. The siege of Petersburg and Richmond continued till April 3, 1865, when, after Lee's defeat at Five Forks (March 31st, April 1st), those places were occupied by the Federals, hav- ing been evacuated by Lee during the preceding night. Grant vigorously pursued the retreating army, and at Appomattox Court House, on the 9th, compelled Lee to surrender the remnant of his forces, about 27,000 in all, an event which virtually terminated the war. On February 1st, General Sherman started from Savannah on a northward movement through the Carolinas, and reached Columbia on the 17th. General Hardee, being thus taken in the rear, evacuated Charleston, which was occupied by a detach- ment of General Gillmore's forces on the 18th, and the same day the national flag was raised over Fort Sumter. Sherman reached Fayette- ville, N. C, on March 12th. On the 19th the left wing under Slocum encountered the Con- federate army under General Johnston at Ben- tonville, repelled several assaults, and on the 21st, being reinforced, compelled it to retreat 176 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS to Smithfield, covering Raleigh. Sherman then occupied Goldsboro, whence he advanced on April 10th. Johnston retreated through Ra- leigh, and on April 26th surrendered his entire army, then reduced to about 31,000 men. In the meantime, a cavalry force under General Wilson had swept through Alabama from the north, and passed into Georgia, occupying Selma on April 2d, Montgomery on the 12th, and Columbus, Ga., on the IGth. Mobile was taken on April 12th by General Canby, aided by a fleet under Admiral Thatcher. On May 4th, General Taylor surrendered the Confederate forces in Alabama to General Canby. The last fight of the war occurred May 13th, on the Rio Grande in Texas, between Colonel Barrett (Fed- eral) and General Slaughter (Confederate), the latter being victorious. The trans-Mississippi army of the Confederates, the last in the field, was surrendered by Kirby Smith on May 26th. During the war Confederate cruisers, mostly built and fitted out in British ports, and manned by British sailors, scoured the ocean. Evading vessels of war, they destroyed hundreds of mer- chantmen, doing irreparable injury to the com- merce of the Union. The chief of these were the "Alabama," "Chickamauga," "Florida," "Georgia," "Olustee," "Shenandoah," "Sum- ter," and "Tallahassee." The "Alabama," the most famous, commanded by Raphael Semmes, was sunk off Cherbourg, France, June 19, 1864, by the United States steamer "Kearsarge," commanded by Captain Winslow. After the fall of Richmond, President Davis of the Con- federacy fled south, and was captured at Irwin- ville, Ga., by General Wilson's forces. May 10, 1865. He and some other prominent leaders were imprisoned for a time, but no man was Sunished for participation in the rebellion. The lational Republican Convention assembled at Baltimore on June 7, 1864, and nominated President Lincoln for reelection, and for vice- president Andrew Johnson of Tennessee. The platform pledged a vigorous prosecution of the war for the suppression of thp rebellion, and favored an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery. The National Democratic Convention assembled at Chicago on August 29th, and nominated General George B. McCIel- lan for president, and for vice-president George H. Pendleton of Ohio. The election took place on November 8th, the eleven seceded States not participating. McClellan and Pendleton re- ceived the electoral votes of New Jersey, Dela- ware, and Kentucky, 21; Lincoln and Johnson received those of all the other States, 212, and were elected. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln's sec- ond inauguration took place. On April 14.th he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, and the Secretary of State, Mr. Seward, dangerously wounded by another conspirator; and on the following day Vice-President Johnson entered upon the duties of the presidency. The ques- tion of emancipation early attracted the atten- tion of the administration and Congress. On April 16, 1862, an act was passed abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia, and on June 9th another act declared that slavery should not thereafter exist in the Territories. On January 1, 1863, Mr. Lincoln issued a proclamation de- claring free all persons held as slaves within the States or portions of States then in rebellion. The 13th amendment to the Federal Consti- tution, declaring that slavery shall not exist within the United States or any place subject to their control, was declared adopted by the proclamation of the Secretary of State on Decem- ber 18, 1865. The first step toward the recon- struction of loyal governments in the seceded States was the proclamation of President Lin- coln of December 8, 1863. Under this scheme governments were organized in Louisiana and Arkansas in the early part of 1864, and in Ten- nessee early in 1865, but senators and repre- sentatives from those States were not admitted to Congress. After the close of the war Presi- dent Johnson appointed provisional governors for several of the seceded States. But Congress did not approve this scheme of reconstruction, and senators and representatives from those States were not admitted. In June, 1866, a joint resolution adopted by Congress proposed the 14th amendment to the Constitution, extending the rights of citizenship to all classes of native and naturalized persons, guaranteeing the validity of the national debt, forbidding the payment of any part of the Confederate debt or of claims for the loss of slaves, etc. In July senators and representatives were admitted from Tennessee, that State having ratified the 14th amendment. On January 8, 1867, an act was passed over President Johnson's veto, confer- ring the right of suffrage on colored citizens of the District of Columbia, and on the 24th a similar act became a law for the Territories. The congressional plan of reconstruction was developed in the act of March 2d and the sup- plementary acts of March 23d and July 19th, each of which was passed over the President's veto. These acts declared that "no legal State Governments or adequate protection for life or property now exist in the rebel States of Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and Arkansas," and divided them into five mili- tary districts. The district commanders were required to make a registration of voters, com- prising male citizens of the United States 21 years old and upward, without regard to race, color, or previous condition, who had resided in the respective States one year, and were not excluded from holding office by the 14th amend- ment. Delegates were to be elected in the several States by the registered voters to con- ventions for framing new constitutions. Only when constitutions had been adopted conferring the right of suffrage on colored persons, and such constitutions had been approved by Congress, and when the 14th amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of the respective States, were senators and representatives to be admitted. The conditions of these acts were complied with in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina in 1868, and in Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia in 1870. But the subsequent action of the legislature of Georgia in excluding colored members led to further measures on the part of Congress, and delayed the final restoration of that State until 1870. The adoption of the HISTORY 177 14th amendment was proclaimed on July 28, 1868. In February, 1869, a joint resolution proposing the 15th amendment to the Consti- tution, prohibiting the denial or abridgement by any State of the Union of the right to vote on account of color or previous condition of servitude, was passed. The difference between President Johnson and Congress on the question of reconstruction led to his separation from the Republican party, and to the passage on March 2, 1867, over his veto, of the "tenure of offtce" act, which took from the President the power to remove, without the consent of the Senate, such civil officers as are appointed by the Presi- dent with the consent of the Senate. His at- tempt to remove Mr. Stanton, secretary of war, notwithstanding the act, led to his impeach- ment, a resolution to that effect passing the House of Representatives February 24, 1868. He was tried before the Senate and acquitted in May, there being a majority against him, but not the necessary two-thirds vote. In- 1867, Alaska was purchased of Russia. The National Republican Convention assembled at Chicago on May 21, 1868, and nominated General Ulysses S. Grant for president, and for vice-president Schuyler Colfax of Indiana. The National Dem- ocratic Convention assembled at New York on July 4th, and nominated Horatio Seymour of New York for president, and Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri, for vice-president. The elec- tion took place on November 3d, Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas not voting. Seymour and Blair received 80 electoral votes; Grant and Colfax received 214, and were elected. On May 1, 1872, a convention assembled at Cincin- nati, composed of persons previously in sym- pathy with the Republican party, but now dissatisfied with the administration of President Grant and opposed to his reelection. They styled themselves "Liberal Republicans." By this convention Horace Greeley of New York was nominated for president, and Benjamin Gratz Brown of Missouri for vice-president. The National Republican Convention assembled at Philadelphia on June 5th, and nominated President Grant for reelection, and for vice- S resident Henry Wilson of Massachusetts. The ational Democratic Convention assembled at Baltimore on July 9th, and nominated the same candidates and adopted the same platforni as the Cincinnati Convention. The election, which took place on November 5th, resulted in the choice of Grant and Wilson, who each received 286 electoral votes, out of a total of 366. One of the most prominent events of Grant's admin- istration was the settlement by the Treaty of Washington (May 8, 1871), and a subsequent arbitration at Geneva, Switzerland (1871-2), of outstanding disputes with Great Britain, of which the principal (the "Alabama claims" question) related to the charge that the British Government had failed in its duties as a neutral in allowing the construction and fitting out of Confederate cruisers (the "Alabama," etc.) in British ports. The verdict of the arbitrators awarded to the" United States an indemnity of $15,500,000 in gold. The National Republican Convention of 1876 assembled at Cincinnati on June 14th, and nominated Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio for president, and William A. Wheeler of New York for vice-president. The National Democratic Convention, which assembled at St. Louis on June 27th, nominated Samuel J. Tilden of New York for president, and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana for vice-president. Hayes and Wheeler, although they received a minority of the popular vote, were declared by a special commission, whose report was adopted by Congress in joint convention, to have been elected by a majority of one in the electoral colleges. In 1876, the Centennial Exposition was held in Philadelphia, in celebration of the one hun- dredth year of American independence. The exhibitors, from all parts of the world, numbered 30,865. The buildings were of the grandest description, exceeding any that had hitherto been conceived for the purpose of an interna- tional exposition. After a presidency of two terms General Grant was succeeded by Ruthford B. Hayes, whose election was granted by an electoral commission formed by patriotic com- promise. At the following election (1880) the Republicans elected General Garfield, who was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, July 2, 1881, at the Baltimore and Potomac depot, Washington, D. C, and died September 19, 1881. Mr. Arthur, the vice-president, became president. In 1885, Grover Cleveland, the first Democrat holding the office since 1861, succeeded as president. The Anti-polygamy Bill, virtually disfranchising Mormons, became a law in 1886 ; also the Inter- State Commerce Bill, establishing a commission to secure uniformity of railroad rates, nationalize through-route traffic, and break up harmful combinations. In 1888, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington Territories were admitted as States. A bill passed in 1879 prohibiting the immigration of Chinese as laborers, amended in 1882 making the restriction to last for twenty years, was further amended in 1888 by taking away from the Chinese now or heretofore in the country the privilege of return unless they had previously procured certificates. President Cleveland retired to private life after giving a cautious and prudent administration, signalized by patient attention to details and strong assertion of official prerogative. In 1889, Benjamin Harrison, elected by the Republicans, became president, the issue of the campaign being Free-trade vs. Protection. In 1890 a protective tariff bill, known as the McKinley Act, became a law. It increased duties on 115 articles, embracing farm products and manu- factures, and decreased those on 190, i.e., manu- factures established. It placed sugar on the free list. The Coinage Act of 1890 made it com- pulsory on the government to buy 54,000,000 ounces of silver yearly; instead of coining the same, to issue silver certificates therefor. Acts to admit Wyoming and Idaho as States were passed in 1890. On June 19, 1890, the report of the International American Conference was presented, forming the basis of the policy of reciprocity by which treaties were entered into with Germany, France, Spain, Brazil, and the countries of Central and South America. By the end of 1892 these treaties began to bring about an anticipated increase of trade. An 178 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS application of the "Monroe Doctrine" in regard to the Samoan group of islands strategically situ- ated in the Pacific Ocean, which had been seized by Germany, resulted in the conclusion of a treaty which saved the absorption of the islands. The Bering Sea question, long a diplomatic stumblir^-block between the United States and Great Britain, was, after skillful diplomacy, i-eferred to a board of arbitration. A dangerous complication with Italy, caused by the lynching of Italians in New Orle'^ns in 1891, was amicably settled and friendly relations restored. In October, 1891, the crew of the United States war- vessel "Baltimore" having met with out- rageous treatment by the police of Valparaiso, the government demanded an apology from Chile, which after delay was extended, with promise of full reparation. The presidential election in 1892 resulted in the selection of Grover Cleveland. President Harrison retired from office, March 4, 1893. President William McKinley was inaugurated March 4, 1897, and a year later, after a number of attempts to allay the Cuban situation, came the war with Spain. (See Spanish- American War.) A peace commission (consisting of American: Hon. William R. Day, president; Senators, C. K. Davis, William P. Frye, Geo. Gray; White- law Reid, with Prof. J. B. Moore, secretary Spanish: Senor Montero Rios, president; Gen- eral Cerero, Senor de Villaurratia, Senor de Garnica, Senor Abarzua) met in Paris to discuss the terms of peace between Spain and the United States. December 28, 1898, Spain ceded to the United States the Philippines, Porto Rico, and Guam, and agreed to retire from Cuba, accept- ing the offer of $20,000,000, the United States' proposition. President McKinley was inaugurated for the second term March 4, 1901. He was shot by an assassin on September 6, 1901, and died September 14th, when he was succeeded by Vice-President Roosevelt, who, after the elec- tion of 1904, was inaugurated March 5, 1905, for a full term. President Roosevelt at once set about initiat- ing needed reforms in railroad, corporations, and trust methods, and in pushing forward the construction of the Panama Canal. In 1906, a race war occurred at Brownsville, Texas, resulting in the colored troops stationed there being ordered out of the State, and in their subsequent expulsion from the United States army by order of the President. In the same year San Francisco was almost totally destroyed by earthquake and fire. In March, 1907, the President issued orders for the exclusion of Japanese laborers, and for the dismissal of suits against the San Francisco school board. This action opened the way for negotiations between the governments of Japan and the United States, which culminated, early in 1908, in the complete restraint of Japanese immigra- tion to the United States. In June, 1908, the Republican National Con- vention at Chicago nominated William H. Taft of Ohio for President, and James S. Sherman of New York as Vice-president. In July, at Denver, the Democrats nominated William J. Bryan for the third time for President, and John W. Kern of Indiana for Vice-President. Taft and Sherman received 321 electoral votes and were elected. Soon after their inauguration, ex-President Roosevelt headed a great hunting expedition under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institute to Africa. He attracted world-wide attention, and completed his trip by a tour of European capitals, which was a magnificent triumph. The chief incident were his speeches at Cairo and at the Guildhall, London, and his review of the German army. The misunderstanding with the Vatican was the only unfortunate feature. On his return in 1910 Colonel Roosevelt was tendered a magnificent reception in New York. He plunged immediately into active political life. The Payne-Aldrich tariff law of 1909 had proved disastrously disappointing, and resulted in the rise of the "Insurgent Republicans" and the attack on the Speaker of the House, who was shorn of his power over committees. Despite the strenuous efforts of Taft and Roosevelt, the Democrats gained sweeping victories in the November elections. The chief features of the Taft administration have been the adoption of economical and busi- nesslike methods in the various departments, the creation of a Commerce Court and a tariff board, the establishment of postal savings banks, and the appointment by the President of four new members of the Supreme Court. The Fisheries dispute with England was arbitrated successfully at the Hague. The census of 1910 showed the population of the United States with its possessions to be 101,000,000. Vermont. The first white settlement was made at Brattleboro, in 1724, as a military station, by the Massachusetts colonists. It served as a base of operations during the French wars. Immigration set in, and in 1768, 124 townships had been granted by Governor Went- worth, of New Hampshire, by which colony the fee and jurisdiction of the soil were claimed. A counter-claim was made by New York in 1763, and imtil the outbreak of the Revolution there was a bitter controversy between the two colo- nies over their respective rights to Vermont. In 1777, the people of Vermont declared their independence, and, though admission to the confederacy of States was sought, it was refused, and Vermont remained outside of the Union till 1791. During the previous year New York had surrendered its claims for a financial consid- eration. Vermont was the first State to join the original thirteen. Though not confederated with the other colonies against Great Britain, the "Green Mountain Boys" had signalized their valor and patriotism in a number of hard- fought battles and expeditions. Among these were the capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen, the invasion of Canada, the battles on Lake Champlain, and the two battles near Bennington, which were the primary cause of Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga. In 1$37, Vermont was the starting point of the Canadian raids, and also of the Fenian raids. Virginia. The name Virginia, originally bestowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1584 on the region now known as North Carolina, discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition, was after- HISTORY 179 ward applied to the whole country to 45 north. In 1606, James I. gave to the London Company, which made the first permanent settlement of the English in America at Jamestown the year after, the country from 34 to 38 north, extend- ing 100 miles from the sea. The colony was saved from ruin by Captain John Smith two years later. Colonization increased rapidly, and in 1621 a legislative body was formed. In 1641, there were 15,000 English in the colony. In 1676, occurred Bacon's Rebellion, brought on by the tyranny of Sir William Berkeley, the Governor. The French War of 1754, of which Braddock's defeat was the most notable incident, first brought George Washington into notice. Virginia, under the leadership of Patrick Henry, was the first to protest against British oppression in 1764, and sent; representatives to the Conti- nental Congress in 1775. The most important military event during the Revolutionary War, in Virginia, was the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19, 1781. Virginia passed an ordinance of secession, April 17, 1861, and in the war that followed became the bloodiest cock-pit of the whole contest. The most impor- tant battles were Bull Run July 21, 1861"; Win- chester, May 25, 1862; the battles of the Penin- sular campaign in the summer of 1862; second battle of Bull Run, August 29, 1862; Fredericks- burg, December 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, May 2-4, 1863; the battles of the Wilderness campaign in 1864, ending in the investment of Petersburg and Richmond, and the final sur- render of General Lee at Appomattox Court House, April 9, 1865. The State was readmitted January 27, 1870. "Washington. The first record in history of the region which is now the State of Washing- ton was the discovery, in 1592, of the Strait of Juan de Fuca by a Greek pilot. In 1775 Cap- tain Heceta, a Spanish navigator, discovered the mouth of the Columbia, but was unable to enter the river. In 1789 Captain Kendrick, an American, sailed through the Strait of Fuca, through the Gulf of Georgia and Queen Charlotte Sound, and was the first to make known the character of these inland waters. On the 11th of May, 1792, Captain Gray, of the American ship "Columbia" entered the river, to which he gave the name of his ship. This gave to the United States, the priority of claim to the Oregon region, which then comprised the present States of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. In October of the same year an Englishman sailed up and examined the Columbia about 100 miles from the mouth. The coast soon became well- known, and the United States Government fitted out expeditions to more thoroughly ex- plore the interior. The most important of these was that under Lewis and Clark, who, ascending the Missouri, made the Clearwater River, thence entering the Columbia and reaching the Pacific Ocean in December, 1805. In 1810, two expeditions were sent out by companies formed by J. J. Astor for the purpose of engaging in fur trade along the river, and the following year a trading post was established at Astoria, near the mouth of the Columbia. In the meantime another fur trading expedition had been sent out by the Northwest Fur Com- pany in an attempt to forestall the Astor Expe- dition, but it reached the river too late. For some time after the history of the country was merely the record of the Northwest Fur Com- pany and the Hudson Bay Company. During all the years of the fur trading a dispute had been going on between the United States and England, and at times war was threatened. An agreement was arrived at after a time, and in 1846 a treaty was signed fixing the boundary at the forty-ninth parallel. The Territory of Oregon was formed in 1848, and in 1853 the Territory of Washington was established from a part of the original country. Washington was admitted to Statehood November 11, 1899. Waterloo, Battle of, an important battle won by the allied forces over Napoleon, near Waterloo, a Belgian village eleven miles south of Brussels, June 18, 1815. The prelimi- nary battles had been at Ligny, June 16th (when Napoleon had defeated the Prussians under Blucher), and at Quartre-Bras, on the same day (when the allies under Wellington compelled the French Marshal Ney to retire). At Waterloo the French numbered about 72,000. The allies (I^ritish, Dutch, and Germans), under Welling- ton, had about 67,000; the Prussians (about 50,000 more), under Blucher, came up in time to take part in the close of the battle, and in the pursuit. The battle began about 11.30 A. M. Briefly it may be said to have consisted of a series of brilliant but unsuccessful charges made by the French, and dogged resistance on the part of the British; in the evening the French Old Guard charged, but unavailingly ; after which the allies advanced. The French lost about 35,000, and many prisoners; the allies about 22,000. Marshal Grouchy, though he defeated Blucher at Wavre, June 18th, failed to prevent him from joining Wellington, and himself failed to come to Napoleon's aid, though but a few miles distant. The rout of the French was complete, and the disaster final to Napoleon, the result being his deposition and exile to St. Helena. W^est Virginia. Immediately after the ordinance of secession, passed by Virginia in April, 1861, a mass-meeting of citizens con- vened at Clarksburg, and denounced the action of the convention, recommending the citizens of Northwest Virginia to meet in convention at Wheeling on May 13th. Other meetings sus- tained the movement, and delegates from twenty-five western counties met in convention, denounced the action of Virginia, and provided for a convention of all the counties of the State adhering to the Union. The latter convention repudiated the action of Virginia, and elected Francis H. Pierpont as governor of the reorgan- ized State of Virginia. The ultimate result was the formation of the new State under the title of West Virginia, and in 1863 the State was admitted to the Union. Military operations in what is now known as West Virginia were mostly confined to 1861, and the most im- portant engagements were at Philippi, Beverly, Rich Mountain, Cheat Mountain, and Carnifex Ferry. Whisky Insurrection, a popular out- break in Western Pennsylvania, in the summer 180 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS of 1794, on account of the imposition of duties on domestic distilled spirits. The people of West- ern Pennsylvania, where large quantities of whisky were manufactured, resisted the collec- tion of the revenue by excise officers with force of arms. The insurrection became general in several counties. Many outrages were com- mitted. Buildings were burned, the mails were rifled, and government officers were insulted and abused. At one time there were 6,000 or 7,000 insurgents under arms. The President of the United States (Washington) finally called out the military force of the country, to put down the insurgents, and was successful. Great leni- ency was shown to the offenders, and the excite- ment died away. Wisconsin. The name is derived from the River Wisconsin (originally used with the French orthography, Ouisconsin), from an Indian word, meaning " wild, rushing river." The first white people in Wisconsin were French explorers, Jean Nicolet and his followers, who entered the region in 1634. In 1658-59, two fur traders, Radisson and Groseilliers, visited the Mississippi and left a record of their travels. In 1665, a Jesuit mission at La Pointe was founded by Father Claude AUouez, and three years later he established the mission of St. Francis Xavier on the shores of Green Bay. In 1673, Father Marquette, accompanying Louis Joliet, reached the Mississippi by passing through Wisconsin, and later Father Hennepin and La Salle traced other waterways within the territory. Trading posts were established soon after this, becoming dependencies of Mackinaw. About the middle of the Eighteenth Century a fixed settlement was established at Green Bay, and at the close of the Revolutionary War Prairie du Chien, at the mouth of the Wisconsin, grew into a like settlement, and a few years later La Pointe and Portage became permanent trading posts. England retained Mackinaw after the treaty of 1783, and American dominion was not felt by the Wisconsin traders until after the War of 1812. The formation of Astor's company to establish fur trade in this region was followed by a law forbidding English traders in the territory, which resulted in an increase of American influ- ence. By the ordinance of 1787 Wisconsin had been a part of the Northwest Territory. In 1800, it was included in Indiana Territory. In 1809, it passed to Illinois, and in 1818 to Michigan. In 1825, the lead mines in the southern part of the State began to attract attention and considerable mining population came into the country. In 1828, Fort Winnebago was erected at Portage and the mining region was ceded to the whites by the Indians. In 1832, occurred the Black Hawk War, which ended in the almost entire extermination of the Sacs. The Territory of Wisconsin was formed in 1836 out of lands then comprised in the Territory of Michigan. It embraced all the land now within the States of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and that part of the Territory of Dakota which lie.s east of the Missouri and White Earth rivers. In 1838, all the territory west of the Mississippi River, and of a line due north from the source of that river to the international boundary-line, was taken to form the Territory of Iowa. As thus bounded, Wisconsin became a State in 1848, the seventeenth admitted under the Federal Constitution. Wyoming" was first visited by white men in 1742 and 1744, when Sieur de Verendrye, with a party from Canada, entered the territory and discovered the Rocky Mountains. John Colter, of Lewis and Clark's expedition of 1806- 10, explored the northern part of the section and discovered Yellowstone Park. In 1807, Ezekiel Williams made extensive explorations in Wyoming, and in 1812 Robert Stuart's courier party discovered the route to the West known as the "Overland Trail." In 1834, Sublette and Campbell built Fort Williams, afterward called Fort Laramie, and established the first permanent post in the State. In 1834, the first emigrants to the Pacific Coast passed along the overland trail, and in 1836 the first white women crossed the Rocky Moun- tains. Fort Bridger, the second permanent post, was built in 1842. In 1847, the advance guard of the Mormons crossed Wyoming on their way to Utah. Fort Laramie was garrisoned in 1849 and made a government post. In 1854, began a series of Indian wars which continued until 1876. The greatest Indian uprising happened from 1862 to 1868, and in 1866 occurred the massacre of Fort Plul Kearny, when Colonel Fetterman and eighty men were killed. The gold mines of Sweetwater were discovered in 1867, and the city of Cheyenne was founded in the same year. The first passenger train on the Union Pacific Railroad arrived in Wyoming in 1867. In 1868, the Territory of Wyoming was organized. Cheyenne was designated as the capital, and Laramie was founded. The first territorial legislature convened at Cheyenne in "1869. An act was approved that year giving women the right to vote and hold office in Wyoming. Coal was discovered in 1869 and the first mine was opened. In 1890, Wyoming was admitted to statehood and the first legislature convened at Cheyenne. In the same year cowboys, in an attempt to put a stop to train robbery, brought about a period of outlawry that necessitated a call for United States troops. Serious trouble was caused for some years in Wyoming by the State game laws, to which the Indians were naturally unable to reconcile them- selves. In the latter part of October and the beginning of November, 1903, severe fighting took place between the whites and Indians who had been killing game, in which several whites were killed. Yorktown, Virginia. Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of Yorktown in August, 1781; but, after sustaining a disastrous siege, he was obliged to surrender his armj^, consisting of about 7,000 men, to the allied armies of France and America, under the command of General Washington and Count Rochambeau, October 19, 1781. This mischance was attributed to Sir Henry Clinton, who had not given the garrison the necessary succor they expected; and it mainly led to the close of the war. It was strongly fortified by the Confederates in the American Civil War, but surrendered to Mc- Clellan, May, 1862. CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT Copyright, 1899, by Notmii Photo Co. LANGUAGE It has been estimated that more than twelve hundred languages were spoken in the two Americas. These languages give evidence of no continuously progressive type of culture. The many tribes have changed their vocabu- laries; but the identical method of putting words together has survived without change. One striking characteristic is the frequency of long words. This is well illustrated by the Aztec word for letter-postage amatlocuilolit- quitcatlaxtlahuilli, the literal meaning of which is, "the payment received for carrying a paper on which something is written." By compari- son and classification of the countless dialects and languages, they are reduced to a few great groups: the Tum6h group covers the northern Eart of the Rocky Mountains; the Aztec group as its seat in Central Mexico and Central Amer- ica; the Maya group has its seat in Central America and Yucatan; the Appalachian tribes include all those with which the English and the French first came into contact from the Atlantic to the basin of the Mississippi, and also the tribes of the northern part of South America; the Amazonian tribes occupy a large part of South America. The Hamitic race belongs historically to the northern parts of Africa, the southern parts of Europe, and the western parts of Asia. The Hamitic people were called, by the historic Greeks, Pelasgic. Their civilization has been so overlaid by that of the Aryans as to be almost wholly obscured. The great Hamitic civiliza- tion was that of Egypt, long considered the earliest of all the civilizations. HAMITIC TONGUES Sidonian, Egyptian, Berber, Iberian, Rotic I Koptic Libyan Biscayan Pelasgian, (probably) Minaean, (probably) Galla (probably) At the beginning of this century we knew little more of Semitic literature than what was contained in the ancient Hebrew Scriptures and in that body of Arabic literature that grew up after the era of Mohammed. Our knowledge has been greatly added to by the numerous inscriptions which have been found and de- ciphered. The Semitic races first appear his- torically in the great desert region covering Arabia and extending to the border of the Mes- opotamian River valleys. The Semitic tongues are different dialects, rather than different lan- guages. The Koran made the Arabic language sacred, as well as classic. About the Eleventh Century that treasure-house of tales, "The Thousand Nights and a Night," was produced. From the Canaanite family came our Hebrew Bible, a library of very varied literature. AMERICAN LANGUAGES Blackfeet, .... Cree Montagnoi, . . . Micmoc, . . Ottawa, . . . . . Abenaki Passamaq uoddy, Pequoid, Monegan, .... Lenape, Nanticoke Powhatan Miami, Sac, Fox, . Kickapoo Shawnee, .... Seneca, . , Cayuga, . . Onondaga, . Oneida, . . Mohawk, . Tuscarora, . Huron, . . , Assiniboin, Sioux, . . . Crow, . . . Winnebago, Omaha, . . Mandan, . . Oto Ponca, . . . Osage, . . . Kansas, . . Tutelo, . . Chippewa, Kutchin, Kenai, . . Tacullie, . Umpqua, Hoopab, . Apache, . Navajo, . Lipan, . . Toltec, . . . Aztec, . . . Chichimec, Pipile, . . . Nicarao, . . Alaguilac, . Itza, . . . . Tzendal, . . Quiche, . . Cakchiquel, Huasteca, . Maya, . . . Quichfia, . . Amard, . . > k Cherokee, Creek, . . Choctaw, Chickasaw, Yemassee, Seminole, Caddo ] Pawnee I Arickaree, ( Wishita J Ute I Comanche (" Carib I Arawak I Algonkin, . . . Iroquois, .... Dakota Chahta-Muskoki Caddo Kioway, .... Shoshonee, . . West Indian, . Tupi Guarani, . . Mundurucu, OrAra, . . . Ticuna, . . Parentintin, Mura, . . . Purupurti, . Piro Mirdnha, . . Caishdna, . Sen 184 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS W '=^ Eh O O H w ^ ?^ _<3 Pu s 3 1 2 S ^J 1^ a S c M S.s ~ Sr' 'S f^f^ ;z; H H P^ Old High German Middle High German High German x Gothic = Old Dutch J Low German { Anglo-Saxon Friesian Saxon IDansk Svensk Norsk (Lithuanian Old Prussian Lettic E. Slavic [ Russian Bulgarian , lUyrian f Lech W. Slavic I Czech I Palabian o Doric z Aeolic J H Attic x Ionic -H Portuguese Romansch Wallachian Ladin Italian Catalan Castilian Provencal Old French- f Welsh Cornish (died out beginning of Nineteenth Century) Breton (intro- duced from Britain) Gallic (inscrip- tions in Gaul) S (Gaelic -I a { Erse o O I Manx SEMITIC LANGUAGES Chaldeean, or Babylonian. Jewish, Aramaic, Syriac Nabatsean Palmyrite, .... Hebrew (proper), Phenician Canaanite, .... Edomite Moabite, Punic, or Carthaginian, . . Assyrian. -Aramaic. Hebrew. Arabic. Sabsean following Minsean, which may have been Hamitic. Ethiopic, or Geez. Amharic (possibly Hamitic). Aryan ( Indo-European, Indo-Ger- manic) Family. To this family belongs the first place. From the Aryans sprang both Persians and Greeks midway in its development; this family rules both Eu- rope and America, the African coasts and Australia, as well as the north and south of Asia. Its literature, both in abun- dance and quality, is unsurpassed by those of any of the other world fami- lies of language. From the Aryans have come the great world literatures in politics, art, letters, science, and religious truth. From them came the Iliad and the Odyssey, the Vedas of India, and the Shah-ndmeh of Persia, the Eddas of the Norsemen, the Gudrun, the Lay of the Nibelungs, the Beowulf, the Romaunt of Roland, the Arthurian Tales, and the Keltic Mabinpgion. One group of the Aryan family con- quered and civilized India and Ceylon. Sanskrit was the language in their day of greatness. The group that traveled farthest west was the Kelts. These were soon followed by the Teutonic tribes. Then came the Slav, Serb, or Wend. "The care of the national language I consider as at all times a sacred trust and a most important privilege of the higher orders of society. Every man of educa- tion should make it the object of his un- ceasing concern, to preserve his language pure and entire, to speak it, so far as is in his power, in all its beauty and per- fection. * * * A nation whose language becomes rude and barbarous, must be on the brink of barbarism in regard to everything else. A nation which allows her language to go to ruin, is parting with the best half of her intel- lectual independence, and testifies her wil- lingness to cease to exist." F. Schlegel. " It is with words as with sunbeams, the more they are condensed the deeper they burn." Southey. " Though our comparison might be bold, LANGUAGE 185 it would be just as if we were to say that the EngHsh language is a conglomerate of Latin words bound together in a Saxon cement; the frag- ments of the Latin being partly portions intro- duced directly from the parent quariy, with all their sharp edges, and partly pebbles of the same material, obscured antl shapetl by long rolling in a Norman or some other channel." Whewell. The English language is a conglomerate. Whenever there is an invention made or a psychological truth discovered, or a new article of commerce is introduced, or contact or inter- course with a new nation or people is estab- lished, a new word or set of words is added to our vocabulary. Every new game or fashion creates new names. Our complex civilization is reflected in a complex vocabulary or lan- guage. It is important that we should familiarize ourselves with the sources of our language, and with the sources of its strength, and each do his share towards preserving it in its purity and beauty. We should have an intelligent interest in our mother tongue in order that we may use it intelligently. We must spend a little time in the study of the past of our lan- guage, because it is only in the light of that past that the present is intelligible. Few of us are conscious of the changes taking place now, yet these changes must be taking place, for ours is the same language used by Chaucer, yet, how different. New words are coming in, and old ones becoming obsolete every year. Slang is responsible for the introduction of many new words. When we first hear a slang phrase, we are surprised ; but in this day of great surprises, we quickly grow accustomed to it, and soon adopt it as an integral part of our language. We use it as though it were not a thing of yesterday, but had existed as long as the language itself. If we were to examine some of these slang terms, we should find that many of them have been incorporated into the language, and are properly used in polite society and in serious composition. Trench says, "If the English language were to be divided into a hundred parts, forty-five of these might be Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as now some prefer to call them; forty-five Latin (including, of course, the Latin which has come to us through the French); five perhaps would be Greek. We should, in this way, have allotted ninety-five parts, leaving the other five to be divided among all the other languages, which have made their smaller contributions to the vocabulary of our English tongue." It will be interesting to find what classes of words come from the different sources. The Anglo-Saxon is the basis of the English language; it is the warp while the Latin is the woof. The monosyllables in great part are Anglo-Saxon. The articles, conjunctions, pro- nouns, prepositions, numerals, and auxiliary verbs are Saxon. Verbs of action and words that relate to the primary action of the senses are Saxon; as, think, feel, sing, see, talk, walk, run, and the like. Ever since the English language began we have been filibusters; we have plundered every other tongue for words to make our meaning plain; we have raided where we would, and have never hesitated to put ourselves under obligation to all strangers coming to our shores, or whose shores we have visited. The history of the English language is, in fact, but the his- tory of the English people, and of their doings. The early British language was under debt to the Kelts, first of all ; and we find in our pres- ent-day vocabulaiy such words as apply to Keltic things; as, bard, shamrock, whiskey, clan, dirk, cromlech, kilt, etc. The Anglo-Saxons, while they eagerly discarded words of Celtic origin, as did the French later, enriched their language from the Latin. The Roman occupation of Britain, from about A. D. 43 to A. D. 410, bequeathed to us five or six terms: castra, a camp, has been retained in Doncaster, Lancaster, Gloucester, Winchester, Bibchester, Exeter, formerly Excestre; strata, a paved road, in street. Park street, Stratford, Stretford, Streat- ham, Stradbroke; colona, a colony, in Lincoln; partus, a harbor, in Portsmouth, Portchester, Portsea; pons, a bridge, in Poritefract; fossa, a ditch, in Fossway, Fossbridge; vallum, a rampart, in Wallbury. The conversion of the British to Christianity is marked by another influx of Latin words and terms relating to the Church: abstinence, avarice, bounty, cardinal virtues, conscience, charity, chastity, confession, consistory, contemplation, contrition, indulgence, recreant, relic, reverence, sanctity, spiritual, unity, etc. Then the Danes lent a hand, giving us: to plough, to ask. Nor is it without a strange irony that the lawless Vikings gave us our word "law." The early supremacy of the Dutch in agriculture, in horticulture, and in ship building is made evident by the fact that a large proportion of the English words, dealing with the farm, the garden, and the ship, are of Dutch origin, and were borrowed from the brave little republic when the English went to school to the Hol- lander, to learn what he had to teach. A few of the words they give us are: ahoy, aloof, ballast, bluff, blunderbuss, boom, brack, brack- ish, brandy, bruin, duck (a fabric), golf, growl,' hoarding, knapsack, landscape, leaguer, loiter, manikin, measles, mope, mumps, pink, sheer, slim, sloop, swab, switch, uproar, wagon, yacht, dock, hull, skipper, fly boat. During the First Century that followed the Conquest in 1066, the language of the native population was, as they were themselves, utterly crushed and trodden under foot. The Conquest revolutionized our language as it did our life. A foreign dynasty, speaking a foreign tongue, and supported by an army of foreigners, was on the throne of England; Norman ecclesiastics filled all the high places of the Church, and places of honor and emolument. This meant that French became the language of the court, of society, and even of the many Norman families who employed the Saxons as servants. But the masses of England still spoke their native tongue. The better or richer families of the Anglo- Saxons began to adopt the French fashions and manners, and to speak the French language, as a mark of gentility. The many churches and castles, which the Normans built in different parts of England, meant that the French would 186 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS there be used, and add to the influence at work to make a new English language. The lan- guage of cliivalry was exclusively French, and Drought in such words as honor, glory, renown, host, champion, valiant, feat, achievement, courtesy, gentle, etc. With the lawyer, who was a great power during this time of transition, came such words as advocate, alliance, chattels, demise, devise, demurrer, domain, estate, fief, homage, liege, loyalty, manor, personality, pur- suit, realty, treaty, voucher, etc. The words which describe the pursuits of gentlefolk are mostly of ' French origin ; and it is a curious comment on history that, as Wamba points out in " Ivanhoe," while live animals ox, sheep, calf, swine, deer re- tain their native names, they are described by French words beef, mutton, veal, pork, veni- son when they are brought to table. The "Saxon" serf had the care of the animals while they were alive, but when killed they were eaten by his "French" superiors. Abundant words relating to law, government, and property have their origin in the Conquest. Such are: custom, prime, court, assize, tax, county, city, judge, jury, justice, prison, goal, parliament, manor, money, rent, chattel, mortgage, council, bill, act, etc. The French had shown their greater genius for war, and so, very naturally, their military terms were accepted. Army, battle, fortress, cannonade, assault, siege, hau- berk, ambuscade, brigadier, colonel, arms, armor, standard, banner, harness, glaive, tower, and lance are some of them. From the fact that butcher, grocer, mason, carpenter, barber, chandler, cutter, draper, and tailor are of French extraction, we should con- clude that the strangers were superior to the natives in the industrial occupations. " It is owing to the coming of William," says Dr. Freeman in his "History of the Norman Conquest," "that we cannot trace the history of our native speech, that we cannot raise our wail of its corruption without borrowing largely from the store of foreign words which, but for his coming, would never have crossed the sea. So strong a hold have the intruders taken on our soil that we cannot tell the tale of their com- ing without their help." Nearly all the scholarly writers of to-day have been classically educated, and they write for readers presumed to have more or less knowl- edge of Latin, hence they do not hesitate to use Latin derivatives, and often anglicize a Latin word rather than invent a native English com- pound. It is this tendency which has kept us from forming compound words, as do the Ger- mans for each new idea. But recently the Ger- man Emperor put forth a strong plea for the use of the native woi'ds instead of the foreign words, which the people were adopting so readily. He even wanted them to use a native compound in place of the cosmopolitan word telephone. The English tongue is fortunate In that it is an ingenious and partial compound of German and Latin. The German gives force, the Latin sonority to our verse and prose, while an inter- changing of German and Latin gives a variety which every other language may seek in vain. Most of our scientific nomenclature is from the Grgek. Not only do we get our scientific terms from the Greek, but ' also the names for the new instruments and processes; as, lithography, photography, telephone, cinemo- tograph, etc. Our musical vocabulary is largely from the Italian, as the following words bear witness: contralto, duet, opera, piano, quartet, solo, sonata, soprano, stanza, trio, trombone, allegro, adagio, baritone, cantata, canto, fugue, can- zonet, etc. The French give us terms of dress and cook- ing: flounce, jewel, pattern, plait, toilet, ton- sure, vesture, trousseau, costume, model, peruke, drape, embroider, furbelow, jacket, apparel, apron, bracelet, brooch, buckle, fricassee, fritter, gem, jelly, juice, omelet, parboil, peel, pie, rag- out, sauce, sausage, victuals, salad, etc. The advent of the English in the New World is known by the adoption of tobacco, potato, tepee, wigwam, toboggan, moccasin, pemmican, etc. Were it wise to use the space for it, illustra- tions of words taken from eveiy language could be given. But enough has already been done to show the composite make-up of our mother tongue, and to show the sources of its strength. Every American should speak English. If a foreign word has been adopted into the Eng- lish language, why not let it take the English forms ? Let the plural of syllabus be syllabuses ; of cactus, cactuses; of focus, focuses; etc. Let others take on the English spelling; as, technic, not technique; grip, not grippe; con- servatory, not conservatoire; exposure, not expose, etc. Only a pedant will use serviette in place of napkin. Let the student or would-be author not try to adorn his style with foreign words; let him use the most usual terms to produce the desired effect. Let him remember that, though Eng- lish has borrowed a great deal of French, though it has lost a large stock of English words, though it has adopted many a French idiom, and has been influenced by French in endless indirect ways, it still remains English. In former times " hard work made one sweat " ; now-a-days excessive labor causes profuse per- spiration. If a man, thus overheated, were to stand in a draught, he might catch his death of cold, get very sick, and even die. This reads well enough as an ordinary warning; but in a treatise on hygiene for popular use, the matter is now presented as follows: " If a person, whose system is excited by vigorous exertion, should suddenly expose himself to a current of air, he would probably check his perspiration and con- tract a disease which might involve the most serious and even fatal consequences." Which form of expression shall we cultivate? Which recommends itself to you? Dr. Freeman says: "In almost every page I have found it easy to put some plain English word, about whose meaning there can be no doubt, instead of those needless French and Latin words which are thought to add dignity to style, but which in truth only add vagueness. I am in no way ashamed to find that I can write purer and clearer English now than I did four- teen and fifteen years back; and I think it well LANGUAGE 187 to mention the fact for the encouragenjent of younger writers. The common temptation of Deginners is to write in wliat they think a more elevated fashion. It needs some years of prac- tice before a man fully takes in the truth that for real strength, and above all, for real clear- ness, there is nothing like the old English speech of our fathers." CAPITALS 1. The first word of every full sentence should begin with a capital, unless a literal reprint of the writing of an illiterate person, who does not begin a sentence with a capital, is to be made. Two lines of invasion were adopted. Montgomery descended Lake Champlain with 2,000 men, and after a campaign of two months captured Montreal. 2. Every line or verse of poetry should begin with a capital. Morning, evening, noon, and night, "Praise GodI " sang Theocrite. Then to his poor trade he turned, Whereby the daily meal was earned. The initial letter in the first word of a poetical quotation, though not beginning a line, should be capitalized. But that's not enough : Give my conviction a clinch ! 3. The name of the Deity in every person, and in every synonym or attribute, should' be- gin with a capital; as, God, Christ, Jesus, Son, Holy Ghost, Jehovah, Heaven, Creator, Provi- dence, Infinite One, Supreme Being, etc. When the attributes of the Deity or of the Saviour are expressed, not by adjectives, but in the Hebrew style, by nouns, they should begin with small letters, as Father of mercies, God of wisdom. Prince of peace. Also write Son of man, Spirit of God, Lord of lords. King of kings, etc. 4. Pronouns referring to God and Christ should not begin with capitals, unless they are used emphatically without a noun. Shepherd! with thy tenderest love, Guide me to thy fold above; Jesus said, I and my Father are One. 5. The pronoun I and the interjection O al- ways take a capital letter. Oh does not unless it begins a sentence. The heavens and earth, O Lord! proclaim thy boundless power. 6. The proper names of the days of the week and of the months of the year, and of days of feasts and fasts, festivals and holidays, both religious and civic, should begin with capitals; as, Monday, March, Arbor Day, New Years, Whitsunday, Decoration Day, Labor Day, Easter, Black Friday, etc. The names of the seasons are not capitalized. 7. All proper nouns and adjectives derived from these nouns should begin with capitals; as, a Greek, a Roman, a Hebrew, a Christian, a Mohammedan, an Elizabethan. Names of all geographical zones or sections of the world, when used as proper nouns, take a capital; as, the Occident, the Orient, the Le- vant, etc. Names of political parties should be capital- ized; as, Tory, Republican, Federalist, Free Soiler, etc. Geographical, national, or personal qualities, when used as nouns or before nouns in common use that specify merchandise, do not need a capital ; as, china, india ink, prussian blue, turkey red, majolica, delft, oriental rugs, castile soap, etc. There are some verbs derived from proper nouns that have lost their reference to the noun, and so are printed with small letters ; as, to hector, to philippize, to romance, to japan, to galvanize. But .Judaize and Christianize are exceptions to this rule. 8. Capitalize the first word in all titles of books, periodicals, plays, and pictures, and also every other word in the titles except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Fiske's The War of Independence. This rule is contrary to the custom of the American Library Association's rules, used in cataloguing books. They capitalize only the first word and proper nouns and proper adjec- tives; as, Fiske's The war of independence. 9. The first word and all important words in the titles of corporations and societies, should begin with a capital letter; as. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the Synod, the Government (when it stands in place of the title of the divisions of the government). In general, one should use a capital in the last illus- trations when the definite article is used,- and a small letter if the indefinite article is used. 10. Titles of ofhce or honor should be capi- talized if used before the name of the person; as, Mr. Smith, President Roosevelt, Messrs. A. K. Bidwell & Co., Brother George, Aunt Hannah. If used after, they are better written with a small letter; as, Hon. James G. Blaine, ex-senator from Maine; James Brown, roundsman, Broad- way squad. When titles occur frequently on a page, and are used without any particular expression of honor, they should be written with small letters. In official documents the titles of potentates are often capitalized, even though they follow the name of the ruler ; as, Victoria, by the grace of God, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India, etc. When sir, friend, boy, and the like words are used in the salutation of a letter, they should be capitalized; as, My dear Sir, My dear Boy. A title used in place of the person's name should begin with a capital; as. Good morning. Captain; Mr. President, I call for the question. Abbreviated titles of honor or respect should be capitalized: James Bryce, D. C. L. ; Henry Northam, M. D., LL. D.; Gen., Hon., Dr., etc. XL Words of primary importance, especially if they indicate some great event, or remarkable change in religion or government, are com- menced with capital letters; as. The Reforma- tion, effected by Luther, is one of the most wonderful events in modern times. 12. The names of the points of the compass when used to indicate direction should begin with small letters. When used to indicate a 188 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS section of the country, they should begin with capitals ; as, I am going West ; he is a representa- tive man of the South; the river flows south- west. 13. Appelatives used either before or after geo- .graphical nouns are capitalized; as, Erie Canal, Hudson River Railroad, Strait of Magellan, Coe Place, Shenandoah Valley, though many publishers omit the capital for the generic word, when it precedes the specific term; as, county of Winchester, state of New York, em- pire of Russia. 14. Abstract qualities, when personified, should be capitalized ; as, O Death I where is thy sting? Then Crime ran riot. 15. All quotations that are intended to be emphatic, or that consist of a complete sentence, should begin with a capital ; as, Then Elijah said, "Thou art the man." These two questions, "What are we?" and "Whither do we tend?" will at all times press painfully upon thoughtful minds. When a quotation is introduced by that it should begin with a small letter; as, " He said that this great patriot bequeathed to his heirs the sword which he had worn in the war for liberty, and charged them never to take it from the scabbard but in self defense, or in defense of their country and her free- dom." 16. In writing resolutions, -the word immedi- ately following Resolved, should begin with a capital. See Punctuation, Comma, Rule 13. Resolved, That the discovery of smokeless gunpowder has increased the horrors of war. PUNCTUATION Punctuation is the art of breaking up a sen- tence by means of points and stops, so as to conVey to the reader's mind, as quickly and easily as possible, the writer's meaning. There are two systems of punctuation, the close and the open. The close system is used in legal documents, laws, ecclesiastical formularies, and in precise composition of every sort. Even the omission of a hyphen from a compound word may make a serious error. The insertion of a comma in place of a hyphen between " fruit " and "seeds" in an enactment of Congress cost the government thousands of dollars. The loose punctuation should be used in ordinary descriptive writing. Formerly too many marks were used; to-day the tendency is toward the use of too few marks. Punctuation can surely not be classed among the exact sciences. It is not even an established system, for many of the rules of the teachers differ, and the practice of their pupils differs still more. Points may be omitted or inserted in a catalogue in a way that would not be tolerated in a history. However, there are some explicit directions that may be given that all writers should follow. The points should be used to show the gram- matical relation of words, and never solely to indicate rhetorical pauses in reading. The necessity for a knowledge of correct punctuation is well illustrated by this anecdote : "The following request is said to have been made at church: 'A sailor going to sea, his wife desires the prayers of the congregation for his safety.' But, by an unhappy transposition of the comma, the note was read thus: 'A sailor going to sea his wife, desires the prayers of the congregation for his safety.' " The marks used for punctuation are the peri- od [.], colon [:], semicolon [;], comma [,], interro- gation point [?], exclamation point [!], dash [ ], parentheses (), brackets [], hyphen [-], double quotation marks [" "], single quotation marks [' '], apostrophe [']. Period. 1. All declarative and imperative sentences, and sentences that are interrogative in form, but to which an answer is not expected, should be followed by a period ; as, He has gone. Go at once. Ah! whither now are fled those dreams of happiness. The Cyprians asked me why I wept. 2. All abbreviations, unless the ellipsis of intermediate letters in the words has been in- dicated by using the apostrophe, should be fol- lowed by the period; 7th, 9th, 3d, etc., are not followed by the period. 3. When capitals are used for numerals, it was customary formerly to follow them by a pe- riod; e. g., Henry VIII., John IV. 3. The latest usage seems to omit the period, especially in the possessive construction; as, Henry VIII's reign. Comma. 1. All nouns of direct address should be set off by commas; as, John, come here. I say, Mary, can you go now ? Sir, I can- not do it. 2. When there are three or more parts in the subject of a sentence, and the conjunction is used between the last two only, a comma should be used after each part except the last. Mary Lee and Laura came yesterday. As the sentence stands, you may think that there are but two persons that came yesterday; viz., Mary Lee and Laura. If the sentence is written, Mary, Lee and Laura came yesterday, then Mary may be a noun of direct address, and the boy Lee and the girl Laura came; but if it is written, Mary, Lee, and Laura came, you know that three persons came. The comma before the and is frequently omitted by rapid writers; but it should not be omitted in this compound construction. 3. Parenthetical or additional expressions, that is, those expressions that break the directness of the statement, require to be cutoff by commas; as, Christopher Columbus, an Italian by birth, discovered America. It is tnind, after all, that does the work of the world. In this sentence, 'after all' does not modify 'does,' but shows a connection between this sentence and something gone before. Another illustration would be, It was not necessary, however, for you to go. Some of the phrases in common use that are usually set off by commas are : in short, in fact, in reality, in brief, as it happens, no doubt, in a word, to be sure, to be brief, etc. Some of the words used parenthetically, which, according to the close punctuation should be set off by commas, and, according to the loose, should not be, are: therefore, then, however, perhaps, namely, indeed, too, moreover, etc. Most of these words named last are capable of two constructions, they may either belong to the proposition as a whole, or to a single word language; 189 in it. It is only when used in the former sense that they require to be set off by commas; e. g., On this assistance, then, you may rely. Then I believed you, now I do not. 4. Independent adverbs at the beginning of the sentence should be set off by a comma; as, Well, I will go. Why, you may if you want to. Note. Used in this way it would be better to omit them from all sentences. 5. The nominative, the infinitive, and the participle used absolutely should be set off by commas: The wind having gone down, we may go sailing. To tell the truth, I must remain here . Generally speaking, he is a good fellow. 6. Nouns in apposition are set off by commas : George, my brother, can do it for you. We, the people of the United States, do ordain and es- tablish this constitution. 7. If the subordinate clause in a complex sentence comes first, it should be followed by a comma: If I go, you must remain. While he stays, you must stay. 8. A series of words used in the same con- struction should be separated by commas; as, Ulysses was wise, eloquent, cautious, and in- trepid, as was requisite in a leader of men. He stood, walked, ran, and jumped. If the words are used in pairs, only the pairs should be separated ; as, Ulysses was wise anxl eloquent, cautious and intrepid, as was, etc. 9. When two statements, each with its own subject, verb, and object, are put in one sen- tence, the comma should be used to show their distinctiveness, even when the sentence is very short ; as. You may go, and I will stay. 10. Use a comma between two words in the same construction when they are differently modified; as, He sold a horse, and wagon of 5vood. If the comma is omitted, the' horse tvas of wood. 11. When the subject consists of two or more nouns not joined by a conjunction, use a comma before the predicate; as. Riches, pleasures, health, become evils to those, etc. 12. A comma is put before a relative clause, when it is explanatory of the antecedent, or presents an additional thought. But the point is omitted before a relative clause which restricts the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense. To make clear the difference between an additional and a restrictive clause, let me use this sentence: Her entrance was unnoticed by the officer who sat gazing in the fire. We restrict when we wish to separate one object from other objects of the same sort. If there were several officers in the room, and you wish me to know that her entrance was unnoticed by but one of them, you wish to separate or distinguish him from the others. Then the clause is used restrictively and should not be set off by a comma. But if there was but one officer in the room, you use this same clause to tell an additional fact about him; then it is used additionally and should be set off by com- mas. Much confusion arises in this sort of sentence because authors on punctuation say that a descriptive or additional clause should be set off by commas. A descriptive clause may be used to express either an additional or a re- strictive thought. Bring me the dress that is made of red silk. This sentence requires no comma because there are several dresses there, and I want the red silk one. Bring me the dress, which is made of red silk. Here I have used the same descriptive clause, but the use of "which" and the comma shows that that is the only dress there. Note : In all restrictive relative clauses the pronoun "that" should be used; and in all additional relative clauses use "who " when referring to people and "which " when referring to animals or inanimate objects. If writers would bear this use of these pronouns in mind, the matter of the comma would be immaterial because the pronoun would sufficiently indicate the use of the clause. 13. One good authority says do not use a comma after Whereas, It appea:rs, etc.; Re- solved, That, etc.; Ordered, That, etc. He also says, Do not use a capital after these words. Write, Resolved that women, etc. 14. When a clause is used as the subject of a verb, it should not, even though long, be fol- lowed by a comma, unless it ends with a verb; as. That the governor of this great State of Illinois should make this unworthy appeal to the passions and prejudices of the foreign-born citizens of the nation must always be a cause of mortification to every lover of his country. The second part of the rule is illustrated by, Whatever is, is right. 15. A comma is used before a short direct quotation: He said, "I will go." Note. A colon is used before a long direct quotation. 16. The comma shows the omission of words; as. Her address is 718 Norwood Ave., Rochester, N. Y., which means in Rochester, in the State of New York. Reading maketh a full man; writ- ing, an exact man. Note. The latest authority says omit the comma in the last sentence because no misunderstanding can arise thereby; but custom still uses it. Semicolon. This mark is used to sep- arate such parts of a sentence as are somewhat less closely connected than those separated by a comma. 1. When two clauses are joined by for, but, and, or an equivalent word, the one clause per- fect in itself, and the other added as a matter of inference, contrast, or explanation, they are separated by a semicolon: Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal. 2. When the parts of a compound sentence, even though they are short, are not closely con- nected in thought, they should be separated by a semicolon; as, I live to die; you dye to live. 3. Use the semicolon to separate the parts of a compound sentence, when one or both members contain commas: Men are not judged by their looks, habits, and appearances; but by the character of their lives and conversations, and by their works. 4. If a series of expressions depend on a com- mencing or concluding portion of the sentence, they should be separated by a semicolon: Phi- losophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that, etc. Also in such a sentence 190 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS as, If we think of glory in the field ; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private ; of morals * * * the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation of all these ideas. 5. All of the older authorities say use a semi- colon before and comma after as, viz, to wit, namely, i. e., or that is, when they precede an example or an illustration. The latest authority says use the comma in both places. This is but another illustration of the changes in punc- tuation that are coming in. Colon. 1. When a sentence is long, and one or both of the parts contain semicolons, the greater division should be marked by a colon: Art has been to me its own exceeding great reward:- it has soothed my afflictions; it has refined my enjoyments; it has endeared my solitude; and it has given me the habit of wishing to discover the good and the beautiful in all that surrounds me. 2. A colon should follow a clause that is com- plete in itself, but is followed, without a con- junction, by some remark, inference, or illus- tration : Nor was . the religion of the Greek drama a mere form: it was full of truth, spirit, and power. 3. A colon should be used before a long direct a notation, or a list of articles formally intro- uced: She finished her helpful talk with the song from "Pippa Passes": "The year's at the spring The day's at the morn; Morning's at seven; " Etc. Will you kindly send me the following articles : 2 lbs. of granulated sugar, 1 lb. of coffee, Etc. 4. The words yes and no should be followed by a colon, provided the words that follow are a continuation or repetition of the question: Can these words add vigor to your hearts? Yes: they can do it; they have often done it. 5. The colon is more often used than any other mark after the salutation in a letter: My dear Sirs : Interrogation Point. 1. An interro- gation mark is placed at the end of every direct question: Will you go? He asked me, "Will you go?" 2. The mark of interrogation should not be used when it is only affirmed that a question has been asked, and the expression denoting inquiry is put in any other form than that of a direct question: I was asked if I would go to Europe next summer. Note. It should be placed inside of the quotation marks if it belongs properly to the quotation, and out- side in other cases; He asked, "Will you return by nine o'clock?" What can be more interesting than "the passing crowd"? Elxclamation Point. This point is used after any expression of strong emotion, and after interjections: Friends, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear. The heavens and earth, O Lord! proclaim Thy boundless power. Oh! nothing is further from my thoughts than to deceive you. Oh, that all classes of society were both enlightened and virtuous! Tiie Marks of Parentiieses. If an expression is inserted in the body of a sentence, with which it has no connection in sense or con- struction, it should be enclosed by the marks of parentheses. The test is, can the words to be enclosed be omitted without injury to the sense? I have clearly seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult witli an air of pity. She had managed this matter so well (oh, how artful a woman she was), that my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was in danger. Notice the use of the mark of interrogation in this sentence: " While the Christian desires tlie approbation of his fellow-men (and why sliould he not desire it?), he disdains to receive their good-will by dishonorable means." The Dash. 1. The dash is used to show an abrupt break in a sentence; to show a sus- pension in the thought; or an epigrammatic turn in sentiment. Closely following came what do you suppose ? The eye of the child who can look unmoved into that "well unde- filed," in which heaven itself seems to be re- flected? 2. The dash is used where there is an ellipsis of such words as, namely, that is, etc. To separate adjectives in apposition but closely connected. These poets Homer and Virgil wrote epics. Bracliets. These marks, used for nearly the same purposes as the parentheses, are usually confined to expressions inserted in or appended to a quotation, and not belonging to it. They are intended to give an explanation, to rectify a mistake, or to supply an omission; as, He had the finest head [of hair] I" ever saw; * * * because the people love the principles of the Constitution [long continued applause] and to-day, etc. Hyphen. 1. The hyphen is used in form- ing compound words. When each of the words of which a compound is formed retains its origi- nal accent, they should be united by a hyphen: The alK-pow'erful God; In^cense-breath^ing morn. Everlasting, notwithstanding, and a few other words are exceptions to this rule. 2. If a prefix ends in a vowel, and the word to which it is joined begins with a vowel, the hyphen, or the diaeresis over the second vowel is used: co-operate or cooperate. 3. The hyphen is used to show the division of words into syllables: hy-phen. Double and Single Quotation Marks. 1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks: To me he said, " I cannot believe it is true." 2. If the thought, but not the words of an- other are given, quotation marks are not used: He said that he could not believe it true. 3. You may use italics, or double, or single quotation marks if you are quoting a single word or short expression. " Petticoat " (liter- ally 'little coat'), in itself a sufficiently inof- fensive term, has shown a tendency to give way to "skirt." In this illustration "petti- coat" and "skirt" may be italicized and the quotation marks omitted. 4. If a quotation occurs within a quotation, enclose the second one in single quotation marks: In his letter he wrote, "If the physi- LANGUAGE 191 cian sees you eat anything that is not good for you, he says, ' It is poison ! ' " 5. When several paragraphs are quoted, use double marks at the beginning of each para- graph, and at the end of the last paragraph only. Apostrophe. 1. The apostrophe is used to mark the possessive case : John's. 2. To show the contraction of words and omission of letters: I'll, you'd, etc. 3. To show the clipping of words in dialect: He wa' singin' to 'em. 4. To form plurals of letters, signs, and figures : There are twenty a's on this page. Count the 2's in this sum. Your x's or O's were not well made. The foregoing are the generally accepted rules. It should be kept in mind, however, that we are in a stage of transition in regard to capitaliza- tion and punctuation, there being a marked tendency toward simplification. RIGHT USE OF SOME COMMON WORDS A. Use the article before both nouns or both adjectives when they denote different objects. " A coat and a hat " not " a coat and hat." " A black and white dress" (one dress); "a black and a white dress" (two dresses). Abortive. A ridiculous perversion of this word is creeping into use through the newspapers. " A lad was yesterday caught in the acfe of abor- tively appropriating a pair of shoes." That is abortive that is untimely in its birth; and, by figure of speech anything is abortive which is brought out before it is well matured. Abortive should not be used indiscriminately of failure. Accept of. Never use the preposition after this verb. We accept invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like. Accept and Except. Accept means to take when offered; except means to leave out, to exclude. I accepted the gift. All except two will go. Accord. To accord means to render or be- stow upon another, as honor: therefore one should never say, "The information he desired was accorded him." Administer. The man died from blows administered by the policeman. Oaths, medi- cine, affairs of state are Md ministered. Blows are dealt. Adopt. This word is often used instead of to decide upon and to take; thus, "The meas- ures adopted by Congress as the result of this inquiry will be productive of good." Better, " The measures decided upon, etc." Instead of "What course shall you adopt to get your pay ? " say, "What course shall you take, etc. ?" In the newspapers one may see " Wanted to adopt A beautiful female infant." The advertisers meant to say that they wanted the child men- tioned in their advertisement adopted. The word is correctly used in "The measures pro- posed by the senator were adopted at once." Affect. See effect. Aggravate. This word is often used, when the speaker means to provoke, irritate, or anger. Thus, '^ It aggravates (provokes) me to be con- tinually found fault with"; "He is easily ag- gravated (irritated)." Agree. Do not use agree for admit. " That a flat brick fagade pierced by a few windows does not make an inspiring picture, all will agree." Say, " all will admit." Agriculturist is to be preferred to agri- culturalist. The same is true of conversationist. Ain't. This is not a contraction, and can- not take the place of I'm not. Alilce. This word should not be used with both, nor with both just, as in " These hats are both alike" or "both just alike"; say, "These hats are alike." All of. The of is a superfluity. " I have them all," not "I have all of them"; "Take it all," not "Take ao/ it." All Over. All should modify the noun, and not the prepositional phrase in "The disease spread over all the country," not "all over the country." Allege. Do not use this word as a syno- nym for say or tell, as in " He alleges that the engine ran sixty miles an hour." Instead, " He says or tells us that, etc." Allow. This word is frequently misused in the West and the South for think; to be of opinion; to admit; as, " He allows his horse can beat yours." Instead of this say, "He thinks or is of the opinion that, etc." Almost Nearly. These two adverbs should not be used indiscriminately. Almost re- gards the ending as an act; nearly, its begin- ning. A man that receives an injury so severe that he comes off with barely his life is almost killed; a man that escapes what would have killed him is nearly killed. These words are correctly used in " I am almost done with my work " ; "I nearly ran over the child." Alone Only. That is alone that is un- accompanied ; that is only, of which there is no other. "Virtue only makes us happy" means that nothing else can do it. If we say, " Virtue alone makes us happy," we mean that virtue unaided makes us happy. "This means of lo- comotion is used by man only." Alternative. Do not use this word when more than two things are referred to. You may have the choice of three courses, not of three alternatives. Always. Often used redundantly. "When- ever I see her, I think of mother," not "I always think of mother." Ameliorated. "Her troubles are greatly ameliorated" should be "are lessened." Among. "He was there among the rest" should be "with the rest." Among One Another. "They ex- changed votes among one another" should be "with one another." Amount. "A surprising amount of per- fection has been reached" should be "A sur- prising degree of perfection, etc." And. Do not use and in place of the particle to. " Come to see me," not " Come and see me." And should never introduce a relative clause unless it joins it to a coordinate relative clause. " I have a dress worn by my aunt, and which is forty-five years old." In this sentence leave out and and use that instead of which. (See Rule 12 for the comma, under Punctuation.) Antecedents. This word used as a sub- 192 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS stantive means those persons or things which have preceded any person or thing of the same kind in a certain position. Thus the anteced- ents of General Sherman in the army of the United States are General Washington, General Scott, and General Grant. To call the course of a man's life until the present moment his antecedents is nearly as absurd a misuse of lan- guage as can be compassed. If, instead of " What do you know of his antecedents?" it is asked "What do you know of his previous life?" or better, "What do you know of his past ?" there is sense instead of nonsense, and the purpose of the question is fully conveyed. Anticipate. This word is often used in place of expect, or foresee. Anticipate means to go before, so as to preclude another ; to get the start of, or to get ahead of; to enjoy, possess, or suffer, in expectation. It is therefore misused in " By this means it is anticipated that the time for Europe will be lessened two days"; and in "Her death is hourly anticipated." It is cor- rectly used in "If not anticipated, I shall here- after make an attempt at a magazine paper on the Philosophy of Point"; and in "Why should we anticipate our sorrows? 'Tis like those who die through fear of death." "Were Greeley's movements those that it was anticipated (ex- pected) he would make?" Anxious is often used where desirous would better express the meaning. Anxious means full of anxiety; suffering from suspense or un- certainty; concerned about the future. "I am not anxious to get to Canada" should be "I am not desirous, etc." " I am still more anxious to have you live in New York" should be "still more desirous." Anyliow is permissible in conversation, though incompatible with dignified diction, in which such phrases as "in any event," "be that as it may, " "at any rate," and the like are to be preferred. Appeals is used in this sentence instead of drafts: "There are constant appeals upon the resources of the government." Approacli is sometimes improperly used in the sense of address, petition, appeal to ; thus, "The teachers have approached tne Educational Department in some matters that concern their interest." Apt is often misused for likely, and sometimes for liable. " What is he apt (likely) to be doing? " "Where shall I be apt (likely) to find him?" " If you go there, you will be apt (liable) to get into trouble." Aren't in colloquial use is admissible, but are you not is preferable. I'll, I'm, etc., are good form because they are contractions of the verb only. As as ; So as. Use the former in affirma- tive propositions, and the latter in negative propositions. He is as tall as you are. He was never so happy as now. Aside is sometimes misused for apart. "Words have a potency of association aside (apart) from their significance as representa- tive signs." As Tliougii is often used for as if. In the sentence, "The child looked as though her hair had never been combed, " supply the elliptical clause, and you will see the need of using if in place of though. " The child looked as (she would look) though her hair, etc." " The woman looks as (she would look) though (if) she were tired." At. "They do things differently in (not at) the South." At all is superfluous in such sentences as, "She had no friends at all"; "I do not want any at all " ; " If she had any desire at all to see, she would have waited." At Best. At Worst. These phrases re- quire the article or a possessive pronoun used in them. Always say, " I did the best I could," etc. " He was at his worst." Audience is often used in place of specta- tors. The audience hears; the spectators see: therefore say, "The spectators at the ball game," not "the audience." "The audience at the con- cert, etc." Avenge and Revenge. We avenge the wrong done to others, and revenge the wrong done to ourselves. Avoid is often used in the place of prevent or hinder; as, "There shall be nothing lost if I can avoid it." It should be "if I can prevent it." Awful is too frequently used as an inten- sive. Avoid this use of it; e. g., I was awfully glad to see you. A While Since should be a while ago. Bad Cold. Say a slight or a severe cold. Colds are never good. Badly is inelegantly used for very much. "I shall miss you very much," not "I shall miss you badly." Balance means the excess of one thing over another, and should be iised in this sense only: hence it is improper to talk about the balance of the edition. In this case say rest or remainder. You may speak of the balance of the account. Beastly. One may properly say "beastly drunk" but not "beastly weather." Before is sometimes used in place of rather than. " War before peace at that price " should be "War rather than peace at that price." Between should be used only with refer- ence to two of a kind. When more than two are referred to, use among. "The candy was divided between the two boys," or "among the four children." When used to express contrast, the word may be correctly used in speaking of more than two: "True, the three boys are brothers, but there is a great difference between them." Black Blacken, y^e black stoves and blacken reputations. Blame it on is a vulgarism used in place of accuses or suspects. "He blames it on his brother" should be "He suspects or accuses his brother." Both is often used in such sentences as " They are both alike"; "They both ran away from school," etc. Omit both from each sentence. It is incorrect in " He lost all his fruit both plums, peaches, and pears." Bound should not be made to do service for doomed, determined, resolved, certain, or will be compelled. "He is bound to do it" should be "He is certain, resolved, or determined to do it." "He is bound to fail" should be "He is doomed, destined, or sure to fail." But is often misused. " I do not doubt but LANGUAGE 193 he will be here" should read "doubt that." "1 should not wonder but he will succeed" should read "wonder if." In " I have no doubt but that he will go " suppress but. Change but to than in " The mind no sooner entertains any proposition but it presently hastens, etc." But is correctly used in " I have no fear but that she will succeed," which means a very dif- ferent thing from " I have no fear that she will succeed." By should be with in "The room was filled by ladies and children " ; also in " The ball ended by a waltz." There is a difference of meaning in these two sentences: "I know a man by the name of Brown," and " I know a man of the name of Brown." Which do you mean? Calamity means in an abstract sense source of misery or of loss, but it is often misused to mean loss. Calamities are causes, losses are results. "The fire caused a great calamity" should read "caused a great loss." It is correctly used in "The falling of the building, which caused the death of two firemen, was a great calamity." Calculate is wrongly used in "He calcu- lates to get off to-morrow." "The sentence should read "expects, purposes, or intends to get off." Caliber is often misused for order, as in "His work is of a higher caliber than hers is." Capable is often used in place of suscep- tible. "We need more articles capable of illus- tration" should read "susceptible of illustra- tion." Condone is sometimes misused for com- eensate and atone for. It means to pardon, to )rgive. "The abolition of the income tax more than condones for the turmoil of an election" should read "atones for, etc." Congregate Together. In "A large number of people congregated together in the hall," omit the word together, because to congregate, unaided, means to collect, or gather together. Consequence is sometimes used instead of importance or moment; as, "They were all persons of more or less consequence " should be "of more or less importance." "It is a matter of no consequence" should be "of no moment." Consider means to meditate, to deliberate, to reflect, to revolve in the mind ; and yet it is made to do service for think, suppose, and regard. Thus: " I consider his course very unjustifiable " should read "think his course." " I have always considered it my duty, etc." should read "thought it my duty." Conversationist. See Agriculturist. Co-operate Together means co-oper- ate or operate together, and can mean no more, which makes it plain that the co or the together serves no purpose is a superfluity. Creditable should not be used instead of credible. Say, "two credible witnesses," not "creditable witnesses." Say, " I am credibly informed," not " creditably informed." Crushed out. The rebellion was finally crushed out. Out of what? We may crush the life out of a man, or crush a man to death, and crush not crush out a rebellion. Dandy. This adjective belongs properly to the "gushers." It is their sole adjective. He is a dandy man; The refreshments were dandy; The sunset was dandy. Dangerous is misused in the sentence "He is dangerous," when we mean "He is sick." Say," He is not in danger," or"notdangerously ill." Dearest. Do not begin a letter "My dearest John," unless he is the dearest of three or more Johns with whom you are acquainted. Deceiving should not be used in place of trying to deceive. It is when we do not suspect deception that we are deceived; " He is deceiv- ing me " should read " He is trying to deceive me." Deprecate means to endeavor to avert by prayer, and so should not be used in the sense of disapprove, censure, or condemn. Do not say, "He deprecates the whole proceeding." Desperately. Do not say, "He was des- perately wounded," but "badly wounded." Despite should not be, as it often is, pro- ceeded by in, and followed by of. Say," Despite all our efforts," not " In despite of all our efforts." Detect is often misused for distinguish, recognize, discover, see. " I did not detect any- thing wrong in his appearance" should be "I did not discover anything wrong in his appear- ance." "I could not detect any difference be- tween them" should be " I could not see any difference between them." Die with from. Man and brute die of, and not with or from, fevers, old age, and so on. Differ Different. The prepositions /rom and with are both used with the verb differ, but the weight of authority is on the side of using from. Different to is sometimes used instead of different from ; but it is incorrect. " She is differ- ent than you would expect her to be" should be "different from what you would expect her to be." The word than implies comparison and demands the comparative degree. Different is in no way a comparative. We say greater than but different from. We may differ with a per- son, but things differ from one another. D ock W harf . A dry dock is a place where vessels are drawn out of the water for repairs, A wet dock is a place where vessels are kept afloat at a certain level, while they are being loaded or unloaded. A wharf is a sort of quay built by the side of the water. Vessels lie at wharfs and piers, not at docks. Don't. This is the contraction for do not, and not for does not: therefore do not say, "He don't want it." Each other is properly applied to two only ; one another must be used when the number considered exceeds two. We say," Great authors address themselves to one another," unless we refer to only two authors. Effect Affect. Effect means to bring about; as, "to effect a reform." Affect means to influence; as, "His ideas will affect the char- acter of the reform." Elegant. "This is a fine morning," not "This is an elegant morning." Emigrant Immigrant. These two words are not infrequently confounded. Emi- grants are persons going out of the country; immigrants are persons coming into the country. Ending of Sentences. Sentences end- ing with prepositions are always more terse, always quite as idiomatic, and always simpler, 194 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS than they would be if differently constructed. "The man I gave it to," not "The man to whom I gave it." "The verb it belongs to," not "The verb to which it belongs," etc. Enjoy Bad Health. Does anyone en- joy bad health? Say, " He is in feeble or delicate health." Equally as Well. As well, or equally well, expresses quite as much as equally as well. Everlastingly means perpetually, eter- nally, forever. Do not say, " The horse was ever- lastingly running away." Every. "Every one of us has this in com- mon" should be "All of us have this in com- mon." Except. See Accept. Excessively. Say, " The weather is very warm," not "excessively hot." "My friend was exceedingly popular," not "excessively popular." Excise Laws. An excise is a tax levied on domestic products; it is an internal revenue tax. New York has' license laws and license commissioners, and properly they should be so called. New York's excise laws, so called, are properly license laws. Exercise Exorcise. Do not use these words interchangeably. Exercise means a put- ting into use, action, or practice; exorcise to cast or drive out (an evil spirit), by religious or magical formulas or ceremonies. Expect. We cannot expect backwards. " I expect you thought I would come to see you yesterday" should be "I suppose, etc." "I expect you know all about it" should be "I sus- pect you know, etc." Experience. "We experienced great hardships" should read "We suffered." Extend. "They showed me every kind- ness" is better than "They extended every kind- ness to me." Farther Further. Use farther for all distances that can be measured either great or small. Use further in all other sentences. Female applies to animals, as well as to women, and so should not be used in such sen- tences as, "With the dislike not unnatural to females, etc." Fewer Less. Fewer refers to number, and less to quantity. Instead of "There were not less than twenty scholars absent," we should say, " There were not fewer than twenty scholars absent." Instead of "There were not less than ten chapters in the book," we should say, " There were not fewer than ten chapters in the book." Find. "I think the men /ind everything" should be "supply everything." Fixed. This word is often misused for ar- ranged; as, "I must fix the books." "Who fixed the dishes on the shelves?" It is vul- garly used thus: "I will fix him." "The jury- was fixed." "You must fix up, if you go. " Your alTairs are in a bad fix." Former Latter. The less the writer uses these words the better. In the interest of force and clearness their use should be studiously avoided. It is nearly always better to repeat the noun. This avoids the reader's going back to see which is former and which is latter. Got Have. If a man inherits a fortune, you say he has money; if he obtains money through his own effort, you say "He has gotten money." "He has books" means merely that he possesses them; "He has gotten his books" means that he has obtained them through effort. Have shows simple possession; got shows pos- session plus the effort to obtain the thing. Had Ought. This expression is incorrect because had is used with the past participle of the principal verb to form the compound tense. Ought is a defective verb and has no participle: therefore ought cannot be used with had. Hain't is a very objectionable vulgarism. Handy should not be used in the sense, near, near by, close at hand; as, "The store is handy." Say, "The store is near." Have to Have or Had to Have. Bet- ter than " I have to have my work done by three o'clock" is " I should, must, or ought to have my work, etc." Got to get is another unpleasant repetition. Hence is superfluous in the sentence, " It will be many years hence, we apprehend, before he returns." How. "I have heard how, in Italy, one is beset on all sides by beggars" should read "I have heard that, in Italy, etc." However. Use how, not however, in such a sentence as, "However could you tell such a story !" If. Use whether in place of if in these sen- tences: "I doubt if the book will suit you"; "I wonder if he has come." Ill Sick. Almost all British speakers and writers limit the meaning of sick to the expres- sion of qualmishness, sickness at the stomach, nausea, and lay the proper burden of the ad- jective sick upon the word ill. They sneer at ue for not joining in the robbery and the imposition. Richard Grant White says, " I was present once when a British merchant, receiving in his own house a Yankee youth at a little party, said, in a tone that attracted the attention of the whole room, 'Good evening! We haven't seen you for a long while. Have you been seeck' (the sneer prolonged the word), 'as you say in your country?' 'No, thank you,' said the other, frankly and promptly, ' I've been hill, as they say in yours.' " In Into. In is sometimes an adverb and sometimes a preposition. As an adverb it is correctly used in these sentences: "Come in"; "Go in." As a preposition in should be used with verbs of rest and into with verbs of motion. These words are correctly used in: "He sat in his chair"; "He ran into the house." Incite Insight. Incite means to rouse to a particular action; as, "The mob was in- cited to set the house on fire." Insight is a noun and means the power or faculty of immediate and acute perception or understanding ; as, " The strongest insight we obtain into nature is that which we receive, etc." In Our Midst is not according to the genius of our language. It should be written in the midst of us. Also in the midst of them, and not in their midst. Inaugurate should not be used in place of begin for the simple things of daily life. It is a big word misused. Individual should not be used for person. LANGUAGE 195 The word is used correctly in "Changes both in individuals and communities are often pro- duced by trifles"; incorrectly in "That indi- vidual, left here several hours ago." Innumerable Number should not be used. Say instead innumerable times or numr- berless times. In so far as. The in is superfluous in this phrase. "In so far as I know" should be "So far as I know." Intend is often misused for purpose. "I intend to attend college this winter" should read " I purpose to attend college this winter." We purpose seriously; we intend vaguely. Just Going to Go is better expressed by just about to go. Just going to say by just about to say, etc., or by about to go. Just Next. Doesn't "He was next me" express as much as " He was just next me " ? Kids. It is better usage to speak of one's gloves than of one's kids. Silk gloves are not silks. Children are not kids. Kind of. "What kind of man is he?" is correct. "What kind of a man is he?" is in- correct. Lady. Address a stranger as madam, and not as lady. People of culture and refinement will never say, "She is a fine lady," a "clever lady," etc. Ladies say, "The women of Amer- ica," "women's apparel," etc. In similar in- stances men should be used in place of gentle- men. Lie Lay. By a vulgar error these verbs have been so confounded as to deserve some notice. To lie is neuter, and designates a state : to lay is active, and denotes an action on an object; it is properly to cause to lie. "A thing lies on the table"; "Some one lays it on the table"; "He lies with his fathers"; "They laid him with his fathers." In the same manner, when used idiomatically, we say, "A thing lies by us until we bring it into use"; "We lay it by for some future purpose." The confusion arises probably from the fact that lay appears in both verbs. The words are correctly used in the following sentences: I lay myself upon the bed (action). I lie upon the bed (rest). I laid myself upon the bed (action). I lay upon the bed (rest). I have laid myself upon the bed (action). I have lain upon the bed (rest). A hen lays an egg (action). A ship lies at the wharf (rest). The murdered Lincoln lay in state (rest); The people laid the crime upon the rebels (ac- tion). Learn Teach. The uncultured often change these verbs. To teach is to give instruc- tion; to learn is to take instruction. "I will learn if you will teach me " is correct. Leave. The vulgar say, "Leave me be"; "Leave it alone"; "Leave me see it." Of course let is the verb to be used here. Lend. Frequently confused with loan. The latter is not a verb, but a noun. A loan is the completed act of lending, or is the thing lent. It may sound larger to some people to say that they loaned than that they lent a thousand dollars more as if the loan were an important transaction; but that can be only because they are either careless or indifferent. Less. See fewer. Lilce Love. We like acquaintances, horses, flowers, pictures, etc. We love wives, sweethearts, kinsmen, truth, justice, and country. Lilce As. "He looks like you." This sentence may mean either "He looks as you look," or " He resembles you in his appearance." The sentence should read "He looks as you look," or "He is like you." Like is followed by an object only, and does not admit of a verb in the same construction. As must be followed by a verb expressed or understood. Like is sometimes improperly used in the sense of as though, thus: "It looks like it was caused by fire." Loan. See Lend. Lot Lots. Very inelegantly used for a great many, a great deal : " He4iad a lot of money left him"; "Lots of trouble came her way." Luncheon is a more elegant form than lunch, especially in the sense of a formal repast. Make a Visit. We do not make visits, we pay them. Malaria. This word is the name of a cause of a disease, and not the name of a disease. We do not suffer from malaria, but from the effect of malaria, which is a noxious exhalation, usually from marshy districts. Middling. This word is an adjective, not an adverb ; hence we cannot say a thing is mid- dling good, or that a thing was middling well done. " He resided in a town of middling size" is correct. Mind is often misused for obey. To mind is to attend to a thing so it will not be forgotten. "Will you obey me?" not" Will you mind me?" Mistaken. " If I am not mistaken " should be " If I mistake not." You are mistaken is a correct form of expression; it means you have been led into error. Most. This word should usually be omitted from conversation and writing. Very is the better word in almost every instance. " It would most {very') seriously aiTect us." This word is often misused for almost. "He comes here most every day" should be "He comes here almost every day." Mutual. This word is often confounded with common. These words are correctly used in these sentences : " Our former correspondence was renewed, with the most hearty expression of mutual good will." "We have two friends in common." "They met at the house of a comr- man friend." "Their mutual dislike (not dis- like for each other) was well known." Myself. This pronoun should be used only where increased emphasis is aimed at, as in "I will do it myself," etc. It is incorrect to say, "Mary and myself were satisfied." Nicely. This word is frequently misused in the attempt to make it do service for well, in this wise: "How do you do?" "Nicely." " How are you ? " " Nicely." Numerous is often used in place of large or many. "We have numerous acquaintances" should be "We have many acquaintances." 196 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Of All Others. "0/ all others she is the last one you would expect." Is she one of the others? If not, why class her as such? Of Any is often used in place of all. " She is the smallest of any I have known" should be "the smallest of all, etc." Off of. The latter of these words should be omitted from the sentence. Say, "The pears fell off the tree," not " The pears fell o^ of the tree." On to. " We get on a horse, on a chair," etc., not "on to." One should be followed by one and not by he. "Can one visit his friends there?" should be "Can one visit one's friends there?" Only. This word is probably more often misplaced than any other word in the language. "He only sang for us." "He sang only for us." The first means that he sang, but did not play for us; the second one means he sang for us and not for any one else. A change in the po- sition of only in almost any sentence will effect the meaning of the sentence the same as in this illustration. Other. This word should not be omitted in sentences like the following: "He said that his wife was dressed better than any (other) woman there." Ought Should. Ought is the stronger term. "What we ought to do, we are morally bound to do." "We ought to be truthful and honest, and should be respectful to our elders." Over. Do not use over in the sense of more than. "It is over a yard long" should read "more at. hie requiescil in pace), Here rests in peace. //. an. Liq. Liquor, liquid. Lit. Literally, literature, literary. Lit. D., Lilt. D. (Lat. literarum doc- tor). Doctor of Literature. Lith. Lithography. Liv. Livre. LL. B. (Lat. legum baccalaureus) , Bachelor of Laws. LL. D. (Lat. legum doctor). Doctor of Laws. LL. I. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. LL. M. Master of Laws. L. M. Long metre. Lon., Lond. London. Lon., Long. Longitude. Loq. (Lat. loquitur). He (or she) speaks. Lou. Louisiana. Lp. Lordship. L. P. Lord Provost. L. S. (Lat. locus sigilli). Place of the seal. L. s. d. (Lat. librce, solidi, denarii). Pounds, shillings, pence. Lt. Lieutenant. Lt. Inf. Light Infantry Luth. Lutheran. wi. Married; Masculine; M^tre, me- tres; Mile, miles; Minute, min- utes. M. Marquis; Middle; Monday; Morning; Monsieur. M. (Lat. mille). Thousand. M. (Lat. meridies). Meridian, Noon. M. A. (Master of Arts.) [A. M.] Mac., Mace. Maccabees Mach., Machin. Machine, machinery. Mad., Madm. Madam. Mag. Magyar; Magazine. Maj. Major. Mai.-gen. Major-general. Mai. Malachi; Malay, Malayan. Manuf. Manufactures, manufactur- ing. Mar. March; Maritime. Marq. Marquis. Mas., Masc. Masculine. Mass. Massachusetts. M. Ast. S. Member of the Astro- nomical Society. Math. Mathematics, mathematician, mathematical. Malt. Matthew. M. B. (Lat. medicincE baccalaureus). Bachelor of Medicine. M. B. (Lat. musicoe baccalaureus), Bachelor of Music. M. C. Member of Congress; Master of Ceremonies. Mch. March. M. C. P. Member of the College of ' Preceptors. M. D. (Lat. medicincB doctor). Doc- tor of Medicine. Md. Maryland. Mdlle. (Ft. mademoiselle), Miss. Mdse. Merchandise. M. E. Most Excellent; Military En- gineer; Mining Engineer; Me- chanical Engineer. M. E. Methodist Episcopal. Me. Maine. Meas. Measure. Mech. Mechanics, mechanical. Med. Medicine, medical; Mediaeval. Med. Lot., Mediwv. Lat. Medieval Latin. Mem. Memorandum, memoranda. Mess. & Docs. Messages and Docu- ments. Messrs. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen. Met. Metaphysics, metaphysical. Metall. Metallurgy. Metaph. Metaphysics; Metaphori- cally. Meteor. Meteorology, meteorological. Meth. Methodist. Melon. Metonymy. Mex. Mexico. Mfd., Mfa. Manufactured, manufac- tures. Mfg. Manufacturing. M. F. //. Master of Foxhounds. M. II. Most Honorable. M. H. Ger. Middle High German. M. I. C. E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers. Mich. Michaelmas; Michigan. Mid. Middle; Midshipman. Mid. Lot. Latin of the Middle Ages. Mil., MilU. Military. M. I. M. E. Member of the Institute of Mining Engineers. Min. Mineralogy, mineralogical ; Minute, minutes. Minn. Minnesota. Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary. Miss. Mississippi. Mile. (Fr. mademoiselle), Mi.ss. M. L. S. B. Member of the London School Board. MM. Their Majesties. .MM. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen. mm. Millemetres; Micrometres. Mme. (Fr. madame). Madam. M. P. P. Member of Provincial Par- liament. M. N. A. S. Member of the National Academy of Sciences. M.N.S. Member of the Nuraismati- cal Society. Mo. Missouri; Month. Mod. Modern. Mod. (Hal. moderalo). Moderately. Mon. Monday. Mons. (Fr. monsieur), Sir, Mr. Mont. Montana. 206 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS M. P. Member of Parliament. M. P. S. Member of the Pharma- ceutical Society; Member of the Philological Society. Mr. Master, Mister. A/. R. A. -U8. Prussia, Prussian. P, S. (Lat. post scriptum), Post- script. P.S. Privy Seal. Ps., Psa. Psalm, psalms. Psychol. Psychology. Pt. Part; Payment; Point; Port. P. T. Post-town ; Pupil teacher. Pub. Public; Published, publisher. Pub. Doc. Public Documents. P. V. Post-village. Pwt. Pennyweight. Pxt. [PiNX.] Pyro., Pyrotech. Pyrotechnics. Q., Qu. Query; Question. Q. C. Queen's College. Q. d. (Lat. quasi dicai). As if he should say. Q. e. (Lat. quod est), Which is. Q. E. D. (Lat. quod erat demonstran- dum). Which was to be proved. Q. E. F. (Lat. quod erat faciendum). Which was to be done. Q. E. I. (Lat. quod erat invenien- dum). Which was to be found out. Q. I. (Lat. quantum libel). As much as you please. Q. M. Quartermaster. Q. M. Gen. Quartermaster-General. Qr. Quarterly; Quire. Q. S. Quarter Sessions. Q: s. (Lat. quantum sufftdt), A suffi- cient quantity. Qt. Quart. Qu. Queen; Query; Question. Quar., quart. Quarterly. Quar., 4to. (Quarto. Ques. Question. Q. V. (Lat. quod vide). Which see. Qy. Query. R. Railway; Reaumur; River. R. (Lat. rex). King; (Lat. regina). Queen. R. (Lat. recipe). Take. R. A. Royal Academy, Royal Aca- demician; Rear-Admiral; Royal Arch; Royal Artillery. Rabb. Rabbinical. Rod. (Lat. radix). Root. R. A. M. Royal Academy of Music. R. A. S. Royal Agricultural Society. R. C. Roman Catholic. R. D. Rural Dean. R. E. Royal Engineers; Royal Ex- change. R. E. Reformed Episcopal. Reaum. Reaumur. Rec. Recipe. Reed. Received. Recpt. Receipt. Ref. Reference. Ref. Ch. Reformed Church. Ref. Pres. Reformed Presbyterian. Reg. Regular. Reg., Regr. Registrar. Reg., Regt. Regiment, regimental. Rel. Religion, religious. Rel. Pron. Relative Pronoun. Rem. Remark, remarks. Rep. Report; Representative. Rep. Repub. Republic; Republican. Res. Resolution. Retd. Returned. Rev. Revelation; Revenues; Rever- end; Review; Revise. Revd. Reverend. Revs. Reverends. Rev. Stat. Revised Statutes. R. F. D. Rural Free Delivery. Rhet. Rhetoric, rhetorical. R. H. S. Royal Humane Society. R. I. Rhode Island. R. I. P. (Lat. requiescat in pace). May he (or she) rest in peace. Riv. River. R. M, Royal Mail; Royal Marines. R. M. A. Royal Marine Artillery; Royal Military Asylum. R. M. L. I, Royal Marine Light In- fantry. R. M. S. Royal Mail Steamer; Royal Mail Service. R. N. Royal Navy. R. N. R. Royal Naval Reserve. R. O. Receiving Office. Robt. Robert. Rom. Roman, Romans. Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. R. P. Regius Professor. R. R. Right Reverend. R. R. Railroad. R. S. A. Royal Scottish Academy. R. S. P.O. A. Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. R. S. E. Royal Society of Edinburgh. R. S. L. Royal Society of London. R. S. V. P. (Fr. Repondez s'it vous plait). Please reply. Rt. Right. Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. R. T. S. Religious Tract Society. Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful. Russ. Russia, Russian. R. V. Revised Version; Rifle Vol- unteers. R. W. Right Worshipful ; Right Worthy. R. W. D. G. M. Right Worshipful Deputy Grand Master. R. W. G. M. Right Worshipful Grand R. W. G. R. Right Worthy Grand Representative. R. W. G. S. Right Worthy Grand Secretary. R. W. G. T. Right Worthy Grand Treasurer; Right Worthy Grand Templar. R. W.G.W. Right Worshipful Grand Warden. R. W. J. G. W. Right Worshipful Ju- nior Grand Warden. ft. If. S. G. W. Right Worshipful Se- nior Grand Warden. Ry. Railway. a. Saint; Saturday; Section; Shil- ling; Sign; Signor; Solo; Soprano; South; Sun; Sunday; Sabbath. 8. Second, .seconds; See; Singular; Son; Succeeded. S. A. South Africa; South America. S. A. (Lat. secundem artem). Accord- ing to the rules of art. Sab. Sabbath. Sam., Saml. Samuel. Sam., Samar. Samaritan. Sans., Sansc, Sansk. Sanscrit, Sans- krit. S. A. S. (Lat. Socielaiis Antiquari- orum Socius), Fellow of the So- ciety of Antiquaries. Sat. Saturday. Sax. Saxon, Saxony. iS. B. South Britain (England and Wales). [N. B.] S. C. South Carolina. S. C. (Lat. senatus consuUum), A decree of the senate. Sc. [SciL. Scull.] Scan. mag. (Lat. scandalum magna- tum). Defamatory expressions to the injury of persons of high rank or dignity. S. caps., Sm. caps. Small capitals. (In printing.) Sc. B. (Lat. sdenticB baccalaureus) , Bachelor of Science. Sc. D. (Lat. scienticB doctor). Doctor of Science. Sch. (Lat. scholium), A note. Sch. Schooner. Set. Science. Sci. fa. Scire facias. Sail. Sc. (Lat. scilicet), Namely; to wit. S. C. L. Student in Civil Law. Sclav. Sclavonic. Scot. Scotland, Scotch, Scottish. ScT. Scruple, scruples. Scrip., Script. Scripture, scriptural. Sculp. Sculpture. Sculp., Sculpt., Sc. (Lat. sculpsit). He (or she) engraved it. S. D. Doctor of Science. S. D., S. Dak. South Dakota. S. D. U. K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. S. E. South-east. Sec. Second. Sec, Sect. Section. iScc, Secy. Secretary. Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation. Sen. Senate, senator. Sen. Doc. Senate Document. Sep., Sept. September. Seq. (Lat. sequentes, sequentia), The following or the next. Serg., Sergt. Sergeant. Serg. Maj. Sergeant-Major. Serj., Serjt. Serjeant. Serv. Servian. Sess. Session. S. G. Solicitor-general. 8. g. [Sp. Gr.] Sh. Shilling, shillings. Sing. Singular. S. J. Society of Jesus. S. J. C. Supreme Judicial Court. Skr. Sanskrit. Slav. Slavonic. Sid. Sailed.