HC 107 T4C7n THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES / THE NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE STATE OF TEXAS. The MERCHANTS' Association of New York THE NATURAL RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE STATE OF TEXAS REPORT OF AN EXAMINATION MADE BY A SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF THE MERCHANTS' ASSOCIATION OF NEW YORK, BY INVITATION OF THE GOVERNOR AND LEGISLATURE OF TEXAS December, 1901 593^59 Copyright, 1901. The Merchants' Association OF New York. :? RESOLUTIONS. ^— — A 'T ^ meeting of the Board of Directors of The Merchants' r{ /A Association of New York, Thursday, December 5, the p^; following preambles and resolutions were adopted by a unanimous vote: Whereas, the Hon. Joseph D. Sayers, Governor of the State of Texas, in an address to a large number of merchants, at a re- ception given at the Merchants' Club in October, 1900, invited The Merchants' Association and the Chamber of Commerce to send committees to the State of Texas for the purpose of study- K ing the economic conditions of that State, which invitation was ^ subsequently concurred in by an official resolution of the Legis- ^ lature of the State of Texas ; and, Whereas, in accordance with such invitation, William F. •^ King, then President of The Merchants' Association, appointed ^ a committee of thirty members, who visited Texas as the guests of a committee representing that State, appointed by the Speaker j of the House of Representatives, in accordance with the invita- tion extended by that body, which committee received unbounded hospitality at the hands of the Texas Reception Committee, the State officials and the people of Texas, and were given every facility possible within the limit of time at their disposal to visit the principal points of interest in the State, and to study the con- ditions therein ; now, therefore, be it Resolved, That we, the Directors of The Merchants' Associa- tion, hereby express our thanks to the Hon. Joseph D. Sayers, Governor of the State of Texas ; to the Legislature of that State ; to the Hon. R. E. Prince, Speaker of the House of Representatives of that State, by whom the Reception Committee was appointed ; to Edwin Chamberlain, Esq., chairman of the State Reception Committee ; to S. P. Skinner, Esq., vice-chairman ; to Louis J. Wortham, Esq., secretary, and the fourteen other members of the State Reception Committee ; to the various local committees in the different cities and towns visited by the Committee, and to the many citizens of the State who aided the State Committee and the local committees in entertaining the two visiting committees ; as well as the railroads, telegraph companies, newspapers and other corporate or private interests, for the numerous courtesies ex- tended by them ; and be it further Resolved, That the Board of Directors of The Merchants' As- sociation hereby approves the report of the chairman and secre- tary of the Association's Committee, and of the various sub-com- mittees, now presented and entitled "The Natural Resources and Economic Conditions of the State of Texas," and extends its thanks to the members of the Committee for their intelligent and careful performance of the work delegated to them ; and directs that the report of the Committee be printed, together with these resolutions, duly certified by the signatures of the president and the secretary, and by the official seal of The ^Merchants' Associa- tion of New York. [Signed] Attest: D. Le Roy Dresser, John C. Eames, President. Secretary. New York, Dec. 5. 1901. CONTENTS. PAGE. Introductory 1-13 Invitation by Governor Sayers, 1-2 ; Joint Resolutions of Legislature, 2-4; Texas State Reception Committee, 4; Delegates of The Merchants' Association, 5-6 ; Delegates of the Chamber of Commerce, G; Itinerary, 7-9; Sub- Committees, 10-11 ; Inadequacy of Official Data, 11-13. Water Supplies of Texas 15-25 Chart I.: Distribution of Rainfall Throughout the United States, 14; Chart II.: Precipitation, facing 16; Chart III.: Evaporation, facing 18. Diagrams 1, 2, 3. Precipitation Curves, Pp. 26, 27, 28. Agricultural Conditions and Resources of Texas 29-68 Chart IV.: Geographical Zones of Texas, facing 29; Chart v.: Isothermal Zones of United States, July Tem- perature, 30; Chart VI.: Isothermal Zones of United States, January Temperature, 32; Chart VII.: Soils and Annual Rainfall of Texas, facing 36; Chart VIII.: Geological Formations of Texas, facing 38; Chart IX.: Cotton Distribution of United States, 61; Chart X.: Wheat Distribution of United States, 62; Chart XL: Corn Distribution of United States, 63; Chart XII.: Oats Distribution of United States, 64; Chart XIIL: Distribution of Beef Cattle of United States, 65; Chart XIV.: Distribution of Sheep of United States, 66; Chart XV.: Hog Distribution of United States, 67. Mineral Resources of Texas 71-76 Chart XVI.: Distribution of Minerals in Texas, facing 71. Forest Resources and Lumber Industry of Texas 77-81 Chart XVII. : Distribution of Forests of Texas, facing 77. Health Conditions and Climate of Texas 83-95 Chart XVIII. : Mean Annual Temperature, facing 83. Manufacturing Industries of Texas 96-98 Labor Conditions of Texas 99-101 Transportation and Export Facilities of Texas 103-112 Banks and Financial Interests of Texas 113-116 Public Educational Institutions in Texas 117-136 Texas Legislation and its Tendencies 139-146 INTRODUCTORY. To the Directors of The Merchants' Association of New York. THE special committee of the Merchants' Association of New York, appointed in March last by Mr. William F. King, then president, for the purpose of visiting the State of Texas in response to an invitation extended by the Legislature of that State, submit herewith a report of their tour. It may be well to preface the report by a statement of the conditions which led to the invitation and the subsequent tour through the State for an examination of its resources and economic conditions. The Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York and The Merchants' Association of New York raised a large fund for the relief of Galveston after the terrible hurricane of September 8, 1900. The Honorable Joseph D. Sayers, Governor of Texas, came to New York in the following month to attend a bazaar for the benefit of Galveston's orphans, under the auspices of one of the metropolitan newspapers. Acting for the State of Texas, he made an official call upon the officers of the Chamber of Commerce and The Merchants' Association, to thank them in the name of the State for the generous aid given by the relief committees of these two organizations to the dis- tressed citizens of Galveston. He was given a reception at the Merchants' Club, which was largely attended by the members of The Merchants' Association. Mr. John Claflin, chairman of the Galveston Relief Committee of The Merchants' Association, and also a member of the Relief Committee of the Chamber of Com- merce, presided. On this occasion Governor Sayers made an eloquent address expressive of the deep gratitude felt by the people of Texas for 1 2 INTRODUCTORY. the generosity shown by New York. In the course of his re- marks he expressed the wish that the incident might open the way for intimate and friendly relations; and that it might lead his hearers to a knowledge of the resources of Texas, and the invit- ing opportunities which it presents to capital. Continuing, he said: "Now, I am going to make you this proposition, gentlemen : That this great association, representing as it does energy, enterprise, ability and wealth, ap- point three of its own members, or five, if it pleases, as a committee to visit our State. I extend to them right here the invitation, and I will lay before them every law that is on the statute book ; I will give them the entry to every department of Government, and, after that I, or some one representing me, will accom- pany the committee to every section of the State. Upon the report of that committee, based on its investiga- tions, I am willing to stand or fall." The Gavemor then told of some of the conditions that make the industrial development of Texas an inviting field to capital, and protested against the erroneous belief that Texas laws are hostile to outside capital, especially to corporate capital. He declared this untrue, and therefore he was desirous that wrong impressions which had become current should be dissipated by the personal observation of delegates from the two great business organizations of the metropolis. The invitation so extended by Governor Sayers was officially endorsed by the Texas Legislature, which, by unanimous vote, adopted the follow^ing JOINT RESOLUTIONS. Be il Resolved by the House of Representatives, That in behalf of the people of the great State of Texas, who are desirous of encouraging the establish- ment of industrial enterprises, especially cotton, wool INTRODUCTORY. and shoe factories, and with the further object of de- veloping our great mineral resources ; and Whereas, It is a recognized fact that the State of Texas offers advantages for all classes of industries superior to any other State in the Union by reason of its diversified resources, mild and healthful climate, rich and productive soil, vast territory. Gulf ports and railroad facilities, thereby reducing the cost of trans- portation, being the greatest cotton, wool and stock producing State in the Union ; and Whereas, His Excellency, the Governor, did invite a committee to be appointed by The Merchants' Asso- ciation and the Chamber of Commerce of the City of New York to visit the State of Texas for the purpose of investigating our resources and for the further pur- pose and object of investing capital in factories and legitimate enterprises ; and Whereas, The appointment of said committee by The Merchants' Association and the Chamber of Com- merce is now awaiting the bidding of the Governor to visit us at his pleasure; therefore be it Resolved by the House of Representatives of the State of Texas, That we heartily endorse the action of the Governor and join him in his invitation to said committee; and be it further Resolved, That we invite the establishment of legiti- mate enterprises of every kind in our State, assuring them of every just encouragement and protection; be it further Resolved, That the Speaker extend an invitation to one citizen from each Congressional district to co- operate with the Governor in showing the committee the various sections of the State, and accompany said committee through his district of the State; be it further Resolved, That a copy of this resolution be for- warded to The Merchants' Association and Chamber of Commerce of the City of New York. 4 INTRODUCTORY. In accordance with these resolutions, the Hon. R. E. Prince, Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives, appointed a committee, composed of one business man from each Congres- sional district of the State, to receive the delegates from The Merchants' Association and the Chamber of Commerce, and to escort them upon a tour throughout the State. The following gentlemen comprised THE TEXAS STATE RECEPTION COMMITTEE. Edwin Chamberlain, Chairman San Antonio. S. P. Skinner, Vice-Chairman Waxahachie. Louis J. Worth AM, Secretary Austin. E. H. R. Green Terrell. H. B. Rice Houston. J. A. Kemp Wichita Falls. E. J. Fry, Marshall. B. B. Paddock Fort Worth. J. W. RiGGiNS Waco. R. J. Kleberg Alice. W. A. Williams Greenville. W. W. HosKiNS Velasco. W. C. Hargrove Pittsburg. J. M. Pierson McKinney. The Merchants' Association, at a special meeting of the Board of Directors, accepted the invitation unanimously on behalf of the Association, and requested Mr. William F. King, the president, to appoint a committee of thirty. Mr. King desig- nated Mr. William R. Corwine, of the office of The Merchants' Association, as his representative, to arrange for the trip, and the following committee was appointed: INTRODUCTORY. DELEGATES OF THE MERCHANTS' ASSOCIATION. Alvah Trowbridge, Chairman ; President Ninth Na- tional Bank and President American Bankers' As- sociation. Dick S. Ramsay, President Hide and Leather National Bank. William G. Hoople, Investor and Director Hide and Leather National Bank. George C. Potter, Hutchens & Potter, Manufacturers, Johnstown, N. Y. Charles B. Knox, Manufacturer, Johnstown, N. Y. C. M. Wicker, H. B. Hollins & Co., Bankers, and Vice- President Ft. Worth & R. G. R. R. H. A. Metz, President Victor Koechl Co. ; Member New York Board of Education. H. Elmer Gibb, Mills & Gibb, Dry Goods Importers. Frank L. Sheldon, Frank L. Sheldon & Co., Brokers. Gustav A. Jahn, G. a. Jahn & Co., and President At- lantic Rice Mills Co. D. Le Roy Dresser, Dresser & Co., Dry Goods Com- mission Merchants. Rev. Joseph Newton Hallock, D. D., Editor and Proprietor The Christian Work. William H. Gratwick, Investor and Specialist on Lumber, Buffalo, N. Y. C. T. Root, President Textile Publishing Co. and Ed- itor The Dry Goods Economist. George Clinton Batcheller, G. C Batcheller & Co., Manufacturers. Henry B. Cosgrove, Broker. W. A. Marble, Vice-President R. & G. Corset Co. Dr. George A. Soper, Sanitary Engineer and Chemist. Thomas Crimmins, J. D. & T. C Crimmins, Engineers. Manly A. Ruland, Ruland & Whiting, Real Estate. John H. Pynes, Manufacturer Knit Goods, Water- ford, N. Y. 6 INTRODUCTORY. C. H. Kavanaugh, Manufacturer Knit Goods, Water- ford, N. Y. James B. Dill, Counsel to The Merchants' Association. Charles G. Crawford, Wynkoop-Hallenbeck-Craw- ford Co., Printers and Publishers. Frank Nicholson, Investor and Mining Expert. G. W. Graham, Broker. S. Cristy Mead, Assistant Secretary of The Merchants' Association. William R. Corwine, of The Merchants' Association, and Secretary to the Committee. N. Planter, Official Stenographer of The Merchants' Association and of the Committee. The Chamber of Commerce having likewise accepted the invitation of Governor Sayers, Mr. Morris K. Jesup, the presi- dent of that organization, appointed a committee of ten to repre- sent that body. The following gentlemen were of the visiting party: DELEGATES OF THE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. Charles M. Jesup, Chairman ; Vice-President Securi- ties Company of New York. W. C. Le Gendre, Secretary ; Brown Bros. & Co., Bankers. Edward N. Tailer, Retired Merchant and Capitalist. W. N. Coler, Jr., Banker, W. N. Coler & Co. H. C. Berlin, Merchant; Director Knickerbocker Trust Co.; Director Bowery Savings Bank. Major T. J. Hurley, Vice-President The Exploration Co. Richard Deeves, Richard Deeves & Son, Contractors and Builders. C. T. CoLLiNGS, Merchant, Cincinnati, O., Represent- ing the Standard Oil Co. F. B. Thurber. Many of the members of the two committees, besides repre- senting the interests set opposite their names, are also directors INTRODUCTORY. 7 in various other corporations, with important and widely diverse business and investment connections. Mr. Jesup and Mr. Corwine co-operated in directing the de- tails of the proposed trip, and through the officials of the Penn- sylvania Railroad Company arranged for the train and all trans- portation details. A finely equipped special train, consisting of four compart- ment cars, a diner and a combination smoker and baggage-car, was provided for the continuous use of the committee during the entire tour. It was said by the railway officials to be the handsomest train which ever went from New York. The train was in the personal charge of Mr. W. W. Lord, Jr., Assistant General Eastern Passenger Agent of the Penn- sylvania Railroad Company, who was appointed to look after the comfort of the two committees, which function he per- formed with great efficiency. The start was made from Jersey City April 20 at 10.15 a. m. The train ran to Philadelphia as a section of the Chicago Limited, and from that point ran as a special via the Pennsylvania Cen- tral Railroad to Washington; thence over the Southern Rail- way to Lynchburg; over the Norfolk & Western to Bristol; over the Southern Railway to Chattanooga; over the Alabama Great Northern to Meridian, and over the New Orleans North- eastern to New Orleans, which was reached Sunday, April 21, at 9.40 p. M. The actual distance traversed from Jersey City to New Orleans was 1,336 miles; the actual running time was thirty-six hours and twenty-four minutes, beating all previous records. At New Orleans the delegates were met by the Texas State Reception Committee and escorted to the St. Charles Hotel, where they remained over night. The committee had been previously invited by Stuyvesant Fish, Esq., the president of the Illinois Central Railroad Company, to be the guests of that company in New Orleans, and to inspect the great terminal works built by the company during recent years which have so greatly stimulated grain shipments from New Orleans. , On Monday morning, therefore, the railroad officials, after 8 INTRODUCTORY. a trolley tour to give the visitors a view of the city, took them on a trip up and down the river on a tug to inspect the long water front, the miles of shipping and the splendid terminal facilities of the Illinois Central Railroad. Luncheon was served on the tug. At 9.30 o'clock that night, Monday, April 22, the train left for Texas in charge of the Texas State Reception Committee. The committees arrived at Orange, on the border of Texas, at 7 o'clock the following morning, Tuesday, April 23. There they were met by the local committee and the Hon. R. E. Prince, Speaker of the House of Representatives, who represented the Hon. Joseph D. Sayers, Governor of the State of Texas, and who officially welcomed the committees. From Orange the committees traveled through Texas, stop- ping at the following cities, town and villages in the order named: Beaumont, Ballinger, The Beaumont Oil Fields, Wichita Falls, Sabine Pass, Quanah, Houston, Dallas, La Porte, Waxahachie, Galveston Marlin, Sugar Lands, Calvert, San Antonio, Bryan, New Braunfels, College Station, Austin, Corsicana, Burnett, Ennis, Marble Falls, Greenville, Llano, Sulphur Springs, Temple, Texarkana, Waco, Paris, Fort Worth, Sherman, Cleburne, Denison, Brownwood, Gainesville, San Angelo, which was the last place of entertainment in the State. From Gainesville the committees returned to Denison and thence started homeward over the Missouri, Kansas & Texas INTRODUCTORY. 9 Railway. The train left Denison Tuesday, May 7, at 11.00 p. m. and arrived at St. Louis at 6.10 p. m. the following night. This also was a record-breaking run. The officials of the Missouri, Kansas and Texas road took charge of the train, and, under orders from the executive officers, ran it as a special from Denison to St. Louis, free of all railway charges, showing the committees every possible courtesy. At St. Louis the committees were met by Mr. W. W. Lord, Jr., Assistant General Eastern Passenger Agent of the Penn- sylvania Railroad Company, who had left the train at New Orleans. He once more took charge of the committees. The train left St. Louis at 6.35 o'clock the same evening over the Vandalia line to Indianapolis; then proceeded over the Pittsburg, Chicago, Cincinnati & St. Louis Railroad to Colum- bus; over the Cincinnati, Akron & Columbus and Cleveland & Pittsburg Railroads, to Cleveland ; over the Lake Shore & Michi- gan Southern to Buffalo, where it arrived at 5.25 p. m. The com- mittees were joined at that city by Mr. H. C. Parry, the Buffalo Passenger Agent of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company. The train was run over the Belt Line to the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition, where the commit- tees were given an opportunity to inspect the grounds, and where they were officially received by the Mayor of Buffalo and the officers of the Exposition. The train left there at 7.15 p. M., making a through run to the Grand Central Station, arriv- ing there at 7 o'clock the following morning, May 10. The total number of miles traveled on this trip was 6,198, of which 2,800 miles were within the State of Texas. During the whole trip there was not an accident or an un- pleasant incident of any kind. We desire to express our thanks to Governor Sayers and the Legislature of the State of Texas for having invited us, to The Merchants' Association for having appointed us, to Mr. Edwin Chamberlain, chairman; Mr. S. P. Skinner, vice-chairman; Mr. Louis J. Wortham, secretary, and all the members of the Texas State Reception Committee; to the Hon. R. E. Prince, Speaker of the House of Representatives of the State of Texas; to the press of the State and its representatives, and the Associated 10 INTRODUCTORY. Press and its representatives who accompanied us on the trip throughout the State ; to all the railroad officials, as well as the officials of the Western Union and Postal Telegraph companies who placed the use of their wires at our disposal free for the purpose of sending messages to our homes while in Texas; to every man, woman and child whom we met in Texas, and, in fact, to every one who had anything to do with the trip or our reception, directly or indirectly, for the uniform kindness and courtesy shown us, and for all that was done for our entertain- ment, comfort and happiness. It would be impossible to put into words the courtesy that was shown us by the Texas State Reception Committee, by the committees which had been organized in the various cities and towns that we visited to receive and care for us, or by the people themselves who helped entertain us and who did all in their power to make our visit a pleasant one. If we were to recite, or even attempt to summarize this cour- tesy, it would take a whole volume, and, therefore, we must content ourselves with making a general expression for all. The trip will ever remain in our memories as one of the pleasantest incidents of our lives, in which we formed acquaint- ances that ripened into friendship that we hope will be lasting — by which our vision was broadened, and through which we came to a better understanding of the conditions existing in the State of Texas, of its progressiveness and of the warm-hearted hos- pitality of its people, than we could possibly have obtained in any other way. The chairman of the committee of The Merchants' Asso- ciation appointed several sub-committees for the purpose of studying the subjects assigned to them. These sub-committees were made up as follows: Committee on Law and Legal Matters Generally: James B. Dill, Counsel for The Merchants' Association. Committee on Banking: Dick S. Ramsay, Chairman ; William G. Hoople, Frank L. Sheldon. INTRODUCTORY. 11 Committee on Transportation and Export Facilities: William R. Corvvine, Chairman ; Henry B. Cosgrove, C. M. Wicker. Committee on Agricultural Resources: S. Cristy Mead, Chairman; Manly A. Ruland, Gus- TAV A. Jahn. Committee on Mineral Resources: Frank Nicholson, Chairman ; Thomas Crimmins, H. A. Metz. Committee on Lumber: William H. Gratwick. Committee on Cotton Piece Goods Manufacturing : John H. Pynes, Chairman ; C. H. Kavanaugh, C. T. Root, G. W. Graham. Committee on General Manufacturing: D. Le Roy Dresser, Chairman ; W. A. Marble, G. C. Batcheller, H. Elmer Gibb. Committee on Educational Facilities: Rev. Joseph Newton Hallock, D. D., Chairman; Charles G. Crawford, H. A. Metz. Committee on Sanitary and Climatic Conditions: Dr. George A. Soper. Committee on Labor: C. B, Knox, Chairman ; George C. Potter. When these several committees were formed it was assumed that ample statistical data as to the natural resources of the State and their present development and all other economic conditions would be readily accessible from official sources. The proposed function of the committees was, therefore, the careful observation of established conditions of fact, with a view to estimating and reporting upon their probable opportunities of profitable future development. Much to the disappointment and embarrassment of the vari- ous committees it has been found that the official data collated by the State of Texas are exceedingly meager, and that no comprehensive view of the actual and potential economic condi- 12 INTRODUCTORY. tions of the State can be gathered from its public documents. The State government seems almost blind to the great impor- tance of public reports containing accurate and complete ex- hibits of the natural resources and industrial possibilities of the State. Such reports are indispensable to promote the influx of im- migration and outside capital essential to industrial develop- ment, which demand reliable information as a prerequisite to direct their movement. There is a notable lack of such infor- mation as to Texas, and in all probability the State has been much prejudiced thereby. Instances are seen in its deficient labor supply, due in part to the absence of a consid- erable immigration from European countries, and to the dis- trustful attitude of outside capital, which has long standing but for the most part groundless prejudices against investment in Texas, based upon misconception and dense ignorance of actual conditions. It is manifestly impossible, no matter how great the industrv and skill applied, to collate and digest during a rapid tour of sev- eral thousand miles within a period of two weeks, the vast body of basic data necessary for the purposes of the committees. By reason of the paucity and irrelevance of the public reports of the State the dil^cult task of gathering the required data from other and detached sources was imposed upon the committees. This was of necessity largely effected by correspondence and through the hearty co-operation of numerous gentlemen resid- ing in various parts of the State, particularly railroad officials, who have done much to fill the gaps left by the defective public reports. Through these unofficial channels has been gathered a body of material, ample as to most subjects, for the purposes of the committee. It comprises numerous monographs, pub- lished by various associations, institutions and individuals, sup- plemented by much valuable unpublished data, collated for the committee by Texas specialists, qualified by thorough personal knowledge of the conditions, to present them faithfully and fully. In some branches of inquiry satisfactory data are unob- tainable, no scientific collation of the necessary statistics having hitherto been made. In these cases our report reflects only INTRODUCTORY. 13 general conditions. It is believed, however, that despite these inevitable omissions, the following pages afiford a much more comprehensive and well-rounded exhibit of the economic development and possibilities of Texas than can elsewhere be found in accessible form. It is the sense of the committee that the State of Texas would be greatly benefited by comprehensive public reports that would fully exhibit its economic, financial and industrial condi- tions by the approved methods of statistical science. Creditable exceptions to the general defectiveness of Texas public reports are those of the State Geological Survey and of the State Railroad Commission. The latter are among the most thorough, useful and intelligent pubHshed by any public authority anywhere in the United States. The geological re- ports are of great merit, but as yet they cover but a very small part of the State. By far the most comprehensive data accessi- ble are suppHed by the various departmental publications of the United States Government, especially those of the Geological Survey, the Census Bureau and the Department of Agriculture. Much valuable information not elsewhere obtainable has been drawn from the Document Division of the Library of Con- gress, and many thanks are due to Roland P. Falkner, Esq., chief of that division, for his courteous and valuable assistance, which enabled the committee to consult a large body of useful data, as well as to Frederick B. De Berard, Esq., of The Mer- chants' Association, who went to Washington and compiled the data and who has rendered valuable assistance in the preparation of the report, co-operating heartily with the sub-committees, more particularly those on agriculture and railroads. Respectfully submitted, Alvah Trowbridge, Chairman. William R. Corwine, Secretary. For iJie Committee. New York. Nov. 1, 1901. WATER SUPPLIES OF TEXAS, FROM a geographical standpoint the State of Texas may be considered as a great area of country arranged in a series of broad, irregular steps, which slope from the Cordilleras in a southeasterly direction toward the Gulf of Mexico. In the cen- ter of the State, and in the extreme west, the comparative uni- formity of the incline is broken by small mountains. The highest step is the territory of the Great Plains. It extends from the Panhandle south to near the latitude of Del Rio, and is bordered on the east by the gypsum and red lands of Central Texas. The red lands form the second step, and the third com- prises the black prairies in the east center part of the State. Finally we have the low coast and flat land bordering on the eastern boundary for the lowest step in the series. RIVER SYSTEMS. THERE are no mountains within the State which give rise to important river systems. The Pecos, Canadian and Rio Grande take their rise in the Rocky Mountains outside of the boundaries of Texas and derive no important part of their volume from this country. The drainage of the State is carried off by streams which rise on the edge, or south or east, of the Great Plains. The Plains themselves have no true rivers. The Canadian River flows through a deep valley far below the level of the country which it traverses, and consists for the most part of little more than a strip of wet sand. The Pecos flows be- tween high banks for nearly the whole of its journey through Texas. The Rio Grande from El Paso to Del Rio flows in deep canyons, after which it opens into a broad and shallow valley, which gradually flattens out as the river approaches the coast. About 100 miles of its 1,500 miles of length are navigable. 16 WATER SUPPLIES. The water which falls upon the plains is quickly absorbed or evaporated. Occasionally shallow draws carry off the excess of water which falls in the form of rain, but for the most part these channels are dry and of no service as sources of water supply. They form the headwaters of such streams as the Llano, Guada- lupe, Frio, Nueces and Devil rivers. But if the plains do not possess important watercourses their steep eastern slopes give rise to springs which form the beginnings of the longest and most important rivers within the State. The rivers which rise at the edge of the plains soon sink deep into the ground and flow through canyons. Little drain- age comes to them at first as they proceed to the sea, but their valleys gradually broaden until their alluvial bottoms are famous for their fertility. Among such rivers may be men- tioned the Wichita, Red, Brazos and Colorado and their numer- ous tributaries. Drainage in East Central Texas is carried on by a network of river systems. Part of the time the smallest of these rivers are nearly or quite dry, but during storms they carry large quantities of the rain water which falls upon the surrounding prairies. The eastern part of the State is drained by the Sabine, Sul- phur, Neches, Angelina and many small, sluggish creeks and bayous. West of the Colorado several small rivers issue from huge springs. Among these are the San Marcos, San Antonio. San Gabriel and Comal rivers. Few of the rivers of Texas have been gauged, and there has been little or no development of the streams for power purposes. RAINFALL. THE water supplies of the State, including the water car- ried by the rivers, are derived from rainfall. In North- ern Texas the rainfall is distributed in accordance with what is known as the plains type. Characteristics of the plains type are a scant precipitation in the winter months and showers, with thunder and lightning, in summer. West of the 101st meridian the rainfall is precarious and generally insufficient for the ma- turity of crops. k' HART II.— PRE( ' 11.— PRECIPITATION IN THE TEXAS WATER SUPPLIES. 17 On the coast the annual average of rainfall is abundant, but its distribution is not always as reliable as could be desired. The greatest irregularity occurs in September and October. The heaviest rainfall takes place in June, August and Septem- ber. In the eastern part of Texas a fall of from 50 to 60 inches of rain is the usual average. Proceeding westward, the annual average falls oflf at the rate of about four inches per sixty miles until it reaches nine inches in the extreme corner of the Pan- handle. The amount of water which is available from the rainfall for purposes of water supply depends upon a large number of con- ditions. The percentage of run-off varies with the porosity of the soil, the slope and character of the ground, the length and severity of the storm and the state of vegetation. The limits are so widely separated and the problem so involved that broad generalizations are practically impossible for the great territory under consideration. In the sandy, forest-covered country of the Cross Timbers the run-ofif is very small; practically all of the 30 inches or more of rain which falls annually is absorbed. Part of this water sinks deep into the earth and finally escapes in springs and deep wells at great distances from the points where the rain fell. In the "Black Waxy" district the abundance of clay in the soil prevents the water from percolating rapidly, and the percentage of water which runs ofif to the streams during rainstorms is con- siderable. In the southeast the land is low and flat and the drainage poor. Where the land is elevated and the soil is sandy, the larger part of the rainfall is absorbed; the precipitation here exceeds 50 inches and gives rise to an abundant growth of forest trees. The red land country has soils which vary from loamy to sandy. To the east and south the country is rugged and the proportion of the 25 inches of rainfall which runs ofif is irregular. On the Staked Plains practically all of the 15 inches of rain- fall is absorbed by the soil. On the Trans-Pecos Mountains the run-ofif is high. 18 WATER SUPPLIES. EVAPORATION. AS to evaporation, it may be said that west of the black prairie country the evaporation exceeds the rainfall. In the Great Plains, where the precipitation is 20 inches, the evaporation is 60 inches. QUALITY OF THE RIVER WATERS. AS sources of drinking water the streams which agree with the principal type of Texas rivers are not wholly satisfac- tory. For most of their length the rivers carry silt and other suspended impurities, which render purification by subsidence and filtration desirable. Of the large number of rivers which take their rise in springs many descend rapidly to deep beds from which the water would have to be pumped at great expense. In the agricultural country the minor streams are generally highly colored with the soil through which they flow ; and these smaller watercourses, acting as tributaries to large rivers, carry their unpleasant hue to a great distance. Even the clearest rivers at times becomes very turbid. It is said that at Austin freshets of the Colorado River are termed white rises, red rises and black rises, according as to whether the rainfall which caused the rise occurred in the white, red or black land drainage area of that stream. On the coast, and generally in South and East Texas, the rivers are alluvial. Cities which draw upon rivers for the whole or part of their public water supplies are Cameron, Cuero, Greenville, Fort Worth, Victoria and El Paso. There are no municipal water filters in successful use. IMPOUNDED WATER. BUT if few of the cities of Texas can rely upon river water as a satisfactory source of supply, there are fewer yet which can take their water from natural ponds or lakes. In fact, lakes are not numerous, and those which exist are often saline. Im- pounded water collected from drainage areas into tanks is not generally used for drinking purposes. The city of Abilene uses a supply of impounded water. r WATER SUPPLIES. 19 UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES. TEXAS is particularly fortunate in having many excellent sources of water supply under ground. The porous soils found occasionally in certain portions of the State act as cache- ment areas which collect the water which falls in the form of rain and snow. The water so collected accumulates in great underground reservoirs of gravel and sand, underlaid with hard pan, which extend for long distances in nearly a horizontal direc- tion. Where the surface of the land rapidly slopes down to the level of the water in these natural reservoirs, springs make their appearance. Perhaps the most notable area wherein such springs and free-flowing wells occur is along the great geological fault which runs from the neighborhood of San Antonio in a north- easterly curve through the rich agricultural country of the black prairies. In the line of this fault there is an abundance of under- ground water of a quality which makes it excellent for all pur- poses. Remarkable instances of the copiousness of this source of supply are found at New Braunfels and San Antonio and in the country between Corsicana and Brownwood. Along the coast there are many points at which deep wells have been successful, those furnishing the public water supplies of Houston, Galveston, Velasco and Corpus Christi being excellent examples. In the eastern part of the State artesian water is not so readily obtained, nor is it so much needed. Wells, giving moderate flows, are reported from Robertson, Limestone and Polk counties. In the region of the Staked Plains there is said to be an abundance of water but a short distance below the surface of the ground. Shallow wells, operated by windmills, have been employed successfully in several parts of the Staked Plains, and it has been thought by some that the prospects for agriculture in that neighborhood only depend upon the possibility of irri- gating extensively with water obtained in this way. IRRIGATION. SUCCESSFUL irrigation works have been operated in Texas since the earliest history of the State. In the neighborhood of San Antonio there still remain ditches constructed between 20 WATER SUPPLIES. COMPARISON OF CAPACITY AND COST OF VARI Combined water power and irrigation. With reservoir. Approximate. Operating cost. $7 a day of twelve hours. Can water five acres per day. PLACE. SYSTEM. PUMP. Orange 50 horse-power engine. 8-foot windmill. 12-foot windmill, a. Dam and ditch. 80 horse-power b. 32 horse-power engine, d. Turbine. 20 horse-power engine, &a g^g. rt «j;z;u:;z; mZ SIS oooo I oo I ooo (>joco oo oo>o oo oo CO ec tn o OOOOOOOOOOiCQOO oooooooo^occocro o o o w o o :;_ o S o i^ o o o •C000'*000!-0~000 C-5t— KM-^CSiOT^Cl-^iOtMOtMO ^ rH ^ e-S IM ^ OO OOQ I OOO I o OO lOOO OQO o oo OOirj OOO O in(Mi-.t-.oci>^o inios^ lOOO o "6 3 C o5 ^ c c OOO OOiOvOOOOOO oor~t-ooo>oo C<;C>0000>OOOC5 o>n5D«Dt~(Mooo?t:oio e<50^ ■»»l T-1 iH «5 •«* >0 1- ^^ T^ Oi r^ *Ot— <■«* IN(Nifi^'O5(M00t~-* «0 !D ■* :s "^ tn (U 01 C rt a; 3 d I o oo 0«00"C •ra I 1-105 — "-1 00 oooJso I ccoo-^eo >oo3SS I- •«< I I I oooo oo;d>o V?2o|t OJOO I-lOO-H O ufciO OOCJ EOfe . 2 c 2 3 C o c o u :5^ OOOO ss ooooooo oooo; 800 10QQOOQOOQQ OOOOQO C^Ot^OOO-^0»-<000 •MiCiOi^Oi— t U5 T— I *0 O "^ IC *C C^^TirH I c^ rH ■* i-J e<5 N ooc O'f^OOQOOQtC ocooirsicoooeo \ «1 h rt "2 2 ^ k, 0) U U ITl cB a rn .3 «- - > > u- - V; 0) ;;- 01 - U >^ >- (2^ 5«^ w tfil>ai ^ wS^S ^S^ s I I cu;^SaHa.rua,ci,§SpL,(i.(iHSftrjO O O 00 t^fMOO-^CO -^d ■ — ■ i-(Neo^>n5Dt^oo050>-i(Nro'9i>o«OJ^oo050 — ecieo-* ecieo-^incp _ Q *— < *1 CO -^ »o CD t^ or 05 o iMOKMcoctjcocccceococcroM-^ WATER SUPPLIES. 25 IN the preparation of the foregoing remarks upon the water supplies of Texas much useful information has been found in the official publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, especially in bulletins of the Weather Bureau; the Department of the Interior, through the Geological Survey, has furnished many important sources of data. It is a pleasure to record my obligations to the work of F. H. Newell, Robert T. Hill, William F. Hutson, Dr. I. M. Cline and Joseph L. Cline, of the Government Service. Respectfully submitted, George A. Soper, Ph.D. 29 Broadway, New York. Committee on Sanitary and Climatic Conditions. October 22, 1901. TYPICAL CURVES OF PRECIPITATION'. T ' 1 1 ! -jdi .180 _-t— -A- -- -+.^+-T--i--- ^ J ^ 1 -L ^ t 1 IbO ±___i ' J --i "^ 7 T ' \ I--II Z H -jS I '*o :_: _: ^ i\^ _ _ 1 ~ ■ - - — -_ — _ __j^__^-^j__ : _- '" j^t ^k- U ^ i, _L. --- - -/ ii% % ^\t ^fS±-.. 1 tt \. s\ \ ' \ •20 - ^ 4 t 7.^^ __ Jl-IIL _ __j__J- — ^_ ^^_ j,_ |_.^_ \ 1 \ C0fai'ya^itz/ C _/ lZ t'lS f j\\\ ' X s> JI 3 t^jt 2 Its ^s / / J \ \ /> \\ / V 100 _ . ^v^ J ri_ ^'\_ ^L / r \ 1 i -^ ^---,i --f^ ■^-^- ^ -f-f-j-- ^-^ tJ--- ^z i ±t s ^^s^ t2 k: L iL ^4 i^ i f ^^^ ^JL ^^ Vl i .ii -4 1 - ^ 5 ^^!y^z7r ?^--^2:7.. X _ .080 _ _Z L_ r '^N^p? ^j.r jT \ ^v / y \^ -^ Sv /^^ ^ ^ "" ^JI ^tX" it ^^c' l!^v - V i / ^^- ^^ it 55 ^ 2 ^\ Z ^ V ■->-/ \ s .060 L^S ^ ^ ^ :u_ ±_ 5 it-. UO«__ L^_ j^ _ J-_ j L ~:^2 s\ ^ i 3 \ t^ S^l jI sl ■""\ TV .040 2 it _ ir -r-^ >-- . i -^^ ! "^ 020 _I _ .. . .180 ~_ L.i , -^ __ _ ^ ^ y A Ik ~ / ' -P^^''\ 4 Z - C .160 -- : ,-i::__X-- -4 ^ 1 --^- — ^ ^ y " T 7^ / "=" ^ 2 It / s ^ v X ^ A 7 \- ^ ^ -S 7- T. -!^ ^ (40 "^ . -^_- _,i 2 L__L 2 ^_ t z: 5 _t _'^ Zs, 7 ^ \\r ^ - -^ - - ?^ -'' ^^ v- ?tjR Vy 'J i2^ 7L Jp V- 120 - : 7_v C-iss^ ---^ -^ ^ ^5^4AA """_-- t ^ - VT ^ ^- V A _ _. ij in^.! ~ t ^ L_ ^'^J -4-1-5 .100 " :^ j___!s__5 ,^-/- -^--A 4^ r--7' 2l. ..^ It y.^.. . ' \ ■ ■ - \-.4- ' ^v" ^.-^ ^2 S ^ - ■.^ y i V — '^ V y"^ Z V. ^ Z 1 1 / -4-41 41^- - 7" ^^^ ^ Z ^^ S^ Z t ^^A S-- 08or Z _>>^2___H__ S _S / ^ -JL ^__ . c ^-- J, ^^ ^T- i- -■■ \- V ^y ^s^-^ It \ - \ ^ua&tv. ' / - ^'^ X _ - - - 2 1 060 ^__ 1 ^ iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii-siiiii^:^ y- \- / ■ Modent. ~ — ^"^^ L ^s, ^ ♦« 5. -(__ __ — _- -- _: 2^__ 1^ •^fh- 020 :i i_— _i:_- M 1 1 1 N 1 1 , 1 . 1 i M 1 [ M 1 1 M 1 1 1- 1 TYPICAL cur\t:s of precipitation. /i^ ^ ^^' ^'^ ^«^'* TYPICAL CURVES OF PRECIPITATION. Jan.^ FA. Mar. Jpr M^ Jun. JxJy Aug Sep. Oct V transported soil. Transported soils are found in river bot- toms and deltas, the famous alluvial lands of Texas rivers fur- nishing excellent examples. ' RATE OF FORMATION OF SOILS. THE formation of soils is a constant, although slow proc- ess, the rate varying greatly with the activity of the agencies which destroy the rocks and the resistance of the materials attacked. Granite and many of the most ancient rocks are nearly indestructible, while some limestones and other rocks of corresponding age appear to fairly rot away. This is well illustrated in Texas, where the soils which lie directly upon the older and more solid formations are poorly suited to agriculture, while those which have been derived from rocks of a more recent geological age have been often highly cultivated. The organic matter present in soils is commonly known as humus, and is attributable to the death and partial decay of plants; the changes which take place in it are largely due to the action of minute animals and bacteria. Humus is a source of nitrogen and aids in preserving moisture and heat in the ground. Mineral elements which are Considered important to fertility and which result from the action of water and its con- r O ''i W 38 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. tained impurities are lime, potash and phosphoric acid. Im- portant elements which give to a soil characteristics of texture are silica and alumina. The former predominates in sandy soils, the latter is a mark of clay. Accompanying this notice there is a table of forty analyses of soils found in Texas. PERMANENT FERTILITY. THE solid and hquid constituents of soils required by plants are often slow in their formation. Different plants ex- tract different chemicals, and in course of time elements which are constantly demanded may be withdrawn until the land becomes poor. Instances, however, of soils so rich in desirable elements that they never seem to be exhausted are found in several parts of Texas. The explanation of permanent fertility is to be looked for in two directions. The elements demanded by the plants are either renev.'ed from above as by the over- flows which are common in alluvial river bottoms, or they are replaced from below by the wearing away of the earthy struc- ture upon which the soil is based. To draw useful conclusions from the brief notice which can be here given to the soils of Texas, it will be desirable to con- sider what has just been said in connection with a few facts relative to the geology of the State. M GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. OST of the surface of the State of Texas is composed of soils the materials of which were deposited from water during remote ages when the present territory was covered by the sea. Fossil remains show that much of the land was formed in that period of the world's history marked as the closing part of the reign of reptiles and known to geologists as the creta- ceous. The cretaceous formation in the United States extends along a great part of the Atlantic border as far back as New Mexico and Tennessee in the South; from the westerly margin it gradually tapers off to a point near Cape Cod. A leading feature of the cretaceous is the presence of chalk, marl and green sand, all of which form a very important element in con- tributing to the fertility of a soil. There are two divisions of r^ C AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 39 this formation in Texas. The first is known as the Lower, or Older, and the second as the Upper or Newer Cretaceous. The Upper Cretaceous is by all means the more important from an agricultural standpoint. In Texas the Older Cretaceous con- sists of hard limestones, alternating with clays, often underlaid by sands. It is found in the Great Plain, Callahan Divide, the Lampasas and Cut Plain, all of which are in the central part of the State and in the region of the Trans-Pecos Mountains. The soils have not been cultivated as extensively as the soils known as the black lands. THE BLACK PRAIRIE LAND. THE Upper or Newer Cretaceous consists largely of soft calcareous materials that readily break up to form clay marls. The Upper Cretaceous is conspicuous in Texas, where it forms a large part of the best agricultural lands. The value of the soil is evidenced by the fact that it lies in that portion of the State which has the greatest rural population. The famous black soil region, which runs in a broad belt from San Antonio to the Red River, belongs to the Upper Cretaceous. It is rich in Hme, dissolved alumina and siHca. The color of the black soil is due to humus, which, as has been mentioned, is a condition highly favorable to fertility. The texture ranges from sandy to an extreme waxy or clayey consistency. The black lands vary in the matter of phosphoric acid. The greatest amount is found in the soils of the counties of McLennan, Falls and Lampasas. The least phosphoric acid is found in the sandy soils of Ellis and the waxy soil of Collin. There is a fair proportion of this im- portant manurial ingredient in Van Zandt and Johnson counties. In a general way it may be said that potash is usually present in the black soils to a sufficient degree for fertility. In the coun- ties of Collin, McLennan and Falls the potash content is very high, this soil being perhaps the best "Black Waxy" land in the State. SOILS OF THE COAST AND EAST TEXAS. BETWEEN the central agricultural region and the southern and eastern boundaries of the State there is a well-defined area of a younger geological age than the Cretaceous. It con- 40 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. sists of comparatively level layers of clay and sand of sfreat depth and is known to geologists as the Tertiary. The older portion of this territory, which Hes toward the east, supports a natural growth of hard woods, while the newer part in the south is largely given over to stock raising and small agriculture. Cli- mate and the mineral qualities of the soils are adapted to agri- culture, particularly in the lower portions of the eastern country and in much of the southern coast region, but much of the land suffers for want of proper drainage. In some districts the soils take on many of the characteristics of the black land and red soils to the north. Their texture varies from stiff, black loams to nearly pure clays and sands. THE RED LANDS. TO the northwest of the Cretaceous formation is an extensive country, which, from a geological standpoint, is much older. It extends from what is known as the Upper Cross Tim- bers to the Staked Plains and from the Canadian River Valley south to the Concho Country. This large tract is known to geologists as the Permian, and is commonly spoken of in Texas as the "red lands." Characteristics of the soil are heavy beds of clays underlaid by sandstones. Gypsum is found in deposits of varying proportions. The soils contain a large amount of potash and a fair percentage of lime and magnesia, but a low percentage of phosphoric acid. Iron gives the soil a red color, but it is not present in large proportions. Its even distribution is responsible for the marked hue which has given to this region its local name. Want of permanent fertility, partly due to a small content of organic matter and liability to drought, have caused the soil of this region to be somewhat neglected for agri- cultural purposes. THE STAKED PLAINS. THE Staked Plains belong to a similar geological age as the land bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and the soil was formed somewhat in the same way. Instead of having been covered by salt water, however, the high, level country of the Staked Plains once formed the bottom of a great inland lake AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 41 of fresh water. The soil of the Staked Plains is described as of the "Black Waxy" variety, with black sandy and red loam, to red sandy, as in the east central and central regions of Texas respectively. Small alkali lakes occur occasionally and there is a want of rainfall suitable for agriculture. ALLUVIAL SOILS. LANDS along the lower courses of the principal rivers of Texas are noted for their fertility. They contain alluvial soils, heavily charged with decorhposing vegetable matters, which are laid down in successive layers at overflows. There is a resemblance between many of the bottom lands of Texas, and the alluvial bed of the Red River may be taken as the type. The channel through the Red River country along the red and black land districts is very narrow and contracted between high banks. A second river bottom, or channel, which is over- flowed when the river is in flood, extends back from the middle course of the stream for a considerable distance, gradually widening as the river proceeds eastwardly. In the second bot- tom there is usually excellent agricultural land, as may be noted in the eastern part of Cook County, the soil of which is considered one of the richest in the State. The lands along the Brazos River are very fertile and the most extensive alluvial country in Texas. The Colorado bot- tom as far as the black land region is narrow, after which it widens out to a broad, red, rich, silty bottom. The lower Rio Grande lands are sandy and black waxy and are said to be especially productive under irrigation. The Trinity, Navasota, Guadalupe and many smaller streams in the lower part of their course flow through country which is very rich with soils car- ried from a distance by the transporting power of their streams. 42 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF FOR From Chemical Data Collected by SOURCE OFjISAMPLE. Brazos River Silt Brazos Bottom, Harlem Subsoil Brazos Bottom, Chocolate Loam , . . . Subsoil Brazos Bottom, Peach Ridge Subsoil Kaufman Hammock Subsoil Kaufman County Timber Land Subsoil Kaufman Prairie Soil Subsoil Manor Subsoil New Braunsfels Subsoil Waxahachie Subsoil Pell County Black Waxy Subsoil Bell County Hammock Subsoil Pecan Gap Prairie Subsoil Terrell Prairie Subsoil Cherokee County, Rusk Valley Soil. Subsoil Ridge Soil Subsoil Pine Ridge Subsoil Tyler County Creek Bottom Subsoil Tyler County Upland Soil Subsoil Taylor County, Abilene Subsoil Wichita 3.26 1.17 2.26 3.04 3.28 4.62 3.11 7.91 7.70 4.56 4.36 7.57 6.78 8.47 8.23 7.22 7.34 9.06 7.64 2.42 1.94 3.56 4.91 6.34 7.568 2.09 2.09 1.32 1.02 .42 .30 .80 .40 2.30 1.77 .37 .30 4.52 4.80 1.62 oc 2.69 1.544 2.91 3.00 2.50 9.39 4.70 6.92 6.16 6.03 7.42 11.06 10.96 7.26 7.18 4.96 2.24 7.77 5.80 7.34 2.65 6.52 2.51 7.88 6.668 6.84 3.81 4.60 3.31 1.96 .92 2.05 .73 3.22 2.56 1.18 .67 3 05 2.69 3.01 SB (uC/3 70.92 84.31 79.50 78.59 77.57 76.45 8?. 97 62.98 62.84 60.55 60.96 56.50 56.40 50.69 51.17 61.99 51.07 59.90 53.17 44.23 48.17 77.05 78.09 68 06 62.91 85.96 87.95 83.22 85.91 95 25 96.38 96.21 97.76 89.49 91.09 97.58 98,17 73.78 64 30 88.46 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 43 TY SAMPLES OF TEXAS SOILS. the Texas Agricultural Station. 2 2 1 2 ■3 2 < 2 <0 2 o 1< a <5 5 13 O a C i 2 'in u a bo A Si A a u P "rt rt "3 a a 1-1 < § w eu (U w U 3.62 .558 5.66 1.85 .29 .34 .885 .224 4.00 2.36 3.87 2.74 .24 Trace .166 .46 .37 2.24 2.91 5.87 2.01 .23 Trace .26 1.24 1.25 1.58 2.80 6.05 L66 .126 Trace .136 1.091 .856 2.04 3.18 8.28 1.82 .18 Trace .128 .841 .443 1.71 2.60 3.51 .609 .73 .079 Trace .545 .32 .34 2.33 4.73 .424 .37 .134 .154 .482 .262 .28 2.86 7.35 6.30 .46 .147 .25 .68 .09 4.91 2.74 8.18 6.74 .297 .216 .499 .39 .20 4.48 2.42 4.53 11.00 .543 .127 .326 .316 .128 8.49 2.27 5.59 10.05 .64 .16 .266 .419 .185 7.78 2.82 7.04 6.62 .81 .151 .313 .837 .052 6.26 2.78 2.38 7.35 .615 .137 .294 .606 .109 6.06 3.73 16.35 5.81 .317 .082 .115 .576 .151 5.84 4.74 14 33 6.96 .507 .147 .119 .604 .095 6.11 4.03 5.62 7.32 1.31 .30 .41 .22 .13 5.80 4.15 5.76 14.66 .96 .17 .51 .47 .12 11.52 5.44 6.81 5.17 .67 .14 .15 .35 .04 3.98 5.18 6.32 10.62 1.41 .29 .65 .41 .24 8.11 \l 58) 68 f 23.98 .94 .15 .12 .22 .25 18.00 23.60 1.13 .21 .13 .28 .30 18.35 2.66 4.91 1.03 .73 .02 .18 1.45 .96 .81 3.98 7.74 .83 .90 .02 .17 1.07 .33 .65 4.23 9.48 .814 .32 .236 .128 .83 .636 .344 4.19 10.36 .305 .34 .12 .179 1.29 .60 2.32 1.08 1.68 .55 .28 .24 .28 .17 .07 1.45 2.71 .37 .32 .11 .23 (2 7) 5.82 2.11 .555 .126 .243 .48 .40 ".44 6.44 1.71 .255 .197 . ■ • • .141 .442 .486 .187 1.22 .69 .16 Trace Trace .07 Trace Trace 1.18 .66 Trace .18 .10 .15 Trace Trace .776 Trace Trace Trace Trace ".34 .93 ".669 Trace Trace Trace Trace 01 r3. 941 ".44 ".08 Trace .03 .06 .07 4 12 .36 .15 Trace .03 .12 .16 .... " 75 ■ .08 Trace Trace Trace Trace .... 78 Trace Trace Trace Trace 1.78 6.51 4.04 V.ii .154 Trace 1.14 .96 2.25 2 23 5.06 9.33 5.20 1.10 4.23 .102 .588 ..305 2.06 3.82 .07 Trace .06 Trace .426 .139 44 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. IV. THE STAPLE AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR RANGES. THE staple field crops of Texas comprise cotton, sugar, tobacco and rice, in the class which, to thrive, requires comparatively high temperature, long' seasons and plentiful humidity. In the -cereal class corn is an important crop of large productivity. Oats, wheat, rye and barley thrive in large areas, while the variety of highly nutritious grasses is great and their growth luxuriant. As a producer of cattle, hogs, sheep, mules and horses, the State stands in the first rank. Garden and orchard products in great variety find the soil and climate congenial. The areas within which the successful cultivation of the staple crops has been already well developed are indicated upon the several charts herewith, which also show their relative produc- tivity in comparison with that of other parts of the United States. In the case of the various cereals these charts are based upon the actual product in bushels per cultivated acre. It should be pointed out that while the maximum potential product has been reached in the Northern grain States by skilful cultivation. Southern farmers have had comparatively little experience in grain grow- ing and in improved methods ; whereby their actual product is much less than the potential product possible under the best methods, when applied to the favorable conditions of soil and climate found in Texas. Wheat growing has, however, increased very rapidly in Texas, and it now ranks among the greatest wheat-producing States. A statistical exhibit of acreage and bushels is, therefore, of little value as an indication of the grain-raising capacity of Texas ; for which reason such statistics are omitted. On the other hand, exact and ample information is indispensable as to soils, hu- midity, rainfall, temperature and their seasonal variations , and natural irrigation afforded by water courses. Some of these im- portant subjects have been separately treated in detail in the special reports on "Health Conditions and Climate" and AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 45 "Water Supplies," by Dr. George A. Soper, Ph.D., which are included elsewhere in this volume ; for which reason only general reference to those subjects is here necessary. Dr. Soper's admir- able m.onographs are accepted as the basis for this article, as to climate and water supply ; and the reader is referred to Dr. Soper's parallel discussion of the subject. While the physical conditions of a large part of Texas favor a very large yield of corn, a high average yield of wheat and oats and a good average yield of the minor grains, the economic conditions are peculiarly favorable to the profitable cultivation of food products. The natural condi- tions must eventually induce a large manufacturing and trading population ; and cotton raising and stock raising must continue to absorb vast areas. Thus, on the one hand, the grain and other food products of the field will be restricted by the use of land for cotton and grazing; and, on the other hand, a relatively large food-buying population will consume the grain product of nearby fields at prices very profitable to the producer, because the selling price is not largely consumed by the cost of delivery, as is the case with the surplus grain products of the Northwest when they are forced to seek a market in Europe. To state the case tersely, Texas will eventually be able to con- sume its own grain and garden product, while it is unlikely that any of the Northern prairie States ever will. The reasons arc found in the collocation of mineral deposits, sufficient fuel, and oil reservoirs ; the incentive to cotton manu- facturing offered by the fact that the peculiar fibre of Texas or Arkansas cotton is essential to great development in that industry, and that Texas can produce a greater variety of food supplies at less cost than almost any other State. The conditions recited tend strongly to induce manufacturing growth and make agriculture profitable. Although cotton is by far the most important agricultural product of the State, its relation to prosperous development may be concisely stated. Texas, in common with nearly all the other cotton States, has grown cotton excessively, and greatly neglected other field products, for which there has been a less obvious and reliable market. As a rule the cotton acreage has been great, and in years of large production the great surplus has sought distant markets at small and profitless prices. The growing tendency 46 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. is toward diversity of crops — less cotton and more grain and other food products. Less acreage, less surplus, more domestic consumption, less export and better prices sum up the outlook for Texas cotton growing. Texas now annually plants about six and a half to seven million acres in cotton and produces from two and a half to three and a half million bales — more than one- quarter of the product of the entire United States. The sugar production of Texas is comparatively unimportant, although it stands second in the rank of sugar-growing States. The principal sites of its cultivation are the lower bottom lands of the Brazos and Colorado rivers. The production of tobacco is likewise unimportant. Rice growing is a pursuit which has been little developed in Texas, although the conditions are pecul- iarly favorable to it. Vast areas throughout the lower coastal plain are admirably suited for its highly successful cultivation by reason of continuous and abundant ground moisture, con- stantly humid atmosphere, and proper temperature during a long season. The actual rice product is small, but in the opinion of competent judges rice culture is a potential industry, worthy to rank among the most valuable agricultural resources of Texas. The production of textile fibres is also a potential resource deserving consideration. The ramie plant is extremely prolific in Texas ; when the commercial use of ramie fibre becomes practi- cable through economical decortication, which has not yet been achieved, the growing of ramie will become an important in- dustry. The natural conditions are equally favorable to jute cul- ture. Experiment has shown that the fibre-bearing animals other than the sheep can be successfully acclimated in Texas. The Angora goat, which supplies the long, silky fibre commercially called mohair, thrives well. As a pastoral State Texas stands among the foremost. Its vast upland areas, though unfitted for cultivation by lack of streams and rain, produce a great variety of nutritious grasses, which afford excellent pasturage for cattle and sheep. The luxuriant growth of the forage plants appears from the fact that the tonnage of hay per acre is greater than in any other State in which hay is an important product. Hence the cattle product of the State exceeds that of any other; and in sheep it is only ex- ceeded by Ohio. The conditions are likewise very favorable to the breeding AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 47 of horses and mules ; while the abundant corn product has made the State one of the chief producers of hogs. There are numerous varieties of food plants, fruits, etc., pecu- liar to local areas. These are discussed in the following di- visions, wherein the distribution of farm, orchard, garden and dairy products by local districts is also set forth. Local conditions of soil, water supply and similar matters are likewise explained in sufficient detail. V. CLIMATE, SOIL AND PRODUCTS OF LOCAL DIVISIONS. DISTINCTIVE climatic and physical conditions delimit the territory of the State into at least nine well-defined areas, characterized by obviously different features, determined by latitude, altitude, rainfall, soil and proximity to the ocean. They are: 1. The Coastal Plain. 2. The Eastern Texas Forest Region. 3. The Red River Valley. 4. The Black-Land Prairies. 5. The Lower Rio Grande and Nueces Region. 6. The Chocolate-Soil Plains Region. 7. The Staked Plains. 8. The Irrigable Pecos and Rio Grande Valleys. 9. The Trans-Pecos Arid Lands. 1. THE COASTAL PLAIN. THIS title is here used in a restricted sense to denote only the purely alluvial portion of the true (or geological) coastal plain; that is to say, the almost level lands immediately bordering or adjacent to the coast, wholly formed by the sedi- mentary deposits brought down by the rivers and dropped upon the ocean floor to gradually form new land. This alluvial, or lower coast plain, which corresponds to the bottom lands of a river extends from the Sabine River on the northeast, to the Rio Grande on the southwest, varying in width from seventy miles in the southwest, to over one hundred miles in the north- 48 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. eastern parts, and rising gradually from the low, sandy beach of the Gulf of Mexico to 250 feet altitude along its northwest- ern boundary. Its latitude ranges from 26 degrees on the Rio Grande to 31 degrees on the Sabine, The average annual rainfall varies from sixty or more inches in its northeastern parts to twenty or thirty inches in the south- west. The entire belt is perpetually fanned by the Gulf breeze, which causes a remarkably equable temperature whose ex- tremes show an annual variation of but about 30 degrees. The temperature is seldom more than 80 degrees Fahrenheit, in the shade, in summer, and in winter tails below 50 degrees only on the rare occasions when the great blizzards known as "North- ers" sweep down from the north. During these furious storms the cold becomes intense, the temperature commonly falling to 15 or 10 degrees, and in very rare instances to zero. The Northers are, however, of rare occurrence and short duration. The soil is generally black, more or less sandy, rich; in places alkaHne, when it is underlaid by a "hard-pan," yet such become productive by drainage and cultivation. The general surface of the country is very flat, especially the eastern parts, yet pretty well drained, especially in the vicinity of the numer- ous bayous and creeks coursing through it to the rivers and Gulf. Along these streams and the river bottoms, which latter are low, wide and exceedingly rich, there is heavy timber, con- sisting of numerous species of trees. In Brazoria and adjoining counties are large bodies of great live-oaks. Away from the streams the country is mostly prairie, covered with luxurious grass, on which many large herds of cattle feed, where not in cultivation in other crops. Cotton and corn are the leading products, but on the river and creek bottoms, especially in the central and eastern parts, ribbon-cane and rice are grown extensively and yield great harvests, and are very profitable. The lands within ten to fif- teen or twenty miles of the Gulf, are generally very favorable to the growing of winter vegetables, such as cabbage, celery, spinach, lettuce, radishes, turnips, cauliflower, asparagus and AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 49 onions ; and also to strawberries, which ripen in February, March and April. Early tomatoes, potatoes, beans, etc., are produced in large quantities, for the Northern cities as well as for the home markets, the chief being Houston and Galveston. Large plantations of figs for canning are being made, as the crop is very large, certain, easily handled in that form, and very profitable. Some varieties of pears, plums and peaches have proven profitable on the higher, better-drained portions of the region. Melons grow on the more sandy, well-drained lands of the coast country, and, shipped in car- and train-loads to numerous Northern cities, have proven very profitable, as no competition west of the Mississippi River comes against them. The ornamental varieties of trees, shrubs, perennials, etc., for decoration of home grounds, parks and cemeteries, are very numerous and luxuriant. Bermuda grass is the variety princi- pally in use for lawns, for which purpose it is most eflfective and satisfactory. For pasturage it is most prolific per acre, bet- ter relished, and endures more drought and tramping by stock than any other known. All the bays, inlets, bayous, creeks and rivers of this region are abundantly supplied with numerous species of fine food fish and water-fowl. 2. THE EASTERN TEXAS FOREST REGION. THIS region extends northward from the eastern end of the coastal plain, between the Sabine and Navasota Rivers, to the Red River, a distance of nearly 300 miles from latitude 30 degrees to nearly 34 degrees. Its extreme width is about 150 miles, narrowing somewhat from south to north. Its altitude rises from 250 feet in its southern part to about 600 or 700 feet in its central parts about Nacogdoches, Palestine, Jacksonville, Tyler and Gilmer. On the uplands the surface soil is everywhere of sandy tex- ture, light red or gray, on red or yellow clay subsoil. In the southern parts the surface exposure is of the Tertiary forma- tion, in the northern parts of the Cretaceous. In the latter, as at Nacogdoches, are rich marl-beds highly valuable as a source of fertilizers excellently adapted for use in the sandy soils. Good bodies of lignite coal, of good steam-producing 50 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. quality, are found, as at Timpson, in Shelby County, where mines are worked to considerable extent. Excellent and abundant iron ores are found in several counties, and are worked quite extensively at Rusk, in Cherokee County. Great abundance of pure, soft water is reached in wells at ten to fifty feet, and there are numerous perennial springs, creeks and rivers. The prevailing feature of the country is stately forest growth. Vast forests of fine lumber pines of three different species cover the uplands in the southern parts, except where cut out by the millmen, and put into cultivation by the farm- ers. Skirting the streams are many species of oak, elm, maple, gum, poplar, hickory, walnut, magnolia, holly, etc. Numerous species of beautiful flowering shrubs and perennials, identical or allied with those of the Carolinas and Georgia, grow pro- fusely among the rich undergrowth of the forests. The rainfall averages about fifty inches. The fierce blizzards that in winter strike the great prairie regions of Northwestern Texas make little impression in the forest region. The climate is very mild, zero temperature rarely occurring, few winters having lower temperature at any time than 20 degrees above zero. Cape jessamines, figs and pome- granates endure the winters uninjured, and tea roses continue to bloom through the holidays. All the fruits of Georgia thrive well here, and at a few places, among them Jacksonville, Long- view, Troupe and Tyler, the fruit and garden truck interests have grown in recent years to large proportions, so that carloads and even trainloads of melons, strawberries and peaches are shipped to the North in their season. In the southern parts ribbon cane and rice thrive on bottom lands, and cotton grows luxuriantly everywhere except upon the very thin, sandy lands, which likewise yield well, with fer- tilizers and good culture.' The red soils produce fair corn, wheat and rye, but the region cannot compete in grains and grasses with the black lands farther west. Hence it is not so well adapted to the production of beef and pork. It is, how- ever, excellently suited to dairy products, by reason of the native AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 51 and Bermuda grasses and sorghum, with plenty of good shade and water. Fine lands are yet very cheap in almost all parts of East Texas. The lumber interests have been the chief objects of development, yet there is probably no other part of the State in which various industries could be more readily or profitably developed. 3. THE RED RIVER VALLEY. THIS region extends from the northern end of the East Texas forest region, 250 miles westward to Wichita County, averaging some ten miles in width from the river on either side. Its soil is for the most part similar to the sandy, timbered soils of East Texas, with many little prairies of black sandy soils interspersed. The ahitude varies from 300 feet about Tex- arkana to 1,000 feet in Wichita County. Denison, in Grayson County, has an altitude of between T50 and 800 feet. The drainage everywhere, even in the river bottoms, is excellent, and the climate mild and salubrious, except that in the heavily tim- bered bottoms it is malarious until cleared and cultivated, when it becomes healthful. The varieties of trees are not so numerous as in E^st Texas, the pines, white oaks, gums, chinquapins and some others being absent in the parts west of Red River County. The valley can grow all that East Texas can, except rice, ribbon cane and some tender shrubs. It is more prolific in apples and grapes, and in those fruits it quite equals northwest Arkansas and southern Missouri. The beautiful bluffs and small tablelands on the Texas side of the Red River are highly adapted to fruit and vegetable growing on account of the congeniality and variety of soils and aspects and the peculiar immunity from late frosts in spring. A total failure of the peach crop on the Texas side of the river has not occurred in the past twenty-five years. The bottom lands of the Red River, which arc quite wide, are as fine as any in the world, two bales of cotton per acre often being made. This mild and splendid productive fruit belt is sandwiched between the extensive "Black Waxy" lands on either side, the 53 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. finest grass, grain and cotton lands (except the Red River bot- tom) in the southwest. Contiguous to it are large coal areas yielding coal of excellent quality. It has abundance of fine tim- ber and pure, soft well water, plenty of excellent building stone, brick clay, hydraulic cement materials of best grade and other great natural resources. These make this region capable of sup- porting a dense population, which it is rapidly acquiring, and its agricultural opportunities are, therefore, excellent. The pros- perity and growth of the cities of Paris, Bonham, Sherman, Gainesville, Henrietta, Wichita Falls and Denison on the Texas side and Durant and Ardmore on the territory side, ranging in population from 4,000 to 20,000, testify plainer than words to the advantages of this region. 4. THE BLACK LAND PRAIRIES. THIS region extends from the northern end of the East Texas forest region, 250 miles westward to Wichita County, tending from the Coastal Plain on the south to the Red River Valley and eastward to the ninety-ninth meridian. It is crossed from north to south in its western parts by two sandy land timber belts, known as the Lower (eastern) and Upper Cross Timbers, which merge into the Red River Valley near its western end and have Very similar soils and adaptabili- ties, with a dryer and less equable climate. They are very broken and irregular in outline. Coursing through the Black Lands from northwest to south- east are the headwaters of the Sulphur, Sabine and Trinity in the northern parts, and the middle parts of the fine rivers, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe and San Antonio, all with numerous tribu- taries. Along all of these streams a great variety of timber and undergrowth is found, and the streams usually are bordered with soils finely adapted to fruit and truck growing. All the uplands between the streams of this region, except the Cross Timbers, the hilly country bordering the Colorado in several counties northwest of Austin and the sandy timbered belt in its southern parts, mentioned later, are beautiful, gently rolling, black land prairies. Those east of the Lower Cross Timbers are of an intensely black, sticky, nature, and hence are AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 53 known as "The Black Waxy" lands. These soils are generally very deep and inexhaustibly rich, lying upon white, chalky lime rock or clay foundations, in which "hard water" is generally obtained in wells and springs, but occasionally good "soft water" is found in local gravel and sand beds. Excellent artesian water is generally reached at 300 to 600 feet in the western parts, as at Fort Worth, and at greater depths to the east and south. These waters are found in two dif- ferent strata of coarse sand, the upper taking its name from the town of Paluxy in Hood County, where it outcrops, and the lower from Trinity River, on the headwaters of which, in the Upper Cross Timbers, in Montague, Jack, Palo Pinto and East- land counties it outcrops. A great "fault" in the earth trending from Del Rio on the Rio Grande, through San Antonio, New Braunfels, San Marcos, Austin, Waco, with the down-throw on the southeast side of the "fault," allows great volumes of this artesian water to escape at various points, as at the places just named, even to the extent of driving large mills and factories, as at New Braunfels, where are located large flouring mills and woolen factories. Extending through the Black Lands from northeast to southwest, along and mostly on the south side of the Interna- tional and Great Northern Railway, is a long arm of sandv timbered land, similar to the Cross Timbers, some 10 to 20 miles in width, extending from the East Texas Forest Region, as a prolongation of it, far to the southwest, passing San An- tonio on the southeast. The timber, however, is very inferior to that of East Texas, yet it furnishes the much-needed wood for the great prairies bordering it. This is a fine fruit-belt like the similar lands of the State. The Black Lands lying south of this long arm of sandy land and bordering directly on the Coastal Plain are flatter, somewhat sandy, underlaid generally with a "hard pan" of "joint clay," and unless drained and subsoiled are less productive than the "Black Waxy" lands. They are known as "Mesquite Lands," being thinly set with mesquite trees. The Black Lands lying between and westward from the Cross Timbers are more or less sandy, more rolling, easier to work and less drought resist- 54 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. ing than the "Black Waxy" lands. Grazing is more extensive on these and the "Mesquite Lands" and cotton and grain pro- duction less extensive than on the "Black Waxy." In the hilly region of the southwestern part of the Black Lands Region, especially in Llano County, are found inex- haustible quantities of excellent magnetite iron ore and fine building stones, such as granite, marble, etc. In the far south- western corner of this remarkable region (in Waldo County) are great deposits of snow-white kaolin of a quality pronounced by experts suitable for making the finest grades of porcelain. The greatest length of the Black Lands Region from north- east to southwest is over 400 miles, and the greatest width over 200 miles. A glance at a recent railway map of Texas will show a dense network of railways upon the Black Lands. This tells more forcibly than words of the immense haulage supplied by the agri- cultural products of this region. Cotton, corn, wheat, oats, hay, cattle, hogs, horses, mules, sheep, goats, cottonseed oil, meal, pe- troleum (at Corsicana), lime, building stones, coal (in Eastland, Stephens, Young and other counties), fruits and vegetables are rapidly making the Black Lands Region very wealthy, as evi- denced in the line cities of San Antonio, Austin, Waco, Corsicana, Ennis, Temple, Hillsboro, Fort Worth, Dallas, Terrell, Green- ville, McKinney, Denton and the Red River Valley cities hereto- fore mentioned, which draw much of their support from this region, as well as from the valley and Indian Territory. The Black Lands Region varies in altitude from 250 feet in the southeastern parts to 700 in the northern, 1,000 to 1,500 in the western and even to 2,000 feet in the hilly, mineral region, of which Llano County is the center. The average rainfall varies from 50 inches in the eastern parts to 25 to 30 in the western. The rains fall mostly in May and June, when most needed. The region is everywhere healthful, and the constant breezes from the Gulf in summer greatly moderate the heat, which would otherwise be oppressive. The winters, with the exception of an occasional blizzard, running down toward zero in the northern parts, are mild, and without much rain.'f AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 55 5. THE NUECES RIVER REGION. THIS region is a triangle, the apex of which is San Antonio, and the base the Rio Grande, from about Eagle Pass, in Maverick County, to about Rio Grande City, in Starr County, The triangle thus described embraces the major part of the upper Nueces Basin. Its longest side, resting on the Rio Grande, is about 200 miles in length, and each of the other sides is somewhat more than 150 miles long. Its altitude is from 250 feet on the east to 1,000 feet or more along its northern boundary, which pretty well coincides with the "fault" heretofore mentioned, in connection with the artesian waters of the Black Lands. The rainfall varies from 30 inches on the east to 15 inches on the west. It is semi-arid and semi-tropical, yet with too sudden and severe changes to allow the growth of oranges in open ground. The latitude in the extreme south on the Rio Grande is 26 degrees and the northern boundary 29^ degrees. Although the sun shines powerfully from almost cloudless skies, the perpet-. ual breeze from the Gulf greatly modifies the heat. Figs and European grapes succeed well everywhere in this region, especially with irrigation, which is applied to some extent from the big artesian springs, which supply enough water for thousands more acres. More extensive irrigation, however, is carried on along the Rio Grande, as at Del Rio, Eagle Pass and Laredo. The grape crop matures here in June — long before it ripens elsewhere, except in southern Florida — and the expense of reach- ing the great northern markets is small in comparison with that from California. By grafting the finer varieties of Vinifera upon resistant roots they can be perpetually grown in the Nueces Region to equal, if not excel, those grown in California; and the industry of viticulture can be very extensively and profit- ably developed. The large, fine Italian onions are considerably grown near Laredo, San Antonio and other places, with large profits. The main occupation, at present, of the scattered population of this region is cattle ranching, a la Mexicano, and it is exclu- sively tributary to San Antonio. The surface of the country is 56 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. generally quite level and covered with a low, scattered, thorny growth of shrubs, with good grazing. Shrubby timber fringes all the streams, of which nearly all are tributaries of the Nueces River, famous for its pecans, from which the stream derives its name, Nueces (Spanish) meaning nuts. The soils are variable, some being dark waxy, some sandy and some chocolate. In this region the cutting ant is numerous. It is a medium- sized, large-headed species, and burrows extensively, sometimes their mounds being fifty feet or more in diameter and two or three feet high, all chambered. The ants sally forth only in the night in armies under leaders, and defoliate trees, shrubs and vines, carrying the sections of leaves in their mandibles into their burrows for food. They are readily exterminated by pouring liquid bisulphide of carbon into their burrows and stopping the openings. In this region nearly every one speaks both English and Spanish, preferably the latter, as a large element of the old settlers and their descendants are of Mexican origin. Lands are cheap. By buying large tracts and colonizing them with industrious French, Germans and Americans the grape in- dustry may become an important branch of agriculture, as the lands are rich, the climate healthful and the markets of the best when the grapes are shipped to the larger Texas and northern cities. 6. THE CHOCOLATE PLAINS. THESE adjoin the Black Lands on the west and north, and extend from the Pecos River on the southwest, northwardly through all the central part of the State (usually known as "West- ern Texas"), up through the eastern half of the "Texas Panhan- dle," into Oklahoma and Western Kansas. The altitude varies from 1,500 feet in the south (along the line of faultage heretofore mentioned, the north side of which is several hundred feet higher than the south side), and east; to 2,500 feet in the northwest, adjoining the "Staked Plains." The surface is undulating prairie on uplands, with low, thorny, scattered shrubs and cacti in southern parts and mesquite in all AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 57 parts. The soil generally is reddish-brown in color, very fine in texture, easily powdering- and becoming dusty and drifting with the wind in exposed cultivated lands, but packing into smooth, fine roads under travel. It is very rich in elements suitable for vegetable growth, when supplied with water. The rainfall varies from thirty inches in the eastern parts to about ten or fifteen inches in the western. Constant, gentle winds, chiefly from the southeast and south, quickly carry ofif the moist- ure, and hence the semi-arid character of the climate. These plains are drained by the headwaters of the Devil's, Nueces, San Antonio and Guadalupe Rivers on the south, the Colorado and Brazos in the center and the Red and Canadian Rivers in the northern parts. Along all these streams are timber fringes, chiefly of elm, ash, hackberry and cottonwood. The short but very nutritious grasses native to the soils here furnish the chief source of wealth, by feeding many thousands of cattle in the great ranches found everywhere in this vast area, which varies in width from about 100 miles on the Panhandle to 200 along the line of the Texas & Pacific Railway, and is 500 miles long. From stored water, gathered in earth dams built across ravines, stock-water in part, and to some extent water for irrigation, especially for gardens on the ranches, is obtained. By this means irrigation may be greatly extended. Digging wells is a very uncertain means of obtaining water, and the wells which give water are usually deep. Cotton, oats, wheat, sorghum and a little corn are produced in the eastern parts. Many tree and vine fruits succeed admirably with irrigation, and even without irrigation in the region vv^atered by the upper tributaries of the Colorado, as rains are more fre- quent and abundant there than in other parts. The soil is naturally very drought-resisting, and with storage- probably become less arid and more productive. There are great salt wells at Grand Saline, on the Texas and Pacific Railway, from which considerable salt is made by solar evaporation. 58 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 7. THE STAKED PLAINS. THE Staked Plains lie to the west and northwest of the Chocolate Plains, rising above them precipitously in cliffs 200 to 400 feet high, whose margin has an altitude of 3,000 feet above sea level. Thence the surface gradually rises to an alti- tude of over 4,000 feet. The surface of this remarkable tableland seems to the eye to be a dead level, except the canyons, deeply eroded by the headwaters of the Colorado, Brazos, Red and Canadian Rivers along its eastern borders. The soil is a dark, rich loam, capable of growing almost anything where watered. Limited irrigation is supplied by windmills pumping from driven wells, which reach abundance of good water at depths of ten to forty feet. The average annual rainfall is from ten to fifteen inches. There are numerous small lakes found on the plains, espe- cially in their central and western parts. Some of them are intensely salty and have pure crystal salt many feet in depth in their bottoms. The Staked Plains plateau is about 150 miles wide and extends from latitude 31^ degrees northward into Kansas and Colorado — a distance of about 500 miles. The climate is very salubrious, but the winters are much more severe than in any other part of Texas, the temperature sometimes falling to 15 degrees and even 20 degrees below zero. Cattle raising is the only commerical industry. The herds find winter protection in the canyons. 8. IRRIGATED LANDS OF THE PECOS AND RIO GRANDE. THE narrow valley of the Pecos River between latitude 31 and 32 degrees in Texas is partly under irrigation and grows alfalfa, grains, grasses and fruits, especially foreign grapes, to great perfection and profit. A vineyard at Barstow, AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 69 of forty acres in extent, has produced very fine crops for several years, having never sufifered from attack of phylloxera. The foreign vines require a covering (it is usually of soil) to protect them through the winter. Outlets to market are found through the Texas & Pacific Railway and Pecos & North Texas Railway. Grapes ripen in this valley in August. The bottom lands of the Rio Grande on the Texas side from El Paso to some fifty miles below to Fort Hancock on the Southern Pacific Railway are similar to the Pecos City and Barstow region, with climate milder and more arid, and about the same products are raised, which find a market in El Paso and the cities of eastern Texas or the north. 9. THE TRANS-PECOS ARID REGION. THIS section occupies all that extensive triangle lying be- tw^een the Pecos and Rio Grande south of New Mexico, excepting the mesa lands in Jeft Davis, Brewster and El Paso counties, and the mountains extending above them, noticed separately in the next section. The Arid Region is excessively dry and hot, yet there is a short, nutritious grass in nearly all parts of it upon which numerous deer and antelope feed. Sometimes as many as 100 in a band are seen. The altitude varies from 2,000 feet on the lower Pecos to 5,000 in the central and northern parts. The valleys and low mountain ranges are generally waterless to such an extent that stock-water cannot be obtained except in a few favored locali- ties, and these are the seats of the few ranches of this region. Here are the only wastelands of any extent in the State. MANY of the data embodied in this report, particularly those of Section IV., have been supplied by F. V. Munson, Esq., whose intimate knowledge of the agricultural conditions of Texas is derived from a minute personal obser- 60 AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. vation and professional study, covering more than twenty-five years and extending to every part of the State. Special acknowledgments are due to Mr. Munson for his courteous and valuable aid, and the very considerable labor which he devoted to collecting material for the committee. I am also indebted to State officials and to many individuals for published reports and monographs, and for data given verbally ; and to several officials of the United States Department of Agriculture, Geological Survey and Library of Congress, Respectfully submitted, S. Cristy Mead, Chairman. New York, Nov. 1, 1901. 1 2 3 4 5 6 IR IB LI BI IW 01 r THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF TEXAS. I. OIL. OIL is found at Beaumont at depths varying from 965 to 1,250 feet. The strata passed through are loosely aggregated sandstone. More or less difficulty has been experienced in the boring, and in most cases "telescoping" has been necessary. The rotary drill is in general use. The character of the oil is entirely different from the Penn- sylvania product, the Pennsylvania oil having a paraffine base, while the Texas oil has an asphaltum base. The Texas oil is essentially a fuel oil, as shown by the analysis appended hereto, which was made by Mr. Charles H. White, of Cambridge, Mass., for Mr. Thomas Crimmins, of New York. Other analyses are practically identical with the one submitted. It will be seen that the Texas oil furnishes only about 25 per cent, of its volume in illuminating oil. Nine of the wells bored at Beaumont have been spouting wells, locally known as "gushers." The oil is thrown in a spray to a height of 100 feet or more, when the well is uncapped. These gushers have all been brought under control, and it is quite prob- lematical how long they would remain gushers if uncapped and given a chance to "gush." The capacity of these wells is remarkable ; single wells having by actual measurement flowed 72,000 barrels in one day. The oil pool is evidently deep, and the quantity of oil very considerable. A matter of great interest, however, is the fact that all the produc- ing wells near Beaumont are located on one single IGO-acre tract. 72 MINERAL RESOURCES. RESULTS OF A TEST OF BEAUMONT OIL. By Charles H. White, Cambridge, Mass. u 0. "> So u a CO Sffl u (as u Q <0 « 2 V be 17° 0° 0° 0° Flashing Point. t) 3 no. n 3 DM C. F. "o O Crude oil .908 .775 .861 .875 24° 50° 33° 30° 96° 205° 0.265 Dark Light oil distilled at 150° C 5.0 25.4 32.0 37.6 12.8 82.2 Green Colorless Illuminating oil dis- tilled at 150°-250° C. Lubricating oil dis- tilled at 250°-300° C. 81° 178° Straw Amber Residue Residue by "crack- ing"* Illuminating and lu- bricating oil by "cracking" Black * Cracking; distilling at high temperature with outlet far removed from boiling liquid, so that distillate condenses and drops back in hot surface, thus breaking it up into lighter oil. MINERAL RESOURCES. 73 It was the opinion of my drill man that if all the wells were un- capped they would cease to gush within twenty days. Other outlying districts have been discovered, namely, Sour Lake, and over the Louisiana line, and prospecting for oil has been greatly stimulated. Reports of small amounts having been found come from almost every section of the State. Without doubt, the fuel oil industry in Texas is without a rival and bids fair to effect economic changes in the various manu- facturinsf industries of the State. II. ARTESIAN AND MINERAL WATERS. RECENT official reports show that every section of the State has its mineral springs or wells. Of these, the mineral wells in Palo Pinto County are perhaps the most famous. In variety and quantity it is probable that no State in the Union equals Texas in mineral waters. Of the springs, those at Lampasas are the largest. They burst forth from the ground and form the great body of the water of the Lampasas River. Other famous springs are the Carrizo, in Dimmit County ; Sour Lake, in Newton County ; Sutherland Springs, in Wilson County ; Wootan Wells, in Robertson County ; Sulphur Springs, in Hopkins County ; Hughes Springs, in Cass County ; Salado Springs, in Bell County, and Burdett's Well, in Caldwell County. The artesian wells of this State flow above ground and sup- ply the water systems for some of the cities and towns. Their daily capacity varies from 75,000 to 300,000 gallons a day, and they have a temperature varying from 90 degrees to the boiling point. The wells at Waco have an average depth of about 1,800 feet. The wells to the east are much shallower, while those to the west are deeper. Numerous minerals have been encountered in sinking these wells, but as yet none of commercial value have been exposed. 74 MINERAL RESOURCES. Probably the most famous of the artesian wells is at Marlin. The water is hot, and has various medicinal properties, and, in consequence, the little city of Marlin, in Falls County, has be- come one of the great health resorts of the trans-Missouri country. III. BUILDING STONES. OUR committee was next brought into contact with the min- eral resources of the State at Marble Falls. The granite quarries of the Texas Improvement Company are of great extent, and the stone of excellent quality. The colors vary from red to light gray. A series of tests made at the Rock Island Arsenal by the United States Government and certified to the Texas State officials, show a crushing strength for the granite of 11,482 pounds to the square inch, which, if correct, places this stone at the head of all building granites for resistance to crushing. The State Capitol, the great dam across the Colorado River at Austin and the jetties at Galveston are constructed of the red granite of Burnet. While our committee visited the counties of Llano and Burnet only, this granite is said to be found in Blanco County, the colors being red, blue and yellow. Marble, slate and lithograph stone also exist in Burnet, but no sufficient tests have been made to warrant statements as to their value and character. The marbles of Brewster County are of the black and variegated varieties, and are said to equal any on the continent. A number of samples of iron ore were seen in Llano, compris- ing the specular and magnetite varieties. The product of pig iron in Texas in 1898 is stated at 5,178 tons ; in 1899, 5,803 tons, and in 1900, 10,150 tons. It is said that considerable iron ore has been shipped from Iron IMountain, in Llano County, to Birming- ham, Alabama, and this, after hauling thirteen miles over wagon roads. Iron ore appears to exist in large quantities in Llano, Cherokee and Cass counties. MINERAL RESOURCES. 75 IV. GOLD AND SILVER. IT has been my fortune, or misfortune, to examine a great many gold and silver mines in the State of Texas. The result of twenty years' experience convinces me that the precious metals do not exist in paying quantities in Texas, except in those western counties bordering on New Mexico and the Rio Grande River. The total output of the State is said to be about $900,000, nearly all of which is silver. V. COPPER. THERE are many indications of copper in Texas, and in Llano County these fully justify exploration. Archer and Baylor Counties have produced a small amount of surface ore within the past twenty years, but thus far nothing of value has been found. In 1881 I purchased the output of Archer and Baylor Counties, and treated it at the St. Genevieve Copper Works in Missouri, of which I was then manager. The ores were insignificant in quantity, amounting to only 167 sacks, weighing in all about thirty tons, but were exceptionally rich, returning about 60 per cent, metallic copper. VL COAL. NO opportunity was given the committee for personal ex- amination of the coal mines. The following statements are, therefore, compiled from various sources, and from the work done by the writer in previous years. Texas produced no coal in 1880. In 1890 the output was 128,216 tons, and in 1900, 1,013,000 tons. The largest pro- ducing mine is that at Thurber on the Texas Pacific Railroad, on the line of Erath and Palo Pinto Counties. Those at Laredo, Rockdale and near Calvert in Robertson County are said to be doing a profitable business, and are of growing importance. Coleman and McCulloch Counties are also said to be underlaid with coal, but are undeveloped. It has been estimated that the coal area of Texas embraces 40,000 76 MINERAL RESOURCES. square miles, and extends from the Red River as far southward as Laredo. Indications of natural gas are found in many places, and the gas is utilized to some extent on some Brazos plantations near Hearne, in Robertson County. In 1883 the writer examined the coal lands of the Franco- Texan Coal Company, covering, Stevens, Palo Pinto and East- land Counties. I am inclined to believe that the coal beds oc- cur in the Permian, and are not true coals, but lignite. I am also of the opinion that the others coals in the State are of the same character, as I have been unable to find the true coal measures as far as my investigations went. VII. GYPSUM. THE gypsum beds of northwest Texas are said to be the most extensive in the world. The only use now being made of them is the manufacture of a superior quality of plaster. Your committee did not visit these deposits. VIII. CONCLUSION. TEXAS is a. State of such magnificent distances — an empire within itself — that a proper investigation of its mineral resources would require not a few days but a few years. It would require considerable hardihood to definitely state that any mineral is lacking. On the other hand the idea of this report is to publish to the world known facts rather than specu- lations. In every section we found a vast amount of matter indicat- ing the existence of the various economic minerals, and in almost every section it seems to me that further exploration is warranted. Very respectfully submitted, Frank Nicholson, Chairman, Thomas Crimmins, H. A. Metz, Committee on Mineral Resources. New York, Nov. 1. 1901. I p] a sc ^ 3 SP ] A AK 4 1 THE FOREST RESOURCES AND LUMBER INDUSTRY OF TEXAS. THE forest resources of Texas comprise a large area of dense pine forests and a lesser area of hardwood forests, intermingled with various softwood timber trees, which, to- gether make up a distinctively lumber-producing region of great economic importance; a larger area, whose forest growth is mainly in narrow fringes along the watercourses, and too limited in exten*^ to support any but a local and temporary lumber industry; and considerable belts of stunted timber of little eco- nomic value, being unsuitable for manufacturing uses, and valu- able only for posts, rough beams or poles and fuel. The limits of these several areas are shown approximately by the accompanying chart. Outside of the great forest region of Eastern Texas the forest products are very minor elements of the aggregate natural resources. The timber supply is not sufficient to develop any commercially important industry on a large scale, although some woodworking industries may find a profitable local field. Only a limited quantity of hardwood is available, and it cannot be economically converted into timber OF lumber because of its scattered growth and the consequent relatively large cost of logging. The forest products of these regions, therefore, although of great economic value for local use, are of small value commercially in the wide sense of that term. Exceptions are those varieties of trees which supply timbers for restricted special uses, and which are either of narrow range or very widely scattered growth. Examples are live-oak, of dense growth but confined to narrow areas and in limited non-local de- mand for ship timbers ; and hickory, widely distributed, but no- where plentiful, requisite for certain industries and obtainable only by gleaning everywhere. 78 FORESTS AND LUMBER. The streams of the eastern coastal plain are bordered by a heavy growth of timber of various kinds. To the west live-oak predominates, the growth progressively becomes less dense, de- creases to scattering groups and single trees, and finally ceases entirely at the Colorado River. The timber growth of the prairie zone is that characteristic of all true prairie lands, namely, scattering groups of trees of many varieties, very open except in bottom lands and seldom of great extent — conditions opposite to those of true forest regions, where continuous density is the rule. The wooded areas become less frequent and the variety and size of the trees decreases as the central plains region is approached. Throughout that great expanse forest growth is very scanty, and, with the exception of the two belts called the Cross-Timbers, is confined to narrow and broken fringes in the valleys. There are almost no valuable timber trees in this region, most of the Cross-Timbers growth being scrub, useful only for fuel, while the taller growth in the bottoms is of cottonwood, pecan and simi- lar varieties not useful for lumber or timber. The so-called Cross- Timbers are two parallel belts about 50 miles wide, extending southward from the Red River Valley about 150 miles into the central plain. The eastern portion of Texas is a true forest region, covered with dense and almost continuous growth over an area whose extension north and south is about 300 miles and whose maximum width is 150 miles near the southern extremity, de- creasing to less than 100 miles on the north. Somewhat more than half of this region — the southern part — bears upon the up- lands a dense pine forest, comprising the several varieties of yellow pine indigenous to southern latitudes, and intermingled upon the lower slopes and bottoms with a great variety of other trees, including oak, elm, maple, gum, poplar, hickory, pecan, walnut, magnolia, etc. These forests have very great economic value, by reason of the density of growth, size and quality of the trees and the great quantity accessible from any given point. Moreover, the conditions necessary for cheap and profitable development are peculiarly favorable, the elevation being consid- erable, with numerous watercourses, whose ample and persistent volume afliords a maximum of water transit and makes the pro- portion of haulage relatively small. FORESTS AND LUMBER. 79 Toward the northern part of the forest region the pine growth gradually gives place in large measure to other varieties, among which the producers of valuable cabinet woods predominate, in- cluding maple, walnut, oak, ash, beech, elm, gum, sycamore, hic- kory, poplar and others. In fact, the entire region comprehending the southern slopes of the Osage highlands, the central part of the Red River Valley and the uplands about the sources of the Sabine River, is among the richest, most varied and most prolific forest regions in the United States. Portions of this great forest area are underlaid by valuable deposits of iron ore, and as the smaller timber will supply an abundance of charcoal fuel, the lumber industry may be readily supplemented by mining and iron smelting, the economic condi- tions being favorable to both. Within very recent memory the State of Michigan was the great lumber-producing State of the country. To-day Michigan stands practically cleared of its white pine, and the men v^ho were operating actively have gone but lately to Canada, Minne- sota and the Pacific Coast States. The amount of white pine cut each year steadily increases, and to-day the lumberman who looks furthest into the future finds himself confronted with a very serious question as to the future lumber supply, for on the best obtainable estimates, at the present rate of cutting the sup- ply of white pine in this country and Canada will last only about fifteen years more. Of late years many large lumber interests have been turning their attention to the South as a profitable field for investment, and the opening up of new territory by increased railroad facilities has greatly increased the yearly production of lumber in the various Southern yellow-pine States. Lack of labor and inaccessibility of the forest lands are difficulties in the way of operating the lumber fields in most of the Southern States. The latter difficulty is less in the State of Texas than in many others. It is estimated that in the Texas forest region there are some seventy billion feet of standing timber. To a very large extent this timber is made accessible by good logging streams, which open up the country very cheaply, although the railroad facilities are scanty. The result of this has already begun to show itself, and to-day Texas 80 FORESTS AND LUMBER. has some of the best-equipped and most modern sawmills in the country, from which mills the product of the log is turned out at a cost comparing very favorably with the best equipped mills of the North. These mills being located, as a rule, practically on the seaboard, afford very favorable means of water shipment to any part of the country or the world. Speaking from a stand- point of physical conditions, there would seem to be no reason why the State of Texas, so far as yellow pine is concerned, should not occupy in the Southern States the commanding posi- tion that the State of Michigan used to occupy among the white- pine producing States. To conduct a lumbering business profitably requires the pur- chase of a large area of timber lands and a proper equipment, which demands the investment of a large amount of money ; and the ordinary business man, as a rule, is very careful of the con- ditions under which such an investment is made. Any feeling, however intangible it might be, to the eflfect that the legislation or sentiment of a given State is inimical or hostile in any way to vested rights, would make the average business man hesitate and perhaps refrain entirely from investing. The natural re- sources of Texas as a lumber State are very hard to equal in this country ; and the natural conditions seem to be very attractive for the investment of capital. But the great capital necessary to operate a large lumbering plant to the best advantage cannot easily be brought together except in the corporate form, and legislation hostile to foreign corporations must necessarily tend to discourage them from subjecting themselves to it. Whether true or false, the belief is widely current that public sentiment in Texas deems the corporate form of capital harmful to the public welfare, and therefore worthy of severe restrictions and penalties with which other forms of capital are not burdened. Moreover, corporate capital from without the State is supposed to be regarded by that public sentiment, not as an instrument for multiplying the riches of the State, but on the contrary for abstracting them and taking them away, and, therefore, to be impeded as much as possible by severe and discriminative tax- ation. Beyond question this belief, no matter whether prejudiced or well founded, has deterred investment in Texas and materially hampered its development by leaving it dependent upon its in- FORESTS AND LUMBER. 81 sufficient home capital. There can be httle doubt that a policy of wise encouragement in the form of liberal taxing laws, non- discrimination against corporate capital, and reasonable special privileges, immunities or franchises as a guarantee against the hazards of new enterprises, would result in a great influx of capi- tal to develop the enormous natural resources of the State of Texas. Among the most inviting of the fields whose develop- ment awaits that influx of capital, the lumbering industry stands with the first. Respectfully submitted. W. H. Gratwick, Committee on Lumber. Buffalo, N. Y., Nov. 1, 1901. NEn n HEALTH CONDITIONS AND CLIMATE OF TEXAS. I. INTRODUCTORY. IN considering the question of public health in such an exten- sive territory as that covered by the State of Texas a large number and variety of circumstances call for notice. In the first place there are purely natural conditions which are insepa- rably connected with the country, such as result from latitude, geography and climate. In the second place we may expect to find circumstances which modify these natural conditions, such as public work, laws and other governances for the regulation of public health. Although modifying circumstances are not of conspicuous importance in assisting the natural tendencies of health in the territory under consideration, it is true of Texas as of other great commonwealths that public health cannot be wholly satisfactory without the harmonious operation of these two great factors. II. NATURAL HEALTH AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. THE principal health conditions which are natural to Texas arise both from circumstances which lie strictly within the State and others which result from her position with respect to outside territory. V 84 HEALTH AND CLIMATE. Considered without respect to outside influences, Texas pre- sents a great variety of natural conditions. SECTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS. THE coast line is low and flat, extending back from 50 to 100 miles before it attains an elevation of 250 feet. For ten months or more each year the winds blow from the Gulf of Mexico, and, in consequence, changes of temperature are slight, but there is considerable humidity. Diseases of the respiratory organs and those associated with excretion and malaria are among those most prevalent. In the eastern portion of the State, bordering on the Red River, the land is also low. Here the rainfall attains its maximum for the State of Texas. Conditions of drainage are similar to those of the Gulf coast, without the advantages which result there from reduced temperature variations. In the northeast the mortality is higher than for any other part of the State, illness being most common from malaria, diseases of the throat and lungs and of the nervous and digestive systems. Proceeding from the coast and eastern borders toward the northwest the natural conditions of health in Texas rapidly im- prove. So far as is known, the circumstances which favor illness are practically absent in the Great Plains and elevated portions of the State. As regards altitude it may be said that the general slope of the land is toward the northwest. A contour line of 1,000 feet eleva- tion divides the State into two nearly equal parts, there being no point above that level to the east or south and no point below it to the north or west. The 1,000-foot contour runs south from the Red River to Austin and from Austin in a south- westerly curve to Del Rio on the Rio Grande. The most fertile part of the State, and the section of greatest rural popu- lation, lies at an elevation of from 400 to 700 feet. Many large cities are situated between these altitudes. The prevailing winds blow from the south, and to some extent carry the ad- vantage which is given to the coast land by the governing char- acter which the warm waters of the Gulf exercise upon the temperature of the air. The country has good natural drainage HEALTH AND CLIMATE. 86 and the water supplies are favorable to health. It is an inter- esting mark of the business perspicacity of the people of this region that the cities in East Central Texas bear evidence of greater care in sanitary administration than is generally found elsewhere. The types of disease which have been mentioned as occurring upon the coast and most prevalent in the north- eastern part of Texas are not common in the area under con- sideration. A second contour Hne, and one which has a uniform eleva- tion of 2,000 feet above the sea, extends from the eastern border of the Panhandle in a southeasterly direction to the mouth of the Pecos. The slope of the land is irregular, and there are numerous rivers running in deep valleys. There are less than one-tenth the number of persons to the square mile on land lying between 1,000 and 2,000 feet above tidewater than below it. The main occupation of the people is cattle raising. The drain- age and climate are favorable to health. A third contour, 3,000 feet above the sea, cuts diagonally across the Panhandle in a southwesterly direction. This is the area of the Great Plains, or, as it is sometimes called, the semi- arid country. Near the 3,000-foot contour most of the great rivers of Texas take their source. In the northwest the soil consists largely of gypsum and the population is very scant. Very little is known about the health conditions. TEMPERATURES. FROM what has been said it is to be inferred that tempera- tures in Texas depend largely upon geographical position, elevation and especially distance from the Gulf. Beginning in the northwestern corner, at Hartley, the annual average tem- perature is 54.7 degrees Fahrenheit. From this point the temperature increases gradually, until the coast is reached, where the average for the year is 20 degrees warmer. Run- ning parallel with the coast, lines of equal temperature may be drawn, their distance apart being generally about forty-three miles for each change of one degree. In winter the tempera- ture in the north may be 27 degrees lower than in the south, while in summer the difference is seldom greater than from 86 HEALTH AND CLIMATE. 3 to 8 degrees. The average summer temperature for the State is from 78 to 84 degrees. The first killing frost occurs in North Texas in the middle of October, but in the south it is not expected until about Christmas time. The last killing frost seldom occurs after the first of April in the northwest, while in the south it is not expected later than the first of February. Winters in Southern Texas are very mild, frost seldom lasting over a day or two, and on the immediate coast it has occurred only five times in twenty-four years. IRREGULARITIES OF CLIMATE. ECCENTRICITIES of climate, such as droughts, tornadoes and floods are not as frequent in Texas as in some other parts of the great Southwest. Of the five extensive droughts which were experienced in the United States from 1870 to 1890, three did not visit Texas; the other two appear to have been less severe there than elsewhere. In a Hst of fifty-eight of the most destructive tornadoes which occurred in America from 1872 to 1890, only three are noted as having been felt in the State. Rainfall in Texas is not always a reliable feature of climate. In a large part of the State, particularly in the south and east, there is usually an abundance of rain as reckoned by an annual average. Most of the precipitation occurs in heavy showers and the distribution of rain during the season when it is most needed by crops is liable to fluctuations. There is, however, usually no trouble from droughts, as previously noted. Over, perhaps, one-half the State the evaporation equals or exceeds the annual and seasonal rainfall. A feature of the agricultural districts of Texas which has been developed to some extent and is capable of much further application is the plentiful sup- ply of water to be had underground. By irrigation the crops can be watered in a manner which discounts irregularities of precipitation. The heaviest fall of rain on record occurred in June, 1899, near the head waters of the Brazos. On that oc- casion 2,000 square miles of country are said to have experi- enced a rain of about thirty inches in less than four days. 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