-vINCHELL 
 SYLLABUS OF GENERAL GEOLOGY
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 The RALPH D. REED LIBRARY 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF OEOLOOY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES, CALIF. 
 
 Miss Helen F. Fairbank; 
 
 gift of.
 
 SYLLABUS 
 
 COURSES OF LECTURES AND INSTRUCTION 
 
 GENERAL GEOLOGY., 
 
 FENCES TO SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 BY ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL. D. 
 
 ANN AIJBOIt: 
 
 & COMPANY, 
 
 BOOKSELLERS AND I'un.i-i; 
 1879.
 
 SYLLABUS 
 
 COURSES OF LECTURES AND INSTRUCTION 
 
 GENERAL GEOLOGY, 
 
 REFERENCES TO SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 BY ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL. D., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY IN THE UNIVEKSITY OF MICHIGAN. 
 
 ANN ARBOR : 
 
 <fc COMPANY, 
 BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS. 
 1879.
 
 The solid Earth whereon we tread 
 In tracts of fluent heat began, 
 And grew to seeming random forms, 
 And seeming prey of cyclic storms. 
 Till at the last arose the man." 
 
 " There rolls the deep where grew the tree. 
 Oh, Erth, what changes hast thou seen ! 
 There, where the long street roars, hath been 
 The stillness of the central sea. 
 
 " The hills are shadows, and they flow 
 
 From form to form, and nothing stands. 
 
 They melt like mist the solid lands 
 Like clouds they shape themselves and go." 
 
 In Mfmoriam. 
 
 Vidi ego quod fuerat quondam solidissima tellns 
 * Esse fretum : vidi factas ex sequore terras 
 Et procul a pelago ronchae jacuere marina. 
 
 vm: Met. 
 
 Ann Arbor Printing and Publishing Company.
 
 nrary 
 
 t V, 
 
 PREFACE, 
 
 In citing sources of information, the references are generally made 
 first, to two standard text-books, Dana's "Manual of Geology," and 
 Leconte's " Elements of Geology." Following these are frequent 
 citations of other text-books and manuals, and some well-known pop- 
 ular works. Often the references extend to reports of original 
 researches, especially those of American origin. It has been the aim, 
 however, to quote few works not known to be generally accessible to 
 the student. In a few cases, nevertheless, the references will be found 
 sufficiently complete for advanced students. Thus, most of the impor- 
 tant original sources are cited under the subjects of Eozoon, Fossil 
 vegetation of America, Extinct American Reptiles and Extinct Amer- 
 ican Mammals. 
 
 Methods of minuter research are indicated in the " Supplement," 
 and here are references to more recondite sources of information. 
 
 A. W. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, October, 1879. 
 
 802015
 
 ABBREVIATIONS, 
 
 A. A. A. S.=Proceedingsof the American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science. 
 
 Ag.: Sk.=L. Agassiz : Geological Sketches, Boston, 1866. 
 
 Am. /our.=American Journal of Science and Arts, New Haven, Hid 
 Series, unless otherwise noted. 
 
 Am. 2Va<. American Naturalist, Salem, Mass., now Philadelphia. 
 
 Bakewell : GeoZ.=Bakewell : An Introduction to Geology, etc., Am. 
 ed., Svo., 1839. 
 
 Bui. Hayd. SMr.=Bulletin of the U. S. Geological and Geographical 
 Survey. 
 
 Bid. Nat. Jlfus.=Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum. 
 
 Can. .ZVa.=Canadian Naturalist, Montreal. 
 
 Cook ; Geol. N. /.Cook : Geology of New Jersey, 1868. 
 
 Gotta : Ore Dep Cotta: Treatise on Ore Deposits, New York, 1869. 
 
 Cuvier: ZKscoMr-s.=Cuvier : Discours sur les revolutions du globe, 1828. 
 
 D. Dana, or Dana : Manual of Geelogy, 2d ed., 1874. 
 
 Darwin: Coral Reefs. harles Darwin: Structure and Distribution of 
 Coral Reefs. 
 
 Daws.: Story. Dawson : The Story of the Earth and Man, New York, 
 1873. 
 
 Daws.: Dawn. =Daw son: The Dawn of Life, New York. 
 
 De la B.: 06s.=De la Beche : The Geological Observer, 2d ed., London, 
 1853. 
 
 Fig.: World.=Figuier : The World before the Deluge, London ed., 1867. 
 
 Fos. & Whit.: L. Sup. :=F 'oster & Whitney : Report on the Geology of 
 the Lake Superior Land District, 1850-1. 
 
 Hayd.: Rep.=~H.ayden : U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of 
 the Territories. 
 
 Hayd. .Kcp.=Contributed to Hayden's Report. 
 
 Hux.=Huxley : The Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, Am. ed., 1872. 
 
 King: Rep.=King : U. S. Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Par- 
 allel. 
 
 King J Re>.=Contributed to King's Report. 
 
 L.=Leconte : Elements of Geology, New York, 1878. 
 
 Log.: Geol Om.=Logan : Geology of Canada, 1863,
 
 6 
 
 Ly.: Man.=Lye\\ : Manual of Elementary Geology, 6th ed., N. Y., 1857. 
 
 Ly.: JVm.=Lyell: Principles of Geology, 8th ed., 1850. 
 
 Newb., Ives' Rep.=Newberry in Ives's Report, upon the Colorado 
 River of the West, 1861. 
 
 Palxont. /Soe.=Transactions of the Palteontographical Society, London. 
 
 P. A. N. S.=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- 
 adelphia. 
 
 P. A. P. S.=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Phil- 
 adelphia. 
 
 P. B. S. N. H.=Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. 
 
 Pop, iS'c*. .Jfon. Popular Science Monthly, New York. 
 
 Pow. Rep. Powell : U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Pow. .Ren.=Contributed to Powell's Report. 
 
 Q. J. G. S., or Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc.=Quarterly Journal of the Geolog- 
 ical Society of London. 
 
 Reel.: Earth=E,&cl\i$ : The Earth, etc., Am. ed., 1871. 
 
 Reg. .Rep.=Appendix to the Report of the Regents of the University 
 of the State of New York on the condition of the State Cabinet 
 of Nat. Hist. 
 
 Rep. Coast. Sun>.=Report of the United Status Coast Survey. 
 
 W.=Winchell : Sketches of Creation, New York, 1870. 
 
 W.: Geo>. Mich.=Winche\\ : First Biennial Report of the Progress of 
 the Geological Survey of Mich., 1861. 
 
 W.: G. T. tf^.^Winchell : The Grand Traverse Region, 1866. 
 
 Wheeler Rep.=Contributed to Wheeler's Report, U. S. Geograpical 
 Surveys west of the 100th meridian. 
 
 Whit.: Met. W.= Whitney : Metallic Wealth of the United States, 1854. 
 
 W.: JftcA.=Winchell : Michigan, being condensed Popular Sketches 
 of the Topography, Climate, and Geology of the State, 1873 
 
 Woodw.: Man. Mol.= Wood ward : Manual of the Mollusca.
 
 SYLLABUS, 
 
 PART I, 
 INDUCTIVE OR POSITIVE GEOLOGY, 
 
 I. OUTLOOK OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 I. Preliminary. 
 
 ' 1. Distiction between Facts, Doctrines and Speculations. 
 
 (1.) The Facts Demonstrable to the senses of all. 
 
 (2.) Doctrines are accepted Explanations of the Facts. 
 
 (3.) Speculations are explanations still under discussion Possess various degree 
 
 of plausibility. - 
 
 (3.) Inductive or Positive Geology deals with Facts and Doctrines. 
 
 II. G-eology is a History. (D. 4.) 
 
 1. History of the Planet (D. 1, 2,3) -- History of its organic occu- 
 
 pants. (D. 2, 5.) 
 
 2. Data or Materials of the History are Relics of former conditions 
 
 of the earth and its occupants. (D. 4-5.) 
 
 3. Mineral masses Animal remains Vegetable remains. 
 
 4. Mineralogy and Chemistry -- Zoology Botany. 
 
 5. The earth also an Astronomical bod}'. 
 
 6. Its Form, Density and Movements determined by Mechanical 
 
 principles -- And these are Mathematical relations. 
 
 7. Geology the Science to which all other sciences are ancillary. 
 
 III. The Starting Point of Investigation. 
 
 1. Phenomena presented \>y a Drift-covered s'urface. 
 
 2. Phenomena presented by an outcrop of Stratified rocks. 
 (1.) The stratified condition Sedimentation, Lect. VI. 
 
 (2.) Relics of aquatic creatures Fossils -^ Paleontology. 
 
 (3.) Indications of marine origin. 
 
 (4.) Wide existence of such phenomena.
 
 3. The phenomena presented by an outcrop of Unstratified rocks. 
 
 (D. 107-8, L. 205-11.) 
 (1.) Crystalline Non-fossiliferous. 
 
 (2.) The rocks traceable to a fissure through stratified beds. (L. 205-7.) 
 (3.) Indications of igneous origin. 
 
 4. Succession in superposition of rocks. 
 (1.) Often seen in a high hill or mountain slope. 
 (2.) Often in traveling orer a level country. 
 
 (3.) Persistence in order of superposition. 
 
 5. Discontinuity of strata. (D. 96.) 
 
 (1.) In consequence of erosions Illustration. 
 
 (2.) lu consequence of non-deposition. 
 
 (3.) Land and sea-covered areas. 
 
 (4.) Geological sections Illustration. (D. 148, 166.) 
 
 (5.) Geological maps Illustrations. (D. 144.) 
 
 IV. Determination of the Normal Series of Rocks. 
 
 1. Generalization from many observations. 
 
 2. An Ideal section of the known rocks. (Chart.) 
 (1.) A graduation of rocks from top to bottom. 
 
 (2.) Indications of successive depositions. 
 (3.) Indications of progressive cooling. 
 (4.) Progressive changes in organization. 
 "V (5.) General classification of the rocks. (D. 133-43; L. 269-71.) 
 
 f Cenozoic. ) 
 
 Aqueous or I Mesozoic. J. stratified and Fossiliferous. 
 Sedimentary. | Palaeozoic, j 
 
 [ Eozoic. Imperfectly stratified. Few fossils. 
 Igneous or crystalline. Of all ages. No fossils. 
 
 II. RECORDS OF PAST CONDITIONS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 I. Traces of past conditions the Material of the History. 
 
 1. Certain terrestrial changes in visible progress. 
 
 2. Similar results traceable indefinitely into the past. 
 
 II. Traces of the former action of the Sea. 
 
 1. Fossil shells far from the sea and at high altitudes. 
 
 (1.) Ancient opinions concerning them. (Lyell: Prin. Bk. i, ch. iii.; Marsh. Sara- 
 toga Add. Am. Asso., 1879 : Hallam : Literature of Europe, i., 228-30) " Freaks 
 of Nature" "Plastic Power" " Experimental Moulds " "Fortuitous 
 Concourse of atoms" " The Mosaic Deluge" " Influence of the Stars." 
 
 (2.) They are genuine debris Illustrations from the remains of shore-shells or of 
 human industry. (W. 18-22.) 
 
 2. Sea-beaches far inland Valley of St. Lawrence. (D. 549 ; Ly. 
 
 Prin., 178, 482; De la Beche: Observer, 445-57.) 
 
 3. Changes of sea-level actually observed. (D. 582-5; L. 127; W. 
 
 19-25; De la Beche: Obs., 435-44; R6clus, 527-55, 562-7, map of 
 upheavals and depressions.)
 
 9 
 
 (1.) Scandinavia. (D. 582: L. 129; Lyell, Prin., 499-511; Reel us, 531.) 
 V (2.) Temple of Jupiter Serapis. (D. 584 ; Lee., 127-8; W. 19 ; Lyell, Prin., 489.) 
 
 (8.) Old Roman roads. (Ly. Prin., 493.) 
 
 (4.) Oscillations observed in America. (Cook: Geol. N. J., 350-73; Dawson, Quar. 
 Jour. Geol. Soc., xi., 119 ; Hitchcock : Geol. Mass., 307; Jackson : Geol. N. H., 280 ; 
 Long Island Hist. Soc., May, 1868 ; Reclus, eh. Ixxxiv.) Subsidence at St. Au- 
 gustine, Fla. ^ Elevations in.Pamlico Sound * Subsidence on the coast of 
 N. J. fan Nantucket Harbor Elevations along the New England 
 Coast Rotation of Grand Manan ' Rotation of Nova Scotia / Submer- 
 gence of the site of Louisbourg, (Cape Breton.) x Six hundred miles of the 
 coast of Greenland sinking for 600 years. (D. 583; L. 129 ; Reclus, 555.) 
 " (5.) Sea-waves on the coast of Chili and Peru in 1590, 1730, 1751, 1822, 1835, 1837, 1868' 
 1877. (D. 585. 662, 742 ; L. 130; Lyell : Prin., 435, 439, 481 -Pop. Sei. Monthly, Sup, 
 Dec., 1877 ; Hep. U. S. Coast Survey, 1862, 1869.) 
 
 (6.) Actual emergences of hew islands. (W. 23; Reclus, 489-96; Lyell: Prin., 416) 
 
 425,449) Graham, I., 1831 Sabrina in the Azores, (De la Beche : 06s. 
 
 100-1) Santorin, (De la Beche: 06s., 391-7.) Aleutians, 1806, 1814 In 
 
 the Pacific. (D. 84) Conjecture concerning the Symplegades. 
 
 X7.) Effects of a moderate depression in Illinois. (Bannister : Geol. III., iii., 241,) 
 
 III. Traces of the former action of Heat. 
 1. Baked sandstones, limestones and shales. 
 
 '2. Refrigerated molten rocks. In western U. S. (L. 207 ; King i., 
 545-677 ; Gilbert in Wheeler Rep. iii., 118-131, 525-41 ; Howell in 
 id., 297 ; Stevenson in id., 411-25; King, Am. Nat., xi., 459. See 
 further Lect, XXVI.) 
 
 3. Some traces of fire older than those of water. 
 
 IV. Unextinguished Fires. (D. 699.) 
 
 1. Volcanoes. (D. 702-16; L. 81-93; Ly., Prin., 526-32; De la Beche, 
 Obverv., 317-48 ; Bakewell : Geol., 311-44 ; R<clus, 419-52; 458-74; 
 See further Lect. XXVI.) 
 
 ^ 2. Hot springs. (D. 692 ; Ly. Prin., 238-49 ; Gilbert, Wheeler Rep., iii., 
 150 [136 localities in U. S.] : Hayden, Ann. Rep., 1871, 64-198 
 [Geysers] ; Bakewell, Geol, 443, 447-50 ; Reclus, 234-7. See fur- 
 ther, Lect. XXVI.) 
 
 3. Mines and tunnels. (Nature, 3 Apr., 1879, 510) Mont Cenis 
 (Matthew, Canad. Nat., vi., 96) 'St. Gothard (Geol. Rep., Italy, 
 1873, Nature, 30 Jan. 1879, 303) On the Comstock lode (Church, 
 Am. Jour., xvii., 289) Sutro tunnel, N. Y. Daily Tribune, 6 
 
 Sept. 1879, diagrams.) 
 
 i 4. Artesian borings. (D. 699 ; Ly. Prin., 236 ; De la B6che : 06s., 463-7 
 Rfclus, 233, 480-8) -- Alabama (W. Proc. Am. Asso., 1856 
 St. Louis (Litton: Trans. St. Louis Acad., i., 84 ; Brodhead: Mo. 
 Geol. Rep., 34) -- Sperenberg (Nature, 11 Jan., 1877.) 
 
 V. Foundation Stones of the Land. - Granites, Gneisses, and 
 
 other rocks bearing marks of fire. (Lect. III.) 
 
 VI. Records of Extinct Populations. (Lects. IV.-XVII.)
 
 10 
 I1L THE OLDEST KNOWN ROCKS. 
 
 On Rocks, see Von Cotta: Rock* classified and described, London ed., 1866; Blum : 
 Handbuch der Lithotogle und Gesteinlehfe, Erlangen, 1860 ; Brooks : Geology of Iron Region 
 of Mieh. in Geology of Mich., i, chap, iii.-iv.; Julien, in Oeol. of Mich., ii.; Hawes in Hitch- 
 cock's Geol. of y. If., pt. iv., Mineralogy and Lithology, in vol. iii.: Foster and Whitney: 
 Geology of Lake Superior Land District; Zirkel: Lehrbuch der Petrographie, Bonn, 1866, 
 _' vols.. 8vo,; Zirkel : Die Mikroskopisc.he Beschaffenheit der Mineralien und Qesteine, Leip- 
 zig, 1873, 8vo.; Rosenbusch : Mikroskopische Physiographic der Mineralien und Gesteine. 
 Bin Hulfsmittel bei mikroskopischen Gesteinstudien. Stuttgart, 1873, 2 vols., 8vo. 
 
 I. Earliest Bocks on a cooling Planet. 
 
 1. Hypothesis of a fire-formed crust. (D. 146-7.) 
 1. Commencement of sedimentation. (D. 147.) 
 
 (1.) Implies a cooled rock-surface and an ocean. (D. 147.) 
 
 (2.) Chemical Precipitation in Primeval Ocean. (D. 147; W. 60-1; Hunt: Chem. and 
 
 Geol. Estays, iid paper) 
 
 (3.) Vast accumulation of stratified materials. (D 147.) 
 3. Cause of disappearance of fire-formed crust. 
 (1.) The Isogeothermal plane. 
 
 (2.) Ascent of isogeothermal planes as sediments accumulate. 
 (3.) Progressive Melting or softening of under surface of crust. 
 (4.) Progressive Metamorphism at higher levels. 
 
 II. Classification and thickness of Archaean rocks. ( D. 140, 146; 
 
 Hitchcock : Geol. N. H ii., 468 ; Hunt : Chem. and Geol. Essays. 
 TjccmunC^ 
 
 1 (Upper. ( 
 
 I Huronian. ^ ^20,000 feet. 
 
 (Lower. ( 
 
 iEozoic. I Labradprian, 10,000) 
 V 30 000 feet 
 Laurentian, 20,000 J 
 
 PYROLITHIC (Hypothetical.) ^ * 
 
 [A " Montalban " series is placed by T. S. Hunt above the Huronian, and by C. H. 
 Hitchcock below the Labradorian.J 
 
 III. Surface exposures of Archaean Books. 
 
 1. The Fundamental Rocks everywhere. 
 
 2. The great nuclear area in British America, and its appendages in 
 
 N. Y., Mich., and Wis. (D. 150, 160; W. 74; Daws.: Dawn, 7, 8; 
 Foster and Whitney: L. Sup., Pt. ii., 8; Irving: Geol. Wis., 1877 
 461-524.) 
 
 3. The Appalachian system of areas. (D. 150.) 
 
 4. Trans-Mississippi exposures. (King i., 15-98. See also Lects. 
 
 XXIIL, XXIV., XXV.
 
 11 
 
 IV. Kinds of Rocks. 
 
 1. Laurentian predominantly granitoid, of both micaceous and 
 
 hornblende series. (D. 151, 67-70.) - Also crystalline lime- 
 stones. (D. 151 ; Logan : Geol. Can., 1863). -- Iron ores. (Per- 
 haps those of Mich., D. 151, 159. See below.) Graphite. 
 (D. 151, 152 ; Logan : Geol. Can., ch. iii. and 586-93 ; Daws.: Dawn, 
 18, 27-33. See also general references above.) 
 
 2. Huronian predominantly quartzose. Also diorites, limestones, 
 
 iron and copper ores. (D. 159; Logan: Geol'. Can., ch. iv., and 
 594-6; 572-87; Brooks in Geol. Mich., p. 1-319; Pumpelly, Geol, 
 Mo., 31-214; Moore, in Geol. Mo., 1874, 638-71.) 
 
 3. Richness in Minerals. (D. 151-2.) 
 
 V. Condition of the Strata. 
 
 1. Highly disturbed. (D. 153; L. 272-3.) -- Sections. (D. 148, 153 ; 
 
 L. 273; Hitchcock: Geol. N. H., ii., 15-36; King, i., Diagr., pi. i.; 
 ch. ii.. pi. ii., and Atlas, Map L, sections; Brooks: Geol. of Mich., 
 i., 184 ; Daws.: Dawn, 13 ; Campbell : Am. Jour., xviii., 19, 121, 
 showing relations of newer rocks.) 
 
 2. Metamorphic -- Explanation. (D. 724 ; Bischof : Chemical Ge- 
 
 ology; Daubree : Etudes synthetiques de Geologic experimental; 
 Hunt: Chemical and Geological Essays.) 
 
 3. Subjected to enormous denudation. (Lects. XXVIII., XXIV. 
 
 XXVII.) 
 
 IV. THE DAWN OF LIFE. 
 
 DAWSON : The Dawn of Life. 
 
 I. A hypothetical Protophytic period. 
 
 1. A strictly inorganic period must have existed. (D. 146.) 
 
 2. Mutual dependence of the kingdoms of life. 
 
 3. The vegetable the necessary forerunner of the animal. 
 
 4. Geological indications of early Laurentian vegetation. 
 
 II. Remains supposed Organic in Laurentian strata. Daws., as 
 
 above.) 
 
 1. These strata once known as " Azoic." (Foster & Whitney : Geol. 
 
 Lake Sup., pt. ii., 8.) 
 
 2. Suspicions based on iron-ores and graphites. (Hunt : Am. Jour., II., 
 
 xxv., 431 ; Dawson : Dawn, 24-7.) A deductive discovery 
 
 as in exact science. 
 
 3. Organisms found Oct. 1858. (Logan : Canad. Nat., iv., 300 ; Geol. 
 
 Can., 49; Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Feb. I860; W. 435-7.)
 
 12 
 
 (1.) Stratigraphical position. (D. 158.) Mineral Associations. (Daws.: 113-26 ; 
 
 Hoffman: Am. Jour. Set., i., 378; Jour. f. prakt. Chemie, May, 1869.) 
 (2.) Eozoon canaderwe as found Description and illustrations. (D. 158 : L. 275 ; 
 
 W.68; Daws.: Dawn, 59-93. 
 (4.) Its zoological affinities. Dawsonand Carpenter : Quar. Jour. Geol., Soc., Feb., 
 
 1865 : Daws.: Dawn, 59-93 Anuzba and Actinophrys. (W.. 70 ; Daws.: Dawn 
 
 60) Compare StromatoporidiE. (W. Proc. Am. Asso., 1866.) 
 (4.) Its mode of Life. (Daws.: Dawn, 69-71.) 
 
 4. Foraminifera in all ages. (D. 131, 460, 471 ; Daws.: Davon., 62-5, 
 
 72-6. Their work in building up the continents. (D. 512; 
 Daws.: Story, 241-3 ; Fig.: World, 241-4) Numimilites and 
 
 their structure. (D. 131, 515.) Nummulitic limestone of 
 the Pyramids. (D. 512; L. 485) Orbitoides in America. 
 
 (Daws.: Story, 241.) 
 
 5. Organic Nature of Eozoon questioned King and Rowney. 
 
 (Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Aug., 1866; Am. Jour. Sci., II., xliv.,375; 
 Proc. Royal Jrish Acad., July, 1869, and Jan. and Apr., 1871 ; Am. 
 Jour., L, 68, 138-42; ii., 211-5.) Burbank (Proc. Am. Assoc., 
 
 1871,262-6) Carter. ( ) -- Otto Hahn. 
 
 (cited Am. Jour. Sci., June, 1872, 492) Karl Mobius. (Palseonto- 
 graphica, 1878, vol. xxv., Republished separately : see account in 
 Nature, 17 and 24 July, 1879. See also Mobius in Am. Jour. Sci., 
 xviii., 177, Sep. 1879) -- Otto Kuntze. (Nature, 28 Aug., 1879.) 
 
 6. All objections promptly met. (Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Aug., 1866! 
 
 Carpenter: Proc. Roy. Soc., No. xciii., 503; Hunt: Proc. Roy. Irish 
 Acad., July 12, 1869; Carpenter: Ann. Nat. Hist., June. 1874; 
 Daws.: Dawn, 169-206; Am. Jour., xvii., 196, March, 1879; Car- 
 penter and Dawson : Nature, 31 July, 1879. 
 
 III. Conditions of Land and Water when Eozoon appeared. 
 
 1. No positive evidence of land. But the Laurentian rocks are 
 
 partly fragmental. 
 
 2. The sea still in a tempestuous state. 
 
 IV. A long pause through the Huronian Age. Probable future 
 
 discoveries Supposed foreign equivalents. 
 
 V. GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 I. Two Geological Conceptions, Time and Events. 
 1. Events or results of geological activity. 
 
 (4.) Among the Rocks : They differ in Constitution. ' Silicious, Aluminous 
 and Calcareous. (D. 65; Lyell: Man., 11-12.) They differ in relations of 
 Position. Unconformability. (D. 100.) This implies changes of level 
 
 of sea-bottom. Marks boundary line in succession of deposits. (L. 269.)
 
 13 
 
 (2.) Among the Fossils: Progressive change. Sudden transitions. 
 Generally corresponds with unconformability. (King: Am. Nat., xl., 469.) 
 Transitions graduated by new discoveries. Have cataclysms occurred? 
 (Cuvier: Discours; Lyell : Prin.) The truth lies between the cataclysmic, 
 and the uniformitarian theories. (King: Am. Nat., xi., 461-70; L. 288, 317, 333, 
 495.) 
 
 2. Time - - Marked off by events - - Greater and less divisions 
 of time -- Corresponding significance of the events. 
 
 II. Terms employed. 
 
 1. Rocks: Layer, Stratum, Formation. - Formations arranged 
 in Sub-groups or Stages, Groups, Systems and Great Systems. 
 
 2. Time : Arranged in Epochs, Periods, Ages and Times or 
 
 ^Eous. 
 
 3. Correlation of terms in relation to Rocks and Time. 
 
 In reference to Time. In reference to Rocks. Examples. 
 
 TIMES or .EONS. GREAT SYSTEMS. Eozoic, Paleozoic. 
 AGES. SYSTEMS. Laurentian, Silurian. 
 
 Periods. Groups. Primordial, Canadian. 
 
 Epochs. Stages. Acadian, Potsdam. 
 
 4. Geographical origin of proper names. 
 
 III. General Historical Classification of Bocks and Geological 
 
 Time. (D 140; L. 201 ; W. 437-8, and Geol. Chart; Marsh: Am. 
 Jour., xvi., pi. iv. - - European Equivalents. (Cope, Bulletin 
 Hayden Survey, v. 50-1 ; W.: Geol. Chart.) 
 
 IV. Intrusive Bocks. Veins. (D. 108; L. 225-39; Wb.itn.ey : 
 
 Metallic Wealth U. S.; v. Cotta * Ore Deposits.) Dikes. (D. 
 109,111.) -- Faulting. (D. Ill ; L. 222-5. See further Lect. 
 XXVI.) 
 
 VI. SEDIMENTATION. 
 
 De La Beche : Geological Observer, chaps, v., vi., and vii.; Dana : Manual, 649, 665-674. 
 
 I. Constitution of Sediments 
 
 1. Chemical Precipitation. (De la Beche: 06s., 102-111; Bischof: 
 
 Chemical Geology. 
 
 (1.) Most active in primeval ocean. Sketch of reactions. (W. 59-61.) 
 (2.) Always in progress to some extent. Submarine emanations. Certain 
 
 mineral springs. Evaporation. (De la Beche, 106.) 
 (3.) Mostly calcareous. Often gypseous and saline. In the primitive sea 
 
 partly aluminous and silicious. 
 
 2. Organic Deposits. (De la Beche, 112-64 ; D. 59-62, 606-626.) 
 
 (1.) In bulk. (D.614.) Exuviae of molluscs. L. 153,) Foraminifera. (D. 
 477,671 ; L. 453-4; Bailey, Smithsonian Contributions, ii., and^m. Jour. II., xvii., 
 176, xxii., 282 ; Pourtales : Trans. Am. As$o., 1850., 84, and Rep. Coast Survey, 1853, 
 1858, Letter to Prof. Bache, 17 May, 1862.) Vitalized stony growths. 
 Corals. (D. 59, 617-26 ; L. 138-53 ; Dana : Corals and Coral Islands.)
 
 14 
 
 3. Pulverized. -- About reefs. Disintegrated exuviae. (D. 
 
 615, 621.) 
 3. Fragmental deposits. (D. 667.) 
 
 (1.) Of Littoral origin. (D.647; L.31,36.) 
 (2.) Of Fluviatile origin. (D. 647 ; L. 20, 22.J 
 
 II. Cementing Materials. Carbonate of lime. (D. 692.) 
 
 Silica. (D.693, 725.) -- Oxyd of iron. (D. 695.) 
 
 III. Coloring Materials, - Yellow, red and black iron oxyds. 
 
 - Iron silicate. -- Maganese. (D. 759.) 
 
 IV. Sediments in relation to Distance from Shore. 
 
 1. Littoral deposits coarser. 
 
 2. Deep-water deposits finer. (L.,40.) Diminished in volume. 
 
 3. Deep-water deposits often calcareous. (D. 671.) 
 
 4. Local variations in the same sheet of sediments. (D. 80, 666-7. 
 
 Conglomerates, sandstones, aluminous sandstones, Shales, calcar- 
 eous shales, limestones. (D. 667, 669-72.) Cross-bedding, 
 (D. 82, 83; Hayden, Rpp., 1874, pi., vi,) These variations 
 well illustrated in North America. (D. 670, 671, et passim.) 
 
 5. Effect of slow submergence or emergence. - - Extension of lit- 
 
 toral deposits. (D. 672-3.) 
 
 V. The Sedimentary Cycle. (W. 133-6, 1870; Newb.: Geol. 0., ii., 
 
 82-3, 1874; Proc. A. A. A. S., 1874, 185-96; Edward Hull: Q. Jour. 
 G. /S'., xviii., 127-46, 1862 ; Geol. Mag.,.v. 143 ; Quar. Jour Sci., vi., 
 353 ; Dawson : Q. J. G. S., xxii., 101-3, 1865 ; Acadian Geol., 135 ; 
 Address before Nat. Hist. Soc., Montreal, 1865 ; Compare Hunt: 
 Geol. Can., 1863, 576-8 ; Am. Jour. Sci., II., xxxv., 1863, 167 ; Eaton: 
 Geol. Text Book, 1832, and Am. Jour., II., xxiii., 281 ; Worthen : 
 Geol. Ill, i., 112-3, 1866. 
 
 1. Graduated intensity of action through each period. 
 
 2. Deposits graduated accordingly. Coarse Fragmeutal, Fine 
 
 Fragmental, Calcareous, Calcareo-fragmental. (D. 80.) 
 
 3. Each system and group presents a cycle of sediments. Illus- 
 
 trate. (W. 134.) 
 
 4. Prominence of the Limestone mass in each cycle. This a 
 
 conspicuous landmark for identification, (W. 135-6.) 
 
 VH. THE REIGN OP TRILOBITES, OR THE LOWER SILURIAN 
 AGE. 
 
 See official Geological Reports, especially those of New York, Ohio, Illinois, Canada. 
 Murchison : The Silurian System, and Siluria. 
 
 On the general subject of Palaeontology see NICHOLSON : Manual of Palxcmtology, and 
 PICTKT : Paleontologie, 4 vols. and Atlas of 110 plates.
 
 15 
 
 For list of lower Silurian Fossils, see Miller : The Americun Palseozoic Fossils, 1877 ; 
 Bigsby : Thesaurus Siluricus, 1868. 
 
 For complete bibliography, see C. A. White's, Bibliography of North American Inver- 
 tebrate Paleontology, 1878, Hayden Survey, " Miscellaneous Publications;" No. 10, 1878, and 
 Supplement to Bibliography, from " Bulletin " of the Survey, vol. 5, No. 1, 28 Feb. 1879. 
 I. Lower Silurian Bocks. 
 
 1. General aspect. Mineral constitution and condition. 
 
 2. Relations to the Eozoic. (L. 281.) Unconforinability. 
 
 Sections. (D. 166; W. 84; L. 277; Campbell: Am. Jour. Sci.,- 
 xviii., 19, 121.) 
 
 3. Groups : Primordial, Canadian and Trenton. (D. 163.) Place 
 
 of the Galena limestone. (D. 196, 197.) 
 
 4. Exposures : (1.) St. Johns, N. B. Georgia, Vt.; Braintree, Mass.; Minn.; Wis.; 
 
 Lake Superior. (W.- 82-93; Foster and Whitney; Geol. L. Sup.; Brooks; Geol. 
 
 Mich.; Black Hills, Dak. (N. H. Winchell : Ludlow's Sep. on Black Hills, 1874, 
 
 63-4, and Geol. Map. 
 
 (2.) Cincinnati, O.; Richmond, Ind.; Lexington and Frankfort, Ky. 
 (3.) Nashville. Tenn. (Geol. Tenii.) 
 
 (4.) St. Joseph's I.; Little Bay de Noquet, etc., Mich. (W.: Mich., 50.) 
 (5.) St. Anthony's Falls, Minn. (N. H. Winchell: Geol. Rep. Minn.) 
 (6.) Trenton Falls, N. Y.; Watertown, Potsdam, etc., N. Y. 
 
 5. Sections : New York. (D. 16; Hall: Geol. N. Y., 4th Dist. 27.) 
 
 Canada. (Geol. Can., 847. j Virginia. (Campbell. Am. Jour., 
 xviii., 19, 121.) -- Rocky Mountains. (King: Geol. 40th Par- 
 allel, Atlas Map I., and " General Sections.") Wisconsin. 
 (Hall : Geol. Wis., Plate III.; Chamberlin : Geol. Wis., 1876, Atlas, 
 PI. XI. Pennsylvania. (Rogers : Geol. Penn., ii., 894, and 
 
 Atlas, Sheet i.) 
 
 6. Economical products. (Whitney in Geol. lo., 1858, i., 422-71 ; 
 
 Brodhead : Geol. Mo., 1874, 503-637 ; Whitney : Wis. Geol. Rep., 
 1862, 221-420; Strong: Wis. Rep., 1877,089-752.) 
 
 II Lower Silurian Times. - - The treeless shore. - - The shelv- 
 ing Beach. (Ag. Geol. Sk., 36.) Its fucoidal imprints. - 
 Its sands and ripple marks. A shallow sea with a sinking 
 bottom. -- Another sea covering the " Great Basin." 
 
 III. Lower Silurian Life. (Reports cited above. Also Billings: 
 Palseozoic Fossils of Canada, 1865. 
 
 1. Sudden exuberance of life. (Ag.: Geol. Sk., 37.) A busy 
 
 population. (Daws.: Story, 40, 66, views.) 
 
 2. The type of Trilobites, with illustrations. (D. 174-5 ; L. 309 ; Daws.: 
 
 Story, 44-5; Barrande: Systeme Silurien, vol. i.) General 
 structure, rank and affinities. - - Historical development and 
 decline. - - Their suddenness and zoological rank to be noted. 
 (See especially Barrande : Systeme Silurien du centre dela Bohme
 
 16 
 
 Tome i., and Trilobites, 1871, abstracted in W.: The Doctrine of 
 Evolution, Appendix.) 
 
 3. The Type of Chambered Shells. (D. 124 ; L. 305-8 ; Barrande : 
 
 op. tit., ii., and Distribution des Cephalopodes Siluriens. - - Gen- 
 eral structure, rank and affinities. (W.: 110-21.) - - Permuta- 
 tions of septum, siphon, and mode of enrollment. (W. 119.) - 
 Glimpse of the later history of the type. - - Later than trilo- 
 bites, but inferior. 
 
 4. The type of crinoids. (D. 128 ; L. 297-300 ; Billings in Can. 
 
 Geol. Surv., Decades iii. and iv. - - General structure, rank and 
 affinities. 
 
 5. Corals and Graptolites. (D. 199.) No polyp corals till the Vlth 
 
 epoch of life or Trenton. -- Graptolites. (Hall, Canad. Geol. 
 Surv., Decade ii.) 
 
 6. Lingulidse and their relations. (L. 301 ; Daws.: Story, 41-3.) 
 
 Persistence of type. - - Discina. 
 IV. Events which terminated the Lower Silurian Age. 
 
 Uplift of Green Mts. (D. 212-16.) -- The Cincinnati Axis. 
 Newberry : Geol. of 0., i., 93-111 ; Cox : Geol. Ind., 1879, 5 seq. 
 
 VHI. THE REIGN OF MOLLUSCS, OR THE UPPER SILURIAN 
 AGE. 
 
 Official Geological Reports, especially those of New York, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan 
 and Canada. Also the other references under Lect. VII. 
 
 I. How each act of the Drama was closed. 
 
 1. Premonitory tremblings. - Progressive change of sea-bottom. 
 
 - Obliteration of life. - - Uplift of a new belt of land. 
 
 2. Such movements generally slow. - - But sometimes violent. 
 
 3. Changes of systemic value world-wide. -- Perhaps not synchro- 
 
 nous in remote regions. (D. 192.) - - Minor changes progres- 
 sively more local. 
 
 II. The lands of later Silurian time. The desolate and wast- 
 
 ing continent. The winding shore. (D. 250-1.) The 
 
 eroding waves. The teeming sea. Scenes. (Fig.: 
 
 World, 93; Daws.: Story, 40, 66.) 
 
 III. Organization in later Silurian time. 
 
 1. The ^perpetuated Trilobites, Orthoceratites and Crinoids. 
 
 Specimens. (D. 227.) 
 
 2. The type of Polyps, or true Coral-animals. (D. 617-26; Corals 
 
 and Coral Islands; Zoophytes, Wilkes Expl. Exped.)
 
 17 
 
 (1.) The zoological position of Polyps. (D. 130.) 
 
 (2.) Actinoid Polyps. (D. 130.) 
 
 (3.) Coral secretions. Coral structures. (D. 617 : L. 138-53.) Coral reefs and 
 islands. (D. 618-26; L. 139; De la Beche: Observer, 165-205; Darwin: Carol 
 reefs; Beete Jukes: Surveying Voyage of the Fly; Rcclus: Earth, 556-61,) 
 
 (4.) Upper Silurian Corals. Favositidse. Halysites. (D. 225 ; L. 293.) 
 
 3. Other coral secreting animals. (D. 130.) 
 
 4. Orthi-dx. (D. 170-2.) Eurypterus. (D. 239 ; L. 313; Fig.: 
 
 World, 99.) 
 
 IV. Upper Silurian Bocks. 
 
 1. Illustrative sections. (Lect. VII., I., 5.) 
 
 2. The great limestone mass of this age. Western New York, 
 
 (D. 218.) -- Drummond's Island. (W.: Geol. Mich., 55: Mich- 
 igan, 52.) Big Bay de Noquet. (W.: Mich., 53.) Chi- 
 cago. (Worthen : Geol. of HI., 129-36 ; Winchell and Marcy. 
 Mem. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., 4to., No. 2.) Southern Ohio and 
 Ind. ' (D. 221 ; Newb.: Geol. 0., iii., 7.) 
 
 3. Noteworthy Erosions. - - Niagara River. (D. 219 ; W. 244. See 
 
 Lects. XX. and XX VII.) The Northern -Lakes. (Newb.: 
 
 Geol. O., ii., 72-80 ; iii., 45-51 ; W. 220 ; Foster and Whitney : Geol. 
 L. Sup. Land. Dist.} 
 
 V. Chapters of Upper Silurian History. 
 
 1. Niagara, Salina, Lower Hederberg and Oriskany. But the 
 
 Oriskany perhaps Devonian. (D. 241.) 
 
 2. Characteristic outcrops of each group. 
 
 5. Economical products of each. (D. 220, 222, 234 ; Foster and Whit- 
 
 ney : Lake Sup., ii., 201.) 
 
 IX. THE REIGN OF POLYPS, OR THE DEVONIAN AGE. 
 
 Official Geological Reports, especially those of New York, Ohio. Michigan, Illinois, 
 and Canada. Also the other references under Lect. VII. On extinct organic types, see 
 Nicholson: Manual of Palxontology; Pictet: Pateontologie, 4 vol., Atlas, 110 plates. 
 
 I. A culmination of Polyp-life. 
 
 1. Devonian coral-reefs. (D. 225; W.: Grand. Trav. Reg., 41; Ly.: 
 
 Travels, 2d vis., ii., 203.) 
 '2. Favositidseand Syringoporid?e in particular. (D. 204, 259; L. 293, 
 
 319.) 
 3. CyathophyllidsB in particular. (D. 255, 259 ; L. 292. -- Ancient 
 
 and modern types. (Lyell : EL, 403.) 
 
 II. Trilobites and Orthoceratites declining. (Daws.: Story, 93.) 
 
 1. Representative species. 
 
 2. Gomphoceras, Lituites, Cyrtoceras and Clymenia.
 
 18 
 
 3. Advent of Insects and Land Plants. (D. 258; L. 315-8; Daws.: 
 Story, 101-8.) 
 
 III. The advent of Vertebrate life. 
 
 1. Organization hitherto invertebrate. 
 
 2. The law of progress. 
 
 3. Realization of a new fundamental conception. - - Destined to a 
 
 wonderful expansion. 
 
 4. Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone. (D. 285 ; L. 323-4 ; Fig.: World, 
 
 110-1; Hugh Miller: Old Red Sandstone, etc.; Lancaster and 
 Powrie; Palseont. Soc., 1870-1; Lyell: EL, 415-9.) 
 
 5. Devonian Fishes of Ohio and Canada. (D. 261-5; L. 325-7; W. 
 
 120, 127; Newb.: Geol. 0., Pal. i., sec. ii., 247-324 ; Bulletin. Nat. 
 Inst., 1857, 1-8 ; Am. Jour. Scl., xxxiv., July, 1862.) 
 
 (1.) Their systematic position. (Newb.: Pal. 0., i., 247-52. Nearest living allies 
 
 (L. 327-9; Newb.: Pal. 0.. 254-5; W. 120.) 
 
 (2.) Their bulk, organization and defences. (Newb.: Geol.O. Pal. i., sec. ii., 247-324.) 
 (3.) Many of their characters relatively embryonic. (L. 331. Cartilaginous 
 
 skeleton. Heterocercal tail. (L.330.) Subcephalic position of mouth. 
 
 In Placoids still other characters. 
 
 IV. Growing Continents and meagre Forest coverings. 
 
 1. Glimpse of the coming age. -- Flowerless land-plants. (D 
 
 268-71 ; Daws.: Story, 102-7 ; Acadian Geol., 2d. ed.; Geol. Canada, 
 1871 ; Q. Jour. Geol. Soc., xv.,483, xviii.,296, xix.,458, xxvii., 270. 
 See also general references Lect. XIII.) Scenes. (Fig.; 
 
 World,\W; Daws.: Story, 88, 103; W. 130.) 
 
 2. Relics found in New York, Ohio and Canada. (See references 
 
 under IV., 1.) 
 
 V. Chapters of Devonian History. 
 
 1. Corniferous, Hamilton, Chemung. -- Oriskany perhaps belongs 
 
 at bottom. (See Lect, VIII.) 
 
 2. Lithological and Palaeontological.distinctions. 
 
 3. The great limestone axis, Cornifero-Harnilton. -- The cycle of 
 
 deposition well illustrated. 
 
 VI. Geographical distribution of Outcrops. 
 
 1. Syracuse, Caledonia, Eighteen Mile Creek, and all southern N. Y. 
 
 - London, Goderich, Ont. -- Mackinac. ( W.Mick., 58; Foster 
 and Whit.: L. Sup., 164-5.) Little Traverse Bay. (W. Grand 
 Traverse Region, 40-8.) Thunder Bay, Monroe, Mich. 
 
 Columbus, Delaware, Sandusky, O. (Geol. O., i., 142-9.) Falls 
 of the Ohio. (D. 255.) 
 
 2. Some illustrative sections. (Rogers: Geol. Penn., i.. and ii., 894, 
 
 895, Atlas, Sheet 1.)
 
 19 
 X. THE REIGN OF PISHES, OR THE CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 
 
 Official reports, especially those of Ohio, Illinois, Iowa. Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, 
 Michigan. Pennsylvania, and those directed by Hayden, King, Wheeler and Powell. 
 (See Partial List of Authorities under " Abbreviations.") 
 
 See also the other General references under Lect. Vll. 
 
 I. The Waverly Period. ^ W.: The Marshall Group, 1870, from Proc. 
 
 Am. Phil. Soc.; also Am. Jour., II., xxxiii., 352; ib., xxxv., 61 ; 
 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phil., Sept., 1862, 405 ; ib., Jan., 1863, 2; ib., 
 July, 1865; Geol. Tenn., 1869, 364-5, 440; Meek and Worthen : 
 Am. Jour. Sci., II., xxxii., 167-177, July, 1861.) 
 1 . The Rocks. 
 
 (1.) Lithological variations. < W. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xi., 78-7.) 
 (2.) Geographical distribution and outcrops. (W. Am. Phil. Soc., xi., 77-82.) 
 2. The Fossil Remains. ;. (W. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xii., 385-407; White 
 and Whitfield. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hut., Feb., 1862, 289-306.) 
 d.) Great development of Lamellibranchs. 
 
 (a.) Their zoological relations. (D. 125-6: Woodward: Man. Mol.) 
 (b.) Their increase with the diminution of Brachiopods. (L. 303.; 
 (2.) Advent of Carboniferous types. (W. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xii, 401-7.) Oar- 
 
 ' boniferous Crinoids. (Hall, xvii. Reg. Sep.} 
 3. Questions of Parallelism. 
 
 (1.) Sketch of history of opinion, (W. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xi, 57-73.) 
 
 (2.) Nomenclature and equivalences in America. (W. Am. Phil. Soc.,xi, 73-82; 
 
 xii, 387-401, 415.) 
 
 (3.) Comparison with upper member of Old Red Sandstone. (W. Am. Jour. Sci., 
 xxv., 61 ; Proc. Am.Pkil. Soc., xii, 412-14.) 
 
 II. The Carboniferous Limestone Period. 
 
 1. A season of deep and quiet waters in the West. (D. 304-5,) - 
 
 Limestone mass Eastern equivalents. (D. 293, 295, 305.) 
 
 Gypsum formation somrtimes constituting the base. (D. 295, 
 296 ; W.: Geol. of Mich, 1861.) -- The "Mountain Limestone" of 
 Europe. (D. 306.) Perhaps embraces the Waverly of 
 
 America. 
 
 2. Crinoidal life at its Culmination (D. 297-8; L. 382-3. See 
 
 Geol. Reps. 111., Iowa, Mo., Ohio.) 
 
 (1.) Zoological description of Crinoids. (D. 176, 128-9 : Billings: Geol. Can., Decade 
 iv., 7-17; Am., J. S., II., xlvii-1.; C. A. White, Bost.. Joiir. Xat. Hist., Jan., 1863, 
 481-506.) 
 
 (2.) Their Geological history. Living representatives. 
 
 (3.1 Abundant remains in Mississippi Valley. Burlington, lo. (D. 303 ; Lyon 
 and Cassiday : Am. Jour. Sci., xxix, 68-79.) Kentucky. (Last ref. ; Lyon, 
 Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, i, 628-34 : Proc. Acad. JV. S. Phil., Dec., 1861, 409-14.) 
 
 (4.) Other forms of life. Large Spirifers. (D. 300; Lee. 384; Geol. Heps. III., 
 lo., etc. Nautili. (Geol. Reps.) Goniatites. (L. 386.) Their struc- 
 ture and affinities. Fishes. (D. 301 ; L. 389 : Geol. III., ii, 11-134 : iv. 387-74 
 vi. 245-488 ; Newberry, Geol. O., Pal. i. 325-55.)
 
 20 
 
 3. Oscillations of Level. (D. 305, 309.) Successive epochs of 
 
 deposition. (D. 294; Hall, Geol. Iowa, i. 92-119; Proc. Amer. 
 Assoc.1856, pt. ii., 51.) 
 m. The Coal Period. 
 
 1. Its characteristic the development of land-vegetation. 
 
 2. The " False Coal Measures." (D. 295.) -- The " Conglomerate " 
 
 or Millstone Grit. (D. 311.) -- The Coal Measures. (D. 311.) 
 - The last replaced by limestones in the far West. (D. 296.) 
 Meaning of this fact. 
 
 3. The Coal Fields of North America. (D. 291-3, 319-21 ; L. 338-9 ; 
 
 Macfarlaue : The Coal Regions of America. See further, Lec- 
 ture XI.) 
 
 4. Progressive upward movement of sea-bottom implied by the 
 
 wide-spread Conglomerate. (D. 311, 320, 354, 394, 672.) 
 IV. The Permian Period. - - An appendix to the Coal Measures. 
 (Meek & Hayden, Trans. Albany Institute, 2 March, 1858.) - 
 Rocks, fossils and localities. (D. 367 ; L. 400-4 ; Fig : World, 
 151-63.) 
 
 XI. COAL AND COAL MAKING. 
 
 MACFAKLANE: The Coal Regions of America, 1873 ; TAYLOR: Statistics of Coal, 1855: 
 JOHNSON : Report to Congress on Coals, 1844 ; LESLEY : Coal and its Topography ; Article 
 " Coal" in New American Cyclopaedia. 
 I. Great phytogenic periods of the world's history. 
 
 1. Prsezoic Only deductively known. 
 
 2. Laurentian - Graphite in Siberia, Greenland, Canada, United 
 
 States, Bavaria, Norway, Sweden. (Daws. : Dawn of Life, 27-33 ; 
 Jour. Geol. Soc., London, Feb., 1870.) 
 
 3. Coal Measures of Carboniferous time. 
 
 4. Permian: -- Russia. (D. 370.) Australia. (D. 370, and 
 
 Geol. Rep., Wilkes, Expl. Exped., 1849 ; L. 415.) 
 
 r>. Triassic: Richmond, Va., etc. (D. 404, 406; L. 445 ; Lyell : Travels, 
 2d visit, ii.) 
 
 6. Jurassic : India and China. (L. 415 ; Pumpelly, Smith. Contrib. 
 
 xv., Art. iv.) Lota, SW. coast of S. Amer. (L. Ag. : N. Y. 
 
 Tribune, and Am. Jour., iv. 143.) 
 
 7. Cretaceous: Rocky Mts. (D. 457. Compare, however, D. 491, 
 
 493. ; L. 455-6.) -- Age of the Western Lignitic or Lararnie 
 formation in dispute. (See Lect. XIV.) Winnipeg. 
 
 Vancouver. (D. 458 ; Whiteaves : Mesozoic Fossils, i, pt. ii., Geol. 
 Sur. of Canada, 179-90.) -- Queen Charlotte's islands. (Whit- 
 eaves, lb.. pt. i., 86-92.) -- Monte Diablo, Gal. ( Whitney, Geol. 
 Col. i., 27-31.)
 
 21 
 
 8. Miocene : Coos Bay,' Or. (Newb. : Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist, vii., 506 ; 
 
 Lesqx. : Am. Jour. Sci. II. xxvii., 359 ; Heer, ib. xxviii., 85.) - 
 
 u'Appelle and North Saskatchewan rivers, B. A. (Hector, 
 Quar. Jour. Qeol. Soc. Lond., xvii., pt. i., 409, etc.) - Europe. 
 
 9. Modern : Peat-beds of Ireland, Denmark, Bavaria, United States 
 
 and elsewhere. (D. 616; L. 133-6.) 
 
 10. Deposits of bituminous and coaly shales. (D. 66. ) 
 
 II. Varieties of Coal and Carbonaceous deposits. (D. 314-7; 
 
 System of Mineralogy, 755-5 ; Rogers : Geol. Penn. ii.) 
 1. Caused by pressure, heat, impurities, redeposition and chemical 
 
 changes. 
 '2. A graduated series of products The older generally most 
 
 altered. L. 342, 346.) 
 (1.) Peat, of the recent epoch Mostly in northern temperate countries. 
 
 (R6clus: Earth, 416-8.) 
 (2.) Brawn Coal or Lignite Chiefly Cenozoic,' in Germany, United States, etc. 
 
 (See above I., 7, 8, 9.) 
 
 ' (3.) Bituminous Coal : Mesozoic and a portion of the Carboniferous. (D. 315 ; 
 Marvine, Hayden's Eep.. 1873, 110 ; Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1870, 179-88.) Min- 
 eral Charcoal. (D. 316; Daws.: Story, 118; D. Syst. Min., 755. 
 (4.) Cannd Coal .-Chiefly Carboniferous. (D. 315.) Also Green River Eocene; 
 (Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1870, 144.) Produced by littoral attrition and redeposi- 
 tion. Torbanite, Scotland. (D. 315.. 316.) 
 
 (5.) Anthracite .-Chiefly Carboniferous (D. 315.) - But in limited quantities in 
 older and newer formations Causes of anthracitization (L. 346.) - 
 Highly altered Carboniferous in Rhode Island. (D 319.) 
 (6.) Plumbago .In Silurian and Archaean formations. (See above, I., 2.) 
 (7.) Prof. Rogers' Classification of Coals. (Geol. Penn., ii., 988-95 ; Eraser, Haydm's 
 
 Rep. Wyoming, 1870, 180.) 
 (8.) Nature of Coke. (D. 61.) 
 
 III. The Vegetable Origin of Coal (D. 351 ; Bischof ; Chemical 
 
 Geology; Websky in Jour. f. Praktische Chemie, xcii.; Hunt in 
 Am. Jour, Sc., II., xxxv., and Canad. Nat., vi., 241 ; S. W. John- 
 son : Peat and its Uses.) 
 
 1. Chemical Composition. - Tables (D. 316, 361-2,365: L. 343-5; 
 D. System. Min., 756-8: Rogers: Geol. Penn., ii., 969-76; Mar- 
 vine, Hayd. Rep., 1873, 110 ; Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1870, 179-88 ; 
 Peter, Geol. Ky., 1856, 352-5, 361, 363, vol. iv., 243, 247-8, 266-9, 
 especially 284-5 ; Whitney, Geol. CaL, 30.) - - Economical rank 
 of Coals. (Rogers, Geol. Penn., ii., 1000 ; Johnson, Report to 
 Congress.) 
 
 2. Graduated series from wood to plumbago. (L. 343-5.) 
 
 3. Traces of vegetable structure. 
 
 (1.) In the forms of fronds and fruits. (D. 317 ; Lesqx. : Geol. III., iv., 479-89.) 
 
 (2.) In vegetable tissue in coals themselves. (D, 318; Lesqx.; (tool. /., iv., 478,)
 
 22 
 
 4. Theories of conditions of coal-accuniulatioii. (D. 360-4 ; L. 363.) 
 (1.) A marine deposit. (Whittlesey, Annal* of Science.} 
 (2.) Formed ef Drift-wood. 
 (3. x i Formed over sub-aerial surfaces. 
 
 IV. Stratigraphical associations of coal. (D. 311, 320; L. 335; 
 
 Geol. Reports 111., Io., 0., Mo., Ky.. Ind., Pa., etc.) 
 
 1. Shales. (D. 313.) -- Character. -- Fossil plants. 
 
 2. Clays. (D. 312.) - - Stigmaria roots. (D. 313.) Fire clays and 
 
 their properties. 
 
 3. Sandstone Often gritty or conglomeritic. Vegetable 
 
 remains. 
 
 4. Limestones Increasing westward. (D. 313.) -- Marine 
 
 animals. 
 
 V. Disturbances of Coal Fields. 
 
 L Little disturbed in the Mississippi valley Mich., Ind., 111. 
 
 Highly bituminous Little disturbed in the Rocky 
 
 Mts. (Hay den, Rep. 1870, Wyoming, 180. 
 
 2. Greatly disturbed in the Appalchian region. (D. 396; L. 336. ) 
 Pennsylvania. (D. 310; L. 337; Rogers: Geol. Penn. ; 
 Lesley : Coal and its Topography and Geol. of Penn., New Sur- 
 vey.) -- Debituminized. (Rogers: Geol.Penn., ii., 808-11.) - 
 Foreign regions. (D. 344-51.) 
 
 VI. Goal Fields of the United States. -- I.Appalachian. (Rog- 
 
 ers: Geol. Penn.,'\\.. 954-0.) * 2. Illinois. (Rogers: ut sup., 
 959.1 -- 3. Rhode Island. - 4. Michigan. 5. Eastern 
 
 and Middle Rocky Mountains. (Frazer. Hayden's Rep. Wyoming. 
 1870, 179-86. See Lect. XIV.) G. Monte Diablo. (See 
 
 above,!., 7.) -- 7. Oregon. (See above, I., 8.) -- 8. Alaska. 
 (Ball : Alaska and its Resources.) On the "iCoal Fields of the 
 United States and Rritis-h Provinces," see Rogers: Geol. 
 Penn., ii., 942-54. 
 
 XII. COAL MEASURE TIMES. 
 
 1. Picture of a Coal-measure landscape. (W. 149-54.) 
 
 1. The thick dank forest. (D. 352, 353,; L. 369-70; Tyndall, Proc. 
 Hoy. $oc., xi., 100 [Am, Jour. Soi., II., xxxvi., 99] ; T. S. Hunt : 
 Chemical and Geolog. Essays, 42.) -- Tree Ferns and dripping 
 fronds. -- A thick jungle. (D. 354.) Prostrate trunks and 
 decaying stumps. (D. 356.) Land-snails, myriapods and 
 
 insects. (D. 333-6, 339 ; L. 385; Daws.: Story, 112-5, 135-42; 
 Geol. ML, iii., 556-72.)
 
 23 
 
 2. A stagnant bayou. Archegosaurus. (D. 351; L. 393; Daws.: 
 Story, 145; Fig.: World, 139; Lyell : Elem., 397.) -- Amphi- 
 bamus and its vocal utterances. (D. 340.) -- Eosaurus inhab- 
 iting the waters. (D. 340, 343; L. 393; W. 170; Daws.: Story, 
 145-6.) Dragon-flies depositing their eggs. (D. 335.) 
 
 Fishes. (D. 336, 343.) 
 * 3. A stormy beach and a sheltered lagoon. ^Origin of cannel 
 
 coal. 
 
 4. Views. (Dana, 322 ; W., 140, 142, 144, 146, 150 ; Daws. : Story, 126, 
 145 ; Fig. : World, 133, 138, 142 ; Lyell : Elem., 393.) 
 
 II. A change of Scene. * Lowering skies. >' Heaving sea- 
 
 bottoms. r Invading waves. /Another submergence. 
 
 III. Results seen in modern coal-beds. W. 139-48.) 
 
 1. A stony herbarium. Fairy tracery. Delicacy and per- 
 
 fection of features. 
 
 2. What have we represented in this coal ? 
 
 / (1.) The very tissue and cell, and pith and root, and leaf and frond. (D. 317.) 
 (2.) The very carbon which poisoned the atmosphere aeons ago. 
 
 ^L. (3.) The very sun-light which fell upon the forest, treasured up to be disengaged 
 again in our winter fires. Solar energy transformed and locked up, to be 
 set loose in countless steam-engines of the human period. (Huxley, Contem- 
 porary Review.} 
 
 v IV. Three Ends to be accomplished in Coal-making. 
 / 1. To purify the air for organic purposes. (D. 353; L. 373.) - 
 - The existence of method and purpose assumed. 
 
 - (1.) The poison neither annihilated nor fixed in mineral combinations. 
 X (2.) The agency of vegetation. (W. 160.) 
 
 (3.) The demand for respirable air coincident with the first epoch when the con- 
 ditions of the land permitted the adequate development of the purifier. 
 A2. To preserve the carbon for the coming man. 
 X (1.) Tendency of vegetation to decomposition. 
 
 (2.) Organic substances preserved only in wet accumulations. 
 
 - (3.) This need concurrent with the only epoch when the oscillations were suffi- 
 
 ciently frequent. 
 
 ^3. To accomplish all things under the established method of world- 
 building. 
 
 (1.) Oscillations of the level of the land. (D. 395.) ' Foreshadowed in the False 
 Coal measure and Conglomerate epochs. (D. 354.) 
 
 - (2.) Special history of this period. (D. 354-60.) -- Oscillations. (D. 357 ; W., 
 
 161.) Alternate sea-bottom and verdant marsh. (D. 357-9; L. 366.) 
 Number of submergences. (D. 358.) - - Warmth and dampness o'f the 
 atmosphere. (See above, I.,l.) 
 v (3.) The other ends demanded at the only time when ihe tension of the terrestrial 
 
 crust could generate the requisite oscillations. 
 
 (4.) Grand closing events. (D. 395-401.) Uplift of Appalachians. Great 
 enlargement of limits on the eastern wing of the continent (L. 367 ; W. 
 161-2.) Advent of the Middle Ages of the world's history. (L, 400.)
 
 24 
 
 XIII. VEGETATION OF THE COAL MEASURES AND OLDER 
 FORMATIONS. 
 
 D, especially 242, 255, 257-8, 268-71, 277, 279-80, 296-7, 321-31, 348-9 ; 
 L. 346-63 ; W. 156-9. 
 
 DAWSON: Story of the Earth and Man, 121-32; Fossil Plants of the 
 Lower Carboniferous and Millstone Grit Formations of Canada, Mon- 
 treal, 1873. 
 
 FIGUIER: The World Before the Deluge. 
 
 LESQUEREUX : Geology of Pennsylvania, (1854), 1868, vol. ii., pt. ii., 
 835-84, Plates i-xx. Synopsis iu New Amer. Cyclopaedia; 
 
 Atlas to the Coal Flora of Penii., etc., 1879; Amer. Jour. Sci., 
 Nov., 1860; Geology of ill.,\i. 427-70, iv. 379-477; Pottsville Scien- 
 tific Assoc., 1858, 1-23; Fucoides in the Coal Formations, Trans. 
 Amer. Phil. Soc., 1866. 
 
 NEWBERRY : Geology of Ohio, i., 357-85; Annals of Science, Cleveland, 
 1853. 
 
 SCHIMPER : Traite de Paleontologie vegetale, 1869. 
 
 H. C. WOOD, Jr.: Flora of the. Coal Period in the United States. Trans. 
 Amer. Phil. Soc., 1866. 
 
 On the Genesis and Migrations of Plants, see DAWSON, in Princeton 
 Review, March, 1879, also the works there cited. 
 
 On plants older than the Carboniferous, see especially, 
 
 HALL : Observations upon some spiral-growing Fucoidal remains in the 
 Paleozoic Rocks of N. Y., xvi. Reg. Rep., 1863, 71-83; Observations 
 upon the genera Uphantueniu, Dictyophyton , etc., op. cit. 84-9] ; The 
 Flora of the Devonian peiiod, op. cit. v)2-117. 
 
 DAWSOX : The Flora of the Devonian Period in Northeastern America, 
 Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., xviii., 296; xvi. Reg. Rep. N. Y., 97-107; 
 Fossil Plants of the Devonian and Upper Silurian Formations of 
 Canada, Geology of Canada, 1871. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PALEOZOIC VEGETATION. 
 
 [Extinct types in italics. Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous types denoted 
 respectively by S, D and C.] 
 
 PH^ENOGAMS. 
 ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 Bxogens. (Ordinary trees, shrubs and herbs. ) 
 
 Bndogens. (Palms, Sedges, Grasses, etc.) 
 GYMNOSPERMS. 
 
 Oycads. Cordaites D. C, Cardiocarpus C, -f Pterophyllum C.
 
 25 
 
 Conifers D. C. Araucariae, Pines, Cypresses, Yews; Prototaxites S.~D , 
 Pinites C, or Dadoxylon (including Sternbergia), Trigonocarpus D. 
 C, Cardiocarpus D. C, Rhabdocarpus C, Araucaroxylon D, Whittle- 
 seya C, Annularia C. 
 
 CRYPTOGAMS. 
 
 ACROGENS. 
 
 Equisetaceae. (Horse-tails.) 
 Equisetids. 
 
 Calamitids D. C -.Calamites D. C, Equisetites C, Annularia C. 
 Asterophyllids D. C : Asterophyllites C, Sphenophyllum C. 
 Filices D. C iEopteris S, Caulopteris D, Neuropteris D. C, Oydop- 
 teris (Nceggerathia or Pal&opteris) D. C, Sphenopteris D. C, Callipte- 
 ris D. C, Alethopteris C, Hymenophyllites C, Odontopteris C, Pecop- 
 teris C, Neriopteris C, Dictyopteris C, Alethopteris C, Staphylopteris 
 C. 
 
 Cyathacese Tree Ferns, Caulopteris D. C, Psaronius D, Mega- 
 phytum C. 
 
 Lycopodiacese Club-mosses. 
 
 Lycopodids S. D.Psilophyton S. D, Arthroistigma D. 
 
 Cydostigmids : Cydostigma D, Knorria D. C. 
 
 Sigillarids D. C: Sigillaria D. C,+ Stigmaria D. C, Syringodendron 
 C, Poacites, Cyperites, Sternbergia f C. 
 
 Lepidodendrids S. D. C: SagenariaS, LepidodendronD. C, -j- iepi- 
 dostrobus C, Halonia C, Selaginites G, Lycopodites C, Sahutzia C, 
 Ulodendron C, Lepidophloios C, Lepidophyllum C, Sigillaria -\- 
 Sigillarioides (roots) + Stigmaria (floating stems) + f Stigmar- 
 ioides (rhizomes) C. (See under Sigillarids.) 
 
 ANOGENS. (Mosses, Liverworts.) 
 THALLOGENS. 
 Lichens. 
 Fungi. 
 Algae. 
 Conferva;. 
 
 Fucoides S. D. C. Palseophycus S, Buthotrephis S, Musophycus S, 
 Arthropliycus S, Spirophyton D. C, Caulerpites C, Chondrites C,JPro- 
 
 Desmids (including Xanthidia.) (D. 257, 471 ; M. C. White, ^4 
 
 Jour. *S"ci, xxxiii., 385-6. 
 Diatoms.
 
 26 
 XIV. THE REIGN OF REPTILES, OR MESOZOIC TIME. 
 
 On American Mesozoic geology see, besides the references below, the Geological 
 Reports of California, the Fortieth Parallel and of the Territories, under Dr. Hay den. 
 Also MORTON : The Cretaceous System of the United States. 
 
 On the Vegetation of these Ages, see LESQUEREDX : Cretaceous Flora of the Western 
 Territories, Hayden Survey, Vol. vi. 4to. 1874, and The Tertiary Flora of the Western Ter- 
 ritories, Hayden Surv. Vol. viii. 4to. 1878. [These " Tertiary " plants are from the Lig- 
 nitic or Laramie Group regarded by many as Cretaceous.] NEWBEERY : Hep. on the Cre- 
 tac. and Tertiary Plants, in Hayden's Explor. Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, 1859-60, 
 145-74. Also FONTAINE; Noies on the Mesozoic Strata of Virginia, Am. Jour. Sci. Til. 
 xvii. 25, 151, 229. 
 
 On the Reptiles and Mammals, see references under Lectures XV. and XVII. 
 
 I. The Mesozoic Continent. 
 
 1. Its Geography (D. 405, 422-3, 450-1, 455-8, 478-80, 481 ; L. 449, 45J ; 
 
 W. 195-8). -- Outlines (L. 451-2). -- Forests (D. 451). - 
 Emerging western limb. (See Lecture XXIII). - - Topog- 
 raphy. 
 
 2. Its Hydrography. (D. 420, 423 ; W. 195-8). - - Drainage fea- 
 
 tures. Gulf of Mexico (D. 479). - Communication 
 between the Caribbean and the Arctic Ocean. (D. 479). - 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence. - - Lake Superior and its outlet. - 
 Niagara Falls in the olden time. - - Hudson river and its out- 
 let. (D. 422). 
 
 3. Views. (W. 177, 179, 181 ; Daws. : Story, 194, 219 ; Fig. : World, 
 
 172, 174, 206, 213, 222, 225, 229, 240, 258, 268). 
 
 4. European Mesozoic Geography. (D. 451,480). 
 
 II. Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Ages. (D. 403; L. 404). 
 
 1. Triassic subdivisions. - - Trias in the U. S. 
 
 2. Jurassic subdivisions. -- Occurrence in the trans-Mississippi. 
 
 3. Cretaceous subdivisions, European and American. (Lesqx. : The 
 
 Cretaceous Flora, Hayden Surv. Vol. vi. 4to. 14 ; Ann. Rep. 1872, 
 371-427 ; ib. 1874, 316-65, 8 plates, monographic ; Hayden, Ann. 
 Rep. 1870, 87 ; Cope, in W heeler Rep. Vol. iv. pt. ii. 1-13.) 
 Question of the age of the "Liguitic" or Laramie Group. (D. 
 457,491,493; L. 455-6; Newberry, Am. Jour., II., xxix., 208-18; 
 III., vii., 90; Boston Jour. Nat. Hist., vii., 506: Lesquereux, Am. 
 Jour. /Sci., II., xx vii., 359; ib. III., vii., 546 ; ib. Hayden Ann. Rep., 
 1872, 417-42 ; ib. 1873, 365-425 ; ib. The Tertiary Flora of the Wes- 
 , tern Territories, Hayd. Surv., vii., 4to., 21-31, 309-355 ; ib. 1874, 275- 
 315 ; Meek, Hayd. Ann. Rep., 1862, 46-9 ; Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1872 
 14 ; 1874, ch., i.-ii ; Cope. Bull. Hayd. Sur., L, 10 ; ib. Report Vert. 
 Pal, Col., Hayd., Ann Rep. 1873, 431-44 ; Marvine. Haydn. Ann. Rep. 
 1873, 106-28, 171-6; Stevenson, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., June, 1855;
 
 27 
 
 Peale, Hayd. Ann. Rep.. 1874, 140-55, Comparison of opinions ; 
 Endlich. Hayd. Ann, Rep., 1875, 195-207 ; King, Geol, 40</i Par., 
 i., 539; iii., ch., vii., on the western Cordilleras; Comstock, in 
 Jones Rep. N. W. Wyom., 132-3.) 
 III. Marine Populations and Plants of Mesozoic Time. 
 
 1. Where their remains have been exhumed. (D. 405-7,431.) 
 
 Atlantic and Gulf-border. (D. 455 ; L. 439.) Marl-beds 
 
 of New Jersey. (D. 455 ; Daws. : Story, 329.) Prairie 
 
 Bluff and Choctaw Bluff, Ala. (W., Proc. Am. Assoc., 1858 and 
 1856.) -- Western Territories. (D. 456-7; L. 440.) -- Pacific 
 border. (D. 457 L. 440.) 
 
 2. Palaeozoic Types extinct: 
 
 )C(1.) Plants : Lepido dendrids^Sigillarids Cyclostigmids, Calamites. 
 
 * 
 
 (2.) Radiates : Graptolites. (D. 384.) *fTtystids 
 
 Favositsoid and other corals. 
 y (3.) Brachiopods : Orthids, Productids. 
 
 (4.) Cephalopoda : Goniatites (in Triassic), Ctymenia, Gomphocerag, Endoceras. 
 )C(5.) Articulates:-rrilobites. Eurypterids. 
 
 (6.) Vertebrates : Heterocercal Ganoids. (D. 384,441.;. 
 
 2. Palaeozoic Types greatly shrunken : 
 (1.) Plants: 
 
 (2.) Radiates : Cyathophylloids, Crinoids. 
 
 "^(3.) Brachiopods. (Daws.: Story 221.) Spirifer, Leplsena, Brachiopods generally. 
 (5.) Vertebrates : Placoderm Fishes. 
 
 4. New Types introduced or greatly developed. 
 
 (1.) Plants : Cycads. (D. 408; L. 416-7.) Angiosperms. (D.459; L. 457.) - 
 
 Palms. 
 
 (2.) Protozoans : Rhizopods. (D. 460; L. 459.) 
 (3.) Radiates : Astraeoid corals, Echinoderms. (L. 460.) Asterioids. (L. 
 
 419-20.) 
 
 (4.) Molluscs : Lamellibraiichs. (L. 461.) Ammonites. (D. 439; 462-3, 467 ; L. 
 421, 464 ; Daws. : Story 221.) Belemnites. (D. 440, 432-4.) Structure and 
 affinities of Ammonites. (D. 409-10 ; L. 422; L. Ag. Geol. Sk., 177-9, Lect., VII., 
 III.. 3.) Geological history of Cephalopods. (L. 425.) 
 f-(5.) Articulates : Maerouran Crustaceans. (D. 441.) 
 
 ^ (6.) Vertebrates : Teleost Fishes. (D. 442, 462, 475 ; L. 466.) Zoological charac- 
 ters. (Huxley; Vert., 130-44.) 
 
 IV. The Air-breathing denizens of the land and waters. 
 
 1. Classification of Amphibians and Reptiles. 
 
 ^2. Conspicuous Mesozoic types: Ichthyopterygians. Python- 
 
 omorphs iMosasaui>.j - Crocodilians. -- Sauropterygians. 
 
 - Dinosaurs. Ornithosaurs. Turtles. (D. 466; W. 
 
 190.) Geological succession among reptiles. (Cope., Proc. 
 
 Am. Acad. Boston, xix., 194; Am. J. S., ii., 217.) 
 
 3. Scenes on the banks of the future Delaware.
 
 28 
 
 - 4. Scenes in the future valley >f the Connecticut. Bipedal 
 
 Reptiles. (D. 412 ; L. 431, 443-4 ; W. 168, 183-7 ; Ag. : Sketches, 
 150-4.) 
 
 5. Advent of Birds. (D. 414, 466, 468 ; L. 470, 472 ; Daws. Story, 208 ; 
 
 Marsh, Am. Jour., Sci., March 1860 ; 1872, 56, 360, March, 1873 : 
 Allen, Bull. Hayd. Surv. iv., 443, Apr., 1878.) Birds with 
 
 vertebrated tails. (D. 414, 430, 446-7, 468 ; L. 436-7, 420 ; W. 184 ; 
 Fig. : World, 229 ; Mivart : Genesis of Species.) Birds with 
 
 . biconcave vertebrae and sharp teeth. (D. 466 ; L. 470 ; Marsh, 
 Am. Jour., May 1872, 344 ; Jan., 1873, 74 ; Feb., 1873 ; x., Nov., 
 1875, plates ; xi., June, 1876. 509 ; xiv., July 1877, 85, plate ; xvii. 
 266.) 
 
 6. Advent of Mammals. (D. 415, 427, 429, 446, 449-50 ; L. 438 ; W. 
 
 188 ; Daws. : Story, 208. Lecture, XVII., II., i., and III., i.) - 
 Their Marsupial affinities. (D. 415,430; L. 438 ; Daws. : Story, 
 209.) -- Unknown through the Cretaceous. (D. 466; L. 372.) 
 V. Disturbances. (D. 417. Lecture XX., V.) 
 
 1. Trias and eruptions of Trap. (D. 417-20, 421.) 
 
 2. Jurassic closed by uplift of mountains. (D. 452-3 ; L. 450. 
 
 Sierra Nevada and Basin ranges to the east. (D. 452, 486 ; Whit- 
 ney : Oeol. Cal. ; King: Rep. Wth. Par., i., 734-54, 759. - - Hum- 
 boldt range. (D. 453, 486.) 
 
 3. Cretaceous closed by uplifts : Wahsatch Range. (King : Rep. 
 
 40th. Par., 745, 747, 753, not D. 453, 486.) - Uinta Range. 
 (King: op. tit., 540, not D.453, 486. Lecture XXV., I., 7.) Cali- 
 fornia west of Sierra Nevada. (D. 523.) Part of Rocky 
 Mts, east of Wahsatch. (Lect, XXV., L, 7.) Increased 
 cold and extermination of species. . (D. 487 ; L. 475 ; Daws. : 
 Story, 232.) 
 
 XV. SOME EXTINCT TYPES OF REPTILES. 
 
 For a completer list of extinct American Reptiles, see Supplement, "Aids to Advanced 
 Study." 
 
 IMPORTANT REFERENCES: 
 
 E. D. COPE: I. Synopsis of Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia and Aves of 
 North America. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1869 and 1870. 
 
 II. Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of the West. Hayden 
 Survey, ii., 4to., 1874. For literature to date, see pages 51-3. For syn- 
 opsis of known Cretaceous Vertebrata of N. Amer., see pp., 245-oO 
 
 III. Report on the Vertebrate Palaeontology of Colorado. Hayden Ann. 
 Rep., 1873, 427-533.
 
 29 
 
 IV. Descriptions of some Vertebrate Remains from the Fort Union 
 Beds of Montana. Proc. Acad. Nat., Sci. Phil., 31 Oct., 1876. 
 
 V. On some Extinct Reptiles and Batrachians from the Judith River 
 and Fox Hills beds of Montana. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Dec., 1876. 
 
 VI. Batrachia of the Coal Measures of Ohio. Proc. Amer. Phil. 
 Soc., Feb., 1877. 
 
 VII. Geology of the Judith River beds, Montana, .nd the Niobrara 
 Cretaceous. Hayden Bulletin, iii., No. 3. 
 
 VIII. Paleeontological Bulletin, No. 28. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 21 
 Dec., 1877. 
 
 IX. Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia from the Permian Formation of 
 Texas. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 5 Apr., 1878. 
 
 X. Report upon the Extinct Vertebrata obtained in New Mexico by par- 
 ties of the Expedition of 1874. Wheeler Survey, vol., iv., pt., ii. 
 
 JOSPEH LEIDY : I. Cretaceous Reptiles of the United States. Smith- 
 sonian Contributions to Knowledge. 1863. 
 
 O. C. MABSH, in American Journal of Science and Arts, Hid. 
 Series. The references denote volume and page. 
 
 Leidy and Cope are cited by the Roman numerals prefixed to 
 their papers. The references to "Hux." signify: A Manual of the 
 Anatomy of Vertebratcd Animals, Am. ed., 1872. 
 
 I. Classification of Amphibians and Reptiles. (Hux., 149, 169. 
 
 Compare Cope, Bull. U. S. NationaLMuseum, No. 1, and C. I., 4-6, 
 26-9.) 
 
 1. Tabular analysis of Orders of the two Classes. 
 
 2. Amphibia differentiated from Fishes. (Hux., 149.) From 
 
 Reptiles. 
 
 3. Reptiles differentiated from Amphibia. (Hux., 167-9.) -- From 
 
 Birds. (Hux., Proc,- Zool. Soc. Lond., Apr., 1867.) 
 
 II. Amphibians. 
 
 1. Urodela (Stegocephali, C. I., 6.) 
 
 (1.) Salamandrids: Ichihycanthus. (C. VI., 573.) Leptophractus. (C. VI., 576.) 
 (2.) Xenorhachia (Cope, Geol. HI., ii., 137) -.Amphibamus. (Cope, P. A. N. S. 1865, 
 
 134; Geol. III., ii., 135-41.) Tuditamis. C. VI., 577.) 
 
 (3.) Microsauria. (Dawson, ): Pelion=Raniceps. (Wyman, Am. Jour. Sci., 
 
 1858, 158 ; W. 170 ; C., I., 9.) Hylmumus. (Daws. : Story, 146, 148 ; Can. Nat., 
 viii, 167.) Sauropus. (D. 302 ; Lea, Trans. A. P. Soc., x. 1852.) Den- 
 drerpeton. (Daws. : Story, 146 ; Owen, J. Geol. Soc., 1853, 81 ; C. 1. 12.) 
 (4.) Ganocephala : Colosteus. (C., I., 22.) Rhachilormis. (C., ix., 526.) 
 2. Labyrinthodonta. (Hux., 154-5 ; Fig. : World, 170.) Char- 
 
 acters and geological history. (L. 409; W. 172-4, 176-7.) 
 Footprints. (D. 412; Hitchcock: Jchnology of New England ; L. 
 409.) Dictyocephalus. (Leidy, P. A. N. S., 1856, 256.) 
 
 Baphetes. (Daws. : Story, 145-6 ; Owen, Q. J. Geol. Soc., 1853.)
 
 30 
 
 III. Plesiosaurs. Structure and affinities. (Hnx., 180-6.) 
 
 Plesiosaurus. (D. 443; L. 430; W. 178-9 ; Ag. : Sketchet, 160; 
 Daws.: Story, 213; Fig.; 201-6.) Pliosaurus. (L. 430.) 
 
 Polycotylu*. (D. 467; C., P.* A. N. S., 18 June, 1SW : I., :'>4-S ; 
 II., 70-5.) 
 
 IV. Lacertilians. -- Characters. (Hux., 186-93.) 
 
 1. Rhynchocephals. (Hux., 194; Marsh, xv., 409.) Nothodon. 
 
 (Mh., xv., 410.) Oricotus. (C., P. A. N. S., 1875. 405.) 
 
 Clepsydrops. (C., P. A. N. S., 1875, 407.) 
 
 2. Homceosaurs. (Hux., 195-6) . Triassic Telerpeton. (D. 427, 428 ; W. 
 
 166; Hux., Q., J. Geol. Soc., xxii.) 
 
 3. Protorosaurs. (Hux., 195-6.) Permian Protorosaurus. 
 
 Crematosaurus. (C., III., 515.) 
 
 4. Monitors or Platynota. Hux., 193, lW):Saniva. (Leidy. P. A. X. 
 
 S., 1870, 124.) Thinosaurus. (Mh., iv., 229, Oct. 1872.) 
 
 Glyptosaurus. (Mh., i.. 456, June, 1871 ; iv., 302, 305.) 
 
 V. Pythonomorphs or Mosasaurs. (C., I., 182 ; Owen, Q. J. G. S., 
 
 1879, 682 ; C., Hayden Surv. Bull iv., No. 1 ; Mh. iii., June, 1872. 
 See synopsis, C., II., 264-72.) Mosasaurus. (D. 464, 465, 468, 
 
 474 ; L. 469 ; Daws. : Story, 216'7 ; especially Fig. ; World, 264-8 ; 
 Leidy, I., 30-74. See further, Supplement) Discosaurun- 
 
 Elasmosaurus, Cope. (D. 464, 467 ; L. 467 ; Leidy, I., 22-5 ; W. 
 190; Daws.: Story, 217-8. See Suppl. [/). carinatus of Kansas 
 had 72 cervical vertebrae ; Plesiosaurus had 24-41 .] Edesto- 
 saurus. (D. 468; Mh., i., 447.) -- Oimoliasaurus. (W. 190 ; C., I., 
 40-4 ; Leidy, L, 25-9.) 
 
 VI. Ichthyosaurs. (Hux., 208-14) -.Ichthyosaurus. (D. 442-3; L. 429 ; 
 
 W. 138-9; Ag.: Sk. 158-9; Daws.: Story, 213; Fig.: World, 194- 
 200 ; C. I. 29.) - - Resemblance to Cetaceans. (Hux., 208 ; D. 
 443 ; W. 178-9.) A composite type. (Ag. : Sk. 159.) 
 
 Eosaurus. (Mh. II., xxxiv., July, 1862 ; W. 170.) 
 
 VII. Crocodilians. -- Characters. (Hux., 214-21.) Tabular 
 
 analysis of Families. 
 
 1. Alligatoridse -.Alligator. (C. Hayd. Ann. Rep., 1872, 614 ; C. V. 15.) 
 
 2. Crocodilidae : Crocodilus. (C. Hayd. Ann. Rep, 1872, 612; C. VI. 
 
 31-4 ; C. X, 62; Mh. i., 553.) Dlplocynodus. (C. Hayd. Ann.Rep., 
 1872, 613; VI. 31, X, 60.) 
 
 3. Gavialidse -.Thoracosaurus. (D. 467 ; Leidy, I, 5-12.) 
 
 4. Teleosauridse : Teleosaurus. (L. 431; Fig.: World, 225.) Hy- 
 
 posaurus. (D. 467 ; Leidy, I., 18 ; C. I., 23 ; C. II., 67-80.) 
 
 5. Belodontidse : Belodon, perhaps a Lacertilian. (D. 428 ; C. I.. 
 
 56-61.)
 
 31 
 
 VIII Dicynodonts and Theriodonts. - - Characters and history 
 of Dicynodonts. (L. 410.) Combined characters of croco- 
 diles, tortoises and lizards. (Owen, .) Characters and 
 history of Theriodonts. (L. 411 ; Owen, .) 
 
 IX. Ornithoscelids. (Hux., 223-32; L. 431.) Characters inter- 
 
 mediate between Eeptiles and Birds. (Hux., 224-6 ; L. 431.) - 
 Structure of pelvis. Position of Pubis and Postpubis. (Mh. 
 xvi., 417, plate: xvii., 90.) The hind-limbs. -- Many 
 bipedal. (Mh. xvii., 91. 
 
 1. Dinosaurs. (D. 413, 464 ; L. 431, 452 ; C. I., 86-90 ; Mh. xvi., 412.) 
 (1.) Permian: Lysrophu*. (C., P. A. N. S., 1877, 187.) Bolosaurus. (C. IX., 
 
 506-8.) 
 
 (2.) Triassic-.-Thecodontosaurus. (C. VIII., 231.) Pateosaurus. (C. VIII., 232.) 
 - Clepsysaurus. (D. 413 ; Lea, Jour. A. N. S. Phil., ii., 4to. pt. 3, 1852.) - 
 Bothy 'gnathug. (D. 414; L.447; W. 178, 184; Leidy, Jour. A. N. S., 1854, 327; C. 
 I., 119.) Megadactylus. (C., I., 122 A.) 
 
 (3.) Jurassic: Megalosaurus. (D. 444 ; L. 433 ; Fig. ; 255.) Ceteosaurus. (L.434; 
 Daws.: Story, 204. , Pel&rosaurus. (W. 188; Mantell, Phil. Trans., 1850, pt. 2, 
 p. 379.) Iguanodan. (L.431; W. 189; Fig.: World, 258; D.445: Mantell : 
 Foss. of Brit. Mas., 224-313; Isle of Wight, 227-34.) Amphiccelias. (C. Pal. 
 Bull. 27; C. VIII., 233, 242-6. [C. says cretaceous, kangaroo-like, and A fragtt- 
 listimus over 100 ft. in length. (C. in Sow Francisco Acad. Sci., 1879.)] 
 
 Suborder SAUROPDA. (Atlantosaurldse, Mh. xvi., 412, Nov.. 1878) Atlanto- 
 sauru&=Titanosaurus, Mh. (Mh. xiv., 87,514; xv., 241 ; xvi., 412; xvii., 88; L. 
 468). Mh. estimates it 80 ft, in length, and says it was the largest land animal 
 so far known. 
 
 Suborder SAUBANODONTA. (Mh. xvii., 85) : Sauranodon. (Mh. xvii., 86.) 
 Cama,rasa,urus=:1 Chrondrosteosaurus, Owen, Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist.,ii., 
 101. Sep., 1878, (C., P. A. N. S., 20 July, 1877, 7 ; C., VIII., 233-42; Mh, xvii. 89.) 
 C. says it is Cretaceous, and C. supremtis was 72 ft in length. 
 
 Family Allosauridse, having affinities with Megalosauridae. (Mh. xviii.. 89) : 
 AUvsaurm. (Mh. xiv., 515.) Creosaurus. (Mh. xv., 243 ; xvii., 90.) 
 
 Family Nanosauridse, having affinities with Compsognathus. (Mh. xv., 224 ; 
 xvii., 90.) Nanosaurus. (Mh. .) 
 
 (4.) Cretaceous -.Hadrosaurus. (.D 464, 467; L. 467 468; W. 192-3; Daws.: Story 
 202 ; Leidy, Cretac. Reptiles, U. S., 1865, 76-97 ; C. I., 91-8, 122I.-122 J. See refer- 
 ences, C, II., 247.) Ladapi;=Dryptosaurus, Koch, (D. 464 ; W. 191; Daws.: 
 Story, 203; C., P. A. N. S. June, 1866; 1. 100-18; IV., 1-2; V., 1-5; Hayd. Bull, iii., 
 4, 805.) - - Ornithotarsus. (D. 464 : L. 468 ; C.. P. A. N. S., 18 June, 1869 ; I. 
 120-1.) - 
 
 2. Oompsognaths. (Hux., 225, 228 ; L. 434 Compsognathus. (L. 
 
 434.) 
 
 X. Pterosaurs. (D. 464 ; Daws. : Story, 265-7 ; Hux., 228-32.) -- Gen- 
 
 eral characters. - - Doubtful Ornithopterus. 
 
 1. With fully toothed jaws' - - Pterodaclylus. (D. 446, 468 ; W. 178, 
 
 180-1 ; Mh. xv. 233, Sep., 1878 ; xvi. 411, Nov., 1878.) . 
 
 2. With jaws produced into toothless beaks. Rhamphorhynchus. 
 
 (D. 446, misnamed after Goldfuss. - Pterodactylus ; (L. 435; 
 W. 183-4 ; Ag. ; Sk. 162.)
 
 32 
 
 3. With jaws entirely toothless. -- Pteranodon. (L. 468 ; Mh. iii., 
 Apr., 1872 ; xi. 507, June, 1876 ; Cope I., 169-75 ; II. 65.) 
 
 XI. Chelonians. Testudo. (Leidy, I, 101-111; Extinct Vert. 
 
 Forma West. Terr., Hayd. Surv., 339-40 ; C. X, 283.) - Compse- 
 mys. (Leidy, Trans. A. P. S., 1860, 152; C. II., 91; IV. 10. - 
 Adocus. (C. L, 232-3; 11.91.) 
 
 XII. Ophidians :Palseophis. (C. Oeol. N. J., 1868, 737 ; P. A. N. S., 
 1868, 147, 234; Trans. A. P. Soc., 1869, pi. xiv.) - - Dinophis. 
 (Mh. II., xlviii., 397.) - Soavus. (Mh. i., 322-4.) 
 
 XVI. THE REIGN OF MAMMALS, OR THE TERTIARY AGE. 
 
 See especially, the official geological reports of New Jersey, South 
 Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, California, British Colum- 
 bia, and those conducted by Hayden, King and Wheeler. Also, CON- 
 RAD : Tertiary Fossils of the United States ; TUOMEY and HOLMES : Fossils 
 of South Carolina, 4to., 1855. 
 
 I. The Continent during the Tertiary Age. 
 
 1. Its approximate completeness. (D. 521-2.) Outlines. (L. 
 
 479-80 ; W. 200.) 
 
 2. Intracontinental seas. (D. 491 ; L. 479, 512 ; W. 200-1. See Lect. 
 
 XXIII.) -- Relics of the Mesozoic intercontinental channel. 
 (L. 511-2 ; W. 199.) 
 
 3. Arboreal vegetation and its modern aspects. (D. 497-8 ; L. 481-3 ; 
 
 Lesquereux: Tertiary Flora, Hayden Rep., 4to. vii.; but see 
 Lect. XIV.) 
 
 4. Stratification. (King, Geol. 4Qth Par. ch. v. ; Lesqx. Tert. Flor. 
 
 Hayd. Surv. vii., 10-20, 24; Hayden Ann. Rep. 1870, 93; 1874, 23; 
 Marsh, xvi., Plate, iv. ; Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1877, 210.) 
 
 5. Views. (Daws. : Story, 253 ; Fig. : World, 288, 309, 329. Also, 
 
 especially, the Reports of Hayden, King, Wheeler and Powell.) 
 
 II. Marine Animals. -- Approximation to modern types. (D. 499- 
 
 501 ; L. 486-7.) -- Subdivisions based on percentages of living 
 species. (D. 489 ; L. 476-7 ; Daws. : Story, 239.) Zeuglodon. 
 
 (D. 502 ; L. 500-1 ; W. 203 ; Leidy : Extinct Mam. Dakota, 427 : 
 Extinct Vert. Fanna Ter., 1873, 337.) - - Squalodon. (Leidy^ 
 Extinct Mam. Dak., 416-24.) - Comparison of Zeuglodon with 
 the Mosasaurs. -- Other marine mammals. 
 
 III. Decadence of the Reptilian Dynasty. 
 
 1. Total extinctions. (L. 492) : - - Dinosaurs, Pterosaurs, Ichthyo- 
 
 saurs, Plesiosaurs, Dicynodonts. 
 
 2. Types shrunken : Lacertilians, Crocodilian*.
 
 33 
 
 3. Types conserved and developed : Chelonians. (Colossochelys, D. 
 516, 520 ; L. 493.) -- Ophidians. (D. 509, 576.) 
 
 IV. Rise of Mammalian Rule. 
 
 1. Sudden abundance at the beginning of this age. (L. 495.) 
 
 2. Their predominantly placental character. (L. 495.) 
 
 3. Already considerably differentiated. (L. 495 ; Daws. : Story, 244.) 
 
 Types. (Mh., Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1877, 211-58): 
 Zeuglodont, Sthenorhine (both tapiroid and horned), Equine, 
 Carnivorous, Insectivorous, Rodent, Cheiropterous, Quadruman- 
 ous. Many of these Marsupial. 
 
 4. But these types not completely differentiated. - - All the types 
 comprehensive. (L. 508, 509-10.) Became progressively 
 more differentiated. Hence supposed to have proceeded 
 from types still more comprehensive. (L. 511.) ThePanto- 
 dont type. (L. 506-7 ; Cope, P. A. N. S., Feb., 1873 ; On the Ex- 
 tinct Vertebrata of the Eocene of Wyoming, Hayd. Ann. Rep. 1872, 
 585-9 ; Palseont. Bullet., No. 28, Proc. A. P. Soc. 21 Dec., 1877, 24-30, 
 order AMBLYPODA proposed.) 
 
 V. The Cemeteries of the Animals. (W. 204-5.) 
 
 1. Why their remains are not generally distributed. 
 < 2. The areas called "Bad Lands." (D. 492,494,495; L. 478-9; W.205- 
 10. See also Lect. XXVII., II.. 4, (4) f.) - A picture of deso- 
 lation. An ancient sea freshening to a lake. The lake 
 gradually filled with sediment. (D. 491.) Life upon its bor- 
 ders. Inhumation of skeletons. Erosions of later 
 times. 
 
 3. Sequence of Tertiaries and names of Lakes. (King, 40th Par. i., 
 458 ; Mh. A. J. S., III., ix., 49; Grinnell and Dana, ib., xi., 126.) 
 
 Three geographically distinct Tertiary Basins ; probably 
 more. 
 
 (1.) Eocene (in the middle province). 
 
 (a.) Vermillion Creek Group, King=Wahsatch Gr., Hayden. Deposited in 
 UTE LAKE. Between Wahsatch and Rocky Mts., from Wind R. Range 
 south to New Mexico. The Uiuta Range an island. Coryphodon. 
 Eohippus, Oxyana, Meniscotherium, etc. (King, i., 376-7.) 
 
 (6.) Green River Group, Hayden=Elko Gr.. King. Deposited in GOSICTE 
 LAKE. Nearly the same as last, with doubled east and west dimen- 
 sions. Wahsatch and adjoining highland a peninsula ; Uinta still an 
 island. Fishes, Insects. 
 
 (c.) Bridger Group. Deposited in WASHAKIE LAKE. Wholly within 
 the boundaries of Ute Lake. Dinoceras, Tinoceras, Uintatherium, 
 
 Orohippus, Palaosyops, etc. 
 
 (d.) Uinta Group. Deposited in UINTA LAKE, south of Uinta Mts., in valley 
 of Green and White rivers. Hyopsodus, Epihippus, Agriochcerus, etc. 
 (2.J Miocene. Two contemporaneous basins. 
 O
 
 34- 
 
 Truckee Group, KingJohn Day Gr., Marsh. Deposited in PAH UTE 
 LAKE, (Province of Nevada and Oregon.) East of Cascade and 
 Sierra Nevada Ranges, from Columbia river south into California. 
 Rhinoceros Pacfficus, Eporeodon, Diceratlierium, Miohippus, etc. 
 
 White River Group, Hayden. Deposited in Sioi x LAKE, (Province of 
 the Great Plains). From Northern Kansas far into British Columbia, 
 and west nearly to Colorado Range. Menodus, Brontoiherium, 
 Oreodon, Mesohippus, Poebrolherium. Dinictis, etc. 
 (3.) Pliocene. Three contemporaneous basins. 
 
 Humboldt Group, King. Deposited in SHOSHONE LAKE, (Province of the 
 Great Basin). Covering Pah-Ute Lake and stretching east over the 
 Great Basin to Wahsatch Mts. Protohippus, Merychippus, Dicrocerus. 
 
 North Park Group, Hague and Hayden. Deposited in NORTH PARK 
 LAKE, (Middle Province). \ North Park and upper valley of North 
 Platte River. No fossils. 
 
 Niobrara Group, Marsh. Deposited in CHEYENNE LAKE, (Province of the 
 Great Plains). Superimposed on, and overlapping Sioux Lake on all 
 sides ; stretching southward to the Gulf and northward into Rritish 
 Columbia. Protohippus, Pliohippus, Procamelus, Dicrocerus, 
 etc. 
 
 4. Atlantic and Gulf-border Tertiaries. (D. 491, 494, 495; L. 477.) 
 
 5. Foreign Tertiary Basins. (D. 512 ; L. 480.) The Paris Basin. 
 
 (D. 512, 513 ; L. 496-8.) What Cuvier dug from it. (D. 513, 
 517-8 ; W. 202 ; Daws. : Story, 240 ; Agassiz : Sketches, 185-90.) - 
 Reminiscence of Montmartre and the Buttes Chaumont. - 
 The Vienna Basin. (D. 515.) -- The London Basin. (D. 511, 
 513 ; Daws. : Story, 245, 247.) Himalayan deposits. -- The 
 monarch of proboscideans. Sivatherium. (D. 520 ; L. 498- 
 9.) -- Colossochelys. (D. 516, 520 ; L. 493.) 
 
 VI. A Glimmering from the Future. 
 
 VII. Disturbances of the Tertiary Age. (L. 512; Daws.: Story, 
 
 236-7. See Lect. XXV.) Some cordilleras in Wyoming, 
 
 Utah and California. -- Coast Range, Cal. (D. 523; L. 256.) 
 Enormous outflow of lava along the Pacific slope. (L. 512; 
 Sen also Lects. II. and XXVI.) Pyrenees, Appenines, Car- 
 pathians, Alps. 
 
 VIII. Parallelism of European and American Formations. 
 (Cope, Hayden Bulletin, v. No. 1, 33-54 ; Marsh, xvi., pi. iv., Nov. 
 1878.) 
 
 XVII. SOME EXTINCT TYPES OF MAMMALS. 
 
 [For a completer list of Extinct American Mammals, see " Supplement."] 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES. 
 
 LEIDY: I. The Ancient Fauna of Nebraska. Smithsonian Contri- 
 butions to Knowledge, 1853.
 
 35 
 
 II. Extinct Mammalia of Dakota and Nebraska, in Jour. Acad. Nat. 
 Sci. Phil., vol. vii., 1869. 
 
 III. Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories. Hayden 
 Survey, 1873, vol. L, 4to. 
 
 COPE : I. Synopsis of the Extinct Mammalia of the Cave Formations of 
 the United States, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., July, 1869. 
 
 II. Preliminary Report on the Vertebrate discovered in the Port Ken- 
 nedy Bone Cave, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Apr. 7, 1871. 
 
 III. On the Extinct Vertebrata of the Eocene of Wyoming, Haydeu 
 Ann. Rep., 1872. 
 
 IV. Report on the Vertebrate Palaeontology of Colorado, Haydeu Ann. 
 Rep., 1873, 427-533. 
 
 V. Report on the Stratigraphy and Pliocene Vertebrate Palaeontology of 
 Northern Colorado, Bulletin, Hayden Survey, No. 1. 
 
 VI. Descriptions of New Vertebrata from the Upper Tertiary Forma- 
 tions of the West, (Palseontological Bulletin, No. 28), Proc. Am. Phil. 
 Soc., 21 Dec., 1877. 
 
 VII. Descriptions of new Extinct Vertebrata from the Upper Tertiary 
 and Dakota Formations, Hayden Survey, Bulletin, vol. iv., No. 2, May 
 3, 1878. 
 
 VIII. Report upon the Extinct Vertebrata obtained in New Mexico by 
 parties of the Expedition of 1874, Wheeler Survey, vol. iv., pt. ii., 4to. 
 
 IX. On some of the Characters of the Miocene Fauna of Oregon, 
 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 15 Nov., 1878. 
 
 X. Observations on the Faunse of the Miocene Tertiaries of Oregon, 
 Hayden Surv. Bui., v. No. 1, 55-67. 
 
 XI. On the Extinct Species of Rhinoceridse of North America and 
 their Allies, Bui. Hayd. Survey, v. No. 2, 227-37. 
 
 [The general works cited above supersede many of Leidy's and Cope's numerous 
 preliminary contributions, and hence such contributions are not quoted.] 
 
 MARSH : Numerous papers in American Journal of Science and Artt, 
 series III. These are cited by volume and page. 
 
 Leidy and Cope are cited by the Roman numerals prefixed to their 
 publications, as above. 
 
 I. Classification of Mammals. (Hux., Anat. Verteb. Anim., 273; 
 
 Gill, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Nov. 1872, 8vo., 98pp. 
 
 1. Tabular analysis of the Orders. 
 
 2. The types becoming progressively differentiated through time. 
 
 II. Triassic Mammals. 
 
 1. American: Dromatherium sylvestre. (D. 415, 417 ; Emmons : Geol. 
 
 N. C.) -- An insectivorous Marsupial. (D. 416-7.) 
 
 2. Foreign -.Microlestes antiquus. (D. 429.) Related to above.
 
 36 
 
 HI. Jurassic Mammals. 
 
 1. American -.Dryolestes priscus. (Mh.. xv., 459; xvi., 411.) D. 
 
 vorax. (Mh. xviii., 215, Sep., 1879.) -- Stylacodon gracilis. (Mh. 
 xviii., 60.) -- Tinodon bellus. (Mh. xviii., 215, fig., Sep., 1879.) 
 All insectivorous Marsupials. 
 
 2. Foreign : (1.) Great Oolite of Lower Oolite: Amphitherium, Thy- 
 
 lacotherium. (D. 448, 449; Fig.: World, 216.) Phascolothe- 
 rium. (D. 448, 449 ; Fig. : World, 216, 223.) Stereognalhus. 
 (D. 447.) 
 
 (2.) Purbeck beds of Upper Oolite : Plagiaulax. (D. 450.) 
 Spalacolherium. Galastes. (D. 448.) - Stylodon. (Owen, 
 Geol. Mag., iii., 199; Palseont. Soc., xxiv., 45.) 
 
 3. All Marsupials. Plagiaulax were rodent, Galastes carnivorous, 
 
 and all the others, insectivorous. Seventeen European Ju- 
 rassic species in all. 
 IV. Eocene Terrestrial Mammals. 
 
 1. American [Alabama Period. (D. 508-11.) Green River and 
 Vermillion Creek Groups. (King, Geol. 40th Par., i., 355) -f 
 Bridger and Uinta groups.] 
 
 (1.) MARSUPIALS: Triacodon. (Mh. ii., 123; iv., 222-3; C. III.. 611.) 
 (2.) AMBLYPODA : (C. VIII., 179, 282.) 
 
 Suborder PANTODONTA. (C. III., 187) -.Cvryphodon. (L. 602, 506-7 ; Mh. xi.,425, 
 May, 1876, pi. ; C. VIII., 187-250; P. A. N. S., 1877, 616, brain; Owen, Brit. 
 Foss. Mam. and Birds, 299.) Baihmodon. (C. ILL, 585-8 ; V., 8 10 ; VI., 24- 
 8; VIII., 187-250 ) 
 
 Suborder DINOCERATA, Cope. [See below.] 
 
 (3.) DINOCEKATA. (Mh. v., Feb., 1873, plates; Apr., 1873, and Sup. Note; P. A. N. 
 S..8 Apr., 1873; vii., App. June, 1873; xi., Feb.. 1876, plates; C. III., 563-85; 
 Owen, Amer. Jour., xi., 401, questioning the presence of horns) : Uintatherium. 
 (D. 504: Leidy, III., 93-103. 331-4; C. III., 580. Dinoceras. (D. 504; L. 503, 
 606-7; Mh.iv.,343; v., 117,293, 310; xi., 163, plates.) Tinoceras. (Mh. iv., 
 322, 343; v.,293; Am. Nat. Jan., 1873, 52.) Eobasileus. (C., P.A.N.S., Jan. and 
 Feb., 1873; C. Am. Nat., vii., 1, May, 1867; C. III., 564, 575-80: C. IV., 456.) 
 These, with Loxulopfiodon, Cope, are thought by Leidy to represent only one 
 genus. (L. III., 332.) 
 
 (4.) PERISSODACTYLA. (Hux., 292): (a.) Coryphodontidse. (Mh. xi., 428; xiv., 81, 
 plate : [Pee above.] (6.) Equida. (Hux., 295; Mh. vii., 255; viii.,/288; L. 
 509-10) iEohippm. (Mh. xii., 407.) Orohippus. (Mh. iv., 207; v., 407; vi., 
 19-22; vii., 247; ix., 247; C.vi., 19-22.) (c.) Tapiridse. ( Hux., 310 ; Compare 
 Cope on Rhinoceridx and related Perissodactyls, C. IX., 228.) Lophiodon. 
 (Leidy, II., 391 ; III , 219, 327 ; Mh. ii., 36.) PaUeosyop*. (L. 504; Leidy, III., 
 323-6) ; C. III., 591 ; Mh. ii., 36-8.) 
 
 (3.) AETIODACTYLA. (Hux.. 312): Suidse: Homacodon. (Mh. iv., 126.) 
 (6.) BDNOTHERIA. (C. VIII., 72.): 
 
 Suborder CREODONTA. (C. VIII., 85) : Ambloclonus. (C. VIII., 90-4.) Oxy- 
 
 xna. (C. VIII., 95-105.) Didymictis. (C. VIII., 123-6.) 
 Suborder MESODONTA. (C. VIII., 85 : Microsyops. (Leidy, III, 82,320.) 
 TomiOieriwn. (C. III., 646-8; VIII., 135-45.) Antiacodon. (Mh. iv., 210.)
 
 37 
 
 Suborder INSECTIVOKA. (C. VIII., 85) : Talpavus. (Mh. iv., 128.) Anisaco- 
 don, (Mh. iv., 209.) Eslhonyx. (C. VIII., 153.) 
 
 Suborder TILLODONTA. (C. VIII., 85) : [See below.] 
 
 Suborder T^NIODONTA. (C. VIII., 85, 157) -.Ectoganus. (C. VIII., 158-62.) 
 
 Calamodon. (C. VIII., 162-70 ; C. P. A. A r . S., March , 1876.) 
 (7.) TILLODONTIA. (Mh. xi., 249-51, plates) -.Titlotherium. (L. 504; Mh.v. 485; ix., 
 
 241: xi., 249, plates; C. VIII., 84, 85.) Anchlppodus. (Leldy, II., 403 ; III., 
 
 328 ; Mh. ix., 241.) 
 (8.) RODENTIA : Plesiarctomys. (C. VIII., 170-2.) Sciuravus. (Mh. ii., 122; iv., 
 
 220.) 
 (9.) CARNIVORA -.Limnocyon. (Mh. iv., 126, 203.) Limnofelis. (Mh. iv., 202). 
 
 Canis. (Mh. ii., 123.) Synaplotherium. (C. III., 554-9, plates; VHL, 
 
 75, 77.) 
 (10.) CHEIROPTERA : Nyctitherium. (Mh. iv., 127 ; v. 405.) NyctUestes. (Mh. 
 
 iv. 215.) 
 (11.) PRIMATES: (a.) Lemuravidse. (Mh. ix., 289; xii., July, 1876) : Lemuravus. 
 
 (Mh. ix., 239.) (6.) Limnotheridoe. (Mh.ix., 239): Thinoleates. (Mh. iv., 
 
 205.) 
 
 2. Foreign. (D. 516-20.) 
 
 (1.) PERissoDACTYLA:-(a.) Coryphodontidae: Ooryphodon. (Fig.: World, 290.) (6.) 
 
 Palaeotheridse. (Hux., 212) : Palseotherium. (L. 497; Daws.: Story, 247; Fig.; 
 
 World, 282-3.) (c.) Tapiridae : Lophiodon, Hyracotherium, etc. (d.) Suidse: 
 
 Chceropotamtis. (e.) Anoplotheridae. (Hux., 320) : Anoplotherium. (L. 498; 
 
 Daws.: Story, 249; Fig.: World, 284-5.) Xiphodon. (D. 517; Fig.: World, 
 
 285-6.) 
 (2 ) CARNIVORA -.Palxocyon, Hyamodon, Arctocyon, Canis, etc. 
 
 V. Miocene Terrestrial Mammals. 
 
 1. American, (Yorktown Period White River, Colorado, etc.) (D. 
 452. For white R. Fauna of Oregon, see C. X., 55-67.) 
 
 (1.) PERISSODACTYLA : (a.) Equidse. (See under Eocene) -.Mesohippus. (D.505;Mh. 
 ix., 248.) Miohippm. (Mh.A.J.S., III., vii.,249.)=? Anchithmum. (Leidy, I, 
 64-74; C. IV., 496-7; IX., 11-14.) - (6.) Tapiridse :-Loph iodon. (See Eoc.; Mh. ii., 
 36-8.) (c.) Rhinoceridse :I>iceratherium. (Mh. iv., 242.) Rhinoceros. 
 "(Leidy, I., 79-94.) (d.) Brontotheridae. (Mh. ix., 245; xi., 335) : ronto- 
 therium. (D.507; L.,505, 506-7; Mh.,v. 486; vii., 81, plates; ix., March, 1875; 
 xi., Apr., 1876, plates.) Menodus. (Pomel, Bib. Univ. de Geneve, x., 75, Jan., 
 im.-)=Titanotherium. (D. 506 ; W. 208 ; Leidy, I., 72-8 ; II., 389 ; Mh. ii., 35.) 
 Megacerops. (Leidy, III., 239, 335.) 
 
 (2.) ARTIODACTYLA : (a.) Suidse :Elotherium. (Leidy, I., 57-66; II., 388; III., 320; 
 Mh. ii., 39; C. V. 27.) Dicotyles. (Leidy, II., 384 ; III., 319.) (6 ) Oreo- 
 dontidse. (Leidy. III., 199) -.Oreodon. (D. 507; L. 506; Leidy, L, 29-55; III., 
 201, 318.) Affriochoerus. (Leidy, I., 24-8: III., 319.) (c.) Hypertragu- 
 lidse. (C. X., 66) -.Hypertragulus. (C. IV., 502 ; V., 26-7.) Leptomeryx. 
 (Leidy, II., 165, 383.) (d.) Tragulidae. (Hux., 326) : Hypisodus. C. IV., 
 501.) (e.) Camelidae :Poebrothnum. (Leidy, I., 19-24 ; II., 141 ; C. IV., 498; 
 V.,24; X., 59.) 
 
 (3.) PROBOSCIDEA : ? Mastodon. (Leidy, II., 396.) 
 
 (4.) INSECTIVORA: Herpetoiherium. (C. IV., 465.) Embassis. (C. IV., 468.) 
 
 (5.) RODENTIA : Palzecastor. (Leidy, II., 338-40, 406.) Sciurus. (C. IV., 475,)
 
 38 
 
 (6) CABNIVOBA: Drepanodon (Machserodus). (Leidy, II., 54-64, 367 ; C. IX., 9-10.) 
 - Hyxnodon. (Leidy, P. A. N. S, 1853, 93, 392-3; II., 38-48, 369.) - Dinictis. 
 (Leidy, II., 64-8.) - Canis. (C. IV., 505-7 ; C. VIII., 301; IX, 8-9.) 
 
 (7.) PBiMATEs:-Jf*m>imttm. (C. IV., 510; V., 22.) - Laopithecus. (Mh. ix., 
 
 240.) 
 2. Foreign. (D. 518, 519-20.) 
 
 (1.) Ungulata: Anchitherium. Hipparion. ~ Hippotherium. Equus. 
 Sus. Hippopotamus. Anoplolherium. Camelopardalis. Anti- 
 lope. Sivatherium. 
 
 (1.) PROBOSCIDEA :-Jtfostod<7. (Pig.: World, 300-6.) - Elephas. (L. 499 ; Daws. : 
 Story, 254.) Dinotherium. (D. 518; L. 498; Daws.: Story, 251-3; Ag. : Sk.. 
 189: Fig.: World, 298.) 
 
 (3.) INSECTIVORA : Erinoceus. Talpa. 
 
 (4.) CARNIVORA: Machserodus. (L. 500; Daws.: Story, 250; Leidy, L, 94-9.) - 
 Felis. Hysena. Canis. Viverra. Ifustela. 
 
 (5.) Primates: Pliopithecus. Dryopithecus, Mesopithecus. (Fig. : World, 307.) 
 
 VI. Pliocene Terrestrial Mammals. 
 
 1. American (Suniter Period. -- Loup Fork of Platte, the Nio- 
 
 brara, etc.) (D. 492.) 
 
 (1.) Perissodactyla: Protohippus. (Leidy, II., 274-9, 401; III., 248; C. Ill, 523-8: 
 V., 15-9 ; VIII., 322; Mh. II, xlvi., 374; vii., 251, 253.) Hipparion. (D. 506; 
 Leidy, II, 280-92, 401 ; III, 247-8; C. IV.. 522 ; V., 11 ; VIII, 321.) Pliohippus. 
 (Uh.AJ.S,, IIL.vii. 252.) - Equus. (Leidy, II, 399-400 ; III, 321-2; Mh. II, xlvi, 
 374. Aceratherium. (Leidy, 11,220-8, 390; C.I V, 520.) - Rhinoceros. (Fig.: 
 316; Leidy, II, 228, 390.) Dicotyles. (Mh.ii.,42.) - Platygonus. (Mh. ii, 
 40-2.) Merychippus. (C. V, 19; VIII., 324.) Dicrocerus, Lartet. (C. 
 VIII, 346-60.)= Aferychodus. (Leidy, II, 162-5. 382; III, 318; C. Ill, 531.)- 
 Oosoryx. (Leidy, II, 173, 183 ; C. Rep. Vert. Foss. X. Hex., 16.) Procamelus. 
 (Leidy, I, 147 ; II, 147-57 ; III, 258-9, 317 ; C. IV, 529-30; V., 20 ; VIII, 325), etc. 
 
 (3.) PROBOSCIDEA: Elephas. (Leidy, II, 251-6, 397-9.) Mastodon. (Fig.: 
 World, 314 ; Leidy, II, 240-51, 392-7 ; C. IV., 531 ; VI, 225-7 ; VIII, 306-16.) 
 
 (.4.) EDENTATA -.Aforotherium. (Mh. xii, 61 ) 
 
 ('5.) RODENTIA: Castor, Palaocastor, Hystrix, Taxidea, Arctomys, etc. 
 
 (6.) Carnivora : Felis. (Leidy, P. A. P. S, 1852, 261 ; Trans. A. P. S., 1852, 322 ; II., 
 365-6.) Canis. (Leidy, II, 28-30; C. V. 11; VII, 301; Allen, Am. Jour., xi,, 
 49.) 
 
 2. Foreign. (D. 519, 520) : Elephas, Mastodon, Pithecits, Semnopithe- 
 
 cus, Machferodus, Putorius, Ursus, Lepus, Arctomys, Arvicola, etc. 
 Vn. Quaternary Terrestrial-Mammals. 
 
 1. American. (D. 565-71 ; L. 542-7; Foster : Prehistoric Races of U. S., 
 
 80.) 
 
 (1.) PERISSODACTYLA : Equtis. Tapina. (D. 567.) 
 (2.) ARTIODACTYLA : Dicotyles. (Leidy, II, 384.) Ovibos. {Leidy, II., 373-4), 
 
 and most modern genera. 
 
 (3.) PROBOSCIDEA : Elephas, 2 sp, and Mastodon, 1 sp. 
 (4.) EDENTATA .Megatherium. 2 sp. Megalonyx, 5 sp. Afylodon, 4sp. 
 
 Glyptodon, 1 sp. (D. 520. 569 ; L. 545, 546, 547.) 
 
 (5.) RODENTIA: Oastoroides and most modern American genera. (D. 567.) 
 (6.) CABNIVOBA: Felis, Vrsus, Machcerodus, Qalera.
 
 39 
 
 2. Old World Species. (D. 563-5 ; L. 541, 547 ; Dawkins : Q. Jour. 
 Geo. Soc., xxv., 192, 1869, and xxviii., 410, 1872; Rau: Early Man 
 in Europe, 23-30; Lubbock: Prehistoric Times, ch. ix.) 
 
 XV1IL THE ALPS AND THE GLACIERS. 
 
 On Glaciers, see AGASSIZ: Systeme Glaeiaire; CHARPENTIER: Essais sur les gla- 
 ciers; TYNDALL: Hours of Exercise in the Alpt ; RECLUS : The Earth: pp., 162-221 ; Payot: 
 Guide itineraire au Mont Blanc; CHAMBERU.I: Rep. Geol. Wis., 1876; DANA: Man., 675- 
 80 : LECONTE : Elem., 43-64 ; LYELL : Principle*, 224-8. On the Glacier of the Rhone traced 
 to Lyons, see Bibliotheque, Univ., 1870, xxxviii., 118, and Bid. Soc. Geol. de France, 1869, 
 xxvi, 360. On the Glaciers of Norway, C. de Seue, La Neve de Justedal et ses Glaciers; 1870. 
 
 I. Geography of the Alps. (Lantern Views.) 
 
 1. Regions of the High Alps. 
 
 2. Alpine Regions and Passes. 
 
 3. The Bernese Oberland (90 miles square.) 
 
 II. Geology of the Alps. 
 
 1. General Structure of the Alps. 
 
 2. Section from Lucerne to Como. 
 
 3. Tunnel under Mont St. Gotthard. 
 
 III. Perspective Views of the Alps. 
 
 1. Mont Blanc Range from Geneva. 
 
 2. The Bernese Oberland from Bern. 
 
 3. Mont Blanc from St. Martin. 
 
 4. Les. Ouches, Mont Maudit and Pic du Midi. 
 
 5. Chamonix and the Mont Blanc from above Chamonix. 
 
 6. Mont Blanc and the valley of Chamonix, from the Fle"gere. 
 
 7. Mont Blanc, from the Bre'vent. 
 
 8. The Jungfrau from Interlaken. 
 
 9. Valley of Lauterbrunnen. 
 
 10. Valley of Lauterbrunnen and the Gletscherhorn. 
 
 11. Falls of the Staubbach. 
 
 12. The Breithorn, from the Miirren. 
 
 13. Panorama from the Miirren. 
 
 14. The Jungfrau from the Wengern Alp. 
 
 15. The Jungfrau and hotel from the Summit of the Wengern Alp. 
 
 16. The Wetterhorn from Grindelwald. 
 
 17. The Matterhorn and Gorner Glacier, near Zermatt. 
 
 18. Gorge of the Tamina at Pfeffers. 
 
 IV. The Pinnacled forms of Alpine Summits. 
 
 1. Aiguille de Charmoz, from Montanvert. 
 
 2. Aiguille de Charmoz, from the Chapeau. 
 
 3. Aiguille du Dru, from Montanvert,
 
 40 
 
 4. Glacier des Bois and Aiguille du Dru. 
 
 5. Grands Mulets and Aiguille du Midi. 
 
 V. O-eneral Views of Glaciers. 
 
 1. Mer de Glace, from the Flegere. 
 2. Mer de Glace, from Montavert. 
 
 3. Eiger Glacer, Eiger and Monk, from the Wengern Alp. 
 
 4. Church and Glacier of Grindelwald. 
 
 5. Glacier of Rosenlaui. 
 
 6. Glacier of the Rhone. 
 
 7. Aletschhorn and Middle Aletsch Glacier from the Egischhorn. 
 
 VI. Terminations of Glaciers, 
 
 1. Arch of Ice at Source of the Arveiron. 
 
 2. Same from a different position. 
 
 3. Bridge of Ice, Glacier of Langthal, Oetzthal in Tyrol. 
 
 4. Another Bridge of Ice, Oetzthal. 
 
 5. Glacier of Langthal ice-blocks at termination. 
 
 6. Source of the Liitschine. 
 
 7. Vault of Ice, Glacier of Rosenlaui'. 
 
 8. Terminal Precipice, Gorner Glacier, Zennatt. 
 
 9. Source of the Rhine, (Hinter Rhine,) from the Rheinwald or 
 
 Zapport Glacier. 
 
 VII. Phenomena of Transportation by Glaciers. 
 
 1. Village and Glacier of Argentiere, showing lateral moraines. 
 
 2. Hotel -Montanvert, showing moraines of Glacier of Nant Blanc. 
 
 3. Bridge des Gaillants, showing moraines of Glacier des Bossons. 
 
 4. Erratic Blocks on the Glacier of the Aar. 
 
 0. Oberaarhorn and Glacier of Viesch, from Eggischhorn, showing 
 
 Median Moraines. 
 
 VIII. Glacier Motion and its Consequences. (Ref. supra, and 
 Lect. XIX., III., 2.) 
 
 1. Summit of Mont Blanc, showing Firn-fields. 
 
 2. The Weissthor, the Cima of Jazzi and Monte Rosa. 
 
 3. Diagram of Crevasses, showing their cause. 
 
 4. Incipient Crevasses at entrance of "Junction" in ascent of Mont 
 
 Blanc. 
 
 5. The Junction and the Plateau, showing crevasses more advanced. 
 
 6. The " Difficult Passage," Mer de Glace. 
 
 7. Another Difficult Passage. 
 
 8. Mer de Glace, from the "Mauvais Pas" Chaos of Ice. 
 
 9. Grand Pyramids, Glacier des Bois. 
 
 10. Grand Pyramids of Ice, Glacier of Gaisberg, Oetzthal. 
 
 11. Aiguilles, Glacier des Bois.
 
 41 
 
 12. Crevasse in Glacier of Grindelwald. 
 
 13. Glacier des Bossons, from Pierre Pointue. 
 
 14. S6racs before the " Junction." 
 
 15. Ladder Passage, departure from the Junction. 
 
 16. Passage of the Horizontal Ladder, Junction. 
 
 17. Aiguilles des Bossons, and the Side Wall. 
 
 . 18. Ladder Passage, Wall of Ice, before the Grands Mulets. 
 
 19. Precipices of Ice and Snow above the Grands Mulets. 
 IX. Causes of Catastrophes. 
 
 1. Great Crevasses below the Dome du Gouter. 
 
 2. "Grande Crevasse" at the Grand Plateau, Mont Blanc. 
 
 3. Great Crevasses, impracticable passage, "Petites Monties." 
 
 4. Disaster from an Avalanche, August 20, 1820. 
 
 XLX. THE REIGN OF ICE. 
 
 GEIKIE: The great Ice Age ; NEWBEKRY Qeol, Ohio, ch., xxx. (vol. ii), and iii., 27; 
 Annals of N. Y. Lyceum of Natur. Hist., ix.. June, 1869 ; Proc. Boston Sac. N. HM., x., May, 
 1862 ; N. H. Winchell, Pop. Sci. Mon., June and July, 1873; Am. Jour. Sci., Ill, i., 15-9; J. 
 J. Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., III., i., 1, 125; ii., 233, 326; E. Andrews, Am. Jour. Sci., II., 
 xlviii, 172 ; Jos. Leconte, Anci&nt Glaciers of the Sierras, Cal. Acad. Sci., 16 Sep., 1872 ; A. 
 J. S., III., v. 325-42. 
 
 I. Familiar Drift Phenomena. 
 
 1. Incoherent surface accumulations. (D. 527, 529 ; L. 514-6.) 
 
 Sands, pebbles, boulders, clays. (L. 514-6 ; W. 220 " Hog- 
 
 backs" and surface configuration. 
 
 2. Smoothed, striated and furrowed rocks. (D. 530: L. 516; W. 215, 
 
 217-8; Newberry: Geol. of Ohio, ii., 12-9.) 
 
 3. Fiords. (D. 533 ; L. 534 ; W. 220.) - - Old river channels some- 
 
 times deeply buried. (D. 552 ; W. 219-20 ; Newberry : Geol. 0., 
 ii., 12, iii., 27; Boston S. N. H., x, May, 1862; E. Hitchcock: 
 Geol. Vt., i., 215.) 
 
 4. All these phenomena connected together. 
 
 II. Sketch of Continent at End of Tertiary Time. (W. 213.) 
 
 1. Its Geographical Extent and Form. 
 
 2. Its Topographical and Hydrographical features. 
 
 3. Its Forest growths. 
 
 4. In many respects similar to the modern continent. (D. 525 ; W. 
 
 210.) - - But it was an ancient and wasted surface. Sub- 
 
 aerial disintegration of rocks. (W. 221 ; also in Harper's Geol. 
 Rep. Miss., 1857 ; W. Brazil in the Reign of Ice, Cbllege Courant, 
 June 4 and 11, 1870; Pumpelly, Am. Jour., xviii,, 142, etc.) 
 General doctrine of continental wastage.
 
 42 
 
 HI. How the preglacial Continent was Renovated. 
 
 1. Northern Elevation and increasing cold. (D. 539-40, 541 ; W. 214.) 
 
 Union of lands previously separated. 
 
 2. Glacier formation, growth, movement and effects. (On Glacier 
 
 motion, see further, Mosely, Proc. Roy. Soc., xvii., 202 ; Phil. 
 Mag., Aug., 1871 ; Croll, Phil. Mag., March, 1869; Ball, Phil. Mag., 
 July, 1878 ; A. J. S., III., i, 268; Mathews, Alpine Jour., Feb , 1870); 
 John Aitken, Nature, 13 Feb., 1873; A. J. S., III., v., 305. 
 (1.) Reminiscence of Alpine glaciers. (D. 675 8 ; L. 43.) 
 (2.) Tremendous effects of a continental glacier. (D. 538 ; W. 218-9.) Prostra- 
 
 tration of forests. Plowing and removal of disintegrated rock-surfaces. 
 
 Smoothing and striation of hard rocks. (D. 538.1 Digging of some 
 
 lake-basins. (D. 539; W. 225.) Filling of old river-channels and lake out- 
 . lets. (539; W. 219-20, 225. 1 Desolation in nature. Greenland a modern 
 
 picture of continental glaciation. (D. 538.) 
 
 3. Thickness of the Continental glacier. (D. 537 ; Am. Jour., v., 1873; 
 
 L. 527.) Limited by the thawing influence of heat escap- 
 ing from the Earth. (Matthew, Canad. Nat., vi., 96.) See also 
 Dana, ut sup. and A. J. S., III., v., 217. 
 
 4. Extent of the ancient glaciers, and directions of the ice-streams. 
 
 (D. 528, 531, 537 ; L. 519, 526-7.) Movement south-west 
 along the upper valley of the St. Lawrence, Lakes Ontario and 
 Erie, and the Maumee river. (D. 537 ; Gilbert, Geol. Ohio, i., 
 540-4, map) ; Newberry, Geol. Ohio, ii., 50-3, map.) -- The Col- 
 orado valley supposed not glaciated. Nor the slopes of the 
 Rocky Mts. in the U. S. (D. 538; Hayden, Ann. Rep., 1874, eh., iv.) 
 
 - The western glaciers local. (King, Geol. 4Qth Par., i. 460-1. 
 But see R. Brown, Am. Jour., II., 1., 318-24.) Glaciers in 
 southern Colorado. (Endlich, Hayden, Ann. Rep., 1875, 216-26. 
 
 - Glaciation in Foreign Countries. (D. 532 ; L. 530-2 ; L. Ag. : 
 A. J. S., III., iv., 135; C. F. Hartt, A. J. S., Ill, i., 294, Brazil.) 
 
 5. Supposed interglacial epoch. (D. 561; L. 534; S. V. Wood, Geol. 
 
 Mag. Apr., 1872 ; Geikie, Geol. Mag., viii., ix. ; A. J. S., III., 
 iv., 231.) 
 
 6. A gradual subsidence. (D. 551, 555 ; L. 521.) Dissolution of 
 
 the ice-fields. (W. 222.) - - Work of the torrents. (D. 553 ; W. 
 222.) Freight of sediments. (D. 553.) Renovation of 
 
 southern areas. (D. 553 ; W. in Harper's Rep. on Miss., 1857, 
 317; W. 222-3. Compare Tuomey, Ala. Geol. Rep., 1849, 2, 116, 
 142.) -- Stumps of the glaciers still existing. (King, Geol. 40th 
 Par., i., 462 ; Am. Jour., i., 157; Davidson, Proc. Col. Acad. Sci., 
 iv., 1871, 161 ; J. Muir, Overland Monthly, Dec., 1872; A. J. S., III., 
 v., 69; Leconte, Am. Jour., iii., 125; v., 325; x., 126 ; Proc. Acad. 
 Nat. Sci., Gal., iv., (pt. v.,) 259.) Ice-wells .Vermont.
 
 43 
 
 'Hitchcock, Geol Vt. i., 192.) Oswego.N.Y., (Am.Jour., I., xxxvi., 
 104.) Ice-mountain in Va., (Am. Jour., I, xlv., 78.) 
 
 In "Wallingford, Vt. (Am. Jour., I., xlvi., 331.) Ice-caverns 
 in Russia. (Geol. Russia, i., 186; Lippincott's Gazetteer, Art., 
 Yakotsk. 
 
 7. A continental submergence generally supposed. (W. 228 ; C. 
 
 H. Hitchcock, Proc. A. A. A. S., 1871 ; A. J. 8., III., ii., 207.) 
 Xot established for the Cordilleran region. (King, op. cit., i., 466.) 
 
 8. A slow emergence and assorting of materials. (L. 524 ; W. 229.) 
 
 - The assorting possibly the work of glacier-torrents, without 
 submergence. 
 
 XX. POST GLACIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Newberry : Geology of Ohio, ii., ch. xxx ; Dana, A. J. S., III., v., 
 
 198. 
 
 I. Reappearance of the preglacial Flora. 
 
 1. Floral migrations under secular changes of climate. (D. 532, 543, 
 
 599.) 
 
 2. Return of preglacial types from the south. - - Arctic or glacial 
 
 types still lingering on mountain summits. 
 
 II. Migrations of Faunas. (D. 542.) -- A South American Fauna 
 
 in the United States. (D. 569. Also Lect. XVII., VII., 1, (4).) 
 
 III. Early Condition of the Great Lakes. 
 
 1. Their present relations as to Altitude. 
 
 2. Former altitudes. (W. 241-3; 246; L. 521.) -- Terraces. (W. 246- 
 
 7; L. 521-2; Gilbert, Ohio Geol. Rep., i., 540-4.) Rock ero- 
 sions. (W. 246-7.) 
 
 3. Former Geographical Extent. (D. 552 ; W. 241 ; W. Michigan, 77.) 
 
 Low lacustrine borders. (D. 552.) 
 
 4. Ancient outlets and connections. (Newberry, Geol. Ohio,ii., 12-9.) 
 
 (l.i By Little Bay de Noquet. (W. Michigan, 28-9 ; N. H. Winchell, A. J. S., i. 19.) 
 (2.) By Green Bay, Lake Winnebago and the Wisconsin chain. (N. H. Winchell, 
 
 A. J. S., i., 15-9.) 
 (3.) By the Illinois river. (D. 540, 552, 553 ; E. Andrews, Trans. Chic. Acad. Sci., ii., 
 
 14.) 
 
 (4.) By the Maumee river. (D. 540, 5*2; Gilbert, A. J. S., i., 342-4.) 
 to.) A channel across the Lower Peninsula of Mich. (W. Mich., 15-6.) 
 (6.) Submerged outlets of the Connecticut and Hudson rivers. (D. 423, 540.) 
 
 IV. Subsidence of Lakes. 
 
 1. Removal of Barriers of the Great Lakes. (W. 542.) -- The Nia- 
 gara barrier, its effect, and the result of its degradation. (W. 
 235.)
 
 44 
 
 2. Desiccation. Quaternary lakes of the far west. (King, Geol. 
 40th Par., i., 490; Stevenson, Wheeler, .Rcp.,iii., 453-71. -- Lake 
 Bonneville.) Gilbert, Wheeler Rep., iii.,ch. iii. ; Howell, ib., 250- 
 1; Hayden: Rep., Wyom., 1870, 72-3; Pacif. R. R. Rep., ii., 97; 
 King, Geol. 40th Par., i., 490-504.) -- Lake Lahontan. (King, 
 Geol. 40th Par., i., 504-29, maps.) . Coronado's Lakes. (End- 
 lich, Hayd. Rep., 1875, 147-8.) - - Other extinct lakes. (Hayden : 
 Ann. Rep., 1874, 48.) -- Deposits of Marl and Peat. W. 237; 
 King, Geol 40th Par., i., ch. vi.) 
 
 XXI. POST-GLACIAL HISTORY. (Continued.) 
 
 I. Aqueous Erosions. 
 
 1. The recession of Niagara Falls. (D. 553; W. 235, 244; Hall, Geol. 
 
 N. Y., 4th Dist.,389-, Foster: Prehist. Races U. S., 376-7.) 
 Data. (W. 245.) Consequences. 
 
 2. Recession of the Falls of St. Anthony. (N. H. Winchell, Geol. 
 
 Minn., 1876; Q. J. G. S., Lond, Nov., 1878, 886-900; Southall: 
 Epoch of the Mammoth, ch. xxiii.) 
 
 3. 'Deepening of river gorges. (L. 529 ; W. 344.) 
 
 4. Changes of River channels. The Ohio. (D. 553.) The 
 
 Hoang-Ho. (Purnpelly, Smiths. Cont., xv.,Art. iv. ; Am. Jour., II., 
 xlv., 219; Bickmore, Am. Jour., II., xlv., 209; Martin, Am. Jour., 
 II., xlvii., 100; Richthofen: China, 12,. 85-7.) -- Mississippi 
 Bayous. (Ly.: Prin., 215-7.) -- The Rhine. (D. 556.) -- In 
 Vermont. (Hitchc. : Geol. Vt., i., 215.) 
 
 5. Dissolution of Sea-Coasts. (L. 32-6.) 
 
 H. Fluviatile Formations. -- Alluvium. (D.649; L. 22-3, 522-4.) 
 
 Deltas. (D. 651; L. 24-7; Ly. : Prin., 208-13.) -- Mississippi 
 Delta. (Ly. : Travels, 2d vis., ii., ch. xxi ; Humphreys and Abbott: 
 Rep. Miss. River.) Bars. (D. 660; L. 30.) - Rafts. (Ly. : 
 Prin., 213.) -- Terraces. (D. 558-9.) -- Mud-lumps. (Hilgard ( 
 A. J. S., III., i., 238, 356, 425.) 
 
 m. Sandy Deserts and Dunes. (Marsh: Man and Nature, ch. v.) 
 
 1. Drifting sands. (L. 520.) Dunes of Western Europe. (Marsh : 
 
 loc. tit.) -- Of Africa. (Ly.: Prin., 702; Reclus, 91.) -- Of 
 Lake Michigan. (W. Michigan, 13.) Of Nebraska. (Aughey, 
 Hayd. Rep., 1874, 259.) 
 
 2. The Sahara. (Re"clus : Earth, 90-5.) An ancient sea-bottom. 
 
 Some portions still below the Mediterranean. Project 
 of inundation. (Internal. Rev., iv., 138-9; Nature, Apr. 3, 1879, 
 509; Scribner's Month. ; Engineering and Min. Jour.)
 
 4.5 
 
 3. Deserts in Poland. (Naumann: Geognosie, ii., 1173. Arabian 
 Nefouds. (Reclus: Earth, 95.) -- Gobi. (Re"clus, 95; Richtho- 
 fen: China.) Sandy Steppes of Tart ary. (Reclus: Earth, 87- 
 9.) Grandes Landes of Gascony. (Rgclus: Earth, 81.) 
 
 IV. Campestral Formations. 
 
 1. Prairies, grassy steppes, pampas, llanos, puszta. (W. 264 ; Re"clus: 
 
 Earth, 85, 98-101; Humboldt: Aspects of Nature, Am. ed., 25-165.) 
 - Tundras. (Reclus, 86.) Buried Mammoths. (W. N. Y. 
 Daily Trib., 17 Aug., 1878.) -- Bogs. (Re"clus: Earth, 83,413-8; 
 Ly. : Prin., ch. xlvi.; Hunt: Can. Nat., II., i., 426.) Peat and 
 Muck. (S. W. Johnson, Trans. Conn. Slate Agrie. Soc., 1857 and 
 1858.) 
 
 2. Loess-covered surfaces. (Pumpelly, /Jwur.Jbw.,xviii.,133; Aughey, 
 
 Hayd. Rep., 1874, 245-50); Richthofen: China. 
 
 V. Post-glacial Volcanoes. (L. Am. Jour., xviii., 35.) 
 
 VI. Coral Structures. Polynesian Coral Islands. (D. 583.) 
 
 The peninsula of Florida. (W. 231.) 
 
 XXII. RELICS OF PRIMEVAL MAN. 
 
 RAU: Early Man in Europe, 1876; LUBBOCK: Prehistoric Times, 3d 
 ed., London, 1872; FIGUIER: Primitive Man, Am. ed., 1870; VOGT: Lec- 
 tures on Man, London, 1864; FOSTER: Prehistoric Races of the U. S., Chi- 
 cago, 1874. 
 
 I. Primeval Man Known to Inductive Science chiefly through 
 
 European Belies. 
 
 II. Primeval Man in Europe. (L. 561, etc.) 
 
 1. Historical allusions. (Homer : Odyss., ix., 113-4, 108, 122, 124, 160, 
 
 167,244, 125-128, 271-275; Hesiod: Theog., 133,139; Aeschylus: 
 Prometh., 462-4; Aristotle: Politico., 1. i., c. 1.; Plato: Leges; 
 Pausanias: Descr. of Greece, 1. viii., c. 1, \ 2, 5, 6; 1. v., c. 17, {j 1, 
 3; 1. x., c. 17 J 2 ; Diod. Sic., 1. v., c. 65 ; Virgil : Mmid, viii., 314- 
 18 ; Tactitus : Germ., c. 46.) 
 
 2. Race affinities of these men. (Vogt: Lect., 370-93.) 
 
 III. Archaeological Discoveries. (L. 563, etc. ; W. 352.) 
 
 1. Caverns and Rock-shelters. (D. 574, 575, 576 ; L. 536-9, 563-5 ; Rau, 
 
 ch. ii., iv.; Lubbock, ch. x.; Fig., 56-82, 85-90. Dawkins: Cave 
 
 Hunting.) 
 
 (1.) Where explored. (Rau, ch. ii., iy.) 
 (2.) What they contain. (Ran, ch. ii., iv.) 
 
 2. River-Drifts. (Rau, ch. i. ; Lubbock, ch. xi.) 
 
 3. Loess and Moraines. 
 
 4. Volcanic Tuff. 
 
 5. Peat Bogs. (L. 539, 542.)
 
 46 
 
 6. Kitchen Middens. (D. 577 ; L. 566; Rau, ch. v.: Lubbock, ch. vii.; 
 
 Fig., 129-34.) -- On the Pacific Coast. (Schumacher, Bui. Hayd. 
 Surv., in., 27-56.) - 
 
 7. Megaliths and Tumuli. (Lubbock, ch. v. ; Fig., 184-207.) - - Cist- 
 
 vaens, Barrows, Dolmens and Cromlechs. 
 
 8. Lake Dwellings. (D. 576; L. 566: Lubbock, ch. vi; Fig., 135-7, 
 
 215-30.) -- What they are. What they yield. (Fig., 240- 
 87.) Crannoges. (D. 576; Lubbock, 177 ; Fig., 230-1.) 
 
 Terramares. (Fig., 232-9.) 
 
 9. Parallel facts supplied by modern savages. (Lubbock, ch. xiii-xv ; 
 
 Origin of Civilization.) 
 
 IV. Intrepretation of the Pacts. 
 
 1. Divisions of prehistoric time. (D. 574; L 561 ; Lubbock, ch. i.) 
 (1.) Ages : Stone. (Lub., ch. iv ; Fig., 1-202.) Bronze. (Lub., ii-iii ; Fig.. 205- 
 
 93,) Iron. (W. 353; Fig., 297-332.) 
 (2.) Stone Age sub divided into three epochs. 
 (3.) Cannot be used for chronometric purposes. (W. 353 ; Rau., 12.) 
 
 2. Geological conditions in the Stone Age. (W. 361.) 
 
 3. Characters of Prehistoric Europeans. (Rau,ch. iii-iv; Lub., ch. x.) 
 (1.) Physically. (Rau, 81; Lub., 337-40; Fig., 112-6; Vogt, 370-93.) 
 
 (2.) Socially and Intellectually. (W. 363-5; Rau, 66-70, 83, etc , ch, v ; Lub., 586 Fig., 
 
 128, 137-83, 258-70.) 
 
 (3.) .aesthetically. (W. 358, 355-6; Rau, 60-6, 71-9, 85-6, 103-5, Lub., 29-44, 335-5.) 
 (4.) Religiously. (W. 366 ; Fig., 280-3.) 
 
 V. Primeval Man in America. (Lub., ch. vii ; Foster, op. cit.; 
 
 Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments Miss. Vol.; Lapham : 
 Antiquities of Wis,: Haven: Archaeology of the U. S.) 
 
 1. Mounds and Tombs. (Lub., 267-77 ; Fost., ch. iii, v, vi, viii, x.) 
 
 2. Earth-works. (Lub., 259-63 ; Lapham: Antiq. Wis.) 
 
 3. Mining Hammers. (Fost., ch. vii.) 
 
 4. Shell-heaps. (Fost., ch. iv.) 
 
 5. Remains beneath lava in California. (Fost., 52-6. Lect. XLVII.) 
 
 6. Mesa Ruins or Cliff-Dwellings. (Ives : Explor. Col. Riv., 119, 
 
 Moquis ; Jackson, Hayd. Rep., 1874, 369-81, plates ; Hayd. Rep., 
 1875, 12, 23-4.) 
 
 XXIH. METHOD OF CONTINENTAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 DANA, Proc. Am. Assoc., 1856, pt. ii., 1-25, chart; id., 1855, 1-36; Manual Geol., 389-90, 
 691; Am. Jour. Set., II., xxii., 335; WINCHELL: Sketches of Creation, ch. xxvii.; KING: 
 OeoHQth Parallel,!., ch. vi. and viii. ; GEIKIE, Proceed. Hoy. Geograp. Soc.; Popular Sci. 
 Monthly, Sep., 1879. On the Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico, see E. W. Hilgard. Proc. 
 A. A. A. S., 1871, 222 ; A. J. Sci., III., ii., 391. 
 
 I. Primordial Wrinkles the Germs of Land-Masses. (Lect. 
 XXXIX.) -- Cause of wrinkles. Their location. The 
 system of contraction and upheaval.
 
 47 
 
 n. The Continent of Palaeozoic Time. 
 
 1. Composed of Archaean sediments. (D. 161.) These the ruins 
 
 of an older, unknown land. 
 
 2. Location and Form of the Palaeozoic Continent. 
 
 (1.) The Laureutian limb. (D. 148.) Detached insular Laurentian exposures. 
 (D. 150; Lect. III., III., 2. Also Irving, A. J. S., III., v., 281, map; J. H. Eaton, 
 III., v., 414, map ; Hind. A. J. S., II., xlix, 317-55, in Nova Scotia.) 
 
 (2.) The Cordilleran limb. Consisted of emerging peaks of the Cordilleran 
 range* from the Colorado to the Humboldt ranges. (King, 40<A Par. i., ch. L, 
 id., 5:J4 ; Kewb., Ives Color. Exped., 47 ; Peale, Hayd. Ann. R<y>,, 1875, 68-9.) - 
 Thought by King to have beeen a continuous land area before Cambrian 
 Time. (King. 40tA Par., i., 533, 531, 7^9-30. Compare Newb., Ives Col. Exp. 
 Exped. and Peale Hayd. Ann. Rep., 1875-68.) The Nevada Mass continued 
 continental. (King, 40M Par., i., 731.) But subsided at end of Palaeozoic. 
 (King, 40fA Par., i., 732.) 
 
 3. Origin of sediments and supposed subsidence of Appalachian re- 
 
 gion. (D. 101, 251 ; L. 254-5.) This implies a land-region to 
 the north-east of the present continent. 
 
 4. Great thickness of Palaeozoic sediments (40,000 ft.) along the bor- 
 
 der of the Nevadan continent. (King, 4Qth Par., i., 731.) 
 Great subsidence of Palaeozoic sea-bottom. (King, 732.) 
 
 5. The configuration of America due to the topography of the Pre- 
 
 cambrian continent. (King, 4Qth Par., i., 533, 751.) 
 
 6. Europe mostly submerged during Palaeozoic Time. (Geikie, Pop. 
 
 Sci. Monthly, Sep., 1879, 599. The Northern land of Europe 
 and the Northern Ocean. 
 
 III. The Continent of Mesozoic Time. (D. 481.) 
 
 1. Composed of Palaeozoic and Archaean sediments. 
 
 2. Its duplex constitution. 
 
 (1.) The Laurentian limb. Its south-eastward and south-westward growth. (D. 
 3^3,431.) Comparative completeness. 
 
 (2.) The Cordilleran limb. The Palaeozoic sea becomes dry land forming the 
 Great Basin and the Wahsatch. (King, 40th Par., i., ch. ii,, Map ; id. 536-7, 731-2 
 759 ; D. 520.) . And the Xevadan Continent sinks beneath the sea. (King, 
 537, 732.) Distinction between subsidence of a lightened continental mass 
 and of a loaded sea-bottom. The latter gradual, the former cataclysmic. 
 (King, i., 732.) The western shore of this continent trended meridionally, 
 fhe eastern, retreated south westward into Arizona. (King, i., 733.) Nu- 
 merous, and some extensive, islands in the Mesozoic ocean, along the Rocky 
 mountain region. 
 
 3- The great intercontinental ocean between the Wahsatch and the 
 Mississippi valley. (D. 481, 520 ; King, i., 537, 733.) 
 
 4. Europe still mostly submerged. (D. 481.) Land growing 
 
 southward. (Geikie, Pop, Sci. Mon., Sep., 1876, 601.) 
 
 5. South America more extensively submerged. 
 
 IV. The Continent of Caenozoic Time. (D. 520.) 
 1. Composed of pre-cenozoic sediments.
 
 48 
 
 2. The twin areas connected. Uplift of Rocky Mountain region 
 and a portion of the Great Plains. (King, 40th Par., i., 360; ch. 
 iv., and map ; D. 480.) 
 
 3- The great mediteranean seas or "Tertiary lakes" of North Amer- 
 ica. (Newb., Hayd. Rep. Wyoming, J870, 329-39; Hayden : Ann. 
 Rep., 1872,33; id. 1874, 47.) 
 (1.) Residual portions of the Mesozoic intercontinental ocean. Shifted and 
 
 enlarged, however, by regional subsidences. (King, i., 754-6.) 
 (2.) Their locations, extent and names. (King, i., 458 ; Lect. XVI.) 
 
 4. The mediterranean seas of Europe. (D. 480.) 
 
 5. The condition of South America. The Andes under water. 
 
 (D. 480.) 
 
 6. The final uplift and consummation. But very gradual. 
 V. Unity of Method in Continental Growth. (D. 29-38.) 
 
 1. Ultimate forms foreshadowed from the beginning. (D. 147, 160, 
 
 393-4 ; King, 40th Par., L, 751.) Two great water sheds on 
 the Laureutian limb, each with two branches. (D. 24, 160.) 
 The northern branches diverge, the southern converge. 
 The Cordilleran limb also grew from its Archaean germ. 
 
 2. To what extent have continents and oceans exchanged places ? 
 
 (D. 160, 250.) 
 
 (1.) The old idea of general exchanges. 
 (2.) The later idea of no exchanges. 
 
 (3.) The truth lies between. Some subordinate exchanges. (King, i., 731-2, 746, 
 755, 756.) Still, the Atlantic and Pacific have never been continental. 
 
 XXIV. MOUNTAIN-BUILDING. 
 
 MALLET : (See references, Lect. XXVI and Part II); HUNT: Chemical and Geological 
 Essays, 241-82, 328-48; HALL: PoJ.xontology of New York, iii., 185!), Introduction, 57-% : 
 LKCONTE: Elements of Geology, 1878, 240-60; Am. Jour. Scl., III., iv., 354 and 460-72; KING: 
 Geology of the 40 h Parallel, L, ch. viii., Orography; GILBERT: Orography, in Wheeler 
 Report, Vol., iii., ch. i. ; WHITNEY : Mountain Building, in N. A. Review ; H. D. ROGERS : 
 Geology of Pennsylvania, Vol., it., pt. ii., 885-941; VOSE: Orographic Geology, Boston , 1866. 
 8vo., 136pp. ; BABBAGE: Proc., Oeol. Soc., London, ii. ; SIR JOHN HERSCHEL: Prnc. Genl. 
 Soc., London, ii. ; NACMAMN : Geognosie, I., 337-633. 
 
 Two distinct origins of Mountains. By upheaval and by 
 
 relief. 
 
 I. Mountains of Upheaval. 
 1. Primordial wrinkling of the terrestrial crust. 
 
 (1.) Cause of the wrinkling. (D. 739; L. 240, 252-4 ; see further, Part II.) 
 (2.) Location of some primitive wrinkles. 
 
 (a.) Laurentian nucleus. Appalachian. (D. 150.) Cordilleran, 
 especially between Ion. 105 and 115 30\ (King, i., ch. i., and map. See 
 also Lect. XXXIII., II., (2).) Scandinavian. (D. 151.) 
 (6.) Perhaps Caribbean, Lemurian, Indian. 
 (8.) These not originally lofty mountain masses.
 
 49 
 
 2. Progressive development and wear of these wrinkles. 
 (1.) Source of materials for sedimentation. 
 
 (2.) Deposition along coast-borders. (L. 254-6.) 
 (3.) Parallel ranges developed successively coastward. (L. 257.) 
 (4.) Simple and complex mountain folds. (L. '242-3; Whitney: Qeol. Col., 121' 
 ( 'omstock, in Jones' Rep. N. W. Wyom,, 139- Wind R. Mts.) The lowest rocks 
 exposed along the eroded crest. (L. 242-5.) 
 i. r >.) Indications of successive uplifts. Section across the Adirondacs. In 
 
 the Rocky Mountains. (Wheeler Rep., iii., 499.) 
 (6. High inclinations and overturns of strata. 
 
 (ft.) Appalachians. (D. 396; Safford : Geol. Tenn. , 185, 190.) Green Mts. 
 
 (D. 213.) 
 (b.) Elk Mts. Col. (D. 740; L. 176; Peale, Hayd. Rep.. 1873, 256, plates xyil., 
 
 xviii.; Holmes, Hayd. Rep., 1879, 68-71, and maps and chart of sections.)' 
 (c.) Sangre de Cristo Mts., Col. (Endlich, Hayd. Rep., 1875, 121-3, plates, 125.) 
 (rf.) In foreign countries. (Murchison: Sttwria, 96, Malvern Hills, 501, Alps. 
 See also Rogers.- Geol. Penn., ii., 901-2, ideal section of Alps ; and Hunt: 
 Op. 'fit., 328-48.) 
 
 3. The Synclinorium theory of Mountain making. (D. 748-50, 211- 
 . 14, 244, 251, 275, 305 ; L. 252-60 ; Hall : Pal. N. Y., iii., Introd. 
 
 Comp. King, i., 731 : Hunt: Chem'. and Geol. Ess., 49-58.) 
 Secular contraction of the earth pronounced inadequate. (But- 
 ton, Penn. Monthly, May and June, 1876; Fisher,- Cambridge Phil. 
 Trans., xii. See further, Part II.) 
 
 4. Faulting. (741 ; L. 258, 261, 263.) 
 (1.) In Silurian rocks. (D. 214~-5.) 
 
 (2). In the Appalachians, 20,000 feet. (D. 398-400, 647 ; L. 261; Safford : Qeol. Tenn., 
 
 142, 144, 185.) 
 3.) In the Colorado Range 6,000 to 7,000 feet. (King, i., 730.) Park Range 
 
 10,000 feet. (King, i., 730.) 
 (4.) In the Uriita Mts, 20,000 to 25,000 ft. (L. 242, 263; King, i., 730; Powell: Wnta 
 
 Mts.. 12, Atlas, plates i., ii., iii.) 
 
 (5.) Along the Wahsatch Range, 3,000 to 40,000 ft. (King, i., 44, 730, 745-6-) 
 (6.) Along the Basin Ranges generally, from Salt Lake to Carson Lake. (King,!., 
 
 735 and maps, x., xi. and xii.) 
 
 (7.) The Sierra Nevada, 3,000 to 10,000 ft. (King, i., 744.) 
 (8.) Disapearauce of half an anticlinal by downthrow along a fault. - Sierra 
 
 Nevada, Wahsatch, Unita and other Ranges. (See foregoing references.) 
 (9.) Monocliual ridges and " Kaibab structure." (Powell: Uiiita Mts., 10-16; also 
 
 Gilbert and Howell, in Wheeler Rep., iii. ; Rogers: Geol. Penn., ii., 920-1.) 
 
 5. Thickness of sediments in mountains of upheaval. (D. 210, 749 ; 
 
 L. 244,243-6; Rogers: Geol. Penn., ii., 779.) -- Metarnorphism. 
 (D. 750, 400; L. 357; Hunt: op. cit., 18-34 : Daubr6e, Annales des 
 Mines, V. xvi., 155-393, Trans. Smiths. Ann. Rep., 1861, 228-304.) 
 
 6. The Cordilleran chain mostly formed by upheaval. (L. 241.) 
 
 7. Vertical movements generally slow. (D. 754 ; L. 244 ; Lyell; Prin. 
 
 159-69; Safford: Qeol Tenn., 183.) 
 D
 
 SO- 
 IL Mountains of Belief. 
 
 1. By erosion of horizontal or slightly tilted strata. (Rogers : Geol. 
 
 Perm., ii., 927-33.) Table mountains. (D. 246 ; Whitney: 
 
 Geol. Cal, 211, 248 ; Powell : Uinta Mts., 18.) 
 (1.) Excavation of basins and valleys in such strata. Central Tennessee. (W. 
 
 342; Safford: Geol. Tenn., 97-104.) The Cumberland Table Land. (W. 343; 
 
 Safford: Geol. Tenn., 66-79. Amazonian valley borders. (Ag. : Journey in 
 
 Brazil ; Orton : Andes and Amazon.) Uinta Mountain or Range. (Powell : 
 
 Uinta Mts.; King, i., 9. 753.) 
 (2.) Removal of formations along one border. (L. 249-50.) - - Appalachians. 
 
 (Rogers: Geol. Penn., ii., 920-1.) Many ranges in the Great Basin. (Gilbert, 
 
 Wheeler Rep., iii., ch. i., sec. i.) -- But these perhaps faulted anticlinals. 
 
 (Howell, Wheeler Rtp., iii., ch. viii., sec. i. ; King, i., 735, iii., 45.) 
 (3. Removal along both borders. The Catskills. The Appalachians. (L. 
 
 241.) Mt. Dana in the Sierra Nevada. (Lee , Am. Jour., June, 1873, v. 452.) 
 
 2. By erosion along anticlinals. (D. 749 ; L. 246 ; Rogers : Geol. Penn., 
 
 ii., 933-6. 
 
 (1.) Mountains of upheaval completed as mountains of relief. (D. 647 ; L. 246.) 
 (2.) The synclinal structure in mountains. (D. 213, 748; L. 248.) 
 
 to.) Examples : Taconic Mts. (D. 213-14, 750.) -- Greylock. (D. 214.) - 
 Green Mts. (D. 750.) Alleghanies. (D.398; Rogers: Geol. Pa., i., 13; ib., 
 ii., 926.) 
 
 (6.) Coast Range. (Whitney: Geol. Cal., i., 14, 144.) Wahsatch Range. (Hay- 
 den : Ann. Rep., 1872, 16.) 
 (3.) Anticlinal vaUeys. Appalachians. (Rogers: Geol. Penn., ii., 922-23.) 
 
 Valley of East Tennessee. (L. 246; Safford: Geol. Tenn., 144. -- Other ex- 
 amples. (Powell: Color. River, fig. 55 ; Murch.: Silur. 126.) 
 
 (4.) All sculpturing the work of erosion. (L. 245-50.) Pinnacles and Peaks: 
 Castle Range, Cal. (Whitney: Geol. Cal., i., 33.) Granitic pinnacles. (*&., 
 373.) Mt. Brewer, (ib., 380-1.) Yo Semite, (tb., 407-23.) Other Cal. 
 peaks, (ib., 424-37.) - Wahsatch Range. (King: 40th Par.. L, 44, pi. i.) - 
 Elk Mts., Col.) ;Hayden : Rep., 1874, ch. v., and maps; also, 1873.) In Wy- 
 oming. (Hayden : Rep., 1872, 47.) -- Colorado valley. (Ives, Explor. Col., 48, 
 49, 50, 52, 55, 62.) " Needles" of the Swiss Alps. CLect. XVIII., IV.) 
 
 3. Relief mountains not always metamorphic. 
 
 III. Types of Mountain Structure. (Powell : Uinta Mts., 9-29 ; also 
 Explor. Color. R., ch. xi., and Am. Jour., xii., 414-28, illus.) 
 
 XXV. PRINCIPAL EPOCHS OP GEOGRAPHIC DISTURBANCE. 
 
 I. Chronological Arrangement. 
 
 1. Presilurian : Laurentides. - Adirondacks. Blue Ridge. 
 - Highlands, from N. J. to Dutchess Co., N. Y. (D. 16, 211.) - 
 Black Mts., N. C. - Black Hills. Wind River Mts. (D. 
 
 390.) Colorado, Medicine Bow, and Park Ranges. (King : 
 
 40th Par., i., 5, 17-42 ; Powell : Uinta Mts., 26 ; Marvine : Hayd. 
 Rep., 1873, 139.) Core of the Humboldt Range. (King, id., 
 
 12, 62.) Sawatch Range. (Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1873, 49-57, 
 
 246.)
 
 51 
 
 2. End of Lower Silurian. - Green Mts. in part. (D. 212-14, 305, 
 355,389,390,392.) -- Northeastern U. S. (Rogers: Geol. Perm., 
 ii., 784.) - - In Europe. (D. 217.) 
 
 2. End of Devonian : Catskill Mts. (D. 290.) New England, 
 
 Eastern Canada, Nova Scotia. (D. 289, 390 ) 
 
 4. End of Carboniferous : Alleghanies. - Western portion of 
 Great Basin, or present Nevada Plateau, with submergence of 
 older Nevadan land on the west. (King: 40th Par., L, 731-2, 748.) 
 
 - First displacements in Rocky Mts. (Stevenson, Wheeler Rep., 
 Hi., 499-500.) 
 
 5. Between Jurassic and Cretaceous : Trap mountains and ridges 
 from Nova Scotia to N. Carolina. (D. 417, 486.) Second 
 movement in the Rocky Mts. (Stevenson, Wheeler Rep., Hi., 
 500.) 
 
 6. End of Jurassic: Sierra Nevada, and Basin Ranges to the east. 
 (D. 452, 486; Whitney: Geol. Cal; King: 40th Par., i., 734-54, 
 759.) - - Blue Mountains, Oreg. (King.) Humboldt Range. 
 (D 453, 486.) 
 
 7. End of Cretaceous (i. e. in the West, post-Lignitic) : California 
 west of Sierra Nevada. (D. 523; King: 40th Par., i.) - Wah- 
 satch Range. (King : 40th Par., i., 745, 747, 753. Not D. 453, 486 ; 
 Comstock, N. W. Wyom., 154.) Part of Rocky Mts. east of 
 Wahsatch. (D. 523 ; King : 40th Par., i., 748 ; Stevenson, Wheeler 
 Rep., Hi., 500-1.) - - Uinta Range. (King : 40th Par., i., 540, 753; 
 Powell : Uinta Mts., 201 ; Emmons, King Rep., Hi., 198-202, 311-6; 
 not D. 453, 486.) -- Cascade Range. (King.) 
 
 8. After Lower^Eocene (Vermillion Creek Group): Formation of 
 
 Wahsatch Fault, with subsidence of Central Utah. (King: 40th 
 Par., 745, 755.) 
 
 9. After Middle Eocene: Cherokee Ridge, and plications in West- 
 ern Nevada. (King: 40th Par., i., 755.) Pyrenees, Julian 
 Alps. (Murchison : Siluria, 499.) Appenines, Carpathians. 
 (D. 512, 525.) -- Southern Himalayas. (D. 512.) 
 
 10. End of Eocene : Perhaps Cordilleras in Wyoming and Utah, 
 and California. (D. 523.) -- Subsidence along the East Nevada 
 fault. (King: 40th Par., i., 744, 756.) Corsican chain. (D. 
 525.) 
 
 11. End of Miocene : Coast Range, Cal. (D. 523; L. 256, 512; Whit- 
 ney : Geol. Cal., i., 320, seq.; Le Conte, Am. Jour. Sci., iv. 470, vii. 
 176.) Rocky Mts. further raised to 11,000 ft. (D. 524.) 
 Subsidence of "Great Plains" and formation of "Cheyenne 
 Lake." (King: 40th Par., i., 455; Lect. XVI., V. 3, (3).) Severe 
 crumpling in region of Pah-Ute Lake, and formation of " Sho-
 
 52 
 
 shone Lake," stretching from Sierra Nevada to Wahsatch, and 
 north, far up Columbia R. (King :. 40th Par., i., 456.) San 
 
 Domingo. (D. 524.) - - Western Alps, including Mont Blanc, 
 Monte Rosa, Rigi, etc. (D. 512, 525). - - Antrim, Inner Hebrides 
 and Faroe Is. (D. 525.) Older eruptions of Auvergne and 
 
 Velay. (D. 525 ; Ly.: Man., ch. xxxii.; Scrope: Volcanoes of Cen- 
 tral France.) 
 
 12. End of Pliocene : Tilting of the Great Plains to a maximum of 
 7,000 ft. - - Depression of east and west borders of Great Basin 
 Pliocene, by faulting along eastern Sierra Nevada and western 
 Wahsatch.) King: 40th Par., i., 758.) Eastern Alps, from 
 
 Valais to St. Gotthard. (D. 525.) 
 II. Inductive Inferences. 
 
 1. The loftiest mountains developed in later geological ages. 
 
 2. The post-Carboniferous, post- Jurassic and post-Cretaceous the 
 
 principal building times of the modern American continent. 
 (King: 40th Par., i., 759.) 
 
 3. Distinction of slow and paroxysmal subsidences. (King, 760.) 
 
 4. Distinction of gentle and dislocating elevations. (King, 760-1.) 
 
 XXVI. VULCANISM. 
 
 On Volcanic Phenomena, see LYELL : Principles of Geology, ch. xxiii.-xxvi . ; DK 
 LABECHE: Geological Observer, ch. xvii.-xxi.; RECLUS: The Earth, ch. Ixi.-lxxii.; 
 ZURCHER et MARGOLLE: Volcans et Tremblements de Terre, Paris, 1866; DAUBENEY: 
 Description of Volcanoes; NAUMANN : Geognesie. i., 76-189 : HUMBOLDT: Aspects of Na- 
 ture, Am. ed., 375-99. 
 
 On Earthquake Phenomena, see LYEU, : Principles, ch. xxvii. -xxxii. ; DK LA 
 BECHE: op. cit., ch xxii.: RECLUS: Earth, ch.lxxiii.-lxxvisi.; BAKEWELL: Introduction 
 to Geology, ch. xlx. ; ZI'RCHKR et MARGOLLE: op. cit.. 251-94; NAUMANN: Geognosie. 
 193-286; L. PALMIBRI : The Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872; R. MALLET: The Great Nea- 
 politan Earthquake of 1857. 2 vols., 8vo., 1862, Pt. i. ; General Phenomena, Pt. ii., Phe- 
 nomena of the Neapolitan Earthquake ; Facts and Theory of Earthquakes, Reports 
 Brit. Assoc., 1850-8.; On Observation of Earthquake Phenomena, Admiralty Manual of 
 Scientific Inquiry, 3d ed.. 1859. Smithsonian Ann. Rep., 1859, 408-33 ; Earthquake-Tvave 
 Experiments, Phil. Trans., 1862, vol. cliii. ; ALEXIS PERRY, Sundry memoirs on the earth- 
 quake and volcanic phenomena of the world, presented to Academie Royale de Belique. 
 etc., 1843-1867, and subsequent years in ather publications. 
 
 On volcanic Rocks, see KING: Geology of yotk Parallel, i., ch. vi.: ZIRKEL, in 
 Geology of qoth Par., vi., (for microscopic characters); PUMPELLY. Geology of Mich.. 
 1873, ii., pt. ii., on copper-bearing rocks ; HUNT, Genlogy of Canada, 1S63, ch. xx., pp. 
 643-70; RICHTHOPKN: On a Natural System of Volcanic Rocks, Mem. Cal. Acad. Sci.. 
 1868. i., pt. ii., 4to. : LYEU. : Manual of Geology, ch. xxviii., xxix. ; DANA : Man. of Geol.. 
 76-9, and System of Mineralogy; also general works on Lithology, as cited in Lecture 
 III. 
 
 [Theoretical considerations are postponed to Part II.] 
 
 Definition and explanation. 
 I. Volcanoes. (D. 702-16 ; L. 81 ; Lyell, Reclus, etc., as above.)
 
 53 
 
 1. General description. (See above.) 
 
 2. Locations contiguous to sea-coasts. (D. 703; L. 81-2; Ly. : Prin., 
 
 332-40 ; Reclus, Earth, 426-32, map ; Hunt : Chem. and Geol. 
 Essays, 67-9.) - - Rarely far inland. (D. 704.) 
 
 3. Volcanic action perpetual or periodical. (D. 714; L. 81.) 
 
 Through craters. (D. 711 ; L. 82.) Through fissures. (D. 
 
 714.) 
 
 4. Ejections. Explosions. (D. 692; L. 82; Ly.: Prin., 445.) -- Mol- 
 
 ten matter. (D. 707 ; L. 83 ; Reclus, ch. Ixvi.) Volcanic 
 
 bombs. (D. 709.) - - Ashes and stones. (L. 83 ; Reclus, 468, 471.) 
 - Mud and water. (Ly. : Prin., 414 ; Reclus, 475.) - Vapors 
 and gases. (D. 708 ; L. 85; Re"clus, 433.) Formation of Cone. (D. 
 704, 710, 715 ; L. 81, 83, 186-9 ; Ly. : Prin., ch. xxiv.-xxvii. ; Man- 
 nal, 489.) 
 
 5. Particular examples: (l.j Vesuvius. (D. 714; L. S8; Ly.: Prin., 347-80; 
 
 Reelus, 448 : Zurcher et Margolle, 1-50. Burial of cities. (L. 83 ; Ly.: Prin., 
 
 369-80; Reclus, 470; Pliny: Letters: Zurcher et Margolle, 1-10; Dyer: Pompeii, 
 
 London, 1875, and the works cited, pp. 5-9.) 
 
 !2.) ^Etna. (Ly. : Prin., ch. xxvi ; Reclus, 419-25 ; 469 : Zurch. et Marg., 51-65.) 
 (3.) Kilauea and MaunaLoa. .(D. 708-16; Reclus, 430, 460-2; Zurch. et Marg., 200-7 ; 
 
 Brigham: Volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands, 1868; Dana, Am. Jour., II.. 
 
 xlvi , 105-23; Coan., ib. xlvii.. 89; III., ii., 454 ; III., iv., 406-6. 
 (4. x . Jorullo. (Ly. : Prin., 411-14 ; Reclus, 443-4; Zurch. at Marg., 169-76.) 
 (5.) Skaptar Jokul. (L. 83: Ly.: Prin., 409-11 : Zurcher et Marg., 80-4 j 
 (6.) Tomboro. (L. 82, 83; Herschel : Phys. Geol., Ill ; Ly, : Prin., 45: Reclus, 471 ; 
 
 Zurch. et Marg., 192-7. 
 
 (7.) Mt. St. Elias, Shasta. (Whitney: Geol. Cal., i., 332-49.) Rainier. (L. 81.) 
 (8.) Extinct Volcanoes. (D. 525; Newb., Ives. Col. Explor., 65,72; Ly. : Man., ch. 
 
 xxx.-xxxii. ; Zurch. et. Marg., 225-37, 249.) 
 
 6. American Lavas of Post-Pliocene age. (D. 524, 753.) -- Immense 
 
 outflows along the Pacific slope. -- Table Mountain. (Whit- 
 ney: Geol. Cal.) Li thological characters. (King: 40th Par., 
 i., ch. vii., and Zirkel, ib., vi.) 
 
 7. Comparison of Lavas of more ancient date. (Ly.: Man., 486-7.) 
 
 8. Injections, Intrusions and Outflows: Veins. (D, 108-14, 731; L. 
 
 226; Ly.: Man., 567-72.) - - Dikes. (D. 715, 109, 111, 722; L. 87, 
 207; Ly. : Prin., 363; Ly. : Man., 483; Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1872, 
 37-9.) - - Beds of igneous origin. (D. 717, 185, 418 ; L. 259; Gil- 
 bert, Wheeler Rep., iii., ch. v.; Stevenson, ib., ch. xiv., and p. 501; 
 Loew, ib., ch. xxiii. ; Marvine, Hayden Rep., 1873,129; Peale, 
 Hayd. Rep., 1873, 318-322; Endlich, ib., 345, etc. ; Peale, ib., 163- 
 74; Endlich, Hayd. Rep., 1874, 193-209; Peale, Hayd. Rep., 1875, 
 ch. vii.; Endlich, ib., 127-36, 145-8, 212-15; Rhoda, ib., 312; Crit- 
 tenden, ib., 364, pi. xliv. ; Leconte, Am. Jour., Apr., 1874; Corn- 
 stock, N. W. Wyom., 184.) Basaltic columns. (D. 716, 722, 86,
 
 54 
 
 87, 421 ; L. 209-10 ; Ly. : Man., 483-523 ; Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1872, 
 50.) Metamorphism. (D. 724-31.) Mountain Forms 
 
 resulting from lava-outflows. (Powell: Uinta Mts., 18-21; Ly.: 
 Prin., ch. xxiv-xxvii ; Ly. : Man., 462, 489-518.) 
 
 9. Richthofen's chronological classification. (See General Ref.) - 
 Propylite, Andesite, Trachyte, Rhyolite, Basalt. (King; 4QthPar., 
 i., ch. vii.) 
 
 II. Fumaroles or Solfataras. (D. 718, 708 ; Ly. : Prin., 347 ; Reclus, 
 
 434, 478, 486-8.) About volcanic mountains. (D. 708.) 
 
 On the coast of the Bay of Naples. At New Madrid. 
 
 New Zealand. (Zurch. et Marg., 208, 321.) 
 
 III. Thermal Waters (See Lect. II., IV. 2 ; Reclus, ch. Ixx.) 
 
 1. Artesian waters. (Lect. II., IV. 4.) - - Temperatures. 
 
 2. Deep-mine waters. (Lect. II., IV. 3.) - - Temperatures. 
 
 3. Thermal springs, (i). 719 ; Lect. II., IV.; Whitney : Geol. Cal., 93- 
 
 5; Gilbert, Wheeler Rep., iii., 146-55; Hague, King Rep., iii., 704- 
 7, pi. xxi., xxii.) 
 (1.) Their common occurrence. - - In volcanic and mountainous regions. - 
 
 Temperatures. (D. 719, 722.) 
 (2.) Geysers. (L. 94; Reclus, 482; Zurcher et Marg., 84-94.) - - Phenomena. (L. 
 
 94.) Explanation. (D. 721 ; L. 99-104.) 
 
 (3.) Thermal waters of Yellowstone National Park. (D. 719-21; L. 94-9; Hayden: 
 
 Ann. Ref., 1871. 162-98; fb., 1872, 52-6; A. J. S., III., iii., 105, 161, maps and 
 
 views; Peale, Hayden Rep., 1872, 122-158, 173-8; Bradley, ib.. 234-50 ; Jones: 
 
 Explor.N. W. Wyom., 1873, 24-32 ; Comstock, fb., 189-259.) 
 
 ' (a.) Especially described and illustrated by Dr. Hayden. (Reports for 1871 and 
 
 1872. But s>ee Comstock, ut supra, and Am. Nat.. Feb. and Mar., 1874: 
 
 Richardson : Wonders of the Yellowstone ; Taylor : Illus. Libr., Trav. and 
 
 Adventure. 1873; Doane: Yellowstone Exped., 1870, especially 24-38 ; also 
 
 Reports of Superintendents Langford and Norris.) 
 
 (b.) Remarkable outbursts, and sintery deposits. (D. 719-21 ; L. 95-9 ; Jones : N. 
 
 W. Wyom., 25-32.) 
 
 . (c.) Views. (D. 719, 720 ; L. 95-9 ; Hayden : Ref., 1871, 66-127 ; ib., 1872, 54, 122-5 ; 
 
 also many photographs in " National Museum," taken by W. H. Jackson.) 
 
 (rf.) In Colorado. (Peale, Hayd. Rep., 1872, 102-3; Marvine, Hayd. Rep.: 1873, 
 
 205-6.) 
 
 (e.) Thermal Springs of New Zealand. (Pop. Sci. Monthly, July, 1879 ; Reclus. 
 483; Hayden: Ann Report., 1871, 128; Hochstetter : New Zeal., 452; Zurch. 
 et Marg., 315-20.) 
 
 IV. Seismic phenomena. 
 
 1. Earthquakes. (D. 741, 585 ; L. 104-26; Ly.: Prin., ch. xxviii.-xxx.; 
 Reclus, ch. Ixxiii.-lxxix.) Destructive occurrences. (L. 120 ; 
 Ly.: Prin., 441, 447, 471-3, 476, 485; Reclus, ch. Ixxv. ; Zurch. et 
 Margol., 251, et seg. ; Hamilton's and Dolomieu's "Accounts of 
 the Great Calabrian Earthquake." Also, South American earth- 
 quakes as described by Humboldt, Fitzroy and Darwin ; and 
 Javan, by Stamford Raffles ; also, Mallet, ut supra,)
 
 55 
 
 2. Seismic phenomena in the United States. 
 
 (1.) The New Madrid Earthquake of 1811. (Ly.: Prin., 447-9; Travis, in U. S.. 2d 
 vis., ii., 172-82.) 
 
 (2.) Frequent slight shocks of later occurrence. (Twining, Am. Jour., L, 47; Brig- 
 ham, Mem. Bos. Soc. N. H., ii., i., 227, New England earthquakes; A. J. S., i., 
 304 ; J. D. Whitney, A. J. S., III., iv., 316.) 
 
 3. Sea- waves. (D. 662 ; Lect. II., II., 3, (4) ; L. 119-22 ; Rep. U. S. Coast 
 
 Sun., 1855, 1862 and 1869; Ly.: Prin., 478-84; Zurch. et Marg., 
 268, 281.) In South America, 1868. (Am. Jour., II., xlvi., 
 
 422-8.) 
 
 (1.) Caused by submarine earthquakes. 
 
 (2.) Striking examples: Lisbon, Simoda, Arica. (D. 662; L. 120.) 
 (3. , Measurement of mean depth of ocean. (D. 743 ; L. 122; Rep. U. S. Coast Surv., 
 1862 and 1869; Rankine, Proc. Roy. Inst. Gt. B., 26 May, 1871.) 
 
 4. Submarine volcanoes and new islands. (D. 711 ; Ly. : Prin., 415- 
 
 33 ; Reclus, ch. Ixxi. ; Darwin : Volcanic Islands; Zurch. et Mar- 
 gol., 327-50; Lect. II.) 
 
 5. Slow vertical movements. (Lect. II.; Darwin: Geol. Obseiv. on 
 
 Coral Reefs, etc., pt. i., 127-46 ; pt. ii., ch. ii. Also, Humboldt : 
 Aspects of Nature, 423 shells 13,790 ft. ; Somerville : Phys. Geog., 
 i., 185 shells 17,480 ft. both cases in the Andes.) 
 
 XXVII. EROSIONS. 
 
 I. Atmospheric Erosions. (L. 3.) 
 
 1. By Winds. -- Sand Blast. (D. 632; W. Grand Traverse Region, 
 
 13; Comstock, Jones' N. W. Wyoming, 167-70; W. P.Blake, Pacif. 
 R. R. Rep., v. 108, 230, 232 ; A. J. S., II., xx., 180; Proc. A. A. A. S., 
 1855, 218; Newberry, Ives' Exped., 17, 24; G. K. Gilbert, Proc. 
 A. A. A. S., 1874, 26.) 
 
 2. By Frost. (L. 8 ; Comstock, Jones' N. W. Wyom., 19-80.) 
 
 3. By Atmospheric disintegration. (L. 6-8; Pumpelly, Am. Jour., 
 
 xviii., 133; Hayden : Rep. Montana, 1871, 34, 39, 43, 61 ; Rep. Col., 
 1874, pi. x.; Lyell: Travels in N. Amer., 2d. Visit, ii., 27; Whitta- 
 ker, Geol. Mag., iv., 447, etc.) 
 
 II. Aqueous Erosions. (L. ch. ii.) 
 
 1. By Rains. (D. 637; L. 9.) 
 
 2. By Ice. (See Lectures XVIII. and XIX.) 
 
 3. By Waves and Oceanic Currents. (D. 657, 661, 663,665; L. 31-6; 
 
 Ag.: Jour, in Brazil, 438.) -- Receding shores. (D. 663; L. 33; 
 Ly.: Prin., 291-319.) Rocky islets. (D. 663; L. 35; Ly.: 
 
 Prin., 287-90.) -- Purgatories. 
 
 4. By running water. (Ly. : Prin., ch. xiv., xv.) Continental 
 
 drainage.
 
 56 
 
 (1.) Producing the great features of continental sculpture. (L. 245-50.) 
 (2.) Action of moving waters. (D. 638; L. 11, 18-20; Ly.: Prfn., 195.) - Corra- 
 sion. Relation to velocity. (L. 18-20; Ly.: Pri.,l9r>. Force of Alpine 
 torrents, i Reclus : Earth, 284-93.) 
 
 (3.) Erosions along existing river- valleys. (See Lect. XX.) 
 (a.) Ravines, Gorges, Canons. (L. 15; Ly.: Prin., '202.) 
 (b.) The Niagara. (L. 12-13 ; W. 243-5 ; Hall : Geol. IVth Dist, N. Y. ; Ly.: Prin., 
 
 203-6; Travels, 1st visit; Reclus, Earth, 303.) 
 (c.) The Mississippi. (Ly. : Prin., 215 ; Reclus, Earth, 304 ; Humphreys and 
 
 Abbot: Haudraulics of the Miss.) Upper waters. Lower waters. 
 
 (Ly. : Prin., 211.) Ancient deeper channel and wider valley. 
 (d.) Kentucky. (W. 344.) Cumberland, Illinois and others. 
 (.) Green and Colorado rivers. (D. 640-3; L. Frontisp., 16 7: Newberry, Ivcs , 
 
 Color. Exped. ; W. 345-9 ; Powell : Rep. on Col. Riv.) 
 (/.) The Amazons. (Ag.: Jour, in Brazil, 435; Orton : Andes and Amazon.)' 
 (4.) Erosion of plateaux, basins and plains. 
 
 (a.) Colorado plateau. (D.645; L. 16; W. 346, 348; Ives: Rep. Col. Exped.,,, 
 
 76, 80, 98-118; Newb., Ives' Rep., 45, 54-64; Wheeler: Prelim. Rep., 1871, 23; 
 
 Powell : Color. Riv. ; Endlich, Bui. Hayd. Surv., iv., 831-64, on erosion in 
 
 Col.) 
 (P.) Bridger Basin. (King's Rep. tpth Par., iii., 238. - - Bear River region. 
 
 (King's Rep. <pth Par., iii., 326-39.) 
 (c.) Plains of Texas and New Mexico. (Kimball, Proc. A. A. A. S., Salem, 174.) 
 
 - The "Great Plains." The Basin of Middle Tennesee. (W. 341-3; 
 
 Safford : Geol. Tenn., 134-5, and map.) 
 (d.) Bridges and Arches. (W. 248, 31, 89, 91 ; Endlich, Hayd. Rep., 1875, 158, pi. 
 
 xx.; Reclus: Earth, 240.) 
 
 (<.) Circumdenudation. (D. 648.) -- Columns, Pyramids, Mesas. (D. 641 ; L. 
 16; W. 247 ; Ly.: Elem., 78, 268, 70, 556; King: Geol. apth Par., i.,96, Frontis- 
 
 piece, 396-401 ; Endlich, Hayd. Ann. Rep., 1874, 195, 207 ; Ives: Col. Exped., 
 
 76,64; Newb., Ives' Col. Exped., 20,30, 76-91; En dlich, Hayd. Ann. Rep., 
 
 1875, 156-8, plates xix., xx. ; Holmes, ib., 256, pi. xli., xlii., 268-72, pi. xliv., 
 
 xlv. ; Forsyth, Yellowstone Exped., 1875, 8-" Castle Rocks." ' Garden 
 
 of the gods." (Peale, Hayd. Ann. Rep., 1872, 100; 1873, 36; Marvine, Hayd. 
 
 Ann. Rep., 1873, 265 : Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1874, pi. viii., ix.) ' Monu- 
 
 ment Park." (D. 646 ; Hayden : Ann. Rep., 1873, 32 ; ib., 1874, 36, 40, and pi. 
 
 iii., iv.) Compare needles, columns and tables on glacier surfaces. 
 
 (Reclus: Earth, 193; Tyndall : Glaciers of the Alps, Hours of Exercise in 
 
 the Alps; Lect. XVIII., V.) 
 (/.) "Bad Lands." (L. 247-8; W. 205, 206, 296; Owen: Geol. North-west, 196-9 ; 
 
 Hayden: Rep. Wyom., 1870, 145-6; King: Geol. jflth -Par., i., Frontisp., 9, 
 
 396-401.) 
 
 oreign examples. (Ly. : Elem., 67-78; ch. xix.) 
 
 (6.) Erosion of mountains. (See Lecture XXIV., II.) 
 
 (6.) Underground erosions. (D.6/S3-4; L. 68, 70; Reclus: Earth, 245-60; Comstock, 
 Jones' N. W. Wyom., 181-2.) 
 
 III. Avalanches, mountain- downfalls and landslips. (Re"clus: 
 Earth, ch. xxvii. ; Payot: Guide itineraire au Mont Blanc; Bake- 
 well : Geol., 385 ; Ly. : Prin., 708 ; D. 655.) Lowering of 
 
 Mountains. (Orton, Am. Jour. Sci., ii., 267.)
 
 57 
 XXVIH. THE OLD AGE OF CONTINENTS. 
 
 I. The Mass of the Sedimentary Bocks a measure of past 
 
 denudations. (L. 263.) 
 
 1. Origin of marine sediments. 
 
 2. Nearly all the known rocks of sedimentary origin. Where 
 
 were the lands worn down to supply the material ? 
 
 3. Their direction indicated by gradations in the coarseness of the 
 
 sediments. (D. 373.) -- Appalachian materials and their north- 
 eastern origin. (D. 251 ; Hall: Pal. N. Y., iii., Introduc.) 
 The Potsdam Sandstone a shale in Alabama. 
 
 II. The Archaean Lands of North America. 
 
 1. Archaean sediments imply shore-erosions. 
 
 2. The old Archaean surface extensively eroded before Cambrian 
 
 time. (King: Geol. 4Qth Par., i.) 
 
 3. These lands themselves formerly more extensive. Eroded 
 
 during Palaeozoic time. 
 
 4. Their substance built into Palaeozoic and later formations. 
 
 II. The old Caribbean Continent. (Bland, P. A. P. S., xii., 56, etc. ; 
 Cope, P. A. N. S., 1868 ; P. T. Cleve, A. J. S., III., iv. 235.) 
 
 1. Its surviving relics. 
 
 2. Involved small areas in South America. 
 
 3. Tradition of a cataclysm in the Antilles. (Foster : Prehistoric 
 
 Races, U. S., 396-9 ; Catlin : The Lifted and Subsided Rocjcs of 
 America, Lond., 1870.) 
 
 IV. The Lemurian Continent. 
 
 1. The Mascarene islands. (Milne-Edwards, \Comptes Rendus, 15 Apr., 
 
 1872, 1030-4; Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iv., 72 ; Am. Jour. Sci., iv., 
 138.) 
 
 2. Evidences of former extension to Java. 
 
 V. A Supposed Polynesian Continent. (D. 583; Leidy: Ext. Mam. 
 
 of Dak. and Neb., 1869, 36, 356 ; Huxley, Anniversary Add., Lond. 
 Geol. Soc., 1870 ; Cope, P. A. P. S., 1871, 55, 99, and P. A. N. S., 
 1867, 156.) 
 
 VI. The wasted Aleutian Connection. (L. 535 ; W. 25. See under 
 
 last head.) 
 
 VII. The "fabled" Atlantis. 
 
 1. Historical reminiscences. (Plato: Timseus and Oritias,. Jowett's 
 trans., ii., 462, 519-21, 588, 599-607 ; Theopompus, auc. Aristotle, 
 in Plutarch: Consolatio ad Apollonium, \ 27; Compare Preller: 
 Griechische Mythol, i., 453 ; Timagenes, auc. Amm. Marcellinus, in 
 Miiller's Fragmenta Histor. Orsec.. iii., 323; Marcellus, in Miiller, 
 op. cit., iv., 443.) 
 E
 
 58 
 
 2. The old stump of Atlantis perhaps discovered. (Wild, in Nature, 
 March 1, 1877, 377. Compare Thomson : Voyage of the Challenger. 
 The Atlantic, i., Ch. ii., App. B., p. 93.) Grounds for sup- 
 
 posing a "Miocene Atlantis." (Heer: Flora Tertiaria Helvetica, 
 1855-9; Saporta, Annales des Sci. Natur., 1862, and Le Monde des 
 Plantes, 1878 ; Newberry, Hayden's Explor. Yellowstone and Mis- 
 souri Riv., 1859-60, 173-4 ; Ch. Martins, Revue des Deux Mondes, 
 1867 ; Cleve, A. J. S., III., iv., 235. See also the palseontological 
 generalizations of Moore, Duncan, Sowerby, Guppy, Leidy, 
 Marsh and Cope.) 
 
 VIII. Wastage of visible areas. (D. 637-47, 663-4 ; L. 245-51 ; W. 
 ch. xxxi. See also Lectures XXVII. and XXIV.) 
 
 1. The Alleghanies. (D. 647 ; L. 263 ; W. 339-40.) 
 
 2. The Catskills. 
 
 3. Faulting and Denudation in Wyoming Territory. (Powell : Uinta 
 
 Mts. ; L. 263.) 
 
 4. The gold-bearing gulches of California. (L. 554-7.) 
 
 5. Sundry other examples. (D. 647 ; L. 15 ; E. Hitchcock : Geol. Vt., 
 
 i., 226; Gilbert: Geol. of Henry Mts.} 
 
 IX. Bate of Continental Erosion. 
 
 1. Croll's estimate, 1 ft. in 6,000 yrs. (Phil. Mag., May, 1868, 378-84; 
 
 Feb., 1867, p. 1830; Climate and Time, ch. xx. ; Trans. Geol. Soc., 
 Glasgow, iii., 153.) 
 
 2. Heade's estimate, 500,000,000 yrs. since sedimentation began in 
 
 Europe. (Annual Add., Liverpool Geol. Soc.; Am. Jour., 1876, 462.) 
 
 3. Geikie's estimate, 1 ft. in 6,000 yrs. (Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc.; Pop. 
 
 Sci. Monthly, Sep., 1879, 598.) 
 
 4. These estimates apparently too low. - Erosion by the Ganges, 
 
 1 ft. in 1751 yrs., and by the Mississippi, 1 ft. in 4,640 years. (L. 
 10-11.) 
 
 XXIX. GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 
 
 WINCHELL: Sketches of Creation, ch. xxv.; Dana: System of Mineralogy, 724-5. 
 
 I. Chemical Constitution of Crude Petroleum. (Warren : Mem. 
 
 Amer. Acad., II., ix., x. ; Am. Jour. Sci., II., xl., xlv., xlvi.) 
 J. Series of Hydrocarbons. (D. Syst. Min., 720-2; Crosby, Am. Nat., 
 
 Apr., 1879, 231.) - Table. -- Differential between cellulose 
 
 and Petroleum. (L. 379.) 
 2. Compounds more and less volatile. (L. 380 ; W. 280.) 
 
 II. Organic Origin of Petroleum. (L. 379.) 
 1. Its organic constitution chemically.
 
 59 
 
 2. Its producibility from organic substances and black shales. (D. 
 
 268; W. 281.) 
 
 3. Its natural association with organic dZbris. 
 
 4. The origin chiefly vegetable. Indications. - The hypo- 
 
 thesis of animal origin. (Hunt: Chem. and Geol. Ess., 168-82; A. 
 .1. S., III., i., 420-4, on Chicago limestone ; A. J. S., ii., 369 ; Geol. 
 Canada, 526-8 ; A. J. Warner, A. J. S., ii., 215.) A contro- 
 
 versy. 
 
 in. Its Vertical Distribution in the rocks. (L. 376-7 ; W. 280-1.) 
 - In gneiss and mica schist. (Am. Jour., II., xlv., 38.) 
 
 IV. Laws of Accumulation. (L. 377; W. 287.) 
 
 7 s !. A source situated l>dow the place of accumulation. 
 
 (1.) In every actual instance we find a bituminous shale. (W. 282, 288 ; Warner, A. 
 
 J. S., ii., 215.) 
 
 (2.) Limestones not an abundant source. (W. 277-8 ; Hunt, Geol. Can., 521-6.) 
 (3.) Argillaceous mixtures predispose to liberation of petroleum. 
 
 2. An anticlinal axis required to direct the movement of the libera- 
 
 ted product. 
 
 3. A reservoir to retain the supply. (W. 287.) - - Porous sandstone. 
 
 (W. 293.) - Shattered rock. (W. 292.) - - Cavernous lime- 
 stone. (W. 292.) 
 
 4. An impervious covering to prevent escape. (W. 282, 287.) 
 
 V. Forms of Inspissated Petrolenm. (D. Man. Min., 95 ; Peckham, 
 
 Ann. Jour., II., xlviii., 362, and other references there; Hunt, 
 Geol. Can., 521-6. 
 
 1. Asphalt. (D. Syst. Min., 751.) ^Ibertite. (D. 296, 315 ; Wether- 
 
 ill, Trans., A. P. S., 1852, 353 ; Hitchcock, Am. Jour., II., xxxix, 
 267.) Found in Green River Eocene and elsewhere. (Hayden : 
 Ann. Rep., 1870, 144, 181.) A Grahamite. (D. 315: L. 380 ; Les- 
 ley, Proc.. A. P. S., ix., 183 ; Wurtz, Am. Jour., II., xlii., 420 
 Piauzite. (D. Syst. Min., 753.) Berengelite. (D. Syst. Min., 
 
 753.) 
 
 2. Pitch-lakes. (On Trinidad, Crosby, Am. Nat., Apr., 1879, 239 seq. ; 
 
 Wall, Proc. Geol. Soe.., Lond., May 1860.) "Gum-beds." (W. 
 
 291-2: Dana: Syst. Min., 727; Crowther, Am. Jour., II., xlvi., 147, 
 in Mexico.) 
 
 VI. Common Fallacies. 
 
 1. That Petroleum comes from coal. (W. 276, 280.) 
 
 2. That a strong surface show is favorable. (W. 276.) 
 
 3. That a saturated rock insures a supply. (W. 277, 278-80.) 
 
 4. That geological and hydrostatical principles can be disregarded. 
 
 (W. 275.) Formations explored in vain. Unproduc- 
 
 tiveness of the Corniferous and Niagara limestones. (D. 222, 256;
 
 60 
 
 W. 278-80, 289-91 ; Hunt : Chem. and Oeol Essays, 168-82 ; Warner, 
 A. J. S., ii., 215.) Surface shows tempting to mislead. (W. 
 
 276, 278.) 
 
 VII. Formations yielding paying quantities : Cincinnati 
 
 Group. (W. 289, 292.) - Hamilton Group. (W, 289, 292.) 
 Genesee Shale. (W. 288, 293.) Chemung Group. (W. 293.) 
 
 - Marshall (Waverly) Group. (W. 293.) Carboniferous 
 
 Limestone. (W. 293.) - - Parma Conglomerate. (W. 293.) 
 Coal Measures. (W. 293.) Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. 
 
 (B. S. Lyman, Trans. Am. P. S., xv., 1, Punjab; A. J. S., III., iii., 
 392 ; Report of Colonial Geologists, London, 1860, 134, seq.; Schom- 
 burgh : Hist, of Barbadoes, 553, 569 ; A. J. S., III., iii., 481, Santo 
 Domingo.) 
 
 Vm. Phenomena of Oil-Wells. (W. 284.) 
 
 1. Pumping wells. (W. 285, 284.) Spouting wells. (L. 377 ; W. 
 
 284.) -- Intermittent wells. (VV.285.) -- Flowing wells. (W. 
 285.) - - Water wells. Gas wells. (W. 283 ; Rep. on well 
 
 in Knox Co., O.; Wurtz, Am. Jour., II., xlix., 336; Newberry, 
 Am. Chemist, Dec., 1870 ; A. J. S., i., 146) 
 
 2. Productiveness of oil-wells. (W. 286, Appendix, Note VIII.) 
 IX. Exhaustion and Recuperation of "Wells. 
 
 XXX. GEOLOGY OF SALT AND GYPSUM. 
 
 C. A GOESSMAN : Chemistry of Common Salt, Am. Jour. Sci., II., xlix., 78-89. 
 
 I. Primordial Origin of the Saltness of the Sea. 
 
 1. Early chemical reactions. (W. 59-64; Hunt: Essays, 2d paper.) - 
 
 Table. (W. 61.) 
 
 2. Why we associate salt and gypsum. 
 
 II. Origin of Salt Lakes. (Compare L. 74 ; Darwin : Geol. Obs., pi. ii., 
 
 75.) 
 
 1. Sometimes solutions of contiguous salt deposits. (W. 295; D., 
 
 630 ; L. 73.) 
 
 2. Generally residua of bodies of sea-water. (L. 73.) - - Conditions 
 
 of their perpetuity. -- Shrinkage of most salt lakes. (W. 295 ; 
 L. 75.) - - Dead Sea. (Not as in L. 73.) Great Salt Lake. 
 
 (D. 561 : L. 75.) - Disappearance of salt lakes. (W. 295 ; Lect. 
 XX., IV., 2.) - - By drainage they may become fresh. (D. 23.) 
 HI. Salt Lakes of Former Ages 
 
 1. Isolation and evaporation. (W. 297 ; D. 235, 696 ; Hunt : Essays, 
 104.) -- Occasional accession of sea-water. (D. 236.) -- Mix- 
 ture of earthy sediments. (D. 235 ; L. 75.)
 
 61 
 
 2. Order of deposition as evaporation proceeds. (W. 297, 302 ; L. 75.) 
 
 - The Salina basin. Same order in artificial evaporation. 
 
 3. Why gypsum always accompanies salt Error of supposing 
 
 them naturally in separated formations -- Gypsum not a sec- 
 ondary product. (W. 297; Compare D. 234, 235; L. 75.) 
 
 4. The salt sometimes reduced again to brine. Salt springs. 
 
 5. Thus salt formations proceed from evaporation of ancient out- 
 
 liers of the ocean. (W. 296 ; D. 235 , Compare R6clus : Earth, 402, 
 seq.) 
 
 IV. Conditions of Brine Accumulation. 
 
 1. A source located above. (W. 300-1.) 
 
 2. A dish-shaped conformation. (W. 298.) - - Effect of a persistent 
 
 dip. (W. 298.) 
 
 3. Remoteness from outcropping border of the basin. (W. 299.) 
 
 Salt springs generally marginal. (W. 299.) Do not indicate 
 localities where strong supplies may be sought. (W. 299.) 
 
 4. A good brine-well must be a pumping, not a flowing, well. (W. 
 
 299-300.) 
 
 V. Principal Salt-Formations of the eastern United States. 
 
 1. The Salina Formation. (W. 303.) Its distribution. 
 
 Source of the supplies in Onondaga county, N. Y. (W. 303.) 
 Geological structure. (W. 303.) Affords rock-salt in sundry 
 localities. - Goderich, Ont. (W. 304 ; D. 234.) Alpena 
 
 and Mackinac, Mich. Hope of reaching it by boring in 
 
 New York. - - Abingdon, Va. 
 
 2. The Michigan Salt Group. (W. 304 ; D. 295, 377.) Its restric- 
 
 tion to Mich, and perhaps Nova Scotia. Its reservoir the 
 
 Marshall sandstone. (W. 304.) - - Productiveness. 
 
 3. The Coal Measures. (W. 305.) - Especially in Mich. (W. 305 ; 
 
 Geol. Mich., 165-93.) The reservoir in the Conglomerate. 
 
 (W. 305.) - - Hence Michigan is underlaid by three concentric 
 salt-basins. General salinity of Michigan strata, and the 
 
 cause. - - Mineral wells of the state. 
 
 4. Other salt and brine deposits in the U. S. The Cretaceous. 
 
 (W. 306.) Petite Anse, La. (W. 306 ; Hilgard, Am. Jour., 
 
 Jan. 1869, xlvii., 77 ; Goessman, Am. Bur. Mines, 1867.) 
 
 5. European Salt Beds mostly Triassic. (D. 424.) 
 
 XXXI. METHOD IN THE HISTORY OF LIFE. 
 
 I. The Conception of Progress. (D. 593-7.) 
 
 1. Retrospect of organic succession. 
 
 2. The progress fluctuating, but real. (D. 598.)
 
 3. Expansion of types mostly upward, but partly downward. (D. 598.) 
 
 4. Other possible orders of organic succession. 
 (1.) Unchangeability. 
 
 (2.) Regression from primitive perfection. 
 
 (3.) Progress by a succession of unrelated plans (Discontinuous.) 
 
 IL Persistence and Pervasiveness of Organic Types. 
 
 1. Fundamental Identity in Differentiated structures. 
 , (1.) Fundamental plans of organic structure. (D. 594.) 
 
 (2.) Exemplification from the Vertebrate type. 
 
 (a.) Generalized conception of the Vertebrate. (Hux., 25; Flower: Osteal, of 
 
 Mam. 104-5 ' Owen : The Skeleton and the Teeth, 26-34.) 
 (b.) Homologies of parts. Limbs. Jaws. 
 
 (c.) Persistence of the vertebrate conception. Pervasiveness in diversified 
 modifications. 
 
 2. Progressive differentiation of structures fundamentally indenti- 
 
 cal. (D. 595.) -- Progressive cephalization. (D. 596.) 
 
 3. The rate of this progress different along different lines of affili- 
 
 ation. 
 
 (1.) Explanation. 
 
 (2.) Hence, different stages of differentiation become contemporaneous. 
 (3.) Types representative of earlier times, handed down to later. (D. 594.) 
 
 (a.) The general type of Eozoon existed in all subsequent ages. 
 
 (b.) All forms comparatively lower the representatives of earlier ages. 
 
 III. Apparent Breaches of the Law of Progress. 
 
 1. Persistent Forms. (Hux.: Critiques and Addresses, 186; Lay Ser- 
 
 mons, 216-27.) 
 
 (1. Globigerinse. (Hux.: Lay Serm., 198; Carpenter, A. J. S., II , xlix., 415.) 
 
 Crinoids. (Sars, A. J. S., II., xlvlii., 142; xlix., 130; Loven, A. J. S., II., 
 xlviii., 429; Pouriales, Bui. Mus. Comp. Zool.. Cambr., No. 11 ; Proc, Roy. Soc., 
 xvii., 168 and Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 383 and iv., 112; W. B. Car- 
 penter, Phil. Trans., 1866, vol., clvi.) Lingulidse. (D. 594.) Discinidse 
 - Rhynchonella. Terebratulina caput-serpentis. (Hux. ; Lay Serm., 198.) 
 Atrypa reticularis. Strophomena rhomboidalis. Nautilus. 
 Belemnoteuthis. Ceratodus. (D. 594 ; Krefft, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1870, 221 ; 
 
 Giinther, Ann. Mag. N. H., IV., vii., 222 ; A. J. S. III., 387 ; Archiv, f. Natur- 
 gesch., 37 Jahrg., 1871, Bd., i., 321, etc. ; Haeckel : Anthropogenie, 439, 442, 588, 
 715.) Pleur acanthus. Highest Lacertilians. 
 
 (2.) All the (20) classes and 75 out of 92 fossilizable orders have persisted to the 
 present. 
 
 2. Regressive Forms. 
 (1). Among extinct species. 
 
 (a.) From Cambrian Paradoxides to lowest Articulates, and to Molluscs, Radi- 
 ates and Protozoans (if we ignore Eozoon.) 
 
 (b.) From Cambrian Tetrabranchiates to lower orders of Molluscs and other 
 animals. 
 
 (c.) From Triassic Mammals to Jurassic Dinosaurs and Birds. 
 {2.) Among living species. 
 
 (a.) Proteids lower than earliest Amphibians. 
 
 (b.) Pharyngobranchs and Marsipobranchs lower than earliest Fishes.
 
 63 
 XXXII. METHOD IN THE HISTORY OF LIFE. (Continued.) 
 
 I. The resolution of Organic Types. (D. 597.) 
 
 1. Resolution discriminated from Differentiation. 
 
 2. Every type the potential or stock of a series of differentiations, 
 
 and also of resolutions. 
 
 3. Unresolved types generally prophetic. 
 (1.) Sauroid Fishes prophetic of Reptiles. 
 
 (2.) Ornithoscelid Reptiles prophetic of Birds. 
 
 (3.) Ichthyosaurian Reptiles prophetic of Cetaceans . 
 
 (4.) The unresolved Amblypoda prophetic of modern orders of Mammals. 
 
 4. Unresolved types often retrospective. 
 
 (1.) Labyrinthodonts and atnphicoalian Reptiles retrospective toward Fishes. 
 (2.) Birds with teeth and vertebrated tails retrospective toward Reptiles. 
 (3.) Zeuglodonts and Cetaceans retrospective toward Ichthyosaurs. 
 
 5. When a higher differential is unresolved, the type is prophetic ; 
 
 when a lower, it is retrospective. 
 
 II. Successive Dominance of Organic Conceptions. (D. 597.) 
 
 1. Represented by highly differentiated types which continue unre- 
 
 solved. As the Reptilian Type of Mesozoic Time. 
 
 Hence, it becomes dominant by manifestation under many modi- 
 fications and in many individuals. 
 
 2. Examples : 
 
 (1.) Rhizopods in the Eozoic. 
 
 (2.) Nautiloids in the Silurian. 
 
 (3.) Crinoids in the Earlier Carboniferous. 
 
 (4.) Ammonites and Reptiles in the Mesozoic. 
 
 (5.) Mammals in the Tertiary. Sthenorhiiies amongst early mammals. 
 
 (6.) Acrogens during the Coal Period . 
 
 III. Dominant Types Decline without Disappearing. 
 
 1. Foraminifera. -- Nautilidse. -- Crinoids. -- Terebratulidse. 
 
 - Ganoids. Crocodilians. - - Cycads. - Tree Ferns. 
 
 - Salisburioids, etc., 
 
 2. This results from arrest of differentiation and resolution. 
 
 IV. The Progress Ideally Continuous. 
 
 1. The same general plans of structure reproduced in successive ages 
 
 and different orders. 
 
 2. This not a demonstration of material continuity. 
 
 3. But all the phenomena explicable on the hypothesis of a material 
 
 or genetic continuity. 
 
 XXXIII. UNRESOLVED MAMMALIAN TYPES. 
 
 References are abbreviated as explained under Lecture XVII. 
 Some prominent examples of Unresolved types more particularly 
 considered.
 
 64 
 
 I. No Modern Mammalian Order definitely Isolated in the 
 
 beginning of Tertiary time. (C. III., 644.) 
 
 1. Specifications of primitive ordinal types. 
 
 2. Affinities with modern Perissodactyla, Proboscidians, Rodents 
 
 and Plantigrade Carnivores. 
 
 II. Common characteristics of oldest Eocene Mammals. 
 
 1. Lack of differentiation among the teeth. 
 
 2. The selenodont type of teeth entirely wanting. 
 
 3. All the ungulates had upper and lower incisors. 
 
 4. These early mammals mostly 5-toed and plantigrade. 
 
 5. Brains small and imperfectly convoluted. (Mh. viii., July, 1874.) 
 
 III. The type designated AMBLYPODA by Oope. (C. VIII., 178, 182, 
 
 273, 282.) 
 
 1. General characters. - Unites Proboscidea and Perissodactyla. 
 
 2. Coryphodon. Connects most generalized Herbivores with 
 
 most generalized Carnivores. (L. 502.) - - Possessing affinities 
 with Perissodactyls, Proboscidians, Carnivores and Dinocerata. 
 (C. VIII., 187.) 
 
 3. IKnoceras. Description. -- Combined characters suggestive 
 
 of Rhinocerus, Ruminants, Equidse, Hippopotamus and Mastodon. 
 
 4. Uintatherium (? ZHnoceras) united characters of Proboscidians, 
 
 Tapirs and especially Dinoceras. (L. III., 93 seq.) 
 
 5. Orohippus C?=Hyracothgrium) has connections with Palseotherium, 
 
 Palaeosyops, Anchitherium and Horse. (C. VIII., 260.) 
 
 IV. The type designated BUNOTHERIA by Oope (C. VIII., 72, 85,) 
 
 has affinities ranging from the gy rencephalous orders to the 
 Prosimise, Quadrumana and Carnivora. 
 
 1. Creodonts : Resemble Sarcophagous Marsupials, Dogs, Insectiv- 
 
 ora, Lemurs, and, in the tibia, Coryphodon - - Differ from Car- 
 nivores in ungrooved upper surface of astragalus, and want of 
 coossification of scaphoid and lunar bones. (C. VIII., 76, 78.) 
 Differ in certain points from all other orders. (C. VIII., 79.) 
 
 2. Mesodonts, intermediate between Creodonts and Lemurs. 
 
 Possess affinities with Simise, Insectivora and Ungulates. 
 
 3. Tillodonts : Tillotherium. (L. 503-4.) - Description -- Com- 
 
 bined characters of Bear, Rodents, Ungulates (Palseotherium), 
 and Insectivores (Hedgehog.) 
 
 4. Tseniodonts : Inferior incisors like Rodents ; upper, suggestive 
 
 of Edentates ; molars, like Tillodonts. 
 
 V. The type designated Brontotheridae by Marsh. (Mh. ix., 
 
 245; xi., 335.) 
 1. Brontotherium .-Description, (L. 505.) Was an odd-toed
 
 65 
 
 Ungulate, but resembled Dinoceras, Tapir and Proboscidians. 
 (Mh. xi., 339.) 
 
 2. Menodus= Titanotherium, related to Tapir, Palseothere, and Dinoceras. 
 
 (D. 506-7.) 
 
 VI. The type of Rhinoceridse. (C. ix., 227.) -- Presents affini- 
 ties with Hyracodon, Tapirulus, Lophiodonts and Tapirs ; and 
 indeed with Palseotherium and the Brontotheridse. 
 VI. Sundry types. 
 
 1. Oreodon united characters of Anoplotherium, Deer, Peccary and 
 Camel. 
 
 '2. Meniscotherium united characters of Palseosyops, Hyopotamus and 
 Hyracotherium (? Orohippus.) (C. V., 8 ; VIII., 251.) 
 
 3. Eocene Diplacodon united characters of Limnohyus and Miocene 
 
 Brontotherium. (Mh. ix., 246 ; xi., 339.) 
 
 1. Hypertragulus was intermediate between Tragulidse and typical 
 Ruminants. (C. X., 66.) 
 
 5. Orotherium united Tapiroids and Hyracotherium. 
 
 6. Dinotherium (Miocene) earliest of Proboscidioid types, united 
 
 characters of Elephant, Hippopotamus, Tapir, Dugong and (in 
 marsupial bones) Marsupials. (Am. Jout., II., xxxviii., 427.) 
 
 7. Stegosauria possessed affinities with Dinosaurs, Plesiosaurs and 
 
 remotely with Chelonians. (Mh. A. J. S., III., xiv., 513.) 
 
 XXXIV. MISSING LINKS. 
 
 I. Unavoidable Imperfection of the Known Record. 
 
 1. Most animals that have lived have completely perished. 
 
 (1.) The calcareous secretions of marine forms the principal relics preserved. 
 
 (2.) All animals without hard secretions have perished. 
 
 (3.) Terrestrial Vertebrates preserved only by burial in sediments. 
 
 (4.) Fossils of ancient rocks destroyed by metamorphism. 
 
 2. The fossiliferous rocks very imperfectly explored. 
 (1.) No region or locality completely exhausted. 
 
 (2.) The greater part of the earth quite uninvestigated. 
 
 3. The known record presents many gaps in the graduated succession 
 
 of organic form. 
 
 4. But the number and the breadth of the gaps continually dimin- 
 
 ishing. 
 
 II. Missing Links between Inorganic Matter and the First 
 
 Known Organisms. (Dawson : Story, 325.) 
 
 1. Assuming Eozoon to be organic. 
 
 2. Assuming Eozoon to be inorganic. 
 
 (1.) Rank of first Cambrian types, Brachiopods and Trilobites. 
 (2.) Absence of Polyzoa. Appeared in the fifth (Chazy) fauna. 
 (3.) Absence of Echinodermata, Coelenterata and Protozoa.
 
 III. Q-ap between Invertebrates and Vertebrates. 
 
 1. Appearance of Fishes in early Devonian or late Silurian. 
 
 2. Rank and distinctness from nearest related older tpyes. 
 (1.) Ganoids, Placoderms and Selachians. 
 
 (2.) Eurypterus and Pterygotus. May be compared with the later Pterichtkys. 
 But no structural resemblance. 
 
 3. The gap occupied in the modern world by Myxinoids, (Hux. 109.) 
 
 Lampreys, (Hux. 110) and Lancelots. (Hux. 104.) 
 
 IV. Gap between Pishes and Amphibians and Reptiles. 
 
 1. Earliest known Amphibians, Raniceps, Amphibamus, Baphetes, An- 
 
 thracosaurus. 
 
 2. Highest type of contemporaneous fishes. 
 
 3. This gap also occupied in the modern world by lower Amphibi- 
 
 ans (Salamanders and Proteids) and Dipnoans. (Hux. 145. Also 
 Lect., XXXI., III., 1. (1).) 
 
 4. But reptilian Eosaurus also lived with first Amphibians. 
 
 V. Gap between Mammals and older Vertebrates. 
 
 1. First Mammals insectivorous Marsupials during Triassic. (D. 416.) 
 
 2. Not known to be preceded by Birds. 
 
 3. The highest Reptiles followed the first Mammals. 
 
 4. The vertebrate succession is from Lizard-like and Alligator-like 
 
 Reptiles to Mammals. No connecting links known, either 
 
 extinct or living. 
 
 5. Or, it is from highest Amphibians (Triassic Labryrinthodonts) to 
 
 Mammals. -- Connecting links equally unknown. 
 
 6. But the mammalian line, in the living world, descends two steps 
 
 lower, in Ornithorhynchus and Echidna. (Hux. 274.) 
 
 VI. No certain connecting links between Marsupial and Pla- 
 
 cental Mammals. 
 
 1. Mammals exclusively Marsupial to end of Mesozoic time. 
 
 2. Csenozoic time opens with a diversified fauna of placental mam- 
 
 mals. 
 
 VII. The Gap between Man and Lower Mammals. (Daws.: 
 
 Story, 328.) 
 
 1. The distinction structural, but not in respect to rank of the gen- 
 
 eral structure. 
 
 (1.) Man's organism generally not superior. - In some respects retrospective. 
 (2.) But all correlations with his psychic nature a great advance. Relative 
 
 capacity of cranium. Extreme cephalization. 
 
 2. No connecting forms as yet discovered. - Not so with existing 
 
 apes and their predecessors. 
 
 VIII. A Gap between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. 
 
 1. To the end of the Jurassic, we know only Conifers and Cycads 
 among flowering plants.
 
 67 
 
 2. With earliest Cretaceous, appear abundant Angiosperms. 
 These even closely akin to modern species. 
 
 XXXV. MISPLACED CONNECTING LINKS. 
 
 I. Links structurally intermediate separable into two classes. 
 
 1. Intermediate terms chronologically discordant. Styled by 
 
 Huxley " intercalary types." ( Critiques and Addreses, 188.) 
 
 2. Intermediate terms chronologically concordant. Styled by 
 
 Huxley " linear types." (Ibid.) 
 
 II. Certain LIVING FORMS intercalary between extinct forms. 
 
 1. Gregarinidae stand between Eozoon and inorganic matter. 
 
 2. Seven Crustacean orders between Cambrian Trilobites and Eozoon. 
 
 - Also all Echinodermata and Coelenterata. 
 
 3. Living Dog-Fishes between Devonian Selachians and lower forms. 
 
 - Also Hag-Fishes and Lancelots. - Such examples abun- 
 dant. 
 
 III. Certain EXTINCT FORMS intercalary between forms more 
 
 remotely extinct. (See references, Lecture XV.) 
 
 1. Pterodactylus, a reptile with wings, ornithic scapula, coracoid and 
 
 other conformations. (Hux. : 229; Mivart: Genesis of Species, 84 ; 
 Seeley, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Aug. 1870, 140 ; Ornithosauria, 
 and Index to Foss. Rem. Woodw. Mus.) Middle Oolite to later 
 
 Cretaceous. - - Ornithopsis Seeley. (Ann. Mag. N. H., IV., v. 279 ; 
 A. J. S., II., xlix., 393. 
 
 2. Ramphorhynchus and Dimorphodon, reptiles with wings and horny 
 
 tip of mandibles, but a long tail. (Hux. 231-2.) Lower to 
 
 Middle Oolite. 
 
 3. Pteranodon, a reptile with wings, short tail, no teeth, and bird-like 
 
 head. - - Later Cretaceous. 
 
 4. Arch&opteryx, a bird, but with long vertebrated tail and separate 
 
 metacarpals. (D. 447 ; Mivart : op. cit., 86.) - - Middle Oolite. 
 
 5. Ichthyornis, a bird with good wings, but with socketed teeth and 
 
 bi-concave vertebrae. Later Cretaceous. 
 
 6. Hesperornis, a bird with poor wings, and teeth in grooves. 
 
 Later Cretaceous. 
 
 7. Typical aquatic and cursorial birds. - - Later Cretaceous. 
 
 8. Remarkable showing of the preceding list of forms. 
 (1.) A striking general graduation from reptile to bird. 
 
 (2.) A strange crossing of structural affinities. 
 
 (3.) The line runs toward " carinate " and not " struthious " birds. 
 
 (4.) But the chronological order is not conformable to the structural. 
 
 IV. Another structural passage between Reptiles and Birds. 
 
 (Hux., 225-6 ; C.I., 86-90. See also references, Lect. XV.) Geii-
 
 68 
 
 eral characters of the Ornithoscelids. Generally regarded 
 
 as showing transition toward Struthious Birds. (C. I., 86-90.) 
 
 1. Jlguanodon, a reptile having tips of premaxillaries toothless. 
 
 Older Cretaceous or Later Jurassic. 
 
 2. Rhynchosaurus, with toothless mandibles. Trias of Europe 
 
 and America. 
 
 3. Hadrosaurus and Lselaps, with weak fore-legs and probably bipe- 
 
 dal attitude. Cretaceous of America. 
 
 4. Anomcepus, with four toes before, and three bird-like toes behind. 
 
 - Trias of Connecticut valley. 
 
 5. Compsognathus, with light, bird-like head, and astragalus anchy- 
 
 losed to tibia. (Hux., 225, 228.) -- Middle Oolite. 
 
 6. Laosaurus and Hypsilophodon, resembling last, but having ornithic 
 
 ischiac and post-pubic bones, and three toes. (Mh., xvi., 415-6, 
 pi. viii-x.) 
 
 7. Brontozoum, bipedal, three-toed, with ornithic arrangement of 
 
 phalanges. - - Trias of Connecticut. 
 
 8. Typical Struthious Birds. - - Later Cretaceous. 
 
 9. Conclusions from this showing : The structural gradations real. 
 
 - They run toward Struthious, and not Carinate, Birds. 
 
 The most bird-like Ornithoscelids the oldest. . Types con- 
 necting them with other reptiles follow instead of preceding. 
 The bulk of the reptile-fauna lived after the most bird-like 
 genera. Real birds believed to have existed simultaneously 
 with the most bird-like reptiles. Mammals certainly lived 
 at the same time. Nevertheless, the idea of serial relations 
 
 of structure was extant in the world. 
 V. Inferences from misplaced links only provisional. 
 
 1. Not at liberty to infer that the real chronological order was not 
 
 conformable to the structural. 
 
 2. Future discoveries may bring many of the facts into chronolog- 
 
 ical adjustment. 
 
 XXXVI. CONNECTING LINKS CHRONOLOGICALLY ADJUSTED. 
 
 Besides the works cited below, see Albert Gaudry, in researches 
 on the fossils of Pikermi and Mont L4beron ; W. Kowalewsky, in 
 investigations of the osteology of Hyopotamidae ; Huxley : Critiques 
 and Addresses, 181-217, Ann. Add., 1870; New York Lectures, 1876, N. 
 Y. Tribune Extra, No. 36 ; Cope : Stratigraphic relations of the Orders of 
 Reptilia, in Proc. Am. Acad., Boston, xix., 194 ; Am. J. S., III., ii., 217. 
 Consult, also, Haeckel : Naturliche Schdpfungsgeschichte and Anthro- 
 pogenie (both in English translation. See further, Part II., of the Syl- 
 labus.)
 
 I. The Horse-Series. (See Lect. XVII., IV., 1, (4) (6).) 
 
 1. Equus of the living fauna. (Hux. 293-307.) Marked state of 
 
 structural isolation. 
 (1.) Structures of the fore-limb. 
 (2.) Structures of the hind-limb. 
 (3.) Structures of the teeth. 
 (4.) Five or six American species, beginning late in Pliocene. 
 
 2. Pliohippus, of middle Pliocene or earlier. Smaller size. 
 
 Central digital series more slender. Splints more elon- 
 
 gated. Crown of Upper molars shorter, and crescentic 
 
 areas simpler. 
 
 3. Protohippus, of Early Pliocene. Size of Ass. Central dig- 
 
 ital series still m ore slender. Splints terminated by dangling 
 hooflets. - Ulna long as arm, but slender. - - Fibula rudi- 
 mentary. - - Crowns of molars much shorter. Anchippus 
 and European Hipparion (= Hippotherium) were closely related, 
 and Merychius was probably identical. -- Anchippus, Hipparion 
 and Stylonus constitute a collateral series. (Cope, IX., 14.) 
 
 4. Miohippus, of Late Miocene of Oregon. Size of sheep. 
 
 Three functional toes before and three behind. - - Also small 
 splint of Vth digit, before. Ulna distinct, long as radius, 
 but very slender distally. Fibula co-ossified with tibia at 
 lower end. Molar crowns decidedly short. Enamel 
 folds much simpler than in horse. The Older Miocene 
 Anchilherium, the oldest equine known in Europe, is closely re- 
 lated, but a little more specialized. 
 
 5. Mesohippus, of Oldest Miocene. Size of sheep. Three 
 
 functional toes before and three behind, but more nearly equal 
 than in Miohippus. - - Larger splints of Vth digit, before. 
 Radius and ulna distinct, and also tibia and fibula. 
 
 6. Epihippus, of Later Eocene. (Mh. A. J. S. III., xvii., 504.) 
 
 Resembled Orohippus in its digits, but differed in its teeth. 
 
 7. Orohippus of Middle Eocene of Wyoming and Utah. -- Size of 
 
 fox. Four functional toes before and three behind. 
 Ulna complete and distinct from radius ; tibia and fibula also 
 distinct. Molar crowns exceedingly short. Enamel 
 
 pattern simple. 
 
 8. Eohippus, of Oldest Eocene of New Mexico. Size of fox. 
 
 Four functional toes before and three behind. Rudi- 
 
 ment of outer or Vth toe behind, and hence, probably of 1st 
 digit before. - - Hoofs mere thick, broad and blunt claws. - 
 Molars less specialized than in Orohippus, without cement.
 
 70 
 
 Other structures similar. Carpal bones eight, and some- 
 
 what similar to tapir. 
 
 II. The Camel Series. (See Lecture XVII, V, 1, (2),(e) and VI., 1, (1). 
 
 1. Camelus of the living fauna. (Hux. 329.) Cervical vertebrae. 
 
 Metacarpals separated only by deep cleft. Large canines 
 
 in each jaw. - - Premaxillaries each with one incisor. 
 
 2. Procamelu* (=Homocamelus) of the Pliocene of Colorado. 
 
 Premaxillaries with full set of incisors ; but the lateral tempor- 
 ary. External incisors and canines alike. Molars 
 4-3. - Lateral rudimentary metacarpals wanting. - Trap- 
 ezoides wanting. -- Middle metacarpals finally united. 
 
 3. Protolabis of the Pliocene of Colorado. (Cope, P. A. N. S., 1876, 
 
 145 ; VIII., 325.) Full set of permanent upper incisors. 
 
 Molars 4-3, but the posterior are sub-prismatic. 
 
 4. Po'ebrotherium of the Miocene of Colorado. - Molars 4-3, as in 
 
 primitive mammals generally. The two metacarpals dis- 
 
 tinct. - - Rudiments of lateral metacarpals. - - The presence 
 of a trapezium, two digits and separated metacarpals allies it 
 with the older Anoplotheridse. 
 
 III. The Bhinocerus Series. (C. XL, 227-33.) 
 
 1. Ccelodonta of the Pliocence had dentition i - , c , and three 
 
 anterior digits. 
 
 2. Atelodus of the Upper Miocene had the same. 
 
 3. Ceratorhinus of the Middle Miocene had i , c ~, and digits the 
 
 same. -- Rhinocerus of the Upper Miocene and recent fauna 
 had the same. 
 
 2 
 
 4. Aceratherium of the ;Lower Miocene, had i y, c -, and fonr an- 
 
 terior digits, and no horn. Zalabis of the Upper Miocene 
 
 had i , c ; but this genus, as known, was chronologically mis- 
 placed. 
 
 5. Other characters of the genera were correspondingly graduated. 
 
 IV. Sundry Examples. (See fnrther, Huxley : Critiques and Ad- 
 
 dresses, 188-90 ; Owen|: Anat. of Vertebrates, ch., xl., 424 ; Cope, 
 Proc. Am. Acad., xix.) 
 
 1. Dicrocerus stands between Antilocapra and other mammals. 
 
 2. Slastomeryx, between Cariacus and older forms. (C. VIII., 223.) 
 
 3. Miocene Hyracodon, between Eocene Hyrachyus and modern mam- 
 
 mals. (Mh. ix., 244.) 
 
 4. Cercoleptes, between Carnivora and Quadrumana.
 
 71 
 
 5. Diplacodon, between Limnohyus and Srontotherium. (Mh. ix., 246.) 
 
 6. Pliocene Squalodon, between living Cetacea and Eocene Zeuglodon. 
 
 (Hux.: Grit., 190.) 
 
 7. The elephant series extends back through Elephas, Miocene 
 
 Dinotherium, Eocene Dinoceras, Lower Eocene Coryphodon to 
 tOligotomus. (C. III., 648.) 
 
 8. Dinotherium possessed Marsupial bones. 
 
 9. The oldest Tortoises (Psephoderma) intermediate between Lacer- 
 
 tilia and typical Tortoises. (Cope, Proc. Am. Acad., xix., 194.) 
 
 XXXVII. MAN IN THE LIGHT OF GEOLOGY. 
 
 I. Man the Fulfillment of the Prophecies of the Ages. 
 
 1. Meaning of the announcemont of a Law of Progress. 
 (1.) Progressive improvement of organic types. 
 
 (2.) Prophecy of the earliest Vetebrate. Man in potentiality. 
 (3.) Progressive modification of limbs. 
 
 (a.) Fibh. Amphibian. Reptile, Bird. Mammal. 
 
 (5.) Proclamation that man must conform to the same plan. 
 
 (c.) Psychic relations superadded to structural in the human arm. 
 
 2. Promise of an intelligent being in geological adaptations having 
 
 relations only to man. - - Coal. - Metals. - - Wells and 
 Springs. 
 
 II. Man's Birth-place Foreshadowed. 
 
 1. Faunal characteristics of the existing continents. 
 
 2. These established before the advent of Man. 
 
 3. The pinnacle of organization fixed in the Orient. 
 
 4. Corroborative evidences of Man's oriental origin. 
 
 (1.) Human migrations, as far as known, have been eastward. (Am. Jour., II. xlv., 
 376 ; Max Miiller : Chips ; Atlantic Monthly, 187S ; T. Poesche : Die Arier. erstes 
 Buch. ; Jubainville ; Les prem. Habitants de PEurope, ch. iii., iv.) and west- 
 ward from the Orient. (Jubainville : ut sup., and generality of writers,) 
 
 (2.) Cultivated plants have come from the East. (Pat. Office Rep., 1859, 299,361) - 
 Of 770 plants used for food, 566 came from the Eastern hemisphere. Of 
 237 amylaceous plants, 191 originated in the Old World. 
 
 III. Man the Culmination of the Organic Series. 
 
 1. The erect attitude attained. Progressive elevation of the lon- 
 
 gitudinal axis in older vertebral es. 
 
 2. Man- a cosmopolite, in opposition to the law of increasing restric- 
 
 tion of geographical range. 
 
 3. Nature, in man, seems to have reached a period. 
 (1.) Other animals his equal or superior structurally. 
 
 (2.) Man's structure, in some respects, retrospective. 
 (3.) In cephalization, far in advance. 
 
 4. Spiritual (educational) progress still possible. 
 
 5. Functional limitation of the progress of apiritualization.
 
 72 
 
 IV. Man's Advent ; since the Last Great Geological Revolu- 
 
 tion. 
 
 1. Restriction of human relics to most superficial deposits. 
 
 2. Man of history not preglacial. 
 
 3. Man of historical regions not preglacial. 
 
 4. Geological evidence knows nothing inductively, as yet, concern- 
 
 ing man of unhistorical races and regions. 
 
 V. Geological Man, as far as known, the Equal of Existing 
 
 Races. s 
 
 VI. Links Missing between Man and the animals next lower. 
 
 (Lecture XXXIV, VII.) 
 
 1. Man's affinities with anthropoid apes and lower Quadrumama. 
 
 2. Not held by evolutionists as a descendent of these. 
 
 3. No known relics of his assumed line of descent. 
 
 2. Provisional inferences of Wallace as an evolutionist. 
 
 5. Consequences of the establishment of Man's derivating origin. 
 Vn. Man's Organism bound up with the history of the Mate- 
 rial "World. 
 
 2. Identified with its inorganic history. -- Always conditioned by 
 
 physical surroundings. 
 2. Identified with its organic history. Interwoven in every 
 
 plan of organic structure and function. 
 VIII. Indications of a Psycjiic Principle correlated to the 
 
 Immaterial and the Immutable. 
 
 1. The plans of nature the products of Intelligence. 
 
 2. Forms change and perish, but nature's conceptions endure. 
 
 3. Man comprehends nature, and thus thinks the thoughts of the 
 
 Author of nature. 
 
 4. That which thinks as the Author of the Universe thinks, pos- 
 
 kindred nature, spiritual and imperishable.
 
 73 
 
 PART II, 
 THEORETICAL GEOLOGY, 
 
 XXXVIU. INTERNAL CONDITION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 [The questions concerning the internal condition of the earth, metamorphism and 
 the dynamics of volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain-making are so intimately con- 
 nected that most of the works cited here, and in Lectures XXIV, XXVI and XLIV.inay 
 be advantageously consulted on each of these subjects.] 
 
 W. HOPKINS, Transactions Royal Soc., 1836, p. 382 ; 1839, p. 38; 1840, p. 193 ; 1842, p. 
 48, maintaining existence of a very^thick and completely solid crust; On the Geological 
 Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes', Report Brit. Assoc. l?47, pp. 33-93, assigning vapors 
 as a cause; Q. J. Geol. Soc., viii, 56. 
 
 HENNESEY : Researches in Terrestrial Physics, Phil. Trans., 1851, 545. 
 POULETT SCROPE : Volcanoes, 8vo., 2d ed., 1872 ; Geol. Mag., Dec. 1878. 
 KEFERSTEIN: Naturgeschite des Erdkorpers 1834, vol i, 109; Butt. Soc. geologiquc dt 
 France, I. viii, 197. 
 
 CHARLES BABBAGE, Geological Notices, No. K6; Proc. Oeol. Soc., Lond., 1836 ii; Ninth 
 Bridgewater Treatise, Note G, 209-220. 
 
 / SIR JOHN HERSCHEL, Proc. Geol. Soc., Lond., 1836, ii, 548 ; Babbage's Ninth Bridge- 
 water Treatise, Note I, 225-247. 
 
 ROBERT MALLET, Dynamics of Earthquakes, Trans, Roy. Irish Acad., xxi, pt. i, 1846; 
 First Report to the Brit. Assoc., 1850; Facts and Theory of Earthquakes, Trans. Brit. Assoc., 
 1857-8., Fourth Report, (Other Reports in 1851,1852,1853,1854); The Great Neapolitan 
 Earthquake of I8o7, 2vols., 8vo, 186?, pt. iii, Principles of Seismology ; Earthquake Wave 
 Experiments, Phil. Trans., 1862, voJ . cliii ; Note on the History of certain recent Views on Dy- 
 namical Geology, A. J. S. Ill v. 302, Apr. 1873 ; Volcanic Energy : An Attempt to develop its 
 true Origin and Cosmical Relalicwt, Phil. Trans., 1873, pt. i, 147, abstract, A. J. 8., Ill, iv, 
 409-12, vii, 145-8; Additions to the foregoing memoir, Phil. Trans., 1875, vol. clxv, pt. 1, 
 (read May, 1878), abstract. A. J. S.. JH, viii, 140-1; On the present state of knowledge of Ter- 
 restrial Vulcanicity, the Cosmical failure and Relations of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, an In- 
 troduction to Prof. L. PALMiEKrs work on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1872, extract, A. J. 
 S., Ill, v. 219-25 ; On the Mechanism of Stromboli, Trans. Roy. Soc., 25 June, 1874, abstract, 
 A. J. S., Ill, viii, 200-2; On I lit Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing, and its Conse- 
 quences, Phil. Mag., July 1875 and A. J. S., Ill, x, 256-68; On the Origin and Mechanism 
 of Production of Prismatic 01 Columnar Structure of Basalt, Proc. Roy. Soc., 21 Jan. 1875, 
 abstract A. J. S., in, ix, 206-1 J. 
 
 T. S. HUNT: Chemical ami Geological Essays, (see also, review of same by.J. D. Dana, 
 A. J. S., Ill, ix, 102-9), especially Ih-wy of Igneous Rocks and Volcanoes (1858), pp. 1-10 ; 
 Probable Seat of Volcanic Actitn. (1860 >, pp. 59-69 ; Criticism of Joseph Leconte's views, A. 
 J. S., Ill, V. 264-70 (1875). 
 
 SIR W. THOMSON, Phil. J'rans. May 16 and Nov. 27, 1862, xii, 103, ib., 1864, on neces- 
 sary rigidity of the earth ; f bomsoii and Tail's Natural Philosophy. % 832, 833, 834, 847, 848 ; 
 Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow, iii: Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., xxiii, pt. i, 157, on the secular 
 cooling of the earth ; Natwc Jan. 18 and Feb. 1, 1872, objections to Mallet's theory. 
 X" J. D. DANA, A. J. S., II 1 .. v, i>3 ; vi, 6-14, 104-6 , 161-72. (See references Lect XLIV). 
 Also A. J. S., II, ii, 385 ; iii, 91, J7<> 880 ; iv, 88 ; xxii, 305, 335. 
 F
 
 74 
 
 ^ E. W. HILGARD: On some points in Malices Theory of Vulcanicity, A. J. S., Ill, vil, 
 535-46, June, 1874, and Phil. Mag., July, 1874, 41. 
 
 J. D. WHITNEY : North American Review, Apr. 1869. 
 
 HENRY WURTZ: Amer. Jour, of Mining, 25 fan. 1868 ; A. J. S., Ill, v. 385. 
 
 DAUBREE : Synthetical Studies and Experiments on Metamorphism, and on the Formation 
 of Crystalline Rocks, Ann. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1861, 228-3)4 trans, from 
 Annales des Mines, 5 ser., xvi, 155, 393, many references appended. On theory see pt. iii. 
 
 O. FISHER, Remarks upon Mf.MalleCs Theory of Volcanic Energy, Q. J. Geol. Soc., 
 Lond., xxxi, 469-78, 12 May, 1875 ; Camb. Phil. Trans., xi, pt. 3, p. 489 ; ib. pt. 2, p. 18. 
 
 GEN. G. J. BARNARD, Smithsonian Contributions, No. 240, difficulties in Mallet's the- 
 ory, but surmountable. 
 
 DELAUNAY, Comptes Rendus, July 13, 1868; Cours elementaire d' Astronomic, 643, 644. 
 
 STANISLAS MEUNIER : Lt del Geologique, 1871, 223. 
 
 D. FORBES, Na'ure, 6 Feb. 1872, difficulties of Mallet's theory. 
 
 F. W. HUTTON, Nature, 27 Nov. 1873. difficulties of Mallet's theory. 
 
 N. S. SHALER, Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., x, 237 ; xi, 8 ; Oeol. Mag., Nov. 1868, v. 5, 11 ; 
 Atlantic Monthly. 
 
 ARCHDEACON PRATT. Phil. Mag., xli, 307, 1871. 
 
 See, also, JAMES HUTTON: Theory of the Earth, with Proofs and Illustrations. In 4 pts. 
 Edinb. 2 vols. 8vo., 1795 ; JOHN PLAYPAIR : Illustrations of the Hattonian Theory of the 
 Earth. Edinb., 1802; YOUNG: Lectures on Natural Philosophy, i, 717, 1807 ; GAY-LUSSAC : 
 Annales de Chemie, xxii, 428 ; MILNE: The Lisbon Earthquakes of 1875 and 1861, Edinb. 
 Phil. J(jur., xxxi ; POISSONS : Note sur le rapport qui exinte entre les refroidissements progressif 
 de la masse dtt globe terrestre et celui de la surface, Comptes Rendus, xix. 1844, and 1'Institut, 
 1845, 32; B. TRASK, On California Earthquake of Jan. 1857, A. J. S., II, xxv, 146; J. 
 SCHMIDT : Dos Erdbeben von 29 Juli, 1846 ; and Untersuchungen iiber dem Erdbeben am 15 
 Jan. 1858. 
 
 ' I. Indications of Internal Heat. (Lects. II. and XXVI.; D. 699 ) 
 
 1. Traces of former heat upon the earth's surface. 
 
 2. Deep excavations, thermal waters, volcanoes. 
 
 A 3. Hypothesis of, intense chemical action. (Sir H. Davy, Phil. Trans. 
 
 1828, 1832; Lyell: Prin., 527-32; Daubeney, Jameson's Edinb. New 
 
 Phil. Jour., I'm., and Encyc. Metrop. pt. 40; Ennis: Origin of the 
 
 Stars. 
 
 4. More probable inference of a long cooling process still continued. 
 
 II. Hypothesis of thin Crust and Molten or Pasty Interior. 
 (0. Fisher, Camb. Phil. Trans, xii. pt. ii. ; Descartes: Principes de 
 la Philos., 1644, pt. iv., U 2, 44, 72; Newton ; Principia Math. Phil. 
 Nat., 1667 ; Leibnitz, Ada Eruditorum, Jan., 1693, and Prologsea, 
 1749 ; Buflbn : Les epoques de la nature, 1778.) 
 
 }Q.. Solidifying substaneesjloat in the molten magma. Water, 
 type-metal. 'Solidifying iron (College Courant, 13 Apr. 1872, 
 p 173 ; Nature, 10 May, 1877, 23 ; 8 Aug., 1878, 397, conclusive ex- 
 periments; 29 Aug., 1878, 464 ; xvi., 23 ; MaHet's apparently con- 
 tradictory experiments, Nature, No. 156, abstr. A. J. S., III., viii., 
 212 ; A. Schmidt, A. J. S-, III., viii., 287, explaining Mallet.) 
 Lava floating on liquid lava. (Scrope: Volcanoes, 84 ; Kaemtz: 
 Meteorology, 152 ; Marsh : Man and Nature, 545.
 
 75 
 
 2. Cooled terrestrial materials would float. 
 
 3. Indications of such a constitution of the earth. 
 
 (1.) Observed rate of increase of downward temperature. (Lects. II. and XXVI.) 
 (2.) Enormous lava outflows in geologic and recent periods. (Lect. XXVI., I.) 
 (3.) Reputed influence of moon on earthquakes. (Lect. XXVI., IV., 1.) 
 yt 4. Objected, that such a constitution gives the earth too little rigid- 
 ity. ( W. Hopkins, Thomson, ut sup., and Barnard's reply.) 
 /t 1 HI. Hypothesis of a Solidified Interior. (W. Hopkins, W. Thom- 
 son.) 
 ?' 1. Enormous pressure upon the central portions of the earth. 
 
 Solidification the probable result. This preceding super- 
 ficial solidification, (Thomson ) 
 2. General admission of this hypothesis. 
 
 IV. The Sources of Lava Supplies. 
 
 1. Theory of a plastic zone between the two solidified portions, 
 
 (Hunt, as above.) 
 
 (1.) A. transitional zone must probably exist. Too hot to be congealed, and 
 too superficial to be pressed solid. 
 
 (2.) Zone not supposed continuous. Contiguous volcanoes, like Mauna Loa 
 and Kilauea, not always sympathetic, (N. A. Review, cviii., 598.) Refriger- 
 ation may, in some places, reach the depth of solidification by pressure. 
 Hypothesis of lakes of plastic matter. 
 
 (3.) Position and volume of the plastic zone changeable, as pressure or conduc- 
 tivity of overlying masses varies. 
 
 2. Theory of a semi-fluid interior combined with superheated 
 
 water, (Fisher, Camb. Phil. Trans , xii., pt. ii.) Assumes -a 
 combination not known to be possible. 
 (3.) Theory of melting heat as the result of lateral crushing pressure 
 
 (Wurtz, Mallet. Leconte, Hilgard.) 
 (1.) Terrestrial shrinkage from cooling. 
 
 (2.) Experiments on the development of heat by crushing, (Mallet.) 
 (3.) Objections made to the contractional theory, (Thomson, Fisher, Barnard, 
 Button, Button.) 
 
 V. Denials of any Knowledge of the Earth's Interior. (Evan 
 
 Hopkins; James Hall, American Institute Lecture, New York, 
 1869, cited in W. 434. 
 
 XXXIX. PRIMORDIAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH. 
 
 LEIBNITZ: Protogsea, 1719. (abstract in Ada Eruditorwm, Leipzic, 1683.) or synopsis of 
 this by CONYBEARE, in Report British Association, 1832; Buffou: Theorie de to Terre. 
 3849; Epoques de la Nature, 1775. 
 
 I. All Presedimentary History Beached only by Deduction. 
 1. The oldest known rocks sedimentary. (Lect, JII.)
 
 76 
 
 2. But a process of cooling implies a fire-formed crust. This 
 
 probably remelted by ascent of geisothermal planes. (Lect. 
 III., I., 3.) 
 
 3. May reason backward, on the basis of the laws of matter and 
 
 force. This brings us to a completely molten condition. 
 (D., 146 ; W., 28-35 ; Leibnitz, ut supra.) Then to a vaporous 
 one. (D., 148 ; W., 36-9.) 
 
 4. The fluent condition indicated by the earth's spherical form. 
 
 5. A shrinkage explanation must probably be given of the counter- 
 
 action of the retarding influence of the tides on the earth's 
 rotation during 2,000 years. (W., 403-5; Helmholtz: Interac. 
 Nat. Forces, Younians' ed., 243-7; Mayer: The Tidal Wave, Youm., 
 ed., 299, and The Earth's Internal Heat, 312.) 
 H. The Volatility of all Matter. 
 
 1. The solid, liquid and gaseous conditions dependent chiefly on 
 
 Temperature and Pressure. (Lyell: Prin., 538.) Familiar 
 examples. 'Volatilization of silica in the Bessimer process 
 of steel-making. Volatilization of iron by Dr. Eisner. 
 Condensation of carbonic acid by Dr. Hare. Condensation 
 of nitrogen, hydrogen and other gases by Pictet and Cailletet. 
 
 2. Distinction between the gaseous and the vaporous states. 
 (1.) The gaseous a state ot dry molecularization or of atomization. 
 
 (2.) Vapor or mist consists of minute spheres of liquid matter in suspension either 
 
 in a fluid or removed from the considerable action of gravity. 
 (3.) Minute particles of solid matter in similar suspension form dust. 
 
 3. Rational to assume terrestrial cooling to have proceeded from a 
 
 state of vapor, or even of gas. Enormous volume of the 
 planet in this condition. This assumption sustained by our 
 knowledge of other cosmical vapors, as sun, stars and nebulae. 
 
 III. Passage from fire-mist to a molten globe. 
 
 A 1. Rain of molten matter. Growth of the liquid core. -- An 
 * incandescent liquid globe. Central solidification by pres- 
 sure. 
 
 2. A fervid and heterogeneous atmosphere. Many sr bstances 
 
 still gaseous. Struggling sunbeams. 
 
 3. Rolling tides of lava. 
 
 IV. Freezing of the Molten Sea. (Com p. Lect. XXXV I., II. I.) 
 1. Crystallization of the most refractory substances. Crys- 
 tals of augite, leucite, mica and black garnet erupl . in great 
 abundance in semi-fluid lava from Vesuvius. Fc. ation of 
 first solid film. -- Its composition. Itsincessa uptures 
 and recementation. A lava floe. Contin < 
 lished. A crust glowing with heat.
 
 77 
 
 2. Later probable ruptures and repairs. The cause and conse- 
 quences. 
 
 V. Appearance of "Water, (W. 52-5.) 
 
 1. The temperature hitherto too high for its existence. 
 
 2. Gathering clouds. Sun-light veiled out. The still self- 
 
 Inminous earth. All substances red-hot at about 977 Fah. 
 ( J. W. Draper, A. J. S.., Jan. 1877, 67). 
 
 3. Descending rains. x Electrical disturbances. The war of 
 
 fire and water. The stormy period. 
 
 VI. Ascendancy of the "Waters. 
 
 1. A universal ocean film. Acid rains. Attacks upon the 
 
 rocks. The war of chemical affinities. (W. 56-64 ; Hunt : 
 Chem. and Geol Essays). 
 
 2. Beginning of sedimentation. (Led. VI.) Chemical and me- 
 
 chanical deposits. 
 
 3. An age of physical violence. Ruptures of the ocpan's 
 
 floor. Explosive generation of steam. Tepid waters 
 and reeking skies. 
 
 4. Probable advent of marine plants. (Lect. IV., I.) 
 
 VII. G-erms of Continents appearing above the waves. 
 
 1. The first mechanical sediments must have proceeded from the 
 
 fire-formed crust. 
 
 2. Mechanical erosion effective only along a shore-line. 
 
 3. There must, consequently, have been a shore-line on a fire-formed 
 
 land. Such lands the germs of future continents. (Lects. 
 XXIII, XXIV, XLIV.) 
 
 XL. NEBULAR THEORY OP WORLD GENESIS. 
 
 EMANUEL KANT : Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels, oder Versuch von 
 der Verfassung und dem Meehanischen Ursprunge des ganzen Wettgebundes, nach Newton- 
 schen Gnmdsatzen dbgehandelt. Konigsberg u., Leipzig, 1755. Kant's sammtliche Werke 
 Bd. i., S. 207. 
 
 DB. LAMBERT: Leltres Cosmologiques, 1761; Cosmological Letters, 1828. 
 
 JOHANN ELERT BODE : Anleitung zur Kentniss des gestirnten Himmels, circa, 1767. 
 
 PIERRE SIMON, Marquis de LAPLACE : Exposition du Systeme du Monde, Paris, 1796, 
 tome ii., ch. 6. See translation in ENNIS : The Origin of the Stars. Appendix V. 
 
 Compare also A. WINCHELL : Sketches of Creation, ch. iv. ; Unity of the Physical World, 
 Meth. Quar. Rev., Jan., 1874; Geology of the Stars, [1873 ; FIQUIER: The World before the 
 Deluge, 16-29 ; ENNIS: The Origin of the Stars; MILL: System of Logic. Bk. ii., ch. xiv. ; 
 L. SAEMANN: On the Unity of Geological Phenomena in the Solar System, Bull, dela Soc. 
 geol. de France, 4 Feb., 1861, and Canadian Naturalist, vi., 444-51; SAIGEY: The Unity of 
 Natural Phenomena, transl. 12 mo., 254 pp., Boston, 1873.
 
 78 
 
 I. Common conditions pervading the Solar System. 
 
 1. Common motions. Orbital, axial, eastward, elliptic, zodiacal. 
 
 Kepler's three laws. 
 
 2. Common forms. 
 
 3. Common substance. Spectroscopic revelations. -- Meteoric 
 
 matter. 
 
 4. Laws of light. Etherial medium. Gravitation. 
 
 5. The bodies of the system (not including comets) must have had a 
 
 common history. 
 
 II. A common primitive Fire-mist. 
 
 1. The whole solar system an ancient sphere of incandescent vapor. 
 
 Its physical constitution. 
 
 2. Probably an older condition and another form of matter. 
 
 Analogical inference of heated, non-luminous, aeriform matter. 
 
 3. Cosmical analogies of the fire-mist 
 
 (1) The solar photosphere. (Proctor : The Sun; Secchi : Le Soldi). The solar 
 nucleus perhaps a non-luminous, intensely -heated gas. (Faye: Comptes Rendws). 
 Its constituents in a state of molecular dissociation. 
 
 (2) The fixed stars possess a similar constitution. 
 
 (3) The nebulae still more striking examples. 
 
 (4) The condition of illuminated dust probably seen in the rings of Saturn and in 
 comets and the Zodiacal light. 
 
 III. Behavior of a Sphere of Fire-mist in space. 
 
 1. It would radiate heat. 
 
 2. Through cooling it would shrink. 
 
 3. If not rotating, a rotation would be established. 
 
 (1.) By the impinging of exterior masses against it. (Lect. XLIII.) 
 
 (2.) By distortion of form and change of position of centre of gravity through 
 
 external attractions. Descending portions would thus pass one side of the 
 
 centre of gravity and generate tangential forces. 
 (3 ) By the establishment of superficial currents in passing from an amorphous to 
 
 a spherical form. 
 
 4. Rotation would be accelerated with shortening of diameter. 
 
 Velocity inversely as the square of the equatorial diameter. 
 ^ 5. The mass would become an increasingly oblate spheroid. 
 - 6. The equatorial periphery would at length become equilibrated 
 
 between centripetal and centrifugal forces. 
 *. 7. It would no longer descend toward the centre, and the portion 
 
 within would shrink away from it, leaving a rotating ring. 
 . 8. Other rings, in succession, would be similarly detached. 
 ;^ IV. Behavior of a Ring of fire-mist surrounding a sphere. 
 
 1. It would continue to rotate approximately in the plane of the 
 sphere's equator, But its equilibrium would be unstable.
 
 -79- 
 
 2. It might assume a stratified condition and resolve itself into a 
 
 system of concentric rings. -- Influence of different velocities 
 of rotation of outer and inner parts. And of different den- 
 sities in the substance. 
 
 3. External attractions would disturb the symmetry of it's move- 
 
 ments. 
 
 (1) A "wobbling" motion might ensue. This would be continually exag- 
 gerated until the ring or rings should be broken. 
 
 ^ (2) The centre of gravity of the ring might be drawn to one side of the centre of 
 figure. The matter would tend to flow to the side nearest this. The 
 opposite side would become progressively more tenuous. 
 
 / 4. However broken, the ring would gather itself spherically about 
 one center. This sphere would travel orbitally in the path 
 determined by the position of the ring. The orbit at first 
 circular and unstable, would, through perturbations, become 
 elliptic and stable. The sphere would rotate axially in the 
 same direction. (Ennis: Origin of the Stars, Sec. XXX). 
 Thus the matter of a planet would become isolated. All the 
 planets in succession would assume their places. 
 5 A stratified ring or system of rings might form a zone of planet- 
 oids. 
 
 V. Behavior of a Planetary Sphere of Fire-mist. 
 
 1. If large, it might undergo annulation Thus matter for satel- 
 
 lites would become isolated. These must present the same 
 conformities as their primaries in their motions. 
 
 2. If small, liquefaction might result without annulation. 
 
 Further history. (Lect, XXXIX.) 
 
 3. G. H. Darwin's theory of satellite origin by disruption of the pri- 
 
 mary. (Nature, XXI., 235-7, Jan. 8, 1880; Phil Trans., 1879,) 
 
 VI. Confirmations of these Deductions. 
 
 1. The evidences of former high temperature in the earth. (Lect. 
 
 II.) 
 
 2. The community of conditions in the solar system. 
 3 The necessary action of physical forces. 
 
 4. The present existence of the assumed fire-mist condition. 
 
 5. The present existence of the ring condition. 
 (1.) In certain nebulae. (Lecture XLIII.) 
 
 (2.) In the Saturnian system. 
 
 6. The experiment of Plateau. (Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, Nov., 
 
 1844; Vestiges of Creation, p. 14.) 
 
 7. The agreement of the cosmic mechanism with the requirements 
 
 of the theory. 
 
 8. The present conditions of Jupiter, the sun and the moon.
 
 80 
 
 9. The exterior planets generally the larger and the less dense. 
 10. The absence of any fatal conflicts with facts. 
 
 VII. Difficulties of the Nebular theory as enunciated by Lap- 
 lace. (D. Kirkwood, P. A. Phil Soc., xviii., 324-6, Sep. 19, 1879; 
 Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., Jan, 1869. Comp. Slaughter: 
 The Modern Genesis, 1876, and the author of The Plurality of 
 Worlds, ch. vii., Am. ed., 1854. 
 
 1. Does not clearly explain breadth of intervals between planetary 
 
 orbits. (Newcomb : Pop. Astron., 498.) Suggestion that the 
 plants may be nearly of the same age. (Newcomb, 498-9, 513.) 
 
 2. Time required for spheration of a ring extravagantly large. 
 
 3. Hence, formation of satellites before cooling involved in difficulty. 
 
 4. Period of nebular rotation decreasing as square of radius, (t : V :: 
 
 r 2 : r /2 ), the periods of the planets, (t : V :: rjj : r'f, by Kepler's 
 third law) are too long. This difficulty removed by sup- 
 posing the peripheral portion rotated more rapidly than the in- 
 terior, and thus suffered retardation. 
 
 5. The asteroids together (as far as known) only \ the earth's mass, 
 
 or 1-1200 that of Jupiter, while Mars is also smaller than the 
 earth. But a portion of the asteroids may have been pre- 
 cipitated into the solar mass again,before the latter had shrunken 
 to dimensions sufficiently within the perihelion position of the 
 asteroidal mass. So of Mars. (Kirkwood, A. J. S., III. i., 71.) 
 
 6. General agreement of opinion, nevertheless, in some kind of a 
 
 nebular origin, with accompaniment of rotation. (David Trow- 
 bridge, A. J. S., Nov., 1864 ; Ennis : Origin of the Stars; Pierce, in 
 Agassiz' Contributions to Nat. His. U. S.) 
 
 XLI. IMPLICATIONS OP THE NEBULAR THEORY. 
 
 I. Exclusions. 
 L It is not, as here contemplated, a theory of the evolution of the 
 
 universe. 
 / 2. It does not involve the comets, ao tho Laplaccgrr theory did. 
 
 3. It does not deny an antecedent history for the fire-mist. 
 
 4. It does not profess to discover the origin of things, but only a 
 
 stadium in material history. 
 
 (1) Its starting point postulates matter and force. 
 
 (2) It leaves us to search still for the origin of these. 
 
 (3) It affirms nothing concerning the nature of matter and force. 
 
 5. It does not deny the existence of plan and purpose in the system 
 
 of cosmic evolution. 
 
 6. The truth of the theory can be tested only by scientific evidence.
 
 81 
 
 II. All the bodies of our System pass the same succession of 
 
 Phases. (W. Geology of the Stars; Ennis : Origin of the Stars; 
 Meunier : Le Oiel geologique). 
 
 1. The history of each of these bodies a history of cooling. 
 
 2. The phase reached at any epoch determined by the age and the 
 
 mass and volume of the body. 
 / (1) Temperature of the Sun, (J. H. Lane, A. J. S., II. 1, 57) : 
 
 Secchi, 10,000,000C, (A. J. S., III. iii, 239) ; Ericsson, 4,036,000, (Nature, 
 v. 344, Apr. 25, 1872; A. J. S., III. iv. 152-5). Zollner, 400,000. Sporer, 
 27,000 C. Dewar, 16,000, (Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinb.),vii, 697 ; A. J. S., 
 Ill, v. 153). W. Thomson, 14,000, (Comp. A. J. S., Ill, ii, 286). 
 Faye, 3,000 to 10.000, ( Comptes Rendus). Vicaire, 3,000 C., (Comptes 
 Rendus). Deville, 2,500 to 2,800 C, ( Comptes Rend.). Pouillet 
 1,461 to to 1,761 C. 
 
 (2) The Earth has reached the habitable condition. 
 
 (3) The Moon has passed this condition. The Earth's mass being 84 times that 
 of the Moon, it had 84 times as much heat. Its surface being 13.4 times as 
 great it radiatad 13.4 times as fast. Hence the moon cooled 6<4 times as 
 fast, and each of its stages endured 4-25 as long as the earth's corresponding 
 stage. (Frankland: Proc. Roy. Ins.. iv, 175; Guillemin: The Heavens, 143 ; 
 Meunier : Le del geol.}. 
 
 (4) Mars must be in a state of senescence. Both older and smaller than the 
 Earth. 
 
 (5) Venus cannot have reached the habitable stage. Intensity of solar heat 
 
 retards its cooling and dissipates the supply of water. The same with 
 Mercury. 
 
 (6) Jupiter lingers in the stormy stage. Enveloped in aqueous vapor. 
 Bulk overesti.-iated, and hence density underestimated, being placed at one- 
 fourth that of the earth. Indications of inherent luminosity. 
 
 (7) The Saturnian system perpetuates the annular phase. The rings neither 
 solid nor fluid. (Pierce, ). They seem to be of the nature of dust. 
 
 ^\ 3. The Sun's physical constitution. (Newcomb : Popular Astronomy, 
 237-82; Secchi : Le Soleil ; S P. Langl-y, A. J. S., Ill, vii, 37; ix, 
 192 ; x, 459 ; W. A. Norton, A. J. S, 111, i, 395. 
 (1) As old as Neptu'ie, but less cooled in consequence of its great mass. Will 
 
 be as dense as the earth in 12,000,000 years. (Newcomb, 573). 
 (2; Internal solar activities arising from the cooling process. Spots. 
 
 Prominences, -i Hydrogen flames. -* Corona. 
 4. The Cosmical Archetype. 
 
 III. Other Worlds Habitable. (Brewster: More Worlds than One; 
 
 Proctor : Other Worlds than Ours ; C. Flammariou :La Pluratite des 
 Mondes Habites, 8vo., 1864 ; Les Mondes imaginaires et let Mondes 
 reels,8vo., 1865 ; Fontenelle : Dialogues on the Plurality of Worlds, 
 1686, 2d ed. 1719. Also, Christian Huygens: Cosmothereos, sive de 
 Terris Ccelestibus, earumque ornatu, conjecture. Huygenii Opera 
 torn, ii, 645-722, Eng. trans., The Celestial Worlds discovered, or 
 Conjectures concerning the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions of the 
 Worlds in the Planets, 1698, 2d ed. 1722, Giordano Bruno: 
 G
 
 Universo e Mondi innumerabili ; Chalmers: Astronomical Dis- 
 courses, Disc. IV; Bentley: Boyle Lectures, Lect. viii, ed. 1724, p. 
 298 seq ; Laplace : Sys. du Monde, liv. 5me., ch. vi ; Derham : 
 Astrotheology, 3d ed. 1717, pp. xlvii, liii ; liv). 
 
 1. Each planet of our system passes a habitable stage. Terres- 
 
 trial conditions reproduced on other planets. 
 
 2. Climates and supposed vegetation of Mars. 
 
 3. Some of the larger satellites possibly habitable. 
 
 4. Planets in many other systems may have attained the habitable 
 
 stage. 
 
 5. Nature's economy of habitable conditions. 
 
 6. Habitability for peculiar beings may exist where we cannot ex- 
 
 pect it. (Brewster: More Worlds than One; R. Owen: On the 
 Nature of Limbs, 1849, Lond., 83, 84. Compare Newton : Optics, 
 ed. 1721, 378, 379 ; Jules Boiteau : Letters to a Materialist on the 
 Plurality of Inhabited Worlds; The Catholic World, Feb. 1880,665- 
 75 from Revue des Questions Scientifiques, July, 1877). 
 
 7. Some noteworthy conjectures. 
 
 (1) D. Lardner argued the habitability of the moon and all the planets. (Museum 
 of Science and Art, vol i.) 
 
 (2) D. Brewster advances similar opinions. (More Worlds than One). 
 
 (3) W. Herschel thought the solar spots the highest points (some 600 miles high) of 
 a cool and habitable globe. The solar heat attempered " in some mysteri- 
 ous way." Earlier advocates of this opinion. (Pres. Forbes : Reflections on 
 the Sources of Incredulity with regard to Religion, Edinb., 1750, p. 3 ; Dr. Elliot, 
 Edinb. Encyc., Art. Astron., vol. ii, p. 616 ; Gentlemen's Magazine, 1787, 636. Also 
 works of Flammarion, Jean Reynaud, Babinet, Pioger. 
 
 8. Habitability of other worlds denied on theological grounds. 
 Maxwell : (Plurality of Worlds, 1820, who holds that the New- 
 tonian philosophy contains principles " which lie at the founda- 
 tion of all atheistical systems)." 
 
 9. Denied on scientific grounds. (Whewell : Of the Plurality of 
 
 Worlds). 
 
 IV. Many other "Worlds Uninhabitable. (Faye : Annaire du Bu- 
 reau des Longitudes ; Newcomb : Popular Astron., 516-19). 
 
 1. Most worlds probably too old or too recent for habitability. 
 
 At least in unsuitable stages of development. 
 
 2. All in the solar stage too intensely heated. 
 
 3. Question concerning our remoter planets. 
 
 (1) Light and heat of Neptune l-900th of what we enjoy. The sun the size of 
 Jupiter to us. 
 
 (2) Density of Jupiter stated st one-fourth that of the earth. A mere globe of 
 water. But the weight of bodies two and one-half times as great. The 
 density probably underestimated. 
 
 (3) Saturn and his dust-like rings.
 
 83 
 
 V. Some Oosmical Finalities. 
 
 1. Total refrigeration. (Lyell: Prin.,129; Fourier: On the Tempera- 
 
 ture [of the Terrestrial Globe and the Planetary Spaces, Annales de 
 Chemie et de Physique, tome xxviii, 136, Oct. 1824). 
 
 (1) A body is hot only because It has not had sufficient time to cool. The lava 
 
 of Jorullo was still ignited after twenty-one years. That of Aetna, from 
 1787 to 1830, while unmelted snow remained beneath. Lyeli;: (Princ., 396). 
 
 (2) No assignable cause for permanent arrest of planetary cooling. The heat 
 radiated mostly lost to our system. (Fourier, ut sup). Dissipation of energy 
 of a system. (Sir W. Thomson. This compatible with a total conservation 
 of energy. 
 
 2. How uninhabibility may result. 
 
 (1) From attainment of too low a temperature. (W., ch. xxxviii.) 
 
 (2) From the absorption of all water and air. (L. Saemann as in Lect. XL; S. 
 Meunier : Le del geol. ; W., Qeol. "of the Stars). 
 
 (a) The volume of the ocean is only .0042 that of the earth. 
 
 (b) Ordinary minerals will absorb .0127 per cent, of water. (Durocher: Butt. 
 
 Geol. Soc. France, II, x, 431. On the porosity of rocks see Hunt : Chem. and 
 Geol. Ess., 164; Delesse: Butt. Geol. Soc. France, II, xix, 64: Sorby, Q. J. 
 Geol. Soc., xiv, 1858, 329, 453 ; D. Brewster : Ann. de Chem. et de Phys., xxi, 
 1822,182; Poggendorff's Annalen, vii, 493). Hence the cooled earth 
 would readily absorb all the water of the oceans, and two-thirds of its 
 capacity would remain unfilled, 
 
 (c) The volume of the air (reduced to surface density) is .0037 that of the earth. 
 
 (Saemann, ut sup). Hence the cooled earth would absorb the atmos- 
 phere as well as the ocean, and if as compact as average rocks, would leave 
 five-thirteenths of its pores still unsaturated. 
 
 (3) The water and atmosphere of the moon thus absorbed. (Ssemann, ut sup. ; W., 
 Geol. of the Stars; Guillemin: The Heavens, 143; Meunier, ut sup). In 
 cool'ng through 180, would create cellular space equal to fourteen and a half 
 millions of cubic miles. (Frankland : Proc. Roy. Inst., iv, 175). Supposed 
 recent changes on moon's surface. (Birt: A. J.S.,UI, iv, 326). 
 
 XLII. COSMICAL DUST. 
 
 A. E. Nordenskjold, On the Cosmical Dust which falls to the Earth with atmos- 
 pheric preciptation, Poggendorff's Annalen, cli, 154, 1874; A. J. S., HI, ix, 145-6; H. A. 
 Newton, On Shooting Stars, A. J. S., II, xxxix, 1S3-207 ; ib, xliii, 285 : Sehiaparelli, Bol- 
 letino Meteorologico Home, v, Nos. 8, 10, 11, 12, vi, No. 2, abstract, A. J. S., II, xliii, 291-9. 
 
 I. Enlargement of the scope of our speculations. 
 
 1. Other systems of worlds to be accounted for. 
 
 2. Inquiries as to older conditions and other evolutions. 
 
 3. Gathering dust. Examples. Whence does it come? 
 
 II. Meteors (Newton, as above ;) D. Kirkwood : A Treatise on Shooting 
 Stars, Fire-balls and Aerolites, Phil., 1867 ; Newcomb, Eastman and 
 Harkness, Observations and Discussions of the November Meteors, 
 1867, Washington, 8vo. ; 40 pp, 1867.
 
 84 
 
 1. The phenomena (Newton, A. J. S., II, xli, 58, 192, 273, xlii, 429, 
 xliii, 78, 276, xliv, 426, xlv, 78, 225, xlvii, 118, 399, xlix, 244 ; E. 
 C. Herrick, A. J. S. II, xxxi, 136, xxxii, 294, xxxiii, 147, 148, 
 290, 291). 
 
 X 2. Numbers. 7 millions in 24 hours to the naked eye, (New- 
 ton, A. J. S., II, xxix, 198). - 400 millions to telescope, (Ib. 
 p. 201). Arago says 240 millions in 3 hours in Novem- 
 ber, 1833. 
 3. Contribution of matter to the earth. 28 tons daily. 
 
 10,000 tons yearly. 104 million tons in 10,000 years. 
 ^ 4. Velocity 14 to 107 miles per second. ' Meet the earth. 
 
 ^ Consequences of penetrating the earth's atmosphere. Com- 
 posed of terrestrial substances, (J. L. Smith : Mineralogy and 
 Chemistry ; Meunier : Le del geol). 
 
 , 5. Meteoric Swarms and Orbits. (H. A. Newton, as above; Schia- 
 parelli, as above. A. J. S., Ill, v, 482 ; Entwurf einer Astronom- 
 itchen Theorie der Sternschnuppen ; Proctor : Other World than 
 Ours; D. Kirkwood: Comets and Meteors, 1873. 
 
 (1) August orbit fifty times the diameter of the earth's orbit. 
 
 (2) November orbit 33J4 years and ten times the diameter of the earth's orbit. 
 (Newton, as above; Sir William Thomson, Brit. Assoc., Edinb.; A. J. S., Ill, ii, 
 289, October 1871). 
 
 X3) A hundred other meteoric orbits more or less known. (Kirkwood, A. J. S., 
 Ill.vi 392. 
 
 6. Space filled with moving meteoroids (Newton). 
 m. Zodiacal Light. (Newcomb : Pop. Astron. 405-6). 
 
 1. The Phenomena. 
 
 2. Supposed explanation. 
 
 IV. Comets. (Newcomb: Pop. Astron. 365-84, 398-405 ; W. Thomson, 
 A. J. S. Ill, ii, 289; Zollner : Ueber die Natur der Cometen, Leip- 
 zig, 1872, 8vo., pp. c, 523; A. J. S-, III, iii, 476; De la Kue, A. J. 
 S., Ill, iv, 324 ; J. C. Watson: Treatise on Comets. 
 
 1. Conglomeration of cosmical dust. The matter thought by 
 
 W. Herschel to be derived 'from nebulae. (Phil. Trans., 1812, 
 144). 
 
 2. Not natives of our system. Their erratic movements. 
 
 3. Periods of comets 3 to 76, and 2,000 and even 100,000 years. 
 
 4. Tenuity of their substance. 
 
 5. Identification with meteoric swarms. (Newcomb : Pop. Astron., 
 
 391-8 ; H. A. Newton, A. J. S., II, xxxii, 449 ; Schiaparelli ut 
 tup., and Monthly Notices, Feb. 1875 ; A. J. S., Ill, ix, 406. Comp. 
 A. W. Wright, A. J. S., Ill, ix, 459, x, 44; J. W Mallet, A. J. S., 
 Ill, x, 206-7).
 
 85 
 
 (1) Comet of 1862 III identified with August swarm. (Newton, Schiaparelli, 
 Oppolzer, Schellen: Spectralanalyse, trans., 600). 
 
 (2) Comet of 1866 II. (Tempers) identified with November swarm. (Schiaparelli, 
 Les Mondes, xiii, 501, March 28. 1867; A. J. S., II, xliv, 129). 
 
 (3) Biela's lost comet identified with a train intercepted by the earth, November 
 27, 1872. (But compare Nature, xxi, 240, Jan. 8, 1880. 
 
 (4) A meteoric ring only a degenerated Icome t. Method of gathering cosmical 
 matter into globes. 
 
 V. Saturnian Rings. 
 
 1. Their physical phenomena. 
 
 2. Their physical constitution. 
 
 VI. Nebulae. (Newcomb : Pop. Astron. 444-52 ; Sir Wm. Herschel, 
 
 Phil. Trans., 1784, 1811, 1814). 
 
 1. Description. Discovery. Early opinions. 
 
 2. So-called " resolvable nebulae." 
 
 3. True nebulae irresolvable. Stubborn irresolvability of many 
 
 nebulae. 
 
 4. The spectroscope. (Schellen : Spectralanalyse, also Amer. transl. ; 
 
 Half Hour Recreations in Science, Nos. 3 and 4, Boston ; Eoscoe : 
 Spectrum Analysis, Lorid., 2d. ed., 1870, 8vo., pp. 404). Three 
 fundamental principles of its action. Application to neb- 
 ulae. The spectra perhaps indicate a state of dissociation. 
 Lockyer's conclusions touching the compound nature of so- 
 called elements. (Nature). 
 
 SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF SPECTROSCOPIC PHENOMENA. 
 DESIGNATION OP SPECTRUM. CONDITION OF MATTER. 
 
 Continuous spectrum 
 
 Incandescent Solid or Liquid. 
 (Drummond Light.) 
 
 Bright-line spectrum= ~\ |j ( Incandescent Gas or Vapor. 
 Discontinuous spectrum= (Electric Light ; Solar promi- 
 
 Gas spectrum. J n] (. nences ; Irresolvable nebulae). 
 
 Dark-line spectrum= ^i g > ( Incandescent Solid or Liquid 
 
 Absorption spectrum, I M I shinging through gas or va- 
 Reversed spectrum or I por of lower temperature. 
 
 Compound spectrum. J I (Sun; Fixed Stars). 
 
 5. Forms of Nebulae. 
 
 (li Amorphous. (Newcomb, 446, 450-1; Schellen: Spec. Anal, trans., 534, etc). 
 Great Nebula in Orion. (Nature, 22 Nov. 1877, 67, and 8 July, 1878, 313. 
 
 (2) Sickle-shaped. (Schellen, op. dt, 537). 
 
 (3) Spiral. (Schellen, op. dt, 537). 
 
 (4) Spiro-annular. (Schellen, op. dt, 540, 541). 
 
 (5) Planetary. (Schellen, op. dt, 544, 558). 
 
 (6) Annular. (Newcomb, op. dt, 448; Schellen, 540, 555, 542, also figs., 194, 195).
 
 86 
 
 (7) Stellar. (Schellen, 553). Compare Donati's comet 1858. (Watson, ; 
 
 Newcomb, 868 ; Schellen, 559). 
 
 (8) Sir Wm. Herschel's suggestions : That amorphous, planetary, annular and 
 stellar nebulae are successive stages in nebular life. (Phil. Trans., 1811, 1814). 
 Ultimate condensation to a star expected. ( IV). That outlying por- 
 tions condense into planets. (J&). 
 
 VII. General Cosmical Theory. 
 
 1. Original world-stuff pervading space. Suggested to be the 
 
 ether. (Me Vicar : Sketch of a Philosophy ; Saigey : The Unity of 
 Nat. Phenom). 
 
 2. Gravitational gathering of cosmical dust. Meteoroidal, 
 
 cometary and nebular accumulations. 
 
 3. Evolutions of nebulae. Collisiona Heat, light, and 
 
 rotation resulting. 
 
 XLIIL NEBULAR LIFE. 
 
 Sir William Herschel: Astronomical Observations relating to the Constructi. n of the 
 Heavens, arranged for the purpose of a critical (xamination, the result of which appears to 
 throw some new Light upon the Organization of the celestial Bodies, Philosophical Transac- 
 tions,ll811, p. 269, and 1814, p. 248. See, also, Philosophical Transactions, 1784. Synop- 
 sis of Sir W. Herschel's researches in Newcomb's Astronomy, pp. 465-74, 495, and fuller 
 account in Arago's Analyse des Travaux de Sir William HerscJiel in Annuaire du Bureau 
 des Longitudes, 142. 
 
 Cleveland Abbe : The " very much extended " Nebulae of Sir John Herschel's Gen- 
 eral Catalogue, A. J. S-, III, ix, 42-6. 
 
 I. Isolation and Sources of Nebulae. 
 
 1. Comparative freedom of Nebulae from perturbations from our sys- 
 
 tem or our firmament. 
 
 2. The primitive materials of Nebulae disseminated and cold. 
 
 The materials not all involved in any evolution dating from any 
 specific beginning. -- Cosmical beginnings at all times. 
 
 3. Process of conglomeration. (Compare Ennis : Origin of the Stars, 
 
 sec. xvi). 
 
 II. Origin of Nebular Heat. 
 
 1. Theory of Nebular incandescence from condensation. (Comp. 
 
 Newcomb, Astron., 507, 513). - Limits of applicability of this 
 theory. 
 
 2. Nebular amorphism an indication of nebular unions. 
 
 (1) Suggested by our theory. 
 
 (2) Amorphism probably a temporary stage. Observed changes in nebulae. 
 (Newcomb : Pop. Astron., 44'.'. Compare Huggins : On Motions ofNebulse, Proc. 
 Roy. Soc., 1874 ; abstr. A. J. S., Ill, xiii, 75-7). 
 
 (a) The Nebula in Orion. Changes from Huygens' time to W. Herschel's. 
 
 (Herschel: Phil. Trans.. 1811; Struve: ; Holden: A. J. S., Ill, xi, 
 
 360).
 
 87 
 
 (6) The Trifld Nebula, M. 20. (Holden: A. J. S.,III, xiv, 433-58, Dec. 1777; 
 Newcomb: Astron., 449-50). 
 
 (c) The Omega Nebula, H. 2008. (Holden: A. J. S., Ill, xi, 341-61, May, 1876 ; 
 Newcomb : Astron., 450). 
 
 (d) The Magellanic Clouds. (Sir W. Herschel, Phil. Trns., 1811). 
 
 (3) Apparent changelessness of most nebulae due to their enormous magnitudes and 
 
 distances. 
 
 3. The impact of nebulae must generate enormous heat. -- This 
 theory, since first propounded, confirmed by James Croll. (Na- 
 ture, Jan. 1878). 
 
 III. Origin of Nebular Rotation. 
 
 1. This an incident of collision. The motion of two sole bodies 
 
 in space. The motion of three bodies in space. 
 
 (1) FIRST CASK. The centers of gravity of two nebulas move toward one point with such 
 velocities as to reach it simultaneously. 
 
 (a) First sub-case. When the centres of gravity move along one straight line. 
 (6) Second sub-case. When the centers tf gravity do not move along one straight 
 line. 
 
 (2) SECOND CASE. The centers of gravity move toward each other with such velocities as 
 
 to pass it successively. 
 
 (a) When the centers of gravity lie in one straight line. 
 
 (b) When the centres of gravity do not lie in one straight line. 
 
 2. Rotation also a consequence of superficial currents arising from 
 
 the passage from an amorphous to a spherical figure. (Ennis : 
 Origin of the Stars, sec. xvii ; On the Necessity of Nebular Rotation, 
 P. A. N. S., Phil., 1867). How currents would be established. 
 Retardation by friction with the non-rotating interior. 
 Friction progressively augmented as density of interior in- 
 creases. 
 
 IV. Origin of Regular Nebular Forms. 
 
 1. The Spiral Form may arise from the co-action of an etherial me- 
 
 dium in a non-homogeneous nebula. 
 
 2. The Sickle Form results apparently from the orbital motion of a 
 
 nebulous body in a resisting medium. Illustration. 
 
 3. The Spheroidal Form arises in a homogeneous nebula, or from 
 
 progressive homogeneity in a spiral nebula. - - The nebular 
 spheroid the normal form. 
 
 V. Differentiation of Nebulae. 
 
 1. Non-rotating nebulae. 
 
 (1) By a process of coagulation. 
 
 (2) By condensation about separate centers. 
 
 (3) These are possible origins of discontinuous nebulae. A state of stellation. 
 Rotation of the separate masses probable. 
 
 2. Rotating Nebulae. (Comp., Lect XL, II). 
 (1) Annulation.
 
 88 
 
 (a) The nucleus may separate from the ring. Example, the Stellar Nebu- 
 la H. 450. 
 
 (6) The nucleus may adhere to the ring. Example, the Annular Nebula 
 
 in the Lyre. (Schellen: Sped. Anal., 555). 
 (2) Spheration of annuli. (Comp. Lect. XL, III). 
 
 (a) By lateral loading on one or more sides. 
 
 (6) By perturbative rupture. 
 
 3. Each constituent mass the mother of a solar system. The 
 
 Nebula the mother of a Firmament. 
 
 4. Sublimity of these conceptions. 
 
 XLIV. OROGENY. 
 
 A J. D. DANA: On the Origin of Jlfau.nta.ins, A. J. 8., Ill, T. 347, criticism of J. Ha'l's 
 theory; see, also, A. J. S., II, xliii, 210. On Same Results of the Earth's Contraction from 
 Cooling, including a discussion of the Origin of Mountains and the Nature of, the Earth's Inte- 
 rior : Part I, Review of Opinions, and Theory of Mountain Origin, A. J. S., Ill, v. 423-43, 
 June, 1873 ; Part II: Condition of the Earth's Interior and Connection of Facts uriih Mountain- 
 making, and Part III, Metamorphism, A. J. S., Ill, vi, 6-14 ; Part IV: Igneous Ejections, ib., 
 vi, 104-6, Aug. 1873 ; Part V: Formation of Continental Plateaux and Ocean-depressions, ib., 
 vi, 161-72, Sept., 18 3. Earlier papers, A. J. S., II, ii, 385 ; iii. 94 176, 380 ; iv, 88 ; vii, 379 ; 
 xxii, 305. 335 ; also, Geology U. S. Exploring Expedition. 
 
 JAMES HALL: Palsentology of New York, iii., Introduction. 
 
 O. FISHER: On the Elevation of Mountain \Chains by Lateral Pressure, etc. Trans. 
 Camb. Phil. Soc., xi, pt. iii, 1869; On Ekvation and Subsidence, Phil. Mag., 1872 ; On the 
 Formation of Mountains, and the Hypothesis of a Liquid Substratum beneath the Earth's Crust. 
 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., Feb. 22, 1875 ; Mountain-making : The Inequalities of the Earth's Sur- 
 face viewed in connection vrith Secular Cooling, Camb. Phil. Trans., xii, pt. ii, abstr. A. J. S., 
 x, 380-9. 
 
 J. D. WHITNEY : Mountain Building. 
 
 T. S. HUNT: Chemical and Geological Essays, especially, On Some Points in Dy- 
 namical Geology, (1858), pp. 70-9; Origin of Mountains, (186 i), pp. 49-58 ; Geognosy of the 
 Appalachians, and the Origin of Crystalline Rocks (1871), pp. 239-327 ; Geology of the 
 Alps, (1872), pp. 328-48; Criticism of Leconte>s Views, A. J. S., Ill, v.,j264-70. 
 
 SC^JOSEPH LECONTE : Elementary Geology, 90-132, 252-60 ; A Theory of the formation 
 of the Great Features of the Earth's Surface, A. J. S., Ill, iv, 345 and 460, Nov. and Dec., 
 1872, v, 156; Reply to Hunt's Criticisms, A. J. S., Ill, v. 448, June, 1873; On the Great 
 Lava Flood of the West, and on the Structure and Ageofthe Cascade Mountains, A. J.S., 
 III, yii, 167, 259, March and Apr., 1874. 
 
 POULETT SCROPE, Geological Magazine, vi, 512 ; F. W. HTJTTON, Mountains, Geol. 
 Mag. ; Elevation of Mountains and Volcanic Theories, Nature, ix, 61-2 ; C. E. DUTTON : A 
 Criticism upon the Contractional Hypothesis, A. J. S., in, viii, 112-23. Aug. 1874 ; also, 
 Penn Monthly,M.&<t and A June. 1876 ; KABL V. SEEBACH : Das Mitteldeutsche Erdbeben, 
 von 6 Marz, 1872, reviewedby B. K.EMERSON in A. J. S.,III,viii. 405-12 ; FRIEDRICH PFAFF: 
 Der Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, mit 75 Holzsch., 8vo., 1879. 
 
 On the expansibility of rocks by heat, see DANA : Manual, 700 ; TOTTEN : A. J. S., 
 I, xxii, 136 ; ADIE : Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. ; BABBAGE, Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, 
 App. H ; F. PFAFF, op. cit. and A. J. S., III. x, 235. On contraction in passing from the 
 liquid to the glassy and the stony states^see MALLET, Trans, Roy. Soc., 1872; DELESSE 
 Bull. Soc.geol. de France, II, iv, 1380, 1847. 
 
 See also references under Lectures XXIV, XXVI, XXVIII and XXXVIII.
 
 I. Theory of Upheaval by Subterranean Forces. (Studer : Oe- 
 
 ologie der Schweiz). 
 
 1. Steam, gases, molten matter or other agents. (Strabo : Geographia, 
 
 lib. vi). Chemical explanation. (Sir H. Davy, etc. ; W. Hop- 
 kins, Report Brit. Assoc., 1848 ; Lect. XXXVIII). 
 
 2. Explanation inadequate. (Suess: Die Enstehung der Alpen, 165pp., 
 
 Wien, 1875, abstr. A. J. S., Ill, x, 446-51 ). These forces too 
 local, and not sustaining. Mountains do not rest on aeriform 
 foundations. (D., 739). Nor are they upheld by cores of 
 igneous rocks. (Nature, xxi, 177, 25 Dec. 1879). Nor is the 
 maximum pressure of stt am adequate to elevate the crust, or a 
 column of lava in a volcano. (Whitney, N. Amer. Rev., cxiii, 
 255). 
 
 3. Laccolitic mountains a quasi-exception. (G K. Gilbert : Rep. on 
 
 the Geol. of the Henry Mts., Powell Surv., 1877 ; Nature, xxi, 177) 
 Bubbles or blisters raised by intrusive trachytes. 
 
 II. Theory of "Wrinkling by Lateral Pressure. (Dana, ut sup., 
 
 and Man., 735, 745 ; Descartes ; Principes de la Philos., pt. iv, \ 42. 
 
 1. Cause of incipient wrinkles in the earth's crust. Attributable 
 
 to lateral pressure. Effects observed in motion of rocks in 
 quarries. (W. H. Niles, A. J. S., Ill, iii, 222). 
 
 2. Tendency to continual subsequent development. 
 
 (1) Their crests become lines of weakness. 
 
 (2) Lateral pressure would continue to fold in the same direction. 
 
 (3) Influence of deep ocean waters. (Dana). This would tend to parallelize 
 mountain ranges with continental shores. 
 
 (4) Formation of continents and ocean basins. (D. 738). 
 
 3. The presence of one fold would predispose to contiguous parallel 
 
 folds. Mechanical illustration. Hence a chain of par- 
 allel ranges. 
 
 4. The ocean's pressure would result in an excess of thrust away 
 
 from the shore. (D. 745). Hence the folds might altitudi- 
 nally incline continent-ward. Or might become tilted over. 
 - This possibility often realized. (Lect. XXIV, I, 2,(6) ). 
 * 5. This theory fulfills requirements of many facts. - - But does not 
 explain enormous thickening of strata in mountain-ranges. 
 (Lect. XXIV, I, 5). Accepted so far as it goes, but requires 
 to be supplemented. 
 
 III. Theory of Wrinkling by Mashing Together. (L. 252 ; 
 
 Wurtz, A. J. Mining, 25 Jan. 1868, read Aug. I860 ; Dana, Mal- 
 let, ut sup. ; Ramsay, Addr. Geol. Sec, Brit. Assoc., 1866). 
 1. Assumes all the positions of the above theory. 
 H
 
 90 
 
 2. Assumes also a thickening of mountain-strata by mashing to- 
 
 gether. (L. 253). 
 
 3. The theory tends to explain metamorphism and igneous phenom- 
 
 ena. -- Compression the source of heat, (Mallet, Leconte). 
 
 4. Mashing might also result from lateral crowding of fluid matter 
 
 thrust up under the fold. Attended by thinning along the 
 crest of the fold. 
 
 5. This theory explains the thickened strata. But does not ex- 
 
 plain their more coarsely fragmental character, and the defi- 
 ficiency of calcareous constituents. 
 
 6. The adequacy of secular cooling from shrinkage denied. 
 
 Shrinkage insufficient and corrugation too much localized. 
 (Button, A. J. S., Ill, viii, 113; Perm Monthly, May and June, 
 1870). -- Shrinkage insufficient and frictional heat too much 
 diffused. (Fisher, Camb. Phil. Trans , xii, pt. ii : Q. J. O. Soc., 
 xxxi, 471-2, 473-6). But some shrinkage is a fact, whatever 
 the cause, and great tangential strain hardly disputable. (L. 
 2(50). Suggestions that the molten interior was at first 
 
 combined with superheated water, and thus more bulky. 
 (Fisher, Camb. Phil. Trans , xii, pt. ii). 
 
 IV. The Synclinorium Theory. (D., 748-50, 211-14, 244,251,275, 
 305 ; L. 252-6. Comp. King, 40 Par. i, 731 ; Hunt, A. J. S., II, xxi, 
 392,1861; Chem.and Geol. Ess., 49-58 ; Vose : Orographic GeoL; 
 Whitney, N. A. Review, cxiii, 265). 
 
 1. Starts from the evidences of excessive sedimentation along moun- 
 
 tain axes. (Hall : Pal. N. Y., iii, Introd. , 69 seq). 
 
 (1) These evidences generally admitted conclusive. 
 
 (2) Character of mountain-sediments implies excessive deposition, and proximity 
 of a continental shore. Principle of distribution of sediments. (Lect. 
 VI, iv.) 
 
 2. And recognizes the proofs of progressive subsidence during accu- 
 
 mulation. 
 
 (1) Without subsidence, the sea along the axis of deposition would become so 
 shallowed that deposition would cease. 
 
 (2) Subsidence often regarded a mechanical effect of local loading of the crust. 
 
 (Hall : ut sup.}. 
 
 (3) But this view untenable. (Fisher, Gtograph. Afaff., x, 248). A belt of crust 
 
 yielding under a foot of sediments would not uphold a mountain mass. 
 Subsidence, in some cases, has accompanied unloading, and upheaval has ac 
 companied loading. (King : 40 Par., 537, 732). 
 
 3. It admits whatever mashing together may have been possible. 
 
 4. It admits the mechanical origin of more or less heat, as manifest 
 
 in the phenomena of vulcanicity. 
 
 5. And, finally, it recognizes inherent internal heat as a probable 
 
 factor.
 
 91 
 
 6. The mechanics of the final uplift of a synclinorium not fully un- 
 derstood. (D. 749; Leconte). 
 
 (1) The synclinorium seems to have been a fact. 
 
 (2) The uplift seems to have been a fact.J (L. 242-4, 255-6). Hall's theory does 
 not provide for this. (Dana, A. J. S.) 
 
 (3) Softening or fusion of lower portion of synclinorium a suggested condition of 
 upheaval. (Dana). But the very condition of softening is the existence of 
 an overlying accumulation, maintai ling the original thickness and c nse- 
 quent rigidity. 
 
 (4) Consideration of the mechanical conditions existing about a synclinorium. 
 
 (a) Structural arrangement on completion of the synclinorium. 
 
 (b) Structural arrangement after uplift of the synclinoriu-n into an anticlinal. 
 (e) The problem is to ascertain the mechanical conditions of passage from the 
 
 one to other. 
 
 (rf) Possibility of a synclinal mountain-mass resulting from mashing together 
 without upheaval of synclinorium. 
 
 XLIV. THEORY OF CONTINENTAL GLACIATION. 
 
 L. AGASSIZ: Systeme Glaciare; JAMES CROLL: Climate and Time, 12mo., 577 pp., 
 Am. ed. 1875; (Criticism of this by 8. Newcomb, A. J. S., Ill, xi, 263). LEHON: 
 DHomme Fossile, Part II ; COL. DRAYSON : Probable Cause, Date and Duration of Gla- 
 cial Epoch, Philosophical Magazine, 1871, abstr. \. J. S., Ill, ii, 304. 
 
 I. Recurrence of Phenomena of G-laciation. (Croll, Climate and 
 Time, ch. xviii). 
 
 1. Summary of phenomena of last glaciation. 
 
 2. Similar phenomena of remoter date. 
 
 (1) Worn and transported boulders in the Cambrian. (Jas. Thomson, Brit. Assoc , 
 
 1870, 88). 
 
 (2) Lower Silurian indications. (J. Carrick jg. J. G. S., v. 10; Phil. Mag., Apr., 
 1865, 289 ; Geikie : Great Ice Agt, 512 ; Jukes : Manual of Geol., 4J1 ; Haughton . 
 in McClintock's Narrative of Arctic Discoveries ; >. J. G. S.. xi, 510. 
 
 (3) Smoothed rock-sufaccs and shingle in Medina Epoch. (Hall). 
 
 (4) Devonian indications. (Ramsay, Reader, 12 Aug. 1865; Gumming: History of 
 I. of Man, 86; Selwyn : Phys. Geoff, and Geol. of Victoria. 1866, 15-16 ; Taylor 
 and Etheridge, Geol. Surv. Victoria, Quarter-Sheet 13 NE) 
 
 (f.) Similar phenomena in the Permian. (D. 431 : Amer. Nat., iv, 560: Ramsay, jg. 
 J. G. Soc., xi, 197; Sutherland, ^. J. G. Soc., xxvi. 514; Daintree : Geol. 
 Dist. Ballon, Victoria. 18G6, 11). 
 
 (6) In the Triassic. (T. A. Conrad and H. Wurtz, 1869 ; Dana, A. J. S., I] I, ix, 
 315; Fontaine, ^4. J. S., Ill, xvi, 236). 
 
 (7) In the Jurassic. (Fontaine, A. J. S., Ill, xvi. 236). - In the Upper Oolite 
 of Scotland. (Judd, . J. G. Soc., xxix; Phil. Mag., xxix, 290). 
 
 (8) Between Middle Cretaceous and Lower Eocene. (Dawson, Princeton Rev. 
 March, 1879, 284). In English Cretaceous. (Godwin Austen, jg. J. G. 
 Soc., xiv. 262; Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1857,02; jg. J. <*. Soc., xvi, 327; Geologist, 
 1860, 38). 
 
 (9) A cold period at base of English Eocene. (Nature, 10 July, 1879, 258). The 
 Flysch of Switzerland. (Lyell : Prin). 
 
 (10) In the Miocene. (G.-istaldi. Mem. Acad. Scl. Turin, ILxx).
 
 92 
 
 (11) Croll's extension of the idea to the Coal Measures. (Op. cit., 296-8, and ch. 
 xxvi.) 
 
 II. Hypothesis of passage through cold regions of space. 
 
 (Lyell : Prin,, 127; Poisson: Theorie math, de la chaleur, Comptes 
 Rendus, 30 Jan. 1837; Agassiz : A Journey in Brazil, 399, 425). - 
 Or that the sun has experienced a diminution of heat. (Lyell: 
 Prin., 128 ; Sir John Herschel, Proc. Roy. Astron. Soc , No. iii, 
 Jan., 1840 ; Balfonr Stewart). Both would involve simulta- 
 neous lowering of temperature over all parts of the earth. (D. 
 542. Compare Hopkins, Q. J. G. Soc., viii). 
 
 III. Theory of the varying distribution of land and water ; 
 
 and consequent changes of marine currents. (D. 541 : Lyell : 
 Prin., ch. vii, viii ; Dawson, Princeton Rev., Mar. 1879). North- 
 ern elevation. (D. 541 ; A. J. S., Ill, ix, 314-5, II, xxii, 346). Clos- 
 ing of Behring's Strait and submergence of Isthmus of Panama. 
 (D. 541). A true cause, but, to be of sufficient magnitude, 
 
 would conflict with evidence of permanence of oceanic and con- 
 tinental areas. The requisite distribution of northern land 
 to produce the known glaciation, difficult to conceive. The 
 effect of placing all the land along the equator would be the op- 
 posite of what Lyell supposed. The theory not suited to ex- 
 plain a succession of ice periods at secular intervals. North- 
 ern elevation itself perhaps an effect of the real cause. 
 
 IV. Suggested change in the power of the atmosphere to 
 
 transmit terrestrial heat. (D. 542 ; Tyndall ; Hunt). 
 Cold of mountain elevations. This, also, would affect all re- 
 gions similarly. 
 
 V. Astronomical Theories. Secular variations in the elements 
 
 of the earth's orbit. (Stockwell, A. J. S., II, xlvi, 87. See, also, 
 A. J. S., II, 1, 147. Also, Meech, Smithsonian Contributions, ix, 
 Art. i, Sec. vii). Discussion in reference to Northern Hemi- 
 sphere. Researches of Humboldt, Arago, Sir J. Herschel, 
 Lyell and Croll. 
 
 1. Effect of changes in the obliquity of the ecliptic. (Drayson, Q. J. 
 
 Geol. Soc., xxvii, 232; The last glacial epoch of geology; Thos. 
 Belt, Q. J. G. Soc , Oct. 1874, abstr. A. J. S., Ill, ix, 313-5). 
 
 (1) Increased obliquity diminishes glaciation. 
 
 (2) Diminished obliquity increases' glaciation. 
 
 (3) This cause insigni^cant, and now abandoned. (Croll : Clint, and Time, ch. 
 xxv ; George Darwin). 
 
 2. Possible shifting of position of terrestrial poles. (Sir W. Thom- 
 
 son, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1876, pt. ii, p. 11 ; Trans. Glasgow GeoL 
 Soc., iv, 313 ; Haughton, Proc. Roy. Soc., xxvi, 51 : Geo. Darwin,
 
 93 
 
 Trans. Roy. Soc., clxvii, pt i ; I. F. Twisden, Q. J. G. Soc., Feb. 
 1878 ; Airy, Athenaeum, 22 Sep. 1869). 
 
 (1) This also an insignificant cause. To displace the pole 1 46', one-twentieth 
 the surface of the earth must be lifted 10,000 ft. (G. H. Darwin). 
 
 (2) Since the glacial epoch, no physical changes have occurred which could move 
 the pole six miles. (Cr 11, Geol. Mag-., Sept. 1878). 
 
 (3) Geological evidences exist that the pole has not changed since Silurian time. 
 (Haughton, Proc. Roy. Soc., Apr. 4, 1878; Nature. July 4, 1878 ; E. Hill, Geol. 
 Mag., June, 1878; Croll, Geol. Mag.. Sep. 1878; W. Thomson, at sup). 
 
 (4) Dynamical principles show the present axis a necessary permanency. (Sir W. 
 Thomson, ut sup ; Brit. Assoc., 1874). 
 
 3. Effect of precession of the equinoxes, or change in position of the 
 apsides. (Adhemar: Revolutions de la mer ; Le Hon : Periodi- 
 cite des Grandes Deludes, 1858). 
 
 (1) Winter solstice in perihelion diminishes glaciation. Opposite view enter- 
 tained by J. J. Murphy. (%. J. G. Soc., xxv, 350). 
 
 (2) Summer solstice in perihelion increases glaciation. 
 
 (3) This cause alone also insufficient. Croll now says null. ( Clint, and Time, 
 83; Phil. Mag., Sep. 1869 ; Arago. Edinb. New Phil. Jour., vi, 1834). 
 
 1. Effect of change in eccentricity of earth's orbit. 
 
 (1) Increased eccentricity increases glaciation. 
 
 (2) Diminished eccentricity dimishes glaciation. 
 
 (3) This cause alone regarded as inefficient. (Sir J. Herschel, Treatise on Astron- 
 omy, 315; Outlines of Astronomy, I 368: Arago, Annuaire for 1834, p. 199; 
 Edinb. New Phil. Jour., Apr. 1834, p. 244: Humboldt: Cosmos, iv, 459, 
 Bonn's ed. ; Phys. Descrip. Hea-aens, 336). 
 
 (4) Croll connects this with consequent changes in ocean currents. (Croll : dim. 
 and Time, etc. See brief abstract by Croll in A.J. S., Ill, xvi, 389, and a fuller 
 one by A..Wiuchell in International Review, July- Aug., 1876). 
 
 (a) Changes in eccentricity produce little or no direct effect. 
 
 (J) Increased eccentricity produces] diminished winter heat and this pro- 
 motes snowy precipitation. The prolongation of the winter thus only 
 increases the snow. The short, hot summer would not diminish it. 
 
 Heat absorbed in liquefaction. Fogs and vapors exclude solar 
 rays. 
 
 (c) Effect of this upon ocean currents: Prevailing winds the cause of ocean 
 currents. (Croll : of cit., ch. ii. iii, xiii). Maury's theory. (Maury : Phys. 
 Geoff. Sea, 24). Appears to be untenable. (Croll : op cit., ch. vi, vii). 
 
 Carpenter's theory. (Carpenter, Proc. Roy. Soc., Dec. 1868, Nov. 1869 ; 
 Nature, i, 490; Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., xv). Also untenable. (Croll ; 
 op cit., ch. viii, xi). 
 
 Why the region of calms is now north of the equator. The condition 
 supposed would place it s^.uth. This would direct the Gulf-Stream 
 southward. (Croll : op cit., ch xiv). 
 (rf) European cold caused by diversion of Gulf-Stream. 
 
 (5) Such a theory when established would furnish a clew to geological time. (Croll : 
 op cit,, ch. xix. Lecture LIII , IV;. 
 
 (8) Criticisms of Croll's theory. (J. J. Murphy, J?. J. G. Soc., xxv, 350, 1869, abstr. 
 A. y.S., II, xlix, 115-8; S. Newcomb, A. J. S., Ill, xi, 263 ; Chas. Martins, 
 Revue des deux Mondes, 1867).
 
 94 
 
 VI. Displacement of Earth's centre of gravity by an ice-cap. 
 
 (Croll, op. cit., ch. xxiii, xxiv ; Adhemar : Revolutions de la mer. 
 Comp. Shaler, Mem. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., ii, 322). Sub- 
 mergence an incident of glaciation. 
 
 XLVL MOTION OF GLACIERS. 
 
 L. AGASSIZ: Systeme Glaciare, 1847; JAMES CROLL, Philosoph. Mag., March, 869. 
 Sep. 1870; A. J. S. Ill, i, 65-68; Climate andTime. ch. xxx, xxxi : Canon MOSELFY, 
 Proc. Roy. Soc., 7 Jan. 1369; Phil. Mag.. May, 1769, Jan, 1870, Aug. 1871 ; A. J. S., Ill, 
 ii, 304 ; ALBERT HEIM, Poggendorff's Annalen ; Phil. Mag., June, If 71 ; A. J. S., Ill, 
 ii, 145 ; W. MATHEWS, Alpine Journal, Feb, 1870 ; L.. E. and D., Phil. Mag., Dec. 1871, 
 Jan. 1872 ; A. J. S., Ill, iii, 99 ; BALL, Phil. Mag., July, 1870, Feb. 1871; A. J. S., Ill, i, 
 268; JAMES D. FORBES: Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers; JOHN TYNDALL: 
 The Glaciers of the Alps, 1860 ; The Forms of Water, 1872 ; JOHN AlTKEN, Nature. 13 
 Feb. 1873; A. J. S., Ill, v, 305. 
 
 I. Nature of the motions of Glaciers. (Ref. Lect. XVIII). 
 
 1. More rapid in the middle than along the borders. 
 
 2. More rapid at the surface than at the bottom. 
 
 3. More rapid by day than by night. 
 
 4 And twice as fast in summer as in winter. 
 
 5. The glacier adapts itself to the inequalities of the channel. 
 
 II. Theory that the Glacier moves by Expansion and Con- 
 
 traction. (L. Atrassiz; Charpentier; Moseley, Proc. Bristol Nat- 
 uralists' 1 Soc., 1869). 
 
 1. Effect of expansion of a slab on an inclined plane. 
 
 2. Effect of contraction of the same. 
 
 HI. Theory that it moves as a Viscous Body. (D. 682 ; L. 
 57; Bordier, 1773; Rendu; Mem. Acad. Sci., Savoy. 1841; J. D. 
 Forbes : Travels in the Alps, 1843 ; Occasional Papers). 
 
 1. Arguments for this theory. 
 
 2. This does not explain seasonal and diurnal variations in the rate 
 
 of motion. 
 
 IV. Theory of motion by Regelation. (L. 58; Tyndall, Phil 
 Trans., cxlvii, 327 ; Glaciers of the Alps ; James D. Forbes, Proc. 
 Roy. Soc., viii, 455 ; Helmholtz : Popular Lectures, 133, seq). 
 
 1. Definition of regelation. (Tyndall : Heat as a mode of motion, 
 
 167-72). 
 
 2. Faraday's explanation of regelation. (Tyndall : Forms of Water, 
 
 173). Molecular attractions more solidifying in the centre 
 than at the surface. - - Hence two liquefying surfaces brought 
 together solidify beciitiKe made internal. 
 
 3. James Thomson's explanation. (Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinb., Feb. 1850; 
 
 Tyndall: Hours of Exercise, 383, seq. ; Jamin : Traite de Physique, 
 ii, 105; Helmholtz: Popular Sci. Lectures, Am. ed., 107-152, es-
 
 - 95 
 
 pecially 133). Pressure, consequent melting, and refreezing 
 oil removal of pressure. Requisite pressure is in some 
 
 cases absent. 
 
 4. Final explanation. (Croll : dim. and Time, 557 ; Tyndall : Hours 
 
 of Exercise, 365,384). Two melting surfaces brought into 
 
 contact assume the condition of an interior film, where the icy 
 state is maintained. 
 
 5. Regelation explains persistent continuity of the ice, but not the 
 
 motion which precedes, and is the condition of regelation. 
 
 V. Theory of Motion by Molecular Melting and Refreezing. 
 
 (Croll : Phil. Mag., March, 1866, Sep. 1870 ; dim. and Time, ch. 
 xxxi). 
 
 1. A molecule at the instant of receiving heat above 32, liquefies 
 
 and flows into the most acoessibl'e interstice. 
 
 2. But it instantly transmits its heat to the next molecule and re- 
 
 freezes. - - In refreezing it requires more space, and creates an 
 expansive tendency of the mass. 
 
 3. This next molecule similarly liquefies, flows, transmits and re- 
 
 freezes. Each succeeding molecule, in turn, behaves simi- 
 
 larly. 
 
 4. Thus the ice-mass is transferred molecularly to lower levels. 
 
 Erosion is effected by the molecular transfer, and by the molar 
 motion resulting from expansion. 
 
 5. Difficulties of this theory. 
 
 (1) The proof cited to establish transmission of heat through ice confounds dia- 
 thermancy with conductivity. 
 
 (2) When one molecule melts, a whole layer would melt simultaneously. On trans- 
 mitting their heat to thenext layer, that would melt; but the first layer would 
 not recongeal, in consequence of a new accession of heat. Thus the conduction 
 of heat through a mass at 32 would liquefy it wholly or partially, and it 
 would not recongeal. 
 
 (3) Molecular movements would not produce geological denudation. 
 
 VI. Present state of Theory. 
 
 1. Ice, like wax, molasses-candy and many other substances, is brit- 
 
 tle under a momentary force, but yields moleculary under a con- 
 tinued pressure. It is so far a fluid, and like all fluids would 
 adapt itself to inequalities. 
 
 2. It has not been shown that a slight pressure, even its own gravity, 
 
 is not sufficient to produce the phenomenon of "shear," or mol- 
 ecular over-slipping. It may be presumed that gravity 
 would suffice. Canon Mosely's assumption of a high " index 
 of shear " not admitted.
 
 3. The residual molecular cohesion would tend to cause the ice to 
 
 move, to a partial extent, as a rigid mass. It would there- 
 fore erode. 
 
 4. All refreezing or regelation in the interior spaces and interstices 
 
 would develop an expansive tendency which would augment 
 both terminal motion and erosive action, and would help the 
 freer border of the ice over hindrances to motion. Hence 
 more rapid motion when thawing introduces water into the 
 icy spaces. 
 
 5. Crevassing results from an abrupt strain which the waxiness of 
 
 the ice has not time to respond to. A gentler change of slope 
 affords more time, and may avoid crevassing. (Comp. Aitken, A. 
 J. S., Ill, v. 305). Tyndall's contrary opinion. (L. 59; 
 Tyndall : Hours of Exercise, etc). 
 
 6. Grains of truth in most of the theories. 
 
 XLVIL CAMPESTRAL FORMATIONS. 
 
 ~ Superficial deposits spread out in generally treeless, but sometimes 
 forest- covered, plains. 
 
 I. Loess. 
 
 1. Review of geographical distribution. (Pumpelly, A. J. S., Ill, 
 
 viii, 133; Aughey, Hoyden Ann. Rep., 1874, 245-50 ; Sketches of Ne- 
 braska, 1880, 280-4) ; v. Richthofen : China, 56-74, 152-189. 
 
 2. Its geological position. 
 
 3. Physical characters. (v. Richthofen). Color. Fine- 
 
 ness. Calcareity. Cylindrical perforations. Fossil 
 remains. 
 
 7< 4. Theories of sedimentary origin, marine, lacustrine or fluviatile. 
 (Aughey, ut sup. ; Kingsmill, Q. J. Q. Soc., 1871, 376; v. Richt- 
 hofen, 162-8). 
 
 (1) Grounds. (Gximbel : Oeog-nost.Beschreibung des Bair. Alpengebirges, 1861, 798; 805, 
 852, 872 ; Fallou : Ueber den loess, Jahrb. f. Min., 1867. 143-58). 
 
 (2) Difficulties of these theories. 
 
 5. Theory of glacial and torrent origin. (Lyell : Antiquity of Man, 
 
 ch. xvi). 
 
 'o. Theory of sub-aerial origin. (Richthofen: China, 74-84; Pum- 
 pelly, A. J. S., Ill, viii, 133). -- This theory opposed. (Jos. Le- 
 conte, A. J. S., III). 
 
 II. Arid Plains. 
 
 1. The "Great Plains" of the trans-Mississippi. 
 
 (1) Their physical characters. 
 
 (2) Their topography.
 
 97 
 
 2. Treelessness generally due to aridity. 
 
 (1) Meteorological data. 
 
 (2) Results of irrigation. 
 
 3. Influence of alkalinity in the soil. 
 
 4. The plains of the "Plateau" and "Basin" regions of the U.S. 
 
 III. Marshes, Bogs, Wet Plains, Swamps, Heaths. 
 
 1. American Bogs or Swales. 
 
 (1) Treeless. Grass-covered. Level. Peaty. Generally underlaid 
 by marl. 
 
 (2) These evidently the beds of ancient lakes. Wetness the residuum of the 
 lake-water. Destined to be expelled by further additions of solid matters. 
 
 2. Wet lands underlaid by "hard-pan." 
 
 (1) The " Landes " of Gascony, the " Cam pine " of Be'gium, the Heaths of Holland 
 and Germany. (Reclus : Earth, ch. xiii ; Emil de Lavaleye, Revue, des Deux 
 Mondes, June, 1861). Some pine-covered plains in Prussia and the United 
 States. 
 
 /' (2) Regions underlaid by a ferruginous film of concreted sand. (" alips" of Gas- 
 cony or " jernal " of Jutland). Sufficiently tlevated, but being without 
 slope, and impervious below. 
 
 IV. Sandy Steppes and Tundras. (Comp. Humboldt: Steppet 
 
 and Deserts ,in Views of Nature). 
 
 1. Steppes of the Dnieper. Steppes of the Caspian and their 
 
 aridity, (v. Baer : Kaspische Studien; Zaleski; La vie des steppe* 
 Kirghizes). Winter aspect. Tundras of northern Si- 
 beria. 
 
 2. These regions recently sea-covered. Brackish and alkaline. 
 
 In northern Siberia permanently frozen at shallow depths. 
 
 V. Treeless Prairies, Savannas, Grassy Steppes. 
 
 1. Prairies of Illinois. The " Polders " along the coast of the Ger- 
 
 man Ocean. The Magyar "Puszta." The "Tchornosjom" 
 or Black Earth of Russia, stretching from the Black Sea north- 
 east, and covering an area twice the size of France. (Ruprecht : 
 Bullet, de V Academic de St. Petersbourg, vii, No 5). Plains or 
 "Steppes " of southern Siberia. (Humboldt: Asie Centrale and 
 Tableaux de la Nature). - " Llanos " of Columbia. '" Pam- 
 pas " of the La Plata. (Humboldt : Tableaux ; Voyage dans lea 
 Regions equinoxiales). 
 
 2. Theories of Origin of Illinois Prairies. (W., 264-72 ; A. J. S., II, 
 
 Nov. 1864). 
 
 (1) Treelessness caused by annual burnings. (A. J. S., I, i, 331). Generally 
 abandoned. 
 
 (2) Caused by choking out by the tangled roots of cane. (A. J. S., I, xxlii, 40), 
 Cane does not grow in Illinois. 
 
 (3) Caused by excessive dryuess of climate. (D., 44 ; Cooper, Smithson. Ann. Rep., 
 1858,276; Newberry, Ohio Agric. Rep., 1859; Lambert, Pacific R. R. Rep., i. 
 166). The treeless plains of the west probably originated, in part, from 
 such cause. But in Illinois, trees grow when planted.] 
 
 I
 
 (4) Caused by excessive humidity of soil. (Atwater, A. J. S., I, i/116 ; Bourne, 
 J., ii, 30; Lesquereux, zrf Ark. Geol. Rep. Also, Western Monthly Mag., Feb. 
 1836; Engelmann, A. J. S., II, xxxvi, 384). -- Objected that the Illinois 
 prairies are not generally wet. That certain appropriate trees often occupy 
 wet situations. That in Illinois trees grow when introduced. 
 
 (5) Caused by extreme fineness of the soil. (J. D. Whitney. Iowa Geol. Rep., i, 24 ; 
 New Amer. Cyclopced., Prairies). | Wanting in evidence. Trees do 
 grow when introduced. (Wells, A. J. S., I, i, 331 ; Engelmann, ib., II, xxxvi, 
 389; Edwards, Dep. o/Agric., 1862, 495 ; C. A. White, Geol. lotoa, 1868, 166. See 
 also, Prairie Farmer, Chicago, passim ; Gerhard : Illinois as it is, 277). 
 
 (6) Geological theory. (W., 241-72 ; A. J. S., IL, Nov. 1864). 
 
 (a) The prairie soil a lacustrine formation. Physical characters. Fresh 
 water shells. Former high level of the Great Lakes. (Lect. XX, 
 III. 2). 
 
 (6) Lacustrine sediments inclose but few living germs. (W., ut suf\ 
 
 (c) The drift deposits seem to be replete with living germs. Sudden ap- 
 pearance of unwonted species. (W., ut sup). 
 
 (d) These living germs buried during glacial epoch. 
 
 Approximation of Tertiary and even Cretaceous vegetation to modern 
 types. (Lesquereux, A. J. S., II, xxvii, 363 ; Newberry, A. J. S., II, xxix, 
 215, seq.). 
 
 Glacial action must have buried innumerable living germs. 
 Prolonged preservation of woody tissue. Maul handles in ancient 
 mines of L. Superior. X Pi'es of London Bridge and Old Savoy Place, 
 and the city of Venice. V Piles of Trajan's bridge over the Danube. 
 Piles in the Swiss lakes. Wheels in Romau mines of San Domingo. 
 Cedar timbers in N. J. Swamps. (Cook: Geol. N. J., 343, seq ; Lyell: 
 Travels in JV. A..2A Vis.,i, 34). Timber in saliferous sandstone in S. 
 A. (Orton : Andes and Amazon. 116, note). Found buried with Co- 
 hoes Mastodon. (Hall, App. Rep. N. T. Regents). Prostrate for- 
 ests beneath diluvium. (Locke, Trans. Assoc. Amer. Nat. and Geol., 
 240; Worthen: Geol. III. ; A. J. S., II, i, 54). In the Danish bogs. 
 (Mem. Acad. Sci., Copenhagen, ix, 1842; Smithson. Ann. Rep., 1860, 305, 
 seq. } Whittlesey, Proc. Amer. Assoc., 1866, 49). Wood in Cretaceous 
 sandstone iii.Ala. 
 
 ^j.. Persistence of vitality of seeds. ( W., ut sup. ; Amer. Exchange and Rev., 
 June, 1870; Gardener's Chron icle, Lond.; Patent Off". Rep., 1857, Agric., 
 256). 'r Indications of latent seeds iu the soil, (Hist. Brit. Dominions 
 in Amer.. Lond., 1773 ; Marsh : Man and Nature, 285, seq. ; Darwin : Ori- 
 gin of Species. Am. ed., 69). * Dr. Lindley's raspberry seeds from Ha- 
 drian's time. ""^ Wheat from Egyptian mummies. (Carpenter : Elem. 
 Physiol., Am. ed., 41 ; Draper : Intellect. Level. Europe, 72 ; L. Agass.: 
 Prin. Zool.. 136). The account doubted. (Asa Gray, A. J. S. ; Lyell : 
 Pritt., 565). Fresh grape seeds with Cohoes Mastodon. (Hall). 
 "A New species of poppy from soil beneath the refuse of the Laurium silver 
 mines in Greece. (Theod. v. Heldreich, Univ. Athens). 
 
 () Flora of the preglacial period reproduced from these germs. 
 
 (f) But the flora of the prairies must have come from surrounding regions. 
 
 (g\ Cooperation of Indian burnings. 
 
 (A) This theory criticized. (Geo. Vasey, Amer. Entomol. and Botanist, July- 
 August, 1870 ; Dana, Amer. J. S., II ; Lesquereux).
 
 99- 
 XLVIII. THE QUESTION OF EVOLUTION IN GEOLOGY. 
 
 I. Prolegomena. 
 
 1. Evolution the progressive differentiation of an identical existence. 
 
 The progress of heterogeneity out of homogeneity. 
 
 Based on the principle of continuity. (Leibnitz). 
 2 It is a method, a mode, a relation in the terms of succession. 
 3. A question of fact, not of causation or of consequences. -- Th 
 
 fact to be ascertained by observation. The philosophy of 
 
 causation may be consulted when the fact is known. 
 
 II. The Principle of Continuity in the Inorganic "World. (W., 
 
 The Doctrine of Evolution, 18-27). 
 
 1. All consecutive conditions mutually connected by an infinity of 
 
 intermediate conditions. 
 
 (1) The formation of a river-delta. Its growth inch by inch, millimetre by 
 millimetre. 
 
 (2) The development of a continent. Its surface expanded by infinitesimal 
 stages. .Its final highly differentiated condition reached bv passage through 
 all lower degrees of differentiation. 
 
 (2) The formation of the earth. Differentially progressive in its mode of cool- 
 ing. In its process of solidification. In its sedimentations. In its 
 denudations. In its diversification. 
 
 (3) Indications that a material continuity runs back from the present condition of 
 the earth through its cosmical history, and thence through the cosmical his- 
 tory of all the planets, and thence through the totality of cosmical history. 
 (Lects. XXXIX-XLIII). 
 
 2. Discontinuity of process inconceivable, except through new crea- 
 
 tive beginnings. 
 
 3. General admission that inorganic history exemplifies the princi- 
 
 ple of evolution. 
 
 III. The Principle of Evolution in Palaeontology. 
 
 1. Are successive organic types materially (genetically) connected? 
 
 2. The general graduation of organic forms. (Lect. XXXI). 
 
 (1) The general tenor of palceontological history. 
 
 (2) The nicely graduated successions in certain instances. (Lect. XXXVI). 
 
 3. Apparent breaches of the principle of progress. 
 
 (1) Missing links. (Lect. XXXIV). 
 
 (2) G<aduated structures chronologically misplaced. (Lect. XXXV). 
 
 (3) The misplacement sometimes amounting to apparent regress in respect to 
 rank. (Lect. XXXI). 
 
 4. These appearances perhaps attributable to the imperfections of 
 
 our knowledge. (Lect. XXXIV, I). 
 
 (1) Successional gaps may be filled by future discoveries. The constant ten- 
 dency of discovery to fill the gaps. 
 
 (2) Chronological misplacements perhaps only local. In another region the 
 lower terms may have appeared earlier, Appearances of regression simi- 
 larly explicable.
 
 100 
 
 (3) The palseontologlcal consequences of changes in ancient faunal distributions. 
 
 (0) Illustrated by changes now in progress. 
 
 (1) The record must present for single localities or regions, abrupt transi- 
 tions, chronologica misplacements and taxonomic regressions. 
 
 (4) Palseontological consequences of relapses in the material environment of life. 
 () Correlation between structure and environment. 
 
 (>) Strctural progress keeps pace with inorganic progress. 
 
 (e) Cataclysms and local pauses in inorganic progress would^condition arrest or 
 
 regress in organic history, 
 (d) So, sudden improvements in environment might condition secularly 
 
 sudden improvements in organic structure. 
 
 IV. A Material Continuity not proved by Palaeontology. 
 
 1. Erroneous opinion that palaeontology furnishes a "demonstration." 
 
 (Huxley: New York Lectureship; 0. C. Marsh: Nashville Ad- 
 dress, 1877). 
 
 2. A perfect graduation of terms compatible with a method of uni- 
 
 versal discontinuity. 
 
 (1) Illustration from products of human efforts. Wheeled vehicles. 
 
 Aquatic vehicles. 
 
 (2) Illustrated in the law of chemical homologues. 
 
 (4) In the family groups of crystallography. 
 
 (5) And even in geometrical forms, as the " conic sections " and the family of tri- 
 angles. 
 
 (5) Hence, each form of life may be conceived an independent origination. 
 
 3. But an evolution of the concept palaeontologically demonstrated. 
 
 And this proves unity of plan, and hence, unity of intelli- 
 gence. 
 
 V. A Material Continuity rendered probable by Palaeon- 
 
 tology. 
 
 1. This hypothesis compatible with all the phenomena. 
 
 2. We have the right to reason from the tenor of observed facts, as 
 
 well as from the facts actually known. Such reasoning im- 
 plies that apparent gaps were actually filled. That the grad- 
 uation was continuous, and that the relation of the terms was 
 genetic. 
 
 XLIX. THE QUESTION OF EVOLUTION AT LARGE. 
 
 CHARLES DARWIN: your. Linntean Soc., Lond.. 1858; The Origin of Species by 
 means of Natural Selection, (1758), N. Y., 1860 : The Variation of Animals and J lants un- 
 der Domestication, 2 vols., N. Y., 1868: Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 
 N. Y., 1873; The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to Sex, N. Y., 1877. 
 
 ALFRED R. WALLACE: Ann. and Mag. N. Hist., Sep. 1855; your. Linn. Soc., Lond. 
 1858; Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection, N. Y., 1871. 
 
 HERBERT SPENCER: First Principles of Philosophy, N. Y., 1865; Principles of Biol- 
 ogy, 2 vols., N. Y., 1866. 
 
 ST. GEORGE MIVART : On the Genesis of Species, N. Y., 1871 ; Lessons from Nature as 
 manifested in Mind and Matter, N. Y., 1876; Contemporary Evolution, N. Y., 1876 : Man
 
 101 
 
 ASA GRAY: Darwiniana-. Essays and Reviews pertaining to Darwinism, N. Y., 
 1878. 
 
 T. H. HUXLEY : On the Origin of Species, or the Causes of the Phenomena of Or- 
 ganic Nature. N. Y., 1866. 
 
 EKNST HAECKEL: Naturliche Schopfungsgeschichte, 4th ed., Berlin, 1873, trans. Nat- 
 History of Creation, N. Y ; Anthropogenie . Ent-wickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, Leip- 
 zig, 1874, trans. The Origin of Man, N. Y. 
 
 H. S. CHAPMAN : Evolution of Life, 2d ed., Philadelphia, 1873. 
 
 A. WINCHELL : The Doctrine of Evolution, N. Y., 1874. 
 
 Also DEM AILLET: Telliamed, ou entreliens, etc., Amsterdam, 1 748, also transl. ; LA- 
 MARCK: Philosophique Zoologique, etc., nouv.-ed., 1873 ; NAEGELI: Enstehungund Be- 
 griff der Art ; A. KoLLIKER : Ueber die Darwin'sche Schopfungsgeschichte,\3A; E. D. 
 COPE: Origin of Genera, Proc. A. N. S., Phil , Oct. 1868 ; The Hypothesis of Evolution, 
 Lippincott's Mag., 1870, and " University S ries," New Haven, 1873 ; The Method of Cre- 
 ation of Organic Types, Proc. A. A. A. Sci , 1871 ; A Review of the Modern Doctrine of 
 Evolution. Amer. Nat., Mar. and April, 1880, 166 ; T. PARSONS, A.J. S., II, xxx, i, July, 
 1860 ; R. OWEN : Anatomy of Vertebrates, ch. xl ; A. J. S., II, xlvii, 33 ; A. HYATT : Mem. 
 Bos. Soc. N. Hist., I, pt. ii, 1867; Amer. Nat., iv, 230-7, June, 1870 ; J. D. HOOKEK : Flora 
 of Tasmania, Introduc. Essav ; A. J. S., II, xxix, 1 and 305, Jan. 1860. 
 
 I. The Palseontological Evidence. (Lect. XLVIII). 
 
 II. The Morphological Evidence. 
 
 1. Familiar indications of blood-relationship. Eminently mor- 
 
 phological. 
 
 2. Structural relations in the organic kingdoms. Basis of classi- 
 
 fication. 
 
 (1) Fundamental plans of structure. 
 
 (a) As to ultimate structures. Cells, membranes, fibres, tissues. 
 (&) As to general structure. (Lect. XXXI, II ; XXXVII, I). 
 
 /^ (2) Fundamental physiological conceptions. Nutrition, Respiration, Circula- 
 tion, Neuration, Musculation, Wastage and Repair. 
 
 V 3. Rudimental structures. Rudiments of structures morpholog- 
 ically interpretable, but functionally useless. " Dysteleol- 
 ogy" of Haeckel. 
 
 2. These all indications of genetic connection and common origin. 
 5. But not a demonstration of such. 
 
 III. The Variational Evidence. 
 
 1. Arising from Geographical Position. 
 
 y (1) As to plants. Juniper, Paper Birch, Chestnut Oak, Hackberry, Beach Plum, 
 Black Thorn , June Berry, Wild Rose. Confluence of genera, as Cardamin* 
 with Dentaria on one hand, and Arabis on the other. 
 
 (2) As to animals. 
 
 (a) Echinoderms. (L. Agassiz, Proc. Amer. Acad., v. 72). Sponges, 
 
 (Haeckel: Die Kalkschwamme). 
 (6) Molluscs. (CoDper, Proc. Cal. Acad. N. Sci., v. 28; Barber, Amer. Nat., 
 
 Sep.. 1876, 529 ; Weatherby, Proc. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Sci., No. 1, June, 
 
 1876: Lewis, Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 121-8). 
 (c) Insects. (A.S.Packard, Geometrid ATMs. Hay den Surv., x, 42-3; W. H. 
 
 Edwards: Butterflies of N. A., &.ix; Walsh, Proc. Entmol. Soc., Phil.,
 
 102 
 
 (rf) Fishes. Blind fishes of caverns. (F. W. Putnam: Life in the Mammoth 
 Cave). 
 
 (e) Birds. (S. F. Baird, Pacif. R. R. Rep., ix, 1858 ; Mem. Wat. Acad., Jan/1863 ; 
 A.y.\ S., II, xli, Jan., Mar. and May; J. A.Allen, Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., 
 xv, 156 ;Bull. Mas. Comp. ZooL, ii, No. 3, pp. 229-49; ib., iii, July. 1872; 
 Bull.Hayden Sum., ii.No. 4,345 Aug. 1876,:repub.w4-. Nat., Oct. 1876, 625; 
 R. Ridgeway, A.J. S., Ill.iv, 454, Dec. 1872, v. 39, Jan., 1873, and Bull, Hay- 
 den Surv., No. 2, 1875, 58 ; Amer. Nat., vii, 415, July, U873. Comp., also, 
 Coues, Proc. A.N. S., July, 1872, 60; Key to N. Amer. Birds, Oct. 1872). 
 Generalizations drawn by Baird, Allen and Ridgeway. 
 
 (/) Mammals. (Baird, Pacif. R. R. Rep., viii, 1857: Allen, Proc. Boston 
 Soc. N. H., xvi, 276; Rod. Review, i. No. 1, May, 1877; Leporidce-. 
 Hayden Rep., xi. 4to., 269, 304-323, 645-52; E. Coues, Muridce, Hay- 
 den Rep., xi,4to., 29-31, 32, 40,65,73, 75,185,189,240; H. C. .Yarrow, 
 Wheeler Rep. 4to., v, ch. i). 
 (3) These variant forms as good species as ever. The error of abandoning 
 
 them as species. 
 / 2. Arising from changed environment. 
 
 (1) The Axolotl or Siredon lichenoides. (Dum<5ril ; Marsh, A. J. S., II. xlvi, 364 ; 
 
 Tribune Extra, No. 8). 
 
 (2) Branchipus and Artemia, (Schmaukevitch ; Hagen, Proc. A. A., 1876). 
 These results, however, to be received with caution. (Verrill, Proc. A. A., 
 1869, 230.. 
 
 3. Arising from hybridity. 
 
 (1) Repeated assertion that hybridity has originated no permanent forms. 
 
 (2) Hybrid species of trees enumerated in Floras. (Gray: Man. Bot. North. U. 
 S). Vegetable hybriMty fully established. (A. DeCaudolle, Treatise on 
 Oaks ; Naudiu : Hybridity in the Veg. Kingdom). \.^j*. ^*'*A 
 
 (3) Fertile hybrids of Common and Chinese geese in Mt. Auburn Cemetery, (You- 
 mans, in Quatrefage's Nat. Hist, of Man. 143). Very common in India, 
 and occurring in England, (C. Darwin, Nature, xxi, 207, Jan. 1, 1880). 
 
 (4) Fertile hybrids of hare and rabbit. (Gindre, Bull.de la Soc. imp. Zool. d> Ac- 
 climation, 1870, 659-67). 
 
 4 Examples among fossil remains. 
 
 (1) Ortht's oiforata with varieties lynx, laticosta, dentata, acutilirata. (Meek : Pal. 
 
 Ohio, i, pi. x ; Hall : Pal. N. Y., i, 133, pi. xxxii D). 
 4^ (2) Spirifera disjuncta, with eighteen varieties. (Hall: Pal. N. Y., iv.pl. xli, 
 
 xlii). 
 
 (3) Spirifera mucronata. (Hall : Pal. N. Y., iv, pi. xxiv). Atrypa reflation's, 
 with sixteen varieties. (Hall : Pal. N. Y., pi. li-liii ; WhitfleM, XIX R<p. N. 
 Y. Regents). Pentamerus Kni$htii. (Davidson: Brit. Foss. Brachiop). 
 
 5. Rudimentary structures result from variation. 
 
 6. The facts of Variability demonstrate the possibility of a material 
 
 continuity between species. 
 
 ' IV. The Embryological Evidence. 
 
 ]. Nature of the embryological succession. /"We can indicate 
 twenty-two, or more, stages in the development of highest mam- 
 mals. (Hseckel: Anthropogenic).
 
 103 
 
 2. Parallelism of all embryonic series. Lower forms arrested at 
 
 earlier stages. - - The parallelism suggests descent from com- 
 mon ancestors. 
 
 3. Parallelism with geological succession. Earlier geological 
 
 types were comparatively embryonic. 
 
 4. Parallelism with the morphologically graduated series. 
 
 5. An identical order of succession three times occurring. The 
 
 first ontogenetic and rapid. The second palseontological and 
 slow. The third tazonomic and simultaneous. 
 
 6. Embryological history proves that transition by material continuity, 
 
 from term to term of this succession, is a fact. If a fact in 
 the embryological series, it is probably a fact in the almost iden- 
 tical palseontological and taxonomic series. The derivation 
 of species by material continuity must therefore be admitted as 
 a general law of nature. 
 
 L. EVOLUTION THEORIES. 
 
 [Authorities as in Lecture XLIX]. 
 
 I. Necessary Discriminations in the discussion of Evolution. 
 
 1. Is a universal Method of Evolution a fact in nature ? 
 
 2. What are the conditions under which an evolution arises? 
 
 3. What are the instruments and agencies for effecting it? 
 
 4. What is the efficient cause employing the agencies, under the re- 
 
 quisite conditions, in producing the fact? 
 
 5. These discriminations often overlooked. The Fact some- 
 
 times regarded the ultimate goal of science. Conditions 
 often regarded a full explanation. Instruments or agencies 
 often set down as " true causes." 
 
 II. Suggestions recorded in the history of Science. 
 
 1. As to the Fact. A frequently recurring doctrine in all ages. 
 
 Always met with denials, under the impression that it pre- 
 cludes divine agency. 
 
 2. As to the Conditions. 
 (1) Modes of the organism. 
 
 (a) Inheritance, or transmission of identity. Centripetal. 
 (6) Variability, or capacity for change. Centrifugal. 
 
 (c) Prolonged embryonic development. ( Vestiges of Creation). 
 
 (d) Acceleration of development. (Hyatt, as in Lect. XLIX). 
 
 () Acceleration and retardation of development and growth. (Cope : Method 
 
 of Creation ; Or iff in of Genera). 
 
 (/) Repetitive addition. (Cope: Method of Creation), 
 (g ) Relation to grade of organ or animal. Cope's " grade influence." 
 (A) Frequency of exercise. Equivalent to "use and effort," (Cope), and
 
 104 
 
 " use and disuse," (DeMaillet, Lamarck, Darwin). Includes " animal 
 motion," suggested by Cope as " cause of animal evolution." (Cope, P. 
 Amer. A. A. Set., Aug., 1877; Penn Monthly, Jau. 1878 ; Origin of the spe- 
 cialized teeth of Carnivora, Am. Nat., Mar. 1879). This not a cause, 
 since whatever change ensues is caused directly (instrumen tally) by the 
 physiological action. 
 
 (2) Modes of the environment. Determining the " struggle for existence." 
 (Darwin : Origin of species). 
 
 (a) Physical surroundings. (DeMaillet: Telliamed ; Lamarck: Philos. 
 
 Zool). 
 
 (b) Competition with fellow-beings. 
 
 (<r) Extermination of unfittest. Whereby " fittest," *". e. best, survive, to 
 continue the species and perpetuate acquired modifications. The 
 characteristic conception of " Darwinism," which thus leaves all causation 
 of variation untouched. 
 
 3. As to instrumentalities and agencies. 
 
 (1) Reproductive activities. Normal. With saltative progress. (Huxley). 
 Parthenogenesis. (Kolliker). 
 
 (2) Influence of enviroment. This a misapprehension. 
 
 (3) Physiological activities, organizing material into forms correlated to the envi- 
 ronment. The "growth-force" of Cope. 
 
 (4) Inherent conation toward certain modifications of structure. (Lamarck). 
 Hardly distinguishable from the coordinative force in physiological work. 
 (See next point). 
 
 (5) Intelligent selection. (Cope : MeUicd of Creation, 29; Consciousness in Evolution, 
 Penn Monthly, Aug., 1875. Compare Origin of the Will, Penu Monthly, June, 
 1877). 
 
 (a) Automatic or unconscious. A directive influence exerted upon physi- 
 ological activities. 
 
 (b) Voluntary or conscious. Choice of means bv which the animal seeks 
 its own well-being. Part origin of " struggle for existence." 
 
 4. As to causes. 
 
 (1) Environment, Natural Selection, Use, etc. These not real causes, but sub- 
 causes. Environment only the condition of a certain kind of physiological 
 activity. Natural Selection only the outcome or remainder, after active 
 cause has made certain subtractions. Use only the condition of more in- 
 tense physiological action in certain organs. 
 
 (2) Inherent tendency to improve or change. Either co&perative or all- 
 underlying and all-conditioning. In either case, only an effect which 
 conditions other effects. 
 
 (3) The Unknowable. (Spencer : First Principles, etc). 
 
 (4) A Supernatural Power. 
 
 (a) The real cause is something which cannot be construed as an effect. 
 (&) It acts iw thi organism, through 'physiological processes, and not at a dis- 
 tance, in the environment 
 
 (c) It acts with discernment, cognizing a certain correlation as an end, and 
 
 directing the eperations of life toward that end Cognition implies 
 intelligence; direction, will and motive for willing; the cause is therefore, a 
 personality. 
 
 (d) The cause is not the animal or plant in which the modification takes 
 place. Nor any other animal. It is, therefore, a supernatural 
 Cause.
 
 105 
 
 2. Theories are based principally on views in reference to condi- 
 ditions and instrumentalities, and the scope of application of the 
 principle of evolution. 
 III. Conspectus of Theories of the Origin of Species. 
 
 1. IMMEDIATE CHEATION. (Material Discontinuity). 
 
 (1) in single Pairs, . . , { fgEftgg; 
 
 (2) In Colonies, L. Agasniz, etc. 
 
 2. MEDIATE CREATION or DERIVATION. (Material Continuity or Evo- 
 
 lution). 
 
 (1) Through a Force which is a mode of the Unknowable. . . . Spencer. 
 
 (2) Through so-called external influences or forces acting on the generative. 
 
 (o) Physical surroundings. (Transmutation). '. . . . De Maillet 
 (6) The same and conflicts of individuals (Natural Selection) with use and dis- 
 use, 
 (aa) Embracing the psychic nature of man. 
 
 (aaa) By insensible gradations (Variative). . . Darwin, ffaecktl. 
 (666) With occasional leaps (Saltative) and with a molecular selec- 
 tion Huxley. 
 
 (66) Excluding the body and mind of man, .... Wallace. 
 (8) Through an internal force, conditioned by the environment, and by use and 
 disuse. 
 
 (a) An inherent nisus toward improvement. (Conative-variative). j #f j^^re 
 (6) Genetic processes exclusively. (Filiative). 
 
 (oa) Prolonged embryonic development. (Variative-filiative). " Vestiges." 
 
 (aaa) Heterogeneous generation Kcettiker, Ferris. 
 
 (666) Homogeneous generation Parsons, Owen. 
 
 (c) An immaterial force, genetic processes being the instrument. Saltations 
 admitted. 
 
 (oa) Excluding the psychic nature of man. . . . Mivart, Nxgelf. 
 (66) Including the psychic nature of man. 
 
 (aaa) Through ordinary generation Huxley. 
 
 (666) Accelerated development Hyatt. 
 
 (ccc) Accelerated and retarded development Cope. 
 
 IV. Conclusions eliminated. 
 
 1. Evolution is the designation of a general method employed in 
 
 nature for the effectuation of results. " Development " em- 
 ployed in nearly the same sense. 
 
 2. " Darwinism " is the designation of a particular theory of the in- 
 
 strumentalities by which the evolution is effected. There- 
 
 fore not synonymous with evolution. - May be a false or in- 
 sufficient doctrine, while evolution is a true one. Cannot, 
 by any means, claim to be an adequate explanation of the phe- 
 nomena of organic life. 
 J f
 
 106 
 
 LI. PRIMITIVE MEN, 
 THEIR ETHNOLOGY, AFFILIATIONS AND DISPERSION. 
 
 A. WINCHKLL: Preadamites, 8vo., Chicago, 1880, ch.vi, x, xi, xiv, xix-xxv; O. 
 PKSCHEL: The Races of Man, N. Y,,1876; P. TOPINARD : Anthropology, London, If 78; C. 
 VOGT : Lectures on Man, London, 1864. 
 
 I. The terms Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
 
 Prehistoric Anthropology to be investigated on the same basis 
 as extinct life in general. The Archaeological data discussed 
 in Part I, (Lecture XXII). 
 
 II. Primitive Types of Mankind. 
 2. Existing races of men. (Peschel). 
 
 (1) The Black Races. 
 
 (a) Australians and Tasmanians. (6) 'Papuans and Negritos. (^Hot- 
 tentots and Bushmen. (d) Negroes. 
 
 (2) The Brown Races. 
 
 (a) Mongoloids: Malays, Chinese, Altaians, Japanese, Americans. 
 (6) Dravidians. 
 
 (3) The White Race or Mediterraneans. 
 
 (a) Hamites. ' (6) Semites. (c) Japhetites or Aryans. 
 
 2. Affinities among ethnic types. Gradations. The lower 
 
 not descended from the higher. 
 
 3. The primitive races low in rank. Australians probably ap- 
 
 proximate the earliest men. Higher races later in appear- 
 ance. 
 
 III. Hypothetical continent of Lemuria. 
 
 1. Evidences of its former existence. 
 
 (1) Zoological. Lemurs. Birds. Men. 
 
 (2) Botanical. Palms. 
 
 (3) Geological. Shoals in Indian Ocean. The entire area in process of 
 subsidence. 
 
 2. Here was perhaps the cradle of mankind. 
 
 IV. Dispersion of Mankind from Lemuria. 
 
 1. Primordial bifurcation of the human stock. Australian and 
 
 African stems. Why not assigned to distinct origins. 
 
 2. Dispersion of the Australian branch. 
 
 (1) Australians. Connection with India. The Tasmanian differentiation. 
 
 (2) Papuans. Retral movement to the Andamans. Divergence to Luzon, 
 Formosa, and perhaps Japan. Melanesian expansion. Oceanic im- 
 provement of the type. 
 
 3. Dispersion of the African branch. (Ulotrichs). 
 
 (1) The Hottentot type. Moved from eastern equatorial Africa. 
 
 (2) The Negro type. Kaffir Bantus drove Hottentots southward. The Sou- 
 dans spread westward. 
 
 (3) Many Africans not of these races. 
 
 4. Else and dispersion of Mongoloids.
 
 107 
 
 (1) Malayan stem. Regress to Madagascar. Pacific expansion. Mi- 
 cronesian type. Polynesian type. Extreme eastward advances. 
 
 (2) Thibeto-Burmese stem. 
 
 (3) Chinese stem. Primitive seat. Migration. 
 
 (4) Altaian stem. The northeastward stream. Divergence of Turks , 
 Mandchus, Tunguses, Samoyeds and Ural-Altaics. 
 
 (5) Troglodytic stem. Dispersion in N. Africa and in Europe. 
 
 (6) American Sedentes. Access from Asia. Their characteristics. 
 Their dispersion over N. America, Mexico, Central America, Granada, Peru, 
 Chile and Patagonia. Copper-mining, mounds, mesa-ruins, Mexican and 
 Peruvian civilizations. 
 
 (7) American Vagantes. Contrasted with Sedentes. Compared with Ma- 
 lays. Access by Polynesia. Indications of former continental connec- 
 tion. Spread over the plains of S. America. Drove back Sedentes in 
 N. America. 
 
 5. Rise and dispersion of Dravidians. 
 
 6. Rise and dispersion of Mediterraneans. 
 
 (1) Hamitic Family. Displaced Mongoloids everywhere. Possessed all 
 Western Asia, N. Africa and Southern Europe. 
 
 (2) Semitic Family. Absorbed Hamites in Asia. Semitic empires. 
 Maritime Phoanicians. 
 
 (3) Aryan Family. Asiatic branch. European branch. TJltra- 
 Euxine and cis-Euxine streams. Ulterior ramifications. 
 
 LH THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 
 
 A. WmcHELL : Preadamiles, ch. xxvii ; SIK C. LYELL : The Geological Antiquity of 
 Mankind ; 3. C. SOUTHALL: The Recent Origin of Man, Phil., 1875 ; The Epoch of the Mam- 
 moth, Phil., 1878 ; E. ANDREWS, A. J. S., II, xlv, 180; Meth. Quar. Rev., Dec. 1876, Jan. 1877. 
 Three aspects of discussion on this question. 
 
 I. Epoch of the First Men. 
 
 1. No positive data bearing directly on the question. 
 
 2. They probably appeared in Tertiary time. 
 
 II. Epoch of the Stone Polk of Europe. Their antiquity 
 
 long exaggerated. (Haeckel : Natuerlich. Schcepf., 595, etc). 
 Grounds of such opinions. 
 < 1. Preglacial remains of other animals mistaken for human remains. 
 
 (1) Notched bones found at St. Prest, France, with Pliocene elephant Marks 
 made by a contemporary rodent. 
 
 (2) Cut bones of Leognan, of Miocene age. Marked by a carnivorous fish. 
 
 (3) Flints in Miocene of Thenay. (Congr. Internat., 1867, 67). - - Not artificially 
 produced. 
 
 2. Human remains erroneously supposed preglacial. 
 
 (1) The Guadeloupe skeletons. (D. 579; C. Konig, Phil. Trans., 1814, 107). 
 
 (2) Human skeleton with Pliocene elephant at Le Puy-en-Velay. (Topinard : An- 
 thropology, 436; Caspari: Urgesch. der Menschheit,i,9A). '- Skeleton not 
 in same lava as elephant, but a later lava. 
 
 (3) Flints in the gravels of the Somme. But these gravels prove to be post- 
 glacial.
 
 108 
 
 / (4) Human skull from Pliocene of Colle del Vento. (Issel, Cong. Internal., 1867, 75, 
 156;. The fact not scientifically established. 
 
 (5) Human pelvis in a preglacial deposit at Natchez. The bone fell down from 
 the top of a bluff. ( Lyell : Antiq. Man.} 
 
 (6) Remains in Victoria cave, Eng. (Geike). The deposits probably not pre- 
 glacial. (J. Evans, Add. Ocol. Soc. Lond., 19 Feb.. 187o ; A. J. S., Ill, x, 229-32). 
 
 3. Man not preglacial in Europe. (Huxley, Nature, 22 Aug., 1878, 448. 
 Comp. Haeckel, op cit., 594). But he witnessed the decline 
 of the glaciers. 
 
 ' 4. Man probably of Pliocene age in California. (J. D. Whitney). 
 Probably of Mongoloid type. 
 
 5. Remoteness of the glacial decline in Europe. 
 
 (1) Human history and movements in glacial and preglacial times. 
 
 (2) Grounds of belief in high antiquity of glacial epoch. 
 
 (a) Astronomical hypothesis of glacial periods. (Lect. XLV, V). 
 
 (6) Cotemporaneousness of man with extinct animals. (Lect. XXII). 
 
 Extinctions not necessarily remote. 
 
 (aa) Gigantic extinct birds of New Zealand and the Mascarenes. (D. 580-1 ; 
 L. 558-60; Encyc. Brit., 9th ed., iii, 731; A. Milne-Edwards, Comptes 
 Rendus, May, 1875; A. J. S., Ill, x, 233. Comp. A. Giinther, Nature, 28 
 July, 1874). Kytina Stelleri, Balcena Biscay ensis, Trojau shells. 
 
 (66) Species approaching extinction. Great auk, Labrador duck, 
 capercailzee, great aurochs, sequoia and many familiar species. 
 
 (cc) Extinctions apparently recent. Mammoth, Mastodon, (Am. Nat., 
 April, 1879, 269. Irish elk. 
 
 (3) Magnitude of geological changes since man's advent. Real greatness of 
 those changes. 
 
 (a) Remoteness in time produces an illusion. Historic times record great 
 geologic events. Geographical changes in China. (Pumpelly, Smiths. 
 Oontr.. 4to., xv, art. iv ; Von Richthofen : China, 285-7). -- Changes in 
 basin of Black and Caspian seas. (W.: Pread., 440 and re/.). 
 
 (6) Retreat of Alpine glaciers. (Tyndall: Hours of Exercise in the Alps; W.: 
 Pread., 437-8>. Existing stumps in America. (Lect. XIX, III, 6). 
 
 6. Estimates of prehistoric archaeologists. Appearance of Iron 
 
 in the West 2700 years ago. Age of Bronze, 2700 to 
 
 4000 years. Age of Polished Stone, 4000 to 6000 years. 
 Age of Reindeer, 7000. These results accordant with tradi- 
 tional indications. (W.: Pread., 442). 
 
 v HI. Epoch of Mediterranean Race. Must exceed somewhat 
 
 the historic antiquity of Egypt. Era of Menes according to 
 Lepsius, 3892 B. C. According to Mariette and Lenormant, 
 5004 B. C. 
 
 Lffl. ESTIMATION OF GEOLOGICAL TIME. 
 
 I. Oppressiveness of Geological .aSons. 
 
 1. Geological changelessness of some historic spots. Plymouth 
 Rock. The Acropolis. Mont Blanc.
 
 109 
 
 2. Permanence of the aspects of the heavens. 
 
 3. Slowness of shore-erosions and of sedimentary processes. 
 
 4. Time required for material of a bed of coal. 
 
 4. Such facts tend to produce an exaggerated impression of the vast- 
 ness of geological periods. We need some comprehensible 
 unit of measure. 
 
 II. Cosmical Limitations of Terrestrial past Duration. 
 
 1. Age of the Sun's heat. (Sir W. Thomson, Phil. Mag., viii, 1854 ; 
 
 Macmillari's Mag., March, 1862; Address Brit. Assoc., Edinb., re- 
 print, A. J. S., Ill, ii, 286, Oct. 1861 ; Croll : Climate and Time, 
 ch. xxi). 
 
 (1) Meteoric theory of solar heat, (Mayer : Celestial Dynamics, Youmans' ed., 261). 
 
 (2) Contractional theory. (Helmholtz, Phil. Mag., xi, 1856 ; W. Thomson, Phil. 
 Mag., viii). 
 
 (3) Solar heat probably, in large part, a residuum of the primitive temperature. 
 (W., Sketches, ch. xxxviii ; Croll : aim. ard Time, 349, seq). 
 
 2. Duration of the secular cooling of the earth. -- A maximum of 
 
 100,000,000 years since commencement of incrustation. (Thom- 
 son and Tait : Nat. Phil. ; Croll : dim. and Time, 335). - - Actual 
 calculation results in 80,000,000.years. Eeade demands 
 500,000,000 years since sedimentation began in Europe. (Ann. 
 Addr. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1876 ; A. J. S., 1876, 462). 
 
 3. Duration of tidal retardation of earth's rotation. -- The investi- 
 
 gation not yet made. 
 
 III. Calculation based on relative thickness of Sediments. 
 
 (D., 381, 481, 585). 
 
 1. Account cannot be taken of relative energy of geologic forces. 
 
 Probably greatest in the world's early history. 
 
 2. Maximum thickness of sediments, limestone being multiplied 
 
 five-fold. (D., 381): Archaean, 230,000 ft; Palaeozoic, 153,000; 
 Mesozoic, 38,300; Csenozoic, 12,800. -- Joining palaeontological 
 with stratigraphical evidences, Devonian + Triassio = 
 Jurassic + Cretaceous + Csenozoic. (Ramsay, Proc. Roy. 
 Soc., No. 152,1874). 
 
 3. The Pyrolithic seon probably as long as the Archaean. 
 
 4. Distribution of the Earth's incrusted life-time. (Comp. D., 591). 
 
 Percentages. Years. 
 
 PYKOLITHIC MOTS. (Fire-crust), 34.6 34,600,000 
 
 ARCH^AN^EON. (Strata), 34.6 34,600,000 
 
 PALEOZOIC ^ON, 23.1 23,100,000 
 
 Silurian, 15-6 15,600,000 
 
 Lower Silurian, (Cambrian), 13.2 13,200,000
 
 no 
 
 Percentages. Years, 
 
 Potsdam Sandstone, 1.9 1,900,000 
 Rest of Lower Silurian, 11.3 11 ,300,000 
 Upper Silurian, 2.4 2,400,000 
 Devonian, 3.8 3,800,000 
 Carboniferous, 3.8 3,800,000 
 MESOZOIC jEoN, 5.8 5,800,000 
 Triassic, 1.78 1,780,000 
 Jurassic, 2.22 2,220,000 
 Cretaceous, 1.78 1,780,000 
 OENOZOIC ^Eou, 1.9 1,900,000 
 Tertiary, 1.5 1,500,000 
 Post-Tertiary, 0.4 400,000 
 Glacial, ' 0.2 200,000 
 Champlain, 0.2 200,000 
 5. This result for post-glacial time perhaps too great. One hun- 
 dred millions too high an aggregate, and Pyrolithic and Arch- 
 aean relatively longer than assumed. 
 
 IV. Calculation based on Eccentricity of Earth.' s Orbit. 
 
 1. Supposes maximum eccentricity the indirect cause of northern 
 
 glacial periods. (Lect. XLV, V, 4). 
 
 2. Last occurring epochs of maximum eccentricity before 1800 A. D.: 
 
 100,000 years (.0473), 210,000 years (.0575), 310,000 years, (.0424), 
 750,000 years (.0575), 850,000 years (0747). Those at 210,000 
 
 and 850,000 years the most striking. 
 
 3. Croll regards last Glacial Period as extending from 240,000 to 
 
 80,000 years ago. (Croll : dim. and Time, 325, 355). The 
 
 Miocene glaciation he puts at 850,000 years ago, and the Eocene 
 at 2,500,000 years. (Croll : op cit., 358-9). These figures ap- 
 parently too high. The last mid-glacial epoch perhaps 
 100,000 years ago. Then, since decline of glaciers, say 50,000 
 years. 
 
 V. Calculations based on Erosion and Deposition. 
 
 1. Gorge of Niagara. (D., 219, 590; L. 14 ; Hall: Oeol. N. Y., iv, ch. 
 xx ; K. Bakewell: Geol, 260; J. Marcou, Butt. Soc. Oeol. de 
 France, II, xxii, 190, 529 ; Ramsay, Q. J. Q. Soc., xv, 1859 ; T. 
 Belt, Q. J. Sci., April, 1875). Assuming rate of Erosion 
 uniform. 
 
 (1) R. Bakewell, S^feet per year, 12,300 years. 
 
 (2) Lyell and Hall, 1 foot per year, 35,000 years. 
 
 (3) E. Desor, .03 foot per year, 1,232,000 years. 
 
 (4) J. Marcou, .52 foot per year, 71,000 years.
 
 Ill 
 
 (5) T. Belt, 0.1 foot per year, 200,000 years for whole gorge, but only 20,000 for that 
 below the whirlpool. The remainder of the gorge, and all the old one, being 
 considered preglacial. Last result accords best with limits of time at our 
 disposal for terrestrial history. 
 
 2. Gorge of Mississippi, at St. Anthony. (N. H. Winchell, Q. J. O. 
 
 Soc., Lond., Nov. 1878, 880). -- Eate from 1680 to 1856, 5.15 feet 
 per year ; time from Fort Snelllng, 8202 years. -- This a post- 
 glacial erosion. 
 
 3. Deltas of rivers. 
 
 (1) The Mississippi delta about 5000 years. (Humphreys and Abbot, Hydraulics of 
 the Miss., 1861. Comp. L. 28). 
 
 (2) The Kile delta, 6350 years. (De Lanoye : Barneses the Great. Comp. L. 28). 
 
 4. Terraces of Lake Michigan. (E. Andrews, Trans. Chic. Acad. Sci., 
 
 ii; Southall: Epoch of the Mammoth, ch. xxii). Total time 
 
 since Glacial Period, 5300 to 7500 years. 
 
 5. General continental erosion. (L., 10-11 ; Croll : dim. and Time, 
 
 ch. xx ; Geikie, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, iii ; Jukes and Geike : 
 Man. Geol, ch. xxv ; A. Tylor, Phil. Mag., 1850). - - Subsidence 
 in basin of Danube, one foot in 6846 years ; of Mississippi, 4640 ; 
 of Nile, 4723 ; Ganges, 1751 ; Rhone, 1528 ; Hoang-Ho, 1464 ; Po, 
 729 years. 
 
 LIV. LIMITATIONS OF THE EXISTING ORDER. 
 
 I. Meaning of Change in the natural "World. 
 
 1. It implies a beginning. 
 
 2. It implies an end. 
 
 3. The idea of endless cycles physically absurd. (W., Sketches, ch. 
 
 xxxv). Perpetual motion equally impossible in human and 
 in the cosmic mechanism. All force seeking a state of equi- 
 librium. Finite time suffices for the accomplishment of any 
 work, however vast. 
 
 4. Recognized principle of degradation of physical organisms. 
 
 Dissipation of energy. (W., Mich. Jour. Educ., Aug. 1860, 273 ; 
 Ladies' Repos., Gin., Jan., 1864 ; College Courant, New Haven, Jul. 
 12 and 17, 1869 ; Sketches of Creation, 1870 ; Sir. W. Thomson ; 
 Helmholtz ; Spencer : First Prin., 450, etc). 
 
 II. Ultimate tendencies of Terrestrial Erosions. (Lect. XXVII, 
 
 XXVIII ; W., Sketches, ch. xxxvi). 
 
 1. Wastage of soils. Disappearance of vegetation and aridity of 
 climate. Sinking of river-channels. (D., 641-2). 
 Filling of lakes and seas. Transfer of elevations to deltas 
 and sea-bottoms. Great American Desert. (Wheeler, Prelim. 
 Rep., 1871, 20 ; Powell : Colorado).
 
 112 
 
 2. Growth of Delta of Mississippi river. (D., 651-2 ; Humphreys and 
 Abbot : Hydraul Miss,, 141, 418, etc). Total annual contribution, 
 one square mile 268 feet deep. Annual advance of delta. 
 338 feet. Inevitable destruction of the upland. 
 
 4. Lowering of continental surfaces. 
 
 (1) Sundry estimates. (Lect. XXVIII, LIII). 
 
 (2) Relative masses of continents and oceans. 
 
 (o) Mean height of land. (Kriimmel, Qottingen Acad.; G. Leipoldt, Pefermann's 
 MMheilungen, April, 1875 ; Nature, 15 April, 1875 ; A. J. S., Ill, ix, 482 ; Na- 
 ture, 3 Feb., 1879, 348-9). Europe, 300 m. ; Asia and Africa, 500 m. ; 
 America, 330 m. ; Australia, 250 m. ; mean, 426 m., or 0.0566 mile. Sur- 
 face ratio of land to water, 1:2.75. Ratio of volume of land to water, 
 1:22.4. 
 
 (b) Continents above sea-level transferred to sea-basin would raise the sea 
 112.4 m., or 368.2 ft. above the land. This doctrine enunciated by 
 Buffon. ( T/ieone de la Terre.) But denounced by the Sorbonne. (Ly- 
 ell : Prin., 41 ; Buffon : Hist. Nat., tome v, ed. de 1'Imp. royale, Paris, 1769. 
 
 III. Progressive Terrestrial Refrigeration. (Lect. XLI). 
 
 IV. Absorption of Sea And Atmosphere. (Lect. XLI, V.2). - 
 
 Observed secular desiccation of the continents. ( J. D. Whitney, 
 Amer. Nat., x, 513, Sep., 1876). 
 
 V. Coincidence of Axial and Orbital Periods of the Earth. 
 
 (Helmholtz: Interaction Nat. For., Youmans' ed., 243). Six 
 months insufferable heat and six months insufferable cold. 
 
 VI. Solar Refrigeration. (Lect. XLI). - - Vast emission of heat. 
 
 No known source of adequate supply. 
 
 VII. Final Aggregation of Matter. (W., ch. xxxix ; Spencer : 
 
 First Prin., 480, seq. ; Fiske : Cosmic Philos). 
 
 1. Conditions of Stability of our System. (Laplace). The plan- 
 
 ets solid and their motions in vacuo. Neither condition 
 
 fulfilled. 
 
 2. A resisting medium in space. (B. Stewart: Conservation of En- 
 
 ergy, 96 ; Fiske : Cosmic Phil. Also, Spencer, Cousin, etc.). 
 
 3. Shortening of periods of rotation. Encke's comet. -- The 
 
 fact denied. Illustration from meteoroids in our atmo- 
 sphere. Inevitable precipitation of planetary matter. 
 
 4. Process of aggregation in other systems. 
 
 VIII. Glimpses Beyond. 
 
 1. Question of final aggregation of all matter. -- The result incon- 
 
 ceivable. 
 
 2. There must be a reorganizing principle active in nature. 
 
 But the forces of matter incapable of effecting a cosmic resurrec- 
 tion, 
 a Cycles of matter. (W.,ch.xl).
 
 113 
 LV. WORLD-LIFE. 
 
 A. WINCHELL: Geology of the Stars, Half-Hour .Recreations in Popular Science, 279- 
 82 ; ENNIS : Origin of the Stars. 
 
 I. General Cosmic Morphology. 
 
 1. The deepest principle of change in cosmic existence is expressed 
 
 by the word cooling. Other activities come into play con- 
 comitantly. 
 
 2. The three great cosmic forces are heat and atomic and molar at- 
 
 tractions. 
 
 3. A world's life-time is but a progressive cooling, with its incidents 
 
 and consequents. It passes successively through all the 
 phases and stages known to cosmogony. 
 
 4. Cosmic life-times have begun at different epochs, and proceed at 
 
 different rates. Probably beginning and ending continu- 
 ually. Hence, contemporary cosmic existence, analogously 
 to the kingdoms of organic life, presents a simultaneous panor- 
 ama of a world's life-time. The taxonomy of the heavens 
 is therefore a cosmic embryology and a cosmic palaeontology. 
 (Lect. XLIX, IV, 5). 
 
 II. Nebular Stage. 
 
 1. Diffused Phase or Cosmical Dust. (Lect. XLII). Cosmic 
 
 atoms gathering, condensing and developing heat. An 
 
 antecedent phase of matter supposable, in the form of a contin- 
 uous, cold, or heated gas. (Ennis : Origin of the Stars, sec. xvi). 
 
 But the conception not yet correlated to the normal nebu- 
 lous condition. 
 
 2. Normal Nebular Phase. Mineral mist floating in a gaseous 
 
 medium. Spectrum of one, two or three bright lines. (Lect. 
 XLII, VI, 4). Some of the irresolvable nebulse. 
 3 Continuous Fire-mist Phase. Mineral mist increased in 
 quantity, but the mass remaining homogeneous and mostly gas- 
 eous. Spectrum of bright lines superposed on an extremely 
 faint, continuous spt ctrum of scarcely appreciable breadth. 
 Certain irresolvable nebulse ; also, a few " stars." 
 
 Annulations perhaps take place in this phase. The primitive 
 nebula is resolved into solar nebulas, in which other annulations 
 succeed. Annular, and probably spiral and curved nebulse. 
 
 Saturnian rings persisting like a preserved embryo. 
 
 4. Discontinuous Fire-mist Phase. Segregation and accumula- 
 tion around local nuclei, without annulation. Fire-mist 
 or photospheric matter still in small proportion to gaseous. 
 K
 
 114 
 
 Bright line spectrum superposed on a faint continuous spec- 
 trum. Certain resolvable nebulse. Compare nebula in 
 Draco. 
 in. Stellar Stage. 
 
 1. Nucleating Phase. Increasing amount of photospheric 
 
 matter. Nuclear condensation apparent. Sun systems 
 and planetary segregations past the phase of annulation. 
 Bright lines over a continuous spectrum. Planetary Nebulse 
 and Nebulous Stars. 
 
 2. Nucleated Phase. Liquid precipitate increased. - Tem- 
 
 perature and luminosity so diminished that the absorbent capac- 
 ity of the still gaseous atmosphere just equals the emissive 
 power of the nucleus and photosphere. Spectrum continu- 
 ous. Certain star clusters and most resolvable nebulse. 
 
 3. Sirian Phase. Atmosphere of great depth and tension. 
 
 Absorbent capacity exceeds emissive. Spectrum of dark 
 lines of extraordinary breadth. White stars. 
 
 4. Arcturan Phase. Atmosphere diminished in depth and ten- 
 
 sion. Spectrum the normal solar spectrum. Yellow 
 
 Stars. 
 
 (1) Some fixed stars in the last two stages the centres of cosmic systems. 
 
 (2) Some have their attendant worlds still luminous, 
 (a) Sirius a sun with four still luminous planets. 
 
 (6) Procyon, Rigel, Aldebaran, Arcturus, Antares, Zeta Cancri, etc., have each 
 
 one or more, 
 (c) Some of these companions have still smaller attendants, as Mu Lupi, Eta 
 
 Lyrse, Xi Cancri, 12 Lyncis, Theta Orioiiis. These are still-luminous 
 
 satellites. 
 
 5. Solar Phase. Photosphere thinned to point of eruption by 
 
 upward vortical movements. Maculation by condensation 
 of the cooled vapors. Incipient variability. Our sun. 
 Q. Variable Phase. Photosphere periodically darkened by the 
 great amount of macular matter floating on photosphere. 
 Approaching total liquefaction. Periodic and Irregular 
 Stars. Their periods from a few hours to 500 days, and 
 range of brightness from fourth to ninth magnitude. (Argelander 
 in Humboldt's Cosmos, iii). 
 
 7. Molten Phase. Photospheric matter exhausted. A 
 
 molten globe. Spectrum continuous. Some star 
 clusters and resolvable nebulse. 
 
 8. Incrustive Phase. Primitive crust. -- The light ruddy. 
 
 Incipient darkening. Spectrum of dark lines, but giving 
 the ensemble of vaporosity. Red Stars.
 
 115 
 
 9. Eruptive Phase. Crust darkened, but disrupted at intervals, 
 giving spasmodic luminosity. (Lect. XXXIX, IV). * Spec- 
 trum returns to vaporous or other earlier indications. - - Tem- 
 porary Stars. (Ennis : Origin of the Stars, 123-8). 
 
 IV. Planetary Stage. 
 
 1. Jovian Phase. The stormy condition. (Lect. XXXIX, IV- 
 
 VI). 
 
 2. Terrestrial Phase. Culmination of organic career. Move- 
 
 ments of atmosphere comparable with those of solar photo- 
 sphere Earth and some satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. 
 
 3. Martial Phase. Planetary senescence. Mars and some 
 
 satellites of older planets. 
 
 4. Retarded Rotary Phase. Work of tidal retardation far 
 
 advanced. (Lect. LIV, V). Moon, Mars and some older 
 satellites. 
 
 5. Lunar Phase. Planetary death. (Lect. XLI, II, 2, V). 
 
 Moon and some older satellites. 
 
 V. Unity of Oosmical Phenomena.
 
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