m LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. 3Buifoer SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. BY G. LISTER SUTCLIFFE, if Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects ; i\l T ember of the Sanitary Institute; Editor and Joint Author of ^Modern House Construction,'' Author of 11 Concrete : Its Nature and Uses* **** ^ WITH 212 LONDON : WHITTAKER c\: Co., 2, WHITE HART STREET, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, E.G. AND 66, FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 1901. LONDON : PRINTED BY LOVE AND MALCOMSON, LIMITED, GREAT QUEEN STREET, W.C. PREFACE. DURING the last quarter of a century, so many books have been written on the sanitation of build- ings that there would be little need for another work on any part of the subject, were it not that sanitary science is still rapidly progressing. New discoveries and inventions are continually pressing for notice, and old problems are being solved in new ways. In this book an attempt has been made to enunciate the general principles now governing the design of sanitary work in buildings, and also to describe and illustrate the most important modern sanitary fittings and the plumber's work in connection with them. No claim is made that the book is exhaustive, but the author ventures to hope that it will prove sufficiently thorough to be of use to the young architect, sanitary engineer, and plumber, and that it may also serve as a guide to the householder in the choice of fittings, and enable him to distinguish good work from bad. The greater part of the book appeared as a series of articles in TJie Builder during the first half of this year, but fresh matter has been added to render the work more complete. 13, JOHN STREET, ADELPHI, W.C. Sep'emb:r t 1901. 132109 CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE N I. INTRODUCTORY i \II.-SANITARYROOMS 7 III. THE NUMBER OF SANITARY FITTINGS RE- QUIRED 19 IV. GENERAL NOTES ON SANITARY FITTINGS ... 23 V. SANITARY POTTERY 29 VI. SINKS 34 VII. SINK-WASTES AND OVERFLOWS 47 V 1 1 1. LAVATORIES ... ... 52 ix. BATHS 69 X. BATH OVERFLOWS AND WASTES, &c 82 XL BATH-HEATERS 92 ^XIL MECHANICAL WATER-CLOSETS 96 XIIL NON-MECHANICAL WATER-CLOSETS 105 Xiv. WATER-CLOSET FLUSHING APPARATUS, &c.... 125 XV.' TROUGH-CLOSETS, LATRINES, AND WASTE WATER-CLOSETS 139 XVL SLOP-HOPPERS AND SINKS 153 XVII. URINALS .'. ... 159 XVIII. TRAPS 174 Xix. THE UNSEALING OF TRAPS 185 XX. JOINTS IN PIPES 195 XXL WASTE-PIPES 210 XXI L WASTE-PIPES FROM URINALS 222 XXI 1 1. SOIL-PIPES ... 226 XXIV. TESTING PLUMBER'S WORK 241 APPENDIX BY-LAWS UNDER SECTION 39 (i) 248 DRAINAGE BY-LAWS 258 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING, CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. Disease Germs. The wonderful increase in our knowledge of the causation of many diseases is one of the most marked features of recent years, and although very much indeed has yet to be learnt, sufficient is known to admit of practical application with beneficial results. The germ theory of disease is no longer regarded merely as a plausible hypothesis, but is accepted as a fact which is becoming every day more significant. " Find the microbe'' is the key to as many enigmas as " Cherchcz lafemme" The aim of sanitary science must be, as far as possible, to render our buildings and their appurtenances free from such conditions as contribute to the growth and distribution of pathogenic organisms, and to provide those conditions under which such organisms cannot exist. The knowledge which has been gained shows clearly that the solution of this problem will not be easy. Dr. Sidney Martin's ex- periments with the typhoid bacillus, for example, prove that it soon dies in " virgin " soils, whether these are sandy or peaty, but that it rapidly multiplies in moist sterilised samples of soils from gardens and other cultivated places, and retains its viability and vegetative properties for months and perhaps years. Moist sterilised soil which had been impregnated with the typhoid bacillus was found to contain the bacillus at the end of 456 days. The soil was then naturally dried for forty-nine days till it " could be readily powdered into a fine dust ; " the bacillus was still there. 2 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. Other experiments showed that the bacillus spread through the soil in different directions. Experiments with sterilised soils are, however, of little practical use. It is more important to know how long the typhoid bacillus can survive in soils containing other bacteria. No definite statement on this point can yet be made, but there is reason to believe that, while in many cases the typhoid bacillus may be overcome by the other bacteria in the general struggle for existence, in some cases it will live and retain its dangerous properties for months. In a report, written in 1899, on "Enteric Fever in the City of Chichester," Dr. Theodore Thomson and Col. J. T. Marsh, R.E., came to the conclusion that the most probable cause of the repeated recurrence of enteric (typhoid) fever in that city was the foul condition of the soil, due to the " leaky cesspools and cesspit privies, which, until some three years ago, formed the sole methods of disposal of all its excrernentitious matters." The lessons to be learnt from these and other investiga- tions are that some pathogenic organisms are not by any means so short-lived as is commonly supposed, that they may spread rapidly under suitable conditions, and that they may exist for a considerable time even in dust so dry as to be blown about by the wind. The degree of temperature at which most rapid growth occurs differs, but most bacteria develop at the temperatures which are ordinarily maintained in inhabited buildings, while some (among which the typhoid bacillus is unfortunately found) can, in the words of Dr. Newman, "withstand freezing for weeks." Germicidal Agents. Moisture almost invariably favours the growth of bacteria, but some species can exist for a lengthened period in a dry medium. Sunlight, on the other hand, retards the growth of bacteria, and is often positively fatal to them, particularly in the presence of oxygen. Sunlight and fresh air are, therefore, the natural germicidal agents which the practical sanitarian must endeavour to utilise to the best advantage. It is also essential that rooms containing sanitary fittings should be so constructed and arranged that they can be kept scrupulously clean with the least possible trouble. Accumulations of dirt or dust in INTRODUCTORY. 3 dark, unventilated rooms generally constitute suitable soils for the growth of bacteria. A so-called " sanitary fitting" which requires the constant use of some chemical disinfectant or deodorant to keep it " sweet," is radically defective. An exception may be made in the case of urinals, which are notoriously the most evil-smelling of all sanitary fittings. A simple deodorant is there often of service. Disinfectants, however, are only required in special cases of sickness, and do not fall within the province of this work. Foul Air. Disease germs are not the only evils to be guarded against. The foul air arising from defective sanitary fittings, drains, and sewers, may be comparatively free from germs, but may nevertheless be injurious to health if continuously respired. It is therefore necessary to exclude such air as much as possible from our buildings, or, if it is unavoidably produced within the buildings, to remove it without delay by proper ventilating appliances. Defective Fittings and Plumbing. But however satisfactory the general conditions may be, great danger will exist if the fittings themselves are not of a suitable character and if the plumber's work in connection with them is not properly executed. Untold harm has resulted from the fixing of water-closets and other fittings of faulty design by unskilled workmen under more or less ignorant supervisors. The harm has not always been confined to the occupants of the houses containing the fittings, but has often spread throughout the community. Many towns to-day are paying the penalty for previous misdeeds. Even some of our health resorts have shown an almost criminal disregard of sanitary requirements. Two examples will suffice for our purpose. In March, 1899, Dr. G. S. Buchanan, after a serious out- break of diphtheria at Tunbridge Wells, wrote : " House- drains are rarely trapped from the sewer, and frequently they are ventilated only by means of rain-water pipes which open just below the eaves. Often, I was informed, waste- pipes opening within the dwelling are connected directly with the house-drain Within the smaller dwellings commonly the only drain is a sink-pipe, which B 2 4 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. discharges its contents outside the building over a bell-trap. I These bell-traps are usually defective In houses of better class are occasionally found water-closets provided with objectionable D -traps, and soil-pipes of water-closets often are unventilated. As a rule in smaller house property each dwelling has belonging to it a water-closet placed out- side the building. A majority of these water-closets are without apparatus for flushing; being of the 'hopper' type, and getting merely an occasional * flush ' from a water-can, they often become filthy. In one row of houses I found closets of this sort built in the basement of the house, open- into the kitchen." In his report (dated January, 30, 1900) on "Epidemic Enteric Fever in the Borough of Falmouth," Dr. Buchanan wrote : " Excrement disposal is almost everywhere effected by water-closets. Most of these closets are provided with flushing-boxes or flush-tanks, but some 200 are without flushing apparatus. The latter * hand-flushed ' closets are apt to become exceedingly foul. ... At the date of my visit the occupants of a few of the larger private dwellings in Falmouth were having their house-drains exposed for examination. In each instance where I had an opportunity of seeing these house-drains they were seriously defective ; thus, joints of pipe-drains were leaky, . , . soil-pipes were inside the house and unventilated, sink waste-pipes led directly to the house-drains. . . . ." In a later paragraph he added : "Soil-pipes are habitually unventilated* .... Much of the recent plumber's work which I saw also seemed unsatisfactory." J These instances serve also to show that, however much knowledge of sanitary fittings and plumbing there may be in the country, the practical application of this knowledge has been, and still is, far from adequate. Every one who has to carry out alterations of houses, meets many instances of glaring defects even in buildings which have been erected in recent years. These defects are often due to ignorance or carelessness, but in many cases the blame must rest on * In the next paragraph Dr. Buchanan modified this statement by saying that " new soil-pipes have in most instances been provided with ventilating shafts." INTRODUCTORY. 5 the owner of the houses, for having demanded cheapness (however nasty) instead of efficiency. The architect un- fortunately has to deal with many clients of this nature, and is often thwarted in his endeavours to do good work, even though he points out that cheapness in first cost almost inevitably entails excessive expenditure in repairs and alterations, and perhaps in doctors' bills. Sanitary fittings ought always to be of good quality and properly fitted. If little money can be afforded, the number of the fittings must be reduced, as it is better to have one good water-closet than (say) two bad water-closets, or a bad water-closet and a bad slop-hopper. Economy can also be effected by grouping the sanitary fittings together, and so reducing the length of the waste-pipes and drains and the number of ventilating pipes. Water-Carriage and Conservancy Systems. - Statistics as to the incidence of disease in houses provided with water-closets and in houses with pail-closets or privies are somewhat confusing, but it is not going too far to say that water-closets appear to be in some cases more dangerous than conservancy systems. The following words by Dr. Farr, the eminent statistician^, are worth careful consideration : " Almost coincidently with the first appearance of epidemic cholera, and with the striking increase of diarrhoea in England, was the introduc- tion into general use ot the water-closet system, which had the advantage of carrying night-soil out of the houses, but the incidental and not necessary disadvantage of discharging it into the rivers from which the water-supply was drawn." In London the mortality per 1,000 from diarrhcea was -215 in 1838, -201 in 1839, and '238 in 1840 and 1841, an average of '223. In 1849 connection of drains with sewers was compulsory, and the death-rate from diarrhoea became 1-705 in 1849, '813 in 1850, 1-085 i n I ^5i, and -983 in 1852, an average of 1*146, or five times the death-rate from 1838 to 1841. The average for the decade, 1871-80, was, according to Dr. Ogle, -940 per r,ooo, or very little better than the rate for 1849 to 1852, and more than four times the rate for 1838-41. The number of deaths from diarrhcea in London for the ten years from 1871 to 1880 was 33,168. 6 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. If the death-rate of 1838-41 had been maintained during this period, the number of deaths would have been only 7,868. In other words, 25,300 lives appear to have been lost in London in 1871-80 from one class of disease alone, chiefly through mistaken " sanitation." At Gainsborough, according to the report of Dr. Darra Mair, twenty-five of the houses invaded by fever during twenty months of 1897-8 were provided with privies, five houses invaded were provided with pail-closets, and sixteen with water-closets. As there were 2,455 houses with privies (either separately or in common), 305 with pail-closets, and 1,300 with water-closets, the incidence of the disease was as follows : In houses with privies ... ... i in 98 pail-closets ... i 61 ,, ,, water-closets ... i 81 It is not surprising to learn that " in some of the latter houses gross sanitary defects had been discovered in con- nection with the water-closets or the drains." Recent statistics as to the incidence of enteric fever in other towns show that the experience of Gainsborough need not be repeated. Thus, Dr. Boobbyer, the medical officer of health for Nottingham, reported in 1897 that, during the ten years 1887-1896, the proportional incidence of this disease in Nottingham was as follows : In houses with midden-privies ... i in 37 pail-closets ... i 120 ,, water-closets ... i 558 There can be no doubt that in all midden-privies (and to a smaller extent in pail-closets) there is a risk of polluting the surrounding soil, and a certain amount of air-pollution cannot possibly be avoided. Drainage. It follows from these premises that so-called sanitary fittings and plumbing are dangerous unless they are not only satisfactory in themselves, but are also properly connected with drains and sewers which are equally well designed and constructed. Cesspools ought always to be regarded with suspicion ; old cesspools in the vicinity of buildings are positively dangerous. Everything must be so ai ranged that pollution of air, soil, and water-supply is reduced to the smallest possible amount. SANITARY ROOMS. CHAPTER II. SANITARY ROOMS. THE diverse character of sanitary fittings necessitates considerable difference in the location and arrangement of the rooms in which they are placed, but certain general rules are applicable in every case. The most important points to be observed are plenty of light and, if possible, of direct sunlight, ample means of ventilation, impervious surfaces (at any rate, immediately around the fittings), convenience of position and plan, and (for certain fittings) privacy. If the rooms for the different fittings can be grouped together in one part of the building, although, perhaps, in two or more stories, it will be not only economical, but advantageous in other respects. Light. No sanitary fitting ought to be fixed in any room which is not properly lit by one or more windows or toplights. Borrowed lights ought not to be tolerated as the sole means of lighting sanitary rooms. The windows or toplights must be made to open, and must be of ample size, and will be all the better if exposed to direct sunlight during a considerable part of the day. The common allowance of i square foot of window space to every 10 square feet of floor area is far too little for rooms containing sanitary fittings, even if the net area of the glass is taken as the basis of the calculation. For example, many water- closets measure only about 5 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in., giving an area therefore of 13} square feet; according to the rule, a window with a net area of about i J square feet ought to suffice. We need hardly point out that such a small window would be quite unsatisfactory ; if placed near the ceiling it would not light the closet-basin or the floor, and if placed in the lower half of the room it would be of little use for ventilation. What is wanted is a window extending practically up to the ceiling, so that the air in the upper 8 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. part of the room can be thoroughly changed by opening the window, and extending so low as to throw a direct light on the floor of the room and on the closet-basin and seat. The width of the window ought to be such that the light is well distributed throughout the room. The area of the window in a small water-closet or housemaid's closet ought to be at least half the area of the floor. The proportion need not be so great for larger rooms, but much will depend upon the shape of the room and the position of the window or windows. The Glasgow building regulations require the window of a water-closet to have a minimum area of six square feet, and at least cue-half of the window must be made to open. In London an area of two square feet is considered sufficient, if the whole is made to open. Ventilation. The sanitary rooms of a building are those in which the foulest portions of the domestic and personal duties are performed, and yet less care is often bestowed on the ventilation of these rooms than of any other rooms in the house. In many towns the by-laws specihy that an air-grate must be fixed in the external wall of every water- closet"; sometimes two are demanded, one near the floor and the other near the ceiling, the assumption being that the latter will act as an outlet and the former as an inlet. Unfortunately, this assumption is often proved to be erroneous, as both grates frequently act as inlets. The value of these air-grates has been much overrated. As a rule they serve as inlets, and if, as is generally the case, the rooms have no extract-shafts, the air, mixed perhaps with the foul air from the sanitary fittings, is drawn into the adjacent living rooms or bedrooms, whence it escapes by means of the fireplace flues. In other words, the " fresh-air " supply of the house is to a large extent obtained through the bathroom and water-closet. The air-grates have also the disadvantage of reducing the temperature of the rooms in winter and of increasing the risk of frozen pipes. If proper extract-shafts are provided from these rooms there will be little danger of vitiated air being drawn into the rest of the building ; the current of air will be in the opposite direction, i.e., from the main building to the sanitary room. In the scullery, bathroom, &c., the extract- SANITARY ROOMS. 9 shaft may take the form of an open fireplace or of a flue formed in the chimney-breast by the side of the smoke-flue. These flues ought to be formed with fireclay tubes, thoroughly grouted around, so that the foul air cannot escape into the rooms above. In the water-closet, house- maid's closet, &c., it may be a flue of the kind just described, or a special sheet-metal shaft leading to an extracting cowl fixed on the toof. A clever conlrivance for ventilating water-closets and other rooms in which flushing cisterns are placed has been designed by Messrs. Kerrill & Hunter. It consists of a fan actuated by the water as it flows into the cistern. Conse- quently, every time the cistern is used the fan is automatically started and continues to run until the cistern is full again. The fan is said to be capable of extracting 200 cubic ft. of air per minute with a 6o-lb. pressure of water. This con- trivance will be of service in many cases where extract- flues cannot well be provided ; it has the disadvantage of being spasmodic in its action, but this disadvantage is not very serious if the sanitary fittings and plumbing are such as to exclude all drain 7 air from the room. Ranges of water-closets and urinals in clubs, hotels, and public buildings, cannot, in many cases, be properly venti- lated except by mechanical means. An effective arrange- ment consists in fixing an extract fan in the ceiling of a small chamber conveniently placed with regard to the closets (that is to say, in the middle of a long range, or, in the angle formed by ranges on two sides of the room), and by carrying up from the fan an extract shaft to the top of the building. From each closet a horizontal shaft is carried under the ceiling to this chamber, so that the air from all the closets is extracted by the single fan. As a rule the urinals are placed in the room from which the closets are entered, and if suitable openings are made between this room and the closets, the urinals will also be properly ventilated. The fan may be driven by electricity or water, or in some other way, but as a rule an electric fan will be the most convenient. Plan. In modern hospitals the water-closets, bathrooms, and sinkrooms are generally planned with short passages or 10 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. lobbies between them and the wards, these passages having windows and openings for air on both sides. Among the many positions in which these rooms can be placed, the most generally approved is at the extreme angles of the wards, as shown in figs, i and 2. These should be planned FIG. i. Plan of Conveniences for Hospital Ward. so as not to obstruct the ward windows, and so that the currents of air through the lobbies are not in the direction of the windows either in the sides or ends of the wards. The conveniences and lobbies ought to be warmed and ventilated. If there is an upper story of wards, the same FIG. 2. Plan of Conveniences for Hospital Ward. arrangement of conveniences is repeated, thus simplifying both the plumbing and drainage. In some cases the conveniences are now placed at the corridor ends of the ward blocks, so as to be within easier reach of the nurses and doctors. This position is un- SANITARY ROOMS. I I doubtedly more convenient, but is not as freely exposed as the extreme angles of the block. A good arrangement is FIG. 3. Plan of Conveniences at Corridor End of Hospital Ward. shown in fig. 3. The conveniences ought, if possible, to be placed on the more sunny side of the ward corridor. In small fever hospitals, the water closets and sinkrooms FIG. 4. Plan of Conveniences for Small Isolation Wards. are often placed at the side of a verandah, as shown in figs. 4 and 5. There is therefore a free current of air between 12 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. them and the pavilions to which they are attached. In exposed situations, however, this arrangement is somewhat trying, as the verandah cannot, of course, be warmed ; in the case of one hospital, built in this manner from the Ward FIG. 5. Plan of Conveniences for Small Wards. writer's design, the openings in the fronts and ends of the verandahs were a few years afterwards filled with wood and glass. Baths on wheels are provided, and are kept in the. verandah and hall when not in use. ?, , . .?. . . ,'P >ay "Room. FIG. 6. Plan of Conveniences for Workhouse. Similar or slightly modified arrangements may with ad- vantage be adopted in other public buildings, such as work- houses (fig. 6), and also in hotels, &c. SANITARY ROOMS. 13 * A cloakroom with lavatory and water-closet on the ground floor of a house may have over it a bathroom, lavatory, and water-closet, as shown in fig. 7. In small houses, where much money cannot be afforded, probably the utmost that FIG. 7. Plan of Conveniences for House. can be done is to arrange that the approach to the bathroom and water-closet shall be properly lighted by means of a sash or casement window, and not, as is so often the case, a dark, unventilated passage. In tenement dwellings of alcon y FIG. 8. Labourers' Dwellings, Oldham Road, Manchester. the cheapest class, only one sink and one water-closet are sometimes provided for two tenements, as shown in fig. 8. The arrangement is repeated on the different floors. The illustrations already given also serve as examples of 14 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. the grouping of sanitary fittings. This is an important point for consideration, as the grouping of fittings reduces the length of water-pipes, waste-pipes, soil-pipes, and drains, and therefore reduces the cost and also the dangers arising from defective materials and workmanship. An isolated fitting often .requires a long branch-drain, and the nature of the fitting may be such that its discharge is not sufficient to cleanse the drain ; hence, unless some method of periodical flushing is devised, deposit occurs, and the drain becomes foul and is ultimately choked. With a little care in planning, the sanitary rooms of a house can be much better grouped than is usually* the case. The bathroom and water-closet can be placed over the ground-floor lavatory and water-closet, or over the butler's or maid's pantry, or over the scullery. It is a great mistake to place such rooms over living-rooms or larders, particularly if the floors are constructed with ordinary joists and boards. Water-closets are often placed in most unsatisfactory positions. In a great many houses they are entered from the half-space landings of the stairs, or from other equally- exposed thoroughfares. Such arrangements are most objectionable. Privacy ought to be one of the guiding thoughts in the planning of these rooms, and this is best secured by arranging the lavatory and water-closet in close proximity to each other, and by approaching the two rooms by means of a short passage or lobby, as shown in fig. 7. It is a mistake to place the water-closet in the same room as the bath and lavatory, though this is too often done. It is also a mistake to place a water-closet in such a position that it is separated from an important room by nothing more than a lath-and-plaster partition. The noise made by the flushing of the apparatus will be heard on the other side of such a partition, and even of a 4j-in. brick wall, and it is best, therefore, to build a Q-in. wall wherever possible. The arrangement shown in fig. 7 will effectually prevent all sounds passing to the rest of the house. It is even more essential that the housemaid's closet should be out of the way, and this can best be effected by placing it near the servants' stairs. In this country lavatory basins are not now fixed in SANITARY ROOMS. 1 6 SANITARY , FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. bedrooms as frequently as was formerly done, but if the lavatories themselves, and the plumbing and drains, are thoroughly satisfactory, there cannot be any serious objection to the practice. A better position would, of course, be the dressing-room or small room adjoining the bedroom. Public conveniences are now erected in every town, although in many cases provision is made for one sex only. At one time cast-iron urinals above the street level were in favour, but their unsightliness and publicity and the obstruction they sometimes cause to traffic have led during recent years to the more frequent use of underground FIG. 10. Underground Conveniences for Men only, at Glasgow Cross, Glasgow. conveniences, in which not only urinals but also water- closets and lavatories are provided. These are a great improvement on the wooden structures which form such prominent objects in some of the streets of Paris and other continental cities. A typical plan of two underground con- veniences for men and women, designed by Mr. D. J. Ross, the London city engineer, is given in fig. 9. They are covered with a flat roof, part of which forms a refuge for foot passengers as shown by the dotted lines A A. Fig. 10 is a plan of underground conveniences for men only. The design will be governed to a great extent by the position which the conveniences will occupy and by the amount of accommodation required. In many cases a SANITARY ROOMS. 1 7 single flight of steps will suffice, but in busy streets separate flights ought to be provided for ingress and egres?. The walls ought to be faced with glazed bricks. The divisions between the closets may be formed with slate or marble slabs, or with glazed bricks ; wood is sometimes used but is not as satisfactory. Enamelled sheet-iron divisions have also been tried but are not sufficiently durable. The con- veniences are generally lighted by means of pavement lights, and ventilation is effected by means of a ventilating curb or a ventilating shaft, the latter being preferable as it discharges the air at a higher level. Construction. The general construction of rooms containing sanitary fittings ought to be of the best. The floors of ground-floor and upper rooms alike ought, where possible, to be of concrete, the ingredients to be properly proportioned so that the material is practically impervious. In sculleries, lavatories, water-closets, house- maid's closets, &c., the floors may be finished with fine concrete, which will be all the better if carefully laid and polished after the manner known as terrazzo. Tiles and mosaic also make satisfactory floor surfaces. Such floors are, however, cold, and are not generally approved for bath-rooms at any rate, in houses although a simple remedy can be found in cork mats or strips of cork carpet or other movable floor-coverings, such as a light wood trellis. Sometimes the concrete is floated to a level surface with cement mortar, and when this is dry, cork carpet or linoleum is glued down to it. Cork carpet may also be glued and nailed to an ordinary boarded floor, and will render it practically impervious. Wood blocks fo.rm a suitable sur- face for bathroom floors, especially if of hardwood, wax- polished, f The walls of all rooms containing sanitary fittings ought to be faced with impervious materials, which will not absorb organic matter and can be easily kept clean. Glazed bricks are often used for the purpose, with the mortar-joints painted with enamel paint. Opalite and glazed tiles are also suitable, or the walls may be finished with Parian or other cement, and afterwards painted. In America large sheets of enamelled zinc, known as " mezzotile," are sometimes c 1 8 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. used ; the smooth surface of the material, and the close- ness and small number of the joints, are excellent features. Ordinary lime plaster covered with wall-paper does not form a satisfactory wall-surface, even when the paper is varnished. The angles of the walls ought to be rounded; special glazed bricks and tiles are made for the purpose. In hospitals the angles formed by the floors and walls and by the walls and ceilings are also rounded off, an arrangement which might with advantage be adopted in other buildings, as it facilitates dusting and sweeping, and reduces the possibility of accumulations of dirt. FITTINGS REQUIRED. 19 CHAPTER III. THE NUMBER OF SANITARY FITTINGS REQUIRED. OBVIOUSLY the number of sanitary fittings required in any building must vary according to its nature and size. It will be best, therefore, to consider the more important classes of buildings separately. I. Houses. In many small cottages the only internal sanitary fitting is a simple draining-sink. Formerly, one closet was considered sufficient for half-a-dozen houses or more, and even to-day some sanitary authorities approve of one closet for two, or even three houses. It is much better that every house should have its own closet, and wherever possible a bath ought also to be provided. A simple cast- iron bath can be fixed in the kitchen, and covered with a hinged flap to form a table when the bath is not in use ; this arrangement, although not as convenient as a separate bathroom, is better than no bath at all. Where one or two servants are kept, the sanitary fittings will probably consist of two sinks, a bath, one or two lavatory basins, and two water- closets, one being for the servant or servants. In somewhat larger houses an extra lavatory and water-closet for gentle- men will be provided on the ground - floor, and perhaps additional lavatories in dressing-rooms. A servants' bath- room containing bath and lavatory-basin is also desirable, and a servants' water-closet and a housemaid's closet (with slop-hopper and sink) may be placed in close proximity. In still larger houses a greater number of sinks is required, bathrooms may be provided en suite with the principal bedrooms or dressing-rooms, and an additional lavatory and water-closet adjoining the billiard-room or smokeroom ; c 2 20 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. additional water-closets, baths, lavatory-basins, and slop- sinks may also be rendered necessary by the increased number of stones and of bedrooms. Separate conveniences must be provided for male and female servants. A children's bathroom and water-closet near the day and night 'nurseries are also exceedingly useful. It is clear that no hard and fast rules can be laid down, but in view of the difficulty of obtaining domestic servants there is undoubtedly a tendency to increase the number of sanitary fittings, in order to reduce as much as possible the rough work of the house. In residential flats of superior character each flat must of course be complete in itself, and the number of the fittings will be regulated to a large extent by the number of rooms. In blocks of workmen's dwellings water-closets common to two or even three tenements are often provided, but it is better that each dwelling at any rate, if it contains more than a single room should have a separate water-closet. In London tenement dwellings at least one closet must be provided for every twelve persons in other words, for every two or three tenements. Every dwelling ought to have a sink of its own, although this is not always provided even in modern buildings. Laundries and bath-rooms are invariably common to a number of tene- ments. 2. Hotels. The provision of labour-saving fittings is of even greater importance in hotels than in houses, but as hotels vary in character from mere drink-shops to what may be termed public residences, only general hints can be given as to the number of fittings required. Men's con- veniences, containing lavatories, urinals, and water-closets, must be provided near the bars and billiard-roorns, and also within convenient reach of rooms used for public meetings. Separate conveniences are required in connection with suites of rooms. One water-closet for every ten or twelve bed- rooms ought to be provided, but a smaller number of bath- rooms will suffice. Separate conveniences for male and female servants are required, and housemaids' closets with slop-hoppers and sinks must be placed in convenient positions for the different groups of bedrooms, FITTINGS REQUIRED. 3- Schools. The following table issued by the Board of Education " shows approximately the number of closets needed," in connection with elementary day-schools : For Girls. For Boys. For Infants. Under 30 children ... 2 5 70 100 150 200 300 For boys and infants it is said that urinals must be provided " in proportion." This is very indefinite, but for boys the urinals should be at least as numerous as the closets, while for infants at least one urinal is required for every two closets. Sometimes the following scale is adopted for schools fifteen closets for every hundred girls, and ten closets and five urinals for every hundred boys. This gives too many boys' closets and too few urinals. Lavatories and water- closets ought to be provided for the masters and mistresses in close proximity to the rooms set apart for their use. No definite rule has been laid down for the number of lavatory basins in elementary schools, but one for every twenty- five scholars will prove ample ; some school boards prefer a much smaller proportion of basins, say one for every fifty scholars. For boarding schools a somewhat similar scale to that laid down by the Board of Education will suffice for the day conveniences, but additional fittings must be provided near the dormitories, approximately as follows : For every hundred boys, four water-closets, sixteen urinals, twenty baths, and forty lavatory basins ; and for every hundred girls, fifteen water-closets, eighteen or twenty baths, and forty lavatory basins. Additional fittings must of course be pro- vided for the masters, mistresses, matrons, male and female servants, the governors of the schools, and in some cases for visitors. For poor-law schools the baths must, according to the regulations of the Local Government Board, be 22 SANITARY FITTINGS AND PLUMBING. sufficient in number to allow every child to bathe twice a week. 3. Hospitals. In hospitals separate conveniences must be provided for each ward, except for small separation wards. A common allowance is one water-closet, one bath, and two lavatory basins for every twelve beds. In addition to the patients' fittings, a nurses' water-closet ought to be provided near each large ward. Each ward must have its slop-sink specially arranged for washing bed-pans, and each duty-room or ward-kitchen must have a washing-up sink. 4. Factories and Workshops. Separate conve- niences must be provided for the two sexes. A common allowance is one closet for every twenty persons, but as, under the Factories and Workshops Acts, the local sanitary authorities are empowered to make regulations on the subject, much diversity exists in different districts. Some authorities are content with one closet for every thirty or even forty persons of the same sex. The urinals ought to be at least equal in number to the men's closets. NOTES ON FITTINGS. 23 CHAPTER IV. GENERAL NOTES ON SANITARY FITTINGS. Definition. The term " sanitary fittings " is generally taken to include all fittings intended for the reception of the foul liquids and water-carried solids which are produced in and about our buildings, exclusive of trade processes. The term, therefore, excludes such fittings as dyers 5 and sizers' vats and other tanks employed in factories and work- shops, and is confined to sinks, wash-tubs, baths, lavatories, water-closets, slop-hoppers and sinks, and urinals. Of each class of fitting there are many varieties, which are adapted for different purposes and for different kinds of buildings. The principal varieties will be considered in subsequent chapters. At present it is our purpose to state a few general rules which ought to be applied in the selection of sanitary fittings of all kinds. These rules may be summed up in five words efficiency, cleanliness, durability, sim- plicity, and (within limits) economy. Efficiency. That a sanitary fitting should adequately serve the purpose for which it is intended is obvious, but thousands of fittings are still fixed every year which cannot by any stretch of imagination be regarded as efficient. There are lavatories with waste holes so small that they cannot be rapidly emptied, with overflows badly arranged, with drains from soap-dishes made only to be choked, and with the " clean " water arranged to enter through the more or less foul waste or overflow openings. Baths exhibit almost the same defects. There are " water-closets " without water, or so insuf- ficiently flushed that the thorough removal of the solids is impossible. Others are so constructed that they hold very little water, or none at all, for the reception and deodorisa- 24 SANITAWV 1'TITINCiS AND PUJMIIINC. lion of depowill, And there are unllushed urinals and slop- hoppcri, All these perhaps serve in a manner the purpose for which they were designed, but they do not serve it efficiently, and every fitting of this sort is therefore imperfect. One of the principal marks of efficiency in a sanitary fitting is that it shall form an effective barrier against the entrance of foul air from the drains and waste -pipes. .In some fittings, as, for example, lavatories and sinks, this barrier is a plumber's trap which does not form an integral part of the fitting itself, but in many water-closets and slop hoppers, the trap is part of the fitting, and its efficiency must be carefully considered. Water closets are often defective in this respect ; the water-seal of the trap is, perhaps, too small, and is therefore in danger of being removed by siphonage or evaporation. Or the trap may have no provision for ventilation, a defect which will render it unsuitable for fixing in series. Cleanliness. Cleanliness is a question both of design and material. One of the best materials for sanitary fittings is undoubtedly some kind of porcelain, either solid or applied in the form of an enamel. It has its disadvan- tages of course, if applied as an enamel it may chip off and expose the rougher porous foundation to the action of the foul water, and if solid it may (as in a lavatory basin) be cracked by a blow or by sudden contact with hot water, but it has the great advantage of cleanliness. It is impervious, and consequently can always be kept clean, if the fitting is so designed that every part is accessible. Foul matters will, however, adhere to porcelain as to every other substance, and these must be periodically removed if the fitting is to remain satisfactory. Careful design is therefore necessary. All internal angles ought to > be well rounded, and as far as possible every part of the fitting ought to be accessible to the brush or cloth. The overflows of sinks and lavatories have, until recently, been very defective in this respect ; no provision whatever was made for cleansing them, and the consequence was that they often became extremely dirty, and were sometimes quite choked with soapy and greasy matter. Many water-closets still in use are of such a form that VOTE* 0W FITTUfOf, 25 they cannot possibly be kept clean by ordinary flushing, 'Il