GIlTT OF A1 4af Digitized by the Internet Arciiive in 2007 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.arcliive.org/details/elementsoflatinOOmitcricli BUST OF JULIUS CAESAR. Elements OF Latin BY BENJAMIN W. MITCHELL, Ph.D.. PROFESSOR OF LATIN AND HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF ANCIENT AND MODERN LANGUAGES, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA »,:;•: i '.5:.* HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE New York Philadelphia Copyright, 1912, by Hinds, Noble & Eldredoe • .•• 1 • PREFACE Semi-annual admission of pupils, now so general in sec- ondary schools, seems to require a text-book in Latin which shall naturally divide into two fairly complete and independ- ent portions. It is to meet this need that the present work is primarily designed. By the plan herein followed, the pupil will have mastered by the mid-year the forms of in- flection and a few elementary principles of the simple sen- tence. In the second part the principles of syntax suited to first-year work are thoroughly treated, so that by the end of the year adequate equipment will have been gained for the reading of Caesar's Gallic War. No other work so fulfils all the requirements of second-year study — purity of diction, plainness of narrative style, interest of subject matter — as this wonderful man's account of the stupendous achieve- ment by which he determined the development of civiliza- tion in Western Europe, and hence, largely, our own. To accustom the pupils to Caesar's style nearly all the sentences, except those in the earliest exercises, are taken with slight variation from Caesar's own story, and chiefly from the first book. The number of words in the working vocabulary is under 750, and they are those most frequently employed by Caesar in the Gallic War. The words given in each of the earlier vocabularies are used frequently in succeeding exercises to familiarize the student with them and to give facility in their use. For this reason extreme brevity has not been aimed at in the sentences, though they are extremely simple in construction. The sentences can thus be made to mean something to the pupil, iii IV PREFACE and a long and tiresome succession of unrelated fragments of discourse is avoided. Practice in connected reading is secured by the simplified text of the Helvetian Campaign from the first book of the Gallic War; and in this portion of the work the student will meet again many of the sentences with which he became acquainted in the preceding exercises, so that he will not feel himself altogether a stranger in a strange land. The illustrations, drawn from the common sources, are designed to give interesting information as to military equipment, coinage, life and customs in general. They are frankly miscellaneous and not limited to text-illustration. The photographs of scenes of the Helvetian campaign were made by Professor George R. Swain, of Rockport, Illinois, and are used by his permission. The author gratefully acknowledges valuable suggestions made by his colleagues in the Central High School : especially does he desire to express his thanks for the painstaking care with which Professors Samuel E. Berger, Francis H. Lee, and Ellis A. Schnabel examined and corrected the manuscript. Benjamin W. Mitchell. Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa., 1911. TABLE OF CONTENTS Lesson P^^'' I.— Sounds, Quantity, Accent 1 II.— Parts of Speech. Inflection. The Verb 5 III.— The Noun 9 IV.— The First Declension. The Sentence 12 v.— The Second Declension 16 VI. — The Second Declension (Continued) 18 VIL— The Verb sum. Modifiers 21 VIII.— The Adjective 24 IX.— The Adjective (Continued) 27 X.— The Verb 29 XL— The Verb (Continued) 30 XII.— The Third Declension. Consonant Stems 33 XIII.— The Third Declension (Continued) 36 XIV.— The Third Declension (Continued) 39 XV.— The Third Declension, i stems 41 XVI.— The Fourth and Fifth Declensions 45 XVII. — Irregular Adjectives 48 XVIII.— Adjectives of the Third Declension 50 XIX.— The Verb 55 XX. — Comparison 57 XXI.— Comparison (Continued) 60 XXII.— Adverbs 63 XXIII.— Numerals 66 XXIV.— Pronouns 69 XXV.— Pronouns (Continued) 74 XXVI.— Pronouns (Continued) 78 XXVII.— Pronouns (Continued) 81 XXVIIL— The Perfect System. Indicative Mode of amo 84 XXIX.— Conjugation of the Active Voice of amo completed . . 89 XXX.— The Verb sum 94 XXXI.— The Passive Voice 96 XXXII.— Introduction to the Subjective as a Dependent Mode. . 101 XXXIII.— Second Conjugation, Active Voice 104 XXXIV.— Second Conjugation, Passive Voice 108 XXXV.— Third Conjugation, Active Voice HI XXXVI.— Third Conjugation, Passive Voice 114 V vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Lbsbon Paob XXXVII —Fourth Conjugation 117 XXXVIII.— Verbs in -16 of the Third Conjugation 121 XXXIX. — Deponent and Semi-deponent Verbs 125 XL. — Periphrastic Conjugation 130 XLI. — Irregular Verbs: The Compounds of sum 134 XLII. — Irregular Verbs: fero 138 XLIII. — Irregular verbs: eo 141 XLIV. — Irregular Verbs: fio and the Preteritives 144 XLV. — Irregular Verbs: void, nolo, maid 148 XLVI. — Irregular verbs: Impersonals 151 XLVII. — Syntax. The Nominative and Accusative l.").! XLVIII. — The Accusative (Continued) 158 XLIX.— The Dative 161 L.— The Dative (Continued) 164 LI.— The Dative (Continued) 166 LIL— The Genitive 168 LIIL— The Genitive (Continued) 171 LIV.— The Ablative 174 LV.— The Ablative (Continued) 176 LVI.— The Ablative (Continued) 178 LVIL— The Ablative (Continued) 180 LVIIL— The Ablative (Continued) 182 LIX.— The Ablative (Continued) 184 LX.— The Ablative (Continued) 187 LXI. — Syntax of Adjectives and Pronouns. Correlation. . 191 LXII. — Syntax of the Verb in Principal Clauses 194 LXIIL— Syntax of the Infinitive 196 LXIV. — Syntax of the Gerund and Gerundive, and of the Supine 198 LXV. — Dependent Clauses. Clauses of Purpose 201 LXVI. — Dependent Clauses. Clauses of Purpose (Continued) 204 LXVII.— Dependent Clauses. Clauses of Result 206 LXVIII. — Dependent Clauses. Clauses of Apposition; Doubt, Hindrance, Prevention, and Refusal; Fear 209 LXIX. — Dependent Clauses. Temporal Clauses 212 LXX. — Dependent Clauses. Causal and Concessive Clauses . 215 LXXI. — Dependent Clauses. Conditional Sentences 218 LXXII. — Dependent Clauses. Conditional Sentences (Con- tinued) _. 220 LXXIIL— Indirect Discourst^^Oratio Obliqua 223 LXXIV. — Indirect Discourse. Indirect Questions 227 LXXV.— Relative Sentences 229 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS abl. = ablative, abs. = absolute, ace. = accusative, adj. = adjective, agt. = agent, appos. = appositive. card. = cardinal, cf. (confer) = compare, char. = characteristic, cl. = clause, coll. = collective, comp. = comparative, conj. = conjugation, conj. = conjunction, corr. = correlative, cpd. = compound. dat. = dative. def. = defective. deg. = degree, dep. = deponent, diff. = difference, dir. = direct, disc. = discourse. f. or fern. = feminine. gen. = genitive. imp. = imperfect, impers. = impersonal, imv. = imperative, ind. = indirect, indecl. = indeclinable, inf. = infinitive, intr. = intransitive, irreg. = irregular. lit. = literally, loc. = locative. m. = masculine. n., neut. = neuter, num. = numeral. obj. = object, ord. = ordinal. pass. = passive, pf., perf. = perfect, pip. = pluperfect, pred. = predicate, prep. = preposition, pret. = preteritive. pron. = pronoun, ptc. = participle, purp. = purpose. qual. = quality. rel. = relative. sc. = scilicet, ^. e., supply, subj. = subject, subjunc. = subjunctive. tr. = transitive. vb. = verb, voc. = vocative. w. = with. • . • • *\ ELEMENTS OP LATIN. PART I. FORM. LESSON I. SOUNDS. QUANTITY. ACCENT. 1. The Alphabet. — The Latin alphabet contains all the letters of the English alphabet except w: k is rare, and the same character, i, generally is used for both i and j: j is often called the consonant i. 2. Classification of the Letters. — a, e, i, o, u, y are called vowels. The other letters are called consonants. The union of two vowels in one sound is called a diphthong. 3. The letters of the alphabet are classified in the follow- ing— ALPHABETICAL TABLE, f I. Vowels.— a, e, i, o, u, y. IL Consonants. 1. Mutes. . . (Letters with stopped sound) Voiceless P ' (a) Labial (Lip letters) (6) Lingtial . . .t (Tongue letters) (c) Palatal c, k, q (Throat letters) Voiced. b d g 2. Liquids 1, r (Flow letters) (a) Labial . . '^ 3. Nasals . . . ■{ (b) Lingual. . (Nose letters) j ^^^ Palatal.. (n) r (a) La .A(b) Lii ') 1(c) Pa I m n (nc), (ng) (a) Labial . . . .f 4. Spirants. . ■[ (b) Lingual . . s (Breathed letters) ( (c) Palatal. . . .h 5. Semi-vowels ii ^ 6. Double consonants x, x 1 2 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 4. c< \ iyi s SOUNDS; of -t-pe letters. (a) Pronuiibiation of the Voweis: a = a in father. y = the German ii, or the French e = e in they. u. The exact sound does not i = i in machine. occur in English, but approxi- = o in bone. mates i as above given, u = oo in moon. (&) Pronunciation of the Diphthongs: ae = ai in aisle. eu = eu in feud. oe = oy in hoy. m = we. au = ou in our. ua = wa in loar. ei = ei in feint. (c) Pronunciation of the Consonants: The consonants are pronounced as in English, except that — b before s or t has the sound of p. c is always hard, as in cat. g is always hard, as in ^o. s always as in so, never as in rose. t always as in to, never as in ac/ion. V is sounded like w. ch, ph, th, practically like c, p, t: compare ch in c^ord. Consonant i (j) is sounded like y in yet. No fixed rules can be given for the detection of consonant i; but i is usually consonant when initial followed by a vowel. In the combinations qu, ngu followed by a vowel, and su followed by a and sometimes bj^ e, u has the sound of w; e. g., quid, pronounced as in English; pinguis, pronounced pingweess; suasum, pronounced swasum. 5. QUANTITY. The Quantity of a vowel or syllable means the length of time occupied in pronouncing. Rule. — Every vowel has two soimds, long and short, differing from each other only in duration of time. The following words, pronounced as accented, approxi- mately illustrate both sounds of the vowels a, e, i, o, u, the short sound preceding in each case: papd. entafl. redeem. foreg6. footst6ol. SOUNDS. QUANTITY. ACCENT. 3 Notes. — 1. Sometimes a vowel may be sounded either long or short; it is then called common. 2. A long vowel is marked with a dash above it, thus: a. Short vowels usually are not marked; but sometimes thus: a; and common vowels thus: E. 6. RULES OF QUANTITY. I. Vowel Quantity. 1. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: dies, nihil. 2. A vowel is long when formed by contraction (i. e., the union of two vowels into one) : nil for nihil. 3. A vowel is long before nf, ns, and consonant i: infans, eius. 4. A vowel is short before nt, nd: amant, amandus. 5. All diphthongs are long: portae. n. Syllable Quantity. Syllables in general have the same quantity as the vowel they contain, but the nature and arrangement of consonants in a syllable often prolong its sound beyond the time required for its vowel alone. Such syllables are said to be long by position. 1. Position Rule. — A syllable whose vowel may be natur- ally short becomes long by position if its vowel is followed by X, z, or any two or more consonants except a mute followed by 1 or r. In this latter case the syllable may be either long or short. 2. Final syllables ending in any single consonant except c and s are short: amat. 7. SYLLABLES. Latin words have a syllable for each vowel or diphthong, except that u following q always, and sometimes following ng and s, does not rank as a separate vowel, being a mere aftersound. 4 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, The final syllable of a word is called the ultima; the next before it, the penult; and the next preceding, the ante- penult. 8. ACCENT. 1. The accent of Latin words depends on the penult syllable. Words of two syllables accent the penult. 2. Words of three or more syllables accent the penult if long, otherwise the antepenult is accented. Roman legionaries on the march (Relief from Column of Trajan). The helmet is swung from the right shoulder; the blankets and kit are carried on pole over the left shoulder. LESSON II. PARTS OF SPEECH. INFLECTION. THE VERB. 9. The parts of speech in Latin are the verb, noun, pro- noun, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjec- tion. The Latin has no article; the definite and indefinite articles must be supplied wherever needed in translating. Adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are frequently grouped under the name of particles. 10. INFLECTION. In English we generally show the relation of one word to another, and changes of number, person, time, and mode in verbs, by means of other words, such as prepositions, pro- nouns, and the auxiliary verbs. In Latin these relations and changes are shown by means of changes in the form of the words themselves, occurring chiefly at the end. This change of form to express change of relation is called inflection. (a) Inflection applied to verbs is called conjugation. (h) Inflection applied to nouns, pronouns, and adjectives is called declension. (c) The other parts of speech are not inflected. THE VERB. IL A verb expresses action or being, e. g.: amare, to love; aman, to he loved; voco, / call; vocatur, he is called; J, to be; sunt, they are. 12. Verbs have voice, mode, tense, number, person, as in English. 13. Finite forms of the verb are those which are limited (Latin finis, a limit) by requirements of time, person, and number. 5 6 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 14. (a) There are two voices, active and passive. The active voice represents the subject as acting: vocat, he calls. The passive voice represents the subject as acted on: vocatur, he is called. (b) There are three finite modes: indicative, subjunctive, imperative. Of these, the indicative asserts or asks about a fact and the imperative expresses a command, e. g.: laudat, he praises; quis laudat, who praises f eum lauda, praise him. The subjunctive will be defined later. (c) The tenses define the time of the action. There are six tenses: present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, future perfect. (d) There are two numbers and three persons, as in English. 15. The chief non-finite part of the verb is the infinitive. It expresses the action of the verb without regard to person and number, e. g.: to love; to have praised; I wish to go; he is said to have called. FORMATION OF VERBS. 16. Verbs are formed of three elements, stems, tense signs, personal endings. • 17. Stems. — The stem is that element to which the tense signs and personal endings are added in order to form any part of the verb. 18. Every verb, not defective, has three stems. These are called the present, perfect, and supine stems. 19. The Present Stem. — There are four systems of pres- ent stems, ending respectively in a, e, e, i. 20. The Conjugations. — These four kinds of present stems give rise to four systems of inflecting verbs, known as the four conjugations. Verbs whose present stem ends in a PARTS OF SPEECH. INFLECTION. THE VERB. 7 are said to belong to the first conjugation; in e, to the second conjugation; in e, to the third conjugation; in i, to the fourth conjugation. 21. To determine the conjugation of a verb, therefore, we must know the present stem. To know the present stem, we must know the present infinitive, which always ends in -re and is always given in dictionaries and vocabularies. To find the present stem, cut off -re from the present infinitive. 22. The Personal Endings. — The personal endings of the tenses of the indicative and subjunctive modes, active, of all conjugations are: Singular. Plural. First person. m, 6 mus Second person. s tis Third person. t nt In regular verbs the first person singular ending is m in the subjunctive mode and after the letter a where it does not belong to the stem; otherwise, o. Note. — One slight exception to these endings will appear later. 23. The Present Indicative. (a) Meaning. — This tense expresses action occurring dur- ing present time. It is called the tense of continued action in present time. (h) Formation. — This tense is formed in all conjugations by adding the personal endings directly to the present stem without any tense sign. For all stem changes in verb formation, see Appendix B. 24. The Present Indicative Active, First Conjugation, amo, / love; present infinitive, amare, to love; present stem, ama. Singular. Plural. First person. amo, / love. amamus, we love. Second person. amas, you love. amatis, you love. Third person. amat, he loves. amant, they love. 8 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. (a) In addition to the translations above given, any renderings may be used which indicate present time. Thus, amo may be translated, / love, I am loving, I do love. (6) The old second singular rendering, thou lovest, is ob- solete except in the most solemn and formal style. (c) The pronoun subjects, /, you, we, etc., are indicated by the personal endings, and are not separately expressed in Latin unless emphatic. (d) The personal endings indicate the person and number of the subject, never the gender; so that amat may be trans- lated equally well he loves, she loves, it loves. 25. VOCABULARY. amo, amare, love. exspecto, exspectare, expect; convoco, convocare, convoke, caU wait for. together, summon (a number of laudo, laudare, praise. persons). occupo, occupare, occupy, hold, explore, explorare, explore, dis- seize. cover, find out. 26. Translate into English. — 1. Amat, amamus, amo, amant. 2. Convocamus, explorat, laudo, occupatis. 3. Exspectat, occupas, exploro, convocant. 4. Exspectatis, amas, convocat, explorant. 5. Laudamus, occupo, exspect- ant, exploras. 6. Convoco, occupat, laudatis, exspectamus. 7. Exploratis, laudat, convocas, occupant. 8. Exspectas, occupamus, laudas, convocatis. 9. Amatis, exploramus, exspecto, laudant. 27. Translate Into Latin. — 1. We love. 2. They seize. 3. You occupy.^ 4. I summon. 5. We expect. 6. They praise. 7. They wait. 8. You discover. 9. We explore. 10. I call together. 11. He praises. 12. She praises. 13. She holds. 14. I explore. 15. They discover. 16. We praise. 17. They love. 18. He finds out. 19. You con- voke. 20. He seizes. ' You cannot tell here whether singular or plural is to be used : cither will be correct. LESSON III. THE NOUN. 28. A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality, e. g.: Caesar, Rome, sword, virtue. 29. Nouns have gender, number, and case. 30. Gender. — There are three genders, as in English, mascuhne, feminine, neuter. (a) In English, gender is determined by sex and is called natural gender. In Latin, the gender of words is usually determined by their ending, and is called grammatical gender. The gender of words meaning persons usually follows sex, e. g.: via, road, is feminine; camis, wagon, is masculine; nauta, sailor, is masculine; mater, mother^ is feminine; but auxilia, irregular troops, auxiliaries, is neuter. 31. Case. — Nouns are inflected to show their relation to verbs, to other nouns, and to prepositions. The various forms of the noun are called cases. (a) There are six cases: Nominative, the case of the subject. Genitive, usually signifying of. Dative, usually signifying to or for. Accusative, the case of the direct object. Vocative, the case of address. Ablative, usually signifying by, with, in, or from. (6) The nominative and vocative are called direct cases; the others, oblique cases. (c) Number and to some extent gender are also exhibited by the inflection of nouns. 9 10 . ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 32. Stems. — Nouns, like verbs, have a stem, and to this stem the case endings are added to form the various cases. 33. The Five Declensions. — Nouns, like verbs, are classified, for inflection, according to their stems. There are five classes, called declensions, whose stems end respectively in a, o, a consonant or i, u, e. 34. The declensions are named — (a) First or a declension. (6) Second or o declension. (c) Third or consonant declension. {d) Fourth or u declension. (e) Fifth or e declension. 35. Formation. — Except in the third declension the stem rarely appears, for the stem vowels unite with the case end- ings or disappear before them. Thus has been formed a series of case terminations which contain both the stem vowel and the true case endings. There is always, too, a part of the noun which does not change in declension, and this is called the base. To form the cases, add the case terminations directly to the base. 36. In practice we distinguish the declensions by the case termination of the genitive singular; thus: ECLEN8ION. Genitive termination. First ae Second i Third is Fourth lis Fifth ^ 37. Cases Alike in Form in All Declensions. 1. The vocative is like the nominative, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension. 2. The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 3. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of all neuters are alike, and, if plural, end in -a. THE NOUN. 11 38. et, conj., and; also, even. mando, mandare, entrust; com- MAND. nuntio, nuntiare, announce, report, tell. VOCABULARY. oppugno, oppugnare, attack, as- com- sault, besiege (of places only). voco, vocare, call (both in sense of ' name ' and ' summon ' ) . 39. 1. Explorant et nuntiant. 2. Mandas et laudas. 3. Vocamus et exspectamus. 4. Oppugnat et occupat. 5. Amat et laudat. 6. Explorare. 7. Oppugnare et occupare. 8. Vocare et nuntiare. 9. Vocatis. 10. Convocamus. 40. 1. We love and praise. 2. You attack and occupy. 3. They summon and announce. 4. He investigates and reports. 5. To find out and report. 6. To entrust. 7. To command and expect. 8. They summon and await. 9. We investigate and seize. 10. He calls and praises. Coins of Julius Caesar: upper, as Dictator; lower, commemorating the subjugation of Egypt. LESSON IV, THE FIRST DECLENSION. THE SENTENCE. 4L The nominative singular of nouns of the first de- clension ends in -a. The genitive singular ends in -ae. 42. Nouns of the first declension are declined as follows: porta, gate. Singular. Plural, Nom. porta, a gate, the gate. portae, gates, the gates. Gen. portae, of a gate. portanim, of (the) gates. Dat. portae, to or for a gate. portis, to or for (the) gates. Ace. portam, a gate, the gate. portas, gates, the gates. Voc. porta, gate. portae, gates. Abl. porta, by, with, in, from a p)ortis, by, with, in, from (the) gate. gates. Remark. — The case terminations are indicated by heavy type. 43. Gender in the First Declension. — Nouns of the first declension are feminine, except names of men and words meaning a person engaged in an occupation usually limited to men, e. g.: porta, fern,, gate; silva, fem., forest; lulia, fem., Julia; SuUa, masc, Sulla (a Roman general); agricola, masc, farmer. The gender of nouns is indicated in the vocabularies by the letters m., f., n., placed after them. 44. Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension. 1. Filia, f ., daughter, has filiabus in the dat. and abl. plural to distinguish these cases from the corresponding cases of filius, m., son. 2. Copia, f., means a supply in the singular; but its plural, copiae, means troops. 12 THE FIRST DECLENSION. THE SENTENCE. 13 THE SENTENCE. 45. A sentence is a combination of words to express thought. (a) Sentences, as in English, may be simple, compound, complex. (6) The necessary parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate. 46. DEFINITIONS. 1. Agreement. — Words are said to agree when they are alike in one or more respects — gender, number, case, person, e. g.: Two words agree in case when both are in the same case; they agree in gender when both are of the same gender, etc. 2. Government. — One word is said to govern another when it compels that other to assume some special form as regards case, mode, tense, etc. 3. Object. — An object is anything upon which a verb or verbal idea exerts its action or toward which it directs its influence. 4. Objects may be direct or indirect. (a) A direct object is that person or thing on which a verb exerts its action directly; or it is the result produced by a verb, e. g.: He saw Sulla; he gives a book; he made a table. (6) An indirect object is the person or thing to which or for which a verb exerts its action or toward which it directs its influence, e. g.: He gives a book to the boy. 5. Verbs in reference to meaning may be transitive or in- transitive. Transitive verbs are such as may take a direct object. All others are intransitive. 14 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 47. SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. (a) Rule A. — ^The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case, e. g.: Sulla laudat, Svlla praises. (b) Rule B. — A finite verb agrees with its subject in nimi- ber and person, e. g. : agricola vocat, the fanner calls; copiae oppugnant, the troops assavU; Sulla et Galba exspectant, Sulla and Galba await. (c) Rule C. — The direct object of an action must be in the accusative case, e. g. : copiae silvas explorant, the troops explore the forests; agricola filiam vocat, the farmer calls (his) daughter. (d) Rule D. — The indirect object of an action must be in the dative case, e. g.: Sulla victoriam copiis nuntiat, Sidla announces the victory to the troops. (e) Rule E. — A noim used to describe or define another noun, and not meaning the same thing, must be in the genitive case, e. g.: faia Galbae, the daughter of Galba or Galba' s daughter; incolae in- sularum, the inhabitants of the islands. 48. VOCABULARY. agricola, -ae, m., farmer. lulia, -ae, f,, Julia (a woman's copia, -ae, f., sing., a supply, name). plenty; plur., troops, forces. nauta, -ae, m., sailor. fflia, -ae, f., daughter. porta, -ae, f., gate. Galba, -ae, m., Galba (a man's silva, -ae, f., forest. name). Sulla, -ae, m., Sulla (a Roman incola, -ae, m., f., inhabitant. general). Insula, -ae, f., island. victoria, -ae, f., victory. 49. Hints for Translating. — Always begin by translating a sentence in the Latin word-order : it can then be rearranged in idiomatic English. Learn at the outset to handle the words and determine their relation to THE FIRST DECLENSION. THE SENTENCE. 15 each other in the order in which they came to the eye, ear, and mind of a Roman child. In this way only can be acquired that facility in reading which means mastery of a language. 50. 1. Nautae incolas insularum convocant. 2. Incolae silvarum copias Galbae exspectant. 3. Sulla insulas copiis Galbae mandat. 4. lulia filias agricolarum laudat. 5. Sulla flliam Galbae mandat. 6. Sulla victoriam copiarum Galbae nuntiat. 7. Filias agricolarum laudamus. 8. In- sulam filiabus Galbae mandamus. 9. Copiae Sullae portas oppugnant. 10. Copiae Sullae nautas Galbae exspectant. 11. Galba luliam exspectat. 12. Copiae Sullae insulam occupant. 51. 1. Julia summons the daughters of Galba (Galba's daughters). 2. Galba's troops (the troops of Galba) assault the gate. 3. The sailors assault the islands. 4. You an- nounce the victory of Galba to Sulla. 5. Julia entrusts an island to the farmers' daughters. 6. Galba summons the inhabitants of the forest. 7. Julia waits for Galba. 8. Galba's daughters love Julia's daughter. » ODDDCODDDDCDDOC sDDPPCCODDnDDDDD n nnnnnn Agger (Column of Trajan). This was a siege- work of earth and timbers, designed to raise the besiegers to a level with the top of the fortifications. LESSON V. THE SECOND DECLENSION. 52. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, masculine; -um, neuter. The genitive singular ends in -i for all genders. 53. Nouns of the second declension are declined as follows: camis, m., puer, m., ager, m., vir, m. wagon. Sing. — Nom. carrus Gen. carri Dat. carro Ace. carnim Voc. carre Abl. carro boy. pucr pucri puoro field. ager agri agro pucrum agnim pucr ager puero agr6 man. vir viri viro vinim vir viro bellum, n., war. belltim belli bello bellmn bellum beUo Plur. — Nom. carri puen agn Gen. carrorum pueronun agrorum Dat. earns pueris agris Ace. carros pueros agros Voc. carri pueri agri Ahl. carris pueris agris viri bella virorum bellorum viris bellis viros bella viri bella viris bellis 54. Like puer are declined gener, son-in-law; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening. 55. VOCABULARY ager, agri, m., field, land; pi. terri- tories. amicus, -i, m., friend. bellum, -i, n., war. Gallus, -i, m., a Gaul (inhabitant of western Europe in Roman times). 16 iumentum, -i, n., beast of burden, pack animal. oppidum, -i, n., totm, stronghold. Romanus, -i, m., a Roman. vasto, -are, dcvAsrate, lay waste. vicus, -i,.m., village. THE SECOND DECLENSION, 17 56. 1. Galli agros agricolarum vastant. 2. Galba silvas explorat et bellum nuntiat. 3. Galba copils Gallorum bel- lum nuntiat. 4. Copiae Gallorum oppida Romanorum op- pugnant. 5. Nautae agros incolarum insularum vastant. 6. Romani bella et victorias amant. 7. Copiae Romanorum oppidum amicorum^ occupant et Gallos exspectant. 8. Amici Gallorum iumenta agricolis mandant. 9. Filiae agri- colarum agros et iumenta amant. 10. Sulla vicos et agros agricolarum occupat et vastat. ^ Of their friends; the common possessive pronouns, when not em- phatic, are generally omitted and may be inserted in translating, just like the articles, whenever necessary. 57. 1. Julia entrusts the farmer's pack animal to (her) friend. 2. The Gauls besiege the town of the Romans and lay waste (their) lands. 3. Galba reports war to the Romans and entrusts to (his) friends the villages and pack animals. 4. The Gauls seize the stronghold of the inhabitants of the forest and wait for the forces of the Romans. 5. A farmer loves (his) lands and (his) beasts of burden. 6. The sailors of the Gauls seize the islands. Roman soldier wearing the torques. This was a twisted circlet awarded to soldiers for bravery. By the Romans it was worn on the breast like a medal; by the Gauls, around the neck. 2 LESSON VI. THE SECOND DECLENSION (Continued). 58. Peculiarities of Nouns of the Second Declension. 1. Nouns in -ius and -ium generally form the genitive singular in -i instead of -ii. Such contracted genitives accent the penult, e. g.: Nom. concilium, n., council imperium, n., rule, Hlius, m., son. order Gen. concfli (sometimes con- import (imperii) fili (fiiii) cilii) 2. Proper names in -ius and fHius drop the final -e in the vocative singular, e. g.: Nam. Servius fllius Voc. Servi fill 3. Several neuter nouns of frequent occurrence are de- cHned and used only in the plural. They are: Nom. arma, arms, weapons castra, camp hibema, winter quarters Gen. armonim castrorum hibemorum 4. Locus, 'place, is masculine in the singular, neuter in the plural. Locus and filius are thus declined. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Nom. locus loca filius fIlii Gen. loci loconun flli (filii) filiorum Dat. loco locis filio filiis Ace. locum loca fllium filios Voc. loce loca fill filii Abl. loco locis 18 filio filiis THE SECOND DECLENSION. 19 5. Deus, god, has deus in vocative singular; dei, dii, di, in nominative and vocative plural; and deis, diis, dis, in dative and ablative plural. 59. Prepositions. Prepositions show the relations of nouns to other words (chiefly verbs) more accurately than the cases alone could do. They govern the accusative and ablative cases only. 60. All prepositions originally expressed relations of place and motion only. Therefore, when hesitating between the use of a preposition and a case form, search for an idea of place or motion: if you find it, use the preposition; if not, use the case form, e. g. : telum viro dat, he gives the javelin to the man. (No motion implied and to merely indicates a dative of indirect object.) telum ad virum portat, he carries the javelin to the man. (Here is motion, and a prepo- sition must be used.) 61. VOCABULARY. ad, prep, with accus., to, toward; donum, -i, n., gift. against; near. filius, -i (-ii), m., son. auxilium, -i (-ii), n., help, aid; imploro, -are, implore, beg, en- plur., irregular troops, auxiliaries treat. (foreign troops enlisted in the incito, -are, incite, urge on. Roman service). locus, -i, m. in sing., n. in pi., lo- castra, -orum, pi., n., camp. cation, place. concilium, -i (-ii), n., council, non, adv., not. assembly. proelium, -i (-ii), n., battle. cum, prep, with abl., with (always puer, -i, m., boij. denoting accompaniment). sed, conj., but. do, dare,^ give. telum, -i, n., javelin. ' do is conjugated like other verbs of the first conjugation, but its stem vowel is short. 62. 1. Galba et Sulla auxilium Romanorum implorant. 2. Auxilia Gallorum cum incolis silvarum copias ad bellum incitant. 3. Copiae Gallorum castra Romanorum telis 20 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. oppugnant. 4. Dona filiabus damus. 5. Copiae Romano- rum locum proelii Galbae nuntiant et auxilium impldral, sed non dat. 6. RomanI concilium Gallorum convocant et eos {them) ad proelium incitant. 7. Sulla proelium cum Gallis et victoriam Romanis nuntiat. 8. Proelium cum nautis nuntiamus, sed non victoriam. 9. Auxilia Romiinorum Gallis donum telorum dant, sed eos {them) ad helium non incitant. 10. Galli copias ad portas oppidi incitant. 63. 1. Julia gives (her) friend^ the gift of a javelin, and urges him (eum) on to" the war. 2. The farmer announces the battle to (his) sons and daughters. 3. I calP a council of the sailors. 4. The inhabitants of the forest attack the gates of the camp with javelins. 5. You entreat the aid of the Romans, but they do not give (it). 6. Sulla entrusts the location of the camp to Galba and attacks the town with javelins. 1 What relation does this word bear to the verb? Hence what case? 2 Use preposition. Why? 2 Voco or convoco? Why? Head of a Gaul wearing the torques. LESSON VII. THE VERB SUM. MODIFIERS. Sum, / am ; present infinitive, esse, to be. 64. The verb to he has two uses : (a) It may merely connect the subject and predicate, e. g.: I am a man. (6) It may express existence, e. g.: viri sunt, there^ are men; i. e., men exist. ^ There is no Latin word to express this use of there: it must simply be omitted. 65. No form of sum can ever govern a noun. 66. Present Indicative of Sum. SiNGtTLAR. Plural. sum, / am. sumus, we are. es, you are. estis, you are. est, he is; there is. sunt, they are; there are. Modifiers. 67. A word, phrase, or clause which in any way explains, adds to, or limits the meaning of another word is said to modify that word and is called a modifier. (a) Modifiers may be: (1) adjectival, modifying nouns; (2) adverbial, modifying verbs. 68. Agreement may exist between verb and subject; between two nouns; between noun and adjective; between relative and antecedent. 21 22 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 69. Agreement between two nouns or between adjective and noun may be: (a) attributive; (6) predicate. 70. Attributive agreement is close and direct, without the aid of any verb, e. g.: The good man; Caesar, the consul. 71. Predicate agreement is asserted agreement, a verb being required in order to show that agreement exists, e. g.: The man is good; Caesar is consvl; the general became emperor; the man seems good. Agreement of the Noun. 72. Nouns can agree with each other only when they indicate the same person or thing, and are then called appositives, e. g.: In Caesar the consul and Caesar is consul, Caesar and consul am appositives, attributive in the first instance, predicate in the second. 73. Appositives, whether attributive or predicate, agree in case, e. g. : lulia est filia Galbae, Julia is the daughter of Galba; Galba dona luliae filiae dat, Galba gives gifts to his daughter Julia. 74. VOCABULARY. Belg&ef 'iaumj m., the Belgia7is. of motion); with abl., in, on Caesar, Caesar (the great Roman (with idea of position). general and statesman). periculum, -i, n., danger: fuga, -ae, f., flight. se, ace. case sing, and pi., himself, Germanus, -i, m., a German. herself, themselves. in, prep, with ace. and abl.; with sum, inf., esse, be. ace, into, on, against (with idea vito, -are, shun, avoid. Idioms.^ in fugam dare, to pnt to flight (Ut., to give into flight). se fugae mandare, to take flight (Ht., to entrust one's self to flight) . ^ An idea expressed in any language in a manner pecuhar to that lan- guage is called an idiom. THE VERB SUM. MODIFIERS. 23 75. 1. Filius Sullae sum. 2. GermanT in silvis sunt. 3. Sunt in oppido amicl Belgarum. 4. Est in bello periculum. 5. Germani periculum in proeliis non vitant. 6. Caesar Belgas in fugam ad oppidum dat. 7. Belgae ad oppidum se fugae mandant. 8. German! se in silvas fugae mandant et tela copiarum Galbae vitant. 9. Nautae insulas Germanls mandant et periculum telorum vitant. 10. Castra Ger- manorum ad oppidum sunt.^ 1 Castra, being plural, requires a plural verb : sunt must here be trans- lated is. 76. 1. You are Galba's friend. 2. We are friends of the Belgians. 3. There is danger in the forests. 4. We shun the danger of war. 5. You put the Belgians to flight with javelins. 6t The Germans take flight toward the forest. 7. We do not avoid danger, but attack the camp with javelins. 8. The Germans take flight with the Belgians. Battering ram, aries. LESSON VIII. THE ADJECTIVE. 77. Adjectives are words employed to describe nouns, (a) Adjectives have gender, number, case. They are decUned exactly like nouns. 78. Classes of Adjectives. With respect to declension there are two classes of adjec- tives : I. Adjectives of the second-first-second declension. This means that the masculine of the adjective is of the second declension; the feminine, of the first; the neuter, of the second. II. Adjectives of the third declension. 79. Declension. Adjectives of the second-first-second declension end in the nominative in -us or -er, masc; -a, fem.; -um, neut. Those in -us are thus declined: bonus, , good. Masculine. Feminine. Neutek. Sing. — Norn. bonus bona bonum Gen. boni bonae boni Dai. bono bonae bond Ace. bonum bonam boniun Voc. bone bona bonum Abl. bono bona bono Plur. — Nom. boni bonae bona Gen. bonorum bonarum bonorum Dot. bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonos bonas bona Voc. boni bonae bona Abl. bonis bonis bonis 24 THE ADJECTIVE. 25 80. Agreement of the Adjective. — An adjective, whether attributive or predicate, agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, e. g.: bonus amicus, a good friend; bonus agricola, a good farmer; bon- orum agricolanun, of good farmers; bona filia, a good daughter; bonis filiabus, to or for the good daughters; magnum bellum, a great war. 81. Adjectives Used Substantively. — When the noun with which an adjective agrees is a very famihar one, hke man, people, soldier, possessions, thing, etc., it is often omitted, especially if plural, and the adjective is then said to be used substantively; that is, used as a noun, e. g.: boni, the good {men or people being understood) ; bona, goods, property (things being understood); alia, other (things). 82. VOCABULARY. anna, -onmi, pL, n., arms, multus, -a, -um, adj., much; pi., weapons. many. bonus, -a, -um, adj., good. numerus, -i, m., number, quantity. e* (ex), prep., with abl., out of, parvus, -a, -um, adj., small. from. populus, -i, m., nation, people (in Germania, -ae, f., Germany. national sense; hence always Labienus, -i, m., Lahienus (a lieu- singular except when more than tenant of Caesar). one nation is spoken of). magnus, -a, -imi, adj., great, large. pugno, -are, fight. Romanus, -a, -um, adj., Roman. * e is used before consonants only; ex, before vowels and consonants. 83. 1. lumenta Germanorum magna non sunt. 2. Roman! magna proelia multis in^ locis Germaniae pugnant. 3. Belgae multa iumenta bona^ Romanis dant. 4. Caesar Germanos in fugam dat e castris ad oppidum. 5. Magnum numerum bonorum armorum Belgis in oppido datis. 6. Magnum proelium cum multis Belgis in silva pugnamus. 7. Agri agricolarum Romanorum parvi sunt. 8. Magnae silvae multis in locis Germaniae sunt. 9. Copiae Belgarum 26 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. oppidum armis oppugnant. 10. Copiae populi Romani magno cum periculo oppidum oppugnant. ^ A preposition often stands between an adjective and its noun. 2 A noun modified by two adjectives often stands between them. 84. 1. We give many small javelins to the forces of Labienus. 2. There is a great quantity of good arms in the small village. 3. I fight battles in many places. 4. The pack animals of the Germans are small but good. 5. He shuns the large javelins of the Belgians. 6. He takes flight from the great camp of the Romans. 7. The farmers urge on the beasts of burden in the fields. 8. The gates of the camp are small but many. ^^^ tl ^ Battering ram as used under inuiea, or shed. LESSON IX. THE ADJECTIVE (Continued). 85. Adjectives in -er of the second-first-second declension are thus decUned: lib er, free. Masculine Feminine. Neuter. Sing. — Norn. liber libera liberum Gen. liberi llberae hberi Dat. libera liberae libero Ace. liberum liberam liberum Voc. h-ber libera libenmi Abl. libero libera libero Plur. — Nom. liberi llberae libera Gen. liberorum llberarum liberorum Dat. liberis liberis hberis Ace. liberos liberas libera Voc. liberi llberae libera Abl. liberis liberis liberis pulcher, beautiful. Sing.— iVom. pulcher pulchra pulchrum Gen. pulchri pulchrae pulchri Dat. pulchro pulchrae pulchro Ace. pulchnim pulchram pulchrum Voc. pulcher pulchra pulchrum Abl. pulchro pulchra pulchro Plur.— iVom, . pulchri pulchrae pulchra Gen. pulchrorum pulchrarum pulchrorum Dat. pulchris pulchris pulchris Ace. pulchros pulchras pulchra Voc. pulchri pulchrae pulchra Abl. pulchris pulchris pulchris 86. Like liber are declined asper, rough; miser, miserable; tener, tender, and a few others. 27 28 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 87. VOCABULARY. camis, -i, m., wagon. legatus, -i, m., lieutenant; ambas- Crassus, -i, m., Crassus (a Roman 6m/or, envoy. name). liber, -era, -erum, adj., free. dimico, -are, contend, fight. paro, -are, puepake; procure. expugno, -are, take by stoi-m. pulcher, -chra, -chnim, adj., beau- Helvetii, -orum, m., the Helvetii (a tiful. Celtic tribe inhabiting what is supero, -are, overcome^ defeat; sur- now Switzedand). pass. hibema, -orum, pi., n., winter quarters. 88. 1. Copiae Germanorum iumenta et carros parant. 2. Caesar cum Helvetiis proclio dimicat et agros vastat. 3. Crassus copias Helvetiorum, populi llberi, magno proelio superat. 4. Labienus legatus hiberna Germanorum ex- pugnat. 5. Filia agricolae pulchra est. 6. Agricola multa dona pulchrae flliae dat, sed filio dat bonos agros. 7. Belgae Helvetios vocant populum liberum. 8. Magna castra Belgarum Caesar telis expugnat. 9. Ex hibernis copias Belgarum in fugam do. 10. Labienus legatus copiis arma, iumenta, carros dat. 89. 1. I contend with the Germans in many battles. 2. Caesar defeats the Germans with javelins in the great forests of Germany. 3. We contend in battle with the Germans in many places. 4. You prepare wagons and pack animals and a great quantity of weapons. 5. I call the Romans a free people. 6. We summon a council of the Romans, a free people. 7. You take the great town by storm. 8. We procure pack animals and arms. tJ: Roman javelin, pllum. LESSON X. THE VERB. Review sections 11-23. 90. The Present Indicative Active, Second Conjugation. — moneo, / advise; pres. inf., monere, to advise; pres. stem, mone. Singular. Plural. moneo, / advise. monemus, we advise. mones, you advise. monetis, you advise. monet, he advises. monent, they advise. 91. VOCABULARY. audeo, -ere, dare. habeo, -ere, have, possess; regard, contineo, -ere, restrain, confine, iubeo, -ere, command, order. hold in check. moneo, -ere, advise, warn. de, prep, with abl., about, concern- porto, -are, carry, bring. ing, praeda, -ae, f., booty, plunder. Idiom, parare ad (with accus.), to prepare Jor (a thing). 92. 1. Romani multa iumenta et arma ad bellum parant. 2. Magna castra Belgarum oppugnare non audeo. 3. Copiae magnum oppidum tells expugnant et praedam in castra carrls portant. 4. Caesar copias castrls continet; hiberna Belgarum oppugnare non audet. 5. Labienus lega- tum tela ad proelium parare iubet. 6. Caesar copias iubet carros ad praedam parare. 7. Agricolae Belgarum multos agros bonos et vicos habent. 8. Labienus legatus copias de periculo proelii monet. 9. Labieno victoriam Galbae in Germania nuntiare non audemus. 10. Vicos multls in locis Germaniae occupatis. 93. 1. We order Labienus to hold (his) troops in check. 2. The farmers possess many beasts of burden and wagons. 3. I prepare the javelins for battle. 4. I warn Labienus about the dangers of battle in the forests. 5. You carry the booty to the gates of the camp. 6. The Germans have many villages in the forests, but they are small. 29 LESSON XI. THE VERB (Continued). The Imperfect and Future Tenses of the Indicative, First and Second Conjugations. 94. The Imperfect Tense.— The action of the imper- fect indicative lies in past time, and it is always represented as continuous, repeated, or customary. The imperfect is called the tense of continued action in past time, e. g.: He was attacking the camp; He aUacked the enemy wherever he saw them. The first example shows an action going on, continuing, in past time; the second indicates the habitual, repeated, or customary performance of an act. The imperfect cannot be used of a single completed act. 95. The Future Tense has the same meaning in Latin as in English. It is called the tense of continued action in future time. 96. The Present System. — The present, imperfect and future tenses, being formed on the present stem, constitute the present system. They all express continued action. Formation. 97. (a) The Imperfect in all conjugations adds the tense sign -ba to the present stem. (6) The Future in the first and second conjugations adds the tense sign -bi to the present stem. 98. Conjugation. (o) Imperfect: First Conjugation. amabam, / 7vas lomng, I loved. amabamus, ive were loving, we lotted. amabas, you were loving, you loved. amabatis, yoii ivere loving, you loved. amiibat, he wa^ loving, he loved. amabant, they were loving, they loved. 30 THE VERB. 31 Second Conjugation. monebam, / was advising, I advised. monebas, you were advising, you advised. monebat, he was advising, he ad- vised. monebamus, we were advising, we advised. monebatis, you were advising, you advised. monebant, they were advising, they advised. (6) Future: amabo, / shall love. amabis, you will love. amabit, he will love. monebo, I shall advise. monebis, you will advise. monebit, he will advise. First Conjugation. amabimus, we shall love. amabitis, you will love. amabunt, they will love. Second Conjugation. monebimus, we shall advise. monebitis, you will advise. monebunt, they will advise. 99. VOCABULARY litterae, -arum, pi., f., a letter, epistle (the singular means a letter of the alphabet). nuntius, -i (-ii), m., messenger; also message. prohibeo, -ere, prohibit, prevent; keep off, keep away from. socius, -i (-ii), m., comrade; in military sense, ally. vir, -i, m., a man. 100. 1. Ad Labienum litteras de victoria Crassi portabo. 2. Copiae Romanorum Gallos oppidls sociorum prohibebant. 3. Nuntii litteras de magno proelio ad Galbam portabant. 4. German! agros Belgarum vastabant et praedam carrls portabant. 5. Socii • Romanorum magna proelia cum Germanis pugnabant. 6. Ad Galbam nuntium de carrls et iumentis portabis. 7. Agros in silva habebo. 8. Hiberna Belgarum expugnabimus et viros in fugam dabimus. 9. Proelio cum incolis silvarum dimicabo et eos (them) telis superabo. 10. Viri praedam ad oppidum magnis carris portabant. 101. 1. The messenger was carrying a letter to the Romans about the victory of the Gauls. 2. The man will give Julia many beautiful gifts, 3. We shall keep the 32 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Gauls away from the winter quarters. 4. The Gauls will storm the town and carry the booty in wagons. 5. We were preparing (our) weapons for battle. 6. Caesar was holding back the troops in camp. 1. Triumphal crown of laurel awarded to a victorious general when celebrating his triumph. 2. Crown of the siege, woven of growing on the spot and awarded to the general relie\ing a Roman army. 3. Civic crown of oak leaves, awarded for saving a Roman citizen's life in battle. 4. Crown of the camp; of gold, awarded to the first soldier to scale the wall of an enemy's camp. 5 5. Naval crown; of gold, awarded to the first soldier to board an enemy's ship in a sea fight. LESSON XIL THE THIRD DECLENSION. CONSONANT STEMS. 102. The genitive singular of nouns of the third declen- sion ends in -is. It is the only declension in which we deal directly with the stem of the noun. 103. There are two classes of stems: (a) Stems ending in a consonant. (h) Stems ending in -i. 104. Consonant stems are divided into mute, liquid, nasal, and spirant stems. (Review the Alphabet Table in 3.) MUTE STEMS. 105. Formation of the Nominative Singular from the Stem. 1. Labial. — A labial mute remains unchanged before the nom. ending s: stem, op; nom., ops; gen., opis, f., power. Stems in -ip change i to e in nom.: stem, princip; nom., princeps; gen., principis, m., chief. 2. Lingual. — A lingual mute disappears before the nom. ending s: stem, lapid; nom., lapis; gen., lapidis, m., stone. Stems in -it change i to e in nom. : stem, milit; nom., miles; gen., militis, m., soldier. The stem capit, neuter, has nom., caput; gen., capitis, n., head. The stem obsid has nom., obses; gen., obsidis, m., hostage. 3. Palatal. — A palatal mute unites with the nom. ending's to form x; stemreg; nom., rex; gen., regis, m., A;m^; stem, due; nom., dux; gen., duels, m., leader, guide. Stems in -ic and -ic have nominatives -ex and -ix respectively; those in -ig have -ex. 3 33 34 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 106. 1. Labial: Declension. princeps, m., stem princip, chief. Sing. — Nom. princeps Plur. — principes Gen. principis principum Dot. principi principibus Ace.- principem principes principes Voc. princeps Abl. principe 2. Lingual: lapis, m., stem lapid, stone. Sing. — Nom. lapis Gen. lapidis Dot. lapidi Ace. lapidem Voc. lapis Abl. lapide principibus mfles, m., milit, soldier. miles militis militi militem miles milite Pltjr. — Nom. lapides Gen. lapidum Dot. lapidibus Ace. lapides Voc. lapides Abl. lapidibus mllites mllitum militibus mllites mllites militibus 3. Palatal: rex, m., stem reg, king. Sing. — Nom. rex Gen. regis Dot. regl Ace. regem Voc. rex Abl. rege dux, m., due, leader. dux ducis duel ducem dux duce Plur. — Nmn. reges Gen. regum Dot. regibus Ace. reges Voc. reges Abl. regibus duces duciun ducibus duces duces ducibus THE THIRD DECLENSION. CONSONANT STEMS, 35 Additional Examples: Labial. — ops, gen. opis, f., power; pi., resources. Lingual. — obses, gen. obsidis, m., hostage: aries, gen. arietis, m., ram: custos, gen., custodis, m., guard: aetas, gen., aetatis, f., age: virtus, gen. virtutis, f., valor: palus, gen. paludis, f., swamp: caput, gen. capitis, n., head. Palatal. — ^remex, gen. remigis, m., oarsman: iudex, gen. iudicis, m., judge: radix, gen. radicis, m., root, base. 107. VOCABULARY. Ariovistus, -i, m., Ariovistus (a area of western Europe in Ro- German king). man times). confirmo, -are, establish; encour- miles, -itis, m., soldier. age; strengthen. obses, -idis, m., hostage. eques, -itis, m., horseman; pi., pax, pads, f., peace. cavalry. rex, regis, m., king. equus, -i, m., horse. video, -ere, see. Gallia, -ae, f ., Gaul (name of a vast virtus, -utis, m., valor; virtue. 108. 1. Caesar tela militibus dabat, sed equitibus equos. 2. Ariovistus rex Germanorum multa proelia cum copiis Romanorum pugnabat. 3. Copiae Belgarum obsides Galbae dabunt et pacem cum Romanis confirmabunt. 4. Romani magna virtute dimicant et Gallos superant. 5. Litteras de magna victoria ntintii ad Galbam portabunt. 6. Pacem cum Ariovisto mllites Romanorum confirmant. 7. Milites Ger- manorum pacem cum Romanis confirmabant et multos obsides dabant. 8. Milites Roman! magnum oppidum in Gallia magna virtute oppugnabunt. 9. Caesar milites Belgarum in silvis videbit et copias castris continebit. 10. Mllites Belgas hibernis prohibebunt. 109. 1. Caesar will establish peace with the soldiers of the Gauls. 2. The farmers of the Belgians kept^ the Germans away from their lands. 3. You will see many soldiers in the great forest. 4. The King will give hostages to Labienus and will establish peace. 5. The cavalry of Sulla con- tended with the soldiers of the Belgians with great valor. 6. I was laying waste the territories of the Germans and I saw many wagons and pack animals. ' Keep . . . away, one word. LESSON XIII. THE THIRD DECLENSION (Continued). Liquid and Nasal Stems. 110. Formation of the Nominative Singular from the Stem. (a) Liquid Stems. — In these the nominative is regularly the same as the stem: Stem, cdnsul: nom., consul; gen., cdnsulis, consul. Stems in -tr have -ter in nominative: Stem, matr: nom., mater; gen., matris, mother. The important neuter noun iter, rodd, march, forms its genitive, dative, and ablative singular and the entire plural on the stem itiner. (6) Nasal Stems. — Stems in -on drop -n to form the nom- inative: Stem, legion: nom., legio; gen., legionis, legion. Stems in -din and -gin form the nominative in -do and -go respectively: Stems, ordin, virgin: nom., ordo, virg6; gen., ordinis, virginis, rank and maiden. Other stems in -in retain -n and change i to e in nominative : Stem, nomin: nom., nomen; gen., nominis, name. 36 THE THIRD DECLENSION (CONTINUED). 37 Important exceptions are the stems homin and its com- pound nemin (= ne homin), forming nominative homo and nemo, inan and nobody. The labial nasal stem hiem has the regular formative -s: hiems, hiemis, winter. HI. 1. Liquid: Declension. consul, m., stem, consul, consul. Sing. — Nom. consul Plur. — consules Gen. consulis consulum Ddt. consull consulibus Ace. consulem consules Voc. consul consules Abl. consule consulibus 2. Nasal: legio, f., ordo, m., nomen, n., stem, legion, stem, ordin, stem, nomin. legion. rank. name. Sing.— iVom. , legio ordo nomen Gen. legionis ordinis nominis Dat. legioni ordini nomini Ace. legionem ordinem nomen Voc. legio ordo nomen Abl. legione ordine nomine Plur. — Nom. , legiones ordines nomina Gen. legionum ordinum nominum Dat. legionibus ordinibus nominibus Ace. legiones ordines nomina Voc. legiones ordines nomina Abl. legionibus ordinibus nominibus Additional Examples: . Liquid. — victor, gen. vict5ris, m., conqueror: mater, gen. matris, f ., mother; iter, gen. itineris, n., road, march. Nasal. — virgo, gen. virginis, f., maiden; homo, gen. hominis, m., mxin; hiems, gen. hiemis, f., winter. 38 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 112. VOCABULARY amicitia, -ae, f., friendship; alli- ance. animus, -i, m., mind; courage; character. Caesar, -is, m., Caesar. consul, -is, m., consul (chief magis- trate of Rome; two elected an- nually). flumen, -inis, n., river. frumentum, -i, n., grain; pi., crops. legio, -onis, f., legion (regiment), nam, con j., /or. ordo, -inis, m., rank (of soldiers); order, arrangement. trans, prep, with ace, across (used both of motion and position), verbiun, -i, n., word; pi. often a 113. 1. Agricolae frumentum ad logiones consulis trans flumen portabant. 2. Consul animos militum verbis con- flrmabit. 3. Pacera et amicitiam cum Belgis legiones con- firmabant. 4. In oppidis trans flumen multum frumentum est. 5. Legatus arma ordinibus legionum dabat, nam mllites Germanorum exspectabat. 6. Consul Caesari multa tela dabat, quae (which) legionibus mandabat. 7. Frumenta in agris trans flumen bona sunt. 8. Consul Caesarem magnum virum vocabat et animos militum verbis con- firmabat. 9. Caesar consulem iubebit ordines legionum in silvis conflrmare. 10. I^gatum iubebo concilium legionum convocare et mllites ad proel'um parare. 114. 1. There are many ranks of soldiers in a legion. 2. The lieutenant encouraged the minds of the soldiers by a speech. 3. Caesar ordered the consul to hold the legions in check in the village. 4. The Belgians possess many towns and villages in the territory across the river. 5. You will order the Germans to prepare grain. 6. The sailors carried the crops of the farmers from the fields to the river. b- Roman scabbard. LESSON XIV. THE THIRD DECLENSION (Continued). Spirant Stems. 115. Formation of the Nominative Singular from the Stem. In these the stem always ends in -s and the nominative is regularly the same as the stem. (1) The original -s of the stem becomes -r between two vowels. (2) In some words the -s of the stem sometimes becomes -r even when final, so that both forms of the nominative occur : arbos and arbor, tree; honos and honor, honor. (3) A most important class of neuter nouns, in L which the final -s of the stem is preceded by e or o, has -us in the iiKjiiiiiid/ Live. 116. Declension. mos, m., ius, n., arbor, f., opus, n., tempus, n., Stem, mos, ius. arbos. opes. tempos, custom. right, law. tree. work. time. Sing. — Nom. mos ius arbor, arbos opus tempus Gen. moris iuris arboris operis temporis Dat. mori iuri arbori operi tempori Ace. morem ius arborem opus tempus Voc. mos ius arbor, arbos opus tempus Abl. more iure arbore opere tempore Plur. — Nom. mores iura arbores opera tempora Gen. morum iurum arbortmi operum temporum ^ Dat. moribus iuribus arboribus operibus temporibus Ace. mores iura arbores opera tempora Voc. mores iura arbores opera tempora Abl. moribus iuribus arboribus operibus temporibus 39 40 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, 117. The spirant-stem neuters in -us used by Caesar in the first four books of the GaUic War are: corpus, corporis, body. onus, oneris, loady burden. dedecus, dedecoris, dishonor. opus, opens, work. facinus, facinoris, a crime. pecus, pecoris, cattle. frigus, frigoris, cold. pondus, ponderis, weight. genus, generis, n., slock, kind, family. scelus, sceleris, wickedivess. latus, lateris, side, flank. tempus, temporis, liuie. litus, litoris, shore. vulnus, vulneris, wound. munus, muneris, duiy, gift. 118. VOCABULARY. agger, -is, ra., emhankmenl, ram- maturus, -a, -um, adj., mature, part. ript': frigus, -oris, n., cold; pi., cold propter, prep, with ace, on account weather. of, because of. genus, -eris, n., race, family; kind. Rhenus, -i, m., the Rhine. homo, -inis, m., man, mankind. vulnus, -eris, n., wound. 119. 1. Propter frlgora frumentum in agris Galliae maturum non est. 2. Multa genera hominum in silvis Germaniae sunt. 3. Propter vulnera milites se in fugam ad flumen Rhenum mandabunt. 4. Milites Caesaris in aggere castrorum copias Belgarum exspectabant. 5. Fru- menta matura non sunt, nam magnum est frigus. 6. Legiones Romanae magnum hibernorum aggerem tells oppugnabant. 7. Milites in aggere Romanos exspectant. 8. Propter multa tela Belgarum legiones se fugae manda- bunt. 9. Caesar genere Romanus est. 10. Milites in aggere sunt, nam Germanos exspectant. 120. 1. Ariovistus is a German by race. 2. The grain in the fields across the Rhine is not ripe, for the cold is igreat in Germany. 3. The wounds of the soldiers are many, for they were fighting a great battle near the rampart. 4. M^ in Gaul gave many kinds of grain to Caesar's legions. 5. There are many kinds of men in Gaul. 6. The soldiers are in great danger on account of the javelins, LESSON XV. THE THIRD DECLENSION.-^i STEMS. 121. To Identify an i Stem Noun. The following classes of nouns have i stems. (a) Parisyllabic nouns (^. e., having the same number of syllables in nominative and genitive singular), except pater, mater, frater, and certain others less common. (6) Nouns ending in -e, -al, -ar. These are always neuter. (c) Apparent monosyllabic stems ending in two con- sonants, e. g., urbs; apparent stem, urb; real stem, urbi. (d) Most nouns ending in -ns and -rs. Note. — The irregular vis, force, pL, strength, has two stems; sing., vif plur., viri. 122. The i of the stem disappears in some forms and contracts with the case endings in others, with the result that the unchanged stem is regularly seen in the genitive plural only. 123. The i of the stem causes the following modifica- tions in the case terminations (35): (a) The accusative singular of masculines and feminines in -is sometimes ends in -im. (6) The ablative singular of neuter nouns always ends in -i; also sometimes of masculines and feminines in -is. (c) The nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of neuter nouns end in -ia. (d) The genitive plural always ends in -ium. (e) The accusative plural of masculines and feminines ends in -is or -es. 41 42 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 124. Declension. turns, f., hostis, m., caedes, f., imber, ra., Stem, turn, hosti, caedi, imbri, totuer. enemy. slaughter. sliower. Sing.— ATwn. . turns hostis caedes imber Gen. tunis hostis caedis imbris Dal, tuni hosti caedi imbri Ace. turrim (-em] ) hostem caedem imbrem Voc. turns hostis caedes imber Abl. turn (-e) hoste caede imbre (-i) Fhvn.—Nom . turrSs hostes caedes imbres Gen. turrium hostium caedium imbrium Dot. turribus hostibus caedibus imbribus Ace. turns (-es) hostis (-es) caedis (-6s) imbris (-€s) Voc. turres hostes caedes imbres Abl. turribus hostibus caedibus imbribus mare,* n., animal, n., urbs, f., vis, f., Stem, mari, animali. urbi, vis (force) sea. animal. city. force; strength. Sing.— ATaw. mare animal urbs ^a, ^ori, Gen. maris animalis urbis vis (rare) Dot. mari animali urbi vi (rare) Ace. mare animal urbem vim Voc. mare animal urbs vis Abl. mari animali urbe vi Fhvn.—Nom . maria animalia urbes vires (strength) Gen. marium animalium urbiimi \iritmi Dot. maribus animalibus urbibus viribus Ace. maria animalia urbis (-es) viris (-es) Voc. maria animalia urbes vires Abl. maribus animalibus urbibus viribus ^ All cases of mare are not found in actual use; but it is the most common of its class, and is I, therefore, selected as the type. 125. Gender in the Third Declension. No exact rules can be given for determining the gender of a third declension noun; but the following will serve as a guide, though many exceptions occur. THE THIRD DECLENSION.-I STEMS. 43 (a) Masculines. — Nouns ending in -o, -or, -os, -er, -es (gen. -itis). (6) Feminines. — Nouns ending in -as, -es (gen. -is), -us (gen. -utis or -udis), -is, -ys, -s following a consonant, -do, -go, -io. (c) Neuters. — Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -c, -1, -t, -men, -ar, -ur, -us (gen. -eris or -oris). 126. VOCABULARY. a, ab,^ prep, with abl., from, away hostis, -is, m., enemy; pi. in mili- from. tary sense, the enemy. civis, -is, m., citizen. mare, -is, n., sea. civitas, -tatis, f., state; citizenship. mons, -tis, m., mountain. cohors, -rtis, f., cohort (the legion postulo, -are, demand. was made up of ten cohorts: turris, -is, f., tower. equivalent to the modern com- urbs, urbis, f., city. pany of a regiment). ^ a before consonants; ab before vowels and h. 127. 1. Populus Romanus civitatem multls mllitibus dabat. 2. Caesar cohortem sociorum aggerem hostium op- pugnare iubet. 3. Labienus tribus (three) cohortibus mili- tum montem occupabat. 4. Caesar multos obsides a civibus postulabit, nam cives frumentum hostibus populi Romani dant. 5. Magna est silva in monte trans flumen. 6. Nautae magnam praedam ex urbe ad mare carris portabant. 7. Multum frumentum ab incolis magnae urbis postulabo, nam hostes Caesaris sunt. 8. Caesar magnum montem occu- pabat et cohortes hostium exspectabat. 9. Ad^ mare magnus est mons et in monte pulchra urbs. 10. Caesar et milites magnam turrim hostium telis expugnabunt. * Near; see 61. Remark. — The -es forms of the accusative plural of i stem words will be used throughout the book. 44 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 128. 1. The citizens possess a great state in the moun- tains. 2. We shall order the sailors to carry the booty from the cities to the sea. 3. You will order a cohort of the legion to assault the tower on the mountain. 4. The Germans will take flight to the forest on the mountain. 5. The soldiers of the legions saw the mountains across the river. 6. There are great mountains in Gaul near the sea. Common Roman Coins. 1. Denarius, silver coin worth about seventeen cents. 2. Quinarius, one-half denarius. 3. Sestertius, one-quarter denarius. LESSON XVI. THE FOURTH AND FIFTH DECLENSIONS. 129. The Fourth Declension. The nominative singular of nouns of the fourth declension ends in -us. The genitive singular ends in -us. Nouns of the fourth declension are declined as follows: exercitus, m., comu, n., horn; army. wing of an army. Sing.- — Nom. , exercitus cornu Gen. exercitus cornus Dat. exercitui cornu ' Ace. exercitum comu Voc. exercitus comu Abl. exercitu comu Plur.- — Norn. exercitus cornua Gen. exercituum comuum Dat. exercitibus cornibus Ace. exercitus cornua Voc. exercitus cornua Abl. exercitibus cornibus 130. Domus is irregular, having some forms of the second declension. The form most frequently used is placed first; the form domi means at home (135). It is thus declined: Sing.- domus, f., , house. ■Norn. domus Plur. — domus Gen. domus, domi domuum, domonun Dat. domui, domo domibus Ace. domum domos, domus Voc. domus domus Abl. domo, domu domibus 45 46 • ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 131. Gender in the Fourth Declension. — Most nouns in -us are masculine: manus, f., hxind, hand; domus, f., house, are the chief exceptions. Nouns in -u are neuter: the only neuter of common occur- rence is comu. 132. Nouns ending in -us occur in the second, third, and fourth declensions. No exact rule can be given for deter- mining to what declension a nominative in -us belongs. If it contains the supine stem of a verb, or if it ends in -tus or -sus, it is most probably of the fourth declension. The genitive singular will determine positively. 133. The Fifth Declension. The nominative singular of nouns of the fifth declension ends in -es. The genitive singular ends in -ei. Only two, res and dies, are complete. Of the rest, most lack the plural entirely, a few have the nominative and accusative. All nouns of this declension are feminine, except dies; even this is sometimes feminine in the singular. 134. Nouns of the fifth declension are declined as follows: dies, m., f., day. res, f., thing. Sing. — Nom. dies Plur. — dies Sing. — Nom. res Plur. — res Gen. diei dieniin Gen. rei rerum Dai. diei diebus Dat. rei rebus i4.cc. diem dies Ace. rem res Voc. dies dies Voc. res res Ahl. die diebus Ahl. re rebus 135. The Locative Case. — Not all the Latin cases have survived. There was originally a case called the locative, exclusively used to express location, the place where a thing was situated or an event occurred. In the singular of the first and second declensions this case was identical in form with the genitive, elsewhere with the ablative. THE FOURTH AND FIFTH DECLENSIONS. 47 (a) The locative case is still found in proper names of towns and islands and in the noun domus, e. g. : Romae, at Rome, in Rome; TarentI, at Tarentum; Athenis, in Athens; domi, at home. 136. VOCABULARY. adventus, -us, m., arrival; ap- navis, -is, f., ship. proach. Ocelum, -i, n., Ocelum (a city in exercitus, -us, m., army. Gaul). impetus, -us, m., attack. Roma, -ae, f., Rome. litus, -oris, n., coast, shore. sustineo, -ere, sustain, withstand; longus, -a, -um, adj., long. hold oiU (against siege), navigo, -are, navigate, sail (a ship); sail (on the sea). Idiom. navis longa, war ship. 137. 1. Caesar legiones ex urbe ad montes se fugae mandare iubet et adventuixi auxiliorum exspectare. 2. Nautae mare navibus navigant. 3. Nautae ad insulas navigabunt, nam magna praeda in urbibus insularum est. 4. Naves longae militum in litore sunt. 5. Caesar Romae est, sed auxilia Oceli eum (him) exspectant. 6. Nautae multas naves longas habent, quibus (in which) ad litora insularum navigabunt. 7. Caesar exercitum montem oc- cupare iubet et impetiim hostium sustinere. 8. Cohors legionis aggerem et turrim occupabat et impetum Belgarum sustinebat. 9. Copiae Romanae adventum Caesaris Oceli exspectabunt. 10. Impetum hostium in litore sustinebimus. 138. 1. Caesar with a war ship will sail to the coast of the island. 2. Caesar is at Rome. 3. I saw Labienus at Ocelum. 4. Many sailors sail the sea in ships. 5. I saw the arrival of the sailors on the shore. 6. We shall withstand the attack of the enemy on the tower. LESSON XVII. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 139. The Nine Pronominals. — Nine important adjectives are irregular in the genitive and dative singular, these cases ending respectively in -ius and -i for all genders. A separate vocative is wanting. In their irregular forms, as well as in meaning, they re- semble pronouns, and hence are called pronominal adjectives. These adjectives are: alius, other tdtus, whole, entire alter, the other (of two) nullus, no, none ullus, any neuter, neither (of two) s51us, only, alone unus, one; only uter, which (of two) (a) alius has aliud in nom. and ace. sing. neut. alter retains e in declension and its gen. sing, is usually -Ius. neuter and uter drop e in declension. Declension. 140. The singular of these words is declined as follows; the pluraP is regular. Mascuune. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. alius alia aliud unus una unum Gen. alius alius alius2 unius unius unius Dai. alii alii alii Qni uni uni Ace. alium. aliam aliud unum unam unum Voc. Abl. alio alia alio uno una uno Nom. alter altera alterum uter utra utnun Gen. alterius alterius alterius utrius utrius utrius Dot. alteri alteri alteri utri utri utri Ace. alterum alteram altenmi utrum utram utrum Voc. Abl. altero altera altero utro utra utro * The plural of unus signifies only, alone, except when limiting a noun plural in form but singular in meaning, e. g.: una castra, one camp. ' Very rare: alterius usually replaces it. 48 irhegvlar adjectives. 49 141. Idiomatic Use of Alius and Alter. — Where in English we say one and another, e. g. : One gave grain, another gave arms; the Latin does not employ unus and alius, but alius is repeated, e. g.: alius frumentum dabat, arma alius. For of two persons or things, A and B, if the attention be fixed on A, B is the other; if on B, A is the other: hence both may be called the other. (a) The same principle extends to four persons or things, of which two are subjects and two objects, or to series of pairs, subject and object, e. g.: One tells one thing, another tells another. Here each of the subjects is the other; each of the objects is the other: hence, the idiom condenses into alius alia nuntiat; literally, another tells other things. 142. VOCABULARY. iter, itineris, n., road; march; right portus, -us, m., port, harbor. of way. provincia, -ae, f., province. mos, moris, m., custom, usage; pi. res, rei, f., thing, affair, circum- also character. stance. per, prep, with ace, through. 143. 1. Multae res Caesarem ad bellum cum aliis populis incitabant. 2. More populi Romani iter per pro- vinciam uUl dare non audeo. 3. Null! iter trans flumen dabo. 4. Milites unius legionis in Gallia sunt. 5. Nautae ex alio portu navigant. 6. Utri consulum iter per provinciam dabo? NeutrL 7. Alter! consull provinciam dabat, alterl magnum exercitum. 8. Alter consul alterum portum occupabat. 9. Exercitus alterius consulis magnus non est. 10. Alii nautae ex alio portu navigabunt. 144. 1. To which of the towns shall I carry the booty? 2. The army of another people will possess the lands. 3. You tell one thing to one consul, another to the other. 4. By the custom of the Belgians I give no Roman the right of way. 5. The valor of entire Gaul does not surpass the valor of Rome alone. 6. Many other circumstances urge the consul to battle. LESSON XVIII. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 145. Adjectives of the third declension may have: (a) The masculine, feminine, and neuter differing in form in the nominative singular. These are called adjectives of three terminations. All adjectives in -er belong to this cla.ss (except degener, degenerate; pauper, poor; uher, fertile, which belong to class (c) and are not found in Caesar). The feminine and neuter end respectively in -is and -e. (b) The masculine and feminine alike, the neuter differing. These are called adjectives of two terminations, and may end in -is (m., f.), -e (n.) or in -ior (m., f.), -ius (n.). Those in -ior are comparatives. (c) The three genders alike. These are called adjectives of one termination and have a variety of nominative forms. All present participles (nom. in -ns) are of tliis class. 146. Stems and Case Fonns. 1. Adjectives of the third declension, except compara- tives and a few other words, are regularly declined as i- stems: i. e., abl. sing, in -i; gen. pi. in -ium; ace. pi. m. and f. in -is or -es; nom., ace, voc. pi. n. in -ia. 2. Comparatives and vetus (and a few less common) are true consonant stems. 3. Present participles used as adjectives have abl. sing, in -i; as true participles, abl. sing, in -e. 4. Of the three-termination adjectives in -er, e is retained in declension in celer only. 50 ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION, 51 147. To Distinguish Adjectives in -er of the Second Declension from Adjectives in -er of the Third Declension. Rule. — Adjectives in -er of the Second Declension have two syllables, except integer, ludicer, sinister, and com- pounds in -fer and -ger: adjectives in -er of the Third Declension have more than two syllables, except acer, celer, puter; pauper, uber. 148. Declension. (a) Three terminations: acer, keen, sharp. Masc. Fem. Neut. Sing. — Nom. acer acris acre Gen. acris acris acris Dot. acri acri acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Voc. acer acris acre AM. acri acri acri Plur. — Nam. acres acres acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acris (-es) acris (-es) acria Voc. acres acres acria Ahl. acribus acribus celer, svrift. acribus Masc. Fem. Netjt. Sing. — Nom. celer celeris celere Gen. celeris celeris celeris Dat. celeri celeri celeri Ace. celer em celerem celere Voc. celer celeris celere Abl. celeri celeri celeri Plur. — Nom. celeres celeres celeria Gen. celeriimii celerium celerium Dat. celeribus celeribus celeribus Ace. celeris (-es) celeris (-es) celeria Voc. celeres celeres celeria Abl. celeribus celeribus celeribus 1 The gen. plur. of celer is not found in actual use. 52 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, Q>) Two terminations: levis, light; capricious. levior, lighter; more capricious. Masc., Fem. Neut. Masc., Fem. Neut. Sing. — Nom. levis leve levior levius Gen. levis levis levioris levioris Dot. levi levi leviori leviori Ace. levem leve leviorem levius Voc. levis leve levior lovius AW. levi levi leviore leviore Plur.— ATom. leves levia leviores leviora Gen. levium levium leviorum leviorum Da/, levibus levibus levioribus levioribus Ace. levis (-es) levia leviores leviora Foe. loves levia leviores leviora Abl. levibus levibus levioribus levioribus (c) One termination: audax, boll, courageous. vetus, old. Masc.. Fem. Neut. Masc., Fem. Neut. Sing. — Nom. audax audax vetus vetus Gen. audacis audacis veteris veteris Dot. audaci audaci veteri veteri Ace. audacem audax veterem vetus Voc. audax audax vetus vetus A6Z. audaci audaci vetere vetere PhVR.-Nom. audaces audacia veteres Vetera Gen. audaciimi audaciimi vetenun veterum Dot. audacibus audacibus veteribus veteribus Ace. audacis (-es) audacia veteres Vetera Voc. audaces audacia veteres Vetera Abl. audacibus audacibus veteribus veteribus recens, i recent, fresh. pugnans, fighting. Masc., Fkm. Neut. Masc., Fem. Neijt. Sing.— iVom. recens recens pugnans pugnans Gen. recentis recentis pugnantis pugnantis Dot. recenti recenti pugnanti pugnanti Ace. recentem recens pugnantem pugnans Voc. recens recens pugnans pugnans Abl. recentii recenti pugnante (-i y pugnante * Recens is a true adjective; pugnans, a present participle: note the difference in the abl. sing. (146, 3). ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 53 Plur. — iVom. recentes recentia pugnantes pugnantia Gen. recentium recentium pugnantium pugnantium Dat. recentibus recentibus pugnantibus pugnantibus Ace. recentis (-es) recentia pugnantis (-es) pugnantia Voc. recentes recentia pugnantes pugnantia Abl. recentibus recentibus pugnantibus pugnantibus plus, more. Masc, Fem. Sing. — Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. Plur. — Nom. plures Gen. plurium Dat. pluribus Ace. plures (-is) Voc. Abl. pluribus Neut. plus pltiris plus plure plura plurium pluribus plura pluribus 149. VOCABULARY. aditus, -us, m., approach, access. Haedui, -orum, m., the Haedui (a Britannia, -ae, f., Britain, Eng- Gallic tribe). land. incolumis, -e, adj., safe, unharmed. communis, -e, adj., common. navalis, -e, adj., naval. complures, -a, pi., adj., very many, nobilis, -e, adj., noble. delibero, -are, consult, deliber- omnis, -e, adj., every, all. ATE. Veneti, -orum, m., the Veneti (a difficilis, -e, adj., difficult. maritime tribe of the west coast facilis, -e, adj., easy. of Gaul). fides, -ei, f ., faith, confidence; pro- tection. 150. 1. Omnes aditus sunt itineribus difficilibus. 2. In communi concilio Germanorum de hello Romanorum deliberabant. 3. Complures virl nobiles, legati Haeduorum, amicitiam et fidem Caesaris implorabunt. 4. Veneti com- plures naves habent, quibus (in which) in Britanniam navi- 54 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. gant. 5. Iter per monies in Galliam difficile est; sed nullum iter aliud est. 6. Milites et nautae Romanorum multls proeliis navalibus Venetos superabant. 7. Legatus Romanus tela hostium non vitabat, sed incolumis est. 8. More Ger- manorum, concilium commune totlus Germaniae convocant et de perlculis itineris deliberant. 9. Nullus aditus ad locum castrorum est. 10. Belgae se fugae in castra mandabunt, nam perlculum commune vitabunt. 151. 1. The only approach to the camp is by a difficult road. 2. The Veneti fight a battle with the Romans on the sea. 3. All the Haedui begged the protection and friendship of Caesar. 4. Caesar is safe, but the wounds of Labienus are many. 5. To deliberate in a common council is a diffi- cult thing. 6. The road through the province is easy. Roman soldiers, mailed and carrying shields. LESSON XIX. THE VERB. Present System of the Indicative, Third Conjugation. 152. Formation. The present stem of the third conjugation ends in -e (19, 20). (a) The present and imperfect tenses are formed as in the other conjugations. (6) The future tense in the third and fourth conjugations has the tense sign -e. 153. Conjugation. rego, / rule; pres. inf., regere, to rule; pres. stem, rege. (a) Present: rego, / rule (am ruling, do rule). regimus, we rule. regis, you rule. regitis, you rule. regit, he rules. regimt, they rule. (b) Imperfect: regebam, / was ruling, I ruled. regebamus, we were ruling. regebas, you were ruling. regebatis, you were ruling. regebat, he was ruling. regebant, they were ruling. (c) Future: regam, / shall rule. regemus, we shall rule. reges, you will rule. regetis, you will rule. reget, he will rule. regent, they will rule. 154. Imperfect and Future Indicative of sum. (a) Imperfect: eram, / was. eramus, we were. eras, you were. eratis, you were. erat, he was. erant, they were. (6) Future: ero, / shall be. erimus, we shall be. eris, you will be. eritis, you shall be. erit, he will be. erunt, they shall be. 55 66 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, 155. VOCABULARY. constitud, -ere, station; decide, de- gero, -ere, carry on, xaage (war) ; tcrmine. carry; perform. contendo, -ere, endeavor; con- incolo, -ere, inhabit, dweU in. tend; hasten. mitto, -ere, send. divido, -ere, divide, separate. pond, -ere, place, establish. duco, -ere, lead, guide; haul; con- reduce, -ere, lead back, bring back. strud. relinquo, -ere, leave, abandon. Idioms, bellum gerere, to wage war, carry on war. castra ponere, to pitch camp. magnum iter, a forced march. 156. 1. Caesar inagnls itineribus ad Belgas contendere constituebat. 2. Magnum flumcn Rhenus Germaniam ab agris Gallorum dividit. 3. Garros per montes magno pcri- culo ducent. 4. Galll oppidum Ocelum incolunt et Romanos provincia prohibent. 5. Multa iumcnta et carros in urbem mittam et praedam mllitum e domibus reducam. 6. Belgae castra in silvis ponent et adventuin Caesaris exspectabunt. 7. Hiberna hostibus relinquam, et exercitum magnis itiner- ibus in provinciam reducam. 8. More populi Roman! consul castra in monte ponet et bellum cum incolis montium geret. 9. In Galliam toto cum exercitu contendent et ntin- tios cum litterls ad Caesarem mittent. 10. Gallus tres (three) legiones exercitus Caesaris per silvas ad mare ducebat. 157. 1. I shall not abandon (my) friends to the enemy. 2. Caesar will wage war in Germany and lead back the legions across the Rhine into Gaul. 3. I am sending a messenger to the harbor with a letter. 4. I shall hasten with many ships to Britain and bring back much grain for the army. 5. You will pitch camp in the forest and wage war with the Germans. 6. I determine to hasten by forced marches from the city into Gaul. LESSON XX. COMPARISON. 158. The quality expressed by an adjective may exist in different degrees. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, superlative. (a) Adjectives have an inflection called comparison to show difference of degree. (h) Participles used as adjectives are also subject to com- parison. 159. Formation of the Comparative and Superlative. (a) To form the comparative, add the terminations -ior (m., f.), -ius (n.) to the base (35) of the positive. (b) To form the superlative, add the terminations -issi- mus, -a, -um, to the base of the positive; that is, to the stem lacking its final vowel, e. g.: * altus, altior, altissimus, high, higher, highest. fortis, fortior, fortissimus, brave, braver, bravest. audax, audacior, audacissimus, bold, bolder, boldest. amans, amantior, amantissimus, loving, more loving, most loving. 160. Exceptions in Superlative Formation. (a) Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative singular masculine of the positive. The comparative is regular, e. g.: pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus. miser, miserable, miserior, miserrimus. acer, keen, acrior, acerrimus. celer, smft, celerior, celerrimus. 57 68 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. (b) Six adjectives in -lis form the superlative by adding -limus to the base of the positive. The comparative is regular. These arc: facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus. difficilis, difficult, difficilior, difficillimus. eimilis, like, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, urdike, dissimilior, dissiinillimus. humilis, low, humilior, huniillimus. gracilis, slender, gracilior, gracillimus. (c) Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel, except those in -quus, compare by means of the adverbs magis, more, and mazime, most, e. g. : idoneus, suitable; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. 161. Idiomatic Uses of the Comparative and Superlative. * (a) The comparative may express rather or too, e. g. : longius iter, o rather long march; pluribus praesentibus, wfien too many were present. (6) The superlative may express very, e. g.: altissimimi flumen, a very deep river. (c) The adverb quam, how, as (though in this idiom in- capable of separate translation) prefixed to a superlative expresses the greatest possible degree of the quality, e. g.: quam maximum numertmi iumentonun coemere, to purchase the greatest possible number of pack anim^ds. (d) Having no masculine or feminine singular to agree with a noun, plus is forced in the singular to the construction of a neuter noun, and as such governs a genitive (47, e). Remark. — For declension of comparatives, see levior, 148, b. Super- latives are declined like bonus. COMPARISON. 69 162. VOCABULARY. ac, see atque. ac), conj., and, and also (con- acer, acris, acre, adj., keen, vigor- nects words and statements of ous, severe. which the second is the more acies, -ei, f., line of battle. important). agmen, -minis, n., army (on the fortis, -e, adj., brave, valiant. march), column (of men). instruo, -ere, draw up, arrange. altitude, -dinis, f., altitude, nevus, -a, -um, adj., new. height, depth. pars, partis, f., part; direction. altus, -a, -lun, adj., high, deep proj prep, with ahl, in front, before (used of vertical extent either (of place), in behalf of, for. direction). quam, conj., than. atque (before consonants often RhodanuSt -iym., the Rhone. Idiom, novissimtun agmen, the rear (of an army). 163. 1. Caesar fortissimos milites ad Germanos mittet. 2. Labienus aciem pro castris instruit atque acerrimo proelio cum Germanis contendit. 3. Rhenus fiumen longior atque altior est quam Rhodanus. 4. Novissimum agmen impetum hostium sustinebat. 5. Acerrima hominum genera sunt multls in partibus Galliae. 6. Copiae Belgarum trans altius fiumen aciem instruebant atque hostes exspectabant. 7. RomanI multa bella acerrima pro sociis gerebant. 8. Aliam partem militum trans altum fiumen mittit, aliam in montem magnae altitudinis. 9. Omnium Gallorum fortissimi sunt Belgae. 10. Auxilia in novissimo agmine constituit, nam tela in proelils vitant. 164. 1. A new army hastens into Gaul. 2. The river Rhone is very deep in many places. 3. Caesar draws up the battle-line and fights a very severe battle. 4. The bravest of the soldiers are in front of the camp. 5. Caesar leads back the brave auxiliaries out of the battle into camp, for they have many severe wounds. 6. The height of the mountain is great. LESSON XXI. COMPARISON (Continued), 165. Irregular Comparison. (a) Several important adjectives have forms of comparison wholly irregular and based on different stems. bonus, mclior. optimus. good, better, best. malus, pcior. pessimus. bad, worse, worst. magnus, maior, maximus. great, greater, greatest. parvus, minor, minimus, little, less, least. multus, plus, n., plurimus. much, more, most. vetus, vetustior, veterrimus, old, older, oldest. (b) The positive forms of the following are rare, and gener- ally occur as plural noims signifying respectively foreigners, the gods of the lower world, posterity, the gods above. exterus exterior, outer, extremus or extimus, outmost. inferus inferior, lower, infimus or imus, lowest. posterns posterior, later, after, postremus or postiunus, la^t. superus superior, higher, supremus or summus, highest. (c) Some comparatives and superlatives have no positive in use as a true adjective, but are formed from stems found in adverbs and prepositions. Adverb or Preposition. cis, citra, on this side of, in, intra, in, within, prae, pro, before, in front, prope, near, ultra, beyond. Comparative. citerior, hither, interior, inner, prior, former, propior, nearer, ulterior, farther, SUPERLATTVB. citimus, hithermost. intimus, inmost. primus, first. proximus, nearest. ultimus, farthest. COMPARISON (CONTINUED). 61 166. Idiomatic Adjectives of Position. Expressions denoting the top of, bottom of, middle of, ex- treme or end of, always employ adjectives agreeing .with the noun, instead of two nouns, as in English. The adjectives commonly used thus are summus, for the top of; infimus or unus, for the bottom of; medius, for the middle of; extremus, for the extreme of, end of, e. g. : summus mons, the top of the mountain; in medio flumine, in the middle of the river. 167. VOCABULARY. Alpes, -ium, pi. f., the Alps. reliquus, -a, -um, adj., remaining, contineo, -ere, bound (in geo- the rest of. graphical sense). studitmi, -i (-ii), n., zeal, enthu- extremus, -a, -um, superl. adj., siasm. farthest, extreme. summus, -a, -um, superl. adj , itaque, conj., therefore, accordingly. highest, greatest. medius, -a, -um, adj., middle, ultra, prep, with ace. and adv., middle of. beyond, past; farther. prope, prep, with ace, and adv. valltun, -i, n., wall, breastwork. near; nearly, almost. vexo, -are, v. tr., vex, annoy, harass; ravage. Idiom, una ex parte, on one side. 168. 1. Proximum iter in Galliam ulteriorem per Alpes est. 2. Reliquae cohortes vallum pro castrls summo studio oppugnabant, sed hostes in mediis castrTs tela vltabant. 3. Exercitus Caesaris maiora hostium castra in summo monte expugnat. 4. Maxima virtute cohortes insulam in medio flumine navibus oppugnant. 5. Alpes Galliam ulte- riorem una ex parte continent. 6. Germani agros in ex- trema Gallia vexant, itaque Caesar ad eos (them) magnls itineribus contendit. 7. Iter per Alpes in Galliam propius est quam per silvas in litore. 8. Germani castra in mediis silvis ponent atque adventum Romanorum exspectabunt. 62 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 9. Vallum magnae altitudinis castra continet. 10. Roman- orum milites meliores et fortiores sunt quam milites Gal- lorum, atque maiore studio pugnant. 169. 1. On one side of the camp is a rather high wall. 2. With the greatest enthusiasm the brave soldiers attack the remaining gate of the town. 3. Caesar's house is in the mid- dle of the field. 4. The camp is on the top of a mountain. 5. I am a better and braver man than Labienus. 6. The Germans will pitch camp in the middle of the forest. Roman artillery, called tonnenta, from torqueo, tivist, the power being applied by twisted ropes. The chief hurling engines of the Roman armies were the ballista and catapulta. LESSON XXII. ADVERBS. 170. Formation of Adverbs. There are two classes of adverbs: (a) Those which are formed from adjectives. (6) Those not so formed. For the formation of the latter no law can be given. Adverbs which are formed from adjectives are formed according to the following law: If the adjective is of the second-first-second declension, the adverb is formed by adding -e to the base of the adjec- tive ; but if the adjective is of the third declension, add -ter to the stem, e. g. : cams, adv. care; pulcher, adv. pulchre; miser, adv. misere; acer, adv. acriter; levis, adv. leviter; audax forms audacter. Remark. — Occasionally the accusative singular neuter of an adjective is used as the adverb, e. g.: facilis, adv. facile, easily; multus, adv. multum, much; plurimus, adv. plurimiim, very, most. 171. Comparison of Adverbs. (a) The comparative of an adverb derived from an adjec- tive is the accusative singular neuter of the comparative of the adjective; and its superlative is formed by changing the -us of the superlative of the adjective to -e, e. g.: care, carius, carissime; pulchre, pulchrius, pulcherrime; misere, miserius, miserrime ; acriter, acrius, acerrime ; leviter, levius, levissime ; audacter, audacius, audacissime. 63 64 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. (t) The following adverbs are irregular or defective: bene, melius, optime, well, better, best. male, peius, pessime, badly, worse, ivorst. diu, diutius. diutissime. long (of time), longer, longest. — — potius, potissimum. , rather, first of all, chiefly. saepe, saepius, saepissime. often, more often, oftenest. satis, satius, enough, preferably, . magnopere, magis, maxime, grexitly, more, most. parum, minus, minime, lUtle, less, least. multum (multo), 172. plus, plurimum, VOCABULARY. much, more, moaL acriter, adv., fiercely, sharply. audacter, adv., boUlly. bene, adv., tvcll. cogito, -are, think about, consider. defensio, -onis, f., defense. diu, adv., long, a long time. facile, adv., easily. fortiter, adv., bravely. magnopere, adv., greatly. mens, mentis, f., inind. munltio, -onis, fortificalion. perturbo, -are, disturb, trouble. quidem, adv., indeed, even, cer- tainly. ne . . quidem, cpd. adv., not even (emphatic word between n§ and quidem). saepe, adv., often. tardo, -are, check, retard, delay. timer, -oris, m., fear. 173. 1. Timor, quidem, mentes omnium auxilionun mag- nopere perturbabat. 2. Propter timorem cohortes ne de defensione quidem castrorum cogitabant, sed fugae in medias silvas se mandabant. 3. Milites legionis impetum hostium acriter tardabant. 4. Propter vulnera mllitum Belgae impetum Romanorum non diutius sustinent. 5. Milites vallum audacius oppugnant atque hostes acerrimos facile superant. 6. Saepe Romani impetus Gallorum for- titer tardabant; itaque Caesar Romanes maxime laudabat atque eos (them) viros fortissimos vocabat. 7. Melius est de munitione castrorum cogitare quam de fuga. 8. Ne Germanl quidem impetum Romanorum diutius sustine- bant. 9. Diu atque acriter reliquae cohortes in summo ADVERBS. 66 monte pugnabant. 10. Saepe milites de defensione ac muni- tione hibernorum cogitant. 174. 1. Fear, indeed, often troubles the mind of a soldier, if (si) he thinks too long^ about battle. 2. Long and fiercely the Helvetians fought, but the Romans fought better. 3. Not even wounds check the valor of a brave soldier. 4. We shall boldly carry on war with the Germans, but the battles will disturb the mind of Caesar very much.^ 5. The Germans were ravaging the lands of the Belgians more fiercely and more boldly. 6. They bravely withstood the attack of the troops a long time. 1 161, a. 2 Superlative of magnopere. Interior of Roman house, Pompeii (Restored). LESSON XXIII. NUMERALS. 175. Numerals are words expressing number and are divided into several classes. (a) Cardinals are adjectives constituting the series of numbers used in counting; as, one, two, three. (b) Ordinals are adjectives derived from the cardinals to express order or place; as, first, second, third. (c) Distributives are adjectives expressing the grouping of numbers; as, one by one or one apiece. (d) Numeral adverbs express repetition and answer the question " hmv often '7 as, once, twice, three times. A table of the first ten numerals is added for illustration. Cardinals. Ordinals. DisTRiBxmvEs. Numeral Adverbs. 1 unus primus singuli semcl 2 duo secundus blni bis 3 tres tertius temi ter 4 quattuor quartus quatemi quater 5 quinque quintus qiiini quinquies (-ens) 6 sex sextus seni sexies (-ens) 7 septem Septimus septem septies (-ens) 8 octo octavus octoni octies (-ens) 9 novem nonus noveni novies (-ens) 10 decern decimus deni decies (-ens) 176. Declension of Numerals. I. Cardinals: (a) Unus, one. See 140. (b) Duo, tvx). Masc. FeM. NEtTT. Plur.- -Nom. duo duae duo Gen. duortmi duarum duonmi Dot. duobus duabus duobus Ace. duos, duo Voc. Abl. duobus duas duo duabus duobus NUMERALS. (c) tres, three. Masc, Fem. Neut. Plur. — Nom. tres tria Gen. trium trium Dat. tribus tribus Ace. tres (tris) tria Voc. Abl. tribus tribus 67 {d) All other cardinals are indeclinable except as follows: (e) Centum, one hundred, is indeclinable, but ducenti, two hundred, trecenti, three hundred, etc., are declined like the plural of bonus. (/ ) Mille, one thousand, is an indeclinable adjective. In the plural thousands (2000, 3000, etc.) it becomes a neuter noun (like the English pair, dozen) and governs the genitive (like the English a pair of gloves). It is then declined thus: Nom. milia Gen. mllimn Dat. mllibus Ace. milia Voc. Abl. mllibus e. g., mille homines, a thousand men; mille mulieres, a thousand women; mille bella, a thousand wars: but duo milia hominum, two thousand men (hterally, two thousands of men). II. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like the plural of bonus. 177. VOCABULARY. angustiae, -arum, f., narrow pass, mille, indecl.; pi. milia, -ium, n., defde. thousand. angustus, -a, -um, adj., narrow, quadraginta, adj., card. num. steep. indecl., fortij. decimus, -a, -um, ord. num. adj., singuli, -ae, -a, pi. adj., dist. num., tenth. one by one, in single file. duo, -ae, -o, adj., card, num., two. tres, -ia, adj., card, num., three. labor, -oris, m., labor, hardship, vix, adv., scarcely, with difficulty. 178. 1. Iter per montes angustum est ac difficile, et in eo (this) itinere milites vix singulos carros ducent. 2. Caesar cum tribus legionibus per angustias summo labore 68 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. contendit. 3. Caesar cum duobus milibus mllitum in Gal- liam ulteriorem contendet. 4. Castra, quidem, angusta sunt ac parva; itaque hostes ea {it) facile expugnabunt. 5. Quadraginta milia mllitum in exercitu Caesaris sunt, sed Germanos vix superabit. 6. Ne decima quidem legio in extrema Germania pugnabit, nam multae res mentes mllitum perturbabunt. 7. Mille homines in castrls sunt, sed ne tria quidem mIlia mllitum fortissimorum impetum Belgarum sustinebunt. 8. GermanI Caesarem a Labieno divident, atque exercitus singulos facile superabunt. 9. Labienus per angustias et silvas ad Caesarem maximo labore contendit. 10. In Galliam longo itinere contendit cum duabus legionibus et equitibus mille. 179. 1. I shall hasten into farther Gaul with one legion and a thousand cavalry. 2. The road through the Alpes is narrow. 3. The river Rhine separates Gaul from Germany, and many thousands of Germans are in the forests across the Rhine. 4. The soldiers were hastening through the mountains with the greatest hardships. 5. The consul will give three thousand troops to Caesar. 6. Not even the fortifications will keep off the enemy from the camp. Coin of Julius Caesar, a silver denarius, worth about seventeen cents, representing Caesar as Pontifex Maximus. LESSON XXIV. PRONOUNS. 180. (a) Pronouns represent nouns or point out and identify them. The first are called true pronouns; the second, adjective pronouns. The same word may serve both as a true pronoun and an adjective pronoun, e. g.: Instead of saying, Give me the book, we may say Give it to me, where it represents book. So, for Give me that book, where that points out and identifies the book desired, we may say Give me that, where that repre- sents a book that is clearly pointed out in some other way. (b) Pronouns, true and adjective, are classified as personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, relative indefinite, reciprocal. 181. Personal Pronouns. These are true pronouns and may be simple or reflexive. (a) Simple Personal Pronouns. — These exist in the first and second persons only. The place of a third personal pronoun is supplied, when necessary, by a demonstrative, usually is, ea, id (186, 1). They are thus declined: Singular. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Nom. ego, / tu, you is, he; ea, she; id, it Gen. mei, of me tui, of you See for declension, 187. Dat. mihi, to (for) me tibi, to (for) you Ace. me, me te, you Voc. tu, you ! AM. me, with (from, by) te, with (from, by) me. you 70 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, Plctral. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Nom. nos, we vos, you ^ ( nostrum, , ( vestnim, . Gen. { J- of Its '\ ^^ of you Inostn, "^ Ivestn, •' ^ Dai. nobis, to (Jor) us vobis, to {for) you Ace. nos, us vos, you ' Voc. vos, you ! Ahl. nobis, with (from, vobis, udth {from, by) you by) us Remark. — The pronoun subject of a verb is expressed only when emphatic or in contrast with another subject, being suflSciently indi- cated elsewhere by the p)ersonal ending (24, c). (6) Reflexive Personal Pronouns. — These refer always to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand. Hence they have no direct cases (nominative and vocative, 31, 6), e. g.: I saw myself: note how differently myself is used in / saw him myself, where myself is nominative case and agrees with the subject instead of merely referring to it. The first and second personal pronouns serve as their o^vn reflexives: there is a separate form for the third i>erson. They are thus declined: SlNOUIiAR. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Nom. Gen, mei, of myself tui, of yourself sui, of himself, herself, etc. Dot. mihi, to (for) myself tibi, to (for) yourself sibi, to (for) himself, etc. Ace. m€, myself tS, yourself se or sese, himself, etc. Voc. Abl. me, with (from, by) te, urith yourself, se or sese, with himself ^ myself etc, etc. PBONOUNS. 71 Plural. Gen I nostrum, of our- t vestrum, of your- sui, of themselves. \ nostri, selves \ vestri, selves Dat. nobis, to (for) our- vobis, to (for) your- sibi, to (for) themselves Ace. nos, ourselves vos, yourselves se or sese, themselves Voc. Abl. nohiSi vnth ourselves, vobis, with your- se or sese, with them- etc. selves, etc. selves, etc. Note. — It will be seen that there is no distinction of gender or number in the forms of the third person reflexive. 182. Possessive Pronouns. These are adjective pronouns and may be simple or reflexive. They are inflected as adjectives of the second- first-second declension and agree in gender, number, and case with the thing possessed, the pronoun itself indicating the possessor. (a) Simple Possessive Pronouns. — These are: First Person. meus, mea, meum, my (one possessor) noster, nostra, nostnun, our (more than one possessor) Second Person. tuus, tua, tuum, your (one possessor) vester, vestra, vestrimi, your (more than one possessor) Third Person. There is no simple possessive pronoun of the third person. Its place is supplied, when necessary, by the genitive of a demonstrative, usually is (186, 1). eius, his, her, its eorum (m., n.), earum (f.), their. (h) Reflexive Possessive Pronouns. — The first and second person possessive pronouns may be also reflexive. For the* third person there is a separate form, the same for either one posesssor or more than one: suus^ sua, suum, his, her, its; their 72 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Possessive pronouns are usually not expressed when their omission would cause no misunderstanding, e. g.: Caesar exercitiun laudabat, Caesar praised his army. 183. VOCABULARY. accuse, are, accuse, blame. imperator, -oris, m., commander. celeritas, -tatis, f., speedy swiftness, iudico, -are, judge, decide; express celeriter, adv., quickly, rajrUUy. an opinion. consilium, -i, (-ii) n., plan, design; male, adv., badly. COUNSEL, advice. need, -are, kill, slaughter. Divici&cus, -i, m., Diviciacus (a oflficium, -i (-ii), n., duly. Haeduan). praesto, -are, perform. gladius, -i (-ii), m., sword. probo, -are, prove; approve of. 184. 1. Imperator nostra consilia probabat atque nos maxime laudabat. Nobis multa dona dabit. 2. Bellum male geritis, legati; itaque vos acriter accuso. 3. Nostri* magnum proelium cum Germanis fortiter pugnabunt. 4. Belgae sese" fugae sunmia celeritate mandabunt, sed eos {(hem) mecum^ reducam et in numero hostium meorum habebo.* 5. Equites nostri multa milia hostium tells et gladiis necabant. 6. Caesar Diviciacum ad se vocat et eima {him) acriter accusat. 7. Ego, quidem, officium meum im- peratori praestabo, sed tu te fugae celeriter mandabis. 8. Celeriter litteras ad Caesarem in Galliam mittit atque suam victoriam nuntiat. 9. Caesar de decima Icgione optime iudicat et consilia legati probat. 10. Caesar suos* longo itinere per silvas secum^ ducebat. *Adj. for noun: supply troops or men (81). ' sese does not differ in meaning from se. ^ A word added to another word as its final .syllable is called an enclitic. The preposition cum is always enclitic with the personal pronouns and usually with the relative (191). * To " hold in the number of one^s enemies " waa a Roman saying for " put tQ death," PRONOUNS. 73 185. 1. I approve of your speech, but your whole plan is not the best. 2. You will perform your duty to your state, for you are a good citizen. 3. You will express the best opinion about me. 4. I scarcely blame you, my friends. 5. The commander led his (troops) onto the top of the moun- tain with the utmost hardship. 6. The road through the pass is difficult for us, but we shall carry our baggage with us across the mountains. 7. Your army will put thousands of Germans to flight with their^ swords. 8. The king of the Germans will kill himself with a sword. ^ Express this word: is it reflexive? Slinger. Sling bullet of lead. These often bore a motto encouraging the slinger or insulting the enemy. The letters here are for firmiter, steady! LESSON XXV. PRONOUNS (Continued). Demonstrative Pronouns. 186. These are is, hie, ille, iste, ipse, idem. They are used both as pure and adjective pronouns. They point out (demonstro) or identify a person or thing. They are of the third person (except ipse), and hence lack the vocative case. (1) Is is the weakest of the demonstratives, an unemphatic this or that, often used as a mere third personal pronoun, he, she, it (181, a). For the use of its genitive as a possessive, see 182, a. (2) Hie is the emphatic this. (3) nie is that as contrasted with this. (4) Iste usually has a reference to a second person, that of yours. It also is used to imply inferiority or contempt. (5) Ipse emphasizes a noun or personal pronoun in any person. It is often called the intensive pronoun, e. g.: tu ipse litteras portabas, you were bringing the letter yourself; ipse Caesar viros laudat, Caesar himself praises the men: note how different from the reflexive, Caesar se laudat, Caesar praises himself. (6) Idem (= is + dem, a suffix), the same. 187. Declension of the Demonstrative Pronouns. Singular. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. is ea id Gen. eius eius eius Dat. ei ei ei Ace. eum earn id Ahl. eo eft eO 74 PRONOUNS {CONTINUED). 75 Plural. Nom. ei (ii) eae ea Gen. eorum earum eorum Dat. eis (iis ) eis (iis) eis (iis) Ace. eos Voc. Ahl eis (iis eas ea ) eis (iis) eis (iis) SlNQULAB Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. hie haec hac iUe ilia illud Gen. huius huius huius illius illius illius Dat. huic huic huic im illi im Ace. hunc hanc hac ilium illam Ulud Voc. Ahl. hoc hac hac Plural. ma iUa ma Nom. hi hae haec im iUae ilia Gen. honim harum harum manim illarimi illarum Dat. his his his illis illis iUis Ace. has has haec mas illas ma Voc. Abl. his his his Singular ilhs illis ims Mabc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. , iste ista istud ipse ipsa ipsum Gen. istius istius istius ipsius ipsius ipsius Dat. isti isti isti ipsi ipsi ipsi Ace. istum istam istud ipsum ipsam ipstun Voc. ipse ipsa ipsum Abl isto ista ista Plural. ipsa ipsa ipsa Nom, . isti istae ista ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. istarum istarum istarum ipsarum ipsarum ipsarum Dat. istis istis istis ipsis ipsis ipsis Ace. istas istas ista ipsas ipsas ipsa Voc. ipsi ipsae ipsa Abl istis istis istis ipsis ipsis ipsis 76 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. SlNOULAB. Ma8C. Fem. Neot. Norn. idem eadem idem Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem Dai. eidem eidem eidem Ace. eundem eandem idem Voc. Abl. eodem eadem eodem Plural. Nom. eidem (ii-, i-) eaedem eadem Gen. eonmdem eanmdem eorundem Dot. eisdem (iis-, is-) eisdem (iis-, is-) eisdem (iis-, is-) Ace. eosdem easdem eadem Voc. Abl. eisdem (lis-, is-) eisdem (iis-, is-) eisdem (iis-, is-) 188. VOCABULARY. causa, -ae, f., cause; condition; malus, -a, -imi, adj., bad. case (at law). obsidio, -onis, f., siege; oppression. causd, abl.: governs gen. and fol- opinio, -onis, f., opinion; belief. lows the noun it governs; for quoque, conj. (always follows the the sake of. word it modifies) ; also. committd, -ere, join (lit., send salus, utis, f., safety. together). servus, -i, m., slave. contra, prep, with ace., against, CONTRARY tO. Idiom, proelium committere, to join batUe, begin battle. 189. 1. Contra opinionem omnium Ocelum banc ob- sidionem diti sustinebat. 2. Ille imp>erator in exercitQ suo multos servos habebat. 3. Iste exercitus se fugae man- dabit, nam eius imperator fortis non est. 4. IllI quoque milites in mala causa sunt, nam in eorum exercitu frfimen- tum non est. 5. Ildem milites saepe cum Germanis proelium committebant. 6. Omnium salutis causa Caesar suos castris continebit. 7. Ipse Caesar ilium exercitum per angustias ducebat. 8. Istum mllitem acriter accuso; officium suum exercitui atque imporatorl non praestat. 9. Illud quoque consilium probo, sed exercitus causa proelium non com- PRONOUNS {CONTINUED). 77 mittam. 10. Opinio illlus imperatoris optima est: itaque hunc exercitum ducere eum iubebo. 190. 1. Contrary to the belief of the Germans, that commander easily led his troops across the Rhine. 2. I quite^ approve of^ that opinion of yours. 3. This army is valiant, but that (one) will not fight. 4. For the sake of his own safety, Caesar kept^ himself a long time in camp. 5. I myself will lead this army through the pass. 6. This road is longer than the road through the Alps, but it is easier. ^ Maxune. 3 Contineo. 2 Do not use gen.; the of belongs in meaning to the verb. Testudo, literally turtle-back. Soldiers protected themselves from a plunging fire of arrows or darts by overlapping their shields above their heads. LESSON XXVI. PRONOUNS (Continued). 191. Relative Pronoun. Qui, who, which. This pronoun relates to a preceding noun, pronoun, or statement, called the antecedent, and introduces a clause giving information about the antecedent. It is thus declined : Mabc. Fkm. Neut. Sing. — Nom^ qui quae quod Gen. cuius cuius cuius Dot. cui cui cui Ace. Voc. Abl. quem quam quod quo qua quo Plur. — Nojn. qui quae quae Gen. quorum quanim quorum Dot. quibus quibus quibus Ace. quos quas quae Voc. 1 Abl. quibus quibus quibus * In the relative and succeeding classes of pronouns the meaning pre- vents the existence of a vocative case. 192. Agreement of the Relative. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person; its case depends on its relation to the clause in which it stands, e. g.: ego, qui sum imperator vester, /, irho am your commander; exercitui, quem conscripserat, praeerat, he was in command of the army which he had raised; in templo est, cuius portae patent, he is in the temple whose gates stand open. 78 PEONOUNS {CONTINUED). 79 Fem. Neut. quae quid (quod) cuius cuius cui cui quam quid (quod) qua quo quae quae quanrni qtrorum quibus quibus quas quae quibus quibus 193. Interrogative Pronoun. Quis, who f what f which f This pronoun is used in asking questions. It is used either as a true or an adjective pro- noun, some of its forms differing sHghtly in the adjective use. It is thus decHned, the bracketed forms being adjectives only. The feminine occurs only in adjective uses. Masc. Sing. — Nom. quis (qui) Gen. cuius Dat. cui Ace. quem Ahl. quo Plur. — Nom. qui Gen. quorum Dat. quibus Ace. quos Ahl. quibus 194. QUESTIONS. A question may be asked with or without an interrogative word, e. g. : Who is here f and, is he here ? The first class needs no comment. Questions of the second class are expressed in English by placing the subject after the verb; but in Latin this is impossible, for the subject is very often expressed only by the ending of the verb. The Latin employs three words to ask such questions. These words are called interrogative particles • they have no mean- ing, and in addition to marking a question (like the mark ? in English) they indicate the answer expected. These words are: -ne, enclitic, i. e., added to the emphatic word, simply asking for information, e. g.: rogasne ? do you ask ? nonne, impl3dng the answer, yes, e. g. : nonne rogas ? do you not see f 80 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. num, implying the answer, no, e. g. : niim hoc rogas ? do you ask this f implying that you do not ask it. Such questions can be indicated in Englis)^ only by tone of voice or by a roundabout form of words, as, You don't ask this, do you f 195. VOCABULARY. colloco, -are, place, station, bring libero, -are, liberate, sc ihey have been, they were. Future Perfect. fiiero, / shall have been. fueris, you will have been. fuerit, he wiU have been. Plur. — fueramus, we had been. fuerimus, ive shall have been. fueratis, you had been. fueritis, you will have been. fuerant, they had been. fuerint, they will have been, (b) Subjimctive. Present. Imperfect. Perfect. Pluperfect. Sing.— aim essem fuerim fuissem ds esses fueris fuisses sit esset fuerit fuisset Plur. — simus essemus fuerimus fiiissemus sitis essetis fueritis fiiissetis sint essent fuerint fuissent 94 THE VERB SUM. 95 (c) Imperative. Present. Future. Sing. — 2. es, be. esto, you shall be. 3. esto, he shall be. Plue. — 2. este, be. estote, you shall be. 3. sunto, they shall be. (d) Infinitives. (e) Participle. Pres. esse, you are loved. amare, J amatur, he is loved. amantur, they are loved. Imperfect. amabar, / was loved. amabamur, we were loved. amabaris or -re, you were loved. amabamini, you were loved. amabatur, he was loved. amabantur, they were loved. 7 98 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Singular. Future. Plural. amabor, / shall be loved. amabimur, we shall be loved. amaberis^ or -re, you wiU be loved. amabimini, you shall be loved. amabitiir, he shall be loved. amabuntur, they shall be loved. Perfect. amatus' sum, / have been loved, amati sumus, we have been loved, I was loved. we were loved. amat us es, you have been loved, etc. amati estis, you have been loved, etc. amatus est, fie has been loved, etc. amati supt, they had been loved, etc. Pluperfect. amatus eram, / had been loved. amati eramus, we had been loved. amatus eras, you had been loved. amati eratis, you had been loved. amatus erat, he had been loved. amati erant, they had been loved. Future Perfect. amatus erd, / shaU have been loved. amati erimus, we shall have been loved. amatus eris, you wUl have been amati eritis, you vnU have been loved. ^ loved. Amatus etitf he wiU have been loved. amati erunt, they wiU have been loved. Subjtmctive. Present. Imperfect. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. amer amemur amaxer amaremur ameris or -re aniemini amareris or -re amaremini ametur amentur amaretur amarentur Perfect. amatus sim amati simus amatus sis amati sitis amatus sit amati sint Pluperfect. amatus essem amati essemus amatus esses amati essetis amatus esset amati essent Present. Sing. 2. amare 3. Imperative. Future. amator amator Plur. 2. amamini 3. amantor THE PASSIVE VOICE. 99 Infinitives. Participles. Pres. amari Perf. amatus Perf. amatus esse Gerund, amandus Put. amatum iri 1 The tense sign -bi regularly becomes -be in the second singular of the future passive. 2 As the participial member of a compound tense is an adjective, it must agree with its subject in gender, number, and case, e. g.: puer amatus est, the boy has been loved; but puella amata est, the girl has been loved. 230. Forms Built on the Several Stems. (a) On the present stem are built the present, imperfect, and future tenses, active and passive, in the finite modes (13; 14, b); the present infinitive, the present participle, the gerunds, and the gerundive participle. (6) On the perfect stem are built the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses of the finite modes, active only, and the perfect infinitive active. The perfect stem does not appear in the passive voice. (c) On the supine stem are built the supines, the future participle, the future infinitives, active and passive, the perfect participle, the perfect infinitive passive, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses of the finite modes passive. 231. VOCABULARY. a, ab, prep, with abl., by (agency latus, -eris, n., side, flank. after a passive verb); on, at, paratus, -a, -um, adj., ready, pre- on the side of. pared. apertus, -a, -um, adj., open, cleared, pedes, peditis, m., infantry soldier; excito, I., excite; construct. pi., infantry. finitimus, -a, -um, adj., neighbor- tandem, adv., at length, at last. ing; as a noun, neighbor. yvhieT6fI.,wound. frustra, adv., in vain. Idiom, apertimi latus, the exposed flank (i. e., the right flank, as the left was protected by the shields). 100 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, 232. 1. Adventus Romanorum a Germanis diu exspecta- batur. 2. Exercitus eonim in apertis locis ad flumen col- locatus est, ubi quasdam munltiones celeriter excitaverant. 3. Equites peditesque castra in summo monte habent, atque omnia ad bellum parata sunt. 4. Urbs acriter oppugnabatur, atque adventus auxili diu a civibus frustra exspectabatur. 5. Multl mllites graviter vulneratl sunt; tamcn exercitus fortiter pugnat. 6. Mllites impetum hostium ab aperto latere diu sustinebant, sed tandem superatT sunt et in fugam datl.^ 7. Pax et amicitia cum flnitimls civitatibus confirmatae sunt. 8. Tandem impetus hostium a mllitibus Romanis tardatur. * Supply sunt: the auxiliary is usually not repeated in a series of verbs in the same tense. 233. 1. The coming of our friends is awaited in vain. 2. Caesar was prepared for* an attack upon^ the enemy on the exposed flank. 3. The right-of-way through the province was given by Caesar to the Haedui. 4. The town of Ocelum^ will be occupied by the Belgians. 5. The soldier has been severely wounded. 6. The infantry and cavalry of the Gauls have been defeated by the auxiliaries of the Romans. * ad. ' in with accusative. ' Totrni and Ocelum are appositives. Roman legionary soldier wearing the lorica, coat of mail. LESSON XXXII. INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJUNCTIVE AS A DEPENDENT MODE. 234. Most Common Uses of the Subjunctive. (A) To express purpose. 1. Affirmative purpose clauses (i. e., purpose to do or to be) have their verbs in the subjunctive and are introduced by the conjunction ut. 2. Negative purpose clauses (i. e., purpose iiot to do or not to he) have their verbs in the subjunctive and are intro- duced by the conjunction ne. Explanation. — It is difficult to assign meanings to ut and ne: they merely show that the clause to which they belong expresses purpose, and may be translated in any of the numerous ways in which purpose is expressed in English, e. g.: Nuntium ad Caesarem mittit ut victoriam nuntiet, he sends a messenger to Caesar to announce the victory: we may also translate the purpose clause in order to announce, that he may announce, in order that he may announce, etc. Galli se fugae mandabant, ne superarentur, the Gauls were taking flight that they might not be defeated, or not to be defeated, or so as not to be defeated, etc. Notice that the English infinitive is our most common way of express- ing purpose, but the Latin infinitive must never be used in a purpose clause. 235. Tenses in Dependent Clauses. I. All tenses referring to present or future time are called primary tenses; those referring to past time, secondary tenses. (a) The primary tenses of the indicative are the present, future, perfect definite, and future perfect. 101 102 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, (b) Tlie primary tenses of the subjunctive are the present and perfect. (c) The secondary tenses of the indicative are the imper- fect, perfect historical, and pluperfect. (d) The secondary tenses of the subjunctive are the im- perfect and pluperfect. (e) A present tense is sometimes used for a past tense to secure vividness of style. This happens also in English, chiefly in newspaper headlines, e. g.: Cofiyress adjourns for Congress has adjourned, etc. This use of the present tense is called the historical present and may be either primary or secondary. II. The subjunctive tense to be used in a dependent clause is determined by the LAW OF SEQUENCE OF TENSES. Primary tenses in principal clauses are followed by primary tenses in dependent clauses; secondary tenses in principal clauses are followed by secondary tenses in dependent clauses, e. g.: pugno ut superem, / fight to win; pugnabam ut superarem, / was fighting to win; pugnabo ut superem, / shall fight to win; pugnavi ut superem, / have f ought (pcrf. def.) to win; pugnavi ut superarem, / fought (perf. hist.) to unn; pugnaveram ut superarem, / had fought to win; pugnavero ut superem, / shall have fought to win. 236. VOCABULARY. aliter, adv., otherwise. interim, adv., meanwhile. autem, conj., however, but yet. militaris, -e, adj., military. conspectus, -us, m., sight; presence, postridie, adv., on the next day. diligentia, -ae, f ., diligence, care. recuso, I., refuse. equitatus, -us, m., cavalry (col- sciitum, -i, n., shield. lective noun, pi. rare). signum, -i, n., sign; standard. explorator, -oris, m., scout; spy. Idiom, aliter . . . ac (or atque, 162), otherwise than, different from what. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AS A DEPENDENT MODE. 103 237. 1. Ordinem agminis aliter habebat ac Belgis ab exploratoribus nuntiattim erat, ut conspectum hostium vitaret. 2. Omnia signa mllitaria in summo monte colloca- buntur, ut in conspectu militum sint. 3. Interim animos auxiliorum verbis conflrmavit, ne timore perturbarentur. 4. Romanl et Helvetii obsides inter se dederunt : Romani, ut ex agris Helvetiorum maturarent; Helvetii, ne agmen Romanorum vexarent. 5. Equitatus Romanorum telis et gladiis et parvis sctitls armatus est, ut in equis pugnaret; pedites autem gladios et scuta maiora portaverunt. 6. Postridie Caesar trans Rhenum maturavit, ut frumenta in agris vastaret. 7. Germani amicitiam populi Romani sem- per recusabant, ne servi Romanorum essent. 8. Oppidum summa dlligentia a Caesare oppugnatum est, ut hiberna in 60 occuparet. 238. 1. Caesar hastened across the Rhine to besiege a town of the Germans. 2. He stationed the army near^ the river to check the enemy's attack. 3. The legion was summoned from the town by the consul, that the citizens might not be annoyed. 4. The Romans and Belgians gave hostages to each other not^ to fight. 5. Gifts were given by Caesar to Ariovistus that he might be a friend of the Romans. 6. That king, however, refused all gifts in order to be free. * ad. ^ Expresses the purpose of the exchange. Early as with double headed Janus and prow of ship. In ancient Rome, as with us, questions were often decided by tossing a coin, and the Roman called, "Capita aut naviam," heads or ship, instead of "heads or tails." The as was the unit of Roman coinage and its value was a little less than a cent. LESSON XXXIII. SECOND CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. 239. The Active Voice of moneo, / advise . Principal Parts. Pbes. Ind. Pke8. Inf. Perf. Ind. Scpinis. moned monere monui monitum Indicative. Present. / advise^ I am advising, I do advise. Singular. Plural. moned monemus mones monetis monet monent Imperfect. / was advising, I advised. moncbam monebamus monebas monebatis monebat monebant Future. / shall advise. monebo monebimus monebis monebitis monebit monebunt Perfect. / haoe advised^ I advised. monui monuimus monuisti monuistis monuit ihonuenmt or -6re Pluperfect. I had advised. monueram monueramus monueras monueratis monuerat monuerant 104 SECOND CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. Future Perfect. / shall have advised. monuero monuerimus monueris monueritis monuerit monuerint 105 Subjunctive. Pkesent. Imperfect. Perfect. Pluperfect. SlNG.- — moneam monerem monuerim monuissem moneas moneres monueris monuisses moneat moneret monuerit monuisset Plur.- — moneamus moneremus monuerimus monuissemus moneatis moneretis monueritis monuisseis moneant monerent monuerint monuissent Imperative. Present. Future. SlNQ- -2. mone 3. moneto moneto Plub.- -2. monete 3. Infinitives. monetote monento Participles. Pres. monere Pres. monens Perf. monuisse Put. moniturus Put. moniturus esse Gerunds. Supines. Gen. monendi Ace. monitum Dot. monendo Abl. monitu Ace. monendum Abl. monendo 240. Most Common Uses of the Subjunctive (Continued from 234). (B) To express result. (1) Affirmative result clauses have their verbs in the subjunctive and are introduced by the conjunction ut. (2) Negative result clauses have their verbs in the sub- junctive and are introduced by ut non. (3) The principal clause must contain some demonstrative word, such as sic, ita, tarn, so; tantus, -a, -um, so great; 106 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, talis, -e, suchj of such kind; tantopere, so greatly, etc. Sic is used of manner only; ita, of manner usually and of degree rarely; tarn, of degree only. Consequently, sic modifies verbs; tam, adjectives and adverbs; ita, all three. Explanation. — ^The conjunction ut and its n^ative ut n6n may here be translated that, so that; that . . . iwt, so thai . . . not. When in doubt whether a clause expresses purpose or result, look for the demon- strative word in the principal clause; but no doubt can occur when the clause is negative, e. g.: Miles tam graviter vulneratus est, ut aeger sit, the soldier is so severely wounded that he is faint. Ariovistus tantos sibi spiritus simipserat, ut ferendus non esset, Ariovislus had put on such airs that he was not endurable. Note. — Do not mistake a mere statement of cause and effect for a result clause, which must have the form so that, etc. We may say, the soldier is severely wounded and is faint, where his faintness is as much the result of his wound, as in the example above; but it is not a result clause, for the so that is lacking. 241. The second conjugation verbs previously given are here repeated, with their principal parts. The numbers following them indicate the lesson in which the verb first occurs. VOCABULARY. contineo, -ere, -ui, -tentum (10). moneo, -ere, -ui, -itum (10). habeo, -ere, -ui, -itum (10). prohibeo, -ere, -ui, -itum (11). iubeo, -ere, -iussi, iussimi (10). sustineo, -ere, -ui, -tentum (16). video, -ere, vidi, visum (12). 242. 1. Caesar talis est vir, ut maxime laudetur. 2. Tales agros vidimus,^ ut eos totius Galliae optimos exist- imemus. 3. Sic vos de hostibus monuimus,^ ut eos agris vicisque vestris prohibuerltis. 4. Miles telo tam graviter vulneratus est, ut se e proelio portari iuberet. 5. Alpes agrum Helvetiorum ita continent, ut proelia cum finitimis facile non pugnent. 6. GermanI multos vicOs trans Rhenum in Gallia habuerunt, ita ut Romani eos provincia prohiber- SECOND CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. 107 ent. 7. Vos iam iubemus exercitum vestrum ad flumen statim collocare, ne hostes agros sociorum vastent. 8. Legatus tantam virtutem in proelio praestitit, ut Caesar eum magnopere laudaret. ^Perfect definite: what shows it? 243. 1. The army of the enemy is so great that we fight with it in vain. 2. We possess very many villages in open places near the river. 3. The attack of the Gauls was so vigorous that it disturbed the minds of our soldiers very greatly. 4. We warned you to^ shun the spears and swords with the greatest care. 5. The right flank of the battle-line kept the enemy out of the camp. 6. We love our com- mander, because he is such a man that all praise him. ^ Use ut and a purpose clause. Roman shop, from painting at Pompeii. The shops had no front, but were open to the street. LESSON XXXIV. SECOND CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. 244. The Passive Voice of moneo. Indicative. Present. / am advised. Singular. Plural. moneor monemur moneris or -re monemini monetur moncntur Imperfect. / was advised. monebar monebamur monebaris or -re monebamini monebatmr monebantiir Future. / shall be advised. monebor monebimur moneberis or -re monebimini monebitur monebuntur Perfect. / have been advised, I was advised. monitus sum moniti stimus monitus es moniti estis monitus est moniti sunt Pluperfect. / had been advised. monitus eram moniti eramus monitus eras moniti eratis monitus erat moniti erant Future Perfect. / shall have been advised. monitus ero moniti erimus monitus eris moniti eritis monitus erit moniti enmt 108 SECOND CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. Subjunctive. 109 Present. Singular. Plural. monear moneamur monearis or -re moneamini moneatur moneantur Imperfect. Singular. Plural. monerer moneremur monereris or -re moneremini moneretur monerentur Perfect. monitus sim moniti simus monitus sis moniti sitis monitus sit moniti sint Pluperfect. monitus essem moniti essemus monitus esses moniti essetis monitus esset moniti essent Imperative. Present. Sing. — 2. monere 3. Plur. — 2. monemini 3. Future. monetor monetor monentor Infinitives. Pres. moneri Perj. monitus esse Put. monitiun in Participles. Perf. monitus Gerund, monendus 245. Most Common Uses of the Subjunctive. (C) After various subordinate conjunctions, especially cum. Cum with the subjunctive may express — (1) Time: Cum temporal, with imperfect and plu- perfect tenses only; when. (2) Cause: Cum causal, with any tense; because, since. (3) Concession:^ cum concessive, with any tense; aZ- though. (a) In any given instance select that meaning of cum which best fits the circumstances. * A concessive clause is a clause introduced by the word although. 110 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 246. VOCABULARY. beneficium, -i (-ii), n., benefit, perterreo, -ere, -ul, -itum, terrify y favor. frighten. cum, conj., caus., temp., concess., pertineo, -ere, -ui, -tentum, per- when; because, since; although. tain, tend to; reach, extend. firmus, -a, -um, adj., firm, strong, teneo, -ere, -ui, tentiun, hold. gens, gentis, f., tribe. timeo, -ere, -ui, , fear; be memoria, -ae, f., memory. afraid. natura, -ae, f., nature, character, imdique, adv., from all sides, on all sides. 247. 1. Impetus hostium diu sustinebatur. Milites tan- dem ita perterriti sunt, ut se fugae mandarent. 2. Cum diu et acriter pugnavissent,^ pons, qui ad Ocelum pertinet, a Caesaris copils occupatus est. 3. Gens Helvetiorum quondam tain magna fuit, ut natura loci undique conti- neretur. 4. Multa beneficia Romanorum memoria tenebat, tamen tela omnia et scuta et signa mllitaria hostibus dedit. 5. Cum host^s magnopere timeatis, tamen fortiter pugnatis. 6. Cum mihi frumenta non dederitis, vos omnes in numero hostium habebo. 7. Cum gens Helvetiorum firmissima esset, agros flnitimorum semper vexabat. 8. Cum Helvetii firmi ac fortes essent, ne primus quidem impetus Romanorum ab lis sustentus est. 1 Pluperfect subjunctive governed by cum; translate simply, had fought. 248. 1. Since I hold in memory your many favors to me, I will give you a province. 2. Though a bridge once^ ex- tended to the town across the river, now there are only boats.^ 3. When Caesar assaulted the town, he slew three thousand soldiers. 4. On the next day Caesar hastened from the city, though he had a small army. 5. Though the soldiers were greatly frightened, they fought bravely. 6. The next day the Belgians were hemmed in^ on all sides by Caesar's troops. 1 quondam. ' Use navis. ' contineo. 249. LESSON XXXV. THIRD CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. The Active Voice of rego, / rule. Principal Parts. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Pert. Ind. Supine. rego regere rexi rectum Indicative. PRESE^p^, / rule. Imperfect, I was ruling, I ruled. SiNGULAB. Plural. Singular. Plural. rego regimus regebam regebamus regis regitis regebas regebatis regit regunt regebat regebant Future, / shall rule. Perfect, / have ruled, I ruled. regam regemus rexi reximus reges regetis rexisti rexistis reget regent rexit rexenint or -ere Pluperfect, / had ruled. rexeram rexeramus rexeras rexeratis rexerat rexerant Future Perfect, I shall have ruled. rexero rexerimus rexeris rexeritis rexerit rexerint Present. Subjunctive. Imperfect. regam regamus regerem regeremus regas regatis regeres regeretis regat regant regeret regerent Perfect. Pluperfect. rexerim rexerimus rexissem rexissemus rexeris rexeritis rexisses rexissetis rexerit rexerint rexisset rexissent 111 112 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Imperative. Present. Sing. — 2. rege^ 3. Plur. — 2. regite 3. Infinitives. Pres. regere Perf. rexisse Put. recturus esse Future. regito regito regitote regunto Participles. Pres. regens FtU. recturus Gerunds. Supines. Gen. rogendi Ace. rectum Dot. regcndo Abl. rectii Ace. regendum Abl. regendo * Four important verbs drop the st^m vowel in the second singular of the present iniv.: they are dico, duco, facio, fero; forming die, due, fac, fer. 250. The third conjugation verbs previously given are here repeated, with their principal parts. VOCABULARY. committo, -ere, -misi, -missxmi (25). constitud, (19). eontendo, (19). defendo, -ere, -fendi, -fenstmi (26). dividd, -ere,-visi, -visum (19). ■ere, -stitui, -stitutum -ere, -tendi, -tentum duco, -ere, duxi, ductum (19). gero, -ere, gessi, gestum (19). incolo, -ere, -colui, -cultimi (19). instruo, -ere, -struxi, -structum (20). mitto, -ere, misi, missimi (19). pono, -ere, posui, positum (19). reduce, -ere, duxi, -ductum (19). relinquo, -ere, -liqul, -lietum (19). 251. 1. Equites Belgarum ex oppido summa celeritate contenderunt atque proelium cum auxiliis Caesaris com- miserunt. 2. Caesar in Germaniam magnis itineribus con- tendere constituerat, sed hos equites e fuga redtixit atque eos in numero hostium habuit. 3. Hostes urbem maxima THIRD CONJUGATION, ACTIVE VOICE. 113 virtute defenderunt. Itaque Caesar aciem suam mstruxit et Labienum legatum ad imperatorem Belgarum cum nuntiis misit. 4. Labienus incolas urbis omnia sua^ relin- quere iussit et ex urbe contendere. 5. Imperator omnes elves in castra Romanorum ad Caesarem duxit. 6. Roman! eos castrls continuerunt, quod cum Caesare bellum ges- serant. 7. Imperator officium civitati suae praestiterat, nam bellum fortiter gesserat. 8. Roman! inde castra trans flumen posuerunt quod urbem ab agrls Gallorum divisit. 1 Supply property in translating: see 81. 252. 1. Caesar brought back the ambassadors of the Gauls and held them in the number of his enemies. 2. Labienus sent many pack animals into the camp and gave them to Caesar. 3. The commander performed his duty to his state and kept the enemy from the winter quarters. 4. The Roman general led his army across the Rhine and waged war with Ariovistus, King of the Germans. 5. The Germans abandoned their goods^ and took flight into the forest. 6. The Rhine divided Germany from Gaul. 1 Use the accusative plural neuter of bonus substantively. Sign from a baker's shop, Pompeii. LESSON XXXVI. THIRD CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. 253. The Passive Voice of rego. Indicative. Present, / am ruled. SlNQ. PlUR. regor regeris* or -re regitiir regimur regimini rcgimtur Imperfect, / vxis ruled. SiNo. Plur. regebar regobamur regebaris or -re regebamini regebatur regebantur Future, / shall be ruled. r^ar regemur regeris or -re rcgemini regetur regentur Perfect, / have been ndedf I ivas ruled. rectus sum recti sumus rectus es recti estis rectus est recti sunt Pluperfect, / have been ruled. rectus eram recti erftmus rectus eras recti eratis rectus erat recti erant Future Perfect, / shall have been ruled. rectus ero recti erimus rectus eris recti eritis rectus erit recti erunt Subjunctive. Present. Imperfect. regar regamur regerer regeremur regaris or -re regamini regereris or -re regeremini regatiu: regantur regeretur regerentur Perfect. rectus Sim recti simus rectus sis ^ recti sitis rectus sit recti sint Pluperfect. rectus essem recti essemus rectus essfes recti essetis rectus esset recti essent 114 THIRD CONJUGATION, PASSIVE VOICE. 115 Imperative. Present. Sing. — 2. regere 3. Plur. — 2. regimini 3. Future. regitor regitor regimtor Infinitives. Participles. Pres. regi Perf. rectus Perf. rectus esse Gerund, regendus Put. rectum in 1 The final e of the stem does not change to i in the second singular present indicative passive. 254. VOCABULARY, adduce, -ere, -du3d, -ductmn, lead ripa, -ae, f., hank (of a river). to; induce, influence. ago, -ere, egi, actimi, drive, lead; move up; do; negotiate. Allobroges, -um, pi., m., the Allo- broges (a Gallic tribe). finis, -is, m., end; boundary; pi., territories. gratia, -ae, f., favor, popularity; gratitude; pi., thanks. iugtim, -i, n., yoke; ridge (of moun- tains). latus, -a, -um, adj., broad, wide. pello, -ere, pepuli, pulsum, drive out, banish; rout, defeat. Sequani, -orum, pi., m., the Se- quxini (a Gallic tribe). sub, prep, with ace. and abl.: with ace. after verbs of motion, under; with abl. after verbs of position, under, at, the foot of. vinco, -ere, vici, victum, conquer, defeat. vinea, -ae, f., shed (to protect troops engaged in siege opera- tions). vivus, -a, -um, adj., alive, living. Idioms. gratias agere, to express thanks. sub iugum mittere, to send under the yoke.^ ^ The " yoke " consisted of two upright spears joined at the top by a third; under this a defeated army was often compelled to march in token of submission. 255. 1. His rebus adducti, vineas egerunt atque oppidum summa virtute oppugnaverunt. 2. Duae cohortes in summo iugo relictae erant, ut Allobroges eas viderent. 3. Acies in 116 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, ripa fluminis latissiml atque altissimi instruct a est, ne hostes navibus trans flumen portarentur. 4. Quidara mllitf's, a Sequanis superati et in silvas acti, vTvI atque ineolumes ad Caesarem reducti sunt. 5. QuI^ cum Caesarem viderent, gratias ei multls verbis egerunt. 6. Caesar inde bellum cum Sequanis gessit. Illi quidem fortiter pugnaverunt, sed Caesar eos vicit atque sub iugum misit. 7. Sequani, a Caesare victi, e finibus suis pulsi sunt. 8. Imperator Allobroges e castris pepulit. Qui cum e fuga reducti essent, omnes sub iugum missi sunt. 1 The relative, referring to something previously mentioned, may be- gin a sentence in Latin, and is then often to be translated as if demon- strative: translate it here, they. 256. 1. Influenced by his many gifts, the envoys ex- pressed (their) thanks to Caesar. 2. The enemy were on the wall of the camp with javelins and swords awaiting the attack of our men. 3. When our men saw the enemy, they hastened to join battle. 4. The enemy were so terrified, that our men easily drove them into the forests. 5. The pack animals were driven to the bank of the river. 6. The camp of the Romans was beseiged by many Gauls. Blind beggar led by little dog. 257. LESSON XXXVII. FOURTH CONJUGATION. Conjugation of audio, / hear. Principal Parts. Pbes. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. audio audire audivi auditum (a) ACTIVE VOICE. Indicative. Present, / hear. Imperfect, I was hearing, heard. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. audio audimus audiebam audiebamus audis auditis audiebas audiebatis audit audiunt audiebat audiebant Future, / shall hear. audiam audiemus audies audietis audiet audient Pluperfect, / had heard. audiveram audiveras audiverat audiveramus audiveratis audlverant Perfect, / have heard, I heard. audivi audivimus audivisti audivistis audivit audivenmt or -ere Future Perfect, / shall have heard. audlvero audiverimus audiveris audiveritis audiverit audiverint Subjunctive. Present. Imperfect. audiam audiamus audirem audiremus audias audiatis audires audlretis audiat audiant audiret audirent Perfect. audiverim audiverimus audiveris audiveritis audiverit audiverint Pluperfect. audivissem audivissemus audivisses audivissetis audivisset audivissent 117 118 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Imperative. Pbebemt. Sing. — 2. audi 3. Future. audits audito Plur.— 2. audite 3. auditote audiunto Infinitives. Pres. audire Perf. audlvisse FiU. auditurus esse Participles. Pres. audiens FmI. auditurus Gerunds. Supines. Gen. audiendi Ace. auditum Dai. audiendo Abl. audltfi Ace. audiendimi Abl. audiendo (6) PASSIVE VOICE. Indicative. Present, / am heard. Sing. Pi.ur. audior audimur audiris or -re auditur audimi Imperfect, / ims heard. Sing. Plur. audiebar audiebamur audiebaris or -re audiebamini audiimttir audiebatur audiebantur Future, / shaU be heard. audiar audieris or audietur audiemur audiemini audientur Perfect, / have been heard, I was heard. auditus simi audit! simius auditus es audit! estis auditus est audit! sunt Pluperfect, / had been heard. Future Perfect, / shaU have been heard. au^tus eram audit! eramus auditus ero audit! erimus auditus eras audit! eratis auditus eris audit! eritis auditus erat audit! erant auditus erit audit! enmt Present. audiar audiamur audiaris or -re audiamini audiatur audiantur Subjimctive. Imperfect. audirer audiremur audireris or -re audiremini audiretur audirentur FOURTH CONJUGATION, 119 Perfect. Pluperfect. auditus sim auditi simus audltus essem audit! essemus auditus SIS auditi sitis auditus esses auditi essetis auditus sit auditi sint auditus esset auditi essent Imperative. Present. Sing. — 2. audire 3. Plur. — 2. audimini 3. Infinitives. Pres. audiri Perf. auditus esse Put. auditum in Future. auditor auditor audiuntor VOCABULARY. somewhat, 258. admodum, adv., very, considerably. audio, -ire, -ivi (-ii),^ -itum, hear. cis or citra, prep, with ace, this side of. convenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, come together, assemble. fama, -ae, f., report; reputation, FAME. impedio, -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, IMPEDE, hinder, obstruct. longe, adv., far (of distance); by far (of degree). Participles. Perf. auditum Gerund, auditu -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, mumo, fortify. pervenio, -ire, -veni, -venttmi, come through, arrive. praesiditun, -i (-ii), n., garrison; protection. quo, rel. and interrog. adv., whither^ to which place; whither f reperio, -ire, repperi, repertum, find (as a result of search). tum, adv., then, at that time. venio, -ire, veni, ventimi, come. 1 Perfect stems ending in -iv may drop v in conjugation. 259. 1. Duo nuntii, tum a Caesare missi, magno cum periculo in castra Labieni pervenerunt. 2. Exploratores in Galliam ulteriorem tribus diebus^ venerunt, ubi ad- modum perterritos in silvis longe a castrls Caesar eos repperit. 3. Caesar praesidium in castris munltis reliquit et cum equi- tatu auxiliorum magnis itineribus in hiberna pervenit, ubi famam de victoria Labieni audiit. 4. Quo cum Caesar 120 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. venisset, Galli in castra undique conveniebant, ut eum viderent. 5. Copiae Sequanorum adventu exercitus Caesaris ita perterriti sunt, ut defensionis causa iter impedirent. 6. Germani citra flumen Rhenum diu fuerant, ut Romanos a flumine prohiberent. 7. Turres admodum altae ad vallum castrorum ab hostibus excitatae sunt, ut defensio impedi- retur. 8. Fama de coniuratione Germanorum iam ad Cacs- arem pervenerat. Ille, cum castra longe a flumine Rheno posita essent, ad eos contendit. * Abl.; translate in or within. 260. 1. The Gauls fortified their camps with walls. 2. The citizens came together from all sides when they heard the report. 3. The soldiers found all the pack animals far from the camp. 4. When the messengers had been heard by Caesar, he fortified the camp and left a garrison in it. 5. At that time he was greatly hindered by the forests through which he was hastening. 6. Scouts then arrived with messages about the approach of the army. Body of watch dog left chained by his master at the destruction of Pompeii. The struggles of the dog and the agony of his death are clearly indicated by contortions of the body. LESSON XXXVIII. VERBS IN -10 OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 261. Just as the third declension has a group of stems end- ing in -i, so the third conjugation has a small but important group of verbs whose present stem ends in -i, known as the -io verbs of the third conjugation. This group numbers thirteen active verbs. They are: capio, take, capture. cupio, desire. facio, make, do. fodio, dig. fugio, flee. iacio, throw. pario, }yring forth. quatio, shake. rapio, seize. sapio, understand. compounds in -cutio, smite, -licio, ensnare, -spicio, see. 262. Pres. I> capio Conjugation of capio, / take. Principal Parts. Pres. Inf. Perp. Ind. Supine. capere cepi captixm ACTIVE VOICE. Indicative. Present. Imperfect. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. capio capimus capiebam capiebamus capis capitis capiebas capiebatis capit capiunt capiebat capiebant Future. Perfect. capiam capiemus cepi cepimus capies capietis cepisti cepistis capiet capient cepit ceperunt or -ere Pluperfect. Future Perfect. ceperam ceperamus cepero ceperimus ceperas ceperatis ceperis ceperitis ceperat ceperant ceperit ceperint 121 122 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, Subjunctive. Present, Imperfect. capiam capiamus caperem caperemus capias capiatis caperes caperetis capiat capiant caperet caperent Perfect. Pluperfect. ceperim cepeiimus cepissem cepissemus ceperis ceperitis cepisses cdpissetis ceperit ceperint cepisset ccpissent Imperative. Present. Future. Smo.— 2. cape capito 3. capito Plub.— 2. capite capitfite 3. capiuntd Infinitives. Participles. Genmds. Supines. Pres. capere Pres. capiens Gen. capiendi Ace. captum Perf. cepisse Fut. capturus Dai. capiendS Ahl. captu Frd. captunis esse Ace. capiendum Ahl. capiendo PASSIVE VOICE. Indicative. Present. Imperfect. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. capior capimur capiebar capiebamur caperis or -re capimini capiebaris or -re capiebamini capitur capiuntur capiebatur capiebantiu- Future. Perfect. capiar capiemiu" captus sum capti sumus capieris > or -re capiemini captus es capti estis capietur capientur captus est capti sunt Pluperfect. captus eram capti eramus captus eras capti eratis captus erat capti erant Future Perfect. captus ero capti erimus captus eris capti eritis captus erit capti enmt VERBS IN -Id OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 123 Subjunctive. Present, Imperfect. capiar capiamur caperer caperemur capiaris or -re capiamini capereris or -re caperemini capiatur capiantur caperetur caperentur Perfect. Pluperfect. captus sim capti simus captus essem capti essemus captus sis capti sitis captus esses capti essetis captus sit capti sint captus esset capti essent Present. Sing. — 2. capere 3. Imperative. Future. capitor capitor Plur.— 2. capimini 3. capiuntor Infinitives. Pres. capi Perf. captus esse Fut. captum iri Participles. Perf. captus Gerund, capiendus VOCABULARY. 263. capid, -ere, cepi, captum, capture, fugio, -ere, fiigi, fugitum, flee; take. escape from; shun. certus, -a, -lun, adj., certain, iacio, -ere, ieci, iactum, throw. sure. invenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, find conicio,^ -ere, -ieci, -iectum, throw, (by chance). hurl. lapis, -idis, m., stone. conspicio, -ere, -speid, -spectum, recipio,^ -ere, -cepi, -ceptum, re- see. CEiVE. facio, -ere, feci, factimi, make, do. respicio, -ere, -spexi, -spectum, look back. Idioms, certiorem facere, with accusative of the person, to inform. certior factus simi, / was informed. se recipere, to retreat; to betake one's self; recover (from). * Compound of con and iacio. When a preposition compounds with a verb whose root vowel is a, this a usually becomes i. '^ Compound of re and capid. For vowel change see note 1. 264. 1. Exploratores Caesarem certiorem fecerunt de victoria Germanorum. 2. Caesar nondum certior factus 124 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. erat de impetu quern Galli in exercitum Romanum fecerant. 3. Galli castra sua vallo fossaque municrunt. Milites Caesaris tamen audacter in eos impetum fecerunt ac tela et lapides iecerunt. 4. Multa tela in hostes undique coniecta sunt, qui celeriter fugerunt. 5. Hostes se in montem receperunt, sed nostri maxima virtute eos in fugam dederunt ac multos eorum ceperunt. 6. Multi principes civitatum Galliae in capto exercitu invent! sunt. 7. Caesar animos principum verbis confirmavit, atque eos in amicitiam recepit. 8. Cum respexissent atque Romanos in castrls suis con- spexissent, ad montes se statim receperunt. 265. 1. We shall inform Caesar of^ the arrival of the mes- sengers. 2. Caesar was immediately informed of this report. 3. Caesar found the road through the forest, of which he Had been informed, but it was difficult, for he found in it many great stones. 4. The enemy had retired toward the mountain and had carried all their baggage with them.^ 5. We looked back and saw the enemy also fleeing. 6. The enemy's camp at the foot of the mountain will be captured. * of here = abovJl, de. ' secum, 184, note 3. Strolling juggler and animal trainer. LESSON XXXIX. DEPONENT AND SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS. 266. Deponent Verbs. — Certain verbs in all the conjuga- tions have the form of the passive voice, though they retain the meaning of the active. These are called deponent verbs (deponens, laying aside), as having laid aside their active forms. In the finite modes they differ in no respect from the pas- sive forms of regular verbs. In the non-finite forms they differ from true passives as follows: (a) Participles. — Deponent verbs have all four participles. The perfect participle may be either active or passive in meaning. The gerundive participle is always passive in meaning. (6) Infinitives. — The future infinitive is always active in form, ending in -urus esse. (c) Deponent verbs possess the gerund and supine in full. 267. Principal Parts of Deponents. The principal parts of a deponent verb are the present indicative, present infinitive, and perfect participle. The perfect stem does not enter into the formation of deponents, (a) The third conjugation i stem class contains three deponents and their compounds: gradior, gradi, gressus, step. patior, pati, passus, suffer; permit. morior, mori, mortuus, die. The future participle of morior is of the Fourth Conjugation, mori- turus; hence also the future infinitive, moriturus esse. 125 126 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 268. Conjugation of Deponents. Principal Parts. Conj. I. Conor, conari, conatus, attempt. Conj. II. vereor, vereri, veritus, /ear. Conj. III. sequor, sequi, secutus, /oZ/oit?. Conj. III., i stem, patior, pati, passus, suffer; permit. Conj. IV. potior, potiri, potitus, gain possession of. Indicative .1 Conj. I. Conj. II. Conj. III. Conj. Ill in -ior . Conj. IV. Pres. Conor vereor sequor patior potior Imp. conabar verebar sequSbar patiebar poticbar FiU. conubor verebor sequar patiar potiar Per/, conatus sum veritua sum secutus sum passus sum potXtus sum Plpf. conatus eram veritus eram secutus eram passus eram potitus eram Fut.Pf. conatus ero veritus ero secutus ero passus ero potitus ero Subjunctive. Prea. c5ner verear sequar patiar potiar Imp. con&rer vererer sequerer p>aterer potlrer Per/, conatus sim veritus sim secutus sim passus sim pot!tus sim Plpf. cdnatus essem veritus essem secutus essem passus essem potitus essem Imperative. Pres. cSnare verere sequere pa tare potire Put. conator vergtor sequitor patitor potltor Infinitives. Pres. cdn&rl vereri sequi patI potiri Per/, cdnatus esse veritus esse secutus esse passus esse potitus esse Fut. conaturus esse veritunis esse secuturus esse passurusesse potiturus esse Prea. conans Fut. conaturus Perf. conatus Ondv. conandus articiples. verens sequens veriturus secuturus veritus secutus verendua sequendus patiena potiSns passu rua potlturua passus potitus patiendus potlendus ^ A synopsis only is given of these verbs. The student should fill out the conjugation. Giving the synopsis of a verb means giving the first singular (or any person and number called for) of each tense of the finite modes, together with all the non-finite forms. In first person synopses, the second person of the imperative should be given, as the first person is lacking. (See Appendix D.) DEPONENT AND SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS. 127 Gerunds. conandi verendi sequendl patiendi potiendl conando, etc. verendo, etc. aequendo, etc. patiendo, etc. potiendo, etc. Supines. conatum veritum secutum passum potltum conatu veritu secutu passu potitu 269. Semi-deponent Verbs. (a) Four verbs and their compounds are active in the present system, but have no perfect stem and are de- ponent in the tenses of completed action. They are all intransitive and can form no passive. audeo, audere, ausus, dare. fido, fidere, fisus, trust, confide, gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice. soleo, solere, solitus, he accustomed. (b) Inversely semi-deponent is reverter, reverti, reverti (perfect indicative), reversus (perfect participle), turn back, return, where the present system is deponent and the perfect system active. 270. Most Common Uses of the Subjtmctive. D. After verbs of fearing. (1) A fear that something will happen is expressed by ne with the subjunctive, e. g.: nam verebatur ne Diviciaci animum offenderet, for he feared that he would hurt the feelings of Diviciacus. (2) A fear that something will not happen is expressed by ut with the subjunctive, e. g.: rem frumentariam, ut satis commode supportari posset, timebant, they feared the supply problem, that they could not readily be provided. 128 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 271. VOCABULARY, aggredior, -gredi, -gressus, dep., loquor, loqui, locutus, dep., speak. attack. proficiscor, -cisci, -fectus, dep., set cogo, -ere, coegi, coactum, compel; out, travel. collect. quintus, -a, -um, ord. num. adj., colloquiiun, -i (-ii), n., interview, fifth. conference. responded, -ere, -ndi, -nsum, committo, -ere, -misi, -missum, respond, ariMoer, reply. COMMIT, entrust. reverter, -i, -i, -sus, semi-dep., Conor, -ari, -atus, dop., attempt, try. turn hack, return. dico, -ere, dixi, dictum, say; ap- sequor, sequi, secutus, dep., /oZioto. point; call. vereor, -eri, -itus, dep., fear, he dies, diei, m. (rarely f.), day. afraid. expedltus, -a, -um, adj., unencum- vetus, -eris, adj., 1 term., ancientf bcred; in light marching order. old; former. inuria, -ae, f., injury. videor, -eri, ^sus, dep., seem. 272. 1. Dies colloquio^ dictus est, quintus ex eo die: Caesar e castris profectus ad quendam montem contendit, ubi Ariovistus erat. 2. Caesar legionem deeimam expedltam secum duxerat, nam salutem suam Ariovisto committere non ausus est. 3. Cum ad Ariovistum pervenisset, multa de veteribus iniuriis AriovistI locutus est. 4. Caesar ex equo^ loqui coactus est, nam verebatur ne Ariovistus deeimam legionem aggrederetur. 5. Cum multa locutus esset, Ario- vistus respondit: ** Tu," dixit, " me in fines meos secutus es: hostis quidem Germanorum esse videris." 6. *' Ger- manorum hostis non sum," respondit Caesar, " sed Gailia mea provincia est. Tu in fines Galliae venisti et milites tui agros Gallorum vastaverunt." 7. " Gallia provincia tua non est"; acriter dixit Ariovistus, " proelium pugnemus, neque vereor ut Germani vincant." 8. Itaque Ariovistus proelio magno superatus, se e Gallia recipere coactus est et in Germaniam reverti. Gallia tum obsidione liberari videbatur. * Dat.; translate /or. ." Lit. /row a horse; i. e., on horseback. DEPONENT AND SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS. 129 273. 1. I fear that you will not come into the camp. 2. I shall try to send to you the unencumbered troops. 3. I shall order the lieutenant to follow with all the baggage. 4. I was compelled to follow the forces of the enemy, for I feared they would attack the allies. 5. This seems to be the place for the conference. 6. Ariovistus did not dare to attack Caesar. Accident in a chariot race. LESSON XL. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 274. (a) There are certain shades of meaning in the use of verbs which the regular tenses cannot express, but which the future and genmdive participles do express. These two participles arc, therefore, associated with the tenses of sum, and the resulting compound forms are called the periphrastic conjugations (periphrasis, a talkin^-around). (6) There are two periphrastic conjugations: (1) The active, or future periphrastic, is formed by inflect- ing the future participle with the tenses of sum. It expresses intention or likelihood; e. g.: quod sectim portaturi erant, what they were going to carry with them; ipse imperium obtenturus erat, he intended to seize the government himself. (2) The passive periphrastic is formed by inflecting the gerundive participle with the tenses of sum. It expresses necessity or obligation; e. g.: concedendtim esse non putabat, he thought it was not to he granted; Caesari omnia erant agenda, Caesar had to do everything. 275. Conjugation of the Periphrastics. Periphrastics may be formed from any verb possessing the requisite stems (supine and present), and offer no diffi- culties in conjugation. A synopsis of the periphrastics of mitto, I send, is appended. Pbes. Ind. mittd Principal Parts. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. mittere misl 130 Supine. missum PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 131 ACTIVE PERIPHRASTIC. Indicative. Subjvinctive. Infinitives. Pres. missurus sum missurus sim missurus esse Imp. missurus eram missurus essem Fut. missurus ero Perf. missurus fui missurus fuerim missurus fuisse Plpf. missurus fueram missurus fuissem Fut. Pf. missurus fuero PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC. Indicative. Subjtmctive. Infinitives. Pres. mittendus sum mittendus sim mittendus esse Imp. mittendus eram mittendus essem Fut. mittendus ero Perf, mittendus fui mittendus fuerim mittendus fuisse Plpf- mittendus fueram mittendus fuissem Fut. Pf. mittendus fuero Notes. — 1. The participial members of these tense forms will, of course, agree with the subject in gender, number, and case. 2. The translations of the above forms depend largely on the circum- stances of their use. Approximately they are as follows: Active Periphrastic- -Pres.: I intend to send, I am going to send, I am likely to send. Imp.: I intended to send, I was going to send, etc. Passive Periphrastic. — Pres.: I am to he sent, I must be sent, I deserve to be sent. Imp.: I was to be sent, I had to be sent, etc. 276. Use of the Periphrastic. (a) The active periphrastic shows no peculiarities of usage. (h) In the passive periphrastic if the verb is transitive, the subject in Latin is the English object, and the person who must perform the act (i. e., the subject in Enghsh) is 132 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. in the dative. If the verb is intransitive, the participle element of the tense form is neuter, and the person who must perform the act is dative, e. g.: Caesar had to do everything, must be thought of as, everything (nom- inative) had to be done by Caesar (dative), Caesari omnia erant agenda; Caesar had to hurry, must be thought of as, it-had-to-be-hurried by Caesar, Caesari maturandum erat. The construction will be fully explained later. 277. VOCABULARY. antea,^ cpd. adv., before, previously, post, prep, with ace. and adv., difiicultas, -atis, f., difficulty. after, behind; aftenvard. dignitas, -atis, f., dignity, vxjrth. postea,^ cpd. adv., afterward. et . . . et, conj., both . . . and. piimum, adv., first. etiam, conj., even, also. quam, adv., how, as; with super!., fossa, -ae, f., moaJ^, trench. as possible. numquam,"^ adv., never. quam^ primum, adv. phrase, (U opus, -eris, n., work, task. soon as possible. pons, pontis, m., bridge. umquam, adv., ever. ^ Antea = ante ea. ^numquam = ne umquam; also written nun- quam. ' postea = post ea. * 161, c. 278. 1. Caesar turrim, quae post castra est, vallo fos- saque est muniturus, nam veretur ne hostes ea expugnare conentur. 2. Frumentum etiam, quod secum portaturi erant, Caesar cepit. 3. Caesar, dignitatis causa populi RomanI, pontem in^ Rheno facturus est, cum opus magnae difficultatis sit. 4. Numquam anteS pontem in tanto flumine quisquam fecerat. 5. Vereor ne hostes castra et vallo et fossa munituri sint. 6. Primum Caesari acies instruenda est; postea exercitus hostium aggrediendus. 7. In Galliam quam primum legatis maturandum est. 8. Urbs statim est expugnanda, cum maxima sit quae umquam in Gallia visa est. * Translate over; in is always used of bridge construction, since the piles or pontoons supporting military bridges were in the water. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION, 133 279. 1. He is going to (intends to) pitch camp behind the mountain. 2. Even the enemy's fields are to be (must be) laid waste. 3. We^ must arrive^ in Gaul as soon as possible. 4. We intend to come to you as soon as possible. 5. You must conquer the Germans. 6. Do you not intend to make a bridge over the Rhine? 1 Dat., 276, h. ^ Neut. ptc. to be used in forming the periphrastic; 276, 6, second example. Flogging at school. LESSON XLI. IRREGULAR VERBS. The Compounds of sum. 280. The verb stun forms numerous compounds, of which only two are irregular. (a) prosum, prodesse, profui, profuturus, be of advantage^ aid, inserts d before all forms of sum bcginninp; with a vowel. Indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative. Infinitives. Participles. Present: Sing. — prosimi prosim prodesse prodes prodes prodest Plur. — prosimius prodestis prosimt Imperfect: proderam prodessem Future: prodero prodesto profuturus profuturus esse Perfect: profui profuerim prdfuisse Pluperfect: profueram profuissem Future Perfect: profuero (h) posstmi, posse, potm, , be able (first singular present indica- tive, / am able, I can). This important verb is compounded of potis or pote, powerful, and sum. Its full conjugation is given. 134 IRREGULAR VERBS. 135 Present: Indicative. Subjunctive. Infinitives. SlNG.- — possiun potes potest possim possis possit posse Plur.- — posstimus potestis possunt possimus possitis possint Imperfect: SlNG.- — poteram poteras poterat possem posses posset Plur.- —poteramus poteratis poterant aaa Future: SlNG.- — potero poteris poterit Plur.- — poterimus poteritis poterunt « Perfect: SlNG.- — potui potuisti potuit potuerim potueris potuerit potuisse Plur.- — potuimus potuistis potuerunt or -ere potuerimus potueritis potuerint Pluperfect: SlNG.- —potueram potueras potuerat potuissem potuisses potuisset Plur.- —potueramus potueratis potuerant potuissemus potuissetis potuissent 136 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Future Perfect: ^ Sing. — potuero potueris potuerit Plur. — potuerimus potueritis potuerint Notes. — 1. There is no supine stem; and the imperative mode is necessarily wanting: to be able lies beyond command. 2. The present participle, potens, is used as an adjective exclusively, meaning powerful. 3. To form a substitute for the future infinitive in verbs which have no supine stem, use fore (223, d, note 2) followed by a subjunctive clause with ut, e. g.: puto fore ut possit, / think he wiU be able. 281. Construction after possum. Possum governs the infinitive, e. g.: id facere possum, / can do this. In negative sentences the word order is infinitive, nega- tive, possum; e. g.: id facere non posstmi, / cannot do this. 282. • VOCABULARY. aequus, -a, -um, adj., equal; /air, passus, a mile (Ht., a thousand juM; level. paces). amplius, comp. adv., more. polliceor, -eri, -itus, dep., promise^ centimi, num. adj. indecl., one offer. hundred. posstun, posse, potui, , be conficio, -ere, -feci, -fectum, able (first singular / am able = finish; exhaust; furnish. I can). consequor, -qui, -cutus, dep., prosum, -desse, -fui, -futurus, be pursue; overtake; acquire, attain. of advantage, benefit. fere, adv., almost, nearly, about. qua, adv., where, by which route. intersum, -esse, -fui, -futurus, be spatium, -i (-ii), n., space (used between; take part in. both of distance and time). liberi, -drum, pi. m., children traduco, -ere, -dun, ductum, lead (not used in sing.). across. passus, -us, m., pace; mille via, -ae, f., way, road. 283. 1. More popull RomanI iter tilll per pro vinciam dare non possum. 2. RelinquebStur una via per Sequanos, qua IRREGULAR VERBS. 137 propter angustias iter facere non poterant. 3. Haedui, cum se suaque ab iis defendere non possent, legatos ad Caesarem miserunt. 4. Ut reliquas copias Helvetiorum consequi posset, pontem in Arare fecit atque ita exercitiim traduxit. 5. Inter novissimum hostium agmen et nostrum primum, non amplius quam quinque aut sex milia passuum intererant. 6. Tela vitare in proeliis nuUl^ proderit. 7. Ille unus ex omni civitate Haeduorum addticl non potuit ut^ liberos suos obsides^ daret. 8. Hie locus aequo fere spatio* ab castris Ariovisti et Caesaris aberat. 9. Hi possunt conficere armata milia^ centum: ex eo numero milia sexaginta® pol- licentur. 10. Copiae Belgarum in unum locum coactae sunt, neque iam longe absunt. 1 Dat. ind. obj. 2 ut . . . daret, translate, to give, 234, ^,1. ^ Pred. appos. of liberos, as hostages. * by an almost equal distance. ^ Lit., a hundred armed thousands; translate, a hundred thousand armed men. ^ sexaginta, indecl. num. adj., sixty. 284. 1. Caesar could not give grain to any one. 2. That place was far distant from Caesar's camp. 3. The Belgians could not be induced to^ fight. 4. The army could not march quickly on account of the narrow pass. 5. To flee never benefits a soldier.^ 6. 1 can see the camp across the river. 1 Use ut with subjunctive. ^ Dat. ind. obj. Coin showing general addressing Coin with figure of Britannia; bis troops. about 138 a. d. LESSON XLII. IRREGULAR VERBS (Continued), 285. fero, ferre/ tuli, latum, bear, carry. ACTIVE. Indicative. Subjunctive. PASSIVE. Indicative. Subjunctive. Pres. Sing.- -fero feram feror ferar fers ferfts ferns (-re) fcraris (-re) fert ferat fertur foratur Plur. — ferimus feramus fcrimur feramur fertis feratis ferimini feramini ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur Imp. SlNG.- — ferebam ' ferrem fcrebar ferrer ferebas ferrSs ferebaris(-re ) ferreris (-re) ferebat ferret ferebatur ferrStur Plur.- — ferebamus fcrremus forebamur ferremur fcrebatis ferretis ferebamini fcrremini ferebant ferrent ferebantur fcrrentxir Put. SlNG.- -feram feres feret ferar fereris (-re) feretur Plur.- —feremus feretis ferent • feremur ferentur Perf. tul? tulerim latus simi latus sim Plpf. tuleram tulissem latus eram latus essem Put. Pf . tulero latus ero ^ This verb may be said to belong to the Third Conjugation. Its irregularity consists in dropping the stem vowel in many forms and becoming a true consonant stem. Such forms will readily be detected in conjugating. "^ The perfect and supine stems are adopted as in the case of sum, but there are no irregularities in the forms built upon them. 138 IRREGULAR VERBS (CONTINUED). 139 Imperative. Sing. Plur. Pres. feri ferte Fut. .ferto fertote ferto ferunto Infinitives. Pres. ferre Perf. tulisse Fut. laturus esse Imperative. Sing. Plur. ferre ferimini fertor fertor feruntor Infinitives, ferri latus esse latimi iri Pres. ferens Fut. laturus Participles. Participles. Perf. latus Gerund, ferendus Gerunds. — f erendi, -ndo, -ndimi, -ndo. Supines. — latum, -u. ^ 249, note 1. 286. VOCABULARY. affero,^ -ferre, attuli, allatum, fero, ferre, tuli, latum, bear; bring. carry; endure. calamitas, -tatis, f., calamity, Helvetius, -a, -um, adj., Helvetian. disaster. infero, -ferre, -tuli, illatiun, bring confero, -ferre, -tuli, coUatum, in ot upon; inflict; bring forward bring together, gather, collect. (arguments), creber, -bra, -brum, adj., /regwen^. perfero, -ferre, -tuli, -latum, en- defessus, -a, -imi, adj., exhausted. dure. deficio, -ere, -feci, -fectum, fail; pes, pedis, m., foot. revolt. ratio, -onis, f., reason, plan, list. differo, -ferre, distuli, dilatum, refero, -ferre, -tuli, -latum, bring DIFFER. back, report. effero, -ferre, extuli, elatum, carry rumor, -oris, m., rumor. ovi; elate (cf. sup. stem). subsidium, -i (-ii), n., aid; pi., in military sense, reserves. Idioms, bellum inferre, to make war upon (governs dative), pedem referre, to retreat. se conferre, to betake one^s self to. ^ Affero = adfero. In the compounds of fero the final consonant of a preposition generally assimilates to the initial consonant of the verb- form: thus d + f = ff; d + t = tt; d + I = 11, So n + I = U, etc. 140 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 287. 1. Militum alius alii^ subsidium ferebat. 2. Hi omnes inter se differunt. 3. Magnam frumenti copiam sibi^ quemque efFere iubet. 4. Ea pars Helvetiae civjtatis maximam calamitatem populo^ Romano intulerat. 5. Tan- dem vulneribus defessi pedem referebant. 6. In castris Helvetiorum litterae repertae sunt et ad Caesarem relatae, quibus in litteris ratio erat eorum qui anna ferre poterant. 7. Non ego Gallis, sed Galli mihi bellum intulerunt: bellum non intuli, sed me defendi. 8. Cum Caesar in citeriore Gallia in hibernis esset, crebri ad eum rumores afferebantur. 9. Se suaque omnia in oppidum munitum contulerunt. 10. Amici mei omnes calamitates perferunt, et ab Haeduis defecerunt et populo^ Romano bellum intulerunt. * Dat.; for idiom, see 141. ' Dat., for himself, ^ Dat. ind. obj. 288. 1. The army of Caesar brought very great disaster upon the Gauls. 2. We shall carry back the message to the commander. 3. The enemy retreated and betook them- selves to a mountain not far from the camp. 4. You will bring aid to the garrison in the towTi. 5. You are not making war on Caesar, but Caesar on you. 6. All calamities will have been endured by the Gauls. Letter, sealed and addressed. The address is: "Marcus Lucretius, Priest of Mars, Decurion; Pompeii." LESSON XLIII. IRREGULAR VERBS (Continued), 289. eo, ire, ivi or ii, itum, go. Pres. Imp. Indicative. Subjunctive. 3iNa. Plur. Sing. Plur. eo imus earn eamus is itis eas eatis it eunt eat eant ibam irem Fut. ibo Perf. ivi or ii ivimus or iimus iverim or ierim Ivisti or iisti ivistis or iistis ivit or iit iverunt or ierunt Plpf . iveram or ieram Fut. pf . ivero or iero ivissem or ussem Imperative. SiNQ. Plur. Pres. I ite Fut. its itote ltd eunto Infinitives. Pres. ire Perf. Ivisse or iisse Fut. iturus esse Active. Pres. iens Fut. iturus Gerunds. — eundi, -ndo, etc Participles. Passive. Perf. itum (impersonal) Gndv. eundum Supines. — itum, -u. 141 142 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. (a) The present participle is irregularly declined as follows : Singular. Plxtral. Masc. Fern Neut. Masc., Fern. Neut. Nom. lens iens euntes euntia Gen. euntis eimtis euntium euntium Dot. eunti eunti euntibus eimtibus Ace. eiintem iens eimtis (-es) eimtia Voc. iens iens euntes eimtia Abl. eunte (-i :) eunte (-i) euntibus eimtibus (6) aded, approach, visit; ineo, enter; transeo, cross, are transitive and are conjugated regularly in the passive. The present psissive of adeo is given. Sing. adeor adiris (-re) aditur Plur. adimur adimini adetmtur VOCABULARY go to, ap- 290. adeo, -ire, -ii, -itum, proach, reach, i^isit. de, prep, with abl., during (in ex- pressions of time). eo, ire, ivi or ii, itum, go. exeo, -ire, -ii, -itum, go out. frumentarius, -a, -um, adj., per- taining to grain, res frumen- tax^Siy a supply of grain, supplies. incendo, -ere, -ndi, -nsum, set fire to, burn. maleficium, -i (-ii), n., damage, harm. nemo, m.; defective: dat. ne: ace. neminem, other cases want- ing, no 07ie, nobody. nonnullus, -a, -um, adj., some (lit., not none). praeterea, adv., besides. redeo, -ire, -ii, -itum, go back, return. tertius, -a, -um, ord. num. adj., third. transeo, -ire, -ii, -itum, cross. vadum, -i, n., ford, shallow water (of. Eng. wade). vigilia, -ae, f., watch (a division of the night: the Romans divided the night into four ivatches). 291. 1. Si nemo praeterea me sequetur, tamen ego cum sola decima legione ibo. 2. Ipse eodem^ itinere, quo hostes ierant, ad eos contendit. 3. Il^ qui rei frumentariae causa ierant trans flumen, nondum redierant. 4. Helvetii e IRREGULAR VERBS {CONTINUED). 143 finibus suis cum omnibus copiis exierunt. 5. Obsides inter se dant: Sequani, ne itinere Helvetios prohibeant; Helvetii ut sine maleficio et iniuria transeant. 6. De tertia vigilia cum tribus legionibus e castris profectus, ad earn partem pervenit quae nondum flumen transierat. 7. Inter fines Helvetiorum et AUobrogum Rhodanus est, isque nonnullis locis vado transitur. 8. Mtinitiones cas- trorum adire non poterat. 9. Quisque eorum suam civitatem adiit omnesque, qui arma ferre poterant, ad bellum coegit. 10. Omnes vicos quos adire potuerant, incenderunt atque ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis^ contenderunt. 1 By the same route. ^ Nom. pi. of is. ^ Translate urith; cum is sometimes omitted. 292. 1. You will go to the war without me. 2. Each of them saw his^ friends in the city when he returned. 3. I shall lead my army into farther Gaul and burn all the towns that I can reach. 4. Many rivers can be crossed by a ford in some places. 5. The Helvetii will go out from their boun- daries and lay waste the land of their neighbors. 6. Many tribes of Gaul were visited by Caesar. * Use the proper case of suus. Lantern from Herculaneum. LESSON XLIV. IRREGULAR VERBS (Continued). 293. fid, fieri, f actus, be made, become, supplies the passive voice of facio, the forms on the supine stem being the regular passive inflection of that verb. It is irregular in the present system only, which has active form and passive meaning, the opposite of a deponent. Indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative. Pres. SlNG.- -fio fiam fis fias fi fit fiat Plur.- — fimus fiamus fitis fiatis fite fiunt fiant Imp. SlNG.- — fiebam fiebas flebat fierem fieres fieret Plur.- -flebamus flebatis fiebant fieremus fieretis fierent Fut. SlNG.- Plur.- -flam fies net —fiemus fietis fito fi[t5 fitote « fient fiuntfi Perf. factus svmi factus sim Plpf. factus eram factus essem Fut. pf. factus ero 144 IRREGULAR VERBS (CONTINUED). 145 Infinitives. Participles. Pres. fieri Perf. factus Perf. factus esse Gerund, faciendus Fut. factum in Note. — i in the stem is long except before -er. 294. Preteritive Verbs. Three verbs are regularly conjugated on the perfect stem only: coepi, coepisse, began. memini, meminisse, remember. odi, odisse, hate. ' Perf. Plpf. Fut. pf. coepi coeperam coepero Indicative, memini memineram meminerd odi oderam odero Perf. Plpf. coeperim coepissem Sing Plur Subjunctive, meminerim meminissem Imperative. . — ^memento ,. — mementote oderim odissem Perf. Fut. coepisse coepturus esse Infinitives, meminisse odisse Osurus esse. Perf. Fut. coeptus coepturus Participles. 6sus osurus (a) Remnants of other stems than the perfect sometimes occur. (b) Coepi always assumes a passive form, coeptus sum, when it governs a passive infinitive, e. g.: urbem oppugnare coepit, he began to besiege the city; but urbs oppug- nari coepta est, the city began to be besieged. 10 146 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. (c) memini and odi have the meaning of the present system throughout. {d) A few other verbs are used preteritively, i. e., the perfect system, active or passive, is used with the meaning of the present, e. g.: cognoscd, / learn; pf., cognoia, / know (i. e., / have learned). 295. VOCABULARY. coepi, coepisse, pret., began, have libert&s, -tatis, f., liberty, free- begun. dotn. condicio, -onis, f., condition; murus, -i, m., tvall. terms. nomen, -inis, n., name; reason; Dunmorix, -igis, m., Dumnorix (a pretense. chief of the Haedui). odi, odisse, pret., hate. fid, fieri, f actus, irreg. pass., be perficio, -ere, -feci, -fectum,yinM; made, become; occur, happen. accomplish; bring about. impeditus, -a, -um, adj., IMPEDED, servitus, -tutis, f., servitude, encumbered. slavery. inititmi, -i (-ii), n., beginning. Idioms. in itinere,' on the march. ex itinere, on the march. * Used of events which can occur while marching; ex itinere is used of acts involving a temf>orary divergence from the line of march. Thus, they crossed a river on the march, would require in; they besieged a tovm on the march, ex. 296. 1. Undique in hostes impetus fit. 2. His rebus flebat ut^ minus facile finitimis bellum inferre possent. 3. Hostes, si hoc flumen nostri transibunt, eorum adventum in ripam exspectabunt; nostri autem, si ab illis initium transeundi^ fiet, impeditos in flumine aggredientur. 4. Ariovistus autem Gallorum copias magno proelio vicit, quod proelium ad mag- nam urbem factum est. 5. Id oppidum ex itinere magno impetu Belgae oppugnare coeperunt. 6. Ubi res frumentaria hostes deficere coepit, quisque eorum in suam civitatem revertit. 7. Undique in murum lapides iaci coepti sunt. IRREGULAR VERBS (CONTINUED). 147 8. Quaedam res inter eos agl coeptae, neque perfectae erant. 9. Dumnorlx odit etiam suo nomine^ Caesarem et Romanos. 10. Omnes autem homines libertatem amant, et condicionem servitutis oderunt. ^ ut . . . possent, that they were able; the clause is the subject of fiebat. ^ Gerund, of crossing. ' For reasons of his own. 297. 1. A fierce attack will be made on the town. 2. The forces of Caesar began to attack the Gauls on the march. 3. I began to besiege the town with all my forces. 4. The town began to be besieged. 5. I hate the Gauls for reasons of my own. 6. From these things it happened that^ the wall was not yet finished. ^ ut with verb in the subjunctive. Kitchen utensils from Pompeii. LESSON XLV. IRREGULAR VERBS (Continued). 298. (a) volo, velle, volui, - nolo, nolle, nolui, — maid, malle, malui. , wish, be willing, he unwilling. -, prefer. (6) nolo is a contracted form of non volo; m&ld, of magis vol6. nolo alone has the imperative mode. Pluk. malumus mavultis maltint Present . (c) Indicative. SlNQ. Plttr Sing. Plur. SiNO. ] volo volumus nolo nolimius malo mi las vultis^ non vis non vultis mavis m; vult» volunt non vult noltmt mavult m; Imp. volebam nolebam malebam Fut. volam nolam malam Perf. volui nolui malui Plpf. volueram nolueram malueram Fut. pf. voluero noluerd maluero Present * SlNQ. Subjunctive. Plur. velim velimus nolim malim veils velitis velit velint Imp. vellem nollem mallem Perf. voluerim noluerim maluerim Plpf. voluissem noluissem maluissem Imperative. SlNQ. Pltib. Pres. noU nolite Fut. nolito nolitote noUto nolunto * Also volt, voltis; n6n volt, non voltis; mavolt, mavoltis. 148 IRREGULAR VERBS (CONTINUED). 149 Infinitives. Pres. velle nolle malle Perf. voluisse noluisse maluisse Participle. Pres. volens nolens 299. VOCABULARY. accipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptum, ac- legionarius, -a, -um, adj., CEPT, receive. ary. Arar, -is, m., Arar (a river in maiores, -um, pi. m., ancestors, Gaul). elders. averto, -ere, -verti, -versus, turn malo, malle, malui, , prefer, aside. wish rather. conduce, -ere, -dua, -ducttmi, maneo, -ere, mansi, mansum, CONDUCT, lead; bring together. remain, stay. consensus, -us, m., consent, nolo, nolle, nolui, , be unwill- agreement. ing, not wish. decerto, I, fight, fight to a finish. peto, -ere, -ivi (-ii), -itum, request, discedo, -ere, -cessi, -cessmn, seek.^ turn aside, depart. tempto, I, try, test; tempt. experior, -iri, -pertus, dep., try, toUo, -ere, sustuli, sublatum, lift; test. take away; break off. iterum, adv., again, a second time, void, velle, volui, , wish. ' The person of whom the request is made stands in the ablative with a (ab). 300. 1. In earn partem ibimus atque ibi erimus/ ubi tu nos constitueris atque esse volueris. 2. Si quid volunt, revertantur. 3. Iter ab Arare Helvetii averterant, a quibus discedere nolebat. 4. Quasdam res habemus quas, ex com- muni consensu, a Caesare petere volumus. 5. Caesar quod neque colloquium tollf volebat neque salutem suam Gal- lorum equitatui committere audebat, legionarios milites legionis decimae secum ad Ariovistum conduxit. 6. Si iterum experirl vultis, ego iterum paratus sum decertare. 7. In ea llbertate, quam a maioribus acceperunt, manere quam Romanorum servitutem perferre malunt. 8. Quae- 150 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. cumque bella^ geri veils, sine uUo labore et periculo conficies. 9. Quod saepius* fortunam temptare Galba nolebat, in pro- 10. Suls quoque rebus^ eos vinciam reverti contendit. timere voluit. * We shall he; i. e., slay. ^ Pres. inf. pass.; its subj. is colloquium, did not xjoish the conference to he hroken off. ' Subj. of geri which depends on velis; whatever vmrs you Jtiay wish to he waged. * too often; 161, a. 5 Dat., translate /or. 301. 1. I do not wish the conference to be broken ofiF. 2. I had wished to hasten into Gaul as soon as possible. 3. I wish to go with you rather than to stay in the city. 4. I wish the battle to be fought. 5. I am not willing to endure servitude. 6. If you wish, let us set out to the mountains. Kitchen stove; house of Pansa, Pompeii LESSON XLVI. IRREGULAR VERBS (Continued). 302. Impersonal Verbs. Certain verbs can have no personal subject (i. e., no noun, or pronoun representing a noun), and are regularly found only in the third singular and in the infinitive. These are impersonal verbs, and may be divided into four classes. (a) Verbs admitting as subject only an infinitive, a clause, or sometimes a neuter pronoun. Such are: accidit, contingit, evenit, fit, it happens. licet, it is permitted, one may. placet, videtur, it seems best. oportet, necesse est, it is necessary, one must. (h) Many intransitives admit a passive form used im- personally, e. g.: pugnatum est, literally it was fought; i. e., they fought, the fight lasted, there was a fight. (c) Certain verbs of feehng; such as paenitet, repent of; pudet, be ashamed of or ashamed to; miseret, pity; taedet, be tired, etc. (d) Verbs expressing natural phenomena, e. g.: pltiit, it is raining, tonat, it thunders, etc. 151 152 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, 303. Conjugation of the Impersonals. Principal Parts. Conj. I. constat, constare, constitit, , it is evident, it is certain. Conj. II. licet, licere, licuit, licitum, it is permitted, one may. Conj. III. accidit, accidere, accidit, , it ?iappens. Conj. IV. evenit, e venire, evenit, , it happens, it comes about. Indicative. 1 Pres. constat licet accidit evenit Imp. constabat licebat accidebat eveniebat Fut. constabit licebit accidet eveniet Perf. constitit licuit accidit evenit Plpf. constiterat licuerat acciderat evenerat Fut. pf . constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit Subjunctive. Pres. constet liceat accidat eveniat Imp. constaret liceret accideret eveniret Perf. constiterit licuerit acciderit evenerit Plpf. constitisset licuisset accidisset evenisset Infinitives. Pres. constare licere accidere evenire Perf. constitisse licuisse accidisse evenisse Fut (rare) eventurum esse 304. Use of the Most Common Impersonals. (a) oportet and constat take an infinitive as subject; and if the infinitive itself has a subject, it must be in the accusa- tive case, e. g.: poenam sequi oportet, it vxis necessary that the penalty should foUow. (b) licet usually governs a dative of the person and takes as subject an infinitive, e. g.: tibi venire licet, it is permitted to you to come, you may come. IRREGULAR VERBS (CONTINUED). 153 (c) accidit, contingit, evenit, fit, take as subject a clause introduced by ut and having its verb in the subjunctive, e. g.: accidit ut esset luna plena, it chanced that the moon was full; fiebat ut minus late vagarentur, it happened that they roamed less vndely. Remark. — The it in the above examples is not the subject; it is not even a real pronoun. To say that the subject of such an impersonal expression is " it understood," is absurd. The subject of the im- personal in each instance is the infinitive or clause which accompanies it. A sure method of determining the subject when in doubt is to treat the clause as the answer to a question and ask yourself the question. Thus under (a), what is necessary f " That the penalty should follow " is the necessary thing; hence, poenam sequi is the subject of oportet. So under (b): what is permitted f " To come," hence, venire is the subject of licet. In the same way in (c): what chanced? That the moon was full; hence, ut esset luna plena, the whole clause, is the subject of accidit. 305. VOCABULARY. accido, -ere, -cidi, , happen: necesse, indecl. adj., necessary: accidit, impers., it happens. necesse est, impers. vb. phrase, barbarus, -a, -um, ad j . barbarous it is necessary. as noun, barbarian. oportet, -ere, -uit, impers., it ought, bello, I, make war. it must, it is necessary. constat, -stare, -stitit, impers., it regio, -onis, f., region. is certain, it is evident. subito, adv., suddenly. de, prep, with ace, down from; terra, -ae, f., earth; land. for (with expressions of cause). usus, -us, m., use, advantage. ius, iuris, n., right; power; law. voluntas, -tatis, f., wish; good mil; licet, -ere, -uit, -itum, impers., it consent. is permitted; one may. Idiom, ex usu, to the advantage of; for the good of. 306. 1. Ea res non minus ex usu terrae Galliae quam populi Romani accidit. 2. Praeterea accidit, quod^ fieri necesse erat, ut mllites ab signis discederent. 3. Magnum numerum barbarorum ad castra venisse constabat. 4. Naves in earn regionem cogunt, ubi Caesarem primum bel- lum gesturum esse constabat. 5. Multls do causis acciderat 154 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. ut subito Galli bellandi" consilium caperent. 6. Si quid tu VIS, te ad me venire oportet. 7. Non oportet me a populo Romano in meo iure impediri. 8. Alius aliam causam in- ferebat, atque petebat ut^ eius voluntate discedere liceret. 9. Vobis de vestra salute cum Caesare agere licet. 10. Ita acerrimo proelio diu pugnatum est. » Rel. pron., what; its anteced. is the ut clause, subj. of accidit. ' Gen. of the gerund explaining and depending on consilium. ^ The ut clause is the purpose of the request, 234, A, \. 307. 1. It was evident that* Caesar would attack^ the Germans. 2. You may go to the city. 3. It happens that Caesar is leading a large army into Gaul. 4. You ought to be sent into Gaul. 5. Caesar ought to besiege the town with all his forces. 6. There was a fierce fight^ in front of the camp. 1 This word is not to be represented at all in the Latin; it is neces- sarily involved in the infinitive which the principal verb requires. ^ Fut. inf. 3 Say, " It was fought fiercely." Roman spoons. PAET II SYNTAX. LESSON XLVII. In treating the Syntax of the Noun, the cases will be pre- sented in the order of their importance as elements of the simple sentence: the Nominative as the case of the subject; the Accusative and Dative as the cases of the object, direct and indirect respectively; the Genitive and Ablative as the modifying cases. THE NOMINATIVE. 308. Rule I.— The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative, e. g.: Caesar putat, Caesar thinks. Remark.— The nominative occurs only as the subject of a verb, or as the appositive, attributive or predicate, to a subject. THE ACCUSATIVE. 309. The Accusative as Object. I. Rule n. — The direct object of an action must be in the accusative, e. g.: Sequani legates mittunt, the Sequani send envoys. Caesar pontem facit, Ca£sar builds a bridge. n. Rule m. — Verbs signifying make, choose, call, regard, and the like, govern two accusatives referring to the same person or thing: of these, one is the direct object; the other, its predicate appositive, e. g.: magistratum Vergobretum appellant Haedm, the Haedui call their ruler the Vergobret. Commium regem ibi constituerat, he had ap- pointed Commius King there. (a) In the passive of this construction, the direct object becomes the subject nominative, the predicate appositive also by necessity becoming nominative, e. g,: 155 156 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Commius rex ibi constitutus erat, Commius had been appointed King there. (h) The predicate in this construction may be an adjective, e. g.: Hos Suebi humiliores redegerunt, the Swabians rendered these mare humble. in. Rule. IV. — Transitive compounds of trans may govern two accusatives: one the object of the verb, the other gov- erned by the preposition, e. g.: Funditores pontem traducit, he leads the dingers over the bridge. IV. Rule V. — Some verbs of asking , demanding, teaching, concealing take two accusatives, one referring to the person, the other to the thing, e. g.: Interim cotidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile Caesar daily demanded corn from the Ilaediti. Si quid ille se velit, if he wished anything from him. 310. VOCABULARY, absum, -esse, Sfui, Sfuturus, he proximus, -a, -mn, superl. adj., absent; be distant. nearest; next; last (preceding). Atrebates, -mn, m., Atrebates, a publicus, -a, -um, adj., public. Gallic tribe. reddo, -ere, reddidi, redditum, aut, conj., or. give back; render. aut . . . aut, either . . . or. redigo, -ere, -egi, -actum, reduce; expello, -ere, puli, -pulsimi, ex- render. PEL, drive ovi. senatus, -us, m., senate. frater, -tris, m., brother. solum, adv., only. humilis, -e, adj., humble. Suebi, -drum, m., the Suebi (Swa- infirmus, -a, -um, adj., infirm, bians), a Germanic tribe. weak; unreliable. tutus, -a, -um, adj., safe, pro- lex, legis, f., law. tected. opportunus, -a, -um, adj., oppoit- Ubii, -drum, m., the Ubii, a Ger- tune; suitable. manic tribe, privatus, -a, -imi, adj., private. ulciscor, -i, ultus, dep., avenge, propterea, adv., on that account; punish. propterea quod, because (cpd. conj.). Idiom, ndn sdlum . . . sed etiam, not only . . . but also. THE ACCUSATIVE. 157 311. 1. Qua in re Caesar non solum publicas, sed etiam privatas initirias ultus est. 2. Cum ipse Atrebates super- asset/ Commium regem ibi constituerat. 3. Haedui amici fratresque populi Romani saepe a senatti appellati erant. 4. Quae res et latus unum castrorum ripis fluminis muniebat et quae" post eum erant tuta ab hostibus reddebat. 5. Haec tibi dixi ne aut Haeduis aut eorum socils bellum inferas, atque ut obsides illis reddas. 6. Tota gens prope ad ser- vitutem redacta est. 7. Suebi, cum Ubios finibus expellere non potuissent, tamen servos sibi fecerunt atque humillimos inflrmissimosque redegerunt. 8. Hunc locum ex omni Gallia opportunissimum sibi iudicaverunt. ^ Contract form of superavisset, pip. subjunc. ^ quae . . . erant, what was hack of him: tuta modifies this clause. 312. 1. Caesar rendered the town safe from the enemy by a wall and a moat. 2. Caesar appointed Labienus lieutenant of the tenth legion. 3. The Roman senate called the Haedui friends and allies. 4. The city was called Rome. 5. The senate of the Roman people had once^ called Ario- vistus king and friend. 6. The river will render our camp safe. ^ quondam. Soldier with scaling-ladder. LESSON XLVIII. THE ACCUSATIVE (Continued). 313. The Accusative of Extent — Time, Space, Power. I. Accusative of Duration of Time. Rule VI. — Duration of time is expressed by the accusa- tive, e. g.: regnum multos annos obtinuerat, ?ie had held power many years. II. Accusative of Extent of Space. Rule Vn. — Extent of space is expressed by the accusa- tive, e. g.: Hnes milia passuum CCXL patebant, their territories extended for S40 miles. (a) The distance between two places may be regarded as the extent of space from one to the other and be expressed by the accusative, e. g.: cum Caesar milia passumn quinque abesset, when Caesar was five miles distant. (See 353, II, a.) III. Adverbial Accusative. Rule Vrn. — The accusative, chiefly of neuter adjectives and pronouns, rarely of noims, may be used adverbially to express the extent of power or action, e. g.: auctoritas plurimmn valet, the infltience is very strong; cum equitatu nihil possent, since they were not at all strong in cavalry. 158 THE ACCUSATIVE {CONTINUED). 159 314. The Accusative of Limit of Motion— Terminal Accusative. Rule IX. — Place to which is regularly expressed by the accusative with ad, in, or sub; but the preposition is omitted with names of towns and with domus, e. g.: in Galliam venit, he came into Gaul; Romam revertit, he returned to Rome; domum redierunt, they went back home. 315. VOCABULARY. annus, -i, m., year. magistratus, -us, m., magistrate. auctoritas, -tatis, f., authority, moror, -ari, -atus, dep., delay; influence. wait. commeatus, -us, m., supplies. nihil, indecl. n., nothing; adverbi- commoveo, -ere, -movi, -motum, ally, not at all. move; alarm, induce. ob, prep, with ace, on account of. domus, -us, f., house; ace, domum, pauci, -ae, -a, pi. adj., few. home; loc, domi, at home. spes, spei, f., hope. dum, conj., while; until. timiultus, -us, m., tumult. egredior, -di, -gressus, dep., march valeo, -ere, -ui, -itum, he strong, out. 316. 1. Hi magnopere inter se multos annos contende- bant. 2. Dum paucos dies rei frtimentariae commeattisque causa moratur, magnus subito timer omnem exercitum occupavit. 3. Hic locus ab hostibus mille passus aberat. 4. Multa milia passuum hostes secutus est. 5. Nihil ego ea re commoveor. 6. Sunt nonnulli quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat^, qui plus possint^ quam ipsi magistratus. 7. Ego turn plurimum in Gallia poteram; sed ille minimum,^ quod puer erat. 8. Ob eam rem ex civitate fugi et Romam ad senatum veni. 9. Magno cum tumultu castris egressi sunt, cum sibi quisque primum itineris locum peteret et domum pervenire maturaret. 10. Spes domum redeundi^ sublata* est. * Translate these subjunctives exactly like indicatives. ^ Supply poterat. ^ Gerund. '' Pf. pass, of toUo. 160 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 317. 1. I will wait five days. 2. Caesar^s troops pur- sued the cavalry of the Belgians five miles. 3. Let us seek the first place of the journey and arrive at home. 4. Caesar was very powerful in Gaul. 5. The authority of the Belgians is less strong than (that) of the Germans. 6. Caesar ordered his (men) to hasten to Ocelum. Carpenter's shop, from painting at Herculaneum. LESSON XLIX. THE DATIVE. 318. The Dative as Indirect Object. I. Rule X.— The indirect object is that toward which the action of the verb is directed, and must be in the dative, e. g,: Dumnorigi filiam suam dat, he gives his daughter to Dumnorix. (a) This example may be translated with equal correctness, he gives Dumnorix his daughter. These two nouns are certainly not in the same relation to the verb; hence they cannot both be in the same case. The real relation of the noun to the verb is the important point; the English form of expression often counts for little. So with the person after verbs of seizing^ e. g.: Caesar scutum mfliti detrahit, Caesar seizes a shield from a soldier. The action is exerted on the shield and toward the soldier; hence, militi is an indirect object, though the English idiom requires from. XL Rule XI. — Many verbs transitive in English govern a dative of indirect object in Latin; such are favor, help, please, trust , and their contraries ; also, believe, persuade ; command, obey, serve, resist, pardon, spare, indulge, threaten, envy, and the like, e. g.: Helvetiis favet, he favors the Helvetii; Dumnorigi persuadet, he persvxides Dumnorix. (a) Verbs which in the active govern a dative are imper- sonal in the passive, and still govern the dative, e. g.: his persuaderi non poterat, these could not be persuaded; Ht., it could not he persuaded to these. (b) The action of these verbs was regarded in Latin as directed toward the object rather than exerted on it. 11 161 162 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. III. Dative with Compounds. Rule Xn. — Many verbs compounded with the preposi- tions ad, ante, con,i in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super , govern a dative of indirect object; and if the simple verb is transitive, the compound takes both direct and indirect objects, e. g.: legionibus quaestorem praefecit, he appointed a qttaestor over the legions; ante id tempus accidit nulli, it has happened to no one before this time. 1 The composition-form of cum. The euphonic changes of the prepo- sitions before consonants will be readily acquired. Often such change is optional, and both the euphonic and original forms occur, e. g.: afficid and adficid, etc. 319. VOCABULARY. cedo, -ere, cessi, cessum, yield, quoniam, conj., since, because. give way. Sabinus, -i, m., Sabinus, an officer confido, -ere, -fisus, semi-dep., of Caesar. CONFIDE, trust. satisfacid, -ere, -feci, -factum, Cotta, -ae, m., Cotta, an officer of satisfy; apologize. Caesar. seu (or sive), conj., or if, whether. Sripio, -ere, -ui, -reptiun, take seu . . . seu, whether . . . or. away; rescue. sponte, abl. of obsolete spons, f., mors, mortis, f., death. by the will. Nervii, -drum, m., Nermi, a Gallic studeo, -ere, -ui, , be eager for; tribe. pay attention to. offero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum, trado, -ere, -didi, -ditum, hand OFFER. over, surrender. persuaded, -ere, -suasi, -suasimi, una, adv., together, along with. PERSUADE. uterque, utraque, utnunque, gen. praeficio, -ere, -feci, -fectum, put utriusque, adj. (cf. 140), each in command, put in charge. (of two); pi., both. praestun, -esse, -fui, -futurus, be vel, conj., or; vel . . . vel, either in command, be in charge. or. Idioms, novae res, revolution, political change. sua sponte (third person), of one^s own accord, voluntarily. THE DATIVE, 163 320. 1. Allobrogibus ipsi vel persuadebimus vel eos coge- mus. 2. His militibus Sabinum et Cottam, legates, praeesse iussit. 3. Caesar singulis^ legionibus singulos legates praefecit. 4. Huic legion! Caesar propter virtutem maxime confidebat. 5. Sequanis cum sua sponte persuadere non possent, legatos ad Dumnorlgem mittunt. 6. Omnes fere Galli novis rebus student et ad bellum celeriter excitantur; omnes autem homines libertatl student et condicionem servittitis oderunt. 7. Sic ex castrls proficlscuntur, ut quibus^ esset persuasum non ab hoste. 8. Si Haeduis* de iniurils quas ipsis socilsque eorum intulistis, item si Allobrogibus* satisfacietis, pacem voblscum faciam. 9. Quoniam est fortunae cedendum,^ ad utramque rem me vobis offero, seu morte® mea Romanis satisfacere seu me els vivum tradere vultis. 10. RomanI una cum reliqua Gallia Haedius llbertatem erepturi sunt. ^ Lit., single lieutenants over single legions; translate, a lieutenant over each legion. ^ Supply the antecedent and translate the subjunc- tive like a pip. indie; as men who had not been persuaded by an enemy (lit., to whom it had not, etc.). ^Compounds of satis, enough, govern the dative. ^ /Since / must yield to fortune. ® by (means of) my death. 321. 1 . I have been compelled to give my army to Caesar. 2. Caesar was in command of the Roman army. 3. I shall put you in command of the legion which the Gauls have sent me. 4. Let us always yield to fortune. 5. Almost all barbarians are eager for liberty. 6. The Allobroges are eager for revolution and have persuaded the Haedul to revolt. Water pitcher from Pompeii. LESSON L. THE DATIVE (Continued). 322. The Dative as the Case of Direction of Influence. I. Dative of Reference. Rule Xin. — A noun concerned, however remotely, in receiving the effect of an action, or liable to benefit or injiuy from it, is put in the dative, c. g.: praeterita Diviciaco fratri condonat, he pardons the past for {the sake of) Diviciaxms, his brother; si sibi purgati esse vellent, if they unshed to be guiltless in his sight (lit. to him). II. Dative with Adjectives. Rule XIV.— Adjectives, and occasional notms and ad- verbs, derived from verbs which take the dative, as well as adjectives of nearness, fitness, likeness, service, inclina- tion, and their contraries govern the dative, e. g.: castris idoneum locum deligit, he selects a place suitable for a camp; Diviciaco maximam fidem habebat, he had the greatest confidence in Dimciacus; proximique sunt Germanis, and they are nearest to the Germans. 323. VOCABULARY. acceptus, -a, -um, adj., pf. ptc. of plebs, plebis, f., common people. accipio, acceptable^ popidar. possessio, -onis, f., possession. comparo, I, provide. principatus, -us, m., sovereignty. cur, adv., why. prof actio, -onis, f., departure. deligo, -ere, -egi, -ectum, select. proicio, -ere, -ieci, -iectum, throw; fleo, fiere, fievi, fletum, weep. throw doum or away. idoneus, -a, -um, adj., suitable. similis, -e, adj., like, similar. impero, I, command; demand. obtineo, -ere, -ui, -tentum, hold; OBTAIN. 164 THE DATIVE (CONTINUED). 165 Idiom, in animo esse with dat. of person/ lit., to be in mind to a person; i. e., to have in mind, to intend. ^ e. g., Caesari in animo est; lit., it is in mind to Caesar; i. e., Caesar intends. 324. 1. Si mihi^ purgatf esse vultis, eos reducite. 2. Sese omnes flentes Caesari ad pedes^ proiecerunt. 3. Num- quam ante hoc tempus exercitus populi Romanl Galliae provinciae finibus'' egressus est. Quid tibi vis? Cur in meas possessiones venisti? 4. Britannis Caesar numerum obsidum, quern ante imperaverat, duplicavit,^ eosque in Galliam adduci iussit. 5. Helvetils erat in animo per agrum Sequanorum iter facere. 6. Labienum legatum in Treveros, qui proximi flumini Rheno sunt, cum equitatu mittit. 7. Profectio similis fugae videbatur. 8. Huic rei idoneos homi- nes deligebat. 9. Caesar locum castrls idoneum cepit atque ad hostes contendit. 10. Principatum in civitate obtinebat ac maxinje plebl acceptus erat. * Before me or in my sight; lit., with reference to me. ^ Nom. pi. of purgatus, -a, -mn, guiltless. ^ Lit., at the feet to C; make good English out of it. ■* Abl., from. ^ duplico, I, double. 325. 1. Labienus was guiltless in-the-sight-of -Caesar. 2. What does Caesar want for himself in Gaul? 3. This farmer holds the land nearest the river. 4. That field was suitable for grain. 5. Why did you cast yourself at the commander's feet ? 6. Divitiacus was a most acceptable friend to Caesar. '^:. Roman helmets. LESSON LI. THE DATIVE (Continued). 326. The Dative as the Case of Direction of Influence (Continued). III. Dative of Possessor. Rule XV. — The dative of the possessor is used with smn to express the fact of possession, e. g.: quid in Gallia negoti Caesari est? What business has Caesar in Gaulf (lit., what of business is to C); mercatoribus est aditus, traders have access. IV. Dative of Piupose or Service. Rule XVI.— When the purpose for which an act is per- formed, or a thing is made, is designed, or serves, can be expressed by a noun, that noim stands in the dative, e. g.: equitatum auxilio Caesari miserant, they had sent the cavalry for aid to Caesar (or to the assistance of C); loctun domicilio deligtmt, they select a place for a home. (a) Such datives are frequently, though not necessarily, connected with another dative, which is a reference dative of the person or thing, e!y.; Caesari in the above example. (6) The dative of n^^ is often equivalent to a mere predicate noun in En^^Kvnenev^^erf^lgf^^mbstituted for he, e. g. : ^^^^^^ amicitia populi Romani mihi omamento est, the friendship of the Roinan people is (i. e., serves as) an ornament to ine. V. Dative of Agent. Rule XVn. — The person who must perform the act expressed by a passive periphrastic is put in the dative, e. g.: 166 THE DATIVE {CONTINUED). 167 Caesari omnia erant agenda, Caesar had to do everything; (lit., every- thing was to he done by C). (a) The passive periphrastic of intransitive verbs is impersonal, e. g.: Caesari maturandum est, Caesar must hasten (lit., haste-must-be- made by C). (b) The leading idea in the passive periphrastic is obliga- tion to act: the agent is the person toward whom the obUga- tion is directed. 327. VOCABULARY. arcesso, -ere, -i^, -itum, summon, populor, -an, -atus, dep., ravage. consisto, -ere, -stiti, -stitum, sfand. potestas, -tatis, f., power; oppor- detrimentum, -i, n., loss, harm. tunity. domicilium, -i (-ii), n., home. praeter, prep, with ace, except. mercator, -oris, m., trader. solum, -i, n., soil. multitude, -dinis, f., multitude, great number. 328. 1. Amicitiam populi Romani mihi praesidio, non detrlmento, esse oportet. 2. Agros Remorum populantur, qui magno nobis usui sunt. 3. Nobis praeter agri solum nihil est. 4. Nam cum tanta multitudo lapides ac tela conicerent, in muro consistendi^ potestas erat nulli. 5. Nullus aditus est ad eos mercatoribus. 6. Locum domicilio ex magna copia deligent, quem ex omni Gallia opporttinis- simum iudicaverint. 7. German! auxilio a Belgis arcessiti sunt. 8. Nam equitatui, quem auxilio Caesari Haedul miserant, Dumnorix praeerat. 9. Omnibus Gallis idem est faciendum, quod Helvetii fecerunt. 10. Caesari maturan- dum erat. ^ Gerund, depends on potestas. ' ' 329. 1. The friendship of Caesar was a protection to his allies. 2. The general selected a place for the battle. 3^ Caesar had to fight alone. 4. The Gauls had no apcess to the province. 5. We have nothing but^ our swords. 6. t will send to your aid^ the legion which Labienus commands.* * Here but = except; use praeter. ^ Say /or aid to you. ^ Use praesum. LESSON LII. THE GENITIVE. 330. The Genitive with Nouns. I. Rule XVin. — A noun used to describe or define another noun, not meaning the same thing/ is put in the Genitive. Such genitives may be: 1. Possessive. — Here possession is implied, not asserted (326, III). This use of the genitive is the same as the English possessive case, e. g.: agros Remorum vastabant, they were devastating the lands of the Remi; in exercitu Caesaris, in Caesar's army. 2. Partitive, expressing that of which a part is spoken of, e. g.: partem copiarum misit, he sent part of the troops; horum omnium fortissimi simt Belgae, of all these the Bclgac are the bravest. (a) Certain common neuter words of quantity govern a partitive genitive. Most important among these are: tanttmi, so much. nihil, nothing. quantimi, how much. quid, what. plus, more. satis, enough. minus, less. e. g.: tantum periculi, so much danger (\\t., so much of danger); nihil vini, no wine at all (lit., nothing of wine); quid consili est? what is the plan t (lit., what of plan is there t). 3. Material or Composition, e. g : aciem instruxit legionum veteranarum, he drew up a line {consisting) of veteran legions. J68 THE GENITIVE. 169 4. Subjective. 5. Objective. These are best treated together. In both, the governing noun is derived from a verb or suggests verb action: the genitive represents the subject or the object, respectively, of the verb idea contained in the governing noun, e. g.: subjective: solis occasu, at sunset (lit., setting of the sun); objective: regni cupiditate inductus, led by desire for royal power. The following example illustrates both uses: pro veteribus Helvetiorum iniuriis populi Romani, for the former injuries of (i. e., inflicted by) the Helvetii of (i. e., upon) the Roman people. Sometimes an expression may be either subjective or ob- jective, e. g.: in conspectu militum, in sight of the soldiers, may denote a position whence the soldiers may see or may be seen. 6. Attributive or Explanatory. — Often the genitive after a noun cannot be assigned to any of the above classes, e. g.: iniuria retentonim equitum, the offense of detaining the knights. ^ When one noun describes another which means the same thing, we have appositives (72). 331. VOCABULARY. adorior, -iri, -ortus, dep., attack. quartus, -a, -um, num. adj., deditio, -onis, f., surrender. fourth. doceo, -ere, -ui, docttim, teach, quattuor, num. adj. indecL, four. tell, show. retineo, -ere, -ui, -tentum, retain, intercede, -ere, -cessi, -cessum, detain. come between. satis, adv., suffi,ciently: as indecl. laus, laudis, f., praise. noun, enough. negotium, -i (-ii), n., business; sol, solis, m., sun. difficulty. tot, indecl. adj., so many. occasus, -us, m., a setting. usque, adv., even, quite (in expres- omnino, adv., at all; only. sions of extent). patior, pati, passus, dep., permit; vinum, -i, n., wine. suffer. 170 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 332. 1. Inter singulas^ legiones impedimentorum magnus numerus intercedit, neque est quicquam negoti legiones sub sarcinis^ adoriri. 2. Quid in mea Gallia, quam bello vici, aut Caesari aut omnino populo Romano negoti est? 3. Quid mel consili est? Docebo te. 4. Nihil patiuntur vini inferrl, quod ea re remittitur virtus. 5. Triplicem^ aciem instruxit legionum quattuor. 6. Ab hora fere quarta usque ad solis occasum pugnabatur. 7. Utrosque et laudis cupidi- tas* et timor ignominiae^ ad virtutem excitabat. 8. Sed multa Caesarem tamen ad id bellum incitabant: iniuria retentorum equitum,® rebellio' facta post deditionem, tot civitatum coniuratio. 9. Domum reditionis* spes sublata est. 10. Hostes castris satis praesidi relinquebant. 1 Between the single legions, i. e., between each two. ' Sarcina, -ae, f., pack, i. e., baggage carried by a soldier on the march. ^ Triplex, -icis, adj., TRIPLE. ^ Cupiditas, -tatis, f., desire. ' Ignominia, -ae, f., onit, ut, quae agat, quibuscum loquatur, scire possit. 6. Quid sul consill sit, ostendit. 7. Satis esse causae arbitrabatur quare aut ipse in eum animadverteret aut civi- tatem animadvertere iuberet. 8. Vehementer eos accusavit; primum quod aut quam in partem aut quo consilio ducerentur sibi quaerendum aut cogitandum putarent. ^ The pf. ptc. of a deponent may take a dir. obj. ^ Gerundive. ^ Gerund with obj.; note the occurrence of the two constructions in the same clause: both are gen. depending on spatio. * Ne ... an ... an; 382, II. 448. 1. I do not know why they ^ are departing. 2. Caesar showed me what his plan was. 3. I do not know whether I shall go or stay. 4. Find out^ what is the nature of the place that the enemy have chosen for a camp. 5. The tenth legion had never inquired by what plan it was being led. 6. But it always wished to know where the enemy was. * Use cogndsco. LESSON LXXV. RELATIVE SENTENCES. 449. Mode Syntax of the Relative Sentence. No relative word can exert any influence upon the mode of the verb of its clause: it merely represents its antecedent. Only an outside influence or a need within the clause can make the verb of a relative clause subjunctive. Rule A. — When the relative clause states a fact concerning the antecedent, its verb is in the indicative. Rule B. — ^When, however, L Another verb imposes its force upon the verb of the relative clause, or when, IL The verb of the relative clause is governed by a sub- ordinate conjunction which takes the subjunctive, or when, III. The relative clause forms a part of a subjunctive condition, or when, IV. The verb of the relative clause is compelled to ex- press by itself some idea other than, or additional to, a fact, it stands in the subjunctive mode. 450. Remarks. — 1. On 449, B, I. A verb may impose its force on a relative clause — ' (a) By indirect discovirse. (6) By attraction. A relative clause included within another clause whose verb is subjunctive often has its own verb subjunctive for no apparent reason, e. g.: dat negotium Gallis uti ea quae apud eos gerantur, cognbscant, he charges the Gauls to find out those things which were going on among them, 229 230 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 2. On 449, B, IV. The necessities of expression laid upon the verb of a relative clause may be: (a) Purpose (399, II); (6) Result (407, II); (c) Cause (422, II); (rf) Concession (423, II); (e) Characteristic. Here the relative clause expresses some quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent (especially if nega- tive or interrogative), or an action or state inferable from it, e. g.: ea, qtiae ad proficiscendum pertinerent, things which (i. c., s^ich things as) pertained to their departure; unus ego sum ^m adduci non potuerim, / am the oidy one who {owing to firmness of character) could not be induced; non longius aberant quam quo telum adici posset, they were no farther away than a javelin could be hurled. 451. VOCABULARY. adhuc, adv., hitherto. compleo, -plere, -plevi, -pletum, coUigo, -ere, -leg^, -lectum, col- fill, complete. LECT. dedo, -ere, -didi, -ditum, sur- render. 452. 1. Acctisabant reliquos Belgas qui se populo Rom- ano dedidissent atque virtutem proiecissent. 2. His rebus cognitis, exploratores praemittit, qui locum idoneum castris deligant. 3. Erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus domo exire possent. 4. Hoc re concessa, parvis arboribus collectis, quibus fossas Romanorum compleant,' ad castra contendunt. 5. Volusenus, perspectis regionibus omnibus, quantum ei facultatis dari potuit- qui navi egredi non auderet, ad Caesarem refertitur. 6. Neque adhuc repertus est quis- quam qui mortem recusaret. 7. Unus ego sum qui adduci non potuerim ut liberos meos obsides dem. 8. Ratio con- fecta erat qui numerus domo exisset eorum qui arma ferre possent. 1 Quibus . . . compleant, with which to fill up. ^ So far as oppor- tunity could be given to him; lit., as mu^h of opportunity as. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. The Helvetian War. These selections contain the somewhat simplified text of Caesar's account of his first campaign in Gaul in the early summer of 58 B. C. Caius Julius Caesar has left a greater impress on the world than any man that ever lived. It is safe to say that, but for Caesar, our own country would not be what it is to-day; for Caesar determined the civilization from which ours has sprung. Stories of battle, adventure, and exploration are always fascinating; and Caesar's own truthful and convincing narrative of his brilliant military operations in the vast wilderness of western Europe, cam- paigns embracing in their scope Gaul, Germany, and England, cannot fail to be of interest. Gaul and its tribes. 1. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui^ ipsorum^ lingua Celtae, nostra^ Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, instittitis, legibus inter se differunt. Horum 5 omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propter ea* quod a cultti atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, mini- meque^ ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea, quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent, important, proximique sunt Germanis qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum 10 continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere Chapter I. — ^ Supply an antecedent, those who. ^ Their own. ^ Refers back to lingua, in ours. * Compound conjunction formed of propter ea quod, on account of this, because; translate simply because. ^ minime modifies saepe, least often. 23X 232 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. cotidianis proelils cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suls finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. No special vocabularies are given to these exercises: the student must rely on the general vocabulary at close of book. The Ambitions of Orgetorix. 2. Apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit Orgetorix. Is, regni cupiditate inductus, coniurationem nobilitatis fecit et civitati persuasit ut de finibus suis cum omnibus copiis exirent:* ** Pcrfacile est," dixit, " cum virtute om- 6 nibus praestemus, totius Galliae imperio potiri." Id^ hoc facilius eis persuasit, quod undique loci natura Helvetii continentur : una ex parte^ flumine Rheno, latissimo atque altissimo, qui agrum Helvctium a Germanis dividit; 10 altera ex parte monte lura altissimo, qui est inter Se- quanos et Helvetios; tertia,* lacu Lemanno et flumine Rhodano, qui provinciam* nostram ab Helvetiis dividit. Discontent of the Helvetii. His rebus fiebat ut et minus late vagarentur et minus facile finitimis bellum inferre possent; qua* ex parte homines bellandi cupidi' magno dolore afficiebantur. Pro^ multitudine autem hominum et pro gloria belli 5 atque fortitudinis angustos se fines habere arbitrabantur, qui in longitudinem milia passuum CCXL, in latitudinem CLXXX patebant. Chapter 2. — ^Purpose clause, obj. of persuasit. ^ Ace. obj. of persuasit; eis is ind. obj. and hoc a cause abl., he persuaded them of this (lit., this to them) more easily for this reason. ^ On one side. * Sc. ex parte. ^ The Romans before Caesar's time had already seized and settled the entire Mediterranean coast of Gaul and had pushed north- ward to Lake Leman (Geneva) and westward beyond the line of the Rhone to the Cevennes Mountains, •qua ex parte; an idiom, for which reason. ' Nom. pi., agrees with homines and governs the gen, gerimd bellandi. * Pro, for; i. e., in proportion to. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 233 The Helvetii begin their preparations. 3. His rebus adducti et auctoritate Orgetorigis per- moti, constituerunt ea quae ad proficiscendum pertin- erent comparare, iumentorum et carrorum quam^ maximum numerum coemere, sementes quam maximas 5 facere, ut in itinere copia frumenti esset, cum proximis civitatibus pacem et amicitiam confirmare. Ad eas res conficiendas biennium sibi satis esse existimaverunt : in^ tertium annum profectionem lege conflrmant. The mission of Orgetorix. Ad eas res conficiendas Orgetorix deligitur. Is sibi legationem ad civitates suscepit. In eo itinere persuadet Castico, Sequano, cuius pater regnum in Sequanis multos annos obtinuerat et a senatu populi Roman! amrcus 5 appellatus erat, ut regnum in civitate sua occuparet,^ quod pater ante habuerat. Itemque Dumnorigi Haeduo, fratrl DiviciacI, qui eo tempore principatum in civitate obtinebat ac maxime plebi acceptus erat, persuadet ut idem conaretur, eique filiam suam in matrimonium dat. Arguments of Orgetorix and result of his mission. Haec illis probat: perfacile factti est conata perficere, propterea quod ipse suae civitatis imperium obtenturus est;^ non est dubium quin totius Galliae Helvetii plurimum^ possint;** ipse suis copiis suoque exercitti illis' regna con- 5 ciliaturus est. Hac oratione adducti, inter se fidem et ius^ iurandum dant et, regno occupato, totius Galliae imperio sese potiri posse sperant. Chapter 3. — ^ Adv., 161, c. ^ xhe time in the future for which arrangement is made is expressed by in with ace, for the third year. 3 Persuadet, as historical present, here takes secondary sequence; 235, I, e. * Fut. periphrastic, was going to seize. ^ Adverbial ace. of ex- tent. ® Governed by quin after a neg. expression of doubt. ' Dat. for them. ^ ius iurandum, an oath; a cpd. neut. ndun of which both members are declined: Gen., iuris iurandi. 234 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Plot of Orgetorix discovered. His trial and rescue. 4. Ea res Helvetiis est enuntiata. Moribus^ suis Orgetorigem ex vinculis causam dicere coegerunt; eum^ damnatum poenam sequi oportebat, ut igni cremaretur. Die^ constituta causae dictionis Orgetorix ad iudicium 5 omnem suam familiam, ad hominum milia decern, iin- dique coegit et omnes clientcs suos, quorum magnum numerum habebat, eodem conduxit: per eos, ne causam diceret, se eripuit.* Death of Orgetorix. Cum civitas, ob eam rem incitata, armis ius suum ex- sequi conaretur multitudinemque hominum ex agrls magistratus cogerent, Orgetorix mortuus est; neque abest suspicio, ut Helvetii arbitrantur, quin ipse sibi 5 mortem consciverit. The Helvetii continue their preparations for a national migration. 5. Post eius mortem nihilo minus Helvetii id, quod constituerant, facere conantur, ut e finibus suis exeant.^ Ubi iam se ad eam rem paratos esse arbitrati sunt, op- pida sua omnia, numero ad duodecim, vicos ad quadrin- 5 gentos, reliqua privata aedificia incendunt: frumentum omne, praeterquam quod secum portaturi erant, com- Chapter 4. — ^ In accordance tvith their custotns; 340, I, a. - Seqm with its subj., poenam, follows oportebat (304, a); eum, hitn, refers to Orgetorix and is obj. of sequI; damnatum, a pf. ptc. with conditional sense, agrees with eum; the ut clause explains poenam and is in api)Osi- tion with it (412, 2): if condemned, it was necessary that the penalty fall upon (lit., follow) him, that he be burned with fire. ^ On the ap- pointed day of the pleading of the case. * He escaped (lit., rescued himr self), that he might not plead his case. Chapter 5. — ^ Explanatory clause in apposition with id. 1 . The narrow and difficult pass through which wagons could scarcely be hauled in single file. 2. Bluffs along the Rhone: here no fortification was needed. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED BEADING. 235 burunt, ut domum reditionis spe sublata paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda essent: trium mensium^ molita cibaria sibi quemque domo efferre iubent. Persuadent 10 finitimis uti,^ eodem usf consilio, una cum iis proficis- cantur. The Routes available for the journey. 6. Erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus^ domo exlre possent:^ unum per Sequanos, augustum et difficile, inter montem luram et flumen Rhodanum, vix qua^ sin- guli carri ducerentur; mons autem altissimus impendebat, 5 ut facile perpauci prohibere possent:* alterum per pro- vinciam nostram, multo facilius atque expeditius, prop- terea quod inter fines Helvetiorum et Allobrogum, qui nuper pacati erant, Rhodanus ifluit isque nonnullis locis vado transitur. The Helvetii negotiate for the easier route. Extremum oppidum Allobrogum proximumque Hel- vetiorum finibus est Genava: ex eo oppido pons ad Hel- vetios pertinet. '' Allobrogibus vel persuadebimus, quod nondum bono animo^ in populum Romanum videntur,'' 5 existimabant Helvetii, *' vel vi cogemus, ut per suos fines nos Ire patiantur." Omnibus rebus ad profectionem comparatis, diem dicunt, qua die ad ripam Rhodani omnes conveniant.® Caesar takes measures to prevent the migration. 7. Ita Helvetii per provinciam nostram iter facere conabantur. Caesari cum id nuntiatum esset, mattirat Chapter 5. — ^ Gen. of measure; ground grain for three months. ^ A fre- quent form of ut. 3 Having adopted the same plan; pf . ptc. of utor. Chapter 6. — ^ The antecedent is sometimes repeated in the relative clause; it need not be translated. ^ May be regarded as either rel. characteristic or rel. purpose. ^ Adv., where. * Result clause. ^ Well disposed; lit., of good mind, abl. quality. ® They should all come, the purpose for which the day was named. 236 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. ab urbe proficisci et quam maximis potest itineribus* in Galliam ulteriorem contendit et ad Genavam porvenit. 5 Provinciae^ toti quam maximum potest militum numerum imperat (erat omnino in Gallia ulteriore legio una); pontem qui erat ad Genavam iubet rescind!. The Helvetian commissioners meet Caesar. Ubi de eius adventu Helvetii ccrtiores facti sunt, legatos ad eum mittunt, nobilissimos civitatis, cuius legationis Nammeius et Verucloetius principem locum obtincbant, qui dicerent: " Helvetiis^ est in animo sine ullo maleficio 5 iter per provinciam f acere, propterea quod aliud iter habent nullum. Rogant ut tua voluntate id sibi facere liceat." Caesar craftily plays for time. Caesar, quod memoria tenebat L. Cassium* consulem occisum exercitumque eius ab Helvetiis pulsum et sub iugum missum, concedendum^ non putabat; nam certe, existimabat, homines inimico animo, data facultate per provinciam itincris faciendi, iniuriam et maleficium 5 facient. Tamcn, ut spatium intercedere posset, dum milites, quos imperaverat, convenirent, legatis respondit: " Diem ad deliberandum sumam. Si quid vultis, re- vertimini." Caesar prepares to check the Helvetii. 8. Interea ea legione, quam secum habebat, militibus- que, qui ex provincia convcnerant, a lacu Lemann5 qui in flumen Rhodanum influit ad montem luram qui fines Sequanorum ab Helvetiis dividit, milia passuum Chapter 7. — * By the very longest marches he is able (to make). ^ Dat. ind. obj. of imperat. ^ Dat. of reference or possessor. * Because he held in memory L. C, the consul, slain and his army routed, etc. ^ Inf. of passive periphrastic, esse omitted. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 237 6 decern novem, murum in altitudinem pedum sedecim fossamque perducit. Eo opere perfecto, praesidia dis- ponit, castella communit, quo^ facilius, si se invito^ transire conarentur,^ prohibere possit. Caesar refuses to permit the march. The Helvetii at- tempt to force the passage of the Rhone, and fail. Ubi ea dies/ quam constituerat cum legatis, venit et legatl ad eum reverterunt, dicit: '' More et exemplo populi Romani iter ulli per provinciam dare non possum; et si vim facere conabimini, vos prohibebo." Helvetii, 6 ea spe deiecti, navibus iunctis ratibusque compltiribus factis, alii vadis Rhodani, qua minima altitudo fluminis erat, nonnumquam interdiu, saepius noctu, si^ perrumpere possent conati sunt; sed operis mdnitione et militum con- 10 cursu et telis repulsi, hoc conatu destiterunt. Dumnorix secures for the Helvetii permission to march through the country of the Sequani. 9, Relinquebatur una per Sequanos via, qua Sequanis invitis propter angustias ire non poterant. His cum sua sponte persuadere non possent, legates ad Dumnorigem Haeduum mittunt, ut a Sequanis impetrarent. Dum- 5 norix gratia apud Sequanos plurimum poterat et Helvetiis erat amicus, quod ex ea civitate Orgetorigis filiam in matrimonium dtixerat; et cupiditate regni adductus no vis rebus studebat. Itaque rem suscipit et a Sequanis im- petrat, ut^ per fines suos Helvetios ire patiantur, obsidesque 10 uti inter sese dent, perficit: Sequani, ne itinere Helvetios prohibeant; Helvetii, ut sine maleficio et iniuria transeant. Chapter 8. — ' 399, I, 3. ^ ^bl. abs.; against his will, lit., he (being) unwilling. ^ Conarentur takes sequence from the meaning of the his- torical presents disponit and communit as tenses of past time; possit, from their /orm. "* Dies is sometimes fem. " Si = whether, an ind. quest. Chapter 9. — ^ A result clause, obj. of impetrat. 238 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Danger to the province in the movements of the Helvetii. 10. Helvetiis erat in animo per agrum Sequanorum et Haeduorum in Santonum fines iter facere, qui non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitas est in pro- vincia. Ea res Caesari renuntiatur. Id si fiat/ magno 5 cum periculo provinciae sit/ ut^ homines bellandi cupidos, popull Roman! inimicos, locis patentibus maximeque frumentariis finitimos"^ habeat. Caesar prepares for war. Ob eas eausas ei munitioni, quam fecerat, T. Labienum legatum praefecit; ipse in Italiam magnis itineribus con- tendit duasque ibi legiones conscribit et tres, quae circum Aquileiam hiemabant, ex hibemis educit et, qua proximum 5 iter in ulteriorem Galiiam per Alpes erat, cum his quinque legionibus ire contendit. The march through the Alps. Ibi Ceutrones, locis superioribus occupatis, itinere exercitum prohibere conantur. His pulsis compluribus proeHis, ab Ocelo, quod est oppidum citerioris provinciae extremum, in fines Vocontiorum ulterioris provinciae die 5 septimo pervenit; inde in Allobrogum fines, ab Allo- brogibus in Segusiavos exercitum ducit. Hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi. The Helvetii ravage the lands of the Haedui, who appeal to Ccesar. 11. Helvetii iam per angustias et fines Sequanorum suas copias traduxerant et in fines Haeduorum pervener- Chapter 10. — ^ Less vivid fut. condition. ^ That it (i.e., the province) ahmdd have; this clause is subj. of sit. ^ Pred. appos. of homines. 1. Where the Helvetii crossed the river : here Caesar overtook and annihilated the contingent of the canton Tigurinus. 2. Scene of the close of the final battle. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 239 ant eorumque agros populabantur.^ Haedui, cum se suaque ab eis defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem 6 mittunt rogatum auxilium. ^'Ita nos omni tempore de^ populo Romano merit! sumus," dixerunt, " ut, paene in conspectu vestri exercitus, agri nostrl vastarl, llberi in servittitem abduci, oppida expugnarl non debuerint." Other tribes also ask aid. Eodem tempore Ambarri Caesarem certiorem faciunt de agris suls vastatis.^ " Non facile," dicunt, " ab oppidls vim hostium prohibemus." Item Allobroges, qui trans Rhodanum vicos possessionesque habebant, fuga se ad 6 Caesarem recipiunt et demonstrant: '^ Nobis praeter agri solum nihil est reliqui."* Quibus rebus adductus, Caesar non exspectandum sibi^ statuit, dum,^ omnibus fortunis sociorum consumptis, in Santonos Helvetii pervenirent. The Helvetii attempt the passage of the Arar. 12. Flumen est Arar, quod per fines Haeduorum et Sequanorum in Rhodanum iufluit, incredibili lenitate, ita ut oculis in utram partem fluat, iudicari non possit. Id Helvetii ratibus ac lintribus transibant. Caesar surprises them. Tres iam partes^ copiarum Helvetii id flumen^ tradux- erant; quart a fere pars citra flumen Ararim reliqua erat.^ Ubi per exploratores Caesar certior factus est, de tertia vigilia cum legionibus tribus e castris profectus, ad eam Chapter 1 1 . — ^ Note the" variation in tense and translate accordingly. 2 Translate o/ or from. ^ About their ravaged lands. * Nothing is left to us; lit., there is nothing of remaining (property). ^ Dat. agent. ^UntU;4:18, I, 1. Chapter 12.— ^ Ace. dir. obj. 2309, m. 3 ^^s left. 240 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 5 partem pervenit quae nondum flumen transierat. Eos impeditos et inoplnantes aggressus, magnam partem eorum concidit. Reliqui sese fugae mandaverunt atque in proximas silvas abdiderunt. A timely vengeance. Is pagus appellabatur Tigurinus; nam omnis civitas Helvetia in quattuor pagos divisa est. Hie pagus unus, cum domo exisset patrum nostrorum memoria/ L. Cassium consulem interfecerat et eius exercitum sub iugum 6 miserat. Ita sive casu sive consilio deorum immortalium, quae pars" civitatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps^ poenas persolvit. Caesar bridges the Arar and overtakes the Helvetii. 13. Hoc proelio facto, ut reliquas copias Helvetiorum consequi posset, pontem in Arari faciendum curat atque ita exercitum traducit. Helvetii, repentino eius adventu commoti, cum id, quod ipsi diebus vigintl aegerrime^ 5 confecerant ut flumen translrent , ille uno die fecisset,^ legates ad eum mittunt; cuius legationis Divico princeps fuit, qui bello Cassiano^ dux Helvetiorum fuerat. DivicOj chief of the Helvetian envoys, speaks threateningly in the negotiations with Caesar. Is ita cum Caesare egit: *' Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in earn partem ibunt atque ibi Chapter 12. — ^ Time within which; in the memory of. -The ante- cedent noun frequently stands in the relative clause, being represented in the principal clause by a demonstrative pronoun, here ea: trans- late, that part . . . ivhich . . . ^ Here an ad]. , first. Chapter 13. — ^ Superl. of aegre, imth the utmost difficidiy. ^ Governed by cum: id is the dir. obj. ^ /^ ijig y^j. y^m^ Cassius; lit., in the Capstan loar: note the use of an adj. here. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED HEADING. 241 eriint^ Helvetil, ubi tu, Caesar, eos constitueris^ atque esse volueris:^ sin bello persequi perseverabis, reminis- 6 cere^ et veteris incommodi'^ populi Romani et pristinae virtutis'' Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus es, cum ii, qui flumen transierant, suls auxilium f erre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut tuae virtuti magno- pere tribueris^ aut nos despexerls.^ Nos ita a patribus mai- 10 oribusque nostris didicimus, ut magis virttite contendamus quam dolo aut Insidiis nitamur. Quare noli* committere, ut hie locus ubi constiterimus' ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exercittis nomen capiat aut memoriam prodat." Caesar^s reply to Divico. 14. His Caesar ita respondit: " eo^ mihi minus dubita- tionis datur, quod eas res quas vos commemoravistis memoria teneo : atque eo^ gravius f ero^ quo^ minus merito populi Romani acciderunt; qui si alicuius iniuriae sibi 6 conscius f uisset,* non f uit difficile cavere : sed eo deceptus Chapter 13. — * And there be; i. e., remain. ^ Fut. pf. indie. ^ Imv. *Obj. of remlniscere ; verbs of remembering and forgetting govern the gen. ^ pf ^ subjunc. in a prohibition; 380, III; a. « 380, III., h. ' Where we shall have made our stand; i. e., for the final battle: we refers to the Helvetii, not to Divico and Caesar. Chapter 14. — ^ For this reason, abl. of cause; the quod clause is ap- positive to eo. ^ Abl. of degree of difference, and used correlatively; 376. 3 Graviter ferre, lit., to bear seriously, means to be indignant, angry, grieved: and I am the (eo; lit., by this) more indignant, the (quo; lit., by which) less they (i. e., these things, mentioned above) have happened by the merit of the Roman people: the idea is that the Romans did not deserve such treatment from the Helvetii. * This conditional sentence has its protasis of one class (past contrary to fact) and its apodosis of another (simple past): such mixed conditions often occur both in Latin and in English : translate. For if they had been conscious of any injury, it was not dificult to be on their guard. Qui si is literally if who: qui is sing, referring to populi Romani, but is translated plural because people, though sing, in Latin, is usually used as plural in English. 16 242 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. est, quod* neque quicquam commissum a se intellegebat quare timeret, neque sine causa timendum putabat. Quod SI veteris contumeliae oblivlsci vellem,^ num etiam reeentium iniuriarum memoriam deponere possum 10 quod me invito iter per provinciam per vim temptas- tis,^ quod Haeduos, quod Ambarros, quod Allobroges vexastis? Quod* vestra victoria tarn Insolenter gloria- mini quod* que tam diu vos impune iniurias intulisse ad- miramini, eodem pertinet. Consuerunt^ enim dii* im- 15 mortales, quo gravius homines ex commutatione rerum doleant, his, quos pro scelere ulcisci velint,' secundiores res* et diuturniorem impunitatem interdum concedere.* Cum haec ita sint, tamen si obsides a vobis mihi dabun- tur,*** uti ea quae polliceamini" facturos intellegam, et 20 si Haeduis de iniuriis quas ipsis sociisque eorum intuHstis item si Allobrogibus satisfacietis, v5biscum pacem faciam." Sudden termination of the negotiations. Divico respondit: " Ita Helvetii a maioribus suis insti- tuti sunt, uti obsides accipere, non dare, consuerint: eius rei populus Romanus est testis." Hoc responso dato, discessit. Chapter 14. — * Because they neither knew thai anything had been done by them why they should fear: populus, rendered plural in English, is still the subject. Quare is a rel. and interrog. causal conjunction : it is also written qua re, which then becomes a mere causal abl. ^ A mixed condition; pres. contrary to fact, and simple pres.: but if I were willing (as I am not) . . . , can I . . . f ^ For temptavistis. * The two quod clauses are subjects of pertinet, which remains singular because the two acts constitute one offense, vos is subject of intulisse, and because you pride jjoursclves on having inflicted; lit., wonder to have inflicted. ^ For consuevenmt: the pf. of consuesco is used preteritively; 294, d. • Nom pi. of deus. '^ Rel. characteristic; to such men (his) as they may urish to punish. ^ Secundiores res, greater prosperity. ^ Complementary inf. to consuenmt. *" A vivid future condition with two protases, dabuntiu* and satisfacietis. ^^ Subjunc. depending on facturos intelle- gam; vos the subject of facturos, is omitted as well as esse. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 243 Caesar pursues the Helvetii. 15. Posters die castra ex eo loco movent. Idem facit Caesar, equitatumque omnem, ad numerum quat- tuor milium, quem habebat, ex omnI provincia et Haeduls atque eorum socils coactum, praemittit qui videant^ 5 quas in partes hostes iter faciant. Qui cupidius no- vissimum agmen insecuti alieno loco cum equitatu Helvetiorum proelium committunt; et pauci de nostris cadunt. Quo^ proelio sublati Helvetii, quod quingentis equi- 10 tibus tantam multitudinem equitum propulerant, au- dacius consistere nonnumquam et novissimo agmine proelio nostros lacessere coeperunt. Caesar suos a proelio continebat, ac satis habebat hostem maleficio et iniuria prohibere. Ita dies^ circiter quindecim iter 15 fecerunt uti inter novissimum hostium agmen et nostrum primum non magnum spatium interesset. Caesar censures the Haedui for failing to furnish grain. 16. Interim cotidie Caesar Haeduos^ frumentum^ quod essent publice poUiciti flagitare.^ Nam propter frigora, non modo frumenta in agris matura non erant, sed ne pabuli quidem satis magna copia suppetebat;^ 5 eo autem f rumento^ quod flumine Arari navibus subvexerat propterea minus uti poterat, quod iter ab Arari Helvetii Chapter 15. — ^ Sends ahead to see, rel. cl. of purpose. ^ Elated hy this battle; the rel, pron. at beginning of a sentence, relating to something previously mentioned, is often best translated by a demonstrative. ^ Ace. extent of time. Chapter 16, — ^ Ace. of person and thing after verbs of asking, ^ Caesar daily demanded of the Haedui the grain which, etc.; historical infinitive. 3 But there was on hand not even a sufficiently large supply of forage. * Abl. obj. of uti. 244 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. averterant, a quibus discedere nolebat. Diem ex die du- cere^ Haedui; conferrl,^ comportarl,^ adesse^ dlcere.^ Ubi se diutius duel intellexit et diem instare quo die 10 frumentum mllitibus dari oporteret, convocatis eorum prlncipibus, quorum magnam copiam in castrls habebat, — in his Diviciaco et Lisco, qui summo magistratul pracerat quem vergobretum appellant Haedui, qui creatur annuus et vitae mortisque in suos habet potestatem, — graviter 15 eos accusat, quod, cum frumentum neque emi neque ex agrls sumi posset, tam necessario tempore, tam propinquis hostibus,^ ab els non sublevetur;* praesertim cum magna ex parte eorum precibus adduetus bellum susceperit, multo etiam gravius quod sit destitutus queritur. Liscus blames the delay upon a party opposed to the Romans. 17. Tum demum Liscus oratione Caesaris adduetus quod' antea tacuerat proponit: ** Esse^ nonnullos quorum auctoritas apud plebem plurimum valeat, qui privatim plus possint quam ipsi magistratus. Hos multitudinem 5 deterrere ne frumentum conferant quod debeant: prae- stare,^ si iam prlncipatum Galliae obtinere non possint/ Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia perferre;* neque Chapter 16. — ^ Historical inf. ^ Infinitives depending on dicere: the subject of these infinitives is it; i. e., the grain: they said thai it was being gathered, that it was on the way (lit., being carried), that it was nearly there (lit., it was near). ^ Abl. abs. of attendant circumstance, with the enemy so near. * Governed by quod : the alleged ground of complaint. Chapter 17. — ' Rel. pron., what, used as in English, including its own antecedent; the full form would be id quod, that which. ^ There are some; the subject is nonnullos. ^ The two clauses of a simple condition; the apodosis has become infinitive, the protasis subjunctive, by reason of the ind. disc. * Inf. subject of praestare; it is better . . . to endure EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 245 dubitare quln, si Helvetios superaverint^ Romani, una cum reliqua Gallia Haeduls llbertatem sint erepturi. 10 Ab eisdem nostra consilia quaeque^ in castris gerantur hostibus enuntiari; hos a se coerceri non posse. Quin^ etiam, quod necessario rem coactus Caesari enuntiarit, intellegere sese quanto id cum periculo fecerit, et ob earn causam quam diti potuerit tacuisse." Caesar suspects that Dumnorix is chiefly responsible: Liscus admits it. 18. Caesar hac oratione Lisci Dumnorigem, Divi- ciaci fratrem, designari sentiebat; sed, quod pluribus* praesentibus eas res iactari nolebat, celeri^er concilium dimittit, Liscum retinet. Quaerit ex solo ea quae in 5 conventu dixerat. Dicit liberius atque audacius. Eadem secreto ab alils quaerit; reperit esse vera: " Ipse est Dumnorix, summa audacia, magna apud plebem propter liberalitatem gratia, cupidus rerum novarum. Complures annos omnia Haeduorum vectigalia habet,^ parvo pretio^ 10 redempta,'* propterea quod illo licente^ contra liceri audet nemo. His rebus et suam rem familiarem® auxit et facultates ad largiendum magnas comparavit; magnum numerum equitatus suo sumptu^ semper alit et circum se habet neque solum domi sed etiam apud f mitimas civitates Chapter 17. — ^ A vivid future condition in ind. disc; superaverint in the direct discourse was fut. pf., erepturi sint is forced into the sub- junctive by quin following the verb of doubt. ^ Interrog. pron., quae H — que, and what goes on in the camp. ^ Indeed, because compelled by necessity he has told the thing to Caesar. Chapter 18. — ^ Abl. abs., when too many (161, a) were present. ^ Pres- ent because the act continues into present time: in English we should say, for many years he has held. ^ Abl. of price. * Bought in, the in- iquitous custom of private part^ies buying the privilege of levying taxes was a feature of the age. ^ Abl. abs. ; when he bids, no one dares bid against him: the crushing of competition is by no means a modern in- vention. ^ Rem familiarem, private fortune. 246 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 15 plurimiun potest; ipse ex Helvetils uxorem habet. Favet Helvetiis propter earn affinitatem, odit etiam suo nomine Caesarem et Romanos, quod eorum adventu potentia eius deminuta et Diviciacus frater in antiquum locum gratiae atque honoris sit restitutus/ Si quid accidat^ Romanis, 20 summam in spem per Helvetios regni obtinendi venit; imperio^ populi Roman! non modo de regno, sed etiam de ea quam habeat gratia, desf)erat." Caesar decides to punish DumnoriXj hut does not wish to wound the feelings of Diviciacus. 19. Quibus rebus cognitis, cum ad has suspiciones certissimae res^ accederent, — quod per fines Sequa- norum Helvetios traduxisset,^ quod obsides inter eos dandos curasset, quod a magistratu Haeduorum accusa- 6 retur, — satis esse causae arbitrabatur qua re in eum aut ipse animadverteret aut civitatem animadvertere iubcrct. His omnibus rebus unum repugnabat, quod^ Diviciaci fratris summum in populum Romanum studium, sum- mam in se* voluntatem, egregiam fidem, iustitiam, tem- 10 perantiam cognoverat: nam ne eius supplicio Divi- ciaci animum offenderet verebatur. Itaque prius quam quicquam conarctur, Diviciacum ad se vocarl iubet, et cum eo colloquitur; simul ostendit quae ipso praesente in concilio Gallorum de Dumnorlgc sint dicta, et quae 15 separatim quisque de eo apud se dixerit; petit atque Chapter 18. — ^ 422, I, 3, b; sit is to be taken both with deminuta and restitutus; an auxiliary is seldom repeated in a series of passive verbs. * A mixed condition, less vivid fut. and simple pres.; if anything should happen to the Romans, he comes into very great hope. ^ Under the rule of the Roman people, abl. of attendant circumstance. Chapter 19. — * Facts, in contrast with suspicions. ^ Attracted into subjunctive by the force of both accederent and esse arbitrabatur. 3 The quod clause is in apposition with unimi. * Himself; i. e., Caesar. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 247 hortatur ut sine eius offensione animi vel ipse de eo, causa cognita/ statuat vel civitatem statuere iubeat. At the request of Dividacus Caesar spares Dumnorix. 20. Diviciacus, multis cum lacrimis Caesarem com- plexus, orare coepit ne quid gravius in fratrem statueret: " Scire se illa^ esse vera, nee quemquam ex eo^ plus quam se doloris capere, propterea quod, cum ipse gratia pluri- 5 mum domi atque in reliqua Gallia atque ille minimum propter adulescentiam posset, ille per se crevisset; quibus opibus non solum ad minuendam gratiam sed paene ad perniciem suam uteretur; sese tamen et amore fraterno et existimatione vulgi commoveri. Quod si quid ei a 10 Caesare gravius accidisset, cum ipse eum locum amicitiae apud eum teneret, neminem existimaturum non sua voluntate factum; qua ex re futurum^ uti totius Galliae animI a se averterentur." Haec cum* pluribus verbis flens a Caesare peteret, 15 Caesar eius dextram prendit; consolatus rogat finem orandi faciat;^ tantf apud se eius gratiam esse ostendit uti et rei publicae iniuriam et suum dolorem eius voluntatf ac precibus condonet. Dumnorlgem ad se vocat, fratrem adhibet; quae in eo reprehendat ostendit; quae ipse intel- 20 legat, quae civitas queratur, proponit; monet ut in reliquum tempus omnes suspiciones vitet; praeterita se Diviciaco fratri condonare dicit. Dumnorlgi custodes ponit, ut quae agat, quibuscum loquatur, scire possit. Chapter 19. — ^ Abl., abs. after investigating the case. Chapter 20. — ^ Ace. pi. neut., subj. of esse; those things, i. e., the things that were said about Dumnorix. ^ From this; i. e., from the fact that they were true. ^ Fut. inf., esse omitted; from which thing it would happen (lit-, would be) that, etc.; the uti clause of result is the subj. of futurum. •* A conjunction governing peteret. ^ A substantive clause of purpose: the usual ut is omitted. ^ Gen. of indef. value. ' Dat. of reference. 248 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Caesar plans to attack the Helvetii from two sides. 21. Eodem die ab exploratoribus certior f actus hostes^ sub monte consedisse" milia passuum ab ipsius castrls octo, qualis esset natura montis et qualis in circuitu ascensus, qui cognoscerent misit. Renuntiatum est 5 facilem^ esse. De tertia vigilia T. Labienum cum duabus legionibus et els ducibus qui iter cognoverant, summum iugum montis ascendere iubet; quid sui consili sit ostendit. Ipse de quarta vigilia eodem itinere quo hostes ierant ad eos contendit, equitatumque omnem ante se mittit. 10 P. Considius, qui rei militaris peritissimus habebatur et in exercitu L. Sullae et postea in M. Crassi fuerat, cum exploratoribus praemittitur. The blunder of Considius frustrates the plan. 22. Prima luce, cum summus mons a Labieno tene- retur, ipse^ ab hostium castris non longius mille et quin- gentis passibus abesset, neque, ut postea ex captivis comperit, aut ipsius adventus aut Labieni cognitus esset, 5 Considius equo^ admisso ad eum accurrit; dicit montem quem a Labieno occupari voluerit ab hostibus teneri; id^ se a Gallicis armis atque signis cognovisse. Caesar suas copias in proximum collem subducit, aciem instruit. Labienus, ut erat ei praeceptum a Caesare ne proelium 10 committeret,* nisi ipsius copiae prope hostium castra Chapter 21. — ^ Ace. pi., subj. of consedisse: sub monte, at the foot of a mountain. ^ Inf. of ind. disc, depends on phrase certior factus. * Masc. as referring to the ascent, ascensus. Chapter 22. — ^ Ipse throughout this chapter refers to Caesar, Labienus being always mentioned by name. ^ With his horse at full speed; abl. abs. of attendant circumstance. ^ Id, this; i. e., the fact that the moun- tain was occupied by the enemy. * Caesar originally said, " Do not begin battle unless my forces have been seen, etc.": a simple condition. The verb of command, praeceptum erat, forces the original imperative into the subjunctive, and the protasis, i. c, the dependent, verb is also EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 249 visae essent, ut undique uno tempore in hostis impetus fieret, monte occupato nostros exspectabat proelioque abstinebat. Multo denique die^ per explora tores Caesar cognovit et montem a suis teneri et Helvetios castra 15 movisse et Considium timore perterritum quod non vidisset pro viso sibi renuntiasse." Eo die, quo con- suerat intervallo,^ hostes sequitur et milia passuum tria ab eorum castris castra ponit. Caesar turns toward Bibrade to get supplies. The Helvetii follow. 23. Postridie eius diei, quod omnino biduum supererat cum exercitui frumentum dari oporteret, et quod a Bib- racte, oppido Haeduorum longe maximo, non amplius milibus passuum XVIII aberat, rei frumentariae pro- 5 spiciendum existimavit; itaque iter ab Helvetils avertit ac Bibracte ire contendit. Ea res per fugitives equitum hostibus nuntiatur. Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Romanes discedere a se existimarent, eo^ magis quod pridie superioribus locis occupatTs, proelium non commisissent, 10 sive eo" quod re frumentaria intercludi posse confiderent, commutato consilio atque itinere converse nostros a novissimo agmine insequi ac lacessere coeperunt. attracted into the subjunctive: translate, Labienus, as had been com- manded him. by Caesar not to begin battle unless his own (i. e., Caesar's) forces had been seen, etc. ^ Multo die, late in the day. ^ Considius . . . had reported to him as seen what he had not seen. ^ At the accus- tomed interval; lit., at what interval he had been accustomed. Chapter 23. — ^ eo magis, the more for this reason. ^ Sive eo, or for this: two reasons are suggested for the change of plan of the Helvetii; this clause is the alternative to seu quod . . . existimarent, the clause eo magis quod . . . commisissent explaining the probable reason for their mistaken opinion: The Helvetii, either because they thought the Romans were going away from them panic stricken with fear, the more for this reason that on the day before, though they held the higher positions, they had not joined battle; or for this reason, because they believed that they (i. e., the Romans) could be cut off from supplies, etc. 250 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, Both armies prepare for battle. 24. Postquam id^ animum advertit, copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit equitatumque qui sustineret hostium impetum misit. Ipse interim in colle medio^ triplicem aciem instruxit legionum quat- 5 tuor veteranarum; sed in summo iugo duas legiones quas in Gallia citeriore proxime conscripserat et omnia auxilia collocarl, ac totum montem hominibus complerl, et in- terea sarcinas in tinum locum conferri, et eum ab his qui in superiore acie constiterant munlrl iussit. Helvetil cum 10 omnibus suls carris secuti, impedimenta in unum locum contulerunt; ipsi confertissima acie, reiecto nostro equi- tatu, phalange^ facta, sub* primam nostram aciem suc- cesserunt. Desperate battle with the Helvetii. 25. Caesar primum equo* suo remote deinde omnium equis ex conspectu remotis, ut aequato omnium perlculo' spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus suos proelium commlsit. Milites e loco superiore pills missis facile hostium phalan- 6 gem perfregerunt. Ea disiocta, gladils in eos impetum fecerunt. Gallls magno ad pugnam erat impedimento^ quod,* pluribus^ eorum scutis uno ictu pllorum transfixis, Chapter 24. — ' The phrase animum advertit here is equivalent to the verb animadvertit and takes an object, id: after he perceived this. 2 Half way up the hill. ^ The Gallic phalanx was a close order formation, the shields of the front rank held vertical, while those of the rest were held above their heads, overlapping like the shingles of a roof. The offensive power of the phalanx lay in mass and momentum only, thus bearing down and crushing the enemy's line : the opportunity for effec- tive use of weapons was slight. * Toward. Chapter 25. — ^ When he had removed from sight his own horse first and then had removed the horses of all. ^ By equalizing the danger of nil. ^ Dat. purpose or service. * The quod clause b the subj. of erat. ^ Abl. abs.; when sei^eral of their shields had been pierced by one blow of the javelins! See Chapter 24, note 3. The Romans took advantage of the weak point of the formation. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED READING. 251 sinistra impedita satis commode pugnare non poterant, ita ut multi mallent scutum manu emittere et nudo 10 corpore pugnare. Tandem vulneribus defessi et pedem referre et, quod mons aberat circiter mille^ passuum, eo se recipere coeperunt. Capto monte et succedentibus nos- trls, Boil et Tulingi, qui hominum milibus circiter XV agmen hostium claudebant^ et novissimis praesidio erant, 15 ex itinere nostros a^ latere aperto aggressi circum venire;* et id conspicati Helvetii, qui in montem sese receperant, rursus instare et proelium redintegrare coeperunt. Rom- am conversa^ signa bipartite intulerunt : prima et secunda acies, ut victis resisteret; tertia, ut venientes® sustineret. Their crushing defeat. 26. Ita ancipiti proelio diu atque acriter pugnatum est. Diutius cum sustinere nostrorum impetus non possent, alteri^ se, ut coeperant, in montem receperunt, alterl^ ad impedimenta et carros suos se contulerunt. Nam hoc 5 toto proelio, cum ab hora septima ad vesperum pugnatum sit, aversum^ hostem videre nemo potuit. Ad^ multam nocteni etiam ad impedimenta pugnatum est, propterea quod pro vallo carros obiecerant et e loco superiore in nostros venientes tela coniciebant. Diu cum esset 10 pugnatum, impedlmentis castrlsque nostrl potlti sunt. Chapter 25. — ^ mflle is here a noun, a rare usage. ^ Closed the enemy's column and served as the rear-guard; lit., were for a guard to the rear (men). ^ On the open flank; i. e., the right, as the left was protected by the shields. ^ Supply coeperunt from below. ^ A combination of two idioms: signa convertere is to wheel, face about; signa inferre is to charge, advance: The Romans wheeled and charged in two divisions; lit., bore forward their turned standards. * The oncoming force; i. e., the Boii and Tulingi. Chapter 26. — ^ The one force . . . the other; i. e., the Helvetii and the Boii and TuUngi. ^ xhe back of an enemy; lit., an enemy turned around. 3 Far into the night. 252 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Ibi Orgetorlgis filia atque iinus e^ fllils captus est. Ex eo proelio circiter hominum milia CXXX supcrfuerunt eaque tota nocte^ continenter ierunt: nuUam partem noctis itinere intermisso in fines Lingonum die quarto 15 pervenerunt, cum et propter vulnera mllitum et propter sepulturam occisorum nostri triduum moratl eos sequi non potuissent. Caesar ad Lingonas^ litteras nuntiosque misit ne eos frumento neve alia re iuvarent ; qui* si iuvis- sent, se eodem loco quo Helvetios habiturum. Ipse 20 triduo intermisso cum omnibus copiis eos sequi coepit. They surrender. Six thousand escape. 27. Helvetii omnium rerum inopia adducti legates de deditione ad eum miserunt. Qui^ cum cum in itinere convenissent seque ad pedes proiecisscnt suppliciterque locuti flentes pacem petissent, atque eos in eo loco quo turn 5 essent suum adventum exspectare iussisset, paruerunt. Eo postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides, anna, servos qui ad eos perfugissent poposcit. Dum e^ conquiruntur et conferuntur, nocte intermissa circiter hominum milia VI eius ptlgi qui Verbigenus ap- 10 pellatur, sive timore perterriti, ne armis traditis suppliciO afficerentur, sive spe salutis inducti, quod in tanta multi- tudine suam fugam aut occultari aut omnino ignorari posse existimarent, prima nocte^ e castris Helvetiorum egressi ad Rhenum finesque Germanorum contenderimt. Chapter 26. — * e (ex) with abl. may have the force of a partitive gen. and is regularly used after a cardinal numeral. ^ The whole of that night, time within which: an ace. of duration would seem more natural, but the idea is that at no time urithin the period named were they at rest. ^ Ace. pi., see Vocabulary. * The rel. pron. is often equivalent to a con- junction with a demonstrative; and if thetj (lit., if who) did assist them, he woidd regard them in the same cl-ass as (lit., in which) the Helvetii. The condition is vivid future (si iuveritis . . . habebo) forced into the ind. disc, by phrase litteras nuntiosque misit. Chapter 27. — ^ See Chapter 26, note 4 ; and when they had met him, etc. 2 Early in the night. EXERCISES IN CONNECTED HEADING. 253 The fugitives recaptured. Final dispositions. 28. Quod ubi Caesar comperit, quorum per finis ierant, his uti conquirerent et redticerent, si sibi^ pur- gati esse vellent, imperavit; reductos^ in hostium numero habuit; reliquos omnis, obsidibus, armis, perfugis traditis, 5 in deditionem accepit. Helvetios, Tulingos, Latobrigos in fines suos, unde erant profecti, reverti iussitf et quod, omnibus frumentis amissis, domi nihil erat quo* famem tolerarent, Allo- brogibus imperavit^ ut eis frumenti copiam facerent; 10 ipsos oppida vicosque, quos incenderant, restituere iussit. Id ea maxime ratione fecit, quod noluit eum locum unde Helvetii discesserant vacare, ne Germani, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, e suis finibus in Helvetiorum fines transirent, et finitimi Galliae provinciae Allobrogibusque 15 essent. Petentibus Haeduis, ut in finibus suis collo- carent Boios quod egregia virtute erant cogniti, concessit; quibus illi agros dederunt, quosque postea in parem iuris libertatisque condicionem atque^ ipsi erant receper- unt. Census of the tribes before and after their march. 29. In castris Helvetiorum tabulae repertae sunt litteris Graecis^ confectae et ad Caesarem relatae, quibus Chapter 28. — ^ Dat. of ref.; if they wished to be guiltless in his sight; lit., to him: vellent is attracted to the subjunc. by conqiurerent and reducerent. ^ Agrees with unexpressed obj. of habuit; when they were brought back he held them in the number of his enemies; i. e., executed them. ^ A fine opportunity to compare the constructions with iubeo and impero. * Abl. means; the anteced. is nihil; a rel. clause of purpose. ^ Atque (ac) after a word of comparison (here parem) means as: into the same (lit., an equal) condition of right and liberty as they themselves were. Chapter 29. — ^ In Greek letters; the language, of course, was the native Celtic. The Greek alphabet had become known in Gaul through the Greek colony at Marseilles. 264 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, in tabulis nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui* numerus domo exisset^ eorum qui arma ferre possent,' et item 5 separatim puerl,* senes mulieresque. Quarum omnium re- rum summa^ erat capitum® Helvetiorum milium CCLXIII, Tulingorum milium XXXVI, Latobrigorum XIIII, Raura- corum XXIII, Boiorum XXXII; ex his qui arma ferre pos- sent,^ ad milia XCII. Summa omnium fuerunt ad milia 10 CCCXVIII. Eorum qui domum redierunt censu habito, ut Caesar imperaverat, repertus est numerus milium C etX.' Chapter 29. — * Adj. form of the interrog. pron. ^ Ind. quest, after the phrase ratiS cdnfecta erat. ^ Rel. characteristic. * These nomi- natives seem rather loosely used : supply, had been counted. * A noun, the sum. ® Capitum Helvetiorum, lit., 263,000 heads of Helvetii, count- ing as we now count " head of cattle ": it is best to translate capitum, souls. ' Note the awful losses in ancient wars when hand-to-hand fighting prevailed. Even with the tremendously destructive weapons of modern warfare the casualties are but a fraction of those in the battles of Greek and Roman times. APPENDIX. In the Appendix are contained condensed tables of in- formation valuable in review and for comprehensive presenta- tion of principles. A. On Prepositions. Of the more common prepositions, a (ab^), cum, de, e (ex^), prae,pr6, sine, govern the ablative; in and sub govern accusative or ablative, according to their signification of motion or location respectively: most others govern the accusative only. The employment of prepositions in English is very ex- tensive, and correspondingly idiomatic. The student must take the greatest care in translating his English preposi- tions into Latin, examining them carefully to ascertain their force. When hesitating between the use of a preposition and a case-form, search for an idea of motion or location; if you find it, use the preposition; if not, use the case-form. A few examples may be useful: (a) By. — He was slain by Brutus; this expresses agency with passive voice, a with abl. He was killed hy a stone, means, abl. without any preposition. He informed Caesar hy messenger: agency with active voice, per with ace. He informed Caesar hy letter, means, abl. without preposition. He sat hy the river: nearness, ad with ace. He rode by the city: motion past, praeter with ace. * a and e are used only before consonants; ab and ex, before vowels and some consonants. 255 256 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. (6) For. — He sent for Cassius: a real verb idea, use verb to summon with direct object. He sent a messenger for Cassius, He sent a messenger to bring Cassius, an entire change of idiom. He died for love: cause, causal abl. or prae with abl. or propter with ace. He died for Rome; i. e., in behalf of Rome, pro with abl. He could not speak for weeping: a preventing obstacle, prae with abl. For that reason: cause, causal abl., propter or ob with ace, or de with abl. Their boundaries were too narrow for their numbers: proi)ortion, pr6 with abl. His crime was too great for pardon: a relative idiom, his crime ivas greater than which could be pardoned. To ask for \a to request or demand. (c) From. — He went from the city; e or a with abl., depending on whether he went oui of or from the vicinity of the city. He died from poison: cause, abl. He conceals froin, a double ace. idiom; so also he demands from. (d) With. — He went with Caesar: accompaniment, cum with abl. High heads with branching antlers: description, abl. case. He came with danger, cum. with abl. He came with ail his troops: military phrase, abl. without preposition. In general, the student must never lose sight of the fact that Latin words do not represent English words, but ideas. A given idea is the same the world over; but English expresses it one way, Latin another. i B. Stem Changes in Verb Formation. The following rules are to be understood to apply equally to the active and passive voices except when otherwise indi- cated. (a) Present Stem. 1. First conjugation. Stem vowel absorbed by ending in 1st sing. pr. ind., and unites with pr. subj. tense sign e to form e. 2. Second conjugation. No changes. 3. Third conjugation. In pr. ind., stem vowel absorbed by APPENDIX. 267 ending in 1st sing., changes to i in 2d (act. only) and 3d sing., 1st and 2d plur., and to u in 3d plur. In imp. ind., stem vowel becomes e before ba. In fut. ind. and pr. subj., stem vowel absorbed by tense sign. In imv., stem vowel changes to i, except in 2d sing, pr., where it remains, and 3d pi. fut., where it becomes u. In pr. inf. pass, stem vowel absorbed by ending. (a) Third in -io. Stem vowel i becomes e in pr. inf. act., 2d sing. pr. imv., 2d sing. pr. ind. pass., and in the imperf. subj.; u is added to stem in 3d pi. pr. ind. and 3d pi. fut. imv. e is added to stem in imperf. ind., and e in pr. ptc, gnd. and gndve. ptc. Stem vowel absorbed by ending of pr. inf. pass. 4. Fourth conjugation, u is added to stem vowel in 3d pi. pr. ind. and 3d pi. fut. imv. e is added to stem vowel in imp. ind., and e in pr. ptc, gnd. and gndve. ptc. (b) Perfect Stem. The perfect stem undergoes no changes except the occa- sional dropping of a final v and the resulting contraction. (c) Supine Stem. The supine stem undergoes no changes. Tense Sign Changes in Verb Formation. Ind. — ba, no change; bi, i absorbed by flexive in 1st sing., becomes e in 2d sing, pass., becomes u in 3d pi.; e in fut. ind. becomes a in 1st sing.; era, no change, eri, i absorbed by flexive in 1st sing. Subj. — e and a absorb stem vowel in 1st and 3d conj. respectively, elsewhere no change; re, no change; eri, no change; isse, no change. 17 258 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. C. Scheme of Formation of the Regular Verb. •^ • Indicative, ACTIVE. Passivs. Tense. Stem Tense used. Sign. Flexlve. Stem used. Tense Sign. Flexlve. Pres. pr. 0, 8, t. mas, tis, nt. pr. or, ris, or re, tar. mar,minT,ntur. Imperf. pr. ba m, 8, t. mas, tis, nt. pr. ba r,ri8,orre. tur. mttr,minr,ntur. Fut. pr. i., ii., bi 0, s, t, etc pr. !., iL, bi or,ri8,orre,tar, etc. iii., iv., e m, 8, t, etc. iii.. iv., e r, ris, or re, tur, etc. Perf. pf. T, isti, It. imus, istis, erunt, ere. ■p. us (-a, -urn), sum. Pluperf. pf. era m, 8, t, etc. sp. us (-a, -am), eram. Fut. Perf. pf. eri 0, I, t, etc. ■p. us (-a, -um), ero SUBJITNCTIVS. Pres. Imperf. pr. pr. i.,5; ii.,iii.,iv.,a re m, i, t. mus, tis, nt. m, 8, t, etc. pr. pr. i.,e; ii.,iii.,iv.,a re r, ris, or re, tur. mur,minT,ntar. r, ris, or re, tur, etc. U8(-a,-am),8im. ui (-a, -um), e88em. Perf. Pluperf. pf. pf. erl i886 m, 8, t, etc. m, 8, t, etc. sp. ■p. IMPERATIVX. Pres, pr. te. pr. re. mini. Fut. pr. to. to. , tote, nto. pr. tor, tor. , ntor. Infinitive. Pres. pr. re. pr. i.. iiy iv., ri. iii.. t Perf. pf. isse. ■p. us (-a, -am), esse. Fut. 8p. urus (-a, -um), esse. •p. um in. Participles. Pres. pr. ns (ntis). Fut. sp. urus, -a, -um. Perf. •p. us, -a, -um. Gerund. pr. ndas, -a, -am. Gerund. Supine. Case. Stem used. Tense Sign. Flexlve. Stem used. Tense Sign. Flexlve. Gen. Dat. pr. pr. pr. pr. ndi. ndo. ndum. ndo. Former. Latter. 8p. sp. um. u. Ace. Abl. APPENDIX. 259 Z2 g.g C C Ci C 0*0*0*0* n n a n P P P P I*- (0 B m m h^ H^ HJ ^Tj [-H H^ p p p p p p w CO to cr*o*o* W OT OT (D, (1)1 (1)1 2 2 CO 0*0* a 3-- 3' - 5-' S: ^ p p p p to CO 0*0* fb. p p en CO CO m OT P' CO U en C' 2IS so 2 crq (TQ crp OTQ -^ • ^o c B "* Crp CfP TO OfQ (W OTQ [ O (t (6 . OT CO CO "^ ►^ i-t >■ to CO CO P (ti Ol n o n CO 01 C» Ji •1 5 m m m p » Ct CO ^ TO TO CO CO en w TO TO (6 ct> m CO TO TO (t> II CO CO m C* CO B TO TO 3. Ol TO CO "* • TO a> OT CO r a> P CO TO »c 260 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. E. Classification of Verbs. (a) Transitive. (b) Intransitive. (c) Deponent. (d) Semi-deponent. 1. Directly. Audeo, gaudeo, soleo, confido. 2. Inversely. Reverter. (e) Irregular. Stun, prosum, possum, faro, e6, fid, void, nolo, maid (edo). (/) Defective. 1. Preteritive. Coepi, memini, ocK. 2. Other less common defectives, aid, inquam. (g) Impersonal. 1. Verbs admitting as subject only an infinitive or clause. 2. Passive of intransitives. 3. Verbs of feeling. 4. Verbs of natural phenomena. (h) Verb phrases. 1. Periphrastics. F. The Uses of Ut. (a) With the Indicative. 1. As a comparative conjunction of manner, with or with- out the correlatives sic, ita, etc. — e. g.: ita ut intra silvas aciem constituerant, precisely as they had arranged their line wilhin the forest. 2. As a restrictive conjunction of manner, e. g.: civitas florens, ut est captus Germanonun, a flourishing state, as is the idea of the Gertnans. APPENDIX. 261 3. As temporal particle, e. g.: in tabernaculo oppressus, ut meridie conquieverat, he was caught in his tent when he had gone to rest at midday. 4. As a causal particle, e. g.: horum auctoritate finitimi adducti, ut siint Gallorum subita consilia, their neighbors were induced by their example, because the character of the Gauls is impulsive. 5. As an interrogative conjunction of manner, how? e. g.: ut ea res colloquium deremit ? how did this break up the conference t 6. In parenthetic clauses, e. g.: Rhenum, ut demonstravimus, tangit, it borders the Rhine, as I said. (b) With the Subjunctive. 1. In purpose clauses, pure and substantive. 2. In result clauses, pure and substantive. 3. In appositive or explanatory clauses. 4. In negative clauses of fear. 5. In concessive clauses, e. g.: 1. nostri, ut impeditos aggrederentur, parati in armis erant, our men were ready under arms to attack them encumbered, his persuaderi, ut diu- tius morarentur, non poterat, these could not be persuaded to wait longer. 2. ita currus collocant, ut expeditum receptum habeant, they so place the chariots that they have a ready retreat. Ariovisius tantos sibi spiritus sumpserat, ut non ferendus videretur, Ariovistus had put on such airs that he seemed unendurable. 3. id, ut Galli belli renovandi consilium caperent, this fact, that the Gauls adopted the plan of renewing war. 4. Labienus veritus (est) ut hostium impetimi sustinere posset, Labi- enus feared he would not be able to withstand the enemy's attack. 5. ac iam, ut omnia contra opinionem acciderent, tamen se plurimum navibus posse perspiciebant, and now, though everything was happening contrary to their expectations, they realized that they were very strong in ships. 262 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. G. I. Personal. Table of Latin Pronouns. II. Possessive. 1. Simple. 2. Reflexive. 1. Ist pere. 2. 2d pers. 3. 3d pers. III. Demonstrative 1. Near. Remote, ^cak. IV. Relative. — Qui, quae, quod. Substantive rl. Ne . \ 2. Re 1 3. Wc Ist pers. ego; pi. nos. 2d pers. tu; pi. vos. 3d pers. Wanting; supplied when needed by a demonstrative, in simplest uses is. 1st pers. Oblique cases of ego, nos. 2d pers. Oblique eases of tu, vos. 3d pers. se, emph. sese; pi. same, r Singular possessor, meus. \ Plural possessor, noster. f Singular possessor, tuus. I Plural possessor, vester. Wanting; supplied by genitive of a demon- strative, in simplest uses eius, eorum. Singular possessor, suus. Plural possessor, suus. hie. 4. Of 2d pers. iste. ille. 5. Iterative, ipse, is. 6. Identical, idem. Simple. Reflexive. V. Interrogative. Quis, quae, quid. Adjective. — Qui, quae, quod. Emphatic. — Quisnam, quaenum, quidnam (quod- nam). 1. AUquis, simplest of the indefinites. 2. Quis, qua, quid, after si, ne, num. 3. Quidam, a certain, a definite one though unstated. 4. Quispiam, any. 5. 6. Quivis, quilibet, any you please, very indefinite. 7. Quisque, each. 8. Unusquisque ; emphatic, each and every one. 9. Uterque, either, both. ^ 10. Quisquam, any, any at all, chiefly in negative sentences. VII. Relative Indefinite. — Quicumque, quisquis, whoever. VHI. Reciprocal. — Inter nos, inter vos, inter se, each other. VI. In- definite. APPENDIX. 263 C^ a I H222 £ « <^ <^ fc cc o Q ^ ^ ^ ^ o I ^ kw CD tq toua {fii o ft. P glgg •§■§§§• gcg.- Oi s. i I g'S' f5 j'Se e^g§.5'g 264 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. /. Common Co-ordinate Conjunctions. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences of equal rank. They are: (a) Copulative, i. e., joining. et, and: et, . . . et, both . . . and: -que (enclitic), and, close union into a group: atque or ac, and, and also, emphasizing the second of the connected things or statements: neque or nee, and . . . not, nor: neque . . . neque or nee . . . nee, neither . . . nor: nS . . . quidem, not even, with emphatic word between nS and quidem. (6) Disjunctive, i. e., separating. Objective. — aut, or: aut . . . aut, either ... or, an alternation of things mutually exclusive. Subjective. — vel, or: vel . . . vel, either ... or, a choice of alterna- tives, sive or seu, or, or if, whether: sive . . . sive or seu . . . seu, either . . . or, whether . . . or. (c) Adversative, i. e., contrasting. at, sed, hut: vero, autem, but, however: tamen, nevertheless. (d) Causal, i. e., assigning reasons. nam, namque, enim, for. (e) Illative, i. e., making inference. itaque, and so, accordingly, therefore, of actual result of facts, igitur, therefore, accordingly, of logical inference; not in Caesar. J. Uses of the Cases. A. Nominative. 1. Subject (308). 2. Appositive, attributive or predicate. APPENDIX. 265 B. Genitive. I. With Nouns. 1. Limiting noun not meaning same thing (330). (a) Possessive. (6) Partitive, (c) Material or Com- position, {d) Subjective, (e) Objective. (/) At- tribute. 2. Genitive of Quality (334). II. With Adjectives (335). III. With Verbs. 1. Predicate Genitive of Possessor (339, I). 2. With verbs of remembering and forgetting (339, II). 3. With impersonals (339, III). 4. With interest (339, IV). 5. Genitive of Indefinite Value (339, V). C. Dative. I. As Indirect Object. 1. Simple Indirect Object (318, I). 2. With Verbs Transitive in English (318, II). 3. With Compound Verbs (318, III). II. As the Case of Direction of Influence. 1. Dative of Reference (322, I). 2. With Adjectives and Verbal Derivatives (322, II). 3. Dative of Possessor (326, III). 4. Dative of Purpose or Service (326, IV). 5. Dative of Agent (326, V). D. Accusative. I. As Direct Object. 1. Simple Direct Object (309, I). 2. Object and Predicate (309, II). 3. With Compounds of trans (309, III). 4. Two Accusatives, Person and Thing (309, IV). 266 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, II. Accusative of Extent. 1. Duration of Time (313, I). 2. Extent of Space (313, II). 3. Adverbial (313, III). III. Terminal Accusative (314). E. Vocative. 1. Case of Direct Address. F. Ablative. I. Ablative of Explanatory Circumstance. 1. Ablative of Cause (340, I). 2. Ablative of Manner (340, II). 3. Ablative of Accompaniment (340, III). 4. Ablative of Means or Instrument (344, IV). 5. Ablative of Agent (344, V). 6. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance (344, V). II. Ablative with Certain Deponents (348). III. Ablative of Respect (349). 1. Ablative in Comparison and Contrast (a) Ablative with Comparatives (353, I). (6) Ablative of Degree of Difference (353, II). IV. Ablative of QuaUty (357). V. Ablative of Separation (358). VI. Ablative of Place and Time. 1. Ablative of Place Where (362, I). 2. Ablative of Place Whence (362, II). 3. Ablative of Time When (362, III). 4. Ablative of Time Within Which (362, III). VII. Ablative of Source or Origin (366, I). VIII. Ablative of Price (366, II). IX. Ablative with Opus (366, III). X. Ablative with Adjectives (366, IV). XI. Ablative Absolute (369). APPENDIX. 267 K. Uses of the Subjunctive. A. In Principal Clauses (383). I. Hortatory. II. Jussive. (a) In Mild Commands. (6) In Prohibitions, ne with perfect tense. III. Optative or Volitive. IV. Potential. V. Deliberative (not in Caesar). B. In Dependent Clauses. I. In Purpose Clauses (399). 1. With ut or ne in pure or substantive clauses. 2. With quo accompanied by a comparative. 3. With a relative. II. In Result Clauses (407). 1 . With ut or ut non in pure or substantive clauses. 2. With a relative. III. In Appositive Clauses of Explanation; with ut or ut non (412, 2). IV. In Clauses after Doubt, Hinder, Refuse, etc. (413). 1. With quin after negative expressions of doubt. 2. With ne, quominus, quin (after neg.) after verbs of hindrance, refusal, prevention. V. In Clauses of Fear (414). 1. With ne for positive fear. 2. With ut for negative fear. VI. In Conditional Sentences. 1. Contrary to Fact (429, II). 2. Less Vivid Future (433, II). VII. In Temporal Clauses (418). 1. With dum and quoad, until. 2. With antequam and priusquam. 3. With cum. 268 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. VIII. In Causal Clauses (422). 1. With cum. 2. With quod, on another's authority. 3. With a relative. IX. In Concessive Clauses (423). 1. With cum. 2. With ut. (Rare in Caesar.) 3. With a relative. X. In Indirect Discourse (439). 1. All subordinate clauses. 2. Indirect questions (444). XI. In Relative Sentences (449). 1. Attraction. 2. Relative characteristic. L. To Identify Subjunctive Uses in Caesar. First and most important: Find the word or construc- tion on which the subjunctive depends. I. It may depend on cum. A subjunctive depending on cum may express — (a) Time : cimi temporal, when; imp. and pip. tenses only. (6) Cause: cum causal, since, because; all tenses. (c) Concession: cum concessive, although, though; all tenses. Having found a subjunctive depending on cum, select that ex- planation which in your judgment best suits the sense of the passage. II. It may depend on ut. A subjunctive depending on ut may express — (a) The Ihirpose of the action of the principal verb. It is especially certain to express purpose if the principal verb means advise, exhort, order, persuade, wish, or puts another verb into action in any way. APPENDIX. 269 (6) The Result of the action of the principal verb. It is especially certain to express result — (1) if the principal clause contains a demonstrative word, such as sic, ita, tarn, tantopere, tantus, talis; or (2) if the verb of the principal clause means effect, bring about, happen; and (3) if ut is modified by non. (c) A Fear that something will not happen. Remark. — Ut is also found with the indicative, and then means as, when, or because. III. It may depend on ne. A subjunctive depending on ne may express — (a) Negative Purpose, especially if the principal verb means advise, exhort, order, persuade, wish, etc. (b) Fear that something will happen. (c) Prevention, when governed by prohibeo. (d) A negative command in indirect discourse. IV. It may depend on dum or quoad, until; on antequam or priusquam (often separated, ante . . . quam, prius . . . quam), before; on etsi, although. V. It may depend on quod, because, when the cause is stated on another's authority, claim, or belief. VI. It may depend on quo, as a purpose construction with the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb nearly al- ways found in the clause. VII. It may depend on quin after a negative verb of doubt or hindrance, or on quominus after any verb of hin- drance, prevention, or refusal. VIII. It may lie in a less vivid future (present or perfect tense) or contrary to fact (imperfect or pluperfect tense) condition. Here the protasis, or if clause, will be introduced by si or sometimes expressed by a participle. IX. It may depend on a relative pronoun or less often on a relative adverb. 270 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, A subjunctive dependent on a relative may express — (a) Purpose. — This is especially the case when the relative clause denotes the thing to he done by the antecedent or the use to be made of the antecedent: the antecedent is usually the object of the principal clause or its subject if passive, though other cases occur. (6) Result (rare). (c) Cause. — Here the relative is sometimes preceded and strengthened by ut. {d) Concession. {e) Characteristic, especially if the antecedent be negative or interrogative. Subjunctives depending on a relative must be identified by the sense of the passage. X. It may lie in an indirect question: here the clause is always introduced by an interrogative pronoun , adjective, or adverb. XI. It may lie in a dependent clause in indirect discourse. Before assigning indirect discourse as the reason for a given subjunctive, even though you know that it lies in indirect discourse, be sure that no other rule applies to it. M. Elements of Word Formation. In all languages of the family to which English and Latin belong it is possible to form from many words a number of other words of kindred form and meaning. Such words may be formed by joining two (rarely more) words into a compound, a process known as composition, and by deriva- tion, by which is meant adding certain suffixes to the root or stem of the parent word, which is called the primitive. The suffixes themselves indicate the special force and meaning of the new word, and are knowTi as significant endings. Those suffixes have been especially selected which give rise to similar endings in English. APPENDIX. 271 Derivation. (a) Nouns. 1. The doer of an act is indicated by the endings -tor (G. -toris), m., and -trix (G. -tricis), f., generally affixed to the supine stem. If the supine ends in -sum, -sor is used euphonically for -tor, e. g.: ago, do; actor, doer, actor: vinco, conquer; victor, conqueror, victor; victrix, conqueress: impero, command; imperator, commander: defendo, defend; defensor, defender: invenio, discover; inventor, inventrix, dis- coverer, INVENTOR, iNVENTRESs. The identity of these endings with the -or and -er (fern., -ess and -tress) of English agent-words is evident. 2. The act itself is indicated by -io and -tio (G. -onis), Eng. -TiON, -sion; -tura, Eng. -ture; -tus (G. -tus), Eng. forms direct from stem with no significant ending; euphonic forms in -si5, etc., as above, e. g.: SLgOfdo; actio, action: peto, seek; petitio, a seeking, petition: scribo, write; scriptura, a writing, scripture: conicio, throw together; coniectura, a throwing together, a guess, conjecture: advenio, arrive; adventus, arrival, advent: cado, happen; casus, accident, chance, case. 3. The act or its result is denoted by -men (G. -minis), -mentum, Eng. -ment, e. g.: fluo, flow; flumen, river: fruor, enjoy; frumentum, grain: impedio, hinder; impedimentiim, hindrance, impediment: nosco, know; nomen, name. 4. Abstract nouns are formed by -ia, -tia, -tas (G. -tatis), Eng. -Y and -ty; -tus (G. -tutis), Eng. -tue; -tudo (G. -tu- dinis), Eng. -tude. These are appended chiefly to adjec- tive stems, though in some instances to nouns also, e. g.: amicus, friendly; amicitia, friendship, amity: audax, hold; audacia, boldness, audacity: levis, light; levitas, lightness, levity: civis, citizen; civitas, citizenship, state: vir, man, virtus, manliness, courage, virtue: multus, much; multitudo, multitude. 272 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. 5. Place. — The terminations -torium, -arium, Eng. same, also -ORY, -ARY, -URY, Gxpress the place where an act occurs or a thing is found, e. g.: audio, hear; auditoritmii hall, auditorium: aes, money, aerarium, treasury. (6) Adjectives. 1. Diminutives, usually employed as nouns. They indi- cate an object smaller than the primitive, and the chief end- ings are -ulus (-a, -um), -olus (-a, -um), e. g.: rivus, brook; rivulus, rivulet: filius, son; filidlus, lUHe son. 2. Belonging to or pertaining to are expressed by -alls, Eng. -al; -anus, -inus, Eng. -an, -ane, -ine; -icus, Eng. -ic, e. g.: caput, head; capitfilis, capital: urbs, city; urbftnus, urban, also in slightly diff. sense URBANE : civiSf citizen; civicus, civic. 3. Provided with is indicated by -atus, -itus, usually formed on noun stems and resembling participles. Enghsh shows a like formation in 6earrfED, bootED, earED, e. g.: barba, beard; barb&tus, bearded: turns, toioer; turritus, turreted. 4. Full of is indicated by -osus, Eng. -ose, e. g.: verbum, word; verbosus, wordy, verbose: periculum, danger; pericu- losus, dangerous. 5. The principal terminations used in deriving adjectives of quality or tendency from verbs are: -idus, Eng. -id, -ilis (also -bills, -tills), Eng. -ile, -ble, e. g.: cupio, desire; cupidus, desirous: fluo, flow; fluidus, flomng, fluid. amo, love; amabilis, amiable: facio, do; facilis, easy, facile. (c) Verbs. 1. Verbs Formed from Nouns and Adjectives. — These are called denominatives, and are formed from the noun APPENDIX, 273 or adjective stem modified in various ways, readily discerned when met with, e. g.: nomen, name; nomino, to name: hiems, winter; hiemo, to pass the winter: moles, mass; molior, toil: metus, fear; metuo, to fear. 2. Verbs from Other Verbs. (a) Inceptive verbs represent an action or state as begin- ning. They are formed by adding -sco to the present stem of the primitive. They are of the third conjugation. Of many, the primitive has disappeared. Inceptives are also formed on noun stems, e. g.: caled, be warm; calesco, to grow warm: mitis, mild; mitesco, to grow mild; so quiesco, nosco, etc. (6) Frequentative, intensive, or iterative verbs repre- sent the action as performed violently, earnestly, or repeat- edly. They end in -to or -ito, are of the first conjugation, and usually formed from the supine stem of the primitive, e. g.: iacio, throw; iacto, hurl: dico, say; dictitd, repeat, assert. Composition. — The chief classes of composites are — (a) Those whose first member is a preposition, chiefly verbs or words derived from compound verbs. In forming these compounds a in the verb stem becomes i before one consonant, e before two; but a remains unchanged, e. g.: facio, conficid, confectus; ago, subigo, subactus. (6) Two words may be joined, the first member exhibiting some easily recognized stem modification, e. g.: From anna and gero comes armiger, armor-hearer; quinque, decern, quindecim, fifteen (= five-ten); magnus, animus, magnanimus, high- minded. 18 274 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. N. The Roman Calendar. (a) Dates were reckoned by the Romans in a very compH- cated way. The month was divided into three periods: 1. Kalends (Kalendae), the first of each month. 2. Nones (Nonae), the fifth of each month except March, May, July, October, in which the Nones fell on the seventh. 3. Ides (Idus, f.), the thirteenth of each month except March, May, July, October; then the fifteenth. (6) Any date between Kalends and Nones was reckoned by the number of days before the Nones; between Nones and Ides, by the number of days before the Ides; after the Ides, by the numlxT of days hefon* Ili<' Kalends of tlie followinti month. (c) The names of the months are adjeetivi^s when writing dates, and stand in agreement with Kalendae, Nonae, and Idus, which are feminine nouns of Decl. i, i, and iv. {d) A date faUing on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides is ex- pressed by a time ablative, e. g.: Caesar Idlbus Martiis mortuus est, Caeser died on the Ides of March (March 16th). (e) In naming other dates, the phrase ante diem with an ordinal is used like a preposition governing the accusative, e. g.: Caesar ante diem quartum Idus lulifis n&tus est, Caesar was bom on the fourth day btforv the Ides of J id y (./«/«/ J^^'tli)- In practice these expressions for dates are regularly ab- breviated, the two above given aj^pt^aring r(»s|x^ctively as Id. Mart, and a. d. iv Id lul. or iv Id. lul. (/) In reckoning dates the Romans counted in the day from which they started to reckon, and in case they were reckoning up to Kalends they counted that in also. Hence APPEXDIX, 275 to translate a date we must observe the following rule : If the given date be before the Xones or Ides, add one to the date on which these periods fall in the given month and subtract the numeral : if before the Kalends, add two to the numl)er of days in the month in which the date lies (this will be the month preceding that whose Kalends are named) and subtract the numeral. The day before a period is expressed by pridie with the accusative, e. g.: a. d. iv Non Ap. = 5 + 1 - 4 = April 2d. a. d. iii Id. Sept, = 13 + 1 - 3 = Sept. 11th. a. d. vi Id. Oct, = 15 + 1 - 6 = Oct. 10th. a. d. ii Kal. Ap. == 31 + 2 - 9 = Mar. 24th. prid Kal. Ian. = Dec. 31st. (g) The names of the months were lanuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, lunius, lulius, Augustus, September (G. -bris), October, November, December. Juh* and August were named for Julius Caesar and the EmiH^ror Augustus respectively, being previously called Quinctilis and Sex^s. latin=en(jLISh vocabulary. Compound verbs arc in(iicat(Hl by a hyphen separating the mem- bers. The chief euphonic changes of prepositions in composition are as follows: ab + t = abst.; ad + c = ace; ad + f = afT.; ad + p = app.; atl + sc = asc; con 4- 1 = coll.; con + m = comm.; ex + f = eflf.; in + 1 = ill.; ob + c = occ; ob + f = off.; ob + p = opp.; sub + c = Bucc. ; sub + p = supp. Regular verbs of the first conjugation are marked I; the principal parts of all others are indicated. English de- rivatives are indicated by small capitals. A., abbreviation for Aidiis. &, ab, prep. w. abl., from; by; on, at; on the side of; a latere, on the flank. ab-do, -ere, -didi, -ditum, hule. ab-duc6, -ere, -duxi, -ductum, Icdd away. ab-icio, -ere, -ieci, -iectum, throw away. abs-tineo, -ere, -ui, -tentum, ab- stain. ab-sum, -esse, fifui, afutunis, be absent, distant. ac. See atque. ac-cedo, -ere, -cessi, -cessum, approach; be added. acceptus, -a, -um, adj., pf. ptc. of accipio, popular. ac-cido, -ere, -cidi, , hap- pen. ac-cipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptum, receive, accept. ac-Qurrd, -ere, -curri, -cursum, run to. ac-cus6, I, ACCUSE. acer, acris, -e, adj., sharp, severe. acies, -ei, f., battle line. acriter, adv., sharply, severely. ad, prep. w. ace, to, toward; against; near. ad-duco, -ere, -duxi, -ductuniv induce. ad-eo, -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, go to, approach, insit. ad-hibed, -ere, -ui, -itum, admit. adhuc, adv., hitherto. aditus, -us, m., access; approach. ad-miror, I, dop., wonder; admire. ad-mitto, -ere, -misi, -missum, let loose; equo admisso, with his horse at a gallop. admodum, adv., somewhat, very. ad-orior, -iri, -ortus, dep., attack. ad-sum, -esse, -fui, -futunis, be present. Aduatuci, -drum, the Aduatuci. adulescentia, -ae, f., youth. adventus, -us, m., arrival, ap- proach. adversus, -a, -um, adj., facing; ADVERSE. adversus, prep. w. ace, agaiTist. ad-verto, -ere, -verstun, turn toward: with animum; pay at- tention to, notice. aedificiimi, -i (-ii), n., building. aegre, adv., with difficvlly. aequo, I, equalize. aequus, -a, -um, adj., level; fair, jnst. aestas, -tatis, f., snmmcr. af-f ero, -f erre, attuli, allatiun, bring. 276 LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY, 277 af-ficio, -ere, -feci, -fectum, af- fect, treat. affinitas, -tatis, f., relationship. ager, -gri, m., lajid, field. agger, -eris, m., earthwork, ram- part. ag-gredior, -i, -gressus, dep., at- tack. agmen, -inis, n., column (of men), ago, -ere, egi, actum, drive; lead; do; confer. agricola, -ae, m., farmer. aUenus, -a, -mn, adj., belonging to another; foreign; unfavorable. aliquis (-qui), -qua, -quid (-quod), sojne one, some thing; as adj., some. aliter, adv., otherwise. aliter . . . ac (atque), adv. phrase, otherwise than. alius, -a, -ud, adj., other, another. Allobroges, -lun, m.,the Allobroges. Alpes, -ium, m. pi., the Alps. alter, -era, -erum, adj., the other (of two). altitude, -dinis, f., height, depth. altus, -a, -um, adj. (of vertical extent), high, deep. Ambarri, -orum, m. pi., the Am- barri. amentia, -ae, f., folly. amicitia, -ae, f,, friendship. amicus, -i, m., friend. amicus, -a, -um, adj., friendly. amitto, -ere, -misi, -missum, lose. amo, I, love. amor, -oris, m., love. amplius, adv., more. an, interrog. particle, or; whether. anceps, -cipitis, adj., double, two- fold; doubtful. angustiae, -arum, f. pi., narrow pass. angustus, -a, -um, adj., narrow, steep. animadverto, -ere, -i, -rsum, give attention to; notice; punish. animus, -i, m., mind; disposition; feelings; courage. annus, -i, m., year. annuus, -a, -um, adj., annual; /or a year. ante, prep. w. ace. and adv., before (of time or space). antea, adv., before, previously. antiquus, -a, -um, adj., ancient; former. apertus, -a, -um, adj., open. appello, I, call; name. apud, prep. w. ace, among; near. Aquileia, -ae, f., Aquileia. Aquitani, -orum, m., the Aquitani. Arar, -aris (ace, -im), m., the Arar. arbitror, I, dep., think, judge. arbor, -oris, f., tree: arcesso, -ere, -vn^ -itum, call, summon. Ariovistus, -i, m., Ariovistus. arma, -orum, m. pi., arms, weapons. armo, I, arm, equip. ascendo, -ere, -i, -usum, ascend, cliinb. ascensus, -lis, m., ascent. at, conj., but. atque, conj. (cf. ac), and, and also; as. Atrebates, -um, m., the Atrebates. auctoritas, -tatis, f., authority. audacia, -ae, f ., audacity, boldness. audacter, adv., boldly. audeo, -ere, ausus, semi-dep., dare. audio, -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, hear. augeo, -ere, auxi, auctum, increase, strengthen. aut, conj., or. aut . . . aut, either . . . or. autem, conj., but, however. auxilium, -i (-u), n., aid; pi. auxiliaries (irregular troops). a-verto, -ere, -ti, -rsum, turn away; avert. B. barbarus, -i, m., barbarian. barbarus, -a, -um, adj., barbar- ous. Belgae, -arum, m., the Belgae. bellicosus, -a, -um, adj., warlike. bello, I, make war. bellum, -i, n., war. bene, adv., well. beneficium, -i (-ii), n., benefit, favor. 278 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. Bibrax, -actis, f., Bibrax, a town, biduum, -i, n., two days. biennium, -i (-ii), n., two years. bipartito, a(l\'., in two divisions. Boil, -onim, m., the Boii. bona, -drum, n., pi. goods. bonus, -a, -um, adj., good. Britannia, -ae, f., Britain. C, abbreviation for Caius. cado, -erCj cecidi, casum, fall. Caesar, -aris, m., Caesar. calamitas, -tatis, f., calamity, dis- aster. capio, -ere, -cepi, capttim, cap- ture, take. captivus, -i, m., captive. caput, -itis, n., head. Camutes, -um, m., the CarntUes. camis, -i, m., cart, wagon. Cassianus, -a, -um, adj., with Cassias. castellum, -i, n.,fortj redoubt. Casticus, -i, m., Casticits. castra, -onun, n. pi., camp. casus, -us, m., chance. causa, -ae, f., cause; reason. causa, ahl., for the sake of. caveo, -ere, cavi, cautum, be on the watch. cedo, -ere, cessi, cessimi, yield. celer, -eris, -e, adj., quick, stvift. celeritas, -tatis, f., swiftness, speed. celeriter, adv., quickly, swiftly. Celtae, -arum, m., the Celts. census, -us, in., census. centum, indorl. num. adj., hundred. centurio, -onis, m., centurion. certe, adv., surely, certainly. certus, -a, -lun, adj., certain; certiorem facere, to inform; certior fieri, to be informed. Ceutrones, -um, m., the Ceu- trones. cibaria, -drum, n. pi., grain, sup- plies. circiter, adv., about. circuitus, -us, m., circuit. circvmi, prep. w. ace., around. circum-venio, -ire, -i, -timi, sur- round. cis, prep. w. ace, and adv., on this side of. citerior, -ius, adj., hither, nearer. citra. See cis. civis, -is, ni., citizen. civitas, -tatis, f., state; citizenship. clamor, -oris, in., clamor, shouting. claudo, -ere, clausi, -sum, close, close up. cliens, -ntis, m., vassal. co-emo, -ere, -emi, -emptum, buy up. coepi, -isse, pret. vb., began. co-erceo, -ere, -ui, -itum, control, coerce. cogito, I, think, reflect. cognosco, -ere, -novi, -nitum, icam, recognize; pret. pf. cognovi, / know. c6g6, -ere, coegi, coactum, compel; collect. cohors, -rtis, f., cohort. co-hortor, I, dep., exhort, encour- age. col-ligo, -ere, -I6gi, -lectum, col- lect. collis, -is, m., hUl. colloco, I, place, station. colloquitmi, -i (-ii), n., conference. col-loquor, -loqui, -locutus, confer, converse. com-b-uro, -ere, -ussi, -usttmi, burri. ' commeatus, -us, m., supplies. com-memoro, I, mention. com-meo, I, vis^it, resort to. com-mitto, -ere, -misi, -missum, entrust, commit; act; blunder. proelium committere, join battle. commode, adv., with ease, con- veniently. commodus, -a, -imi, adj., advarUor- geous. corn-moved, -ere, -movi, -motimi, move; excite; iiidtice. com-munio, -ire, -ivi (-ii), itum, fortify. communis, -e, adj., common. commutatio, -onis, f., change. com-muto, I, change. com-paro, I, prepare, secure. com-perio, -ire, -i, -rtimi, find out. LATIN'ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 279 Com-plector, -i, -plexus, dep., em- brace. com-pleo, -ere, plevi, -etum, iill. complures, -a, adj., pi., very many. com-porto, I, bring together. con-, the form assumed by cum in composition. conatum, -i, n., attempt. conatus, -us, m., attempt. con-cedo, -ere, -cessi, -cessum, concede; grant; yield. con-cido, -ere, -cidi, -cisum, cut down, slay. con-cilio, I, secure, win. concilium, -i (-ii), n., council. concursus, -us, m., assembling. condicio, -onis, f ., condition. con-dono, I, condone, excuse. con-duco, -ere, -duxi, -ductimi, bririg together; hire. con-fero, -ferre, -tuli, -latum, bring together; defer; se conferre, betake one's self. confertus, -a, -um, adj., dense, crowded. con-ficio, -ere, -feci, -fectum, finish; exhaust; furnish; make. con-fido, -ere, -fisus, semi-dep., confide, tru^t in; believe. con-firmo, I, confirm; assert. con-icio, -ere, -ieci, -iectum, hurl, throw. coniuratio, -onis, f., conspiracy. con-iuro, I, swear, conspire. Conor, I, dep., attempt, try. con-quiro, -ere, -quisivi, -situm, search out. c6n-scisc6, -ere, -scivi, -scitum, resolve on; sibi mortem con- sciscere, commit suicide. conscius, -a, -um, adj., conscious, aware. con-scribo, -ere, -scripsi, -scrip- tum, enlist. consensus, -us, m., consent. con-sequor, -qui, -cutus, overtake; attain. con-servo, I, preserve. Considius, -i (-ii), m., Considius. con-sido, -ere, -sedi, -sessum, encamp. consilium, -i (-ii), n., plan, design, counsel; assembly. con-sisto, -ere, -stiti, -stitum, stand; make a stand, stand one's ground; consist; depend on. con-solor, I, dep., console. conspectus, -us, m., sight. con-spicio, -ere, -spexi, -spectum, see. con-spicor, I, dep., observe. con-stat, -are, -stitit, impers., it is evident. c6n-stitu6, -ere, -ui, -utum, station; decide. c6n-suesc6, -ere, -suevi, -suetum, grow accustomed; pret. pf. con- suevi, / am accustomed. consul, -is, m., consul. ccn-sumo, -ere, -sumpsi, -sump- tum, CONSUME. contemptio, -onis, f., contempt. con-tendo, -ere, -di, -tentum, contend; hasten. contentio, -onis, f., quarrel, strife. continenter, adv., continuously. con-tineo, -ere, -ui, -tentimi, hold back or in check; hem in; con- fine; bound (geographically). con-tingo, -ere, -tigi, -tactum, touch; happen. contra, prep. w. ace, and adv., against; on the other hand. contumelia, -ae, f., insult. con-venio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, come together; meet; convene. conventus, -us, m., assembly; court. con-verto, -ere, -i, -rsum, turn. con-voco, /, call together, summon. copia, -ae, f., plenty, abundance; pi., troops. comu, -lis, n., horn; udng (of an army). corpus, -oris, n., body. cotidianus, -a, -um, adj., daily. cotidie, adv., daily. Cotta, -ae, m., Cotta. Crassus, -a, m., Crassus. creber, -bra, -bnmi, adj., fre- quent. cremo, I, burn. creo, I, create, elect. 280 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. cresco, -ere, -cre\i, -cretum, in- crease, grow Strang. CUltUS, -us, m., CULTURE. cum, prep. w. abl., vdth. cum, conj., when; since, because; although. cupide, adv., eagerly. cupiditas, -tatis, f., avarice, desire. cupidus, -a, -um, adj., fond of, eager for. cur, adv., why 1 euro, I, care for; w. gndv., to have a thing done. cursus, -us, m., running; course. custos, -odis, in., guardian. D. damno, I, condemn. de, prep. w. abl., aboui, concerning; from, down from; during; for. debed, -ere, -ui, -itum, owe; w. inf., ought. decern, indecl. num. adj., ten. de-cemo, -ere, -crevi, -cretum, DECREE, decide. de-certo, I, fight, fight to a finish. decimus, -a, -lun, adj., tenth. de-cipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptum, DECEIVE. deditio, -onis, f., surrender. de-do, -ere, -didi, -ditima, sur- render. de-duc6, -ere, -duri, -ductum, con- duct, lead. de-fendo, -ere, -i, -nsum, de- fend. defensio, -onis, f., defense. defensor, -oris, m., defender. de-fero, -ferre, -tuli, -latum, re- port. defessus, -a, -um, adj., exhausted. de-ficio, -ere, -feci, -fectima, fail; revolt. de-icio, -ere, -ieci, -iectum, dis- lodge, throw down; disappoint. deinde, adv., then, next. de-libero, I, deliberate. de-ligo, -ere, -legi, -Iectum, choose. de-minu6, -ere, -ui, -utimi, dim- inish. demum, adv., at length. denique, adv., finally; at least. de-pono, -ere, -posui, -positum, lay down, lay aside. de-signo, I, ijvdicale, designate. de-sisto, -ere, -stiti, -stitum, cease, DESIST. de-spero, I, despair. de-spicio, -ere, -speid, -spectum, DESPISE. de-stitu6, -ere, -ui, -utum, aI>andon. de-sum, -esse, -fui, -futurus, fail, be wanting. de-terreo, -ere, -ui, -itum, frighten; DETER, prevent. detrimenttmi, -i, n., loss, injury. deus, -i, m., god. dexter, -tra, -tnun, adj., right; as subst., deitra, the right hand. dico, -ere, dixi, dictum, say, tell, appoint. dictio, -onis, f., pleading. dies, -ei, in. (rarely f.), day. dif-fero, -ferre, distuli, dllatum, DIFFER. difficilis, -e, adj., difficult. difficultas, -tatis, f., difficulty. dignitas, -tatis, f., dignity. diligenter, adv., carefully, dili- gently. dUigentia, -ae, f., diligence. dimico, I, fight. dimidium, -i (-ii), n., a half. dimitto, -ere, -misi, -missum, lose; DISMISS. dis-cedo, -ere, -cessi, -cessum, depart. discessus, -us, m., departure. disco, -ere, didici, , learn. dis-icio, -ere -ieci, -iectum, scatter, rout. dis-pono, -ere, -posui, -posittmi, DISPOSE, station. diu, adv., a long time, long. diutumus, -a, -um, adj., long con- tinued. Diviciacus, -i, m., Diviciacus. Divico, -onis, m., Divico. divido, -ere, -visi, -visimi, divide. do, dare, dedi, datum, give. doceo, -ere, -\ii,doctum, teach, show. doleo, -ere, -ui, -itum, suffer, be grieved. LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULAEY. 281 dolor, -oris, m., grief; discontent. domicilium, -i (-ii), n,, home. domus, -us, f., house, home. donee, conj., until. donum, -i, n., gift. dubitatio, -onis, f., doubt, hesita- tion. dubitO, I, DOUBT. dubius, -a, -um, adj., doubtful; non est dubium, there is no doubt. ducenti, -ae, -a, pi. adj., two hundred. duco, -ere, duxi, ductum, lead, haul. dum, conj., while; until. dummodo, conj., -provided that, with sub June. Dumnorix, -igis, m., Dumnorix. duo, -ae, -o, num. adj., two. duodecim, indecl. num. adj., twelve. duodeviginti, indecl. num. adj., eighteen. dupliCO, I, DOUBLE. dux, duels, m., leader, guide. E. e, ex, prep. w. abl., from, out of, of. Eburones, -um, m., the Eburones. e-dueo, -ere, -duxi, -duetum, lead out. eflfemino, I, weaken. ef-fero, -ferre, extuli, elatum, carry away; elate. ef-fieio, -ere, -feei, -feetum, finish, render, effect, bring about. ego, mei, pers. pron., /. e-gredior, -gredi, -gressus, go out. egregius, -a, -lun, adj., remarkable. e-ieio, -ere, -ieci, -ieetum, throw out; se eieere, rush out. e-mitto, -ere, -misi, -missum, hurl, discharge. emo, -ere, -emi, emptum, buy. enim, conj., for (cannot begin a clause). e-nuntio, I, announce. eo, ire, ivi (-ii), itum, go, march. eo, adv., thither, there. eodem, adv., to the same place. eques, -itis, m., horseman; pi., cavalry. equitatus, -us, m., cavalry. equus, -i, m., horse. e-ripio, -ere, -ui, -reptum, take away, rescue. et, conj., and; also; even. et . . . et, both ... and. etiam, conj., also, even. etsi, conj., although, though. ex. See e. ex-eito, I, excite, urge on; construct. exemplum, -i, n., example. ex-eo, -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, go out. exercitatio, -onis, f., training, ex- ercise. exereitus, -us, m., army. ex-igo, -ere, -egi, -aetum, drive out; (of time) end. existimatio, -onis, f., opinion, estimate. ex-istimo, I, think, consider. expeditus, -a, -um, adj., unencumb- ered. ex-pell6, -ere, -puli, -pulsum, drive out, EXPEL. ex-perior, -iri, -pertus, dep., try, test. explorator, -oris, m., scout; spy. ex-ploro, I, examine, find out, explore. ex-pugno, I, take by storm. ex-sequor, -sequi, -seeutus, dep., follow up. ex-specto, I, await, expect. extremus, -a, -um, adj., extreme, outmost; end of. F. faeile, adv., easily. faeilis, -e, adj., easy. facio, -ere, -feei, faetum, make, do. factum, -i, n., deed. faeultas, -tatis, f., supply; oppor- tunity. fama, -ae, f., fame, report, news. fames, -is, f., hunger, famine. familia, -ae, f., household (includ- ing slaves). familiaris, -e, adj., of the farnily, private; res familiaris, private property, fortune. faveo, -ere, favi, fautum, favor. 282 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. fere, adv., almost. fero, ferre, tiili, latum, bear, carry; bring; endure. ferus, -a, -um, adj., savage, wild. fides, -ei, f., faith; protection; allegiance; pledge. filia, -ae, f., daughter. filius, -i (-ii), m., son. finis, -is, m., end, boundary; pi., territories. finitimus, -a, -um, adj., neighbor- ing, near; its subst., neighbor. fio, fieri, f actus (pass, of facio), become, be made; happen. finnus, -a, -um, adj., firm, strong. flagito, I, demand. fleo, flere, flevi, fletimi, weep. flumen, -inis, n., river. fluo, -ere, fluxi, fluxum, flow. fore, fut. inf. of sum. fortis, -e, adj., brave. fortiter, adv., bravely. fortitudo, -inis, f., bravery. fortuna, -ae, f., fortune. fossa, -ae, f., ditch, moat. f rater, -tris, iii., brother. fratemus, -a, -um, adj., brotherly. frigus, -oris, n., cold. frumentarius, -a, -lun, adj., per- taining to grain; fertile; res fru- mentaria, supplies. frumentor, I, dep., forage. frumentiun, -i, n., grain; pi., crops. frustra, adv., in vain. fuga, -ae, f., flight. fugio, -ere, fugi, fugittmi, flee. fugitivus, -i, m., deserter. furor, -oris, m., fury, madness. futurus, -a, -um, fut. ptc. of sum. G. Galba, -ae, m., Galba. Gallia, -ae, f., Gaid. Gallicus, -a, -lun, adj*^ Gallic. Gallus, -i, in., a Gaid. 'renava, -ae, f' Geneva. fcins, gentis, f., tribe, clan. genus, -eris, f., kind, stock. Germania, -ae, f., Germany. I Germanus, -a, -um, adj., German; I as subst., a German; pi., the I Germans. \ gero, -ere, gessi, gestimi, carry; carry on; belltmi gerere, wage j war. gladius, -i (-ii), m., sword. gloria, -ae, f., glory. glorior, I, dop., boa^t. Graecus, -a, -lun, adj., Greek. gratia, -ae, f., influence, popidarity; pi., thanks. gratulor, I, dep., congratulate. gravis, -e, adj., heavy, severe. graviter, adv., severely, seriously. H. habe5, -€re, -ui, -itum, have, hold; regard; deliver (a speech). Haedui, -orum, the Ilaedui. Haeduus, -a, -um, adj., Haeduan. Helvetii, -drum, ni., the Helvetii. Helvetius, -a, -um, adj., Helvetian. hibema, -orum, n. pi., un.nler quarters. Hibemia, -ae, f., Ireland. hie, haec, hdc, dem. pron., this. hie, adv., here. hiemo, I, /k/.ss the winter. hiems, hiemis, f., winter. homo, -minis, m., man, mankind. honor, -oris, ni., honor. hortor, 1, dep., exhort, urge. hostis, -is, m., enemy. hue, adv., hither, here. humanitas, -tatis, f., humanity; refinement. humilis, -e, adj., lowly, humble. I. iacio, -ere, ieei, iaetum, throw, hurl. iacto, I, hurl; discuss. iam, adv., now, at last, already. ibi, adv., there. leeius, -i (-ii), m., Icciv^. ictus, -us, ni., blow, stroke. idem, eadem, idem, dem. prou., the same. idoneus, -a, -imi, adj., fit, suitable. ignis, -is, m., fire. LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 283 ignominia, -ae, f., disgrace. ignore, I, be ignorant of, not know. ille, ilia, illud, dem. pron., that. immortalis, -e, adj., immortal. impedimentum, -i, n., hindrance; pi., baggage. im-pedio, -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, IMPEDE, hinder, impeditus, -a, -um, adj., encumb- ered. im-pello, -ere, -puli, -pulsum, IMPEL, urge. im-pendeo, -ere, , , im- pend, overhang. imperator, -oris, m., comynander. imperium, -i (-ii), n., command; control; government. impero, I, command, order. impetro, I, obtain (a request). impetus, -us, m., attack; impetum facere in, make an attack upon. im-ploro, I, beg, implore. im-porto, I, bring in; import. improviso, adv., unexpectedly. impune, adv., with impunity. impunitas, -tatis, f., impunity. imus, -a, -um, adj. See infimus. in, prep. w. ace. and abl.; of mo- tion, w. ace, into, to, against, towards: of position, w. abl., in, on, among. in-cendo, -ere, -ndi, nsum, set fire to, burn. in-cito, I, INCITE, urge on. incola, -ae, m., inhabitant. in-col6, -ere, -ui, -cultum, inhabit, dwell. incolumis, -e, adj., safe, unharmed. incommodum, -i, n,, disaster, re- verse. incredibilis, -e, adj., incredible. inde, adv., thence; then, next. in-duc6, -ere, -duxi, -ductum, lead in; induce. in-eo, -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, enter; begin; consilium inire, form a plan. inferior, -ius, adj., lower, inferior. in-fero, -ferre, -tuli, -illatum, bring in, bring upon; bellum inferre, w. dat., make war upon. infimus, -a, -um, adj ., lowest, foot of. infirmus, -a, -um, adj., weak. in-flu6, -ere, -fiuxi, -fluxum, flow into. ingens, -ntis, adj., very great, enormous. inimicus, -a, -um, adj., hostile; as subst., personal enemy. iniquus, -a, -um, adj., unjust, un- fair. initium, -i (-ii), n., beginning. iniuria, -ae, f., injury. inopia, -ae, f., scarcity. inopinans, -ntis, adj., unexpected. in-sequor, -sequi, -secutus, puV' sue. insidiae, -anxm, f., ambush, plot. insignis, -e, adj., notable. insolenter, adv., insolently. in-stitu6, -ere, -ui, -utum, ap- point, set up; institute; train. institiitum, -i, n., plan, decision; institution. in-sto, -stare, -stiti, -statum, press on; approach. in-stru6, -ere, -struxi, -structum, draw up, arrange. insula, -ae, f., island. intellego, -ere, -lexi, -lectimi, know, understand. inter, prep. w. ace, between, among. inter-cedo, -ere, -cessi, -cesstun, go between, lie between. inter-cludo, -ere, -clusi, -cliisum, cut off. interdiu, adv., by day. interdtun, adv., sometimes. inter ea, adv., meanwhile. interficio, -ere, -feci, -fectimi, kill, put to death. interim, adv., meanwhile. inter-mitto, -ere, -misi, -missum, cease, interrupt; intervene. intemecio, -onis, f., destruction. inter se, reciprocal pron., each other. inter-sum, -esse, -fui, -futurus, be between; take part in; interest, impers., it concerns. y^ intervallum, -i, n., interval. =,v in-venio, -ire, -veni, -ventmn, come upon, find (by chance). in-video, -ere, -vidi, -visimi, envy. 284 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, invitus, -a, -um, adj., unwilling. ipse, ipsa, ipsum, dem. pron., intens., sdj. is, ea, id, dem. pron., this, that; he, she, it. iste, ista, istud, dem. pron., that, that of yours. ita, adv., so, thus. itaque, conj., accordingly. item, adv., likewise. iter, itineris, n., roadj march, right of way. itenim, adv., again, a second time. iubeo, -ere, iussi, iussimi, order, commaml. iudicium, -i (ii), n., trial iudico, I, JUDGE, decide. iugum, -i, n., ridge; yoke. lulia, -ae, f., Julia. iumentum, -i, n., ^mck animal. iungo, -ere, iunxi, iunctum, jVn'n. lura, -ae, m., the Jura mountains, iuro, I, swear. ius, iuris, n., right, law. ius iurandimi, cpd., both parts decl.; gon., iuris iurandi, n., oath. iustitia, -ae, f., justice. iuvo, -are, iuvl, iutum, assist. L., abbreviation for Lucius. Labienus, -i, m., Labienus. labor, -oris, m., labor, hardship. lacesso, -ere, -ivi, -itimi, harass. lacrima, -ae, f., tear. lacus, -us, m., lake. lapis, -idis, m., sto7ie. largior, -iri, -itus, dep., bribe. late, adv., widely. lateo, -ere, -ui, , escape notice, be hidden. latitudo, -inis, f., width. Latobrigi, -orum, m., the Latobrigi. latus, -eris, n., side; flank. latus, -a, -um, adj., uride. latus, pf. ptc. of fero. laudo, I, praise. laus, laudis, f., praise. legatio, -onis, f., embassy. legatus, -i, m., envoy; lietuenant. legio, -onis, f., legion. legionirius, -a, -um, adj., legionary. Lemannus, -i, m., Lemannus, ancient name of Lake Geneva. lenitas, -tatis, f., gentleness. lex, legis, f., law. liber, -era, -enun, adj.,/ree. liberalitas, -tatis, f., liberality. libere, at! v., freely. j liberi, -orum, m. pi., children. I libero, I, liberate, set free. libertas, -tatis, f., liberty. liceor, -eri, -itus, dep., bid (at auc- tion). licet, -€re, -uit, impers., it is per- milted, one may. Lingones, -um (ace. -as), m., the Ling ones. lingua, -ae, f., tongue, language. linter, -tris, m., skiff. Liscus, -i, in., Liscus. litterae, -anmi, f. pi., letter, the sing, means a letter of the alpha- bet. Utus, -oris, n., shore. locus, -i, m.; pi. loca, n., place. longe, adv., /ar; by far. longitudo, -inis, f., length. longus, -a, -um, jwlj., long. loquor, loqui, locutus, dep., speak, say. lux, lucis, f., light; prima luce, at dawn. M. M., abbreviation for Marcus. magis, adv., more; comp. of mag- nopere. magistratus, -us, m., magistrate. magnitudo, -dinis, f,, size. magnopere, adv., greatly. magnus, -a, -lun, adj., great. maior, maius, adj., greater; comp. of magnus. maiores, -vun, m. pi., ancestors. male, adv., badly. maleficium, -i (-ii), n., mischief, damage. maid, malle, malui, , prefer. malus, -a, -um, adj., bad. mandatvmi, -i, n., order, instruc- tions. mando, I, charge, entrust. LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABVLAUY. 286 maneo, -ere, mansi, sum, remain. manus, -us, f., hand; hand (of armed men). mare, maris, n., sea. mater, -tris, f., another. matrimoniimi, -i (-ii), n., marriage. mature, I, hasten. maturus, -a, -lun, adj., ripe, MATURE. maxime, adv., very greatly, espe- cially; superl. of magnopere. maximus, -a, -um, adj., greatest, very great; superl. of magnus. mediocriter, adv., moderately. medius, -a, -lun, adj., middle, middle of. melior, -ius, adj., better; comp. of bonus. memoria, -ae, f ., memory. Menapii, -onun, m., the Menapii. mens, mentis, f., mind. mensis, -is, m., month. mercator, -oris, m., merchant, trader. mereor, -eri, -itus, dep., deserve, MERIT. meritum, -i, n., merit. meus, -a, -mn, poss. pron. and adj., my, mine. miles, -itis, m., soldier. militaris, -e, adj., military; res militaris, military matters, the art of war. mille, num. adj., thousand; pi., milia, n. noun, thousands. minime, adv., least, by no means. minimus, -a, -um, adj., least; superl. of. parvus, minor, -us, adj., less; comp. of parvus, minuo, -ere, -ui, -utum, diminish. minus, adv., less. miser, -era, -erum, adj., miser- able. mitto, -ere, misi, missum, send. modo, adv., only; just; just now; conj., provided that, with sub- junc. modus, -i, m., manner; kind; eius modi, of such a kind. molo, -ere, -ui, -itum, grind. moneo, -ere, -ui, -itum, advise, warn. mons, mentis, m., mountain. Morini, -orum, m., the Morini. morior, mori, mortuus (fut. ptc. moriturus), dep., die. moror, I, dep., delay, linger. I mors, mortis, f., death. I mos, moris, m., custom; pi. char- acter. Mosa, -ae, m., the Mosa river (Meuse). moveo, -ere, movi, motimi, move. mulier, -eris, f., woman. multitude, -inis, f., great number, multitude. multo, adv., much, by far. multus, -a, -um, adj., much; pi. many. munio, -ire, -ivi (-ii), -itum, fortify. munitio, -onis, f ., fortification. miirus, -i, m., wall. N. nam, conj., for. Nammeius, -i, m., Nammeius. nascor, nasci, natus, dep., be born, arise. natura, -ae, f., nature. nauta, -ae, m., sailor. navalis, -e, adj., naval. navigo, I, sail, navigate. navis, -is, f., ship; navis longa, war ship. -ne, interrog. particle, enclitic; asks information. ne, conj., not; lest; that . . . not; from (after vbs. of hindering): ne . . . quidem (with emphatic word between), not even. nee (neque), conj., nor, and . . . not. nee . . . nee (neque . . . neque), neither . . . nor. necessario, adv., necessarily. necessarius, -a, -tun, adj., neces- sary; as subst., an associate. necesse, adj., indecl., necessary. neco, I, kill, slay. nego, I, deny, say . . . not, refuse. 286 ELEMENTS OF LATIN, negotium, -I ^-ii), n., business^ task. nemo, defective; dat. nemini, ace. neminem, other cases wanting, 710 one. neque. See nee. Nervii, -orum, m., (he Nenni. neuter, -tra- trum, adj., neither (of two). neve (also neu), conj., and not, nor. nihil, indecl., n., nothing. nihilum, -i, n., nothing; nihilo, abl. deg. of diff., by nothing, not at all; nihilo minus, none the less. nitor, -i, nixus or nisus, dep., strire; rely on. nobilis, -e, adj., noble. nobilitas, -tatis, f., nobility. noctu, adv., by night. nolo, nolle, nolui, , not to vyish, be unwilling. nomen, -inis, n., name. nominatim, adv., by name. non, adv., not. nondum, adv., not yet. nonne, interrog. particle, expects answer yes. nonnuUus, -a, -um, adj., some. nonnumquam, adv., sometimes. nos, pi. of ego. noster, -tra, -trum, poss. adj. and pron., our, ours. novem, indecl. num. adj., nine. novissimus, -a, -ima, adj., the last; as subst., the rear, those on the rear; novissimum agmen, the rear of the eolumn. novus, -a, -um, adj., new; novae res, revolution, political change. nox, noctis, f., night. nudo, I, strip, lay bare. nudus, -a, -ima, adj., bare, unde- fended. nullus, -a, -um, adj., no. mun, interrog. particle, expects answer no. numerus, -i, m., number, quantity. numquam, adv., never. nimc, adv., now. nuntio, I, announce, report, tell. nuntius, -i (-ii), m., messenger; message. nuper, adv., lately. O. ob, prep. w. ace, on account of. ob-icio, -ere, -iSci, -iectimi, throw forward. ob-liviscor, -i, oblitus, dep., forget. obses, obsidis, m., hostage. obsidio, -onis, f., siege; oppression. ob-tineo, -ere, -ui, -tentum, hold; outain. occasus, -us, m., setting; solis occasus, sujLset. oc-cido, -ere, -cidi, -cisimi, kill, slay. occisus, j)f. ptr. of occido. octingenti, -ae, -a, num. adj., eight hundred. oc-culto, I, conceal. occulta, adv., in secret. oc-cup6, I, OCCUPY, seize, hold. Ocelum, -i, n., Ocelutn. octo, indecl. num. adj., eight. oculus, -i, m., eye. odi, odisse, pret. vb., hate. of-fendo, -ere, -i, -nsum, offend. offensio, -onis, f., offense. of-fero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatiun, OFFER. officium, -i (-ii), n., duly. omnino, adv., oidy. omnls, -e, adj., all, every; n. pi. omnia as subst., everything. onus, -eris, n., burden, load. opinio, -onis, f., opinion. oportet, -ere, -uit, impers., one must, one ought. oppidum, -i, n., toum. opportunus, -a, -um, adj., oppor- tune, favorable. oppugnatio, -onis, f., siege. op-pugno, I, besiege, assault. ops, opis, f., power, help; pi., resources, as.siMance. optime, adv., best; superl. of bene, optimus, -a, -imi, adj., best; superl. of bonus, opus, -eris, n., work. oratio, -onis, f., .'i])eech, oration, ordo, -inis, ni., order, arrangemeni; rank; \)\. ordines, the ranks. Orgetorix, -igis, ni., Orgetorix. LATIN-ENOLISH VOCABULARY. 287 oro, I, heg, pray. os-tendo, -ere, -i, -ntum, show, point out. P. P., abbreviation for Publius. paco, I, PACIFY, subdue. paene, adv., almost, nearly. pagus, -i, m., canton, district. par, -is, adj., equal. paratus, -a, -um, adj., ready, pre- pared. pareo, -ere, -ui, -itum, obey. paro, I, prepare; procure. pars, partis, f., part. parvus, -a, -um, adj., small. passus, -us, m., pace; mille passus, a MILE. patens, -ntis, adj. pr. ptc. of pateo, open. pateo, -ere, -ui, , be open, ex- tend. pater, -tris, m., father. patior, pati, passus, suffer; per- mit. pauci, -ae, -a, pi. adj., few. paulatim, adv., gradually. paulo, adv., a little. pax, pads, f., peace. pedes, -itis, m., foot soldier; pi., infantry. pello, -ere, pepuli, pulsum, drive; rout; banish. per, prep. w. ace, through; by means of; through the agency of; during. per-duco, -ere, -duxi, -ductum, lead through, construct. perfacilis, -e, adj., very easy. per-fero, -ferre, -tuli, -latum, en- dure. per-ficio, -ere, -feci, -fectum, ^ms/i, PERFECT, accomplish, bring about. per-fringo, -ere, -fregi, -fractum, break through. perfuga, -ae, m., deserter. per-fugio, -ere, -fugi, -itum,^en; usque ad, up to, until. usus, -us, m., use; advantage; ex- perience. ut, conj., as; thai, in order that; so that; w. vbs. oi fear, that . . . not. ut non, neg. result conj., that . . . 7Wt. uter, -tra, -trum, adj., which (of two). uterque, -traque, -trmnque, adj., each; both. uti. See ut. utor, uti, usus, dep., use. utrimque, adv., on both sides. LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 293 utrum, conj., whether; utnun . . . an, whether . . . or. uxor, -oris, f., wife. V. vaco, I, be euipty, be vacant. vadum, -i, n., ford. vagor, I, dep., wander. valeo, -ere, -ui, -itum, be strong, have power. Valerius, -i (-ii), m., Valerius. vallum, -i, n., wall. vasto, I, lay waste, devastate, ravage. vectigaJ, -is, n., tribute. vehementer, adv., vigorously, ve- hemently. vel, conj., or; vel . . . vel, either . . . or. Veneti, -orum, m., the Veneti. venio, -ire, veni, ventiun, come. ventus, -i, m., wind. Verbigenus, -i, m., Verbigenus. verbum, -i, m., word; pi., speech. vereor, -eri, -itus, dep,, fear. Vergobretus, -i, m., Vergobret. vero, adv., indeed, in truth. Verucloetius, -i (-ii), m., Veru- cloetius. verus, -a, -um, adj., true. Vesontio, -onis, m., Vesontio. vesper, -eri, m., evening. vester, -tra, -trum, poss. adj. and pron,, your, yours. veteranus, -a, -um, adj., veteran. veto, -are, vetui, vetitum, forbid. vetus, -eris, adj., old, ancient. vexo, I, harass, annoy; vex. via, -ae, f., way, road. victoria, -ae, f., victory. vicus, -i, m., village. video, -ere, vidi, vismn, see. videor, -eri, visus, dep., seem. vigilia, -ae, f ., watch: the night was divided into four watches. viginti, indecl. num. adj., twenty. vinco, -ere, vici, victum, conquer. vinculmn, -i, m., bond, fetter. vinea, -ae, f., shed for the protec- tion of besiegers. viniun, -i, n., wine. vir, viri, m., man. vires, pi. of vis. virtus, -tutis, f., courage, valor; VIRTUE. vis, vis, f., force; pL, vires, -iimi, strength. vita, -ae, f., life. vito, I, shun, avoid. vivus, -a, -mn, adj., alive. vix, adv., scarcely, with difficulty. voco, I, call. Vocontii, -orum, m., the Vocontii. volo, velle, volui, , wish. voluntas, -tatis, f., consent; good will; wish. Volusenus, -i, m., Volu^enus. vos, pi. of tu. vox, vocis, f., voice; cry. vulgus, -i, n., the common people. vulnero, I, wound. vulnus, -eris, n., wound. ENQLISH=LATIN VOCABULARY. abandon, relinquo. (be) able, possum, about (w. numerals), ad; ( = cerning) de. acceptable, acceptus. access, aditus. (on) account of, propter, across, tr&ns. advance, procedo. against, ad; contra; in. aid, auxilium. all, omnis; totus. ally, socius. almost, fere; paene. alone, solus, already, lam. also, et; quoque. although, cum. always, semper, am, simi. ambassador, legatus. among, apud; in; inter, and, ac, atque, et; -que. and not, nee, neque. announce, nuntio. annoy, vexo. another, alius; (of two) alter, any, aliquis; dllus; (after si) appoint, creo. approach, aditus. approve of, probo. arms (weapons), arma. army, exercitus. arrival, adventus. arrive, pervenio. ask, peto; quaere; rogo. assault, oppugno. assistance, subsidium. at (throw at), in. qms. attack (of places), oppugno; (of persons), aggredior. attack, impetus, at once, statim. authority, auctdrit&s. auxiliaries, auxilia. avoid, vito. await, exspecto. baggage, impedimenta, bank (of stream), ripa. battle, proelium. battle line, acies. be, esse. beautiful, pulcher. because, quod; cum. because of, causa ; propter, before (prep.), ante; pro. before (conj.), priusquam. beg, imploro; peto. began, coepi. beginning, initium. behind, post, belief, opinio, benefit, prosiun. besiege, oppugno. best, optimus. betaice one's self, se recipere. better (ad j . ) , melior ; (ad v .), mel- ius, between, inter. be between, intercedo; interstmi. boat, navis. body, corpus, boldly, audacter. booty, praeda. boundaries, fines (pi.), brave, fortis. bravely, fortiter. 294 EI^GLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY. 295 break off (= interrupt), tollo. bridge, pons. bring, f ero ; porto. bring about, efficio. bring back, reduco. bring in, importo. bring upon, infero. build, facio. burn, incendo. but, sed. but (= except), nisi. by, a, ab. call, appello, voco. call together, convoco. camp, castra (pi.)- can, possum. capture, capio. care, diligentia. carry, porto. carry back word, renuntio. carry on (war), bellum gerere. cast, proicio. cavalry, equites (pi.) I equitatus. (a) certain, qtudam. check, tardo. chief, princeps. choose, deligo. circumstance, res. citizen, civis. city, urbs. clamor, clamor. clear (away), nudo. coast, litus. cohort, cohors. cold, frigus. column (of men), agmen. come, venio. come back, redeo ; revertor. come together, convenio. coming, adventus. command, mando; iubeo, impero. (be in) command, praesum. (put in) command, praeficio. commander, imperator. common, communis. compel, cogo. complain, queror. conference, colloquium. conquer, supero ; vinco. consider, cogito. consul, consul. contend, contend©. contrary to, contra; praeter. convoke, convoco. council, concilium. courage, animus; virtus, crops, friimenta. cross, transeo. custom, mos. danger, periculum. dangerous, periculosus. dare, audeo. daughter, filia. day, dies, deep, altus. defeat, supero; vinco. defend, defendo. defender, defensor, deliberate, delibero. deliver (a speech), habeo. demand, postulo. depart, abeo. depth, altitude, desire (for), studium. determine, constituo. differ, differ© . difficult, difficilis. (with) difficulty, vix. disaster, calamitas. discover, exploro. (be) distant, absum. disturb, perturbo. divide, divide, do, facio. doubt, dubito. doubt, dubium. draw up, instruo. drive, ago; pello. duty, officium. E. each, quisque. each other (third pers.), inter se. (be) eager for, studeo; also in sense ''fond of," cupidus esse. earthwork, agger, easily, facile. 296 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. easy, facilis. encourage, confinno. end, finis. endure, perfero; subeo. enemy, hostis. enlist, conscribo. enormous, ingens. enthusiasm, studium. entire, totus. entrust, mando. envoy, legatus. escape, profugio. establish, conhrmo. even, etiam; quidem. evident, constat. expect, exspecto. explore, exploro. exposed, apertus. express (opinion), iudico. express (thanks), gratias agere. extend, pertineo. fail, desum. far, longe. (as) far as, quantum (loci). farmer, agricola. farther (adj.), ulterior. farther (adv.), longius. favor, studeo. favor, beneficium, gratia. fear, timed; vereor. fear, timer. field, ager. fierce, acer. fiercely, acriter. fight, pugno. find, invenio; reperio. find out, exploro. finish, perficio. first (adj.), primus. first (adv.), primtmi. five, quinque, flank, latus. flee, fugio. flight, fuga. follow, sequor. follow closely, subsequcr. folly, amentia. foot, pes. (at) foot of, sub. for (conj.), nam; (prep.), ad; pro. forced march, magnvun iter. forces, copiae. ford, vadimi. forest, silva. formerly, quondam. fort, castellima. fortification, munitio. fortify, munio. fortune, fortuna. four, quattuor. fourth, quartus. free, liber. friend, amicus. friendf^hip, amicitia. frighten, perterreo. from (away from), a, ab; (out of), e, ex; (down from), de; (with verb phrase), quin. (in) front of, ante; pro. garrison, praesidium. gate, porta. gift, doniun. give, do. give up, tr&dd. go, eo. going to, etc., use fut. periph. go out, exeo. good, bonus. goods, bona (often omitted w. neut. possess, pron.). grain, frimentima. great, magnus. (as) great as, quantus. (so) great, tantus. greatly, magnopere. (very) greatly, maxime. guard, praesidium. guide, dux. guiltless, piu-gatus. happen, accido ; fid. harbor, portus. hardship, labor. hasten, contendo ; mature, hate, odi. ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY. 297 have, habeo. have (a thing done), euro. he (often), is. hear, audio. height, altitude. hem in, contineo. hesitate, dubito. high, altus. hill, coUis. himself (reflex), se; (intensive). See self. hinder, unpedio. his (her, etc.) (reflex), suus; (not reflex), gen. of is. hold, habeo; occupo; teneo. hold back, contineo. hold in check, contineo. hold out, sustineo. home (motion), domum. (at) home, domi. (from) home, domo. hope, spes. horse, equus. hostage, obses. hour, hora. house, domus. however, autem. I, ego. if, si. immediately, statim. impede, impedio. import, importo. in, in. indeed, etiam; quidem. induce, adduce ; indued. infantry, pedites (pi.). influence, addueo; indiieo. inform, certiorem faeere. (be) informed, certior fieri. inhabitant, ineola. injury, iniuria. inquire, quaero. insult, eonttunelia. intend, use fut. periph.; also in animo esse with dat. of person and infin. into, in. island, insula. J. javelin, telum. join battle, proelium eommittere. keep away ( off), prohibeo. keep in, contineo. kill, neco; interfieio. kind, genus, king, rex. know, seio; intellego. L. land, ager. language, lingua, large, magnus. lay waste, vasto. lead, ago; duco. lead back, redueo. leave, relinquo. left, sinister, legion, legio. less (adv.), minus, letter, litterae (pi.), liberty, libertas. lieutenant, legatus. (a) little (adv.), paulo. locate, coUoco. location, locus, long (adj.), longus. long (adv.), longe. long (adv. of time), diu. (as) long as, quamdiu. look back, respicio. lose, dimitto. love, amo. M. make, faeio. make war, bellum inferre. man, vir; homo, many, multi. march (noun), iter, march (verb), iter faeere. may (= permission), licet, memory, memoria. message, nuntius. messenger, nuntius. 298 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. middle, medius. mile, mille passus (pi.). miles, milia passuum. military matters, res militaris. mind, animus. moat, fossa. month, mensis. more (n. adj. used subst.), plus. more (adv.), amplius (of number); magis (of degree), mountain, mons. much (adj.), multus. much (adv.), multo; multum. must, use pass, periph.; also oportet. my, meus. name, ndmen. narrow, angustus. narrow pass, angustiae. nature, natura. near, ad; prope. nearest, proximus. neighbor, finitimus. never, nimiquam. nevertheless, tamen. new, nevus. next, proximus. next day, postridie. night, nox. no (adj. of number), nullus. no (of quantity), nihil. no one, nemo. not, non, in assertions and ques- tions; elsewhere, ne. not at all, nihil. not even, ne . . . quidem. not only . . . but also, non solum . . . sed etiam. not yet, nondmn. nothing, nihil. now, nunc; iam. number, numerus. obtain, obtined. occupy, occupo. of (= about), dS. often, saepe. on, in. on account of, propter. once, quondam. one, unus. one . . . another, alius . , . alius. one ... the other, alter . . . alter. only, omnino; solum. open, apertus. opinion, opinio. order, iubed; impero. other, alius; (of two) alter. ought, debeo. our, noster. our men, nostri. out of, e, ex. over (of authority), in w. ace. over (across), trans. overcome, supero. pack animal, iumentum. part, pars. pass (of mountahis), angustiae. peace, pax. people, populus. perform, praesto. permit, patior. persuade, persuaded. pitch camp, castra ponere. place, locus. plan, consiliimi. plunder, praeda. popularity, gratia, possess, habeo. (get) possession of, potior, power, potestas. (be) powerful, plurimum posse. praise, laudo. praise, laus. prefer, malo. prepare, paro; comparo. prevent, prohibeo; deterred. proceed, procedo. procure, paro; comparo. protection, fides; praesidium. province, provincia. (for the) purpose of, causa. put in command, praeficio. put to flight, in fugam dare. ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY. 299 Q. quantity, numerus. quicker than they thought, celer- ius opinione. quickly, celeriter. quite, maxime. race, genus. rampart, agger. rank, ordo. rather, potius. ravage, vasto. reach, adeo. rear, novissimum agmen. reason, ratio; res; causa. (for) reasons of my own, meo nomine, refuse, recuso. remain, maneo. remaining (adj.), reliquus. remarkable, egregius; insignis. render, reddo. report, nuntio; renuntio. report, fama; rumor, resolve, constituo. rest of, reliquus. restrain, retineo. retire, se recipere. retreat, pedem referre. return, redeo; reverter, revolt, deficio. revolution, res novae, right, dexter, right of way, iter, ripe, maturus. river, flumen. road, iter; via. route, iter. S. safe, incoltmiis; tutus. safety, salus. sail, navigo. sailor, nauta. (for the) sake of, causa. same, idem. scarcely, vix. scout, explorator. sea, mare. see, video. seek, peto; quaero. seem, videor. seize, occupo. select, deligo. self (intensive, all persons), ipse. senate, senatus. send, mitto. send forward, praemitto. separate, divido. servitude, servitus. set out, proficiscor. severe, acer. severely, acriter. sharp, acer. ship, navis. ship of war, navis longa. show, ostendo. shun, vito. side, latus; pars. (on all) sides, undique. sight, conspectus. since, cimi. size, magnitudo. skilled, peritus. slay, interficio. small, parvus. so, ita; sic; tam. soldier, miles. some, nonnuUus. some one, aliquis. son, filius. soon as possible, quam primum. spear, pilum ; telum. speech, oratio; verba (pi.). speed, celeritas. state, civitas. station, colloco; constituo. stay, maneo. stone, lapis. storm (attack), expugno. strength, vires (pi.). (be) strong, valeo. stronghold, oppidum. subdue, supero. such (adj.), talis. suitable, idoneus. summon, convoco. sunset, solis occasus. supplies, commeatus. surpass, supero. swift, celer. sword, gladius. 300 ELEMENTS OF LATIN. take, capio. take away, toUo. take by storm, expugno. take flight, se fugae mandare. tell, died; nuntio. tenth, decimus. territory, agar; fines (pi.). than, quam. that (pron.), ille. that (of yours), iste. that, in order that, ut; neg., n§. that, so . . . that, ut; neg., ut non. that (after /car), ne; neg., ut. that (after doubt), quin. the . . . the (in correlative sen- tences), quo . . . eo; quanto . . . tanto. then, inde; turn. Ihore, ibi. thing, res. think, cogito; existimo; puto. this, hie. though, cum. thousand, mille. three, tres. through, per. throw, conicid. time, tempus. to (motion), ad. top of (adj.), summus. toward, ad. tower, turris. town, oppidum. tribe, gens. troops, copiae. trouble, perturbo. try, Conor. twelve, duodecim. two, duo. two hundred, ducenli. unencumbered, expeditus. until, dum. urge, incito ; hortor. urge on, incito. use, utor. utmost, maximus; stunmus. (in) vain, frustra. valiant, fortis. valor, virtus. very, usually express by superl. very greatly, maxime. very much, maxime. victory, victoria. vigorous, acer. village, vicus. visit, adeo. W. wage war, bellum gerere. wa|;on, camis. wait, moror. wait for, exspecto. wall, vallum. want, void. war, bellum. warn, moneo. war ship, navis longa. what. Sec who. when, cimi; ubi. where, ubi. whether, si; utrum; num. which (of two), uter. while, dtmi. who, which, what (rel.), qui. who, which, what (interrog.), quis. whole, totus. why, cur; quare. wine, vinum. wing (of army), comu. winter quarters, hlbema (pi.). wish, void. (not to) wish, nolo. wish rather, malo. with, cimi. without, sine. withstand, sustineo. work, opus. wound, vulnero. wound, vulnus. y. year, annus, yield, cedo. you, tu. your, tuus; vester. INDEX. Ablative: abl. case, 31; abl. of cause, manner, accompani- ment, 340; means, instru- ment, agent, attendant cir- cumstance, 344; with certain deponents, 348; respect or specification, 349; with com- paratives, degree of difference, 353; quaUty, 357; separation, 358; place and time, 362; source, price, with opus, with adjectives, 366; absolute, 369. Accent, 8. Accusative: ace. case, 31; ace. of direct object, object and pred- icate, with compounds of trans, person and thing, 309; extent — time, space, power or degree, 313; limit, 314. Adjectives: classes, 78; used sub- stantively, 81; declined, 79, 85, 148; irregular, 139; in -er distinguished, 147; of 1, 2, and 3 terminations, 145; comparison, 158-165; of po- sition, 166, 374; agreement, 80, 373. Adverbs: formation, 170; compari- son, 171. Agreement: defined, 46; attributive and predicate, 69; verb with subject, 47; appositives, 73; adjectives, 80, 373; relative, 192. an, 382. B Base, 35. Case, 31. Case endings: 32; 35; 36; 41; 52; 102; 129; 133. Case terminations, 35. Causal clauses: 245, C, 2; 422. Command, 380. Comparison: adj., 158-165; adv., 171. Concessive clauses: 245, C, 3; 423. Conditional sentences: 427-429; future, 433; table of, 434. Conjugations, 20, see Verbs. Correlation, 376. cum (conj.): 245; 418; 422; 423. cum primum, 418. Dative: dat. case, 31; indirect ob- ject, with intransitives, with compound verbs, 318; refer- ence, with adjectives, 322; possessor, purpose, or service, agent, 326. Declension: defined, 10; classified, 33, 34; first, 41-44; second, 52-54, 58; third— stems, 102- 104; mute stems, 105, 106; liquid and nasal stems, 110, 111; spirant stems, 115-117; i stems, 121-124; fourth, 129- 132; fifth, 133, 134. Deponent verbs, 266-268. Direct cases, 31, b. Doubt, 413. dum, 418. E Enclitics, 184, n. 3. F Fear clauses: 270; 414. Finite forms of verb, 13. Future: 95; D7; 152. 301 302 INDEX. Genitive: gen. case, 31; gen. with nouns — possessive, partitive, material or composition, sub- jective, objective, attributive, 330; quality, measure, 334; with adjectives, 335 ; predicate, with verbs of remembering and forgetting, with imperson- als, interest, indefinite value, 339. Gerund and Gerundive: form, 218, c; 228, b; syntax, 388-390. Government, 46. Hindrance, 413. Historical infinitive, 384, c. Historical jjerfect, 209. Historical present, 235, I, e. Imperative, 217. Imperfect: 94; 97. Impersonal verbs: 302-304. Indkect discourse: 438-445. Infinitive: 21; 218, b; 228, c, d, e; 384. Inflection, 10. Interrogative particles, 194. Irregular verbs: 280-304. Locative case, 135. M Modifiers, 67. ne: 234: 270; 380; 399; 413; 414. -ne: 194; 382. \necne, 382. Negatives: 381; 398; 408. Nominative: 31; 308. nonne, 194. num, 194. Numerals: 175, 176. Objects: defined, 46; du*ect, see Accusative; indirect, see Dat- ive. Oblique cases, 31, b. oratio obliqua, see Indirect dis- Participles: form, 218, a; 228; syn- tax, 367-369. Particles, 9. Perfect system, 209. Periphrastics: form, 274-276; syn- tax 326, V. Personal endings: 22; 210; 217; 227. postquam, 418. potior, 348. Prepositions: 59-60; Appendix A. Present system, 96. Preteritive verbs, 294. Prevention, 413. Primary tenses, 235, I. Principal part«, 208. priusquam, 418. Prohibition, 380. Pronominal adjectives: 139-141. Pronouns: defined and classified, 180; form, 181-182; 186; 187; 191-193; 198; 201; syntax, 192; 375. Purpose: 234; 399; 403. Quantity: 5, 6. Questions: direct. 194; single and double, 382; mdirect, 444. quin, 413. quoad, 418. quod, 422. quominus, 413. R Refusal, 413. Relative pronoun: 191, 192. Relative sentence: 449, 450. Result: 240; 407. INDEX. 303 Secondary tenses, 235, I. Semi-deponent verbs, 269. Sentence, 45. Sequence of tenses, 235. simul ac, 418. Sounds: 1-4. Stems: verb, 16-19; 205, 206; 230; noun, 32, 33; 102-105; 110; 115; 121-123. Subject: of finite verb, 47, a; of infinitive, 384, II. Subjunctive: nature and formation, 215, 216; syntax: independent, 215; 383; hortatory, jussive, optative or voUtive, potential, 383; dependent, 234; 240; 245; 270; purpose, 234; 399; result, 240; 407; appositive and ex- planatory, 412; doubt, hin- drance, prevention, refusal, 413; fear, 414; time, 245; 418; cause, 245; 422; concession, 245; 423; conditions, 429, II; 433, II; indirect discourse, 439; 445; indirect questions, 444; in relative sentence, 449, 450. Substantive clauses, 395, II. Supine: form, 218, d; syntax, 391; 403, IV. Temporal clauses: 245, C, 1; 418. Tenses: 12; 14; primary and sec- ondary, 235, 1; historical, 209; 235, I, e; meaning — present, 23, a; imperfect, 94; future, 95; perfect, 209, a; pluperfect, 209, b; future perfect, 209, c; formation — indicative tenses, 23, b; 97, a; 97, b; 152, b; 210, a; 210, b; 210, c; subjunctive, 216; imperative, 217; passive, 227 Tense signs: 16; 97; 152; 210; 216. ubi, 418. ut, 234, 399; 240, 407; 270, 414. uti, see ut. utor, 348. utrum, 382. Verbs: 11-24; 90; 94-98; 152-154; 205-304. W Wish, 383- n RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (415)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW AU6 9 1991 YB 41188 / 249 J 23 i )