T E '-NRLF LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 1 FT OF Class STREET-PAVING IN SYDNEY. BY GEO. W. BELL Sydney, N.S.W., 18Uo. 12a 2995. STREET-PAVING IN SYDNEY. BY GEO. W. BELL Sydney, N.S.W., 1895. 12a 2995. 228377 STREET-PAVING IN SYDNEY. ^ I A HIS is an age of city-building. Through, industrial progress our whole social fabric emerges anew, as through the quickening powers of revolution. The specialisation of industry, the transference of creative power from the muscle of man to ponderous machinery, where a thousand men clustered together under one roof can satisfy more of the common wants of life than five thousand can working separately, draws the population together. Formerly city life was regarded as artificial, while the country was the true home of talent, and worth, and genius, and patriotism. True, the city had charms, a veneer of refinement, an attrac- tive polish and a suspicious finesse, but the sturdier qualities of nobler man and womanhood were supposed to breathe the pure air of mountain, moor, and meadow. The old saying was, " God made the country and man made the city," and as it followed naturally that the handiwork is shown in the product, the country claimed a superior place in the lexicon of true nobility. Formerly all people lived in the country, and secured a livelihood by rural pursuits. Not more than a century ago probably three-fourths of the people lived in the country, while now fully one-half live in cities and towns, and the time is rapidly coming when a majority of all the people in the most civilised countries will live in cities of over 20,000 population. This centralisation of population is the inevit- able outgrowth of modern industrial progress. City life has WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. its advantages. They should be increased. They also have many disadvantages, and they should be minimised, and for the accomplishment of these two purposes modern genius is being taxed to its utmost. Among the most important utilities in the economy of city life and city-building are water, light, sewerage, and street pavement. Upon the merits of these rest the comfort, convenience, and health, and upon these latter, happiness, the aim and end of life itself. In the matters of water, sewerage, and light in the best cities of to-day it is not easy to conceive of further advancement except in detail. The systems seem to approach perfection. Eut the paving problem is not yet solved. There is not a city on earth pavecl to the satisfaction of its inhabitants. Public improvements of all kinds are enormously expensive, and, added to the constant demand for repairs, the burdens often become despairing, and in construction and operation of no public utility are these burdens more grievous than in the paving of city streets. Original cost, durability, smoothness, iioiselessness, health- f ulness, and traction are the chief features to be considered in the paving question. All good pavements are costly, and of course all yield to time and service, but in the other features there is an enormous difference in systems of paving now used, and enormous improvements are demanded. In this active, bustling, busy age, when all the mental and physical faculties of the city-dweller are kept strung up to the highest tension, when time for pleasure and rest and sleep is snatched from business cares, who could overrate the importance of- noiseless pavements, with easy traction, on the business streets of our great commercial centres. The waste of goods and the wear and tear of teams and vehicles from the effects of rough streets have never yet been estimated, but were it possible to make an approximate calculation it would be a startling one; but of more importance still is the life and health J^OOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. of tlie people, and who can even guess the number of over- worked and sensitive persons whose nerves have gradually given way from the jar and distracting confusion of traffic over rough and solid streets ? "With all of the intellect and energy of modern enterprise there are few phases of social progress presenting less improvements than in street-paving. In a leading magazine, a few months ago, I find an article on the paving question containing the following paragraph : The association of paved roadways with epochs of grea-t advancement, as in the transcendent days of the Greeks and Romans, and their neglect in periods of retrogression, as in mediaeval times, when isolated earths became monumental evidence of a difference between individual and common welfare, and the renewed demand for them in the better days of the Nineteenth Century, indicate a relation between them and civilisation. As a fact, there is no higher evidence of taste, refinement, enterprise, and intelligence than is presented in well-paved streets. In this I am not claiming that the people in cities with well- paved streets are more enterprising and intelligent than may be found in other cities, for often superior qualities are shown as much in effort as in achievement. Owing to local conditions one city may have excellent streets, while another, with less-favoured environments, may have poor streets, though a more progressive people ; but, as in the case of street railways, it is felt that the ideal street-pavement has not been found, so in all cities of the civilised world there are inquiries, experiments, and discussions regarding this great and important question. "We cannot have too much discussion upon this subject. With enthusiasm characteristic of my nation, I claim that America wants the best thing of this best of all the ages. As a fact, there is nothing too good for us. "We have no traditions that bind us to old ideas, and no prejudices stand between us and the new, so we are ready to utilise the first ray of light that points to better things. We have a thousand cities that have arisen like the panorama of a dream. As a whole, we have the best street-car service, the best water- works, and WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. the best system of lighting known to the world; but, save Washington, we have not one well- paved city in the United States. In our homes, in our living, and in our methods of locomotion, we demand a higher degree of convenience and comfort than is enjoyed by any other people, but our streets are a grim and a ludicrous burlesque iipon our pretensions to taste and enterprise. Of course, we have the severities of climate to contend with, and our history has not yet ripened into great experience, but on the point under consideration we have a dashing, reckless carelessness, not in harmony with our self -asserted greatness. However, our people will not be satisfied with this condition, and when the times revive in our country I believe the question of better paving for our streets will be one of the foremost in public thought. I have visited nearly every great city in the Christian world, and I have tried to study and learn the conditions under which people live. As the streets are the common heritage of all, I claim no credit for having observed these highways in every city on the Globe. I am now in Sydney, N.S.W., nearly on the opposite side of the world from Washington, D.C., the best-paved city in the United States. Sydney has a population of about 420,000 ; it is the commercial metropolis of Australasia, and in the value of its commerce it is about the tenth city in the world. It is the chief port of a country which has a greater per capita traffic than any other people, and it has better paved streets than any city in our country, save our beautiful capital, Washington. With a feeling of jealousy at seeing others enjoy better things than my own countrymen, I have taken no small amount of pains in studying the system and merits of the street improvements in this far-off land. The street methods here, and their methods of construction, are peculiar to Australia, and they are made of a material usually condemned in America, as that material here has WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. 5 merits also peculiar to Australia. The chief streets in Sydney are paved with wood blocks cut from Australian timber, and laid down under the methods suggested by the best experience, and they excite the surprise and admiration of all strangers, especially of Americans. It is safe to say that the streets of Sydney are better paved than those of any American city save Washington, and this superiority is almost entirely owing to the great merits of the material used. Considering all the qualities requisite to the constitution of the highest merits smoothness, noiselessness, cleanliness, healthfulness, easy traction, ultimate cheapness, and durability I believe this pavement of Australian wood is superior to any other now in use. What the genius of the future may bring forth no one may even guess. We deal with the present. KINDS OF TIMBER USED. The Australian hardwoods belonging to the natural order of Myrtacese Eucalyptus, Angophora, Melaleuca, Callis- temon, Syncarpia, Tristania possess many rare, valuable, and peculiar qualities. They have a closeness of fibre, weight, strength, and durability far greater than any American woods with whose characteristics I am acquainted. Not all Aus- tralian hardwoods are equally suitable for wood-paving. For instance, the ironbark, one of the sub-varieties of Eucalyptus, while very valuable for many things, is unfit for street-paving purposes. It has exceedingly close fibre ; it is durable almost beyond any other timber, and is non-absorbent ; but it is so hard that wear gives it a polish, rendering it too slippery for street use. Experience, too, shows that there is a great difference in the durability, or exemption from early decay. Some of the timbers which make excellent pavements are subject to dry rot, or interior " doting," in from eight or ten years, so not only is some knowledge required in selecting woods for street purposes, but a large degree of integrity as well. 6 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. Prom experience in Sydney it has been learned that about five varieties of Eucalyptus are conspicuously superior to any of the others for paving purposes. These are red gum, blue gum, blaekbutt, tallow-wood, and mahogany. There is a conflict of opinion as to the merits of the same wood in different localities on the Continent, but in the absence of any evidence on that point I prefer to regard this honest difference in opinion as a result of local favouritism. I use this last term as it is a little more kindly than " local prejudice." Most of the above enumerated woods exist in New South Wales in great abundance, and can be purchased at fair prices from, reliable parties. THE DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD-PAVING IN SYDNEY. With the same experience in macadam, stone cubes, asphalt, and other systems, that have taxed the energies, patience, and financial powers of other cities, Sydney changed her policy fourteen years ago, and began experiments with wood pavement. The distracting noise, the early deterioration and heavy traction on stone cubes and macadam pavement, with the short life of asphalt and the constant annoyance of repairing, and the failures of all these systems of pavement, were irresistible arguments in favour of a. new departure. Of course, many men of experience and observation knew well the qualities peculiar to Australian woods, and the relative merits of many of them. By the use of large quantities of different timbers in railway-sleepers, sills, bridges, wharfs, fence-posts, &c., the better qualities of each had been studied and recognised. The important question of relative durability was fairly well established before wood-paving had been suggested. Fourteen years ago the first pavement of this kind was laid in Sydney, and now there is over fourteen miles, including the chief streets, paved with this material ; this includes all streets with heavy traffic. No other material now would be considered, and it is rapidly taking the place CENTRAL GEORGE-STREET. WOOD-PAVINa FOE STBEETS. of other pavements as new streets are opened and old ones being repaired. The first streets were laid with open joints or inch spaces between the blocks, the interstices being filled with grout stone screenings or bituminous matter. The groundless fear of slipperiness led to laying the blocks with open joints, and the effect of traffic was to batter down or bevel the corners, and as the filling fractured and was swept away the surface became corrugated, causing jolting, noise, inconvenience, and confusion to traffic. The difficulty of cleaning was also very great. With the experience and the aggressive notions of an enterprising city engineer came the gradual closing of the joints as new streets were laid or old ones repaired. Closing the joints to J inch decreased the confusion of traffic, decreased the wear of blocks, and decreased the work of cleaning, while to the surprise of many it did not increase the tendency to slipperiness. The young and progressive engineer was only flattered by this in his desire to reach the ideal pavement, and soon in 1888 came an experi- ment in close-jointed work. This experience demonstrated the wisdom of the solid concrete foundation, and led to a method of treating the blocks to a non-absorbent solution of hot tar, pitch, &c., and with the closing of the joints appeared a street superior, to the minds of many, in all that goes to make a desirable pavement to any ever yet constructed. The fears of the alarmist as to slipperiness were not realised, and now, as the streets are renewed, the blocks are all placed with closed joints. George and Pitt Streets, the two leading thoroughfares, having also the heavy traffic of the metropolis, are now undergoing repairs, the blocks being taken up, the upper end being sawed, and then replaced with closed joints. These streets have been used nearly eleven years, yet the blocks show no signs of deterioration or decay, and it is confidently believed that they will last from twelve to fifteen years longer without further expense. The foundation has no fractures, and needed no repair. The total cost of relaying these streets, WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. taking up the blocks, cleaning them, sawing off the end, bathing them in the non-absorbent solution, and replacing them with closed joints and top-dressing, is but 57 cents per square yard. METHOD OF LAYING WOOD PAVEMENT. To attain the best results, great precision in mathematical calculations and great care in mechanical construction is necessary. The blocks are to be exact in their uniformity of size, 3x6x9 inches, the 6 inches being regarded in current phrase as the " length." In constructing the work the first move, of course, is to prepare the grade with the necessary solidity, by rolling or tamping, and the proper convexity. Foundation. This is of solid cement concrete, usually 6 inches in thickness, with even surface. Allow concrete to " set " twelve to twenty-four hours before proceeding. "Float" over the entire surface with cement and sand, mixed one to two, as thin as desired, but with perfectly smooth surface over entire area. This should be allowed seven days in which to " set." The Blocks being ricked conveniently, are then dipped in tar heated to the boiling-point and placed within reach of the layers, who put the same in transverse rows across the street, exercising care to break joints, placing the blocks compact and close, three rows of blocks being first placed longitudi- nally along the kerb. (See Out.) Prior to laying the blocks in' position, a 2-inch batten or plank is laid along the kerb against which to place the blocks. When the blocking is completed this batten is removed and the space filled with puddled clay, to provide for the possible expansion. The entire surface of the pavement is then covered with mixture of tar and pitch spread on hot, and this again with pea- gravel dried and heated, which is the finishing touch. SECJIOfl PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHED AT THE GOVT. PRINTING OFFICE, SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES. i WOOD-PAVINa FOE STREETS. 9 I have had itemised estimates regarding the costs of these pavements made by reliable and experienced persons. The comparison shows the following average results for 1,000 square yards : Excavation, 12 inches deep 50 or $250'00 Blocks, 50 per square yard .".. 300 ,1,500-00 Concrete foundation, 6 inches ... ... 250 Composition for treating and laying ... 36 Top-dressing ... ... ... ... ... 12 Contingencies ... ... ... ... 40 1,250-00 180-00 60-00 200-00 Total 688 $3,440*00 Reducing English money by exact rules, $4*80 to the , would total $3,303-24, or $3'30 per square yard. Another contractor has given the following itemised cost for 1,000 yards, including " contingencies " : Cement, 178 casks, 4 cubic feet, at $3*00 per cask ... $504*00 Gravel and coarse sand, 147 cubic yards, at $3*75 per yard 530'00 Coarse sand for floating, 14 yards, at $2*50 per yard ... 35*00 Fine gravel for surface-dressing ... ... ... ... 18'00 Pitch 10-00 Tar, 240 gallons 5200 Labour, $1*75 per day, 8 hours 769'00 Blocks, 50,000, at $30 per LOGO $1,500-00 Total $3,418-00 These calculations were made in English money and con- verted into ours by the common method when approximate calculations only are required, but if we use correct calcu- lations and allow four dollars and eighty cents, instead of five, for the sterling, it would foot up $3,280'00, or $3'28 per square yard. In the more recent work the space covered by the inter- sections of streets in Sydney are now usually laid by placing the blocks diagonally as in cut No. 2. Laid in that way the surface wears very evenly, and vehicles glide over it with but slight jar or confusion. There are many features to be con- sidered in the ideal pavement. Let us review the main ones. 10 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. NOISE AND SLIPPERINESS. On this wood pavement with closed joints the surface wears so evenly that noise and confusion is reduced to a minimum ; while it is a little greater than on the best asphalt street, it is, at most, of a slight rumbling nature, and not disturbing to the nerves or to business. The jar while riding over it in wheeled vehicles is somewhat greater, and is accompanied with rather more noise than is experienced while riding over the best asphalt while new, but both noise and jar are so slight and uniform as to produce 110 disagreeable sensation. As a fact, these streets laid with close joints are almost as even as the sawed end of a log. The new streets are fully as good for the bicycle, and almost as suitable for the roller skate as the asphalt avenues of splendid Washington. There is a little elasticity, even in these hardest woods, and this breaks the shock caused by wheels striking elevations or dropping from them. This elasticity, too, as slight as it is, is an enormous saving to horse-flesh. Rapid driving over stone cubes, brick, or even hardened asphalt, soon tells on the gait of a horse. The " cabbies J> of Sydney are hard drivers, but on the wood pavement no horse ever gets stiff or bunged up. While slipperiness is reduced to a minimum on the Sydney streets, I confess a doubt about the suitableness of close- jointed wood pavements for streets with steep grades. Owing to the cleanliness and absence of dust there is little call for sprinkling, but I feel rather sure that on steep grades this street when wet, either from storm or sprinkling, would be slippery, especially for any considerable traffic. But this is just as true of a perfect asphalt street, and only not true with stone cubes, because they are not smooth, and because not smooth are not desirable for street purposes. There are a few places in Sydney having these close- joint pavements with rather steep gradients, on which the authorities have adopted a system of sanding, and this seems to obviate all the difficulty. The expenses for this occasional sanding are very small. WOOD-PAVlNGr FOE STREETS. REFLECTION OF HEAT. Another important feature which I think may be justly considered is, that these wood pavements store up and reflect less heat than any solid pavement. The almost un- bearable flame-like heat reflected from the asphalt and even granite streets in American cities, in the hottest weather, is fresh in the minds of all city dwellers or visitors. On the wood pavements we are exempt from these suffocating tortures. A dull, unpainted, and unpolished wood surface reflects but little more heat than a common dirt road. When we consider the sum total of suffering by man and beast from the scorching heat reflected from the surface of solid streets, asphalt or stone, this is not an unimportant point to consider. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. Some Americans who regard the Sydney streets with great favour express grave fears regarding the expansion of the wood, if subjected to the wet seasons of America. This may be a valid objection, but the experience in Australian cities, though there are few long wet spells here, does not justify such a fear. The expansion of these woods seems to be very slight, and since the 2 -inch space along the kerb has been filled with puddled clay there has been no trouble of that nature. Naturally the fibre of these woods is very close, the timber so compact that there is very little contraction or expansion caused by wet or dry weather. The difference in the size and weight of the seasoned and green blocks is said to be slight indeed. Then the treatment of the blocks, when perfectly seasoned to boiling tar and pitch, makes them quite impervious to moisture, and the expansion is reduced to almost nil. On streets and avenues from 80 to 100 feet, as on Martin-place, to 250 on George-street South, there has been little displacement or bulging from this or any other cause. 12 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. TRACTION. I am not an engineer, a mechanic, or even an experiment- alist. I am only an observer. When I state a proposition as a fact I believe it to be a fact, because the evidence appearing in response to such observation has convinced my understanding. I hope my readers will remember and carefully discriminate between my statements as to facts and my opinions, based upon a course of reasoning from conditions as they present themselves in practical affairs connected with the question under consideration. I have watched with astonishment the ponderous loads hauled through the Sydney streets by one, two, or more horses. Nowhere have I ever seen anything approaching it. Two or 3 tons for a single horse, 4 or 5 or even 6 tons for two horses, 7 or 8 or 10 for four horses, are not very uncommon sights. It is surprising how small an obstacle in front of the wheels of a vehicle will check its progress, or, in other words, it is surprising how much the force must be augmented to overcome a seemingly trifling obstacle, elevation, or inequality placed in front of the wheels of a heavily-laden vehicle. Recently I watched a team of three heavy horses hauling a load of wool, weighing 6 or 7 tons, on a clean, wood-paved street. The load was moved with apparent ease; coming, however, to the intersection of another street which had been freshly " sanded," the most casual observer would have noticed the increased efforts of the horses to draw the load across the thinly-scattered 70 or 80 feet of sand. These tiny grains of sand were an obstacle, and the team must give the added force necessary to overcome it. I have talked with several of these teamsters, and while they are not scientists nor philosophers, they have observed that on a smooth wood pavement they need only consider the strength of the waggon, while on other pavements with gravel, sand, or other inequalities, or even on asphalt, they must regard the pulling power of their teams. HH ml s * 1 I N *,?> WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. 13 Prom close observation and careful inquiry, I am satisfied that, placed upon a common waggon on a close-jointed wood pavement, kept in the order usual in enterprising cities, a given force will haul fully 8 per cent, more than on the best asphalt street, and 20 per cent, more than on any cube- stone or brick pavement. COST AND DURABILITY. The questions of cost and durability are so intimately associated as to necessitate uniting them in order to discuss either question intelligently. As applied in this connection, both terms are comparative. The cost of a pavement, economically speaking, does not mean the cost of its construction or production, but the total cost during the total time of its use or existence. Speaking now only of the one feature of cost, the economy of a certain pavement depends, not only upon its first cost or cost of production, but on the cost of maintenance and durability. As a fact, the real question is of relative cost per yard per year, spreading total outlay over whole time of use or existence. As there are different kinds of pavements varying in original cost, in durability, and in tendency to deterioration and necessary expense for maintenance, these features in all the systems need to be examined that relative merits may be compared. I have read everything I could get hold of on this question, and, in forming conclusions, I have endeavoured to strike an average, giving due consideration, however, to what I regarded as the "weight of authority." In this part of the discussion I will speak of all stone cubes, brick, asphalt, macadam, and metal as " solid" pavements, as contradis- tinguished from, wood, which is at least a little elastic. I have no absolutely reliable statistics from which I can more than approximately estimate the cost, durability, and WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. expense of maintaining any of the solid pavements in Europe or America. I find in a popular American publication calcu- lations upon these points, the labour and intelligence in the writing of which gives it the impress of authority. The inquiry covers fourteen American cities, and is most full in its report on stone cubes and asphalt, though wood, brick, and macadam are also noticed. In the able article referred to there is little information on the important questions of durability and cost of maintenance. However, this is charac- teristic of American business methods. The chief desire with us so far has been to secure in the shortest time the thing that will look well and answer the present contingency for the least money. Only now are we beginning to regard the "to-morrow" by considering the substantial. We are just beginning to learn that quality and permanency are important factors in real cheapness. The people of Europe and Aus- tralians are much like them expect to live to-morrow, and they prepare for to-morrow's comforts. Our people are just beginning to learn the possibility of not being able to " sell within ninety days," so they, too, are learning to regard the permanency of a good thing as a virtue, if not as a real merit. We have but recently began to erect our habitations as though we were intending to stay. In the calculations above alluded to there is an enormous difference in cost in different cities. This, of course, is almost wholly attributable to the difference in cost of material, which means in cost of transporting the material. This is especially noticeable in the cost of granite, and Belgian cube pavement, which ranges from $2 per square yard in Omaha and San Erancisco up to $5 per square yard in New Orleans. The average is about $3*25 per square yard. In asphalt the difference is not so great, the extremes being $3'15 in Boston and New York down to $2'40 in San Eran- cisco, the average being about $3 per square yard. Brick ranges from $2 f 75 in Boston down to $2 in Chicago, with an WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. 15 average of about 2 -40 per square yard. "Wood in these calculations makes but a poor showing, and the wide range from $1 per square yard in Chicago and Minneapolis to $3 '50 in Cincinnati shows only an experimental stage, and that the great difference in cost must be in the methods of construction. In regard to the important question of durability and cost of repairs and maintenance there is much to be guessed at, even after the most laborious efforts to reconcile widely- differing opinions, and after striking general averages between the most extreme experiences. While I have studiously endeavoured to reach approximate facts, I am aware that many will dispute my conclusions, some regarding my esti- mates as much too high, and others as ridiculously low. The opinions of the critics will depend upon which side of the shield they stand. Remember, however, my whole argu- ments are based upon information covering Europe and America, and my conclusions are reached by a system of general averages. As far as I am able to learn from the rather imperfect and varying statistics and opinions, there is no great difference in the first cost of the system under consideration, as between Europe and America. However, the cost of maintenance in Europe is considerably greater, probably because their streets are kept in a better condition, but in reviewing the relative merits of the several varieties, I will use conclusions drawn from all sources with the closest average results that I am able to reach. I will take them in the order previously laid down. In continental Europe, the United Kingdom, and America, the life or duration of stone-cube pavements, including granite, Belgian cube, bluestone, and others, will be about sixteen years on the streets with considerable traffic. The first cost of this is about $3'25 per square yard, as before noted, and 16 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. the annual cost of construction being spread over these sixteen years would equal 20 cents per square yard per year. The annual expense for maintenance varies greatly according to my information, but the fact that with well- constructed work there will be little cost for repairs for five or six years, has induced me to place the total annual cost for this item much lower than any writer from whom I have read. I place it at an average of 10 cents per yard per year. Now, if we will include the interest at 5 per cent, on the original cost per yard, we will have 20 cents per yard per year, plus 10 cents per yard for maintenance, plus 15 cents interest, equal 45 cents per yard per year, for the sixteen years of its existence. Asphalt yields readily to climatic conditions. Under the influence of cold and heat, and rain and traffic, it cracks and crumbles and so rapidly deteriorates that repairs are usually needed in from four to six years. The best asphalt we have seen costs on the average $3 per square yard. This will last about fourteen years. The first cost per yard for the total term of life would be 21 cents per yard per year, with fully 12 cents per yard per year for maintenance, and the interest on original cost being 15 cents per yard per year, would make a total of 48 cents per yard per year. Brick costs $2* 40 original cost, and will last twelve years. This makes original cost per yard per year 20 cents, for maintenance 12 cents per yard per year, which, with interest on original cost, will make a total of 44 cents per yard per year. I have shown on another page that the close- jointed wood pavement, as laid in Sydney, costs $3*30 per yard, and that it will last twenty years, with no expense for maintenance. This would stand then $3*20 per yard for original cost, spread over twenty years would be 16 cents per yard per year no cost for repairs with 16 cents per yard per year interest on original cost, totalling 32 cents per yard per year, for twenty years. WOOD-PAVING FOR STREETS. 17 Placed in a comprehensive table then it would stand thus : Original cost. Years duration. Cost per yard per year. $ Cents. Stone cube 3-25 16 45 Asphalt Brick 3-00 2-40 14 12 48 44 Australian wood ... 3-30 20 32 Please observe that in the estimated cost for wood pavement there was an item for " excavation " not included in the others of 25 cents per square yard, which would reduce the cost to $3*05 per square yard, or 30 cents per yard per year. If my information is reliable and my reasoning not faulty, the advantages in favour of wood- paving, as far as cost is concerned, is very evident. But there is actually a greater difference than revealed by this comprehensive table. Remember at the end of twenty years there has been no expense for repairs, no inconvenience from tearing up and relaying, no stiffened horses, and but a minimum of injury to vehicles from, street roughness. Then the wood has a smoothness of surface and a certain elasticity that secures the substructure from being shattered, fractured, or deteriorated by the jar and shock of heavy traffic ; so that it is an easy matter to remove the old blocks when worn out and relay the work. This can be done for one-half the first cost, or $1'65 per square yard, which would give for the second term of twenty years but 16 cents per square yard per year, including first cost, interest, &c. And this 16 cents per square yard per year would be the annual cost as long as the substructure remained perfect. Assuming that stone cubes would need renewing in sixteen years, how would it compare with these estimates ? Remember all stone-cube pavements have a rough or uneven surface. Then, having no elasticity, the concussion 18 WOOL-PAVING FOR STREETS. soon causes breaks and deterioration. But assuming which is more than doubtful that at the end of the sixteen years, when the stone-cube street must be relaid, the foundation is perfect, then relaying the street, as in the other case, would cost but one-half as much as before, or $1*62 per yard, or 10 cents per yard per year, for the second sixteen years. The interest would be 8 cents per yard per year, but the cost of maintenance would be as great as before, or 10 cents per yard per year, giving a total of 28 cents per yard per year for the second term. The lives of the two stone pavements would be thirty -two years, against forty for the wood. Asphalt with its $3*00 per square yard per year, original cost per yard per year of 21 cents, and a cost of maintenance of 12 cents per square yard, and interest 15 cents, makes a cost for fourteen years of 48 cents per yard per year ; and at the end of the fourteen years, if the substructure is not injured, the work can be replaced for 1*50 per square yard; so the second life of fourteen years would be .10 cents per yard original cost, 12 cents per yard maintenance, and 7 cents per yard interest, or 29 cents per yard per year. This would be the cost as long as the substructure remained perfect. There has been less experience, and consequently less written about brick pavement than about the others named ; but from its known tendency to go to pieces rapidly when once deterioration begins, I feel justified in giving it a shorter estimated life than any of the other solid pavements, with an annual cost close to the highest on the list, asphalt. It is easy to understand why a very hard, close-fibred, and long-lasting timber should make a very durable pavement. When properly prepared and laid it is quite as smooth as asphalt, with the blocks properly treated they are almost impervious to moisture, and the wear, being on the even end of the blocks, is very slow. There is very little friction, very little jar to loosen or shatter them, and, owing to the slight WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. 19 elasticity in the wood, there is no concussion to fracture or deteriorate the foundation. Experience with these selected woods seems to justify a belief that a pavement made from them, properly treated and properly laid, will last from, twenty-five to thirty years, so I feel very safe in placing the limit of durability at twenty years. The experiments in Sydney have been very thorough and the experience very satisfactory. George-street, of which I spoke as being relaid from open to closed joints, after over ten years of use without repair of any kind, is one of the busiest thoroughfares in the world. Remember Sydney has a population of about 420,000, and in the value of its tonnage is about the tenth commercial port of the world. It is the terminus of all ship lines touching Australia, and has a recorded tonnage of 3,291,188 tons. Eive thousand entries and departures of vessels are recorded in its ports. A vast amount of this enormous tonnage is "carted" between Eedfern Station but one in the city and the wharfs. That means that nearly the entire products of New South Wales, including 10,000,000 pounds of wool, come by rail to this station to be hauled to the wharfs or warehouses over these streets, including also all that goes from the wharfs or warehouses back to the interior of the country. For eleven years this wood-paved street has stood this immense traffic without a break, and is only now being relaid to obviate the roughness caused by the open joints. The blocks taken from the middle of this street have worn on an average but -^ of an inch per year, or less than ^ inch in the eleven years. George-street, too, is very narrow. In the heart of the city it is hardly more than 48 feet between the kerbs. The magni- tude of the George-street traffic may be better understood by explaining the fact that most of the business done in other cities by street cars and tramways is done here by 'buses and other vehicles. There are 140 large 'buses, weighing from 2,100 to 3,500 Ib. empty, which carry from sixteen to forty- two persons. They are usually well loaded, and will then 20 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. weigh from 4 to 7 tons. They are drawn by three to five horses, which move on a sweeping trot. The vehicles passing on George-street in three hours have been observed at given points or crossings, and it stands as follows as per record : Hunter-street, 636 ; King-street, 980 ; Park-street, 731 ; Goulburn- street, 1,072 ; Hay-street, 1,451 ; Harris-street, 1,056; Police Station, 1,469. Then there are 640 heavy " goods vans" and 1,215 cabs, in passenger and transfer service, besides the enormous vehicles that carry the millions of pounds of heavy tonnage. I know of no street in any city of the world with more traffic than this narrow Sydney street where wood pavement has proved its great superiority over all others. The City Surveyor's report claims that one wood pavement on these busy streets will outlast three made of stone cubes. Castlereagh -street was laid with close-joint blocks ten years ago. It has considerable, but not heavy traffic. There has been no expense for maintenance, and it is one of the finest streets I ever saw in any city. Prom my observations then, and from such information as I am able to glean from many articles and reports, in the matter of expense, durability, and general desirableness, I regard the wood pavement in Sydney superior to any other now in use. SANITATION. Of course no less important than any and all other features in a pavement is its influence upon the health of the people. In their incipiency, all changes are regarded as innovations, and all new things are supposed to carry with them various evils. Then there are usually many persons interested in perpetuating the present conditions, while others incline to favour whatever they are accustomed to, so that all new things must run the gauntlet of fault-finders or prophets of ill. After the introduction of wood-paving in Sydney, much real or pretended fear was expressed lest the germs of many diseases might find a fertile soil in the damp or decay- ing wood, or the deleterious matter absorbed by them or * ? STREETS. 21 filling the interstices. This was for some time a mooted question, but it has been settled in response to public demands. Not to quiet fears, but to establish facts of public interest, the then Mayor of Sydney, Sir William P. Manning, K.C.M.G., commissioned Mr. J. M. Smith, the noted bacteri- ologist, to make a series of examinations and report his observations. The following is the result : 31 December, 1894. Sir, I have the honor to report that in accordance with your commission dated 2nd October, 1894, I have made an examination of the moisture and mixture from beneath the wood pavements of Sydney, and have not found any pathogenic organisms present. The samples were taken from the wood pavements of George-street, between Bathurst and Park Streets, blocks laid f-inch apart, on foundations of concrete, joints grouted with tarred screen- ings and pitch opened for traffic during October, 1883. After cultivating and isolating the organisms present, which consisted of bacilli and micro- cocci, I injected them under the skin of guinea-pigs, and in no case did they cause death. I made special search for the typhoid bacillus (which is only pathogenic in man), the diagnosing of which is determined by its growth and characteristic behaviour on the different soils and media used, but failed to find a single bacillus. I have, &c., J. McGAEVIE SMITH. H. J. Daniels, Esq., Town Clerk, Sydney. It seems certain that the natural closeness of the fibre in these woods, with the tar, pitch, &c., in which they are bathed, and the practical non-absorbing composition of the small amount of material that entirely fills the space between the blocks, that the whole pavement is almost absolutely impervious to moisture. There is hardly a noticeable differ- ence in the weight of a block taken from a street used ten years and a well-seasoned new one. GENERAL DESIRABILITY. There are so many things to be considered in questions of this nature that in all probability the ideal pavement has not yet appeared. In the use of materials, "vested interests," accessibility, gradients, and many other influences become important factors in the choice of systems. However, 22 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. certain qualities are desirable in all places, even if not attain- able. The cost of construction and maintenance, of course, is usually the first consideration, for upon that depends the question of all improvement. Smoothness is another consid- eration, for next to being able to build a street for the neces- sary traffic, is being able to use them with ease, safety, cheapness, and pleasure. Exemption from the annoyance of frequent repairing is also of great importance. In cases where pavements must be removed, for placing or replacing gas, water, or sewer pipe, no other can be as easily or as cheaply removed and perfectly replaced as the wood pave- ment. In many places in the streets of Sydney the pave- ments have been removed for some of these purposes, and where wood is used there are no unsightly scars left to mark the spot. All in all, for cheapness, durability, smoothness, healthfulness, cleanliness, attractiveness, pleasure in their use as drives, and general desirableness, I regard the wood pave- ments in Australian cities as the most perfect I have ever seen anywhere, and from the general expression of travellers, and especially of Americans, I believe them to be the best in use. ITS USE IN THE UNITED STATES. I am aware that the experiments in the United States have brought this system of paving pretty generally into disfavour, but this has resulted partially from our almost imiversally defective foundations, but chiefly from the unfit- ness of American woods for this purpose. Of course we have many hardwoods in the United States, but they are all very porous, great absorbents, and decay quickly. If the United States had, at accessible points, a portion of the hardwood forest of Australia, they would soon boast of the finest-paved cities in the world, and would point to this as one of the best evidences of taste, refinement, and progress. I am conscious that to many of our people in America what I have written about Sydney streets will seem but a piece of pleasing news WOOD-PAVINa FOE STREETS. 23 regarding the happy condition of a far-off land. But why may it not be a piece of useful information as well ? Why can we not avail ourselves of the opportunities and place upon our streets a pavement that would satisfy the desires of a refined people and harmonise with the beauty of our matchless cities ? In modern commerce distance is annihi- lated. All calculations are based, not upon miles, but cost and accessibility. These hardwoods, peculiar to Australia, are said to be very plentiful. They can. be purchased here in "dimension stuff" for from $18 to 20 per M., on ship- board, and 1,000 will make 852 blocks, which will cover 17 square yards of pavement. It can be shipped to the Pacific coast cities for $6 to $8 per M., and to the Atlantic cities for from $12 to $16 per M. It will be seen by the estimates given that labour a,nd other materials are more important factors in cost here than the blocks. I am satis- fied that labour in America is at least 25 per cent, more efficient than in New South Wales. Remember the rate of wages in the above estimates were $1*75 per day of eight hours. There are really but forty-four work-hours in the week, as there is a half-holiday on Saturday. But aside from the short hours and large pay, the labour itself is less efficient than ours. At same wage and same hours, I am satisfied that labour in America is from 15 to 20 per cent, more efficient than in Australia. The difference in labour alone would well-nigh transport the blocks to the American market. The prices of cement, tar, pitch, gravel, and other materials are much higher here, so that I feel almost justified in a belief that this pavement could be laid down as cheaply in the west-coast cities visited by sea-going vessels as in Sydney, and in the Atlantic cities for but a small advance on Sydney cost. On our Atlantic seaboard there are many rich and opulent cities. In population they will aggregate nearly 6,000,000 souls. On the opposite coast, there are cities aggregating nearly 1,000,000 population. None of these noble cities, 24 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. save Washington, are well paved, and their experiments in paying have been discouraging indeed. Why would it not be wise for our people to benefit by the experience of the Australian cities, and save the wear and tear of property and health from the shocks incident to the average street pave- ment in America ? If I am correct in my opinions regarding this matter, the securing of better streets, by adopting the Australian woods as a material, would not be our only advantage. It would mean an enormous trade in other things. The exchange would probably give us the timber- markets of Australia, and however great the demand upon her might be, she would take in return cargoes our soft woods, our machinery, canned goods, kerosene, and other articles, for, be it remembered, the Australians are the greatest commercial people 011 the Globe, population considered. I am aware that in Europe and the United States there are climatic conditions to be considered, and many believe that owing to these wood pavement would prove unsuitable. I question the validity of this objection. As far as snow, sleet, or ice is concerned, these manifestations of nature operate with equal violence on all " solid " material, stone, brick, macadam, and even asphalt, surface smoothness, of course, being equal. As asphalt usually has a much smoother surface than any of the other truly solid pavements, sleet and ice present a more dangerous glare on that than 011 other pavements. Wood is about as even on the surface as asphalt, and, of course, would be as subject to these climatic invasions. As to the cracking or " heaving " of the surface, in climates where the ground freezes to considerable depth, I see no reason why the effects should be different with different pavements. Whatever the true pavement may be, the expan- sion or contraction of this would be about the same. Who- ever has been in cold countries, and observed the cracks in the ground during extremely cold weather, must have noticed WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. 25 that the fractures were very deep. Surface-freezing does not cause earth fractures or heaving. As the cause of these fractures in the earth or the bulging of the surface lies in the nature of certain soils to contract or expand from freezing or thawing, the surface would suffer like effects, whether composed of wood, stone, asphalt, or other material. In the absence of demonstration by experiment it would seem that nothing need be feared on that point. The climate of Europe varies little from ours in America, and it seems certain now that the European cities are greatly increasing the use of wood as a paving material. I am aware that the most careful calculations may be at fault if tested under changed conditions. I am aware that in every sphere of human action there are unseen contin- gencies. I know that visionary schemes sink before the light of experience, and that under the severe tests of experiments the best proved theories may fail, because with fallible powers many of the opposing forces may escape observation. My belief in the adaptability of the wood-paving system, of Australia to the cities of the United States may be the offspring of my hope. There may be grave difficulties I have not seen, and hidden ones which might arise only at the call of experience. Like any wiser man, I may be mistaken in my conclusions, as America is very different from Australia, but I regard the subject as worthy of the most careful investigation, and hope for successful results. 26 WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. APPENDICES. Town Hall, George-street, 2nd May, 1895. To Colonel G-. AV. Bell, United States Consul, Carrington-street. My dear Sirj I have carefully read your article upon street-paving in Sydney, and am satisfied to state that all is true, and your remarks upon utility and durability of Australian timbers for wood-paving of roadways are supported by facts. I am, my dear sir, Tours faithfully, E. W. EICHAEDS, City Surveyor. The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, Head Office for Australasia, Sydney, 9th May, 1895. Colonel George "W. Bell, "Wynyard-square, Sydney. My dear Sir, I have read with much interest your pamphlet on "Street-paving in Sydney," and hope that your able advocacy will result in hardwood pave- ments being tried in our American cities, and so lead to an important increase in the interchange of commodities between the United States and Australia, towards which you have done so much in various ways during your Consul- ship here. From personal experience of several months, I can testify to the great merits of the wood-paved streets of Australian cities. The pavements, as now laid, are comparatively noiseless, and being impervious to moisture and easily kept clean, are excellent from a sanitary point of view. In short, I know of no other kind of pavement which can be favourably compared with that now in use here ; and regards steep grades, I think your conclusions are correct. Yours very truly, E. W. SCOTT. WOOD-PAVING FOE STREETS. 27 . The Mutual Life Insurance Company oE New York, No. 131, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W., 9th May, 1895. Colonel Bell, United States Consul, Sydney. My dear Colonel, I am greatly indebted to you for affording me the opportunity of perusing an advance copy of your valuable pamphlet on " Street-paving in Sydney," and feel convinced that the dissemination of the information contained in it will prove useful in our country. Prom my own experience in various parts of the Union, I can strongly corroborate the opinions you express concerning the undoubted superiority of the paving of the streets of this city as compared with cities in the States, and willingly endorse all you have said on the subject. If, as you demonstrate, paving such as that found in the principal Sydney thoroughfares can be laid down in America for an outlay not exceeding that frequently expended over existing roadways, no one acquainted with the facts can doubt the advisability of a strenuous effort being made to secure a trial introduction of the hardwood used in this country, which appears to possess qualities surpassing those of any other material for carrying extensive street traffic. "Wishing you all success in your laudable endeavour to bring this matter under the notice of our fellow-countrymen, I remain, my dear Colonel, Tours very sincerely, Z. EENNIE, General Manager. [One Map.] Sydney : Charles Potter, Government Printer. 1895. UNIVEKS ITY OF CAUFOBN1A UBBAB THE LAST DATE TH IS BOOK IS STAMPED BELOW WUV 4 914 MAY 28 196955 30m-6,'14