Ex Ltbris 
 C. K. OGDEN
 
 -76 
 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 MODERN ARABIC 
 
 CONSISTING OF A 
 
 PEACTICAL GRAMMAR, 
 
 WITH 
 
 NUMEROUS EXAMPLES, DIALOGUES, 
 
 AND 
 
 NEWSPAPER EXTRACTS ; 
 
 IN A EUROPEAN TYPE. 
 
 BY 
 
 FKANCIS W. NEWMAN, 
 
 EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON ; FORMERLY 
 FELLOW OF HALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM : 
 
 STEVENSON, BAILEY, & SMITH, 8, LISTER GATE. 
 
 1895.
 
 HERTFORD: 
 
 PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 ARAUIC is talked differently in Algiers, in Malta, in 
 Egypt, in Syria, in Bagdad, and among the Arabs of 
 the desert. Nowhere 1 is the Arabic of the Koran and 
 of poetry spoken. The difference of the old and new 
 is similar in many respects to that between the Greek 
 of Homer and the Greek dialects at the time of 
 Xenophon. No modern can without pedantry and 
 absurdity speak in the older dialect. When he com- 
 poses poetry, he may write as Hariri, if he can ; just 
 as an Athenian or Alexandrian, if he chose to adopt 
 dactylic hexameters, might use the dialect of Homer. 
 When the Arab now writes prose, he obscures the chasm 
 which separates his dialect from the ancient, by omitting 
 the vowel points, which used to distinguish the cases of 
 the noun and the moods of the verb. While learned 
 men struggle to forbid the phrase MODERN ARABIC, and 
 will have it that the language has not changed (as if 
 change were not a necessity of nature and a condition 
 1 See P.S.
 
 IV PREFACE. 
 
 of growth), they yet distinctly confess that these final 
 vowels are not and may not be sounded. But their 
 omission so mutilates the old grammar, as in itself to 
 constitute a new dialect. Moreover the words in use 
 have largely changed, especially those in most frequent 
 recurrence. A huge mass of meanings have become 
 obsolete. The dictionaries mischievously heap together, 
 without distinction, the senses which belong to different 
 ages or places, and call that " Arabic." Even con- 
 cerning the Thousand and One Nights, which is more 
 recent than the age esteemed classical, the learned Mr. 
 Lane confesses that it is often impossible, " out of 
 twenty or more significations which are borne by one 
 Arabic word," to be sure which was intended by the 
 author. He declares that the style of that book is 
 neither classical, nor is it that of familiar conversation, 
 but is almost as different from the one as from the other. 
 I hope that I need no further defence for insisting that 
 to learn the Modern Arabic is not to learn the Ancient, 
 and to learn the Ancient is not to learn the Modern. 
 
 Although the local dialects differ considerably, the 
 difference is superficial, as in other cases of provin- 
 cialism. When Arabs write a very unpretending letter, 
 they lay aside a part of their local peculiarity. Mer- 
 cantile letters from Syria to Bagdad, or Bussora, or 
 Tunis, are a rough representation of " Modern " Arabic, 
 as distinct on the one hand from the purely local 
 dialects, on the other from the classical language.
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 Catafago's English-Arabic Dictionary evidently aims 
 at this mark. A fuller and far richer exhibition of the 
 same is in the Arab newspapers ; which, whether pub- 
 lished in Algiers or at Beirout, are in a dialect and 
 style closely alike. To this may be added numerous 
 publications of recent years, which exhibit the Arabs 
 struggling to put off provincialism, and assume a 
 common medium of thought. Such is what I under- 
 stand by Modern Arabic, only its want of vowel points 
 leaves many minor problems unsolved. If anyone has 
 urgent need to understand Lancashire talk, he must go 
 into Lancashire to learn it : so he must go to Algiers, 
 or to Aleppo, to learn the local dialect. But if he 
 wish to learn English, he will do best to learn first, 
 neither the jargon of our peasants, nor the poetry of 
 Spencer or Chaucer. Such easy prose or familiar lan- 
 guage as educated Englishmen use, must be his begin- 
 ning. He will afterwards go with advantage into 
 any special field of English. The same applies to 
 Arabic. 
 
 A peculiarity of the present Hand-book is its sys- 
 tematic preference of a European type, and its effort to 
 put that type on a basis which should remove all objec- 
 tion to its permanent use. This has been a favourite 
 object with the writer for more than the third part of 
 a century, after his early experience of the great and 
 needless difficulties which the current imperfect mode 
 of writing Arabic involves. He did not then know 
 
 b
 
 VI PREFACE. 
 
 that Volney had long since promulgated the same doc- 
 trine : but the moment that a European understands 
 the nature of the case, it needs not even experience to 
 show the hardship now gratuitously inflicted on the 
 learner. What would be thought of an English 
 teacher's common-sense, if, when a Frenchman desired 
 to learn English, he should insist on teaching it him by 
 a form of writing which omitted short vowels ? Nay, 
 if a Frenchman, ignorant of English, desired to read 
 English shorthand, we should regard it as an insanity 
 in him to refuse to learn our language and our long- 
 hand first. If anyone deny this, further argument is 
 useless. The sole real question is that of fact : does 
 the current literature omit vowels ? It does, except for 
 poetry ; and the vowels of poetry do not show the 
 actual pronunciation of prose and of cultivated speech. 
 At present a learner is thrown on the dictionary to fix 
 many of the vowels : and since in learning languages 
 we must forget much, and we remember only by 
 frequent repetition, he may have to look out in his 
 dictionary ten times to know how to pronounce one 
 word, even if the context show him its meaning. Then, 
 alas ! the best modern dictionary (that 1 of Bocthor) is 
 seldom pointed : in consequence of which, as I am now 
 aware, I used often to put wrong vowels to the words 
 which I learned from that dictionary. When the 
 
 1 Only French- Arabic : one cannot look out an Arabic word in it ; nor 
 indeed in Catafago, with his alphabetic arrangement.
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 grammatical analysis of a word is already known, 
 grammatical rules will often settle the short vowels ; but 
 how to analyze the word, is perhaps the very problem 
 to be solved ; or whether the word is to be active or 
 passive, is doubted. Moreover, so few of the people are 
 educated, that their enunciation is very obscure. To 
 learn the true vowels by the ear, is to the foreigner all 
 but impossible. When the books and even the dic- 
 tionaries alike evade to inform him, whence is he to 
 learn ? Grant that everyone will wish ultimately to 
 read the native shorthand ; still, the speediest way to 
 attain the power is, by first learning the language in 
 longhand, exactly as if we were dealing with English. 
 Some years back I printed a handbill on this subject, 
 exhibiting a system of European transliteration, and 
 closing with the following passage : 
 
 "IV. ADVANTAGES or A EUROPEAN- TYPE. 1. It will split 
 the difficulties to Europeans learning Arabic, and to Arabs 
 learning a European tongue. We shall be able to grapple, 
 first with the language, and afterwards with the Arab type 
 and the Arab conversely. 2. What in contemplating new 
 literature is of high importance, it will lessen the expense 
 of printing. 3. It will give to the Arabs capital letters, 
 Roman letters, and Italics ; for many reasons valuable, espe- 
 cially in facilitating reference by a mere glance of the eye, 
 and in preventing proper names from being mistaken for un- 
 known common words. 4. By a more perfect punctuation, 
 and by quotation marks, our type has advantage over even 
 the most carefully pointed Arab text, in ease and quick- 
 ness of reading. Much greater is its advantage in ease and
 
 Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 certainty over an unpointed text. 5. It will aid foreigners 
 and natives to enlarge their vocabulary. At present, with an 
 unpointed text, even the native is apt to make ridiculous or 
 disgusting blunders, if he dare to put vowels at random to 
 a word previously unknown. 6. It will enable Arabs to write 
 foreign names unchanged, or nearly unchanged, as Europeans 
 do. Now, their attempts at foreign names are ludicrous, and 
 involve enormous error. 7. Small Arab types strain the eyes 
 of readers painfully; an important topic to Bagdad, Syria, 
 and Egypt, where weak eyes and blindness are so terrible 
 a scourge. 8. Few of even professed scholars ever gain the 
 same intimate familiarity with an alphabet totally foreign, as 
 with their own. If the Arabs need European instructors, 
 if they need Europeans to co-operate in producing for them 
 a new literature (without which they can have no national 
 resurrection] they must be willing to accept our alphabet. 
 By it they will multiply a hundredfold their aid from Europe, 
 and will facilitate their own access to European literature. 
 9. By duly writing the double system of vowels, the imagina- 
 tion of Arab readers will be set more upon them, to the 
 certain softening of Arab elocution, and a great lessening of 
 its fatigue. At present, from the habit of writing conso- 
 nants only, the intense effort to distinguish them leads to 
 a spasmodic and hideous harshness, quite needless when the 
 distinctive vowel sounds are duly heard. 10. So also the 
 foreigner, who often proves permanently unable to execute 
 some of the consonants correctly, will yet, by cultivating 
 the vowel sounds carefully, in which he is more apt, attain 
 a pronunciation always intelligible, never ridiculous, and at 
 a short distance will seem to speak correctly. For vowels are 
 heard further and clearer than consonants. 11. Whatever 
 develops intellect, excites zeal for research into antiquity. 
 A really new Literature, in European type, under European 
 influence, will not make the students of the old literature
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 fewer ; but will enable them to pursue it more fruitfully, 
 with minds more powerful to select and to fuse." 
 
 I distributed this handbill in many quarters, and re- 
 ceived several letters. One learned gentleman briefly 
 replied, that he " could not see any use in my proposed 
 change," entirely ignoring the eleven uses which I 
 had enumerated. Similar rebuffs came from other 
 quarters. I suppose, therefore, I must count on nothing 
 but opposition from the learned, who seem to me dis- 
 posed much to underrate the difficulties which they 
 have surmounted, or indisposed to smooth the way of 
 learners. "When the field of learning is infinite, it is 
 with me a crime to increase difficulty. I do not write 
 for the learned, but to aid the unlearned : hence I appeal 
 to the latter alone ; to those who have good sense, but 
 no acquaintance with this particular language. 
 
 I have been a learner of languages for more than 
 fifty years past, and have learned much of a few lan- 
 guages, a little of many. I know what makes them 
 easy, and what hard : and I positively attest that this 
 Arabic type is an enormous and gratuitous increase of 
 difficulty ; pre-eminently as to words in which the 
 vocalization is really uncertain, in which case one is 
 ever learning and unlearning, and wrongly (perhaps) 
 blaming one's memory. It is astonishing that either 
 protest or reasoning should be needed on a matter so 
 plain. Suppose us not to be learners, but already 
 learned. We take up a book, say, a newspaper, and
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 try to read it. To put the right vowels is impossible, 
 until the eye has glanced forward in the sentence ; for 
 it may contain half a dozen words with doubtful vowels, 
 which can only be adjusted by studying the whole. If 
 the three words A, B, C be doubtful, each depends on 
 the other two, as well as on the words which have no 
 doubt. For instance, 1 In ceteb means If he shall have 
 written ; Enna ceteb, That he has written ; In cotib, If 
 it shall have been written ; Enna cotib, That it was 
 written ; Enna cotob, That books ; and Inna cotob, 
 Verily books or As for books : and which of these 
 is correct, depends on what is coming. The text writes 
 all six perfectly alike. Thus every time one refers to a 
 sentence, it has to be studied 'anew. The paper generally 
 blots, if one try to insert vowel points in ink : hence I 
 find it takes less time to write out in full, with my own 
 pen, a work which I want to study, than refer to the 
 unpointed Arabic text. Why natives make light of 
 this, it is not my part to explain ; but, whatever facility 
 they have, it is none the easier to foreigners. If, then, 
 we (or illiterate natives) desire to become expert in the 
 short-hand, it is wise first to learn the language 
 thoroughly in long-hand.. At present it is difficult or 
 impossible to get prose works that have the vowel 
 points marked. The deficiency of stops, the absence 
 of parentheses, and the mingling of words, aggravate 
 other difficulties. 
 
 1 It may also be read, Enn ceteb, He groaned, he wrote.
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 The task which I have taken on myself cannot be 
 done perfectly by me. If a learned Arab could have 
 enthusiasm for it, and had (as perhaps some may have) 
 as keen an ear for the English, French, and Italian 
 sounds as I have ; and had been educated in European 
 grammar as I have ; and knew as well as I, where 
 Europeans are apt to go wrong, and what they need ; 
 he would execute this task better than I. JX~o foreigner 
 can know, in delicate cases, what vocalization is, on 
 the whole, best neither pedantic nor vulgar. I can 
 but collate the pronunciations sanctioned by Faris, by 
 0. de Perceval, by Cherbonneau, by De Braine, by Le*on 
 and Helot, side by side with my own reminiscences 
 and my own MSS. written in Syria and Bagdad, 
 making allowance for a French ear, and the peculiar 
 deficiency of certain simple short vowels in French. 
 After all, the delicate cases are few and exceptional. 
 I am obliged to give directions for pronunciation, and 
 my directions have no pretence to be perfect. But if 
 they could be perfect, they would still be insufficient. 
 No Englishman can learn from a book to pronounce 
 French correctly, and the same is true of Arabic, 
 whether a native write it, or a foreigner. 
 
 The educated natives themselves vary among them- 
 selves, especially concerning the fine and coarse vowels ; 
 a distinction which exists, but is not acknowledged in 
 writing, even when vowel points are added. Between 
 a and e there is often much uncertainty ; as, whether
 
 Xll PREFACE. 
 
 to say Jadied, 1 f. Jadieda (new), or Jedied, f. Jediede ; 
 but it is no more important than the question whether 
 command, basket, should be pronounced with the broad 
 Italian a of Middlesex, or with narrow a, as in midland 
 and northern counties. In some of these details I 
 perhaps have not attained consistency of spelling. 
 Nevertheless, not only is our vowel system immeasur- 
 ably superior to theirs, but as regards types for con- 
 sonants, our resources are really great. Greek gives 
 us three letters, Q A T, identical with c_> j c . Hebrew 
 (a square type, easily harmonized with the Roman) 
 gives four letters, D X H V, identical with ^ ye . 
 English, in C Q X, has three superfluous letters ; we 
 may add long 5 of old English. It only remains to 
 use such resources judiciously. 
 
 In India European types are extensively used to 
 write the native languages. Our missionaries employ 
 them in Africa, in the Pacific, and everywhere else, 
 with more or less skill. The objections urged by some 
 of the learned are astonishingly superficial, such as, 
 that it is " against the genius of a language to bring 
 in a foreign alphabet." They might seem to think 
 that the Arabic alphabet had grown out of the soil 
 with the language. Notoriously, it was adapted from 
 the Cufic, by the very clumsy method of points, such 
 as we often employ upon Roman letters. The single 
 Phoenician alphabet has been modified into Greek, 
 1 In Aleppo I always heard Jedied, in Bagdad (I think) Jadied.
 
 PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 Coptic, Gheez, Amharic, Etruscan, and Roman ; also 
 into Estrangelo - Syrian, Cufic, Syriac, Samaritan, 
 Hebrew, and Arabic. Very few languages indeed 
 have had an alphabet made for their express use ; and 
 if there were more such, they would only vex us the 
 more. 
 
 Yolney suggested the right thing, but his characters 
 did not at all harmonize with Roman type. The letters 
 ought to adapt themselves also to Italics, and be easy 
 for joining hand, if possible. To dots there are grave 
 objections. A single dot cannot be large enough to 
 strike the eye, without being ugly : the printer there- 
 fore is sure in the long run to make it hurtfully small. 
 Also in MS. it easily looks like a blot, and mistakes 
 arise as to which letter it is meant to affect ; hence it 
 impedes quick writing. A zero is better than a dot ; 
 yet this blots in writing, and is not so good as a con- 
 tinuous train of the pen. Besides, as I now know, 
 unless a printer cut new types, the zero pushes the 
 letters apart. Accents, and the apostrophe, are wanted 
 for their own purposes, and in maps all such things 
 are mischievous. If new types must be cut, it is well 
 to make the forms as perfect as may be. 
 
 The objects to be gained by a system of European 
 transliteration are so great, that the eleven arguments 
 quoted above rather allude to than develop them. 
 Something more must be here added. A sound know- 
 ledge of geography lies at the basis of modern culture,
 
 XIV PREFACE. 
 
 and for it MAPS are necessary. "Without this know- 
 ledge the Orientals must remain as children, with weak, 
 empty, and delusive ideas concerning other nations ; 
 incapable of receiving instruction by books or news- 
 papers. But who will engrave maps for Turks, Arabs, 
 and Persians in the type of their native MSS. ? what 
 publisher in Paternoster Row or New York will under- 
 take the speculation ? And if such maps existed, what 
 native seeking information would be able to read them, 
 traversed by dots innumerable in irregular directions ? 
 An Arab may afford to turn into embroidery sacred 
 texts with which he is familiar ; but if one interlace 
 in a map foreign names unknown to him, they must 
 be unintelligible in such a character. Only maps with 
 a very few names, such as are in our children's schools, 
 could be legible. The Arab vowel points, utterly 
 insufficient as they are to express foreign names, would 
 entangle the problem worse than ever ; for, the ob- 
 jections to using them and to dispensing with them are 
 alike powerful. But we may further ask, Is INDIA 
 never to receive modern cultivation ? or is anyone 
 insane enough to suggest that the English Government 
 will go to the expense of maps in the Devanagari and 
 Tamil character ? a character far less embarrassing 
 than that of Arabia. It will be replied, " Of course 
 all Indians who desire Western cultivation must learn 
 to read the names on European maps." By the same 
 reason we are claiming nothing great, in expecting
 
 PREFACE. XV 
 
 Arabs to make themselves masters of two kinds of 
 type, and learning to transliterate. Most evident is it, 
 that the world cannot afford to indulge in separate 
 atlases for Arabia, for Bengal, for the South of India, 
 for Burma, for China. For all these peoples a pre- 
 requisite of cultivation is, to learn the characters and 
 use the maps of Europe. Not indeed our languages ; 
 that would be a condition too hard to fulfil, a condition 
 which no despot could enforce. But if a beneficent 
 Sultan were to establish schools for Arabs, and were to 
 teach Arabic in them through a European type solely, 
 this could not be felt as a hardship, in a country where 
 so very small a fraction of the natives can put right 
 vowels to the simplest native text. 
 
 And this seduces me into a political remark. England 
 at vast expense sustains an embassy at Constantinople, 
 and a fleet in the Mediterranean, for the sake (it is 
 said) of English interests in the East. When we in- 
 quire what interests are intended, nothing else is dis- 
 coverable but that we desire to maintain in Turkey 
 " good will to our commerce, our religion, and our com- 
 munications with India." Men not the least acute in 
 the English Parliament have avowed their belief that 
 our diplomacy and our fleets have no tendency to 
 promote this "good will," but rather the contrary. 
 Without venturing on so large a question, one may be 
 permitted to assert, that if half the expense of our 
 Mediterranean fleet were retrenched, and the money
 
 XVI PREFACE. 
 
 spent under the direction of our CONSULS in free schools 
 for the native population of Turkey, to instruct them 
 in Geography and the elementary knowledge to which 
 it is the key, by the intervention of the European 
 character and European maps ; it would do more in 
 fifteen years to promote the intelligence and prosperity 
 of Turkey, and with it all the solid and legitimate 
 interests of England, than ambassadors and fleets can 
 do in five hundred years. 
 
 P.S. Since the above was in the printer's hands, I 
 have seen the remarkable statements of Mr. Palgrave, 
 that in the W.E. of Arabia, which he has opened to our 
 knowledge, the people preserve in daily talk the final 
 vowels of classical Arabic. Since no discussion of such 
 a topic can here find place, it must suffice to remark 
 that if the people of that region talk the language 
 current 1300 years ago in Mecca, it is now a strictly 
 local peculiarity. In no case can the population, spread 
 over the vast surface hitherto known, adopt the ancient 
 dialect, as to its final vowels, or as to words and their 
 current senses.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAET I. ON PRONUNCIATION AND WRITING. 
 
 SECT. P AE 
 
 1. Vowel Sounds 1 
 
 2. Consonant Sounds 5 
 
 3. Relation of Vowels to Consonants . . . . .11 
 
 4. Process of Transliteration. . . . . . 16 
 
 PART II. ON GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Nouns and Adjectives ..".... 19 
 
 2. Composite State of Nouns 33 
 
 3. Demonstratives and Emphatic Pronouns . .39 
 
 4. Interrogatives 47 
 
 5. Prepositions ........ ,50 
 
 6. Suffix Pronouns ....... 56 
 
 7. Auxiliary Nouns or Quasi-Pronouns ..... 62 
 
 8. Numerals , 67 
 
 9. Plurals of Nouns and Adjectives ,70 
 
 10. Comparatives ....... 75 
 
 11. Relative Pronouns ,78 
 
 12. Elements of the Verb ..... 82 
 
 13. Types of the Noun .... 89 
 
 14. Auxiliary Verbs 92 
 
 15. Classes of the Verb ,96
 
 XV111 CONTEXTS. 
 
 SECT. PAGE 
 
 16. Degenerate Verbs 102 
 
 17. Adverbs and Conjunctions ...... 107 
 
 18. Ancient Cases of the Noun . . .113 
 
 PART III. PRAXIS. 
 
 1. Tables of Plurals ........ 118 
 
 2. Exercises on " of " 122 
 
 3. Small Talk without Verbs 124 
 
 4. At the Close of a Journey 126 
 
 5. At the Caravanserai 128 
 
 6. On Dessert 131 
 
 7. Talk with a Cook on Catering . . . . . .134 
 
 8. With Muleteers on a Journey 137 
 
 9. Coptic Feast 146 
 
 10. Two Tradesmen 152 
 
 11. Clothier and his Customer 156 
 
 12. "With a Tailor 159 
 
 13. A Stationer with a Paper Merchant 162 
 
 14. Specimen of Prose with few Verbs 165 
 
 15. Newspaper Extracts . 166
 
 EQUIVALENTS HERE USED FOR THE ARAB CHARACTERS. 
 
 * Hamze 
 a e 
 
 a e i o 
 > B b 
 
 J T t 
 J 
 
 T J J (*') 
 
 _ n n 
 ^ K k 
 
 J D d 
 
 j A A (<ZA) 
 
 ^ R r 
 
 Z z 
 
 J 
 
 S s (sharp) 
 
 t T T 
 
 b 3g 
 
 ^ r f 
 
 _5 F f 
 
 J Q q 
 
 J/ C c 
 
 J L 1 
 
 A Mm 
 
 J H h 
 W w
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC, 
 
 PART I. PRONUNCIATION AND WRITING. 
 
 1. VOWEL SOUNDS. 
 
 1. Pronounce a ordinarily as in mutable, coachman, or nearly 
 as u in mud. Thus, Bann, coffee-bean ; Madd, he stretched ; 
 Rabb, lord ; are sounded as English bun, mud, rub. 
 
 Yet with strong h (fl) and Ain (s) the a is sharpened 
 into French a of salon ; which happens in some other words 
 not easy to enumerate, as Ana, I ; iahr, back (sound it, 
 An-a). Perhaps h in Aahr affects the a. 
 
 2. Short e is for the most part sounded nearly as in men, 
 bell, only not quite so clear. (Whether indistinctness is 
 here any virtue, may be judged differently in different 
 provinces.) Thus, Jeb-al, a mountain; Bel-ad, a district; 
 Med-iena, a city ; Ceb-ier, great. [The Englishman must 
 not pronounce Je-bal, Belad, nor Mz'diena, C^bier.] Thus 
 also, El, the ; Tell, hill ; Ente, thou ; Emte, when ? Bel, but. 
 
 Nevertheless, e, like a, in many words takes a second 
 sound, viz., that of English a in man, which is a sound not 
 normal in French and Italian. This sharpened sound of e 
 
 1
 
 2 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 may be heard especially, (1) in connection with c or h; as in 
 Ecbar, greater ; EcGer, more ; Lee, to thee : where Lee is to 
 be sounded as English lack, and Bee (in thee) like English 
 back. (2) In certain contrasts, such as Nefes, breath, Nefs, 
 self ; Bered, hail, Bard, cold ; the second e of the dissyllable 
 is sharpened so that an Englishman might write Nef-as, 
 Ber-ad. Indeed in Sasel, honey, I always heard the e as our 
 sharp a. 
 
 3. If certainty could be attained, it might be well to write 
 d e for the sharper sounds of short a and e ; thus we should 
 have Ana, I ; Aahr, back ; Ente, thou ; Berad or Bered, 
 hail ; Bee, in (or with) thee. I awhile attempted this, but 
 found too many doubtful cases, and too much uncertainty 
 whether I was pursuing laws of the language or provincial 
 accent. On the whole I think that *, h, and c tend to modify 
 e into sharp English a, as s tends to sharpen a : thus *Em, 
 or ; *Emma, but ; *Emr, affair. There are not less than four 
 different sounds of these two short vowels, which the Arabs 
 either omit, or express by the single mark which they call 
 Fatlla. 
 
 4. Long a (a) is at least as broad as in father, mask, of the 
 South of England. Indeed with Q, the a is apt to take the 
 deep sound of our au aw in haul, bawl. So too in the word 
 Allah, God, which an Englishman would be apt to write 
 Ul-lauh. 
 
 5. Long e (e) is as the vowel in dare, bear, hair, their, 
 there. It is probably old Greek 17, nearly French e, or e. 
 Many English families or even counties so mince the a in 
 grasp, basket, castle, command, as to yield the sound of this e ; 
 but in the South of England it is only heard before r.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 6. Short * is as with us in little pin. This sound being 
 unknown to the French (who are prone to say leetle peeri), 
 one is apt to be misled by French notation which aims to 
 transcribe Arabic. In Min, from; Li, to; Tilf, waste; 
 Mel-ic, king ; Sinn, a tooth ; Mafrib, sunset ; Menzil, lodging ; 
 the short i is as clear as in English. [In many words the 
 vulgar are quite indistinct, merging it in o, u, or e. Thus 
 I always heard Bela, without ; which Faris writes Bila for 
 the English learner. The word is a modern formation ; but 
 analogy requires Bila, so I follow Faris. And in some other 
 words, in spite of provincialism, I cling to the classical Icisra, 
 where we have classical guidance.] Observe, never to pro- 
 nounce final short e as i. 
 
 7. Long i is as in English machine. It may be written 
 i to save space ; but to economize the circumflex, I write ie 
 for it, as in our field. Thus Tien, figs ; Mediena, city ; 
 Fetiele, wick [not Fs'tieH, rather Fet-iele]. 
 
 8. Short o is ordinarily as our oo in good. Yet when 
 accented in a closed syllable it is rather the French o, as 
 Octob, write thou ; Kobz, bread. 
 
 9. Our long o in stone, according to Catafago, is not Arabic 
 at all. Yet the Christians and Jews in Aleppo pretty clearly 
 say Yoam, a day (with the vowel sound of English boat) ; 
 so Loan, a colour, etc. In strictness this is a Diphthong. 
 English oa is only an approximation to it, yet it is an ap- 
 proximation which will never be misunderstood. In fact, 
 there are here two sounds, which I write eu, au. Of these 
 eu approaches to oa, o in boat, bone, and au to ou in our, sound. 
 The Arabic utterance is here less pure and single than the 
 English; two vowels are heard in imperfect combination.
 
 4 HANDBOOK OF MODEBJT ABABIC. 
 
 Thus Yeum, day (nearly Toam), Dau, buttermilk (nearly 
 Dow). In fact Dawa, medicine, is sounded exactly as 
 English Dow-a [compare dower~\, and might in Arabic be 
 written Daua without impropriety. 
 
 10. Short u is intended for French u in bureau. In Syria 
 both o and * often degenerate into u ; especially when is 
 repeated. Thus they say Cutob for Cotob, books ; Jubon for 
 Jobon, cheese ; Fulfol for Folfol, pepper ; Muxmox for 
 Moxmox, apricots. 
 
 1 1 . Dotted o represents the German sound, nearly French 
 eu in heureux, jeune. In Syria u is often corruptly sounded 6, 
 as Fb'iia, for FuISa, silver ; Ilb'yan, for Huyan, horse. 
 
 12. By ui I represent the long French u in lune, perhaps 
 old Greek vi. 
 
 13. The diphthong ou is to be sounded as in French, or in 
 English you. This might be written ti to save space; but 
 the fewer circumflexes the better. 
 
 14. The diphthong ou is a very obscure sound, but perhaps 
 is that of French oeu in soeur, sister. Compare old Ionic wv. 
 
 15. The diphthong ai is very near to English * in fire, tile ; 
 as Kair, good ; Kail, horses ; Fair, other. No one can be 
 misunderstood, or can seem absurd, who exactly utters here 
 the English vowel. Yet the Mohammedan Arabs give some- 
 what more of the double sound. 
 
 16. The same remark applies to the diphthong ei. Never- 
 theless it is all but identical with English ei, ey, in veil, grey, 
 which is the same sound as in maid, pale. Thus Leil, night, 
 would be written Lale, or Lail, or Leyl by an Englishman. 
 The combinations ie, ui ; ei, ai ; ou, ou; eu, au ; might 
 with equal grammatical propriety be written iy, uy ; ey, ay ;
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 5 
 
 oic, 6w ; ew, aw. But such notation would probably be less 
 acceptable to Western readers. 
 
 2. CONSONANT SOUNDS. 
 
 17. There are twenty-eight consonants. I call seven mas- 
 culine or coarse ; seven feminine or fine ; fourteen neuter or 
 medial. The neuters are six liquids, 1, m, n, r, w, y ; three 
 aspirates, 0, k, [> ; also the five letters, f, b, d, j, x. 
 
 18. The liquids are sounded exactly as in English, if you 
 carefully retain everywhere for r its full vibration (as in the 
 Irish mouth), even before a consonant, or at the end of 
 a word : as in Barr, terra finna ; Bard, cold, subst. [for which 
 an Englishman is prone to write Burrad, as though it were 
 a dissyllable]. 
 
 19. Of the aspirates, 9 is as in Greek, or English th in 
 thin, breath. K, F are commonly written Kh, Gh ; the 
 former being German ch in auch, or rougher still, as in Swit- 
 zerland. P is to K exactly as B to P, D to T. Arabic 
 Ghain (F) is fundamentally the modern Greek T or Dutch 
 gh, only exaggerated. It is our Northumberland " burr," 
 the consonant heard in gargling. Many Frenchmen and 
 Germans lisp E, into F ; hence Hanoteau (in Zouave) treats 
 the Ghain as a modified B, : but this obscures its relation to 
 the aspirated K. In fact, B,, K, F, are all alike vibratory, 
 and F has no more of R, than this common property. The 
 Arabs say Tefarfor (TEFARFOR) for gargling the throat ; 
 a word suggested by the sound. 
 
 In MS. I am accustomed to write G g for Arabic and 
 K k for ; which involves no inconvenience while we deal
 
 6 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AEABIC. 
 
 with Arabic alone. But for certain languages into which 
 Arabic enters, as Zouave, Persian, Turkish, this is ob- 
 jectionable ; since G is there wanted for its English sound ; 
 and it seems a pity to waste Greek r, when we have it to 
 our hand. Even in Arabic, English G is often useful for 
 writing proper names ; as in Giana (Guiana), Gienia (Guinea), 
 Ingliez (Engli&K), Ingilterra (England'}. Indeed in a few 
 Arab nouns the English hard g is heard : thus Nargiel for 
 Narjiel, cocoanut ; Dongola, a heron. It is regarded as 
 a peculiarity of the Egyptian dialect always to harden the 
 Jiem (-.) into Giem, which is an approach to Hebrew. But 
 no further notice will be here taken of this. 
 
 20. F, b, d, j, are sounded as in English ; only perhaps 
 the d is slightly dental, as with French and Italians. For j 
 the French write dj, the Germans dsch, which are too clumsy 
 for transliteration, and grammatically objectionable, especially 
 when the letter has to be doubled. Finally, x here represents 
 English sh, as in Portuguese, not without historical excuse ; 
 for x of Latin stood for Greek f, and the representative of 
 this in Phenician and Egyptian seems to have degenerated 
 into the sk and sh. But convenience is here the chief argu- 
 ment. We cannot afford to waste the x. 
 
 21. P and Y are found only in foreign words, as Vapour, 
 a steamboat, which will probably prove an inevitable noun. 
 Marceb-a-nar (fireship) suggests a different thing. In such 
 names as Petersburg, Paris, Vienna, Valparaiso, we need 
 P and V. [Also in Persian, Turkish, Zouave, the sounds of 
 English tch and French j are found, as well as the hard 
 English g. These three are all marked in Turkish type by 
 a triple dot (), which in MS. is habitually imitated by the
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AEABIC. 7 
 
 circumflex (*). Yet I think that for tch it is best to add the 
 top of T to C, making a form almost identical with ^ , 
 viz. *C ; and for J use j with an arrowhead at top, J . 
 A triple dot has none of the disadvantages in printing which 
 a single dot involves. It is not mistaken for a hlot on the 
 MS. ; and it is legible without being so large as to appear an 
 ugly spot in the types. Hence I think that c, j, g sur- 
 mounted by a triple dot will not ill represent ft,J, ^JT, if 
 occasion require, in Indian or African languages. Never- 
 theless, if r f be adopted for ?, our simple G g suffices for 
 Persian Gaf.] 
 
 22. The seven feminine or fine consonants are s, z, t, A, 
 c, h, *. S never has the sound of z, but is everywhere sharp. 
 T is slightly dental, and in Algiers tends to degenerate into 
 ts, as with the Kabails or Algerine Berbers. A A is as in 
 modern Greek, or our flat tli in the, this. C is nearly our Jc, 
 but forwarder in the mouth, and more mincing; as is the 
 case with s, z, t also. The Turks interpose short t after c, 
 saying nearly (in English orthography) kiean or kyean for 
 cen. But the Bedouins sound c as our ch in chill, chant, 
 latch ; and the learner who has no opportunity of hearing 
 the true sound of Q, will do best to give to C its Bedouin 
 pronunciation ; otherwise he will almost inevitably confound 
 it with Q. Even at Bagdad the Bedouin sound prevails, at 
 least before e and i, and it is in perfect analogy with the soft 
 sound of j, which is almost universal beyond Egypt. H is 
 perhaps identical with English h. Finally * (which is called 
 Hamze) is a mere hiatus. We are made aware of it even 
 in English, when we distinguish "an *ice pudding" from 
 "a nice pudding"; but an Arab would wish to write
 
 8 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Anti*ochus, Italia, where it seems to us absurd to reckon 
 the hiatus as a consonant. In such a word as Yes s el (he 
 asks), the consonantal power of the hiatus is less obscure. 
 
 23. Between d or e and a the Hamze in modern pro- 
 nunciation generally becomes y ; thus Mirse*a (anchor) is 
 Mirseya. Even Ma* (water) is pronounced May ; and so we 
 may write it, the radical letters being mwy. The Moham- 
 medans make Hamze audible in Xai* (thing). Sometimes 
 the Hamze between vowels changes to w (and is so written 
 by the Arabs), especially when the preceding vowel is o or 
 ou ; as Mowellif (a composer) for Mo*ellif . 
 
 24. The seven masculine or coarse consonants correspond 
 with the feminine, each to each. They are y, 5, T, X, q, fl, s ; 
 5. 3, T, A, Q, H, . The two first are a pouting s and z. 
 The lips are protruded, and (natives say) the tongue must be 
 put between the teeth, with much danger of biting it. The 
 form of y is borrowed from Hebrew The coarse t (T) is 
 familiar to us in Irish brogue, when water is pronounced. 
 The upper gums (or even the palate) must be touched by 
 a broad mass of the tongue, and the lips opened ; while in the 
 fine t the root of the tooth is touched by the mere point of the 
 tongue, and the lips drawn closer. The S is nearly dth of 
 Englishmen, yet it is not a double sound, but a coarse A 
 formed by a thick tongue on the gum ; while in fine A the 
 tongue delicately touches the edge of the fore tooth. Q, is 
 far deeper in the throat than our Jt (as c is forwarder in the 
 mouth than Jc], and is very soft, wholly free from vibration. 
 The foreigner finds his throat soon to become sore at the root 
 of the tongue from a frequent utterance of Q. It is thought 
 to be heard from the rooks when they say caw ; hence Qaq
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 9 
 
 (pronounced Qawq) is Arabic for the crow, generically. 
 Strong h (fl) is often heard from Irishmen. It is wheezing 
 and guttural, with something of a w in it at the beginning of 
 a word, as in our rare name Whewell. The force of air in 
 the throat is considerable, and is strangely prolonged when it 
 ends a word, as Meliefl (good), RaH (he went). The letter 
 Ain (s) is not merely a hiatus, like Hamze, but a muscular 
 upward jerk of the chest and stomach, accompanied with an 
 elevation of musical note to the vowel. It may be called 
 a spasmodic emphasis, such as a stuttering man executes, 
 when at last his vowel struggles out ; as Sarab (Arabs), Masz 
 (goats), Robs (quarter). A foreigner at first believes it is 
 a vowel ; and it is as much a semi-vowel as s, st, h, which 
 we seem able to sound by themselves. Grammatically it is 
 treated as a pure consonant. 
 
 25. In a few words either there is confusion between 5 and 
 i, or g has changed its sound. Mhr (the back), iohr (noon), 
 Aolme (darkness), NaSuif (clean), aSm (bone) ; and in 
 Syria IlafaS (he preserved) ; are pronounced with I, though 
 written (in Arab character) with 5 (3e). But Salim 
 (tyrannical), 5alm (tyranny), are sounded with 5, as though 
 it were a different root from iolme (darkness). [In classical 
 dictionaries NaSuif is dirty, and Na5uif, clean !] 
 
 26. The terminations -ieq, -iek, -ief, are uttered as if 
 a short a were interposed before the final consonant. [This 
 is PatHa furtive of Hebrew.] It is peculiarly important in 
 expressing -ieq, as Satieq (atie-aq), old; since it at once 
 discriminates Q from C. Possibly -iefl, -oufl. equally have 
 the furtive a. The learner must most carefully learn to 
 distinguish the terminations -ies, -ieH, -ieh, as in Xanies,
 
 10 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 shameful; MelieH., good; Cerieh, unpleasant. In -ies the 
 muscles of utterance jerk upwards. Meliefl must he conceived 
 of by the Englishman as Helie-ahhh, with long continued 
 wheezing; and Cerieh as Ceriehi, with final i pronounced 
 very rapidly. 
 
 27. The true sound of and A, as explained above, is 
 retained at Bagdad in familiar talk ; also by the Bedouins, 
 and in reading the Koran or poetry. No one can be mis- 
 understood when he adheres to the correct sounds ; and they 
 are so easy to an Englishman, that he ought from the be- 
 ginning to be punctiliously accurate. To corrupt 9 into s or 
 t, A into z or d, confuses words essentially different, and is 
 a really mischievous depravation of the language, though 
 systematically practised by many even of the learned. To 
 merge English thin into tin or sin, breathe into breeze or breed) 
 is just the corruption here deprecated. 
 
 28. Double consonants followed by a vowel must be dwelt 
 on, as in Italian terra, lella. An Englishman is apt to 
 neglect, and indeed not to understand this. Yet we have it in 
 meanness, soulless, which we never pronounce meaness, souless ; 
 nor do we confound nice size with nice eyes, but we sound 
 double s in the middle of the former. Only at the end of 
 a word a double consonant cannot be uttered. It remains 
 double for mere grammatical reasons; as Modd (extend). 
 
 29. The combination nb is properly sounded ml, as in 
 Zenbiel (basket), pronounced Zembiel. Its plural is Zenabiel, 
 where n reappears. [In Syria I used to hear Jan'b, Jen'bi, 
 as if with a short vowel elided, instead of Jambi (at my side). 
 This is perhaps comparable to provincial English umbrella, 
 musharoom.]
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 11 
 
 30. The combinations dt, At, it, 0t, Tt, are all sounded as 
 tt ; but for grammatical reasons they are not so written. 
 
 3. KELATION OF VOWELS TO CONSONANTS. 
 
 31. Yowels are of three classes, which (imitating native 
 grammars) I call Fathites, Kisrites, Dhammites. They are 
 thus arranged : 
 
 
 Short. 
 
 Long. 
 
 Fathites 
 
 Fine 
 Coarse 
 
 e 
 a 
 
 e=e* 
 a = a* 
 
 Kisrites 
 
 Fine 
 Coarse 
 
 i 
 u 
 
 ie=iy 
 ui = uy 
 
 Dhammites 
 
 Fine 
 Coarse 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ou = ow 
 6u = ow 
 
 SPECIAL DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 Fine 
 Coarse 
 
 ei = ey 
 ai=ay 
 
 eu = ew 
 au = aw 
 
 There is no grammatical difference between a fine and its 
 corresponding coarse vowel or diphthong. The choice be- 
 tween the two is determined by the nature of the contiguous 
 consonants. Hence even in pointed Arabic they are not dis- 
 tinguished. [Short e or a is called Fat-da, short i or u Kisra,
 
 12 HANDBOOK OP MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 short o or o Aamma.] One general rule must guide us. 
 There is a close affinity between the coarse consonants and the 
 coarse vowel -sounds. Even so, - the rule holds but imperfectly 
 of Q, which only with Fathites and diphthongs takes the 
 coarse sounds. 
 
 Learned grammars do not always lay stress on the double 
 sound of the vowels, if they name it. Oberleitner, indeed, 
 says ( 4, 3) : " The vowels have a double sound, emphatic 
 with the emphatic consonants, soft with the other letters. 
 This double sound in practical utterance needs peculiar care, 
 lent words unlike in sense be confounded." Caussin de Perceval, 
 in his short but valuable modern grammar, lays chief stress 
 on the difference of a, d from e, 3. Of the rest he says 
 merely, " The guttural and emphatic letters give to the 
 vowels a vague sound which we cannot express by our 
 vowels." 
 
 32. To a foreigner the Arab consonants are so difficult, 
 that unless he anxiously attends to the accompanying vowels 
 he has a poor chance of avoiding ridiculous ambiguities. 
 Vowels are more easily heard than consonants; and if we 
 sound them rightly our errors in the consonants will often 
 escape the ear. Hence to write this distinction of vowels, 
 and let it impress imagination and memory, is to us of first 
 importance. Even before the same consonant n the Arabs 
 say Ana (I), Ente (thou), though they write the first vowel 
 of each word alike. Every European writes A in the former 
 word, E in the latter. Also Man ? (who ?) is sounded with 
 the vowel of our bun, none, run. In regard to the neutral 
 consonants there is great uncertainty whether the coarse or 
 the fine vowels are to be used. Even concerning Q, before
 
 HANDBOOK OP MODERN- ARABIC. 13 
 
 the Kisrites I have more than once changed my opinion. 
 I have asked a person to pronounce to me the word j^^wXi 
 (Sun), and have been quite unable to ascertain whether 
 Xams or Xems better denoted his utterance ; for he appeared 
 to go backward and forward between the two, or to express 
 something intermediate. So, whether OalaGa or GeleQe be 
 better, may be differently decided at Bagdad and at Beirout. 
 
 33. The fine or feminine consonants have a decided pre- 
 ference for the fine vowel sounds ; but they are sometimes 
 overpowered by the proximity of a coarse consonant. It is 
 laid down that in WasaT (middle), Saxfl (flat roof ), the T not 
 merely imposes a (instead of e) on each word, but changes 
 the sound of s (or allows it to be changed) into y ; so that 
 "WayaT, Sa-rH are a legitimate pronunciation. [So the Latin 
 sounded scriptus for scribtus, optineo for obtineo.] Some- 
 times it affects orthography, Suqsa for Siqsa, hailstone. In 
 a doubtful choice, as, between Bait and Beit (dwelling, 
 lodging) the soft t seems a reason for preferring Beit, as in 
 Syria. [Faris directs us to say Bait ; but he also bids us 
 say A.1, Anta, Jabal, Tall, Malic, Madiena; which every 
 European hears as El, Ente, Jebal, Tell, Melic, Mediena.J 
 
 34. Immense ambiguities result from negligence of pro- 
 nunciation as to coarse and fine sounds. Contrast 
 
 Fitna, sedition; Fuina, prudence. 
 
 Ser, he proceeded ; Sar, he has become. 
 
 Tebas, he followed ; Tabas, he printed. 
 
 Seif , a sword ; Saif, summer. 
 
 SeuT, a whip ; Saut, a voice. 
 
 Silafl, arms ; Sulall, pacification. 
 
 Semm, poison ; Samm, was deaf.
 
 14 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Teb, repented ; Tab, was nice. 
 
 Terec, he left ; Taraq, he knocked. 
 
 Cel, he measured ; Qal, he said. 
 
 Ces, cup ; das, he measured. 
 
 Sehil, easy ; Seflul, sea-coast. 
 
 Ficr, thought ; Faqr, poverty. 
 Hedd, he demolished ; ILadd, a limit. 
 
 Herah, he fled ; Ilarb, war. 
 
 Cewi, he branded ; Q,awi, strong. 
 
 *emal, he hoped ; Samal, he worked. 
 
 So as to difference of mere vowel 
 
 Dohn, grease ; Dahin, greasy. 
 
 Xoub, dilute; Xaub, sultriness. 
 
 Nour, lustre ; Naur, a blossom. 
 
 Dain, a debt ; Dien, (the) faith. 
 
 Hair, heat; Ilo'rr, free, well-born. 
 
 Tun, a young child ; Tafal, potter's clay. 
 
 Sajal, haste ; ajil, urgent; ujl, calf. 
 
 Dibb, creep ; Dobb, a bear. 
 
 If the Arabs ever have new intercourse with the foreigner, 
 with renewed cultivation and increased refinement, it is pro- 
 bable that their harsh consonants will be greatly softened, 
 A day may come when the words Tuin (clay), Tien (figs), 
 will be distinguished by the vowels alone, as Loam and 
 Loom in English. It is truly strange that a system of 
 writing, which (at its best) makes no effort to distinguish 
 such vowel differences, should be imagined perfect. 
 
 35. Hebrew is believed by Gesenius to have had funda- 
 mentally the same triple distinction of vowels as Arabic ; but
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 15 
 
 when the Masoretes analyzed the pronunciation more care- 
 fully, they greatly increased the number of vowel marks. 
 
 In English some consonants change the sound of vowels. 
 "W alters the sound of a to o in wasp, what, watch, warp, 
 wander, etc. B after e, i, u, ai, ea, a, often changes their 
 sounds. between w and r takes the same sound as e, i, u. 
 Such phenomena may aid an Englishman to understand how 
 Arab consonants may modify the vowels. 
 
 36. Of the neutral consonants d has a special affinity for 
 a rather than e : the same is sometimes visible of n, b, j. 
 Thus we have (with sound as in English Dumb) Dam 1 (blood) 
 not Dem ; Bann (coffee bean) not Benn ; Dabbe (beast)* not 
 Debbe ; Jabb (an artificial well) not Jebb ; Janb (a side) not 
 Jenb. When natives write these distinctions of vowels they 
 may elicit some general laws at present unknown. Yet it 
 may be safely laid down that B,, K, T, in common with Q, 
 have an affinity for the coarse Fathites (a, d) and for the 
 coarse Diphthongs (ai, au). With these exceptions, the 
 neutral consonants incline to the fine vowel sounds ; and 
 none of them ever assume o, 6'w, ui. We might add u, but 
 for the Syrian pronunciation Cutob, Fulfol, etc., mentioned 
 above in Art. 10. I also used to hear Jufn (eyelid) ; for 
 which Freytag has Jefn, Jifn, Jofn, as if labouring in vain to 
 express the sound. 
 
 37. W, y, *, are called weak consonants, and the other 
 twenty-five, strong. When a weak consonant closes a syllable, 
 it is sometimes dropped, and may be denoted by the apostrophe, 
 as Rama' (he threw) for Bamay. [Catafago usefully intro- 
 
 * The d is shortened into a before the double consonant. This is 
 a general rule. It is written u, not a, for grammatical reasons.
 
 16 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 duced this apostrophe.] But generally the weak consonant 
 coalesces with the vowel : thus a*, e i become d, e, and i* 
 (which is rare) is sounded ie. Thus Mi 5 ya (a hundred) = 
 Mieya=Miyya. But aw, ew, ay, ey, are identical with the 
 diphthongs au, eu, ai, ei. 
 
 4. THE PEOCESS OF TRANSLITERATION. 
 
 38. Eules for transliteration are here given ; yet their 
 application should he judiciously postponed, until some 
 familiarity with words has been gained. Those words and 
 combinations with which the pupil is already well acquainted 
 should alone be written in Arabic character. 
 
 The European text has first to be prepared by the following 
 modifications. Since the Arabs do not write the distinction 
 of fine and coarse vowels, we must throw that distinction 
 away. Hence 
 
 (1) Change au, eu to aw; ou, ou to ow; 
 
 ai, ei ay; ie, ui iy; 
 also a 1 , e' ay; id, ud ,, iyd; 
 
 final t ,, iy; iey iyy ; ia to iya. 
 
 (2) Final a, e, which are feminine terminations, may be 
 dotted to represent & (dotted h}. 
 
 Observe that a, i, o (the only short vowels then remaining) 
 are to be expressed by a vowel point (Fatfla, Kisra, iamma) 
 attached to the preceding letter. If no letter precede (i.e. if 
 the a, i, o begin the word), Elif must be written, to carry the 
 vowel point. Fatfla is over the letter, Kisra under it, but of 
 the same form ; as j na ; ^ ni. Aamma (o) is a comma
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN ARABIC. 17 
 
 over the letter; as > no - Circumflexed a, e, in general are 
 denoted by Elif \ with FatHa over the preceding letter ; hut 
 at the beginning of a word the Elif receives instead a circum- 
 flex to lengthen it, I . 
 
 After adding Elif thus to all words that need it, incorporate 
 the particles Wa, Fa, La, E, the article El, and the pre- 
 positions Bi, Ce, Li, with the word following ; every European 
 consonant being expressed (from the Table in the Frontis- 
 piece) by the corresponding Arabic consonant. The learner 
 will perhaps at first make errors about Elif, which alone is 
 anomalous. 
 
 The particles Ma, Ae (of HeAe) have Elif (1) for a final 
 letter. In a few words (as Allah, God ; Lecin, but ; HeAe, 
 this ; 6ele0, three), the Elif for d, e, is irregularly omitted in 
 Arabic text. Final A dotted (*) is written for feminine -a, 
 -e, or -at, -et, final. But to every plural verb of 3rd pers. 
 ending in ou, Elif is arbitrarily added. 
 
 Lastly, the adverbial termination -an, -en, is not to be 
 denoted by (j in the text, but by \ with double Fatfla. 
 
 39. For the actual junction of the Arabic letters, a few 
 details will be useful. The order of the letters in a word is 
 the reverse of English ; viz., from right to left. The letters 
 J, 4, j, \, j, \, are never joined to one following, hence 
 they remain nearly unchanged (except when j are sometimes 
 combined). Elif is joined at the bottom to a letter before it, 
 as \j bd ; and Lam-Elif (Id} has the form "$ or "$. 
 
 Most of the consonants end with a flourish, which has to be 
 cut off in junction : thus -^ becomes s^-. Initial A is written 
 jb, but h joined at each side is ^. M in the middle of a word 
 is a loop falling below the line. (Ain) joined on both sides 
 
 2
 
 18 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 is * ; joined on one side, it is s. when initial and - when 
 final. The letters ., -., , require that a letter preceding 
 shall mount above them hence it hecomes sometimes uncertain 
 to which a dot belongs. When I is followed by m, the loop 
 of m is generally thrown out to the right, as J, (lm}. A double 
 consonant is not written twice in the text, but receives 
 a mark like w over it, called textied. The same mark is 
 placed over I of the article El, when it is assimilated to the 
 
 consonant following. Thus Ommi is t\. Oniern is +*\, 
 
 ,- ST* I 
 
 El xams is ij^^Ll \ . 
 
 It is a good rule, extensively used, to retain the two dots 
 under ^j (y} at the end of a word, when the y is sounded, 
 and omit the dots when the y is mute ; which is here written 
 a\ e\ 
 
 It remains at option to omit all the vowel points. 
 
 Expertness in any new type can only be earned by practice. 
 The learner may get partial help from the words in a later 
 section, written in alternate type.
 
 19 
 
 PART II. ON GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. GENDEB OP NOTTNS. Arabic Nouns are masculine or 
 feminine, often arbitrarily, a. Names of things female are 
 naturally feminine, b. So are names of countries, towns, 
 and villages, c. So are the names of the double members of 
 the body, as Yed, hand ; Eijl, foot. d. So are the collective 
 nouns technically called broken plurals. e. So are most 
 nouns ending in d, e, a', i, a, e : as, Saya, a staff ; Cise, 
 garment ; Marse', harbour ; Milhe', musical instrument ; 
 Mediena, city; Melice, queen. 
 
 Feniinines in a, e, have lost t from the end. Those in 
 a\ e\ have generally lost y, and those in d, e, sometimes w, 
 sometimes *. In certain inflexions they regain their lost 
 consonant. 
 
 2. The feminine of a noun is sometimes formed from the 
 masculine by adding a or e ; as Celb, a dog ; /. Celbe, Celba ; 
 amm, father's brother, amma, father's sister ; Kal, mother's 
 brother, Kala, mother's sister; Jadd, grandfather, Jadda, 
 grandmother. But for the commonest relations and nobler 
 animals the feminine has an independent name ; as Iluyan, 
 horse, Faras, mare ; *Esed, lion, Lebou*a, lioness. [The
 
 20 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 female horse being commoner than the male, the Arahs say 
 "mare" when the sex is not thought of: as, "Have you no 
 mare to ride?" We similarly say cows, sheep; not hulls, 
 rams. To define the feminine idea Mare, if error he feared, 
 the diminutive Foraise (filly), says Kazimirski, is used for 
 Mare.] 
 
 3. The ADJECTIVE follows its noun, and agrees with it in 
 gender. Its feminine is ordinarily formed by adding a, e. 
 
 Rajol qawi, a strong man. 
 Mar 1 a jamiele, a beautiful woman. 
 Sabi semien, a fat boy. 
 Darb wesik(a), a dirty road. 
 Melic jaliel, a majestic king. 
 Bint yafier0, a little girl. 
 Jariya nafLuile, a slender damsel. 
 Dar fasieHa, a spacious house. 
 Celb mouAi, a troublesome dog. 
 Melice jaliele, a majestic queen. 
 
 [Mar'a, woman, is classical, and is the only word that 
 I heard from the people. (Do not confound it with Marra, 
 " a single time," une fois.) In modern prose, the learned 
 appear always to write Imra*a, a woman.] 
 
 Some adjectives end in i (unaccented), which is shortened 
 from uy, as Qawi, strong, for Qawiey; Ingliezi, English, for 
 Inglieziey. In the feminine the accent falls on this syllable, 
 and the y comes back ; as Qawieya, Ingliezieya. 
 
 Adjectives of the type Sabour (patient) do not form any 
 special feminine, nor do those which naturally have no 
 masculine ; as Ilamil, Ilabil, pregnant.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 21 
 
 Some verbal adjectives in an change the termination into 
 a 1 for the feminine ; as Secran, drunken,/. Secra'. 
 
 Adjectives of the type Akras, Axheb, will he mentioned in 
 Art. 12 ; and Comparatives in 95-97. 
 
 4. For convenience of reference two lists of Nouns are here 
 given, the gender of which could not he guessed by their 
 sense or type. 
 
 The following are feminine : 
 Age, sinn* 
 Axe, fa*s 
 Barley, xasuir 
 (Broad) Beans, foul 
 Bow, qaus 
 
 Bucket of leather, dalou 
 Buttock, ist 
 Cup, ce*s 
 
 Cuirass, dirs 
 Earth, *er 
 Finger, uybas 
 Fire, nar 
 Fox, Geslab 
 Gold, Aeheb 
 Hare, arnab 
 Hell, jalLuim 
 jehennam 
 
 House, dar 
 Hyena, Jabs 
 Left-hand, ximal 
 Biceb, mounted retinue of a prince, is fern, in GN. 
 * Sinn properly means Tooth. 
 
 Liver, cibad 
 Machine, manjanieq 
 Oath, yemien 
 Park, flrdaus 
 Paunch, \ 
 Lobe, > cirx 
 Ventricle, / 
 Razor, mous 
 Scorpion, saqrab 
 Salt, milJl 
 Self, Soul, nefs 
 
 Sole, \ 
 
 -TT , > nasl 
 Horseshoe, ) 
 
 Spider, sancebout 
 Sun, xams 
 Trowser, xarwal 
 "War, Jlarb 
 Well, bi^r 
 Wind, rieU 
 Wine, kamr.
 
 22 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 The following are of either gender : 
 
 Arms, sila 
 Authority, solxan 
 Cutlas, kanjar 
 (Full) Day, Sofia' 
 Heaven, sema* 
 Knife, siccien 
 Musk, misc 
 Nape, qifa 
 Neck, sonq 
 Path, sebiel 
 5. DUAL OF NOUNS. 
 
 Peace, selm 
 
 Road, darb 
 Soil, Mould, 6era' 
 State, Hal 
 Stewpot, qidr 
 Tongue, lisen 
 Way, Tarieq 
 Womb, railum. 
 
 -All nouns form a regular dual. [In 
 Barbary only names of things naturally double. This is as 
 Hebrew.] The classical dual has two cases absolute case 
 in an, en ; oblique case in ain, ein ; but in conversation the 
 absolute is never heard. Feminities that have lost t, w, y, 
 resume it in the dual. Indeed, those in ', e\ are treated as 
 if they had always lost y, and those in d, e, as if they had 
 lost w. Thus : 
 
 Jebal-ein, two mountains 
 Medienat-ein, two cities 
 Yed-ain, two hands 
 Ilijl-ein, two feet 
 Milhey-ein, two musical in- 
 struments 
 
 Rajol-ein, two men 
 Mar^at-ein, two women 
 Melic-ein, two kings 
 Melic't-ein,* two queens 
 Fetey-ein, two lads, two 
 
 young men 
 ayaw-ain, two staffs 
 Marsey-ein, two harbours 
 
 Ridaw-ein, two mantles 
 Cisew-ein, two garments. 
 6. The PLTJEALS of Nouns and Adjectives are generally 
 Imperfect and irregular : as Xai*, a thing, pi. Axya% things ; 
 * Or Mel'cetein.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" ARABIC. 23 
 
 Insen, a human being, pi. Nes, men, Nise, Niswa, or Mswan, 
 women ; Celb, a dog, Cilab, dogs. Most of what are called 
 plurals are collective nouns feminine ; as, in English, from 
 a Steed comes a Stud, from Cord, Cordage. 
 
 One form of Imperfect plural looks like a classical dual, 
 but has a vowel change in the penultima ; as Nar, fire ; 
 Nieran, fires. I propose to call this the False Dual. The 
 topic of the imperfect plurals must be postponed. 
 
 7. PEEFECT PLTJEALS. Most feminine nouns in ', <?', a, e, 
 make a real or perfect plural in at, et ; so do many feminines 
 in a, e ; especially when formed from a masculine. Thus 
 from Melic, /. Melice, queen, pi. Melicet, queens ; from 
 Bafl, /. Bapala, pi. Bafalat, female mules. Almost the only 
 masculine nouns which make a perfect plural are those which 
 denote tradesmen. These are of the form Kabbaz, baker ; 
 Baqqal, greengrocer. The nominative ought to be in oun ; 
 but popularly ien serves for all cases ; as Kabbazien, bakers. 
 
 8. ARTICLE. El, the, is indeclinable, and precedes its 
 noun. Before fourteen consonants, fancifully termed Lunar, 
 El retains its full pronunciation. But before x, s, z, y, 5, r, 
 t, 0, d, J, T, A, n (which, with 1, are called Solar), 1 by an 
 unfortunate slovenly pronunciation takes the sound of the 
 consonant following, and is popularly lost to the ear. Thus, 
 El dien, the faith, is sounded Ed dien. I put a zero under I 
 to mark this change. [The printer is forced at present to 
 use a dot for a zero.~\ Thus : 
 
 El xams, the sun 
 El dar, the house 
 El. ra*s, the head 
 EJ darb, the road 
 
 But El qamar, the moon 
 El beit, the dwelling 
 El melic, the king 
 El celb, the dog.
 
 24 HANDBOOK OF MODEEX AEABIC. 
 
 The obliteration of the sound of I, which has invaded half of 
 the Arahic, is universal in Hebrew. [Whether the likeness 
 of El to Latin Ille be accidental, is curious matter for inquiry. 
 Compare Ola, these, Ae-l-ic, that yonder; Art. 28 below.] 
 
 El in some combinations means this ; as Elyeum, to-day ; 
 El'en, (at) this season, now; Elsesa, this instant. In such 
 words I write it as in composition. 
 
 Our indefinite article A, An, is understood without ex- 
 pression. 
 
 9. The article El must be added to the adjective as well 
 as to the noun; as, El rajol el Tawiel, the tall man. Before 
 the adjective it then differs little from a relative pronoun ; 
 " the man who (is) tall." Feminine a of the noun regains its 
 t before El. 
 
 El nehr el axfar, the yellow river. 
 
 El jariyat el jamiele, the beautiful damsel. 
 
 El jebal el xamik, the lofty mountain. 
 
 El doroub el wesika, the dirty roads. 
 
 El Tasam el Taiyib, the nice food. 
 
 El celb el xaris, the ill-natured dog. 
 
 El dar el cebiera, the great house. 
 
 El cilab el mouAiya, the mischievous dogs. 
 
 Occasionally a foreign adjective precedes its noun. Thus, 
 (Bagdad) keux beit, a good house. Especially in Turkish 
 titles, as, El lax qawwas, the chief bowman. Then El is 
 not repeated. 
 
 A small number of substantives are current in the sense of 
 adjectives, and these always precede the noun. The most 
 important to be here named are, Coll, Jamies, all ; Cile,
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 25 
 
 both; Sou*, ill, evil; Fair, other. Thus, Sou* kabar, ill 
 news, bad news; Sou* bakt, ill luck; Pair xai*, another 
 thing, i.e. quite a different affair. The opposite phrase is, 
 Farad xai*, one thing, a single thing, i.e. it is all one, it 
 comes to the same, it does not matter. [In Bagdad they say, 
 Farad bafl, " a mule." But this is degenerate style.] 
 
 10. There is a type called the NOUN OF UNITY, which is 
 often derived from a noun expressing a material, fruit, or 
 small animals collectively. The type is simply that of 
 a feminine in -, -e. Thus : 
 
 Kobz, bread ; Kobze, a bit of bread. 
 LaUm, meat ; LalLma, a piece of meat. 
 Semn, butter ; Semne, a piece of butter. 
 Zebieb, raisins ; Zebiebe, a raisin. 
 Siinab, grapes ; Sunaba, a grape. 
 Xajar, trees ; Xajara, a tree. 
 Naml, ants ; Namle, an ant. 
 Tb'ub, brick ; Touba, a brick. 
 Masz, goats ; Masze, a goat. 
 
 Arabic has many collective nouns, as Kail, horses; Ibl, 
 camels ; Masz, goats ; Baqar, oxen ; ian, sheep ; Mehe, 
 deer ; Tair, birds. But they do not always yield a noun of 
 unity. Dictionaries tell us that Baqara is a noun of unity, 
 and means an ox as well as a cow ; but the people seem to 
 use Baqara solely for a cow, which has no other specific 
 name. N.B. Since we can say El kobze, the piece of bread, 
 the noun of unity only suggests A, An accidentally, but does 
 not express it. 
 
 1 1 . If the article be expressed before the substantive, but
 
 26 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEX AKABIC. 
 
 omitted before the adjective, the adjective becomes a predicate, 
 and is or are is understood. (Mixed examples :) 
 
 El flarr el xadied, 
 
 the intense heat. 
 El jebal xamik, 
 
 the mountain is lofty. 
 El xajarat el xamika, 
 
 the lofty tree. 
 El ce*s falua, 
 
 the cup (glass) is empty. 
 El soccer Taiyib, 
 
 the sugar is nice. 
 El leil el barid, 
 
 the cold night. 
 El bab meftouH, 
 
 the door is open. 
 El xehr el qabil, 
 
 the approaching month. 
 El leil moilim, 
 
 the night is dark. 
 El *emr el mohimm, 
 
 the important affair. 
 El xai* mofimm, 
 
 the thing is vexatious. 
 Axya 4 Jlaqiera, 
 
 petty matters. 
 *Emr yasb, 
 
 a difficult (grievous) affair 
 El *emr el yasb, 
 
 the grievous affair. 
 
 El zeman Tawiel, 
 
 the time is long. 
 El rajol najjar, 
 
 the man is a carpenter. 
 El aulad moiuia, 
 the children are mischievous. 
 El hewa barid, 
 
 the air is cold. 
 El qadaJQ. el farif, 
 
 the empty goblet. 
 El kadim Halur, 
 
 the servant is ready. 
 El darb Ta-wiel(e), 
 
 the road is long. 
 El Tarieq el samma, 
 
 the public way. 
 El belad basuid, 
 
 the district is distant. 
 El cilab wesika, 
 
 the dogs are dirty. 
 El flaiT el semiec, 
 
 the thick "wall. 
 El xabbec moseccer, 
 
 the window is shut. 
 El rielL xadieda, 
 
 the wind is intense. 
 Jihed sa5uim, 
 
 a mighty enterprize.
 
 HANDBOOK OP MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 27 
 
 12. The following list of adjectives may be convenient : 
 
 Great, cebier 
 
 Small, yafier 
 
 Mighty, 
 
 Petty, Haqier 
 
 Much, ceGier (Many) 
 
 Little, qaliel (Few) 
 
 Long, Tawiel (Tall) 
 
 Short, qayuir 
 
 High, sali 
 
 Low, waTU 
 
 Broad, sariei 
 
 Harrow, Saiyiq 
 
 "Wide, wesies 
 
 Deep, samieq 
 
 Shallow, xayif (Catafago) 
 
 Thick, semiec 
 
 Thin, raqieq 
 
 Pat, semien 
 
 Lean, nalLuif 
 
 Heavy, Saqiel 
 
 Light, kafief 
 
 Strong, qawiey 
 
 "Weak, Jasuif 
 
 Intense, xadied 
 
 Gentle, laTuif 
 
 Hard (stiff, cruel), qasi 
 
 Soft, laiyin 
 
 Sharp, Iladd 
 
 Blunt, cell 
 
 Quick, series 
 Slow, baTU 
 Hot, sokn, Han- 
 Cold, barid (bardan) 
 "Warm, dan (dafyan) 
 Tepid, fetir 
 Wet, mabloul 
 Moist, raTub 
 Dry, yabis 
 
 naxif 
 
 Clean, naSuif (Is) 
 Dirty, wesik 
 Nice, Taiyib 
 Nasty, cerieh 
 Salt, maliH 
 Bitter, morr 
 Sweet (dulcis), Holou 
 
 (suavis), saAib 
 
 Sour, HamuS 
 
 Acid, Jlamiz 
 
 Full, meFen 
 
 Empty, farif 
 
 Dear, fali 
 
 Cheap, rakiey 
 
 Valuable, nefies 
 
 "Worthless, saf ax (rubbish) 
 
 Good, melieil 
 
 Bad, radiey 
 
 Better, allsen
 
 28 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Excellent, jaiyid 
 Vile, reAiel 
 Useful, nafus 
 Useless, ba/rul 
 Noble, najieb 
 Vulgar, hem j ley 
 Superior (in quality), 
 
 rafies 
 
 Inferior, daniey 
 Wise, saqil 
 Stupid, belied 
 Learned, salim 
 Ignorant, jehil 
 Skilful, mehir 
 Clumsy, faxiem 
 
 Happy, sesuid 
 Wretched, mescien 
 Hale, safi 
 Sick, marieS 
 Rich, faniey 
 Poor, faqier 
 Near, qarieb 
 Distant, basuid 
 Ancient, qadiem 
 Old (thing), satieq 
 New, jadied 
 Difficult, painful, yasb 
 Easy, sehil 
 Arduous, sasier 
 Slight, heiyin. 
 
 (Jlumsy, faxiem Slight, heiyin. 
 
 To these we must add a few remarkable adjectives of the type 
 Axheb, which express the primary colours or bodily defects. 
 
 Red, aJlmar 
 Green, akiar 
 Yellow, ayfar 
 Brown, esmar 
 
 Blind, as ma' 
 One-eyed, aswar 
 Deaf, airax 
 Dumb, akras 
 
 Blue, ezraq 
 Grey, axheb 
 White, abyaS 
 Black, eswad. 
 
 Left-handed, axwal 
 Born lame, asraj 
 Bald, ay las 
 Leprous, abray. 
 
 They are declined as AILmar, red ; /. Hamra ; pi. Homr ; 
 only that the plural of AbyaS, white, is Bui!, by a law of 
 euphony, for BoyS.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 29 
 
 The substantives expressing colour, derived from the ahove, 
 are Ilb'mra, Koira, Sofra, Somra, Zorqa, Xohba, Biyal, 
 Sewad(a). Examples : 
 
 El semawat flamra, 
 the heavens (are) red. 
 
 El foyoum seuda, 
 
 the clouds (are) black. 
 
 El donya zerqa, 
 
 the world (sky) is blue. 
 
 El kail zorq, 
 thehorses (are) blue (i.e. grey !) 
 
 El qamar abyaS, 
 
 the moon (is) white. 
 El Ingliez buiS, 
 
 the English (are) white. 
 El raml esmar, 
 
 the sand (is) brown. 
 El bifal somr, 
 
 the mules (are) brown. 
 
 13. It is impossible to examine these lists of adjectives 
 without being struck by their forms. Such as Cebier, Ce0ier, 
 Xadied, differ in the three consonants only, but have the 
 same vowels. In these we regard the root (or characteristic 
 part) to be Cbr, C0r, Xdd ; and in fact, most words of the 
 language are thus referable to three radical letters. But it is 
 well here to enumerate the chief types of adjectives : 
 
 1. The type Sehil, level; Semij, gross, rank; Nehim, raven- 
 
 ous ; Ilamiz, acid. 
 
 2. Barid, cold; IlamuJ, sour; Ilamiz, acid; Pali(y), dear; 
 
 Fetir, lukewarm. (This is an active participle or par- 
 ticipial adjective.) 
 
 3. anied, obstinate; MelielL, fair, fine, good; *Enieq, agree- 
 
 able ; Xarier, evil. This is on the whole the commonest 
 type. (Only when w or y is the second radical, w is 
 assimilated to y, and transposition takes place ; as Taiyib, 
 nice ; Laiyin, soft, for Tayieb, Layien ; Heiyin, slight, 
 easy, for Hewien.)
 
 30 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 4. Ilasoud, envious ; Samoul, active ; Ealloum, merciful. 
 
 (This type denotes fulness, as our termination -ful and 
 Latin -osus.) 
 
 5. Xaffal, "busy, devoted to business; Meccer, swindler. 
 
 (This type denotes habit, and is very common to ex- 
 press tradesmen; as Najjar, carpenter.) 
 
 6. Amaq, fatuous ; Esmar, black ; Akras, dumb ; were 
 
 treated in Art. 12. 
 
 7. Xirrier, villainous ; Siccier, very drunken. (This ex- 
 
 presses energy. In the classical language there are 
 several other types for energy, especially the type 
 Miqfar, very desolate; Miqdam, very prompt; Mictem, 
 very secretive ; Misqam, very sickly.) 
 
 8. Bardan, sensible of cold ; Jausan, hungry ; SaTxan, thirsty ; 
 
 Tesban, weary; Mel*en, full; Dafyan, sensible of warmth. 
 
 9. Adjectives of relation end in -iey ; as Hemjiey, vulgar, 
 
 from Hemj, populace. 
 
 10. Various participles are formed by initial M, which must 
 be afterwards classified. 
 
 Of these the two most important have the types : 
 
 a. Masloum, known ; Maxpoul, busied, busy ; MeAcour, 
 aforenamed ; Makyouy, peculiar, proper. 
 
 b. Motsub, tiresome ; MouAi(y), mischievous ; MoGmin, 
 costly; MoGmir, fruitful : in which head we include Mofimm, 
 vexatious (for Mo ["mini) ; Mohieb, frightful (for Mohyib). 
 
 Sasb, difficult ; Wasr, rugged ; exhibit the first type in 
 a ruder state, in which (as in English) participle and gerund 
 are confounded. (For there is no commoner type of the 
 gerund, i.e. of the verbal noun of action.) In fact, the 
 language exhibits Sehil or Sehl, level, easy ; "Wasur or
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 31 
 
 "Wasr, rugged ; SaAib or SaAb, sweet (water) without dis- 
 crimination. 
 
 Obs. 1. The adjective of relation has no fixed type, only 
 a fixed termination : for it adds -iey to a noun of any type 
 whatever. Thus, from Melc, a king, pi. Molouc, we have 
 both Melciey and Molouciey, royal, regal. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Western learner needs peculiar vigilance in 
 regard to the sense of Arabic adjectives. Our adjectives 
 habitually take two senses active and passive (sometimes 
 more), even in the flattest prose, without our being aware 
 of anything figurative. Thus, we say, a wise man, a wise 
 law ; he was doubtful ; a doubtful question ; but the Arabs, 
 saying Rajol saqil, a wise man, would on no account make 
 saqil the epithet of a law; but Masqoul (made wisely?) 
 will do. So a maa who is doubtful, i.e. who doubts, is 
 Xecic ; but a doubtful question is Maxcouc. In these ex- 
 amples the Arabs in fact use active and passive participles. 
 
 14. An adjective may be followed by a COMPLEMENTARY 
 NOUN, which is adverbial in use. The noun is either pre- 
 ceded by El, or takes -an, -en (the Adverbial Case, Art. 158) 
 as its inflection. This is similar to the idiom familiar in 
 Greek and Latin (as, Os humerosqne Deo similis), where we 
 supply as to, or some equivalent preposition, in, of. In 
 classical Arab style this idiom abounds to satiety. 
 
 Cebier el sb'mr, 
 
 great of age. 
 Ilasen el youra, 
 
 handsome of figure. 
 Iladd el Taraf, 
 
 sharp at the end. 
 
 Tawiel el ajnilla, 
 long in the wings. 
 
 qowwaten, 
 mighty in strength. 
 
 Sadiem el ralLma, 
 void of mercy.
 
 32 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 So when the adjective likewise is preceded by El ; as : 
 El boyout el jemielat el bina, the houses (which are) 
 beautiful in build. . 
 Ei *esed ! a5uim el kalqa, mohieb el yb'ura, mokawwif el 
 
 fayila. 
 "What a lion ! mighty of build, frightful of figure, formidable 
 
 of onset. 
 
 Rajol rayuin el saql, xadied el ray, xehim el nefs. 
 A man solid of intellect, vehement of purpose, energetic of 
 
 spirit. 
 
 15. An adverb should properly follow the adjective which 
 it modifies, or the adjective with its complement; as, 
 
 Ayfar jiddan, 
 
 yellow very. 
 Cebier el somr jiddan, 
 
 old very. 
 
 Tawiel ce9ieran, 
 
 long in excess, too tall. 
 Semiec xai*en, 
 
 somewhat thick. 
 
 Many adverbs (derived from noun or adjective) end in -an 
 or -ten ; but in vulgar Arabic this termination is often 
 dropped, and the adverb precedes the adjective. Thus at 
 Aleppo, Q,awi meliefL (fort bon), " very good," for Meliefl. 
 jiddan. Ana xowaiya marieS, " I am a wee-bit ill," for Ana 
 marieJ xai'en, I am somewhat ill. But this may be called 
 slang. 
 
 Peculiar attention is in this stage due to Jiddan, very ; 
 Xai'en, somewhat ; CeGieran, much, too much ; Qalielan, 
 scantily, but little, a little ; FaqaT, only (for which vulgarly 
 Bes in Syria) ; and Fair, not (before an adjective} ; as Fair 
 melieil, not good ; Fair raiu, displeased ; Fair Taiyib, un- 
 pleasant.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 33 
 
 Kobz faqaT, 
 
 bread only. 
 Kobz qaliel faqaT, 
 
 a little bread only. 
 El mecen fair qarieb, 
 
 the place is not near. 
 
 El darb fair Tawiele, 
 the road is not long. 
 
 El *emr yasb xai*en, 
 
 the affair is somewhat difficult. 
 
 El *omour fair yasba, 
 
 the affairs are not difficult. 
 
 2. COMPOSITE STATE OF NOUNS. 
 
 16. (Statm constructus.} The English combine two nouns, 
 as Sea-side, Gold-watch, so as to make the former a virtual 
 adjective. The Arabs do the same thing in principle ; only, 
 as their adjective follows its noun, it is the latter of the two 
 which they make adjectival. Thus from Kaziena, treasury, 
 and Auraq, leaves, papers, they make Auraq-kaziena, treasury- 
 scrip. 
 
 The order being the reverse to that of English, we imagine 
 the word of between the two nouns, as Scrip (of) treasury. 
 The particle of is wanting to the Arabs ; yet they have 
 several modes of supplying it, which will be afterwards stated. 
 
 17. When both nouns are left indefinite, one may generally 
 hear between them the vowel a or e ; as Auraq-a-kaziena. 
 So : Kaix-a-xasr, cloth (of) hair, i.e. sackcloth ; Tekt-e-melic, 
 throne (of a) king ; Jild-a-jamous, leather (of) buffalo. In 
 fact, it is often hard to utter the words without some vowel 
 of union. Not only so, but a vowel (whether a, ', or o) is 
 here strictly classical ; though i is objectionable to the vulgar 
 as seeming to mean my, and o as seeming to mean his. To 
 write a or e here seems irreprovable ; but that it is necessary 
 cannot be pretended. This intermediate vowel, if we write 
 
 3
 
 34 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 it, will be comparable to t in French A-t-il, which has come 
 out of the Latin Habet ille. 
 
 If we desire to mark strongly that the second noun is in- 
 definite, we may insert before it, "Wallud, a certain ; as Citeb 
 waflud qasies, a book of a certain priest. N.B. Waflud 
 after its noun is the emphatic numeral, One, unm, a single ; 
 as Qasies waud, one priest. Before the noun, it is less 
 emphatic and answers to quidam, a certain. 
 
 18. Much oftener, the nouns are both defined; then El 
 joins them, and applies to both ; as, Jild-el-jamous, the hide 
 (of) the buffalo. Here El seems to mean Of, nearly as in 
 Art. 14, where it was joined to a complementary noun. 
 
 Some compounds have become fixed, as though single 
 words : thus Ra*s-e-mal, capital (in trade) ; or Resmal : 
 literally caput rei, head (of) property : also Qillet-el-bakt, 
 deficiency of luck, i.e. ill-luck. Compare such fixed phrases 
 as Man-of-war, Aide-de-camp, in Western tongues. 
 
 19. More examples : 
 
 Sebab el moyuiba, 
 
 the cause of the disaster. 
 Wofour el aflal, 
 
 the abundance of the crops. 
 Auraq el kaziena, 
 
 the scrip of the treasury. 
 *0mour el memlece, 
 
 the affairs of the kingdom. 
 Awamir el melic, 
 
 the commands of the king. 
 Makzen tejir, 
 
 a warehouse of a merchant. 
 
 Makzen el tejir, 
 the warehouse of the merchant. 
 Joloud woflb'ux, 
 
 skins of wild animals. 
 Auraq el xajara, 
 
 the leaves of the tree. 
 Dar el jinan (Paradise), 
 
 the house of the gardens. 
 Serier el soLran, 
 
 the throne of the sultan. 
 *Emier elai (Colonel}, 
 
 prince of a regiment.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 35 
 
 el qasies, 
 the mule of the priest. 
 
 waflud qasies, 
 a mule of a certain priest. 
 
 el jinaya, 
 the punishment of the offence. 
 
 el malia, 
 the overseer of finance. 
 
 20. If the former of two nouns in composition be a femi- 
 nine in -a, -e, it resumes (or may resume) its lost t in com- 
 position ; as, Rixaqa, agility ; but, Bixaqat el sasecir, the 
 agility of the soldiery. This is undoubtedly the classical and 
 the very ancient method ; in fact it is Hebrew, where the 
 feminine in -all changes into -at in like case. The Arabs 
 also surmount their h (*) with the two dots of their t ; which 
 proves the idiom to be older than the present orthography ; 
 for if those who fixed it had sounded the t in all relations 
 of the noun, they would have represented it by an ordinary t. 
 Thus the t should not be always sounded, perhaps only 
 before the article El, or before another noun in composition. On 
 the other hand, I found instructors in Aleppo to differ much, 
 whether t should be sounded even in the latter case; and 
 Cherbonneau, Leon, and Helot are very inconsistent in the 
 matter in their transliterations. But I believe the t should 
 always be sounded in these two connections. 
 
 Turkish words in a (as Baxa, A fa) and a few Arabic words 
 in a, change -d into -at in composition ; as, Baxat Haleb, 
 Pasha of Aleppo. (Especially Donya, world, sky, weather ; 
 Jouwa, within; Barra, without, popular words.) 
 
 21. If the second noun in composition be adjectival, 
 obscurity may result ; thus, Ibn faqier suggests A poor son ; 
 not, A son of a poor (man). To express the latter, we may 
 prefix Eajol (man) or "Waflud (one) to Faqier; as Ibn-a-
 
 36 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 rajol-faqier. Only in this position, if the nouns admit an 
 adjective of the same gender and number, it is uncertain to 
 which the adjective belongs. Thus, Toyoun el xajarat ej 
 Tawiele is either, The boughs of the tall tree, or, The long 
 boughs of the tree ; since the imperfect plural is treated 
 grammatically as a feminine. But : 
 
 Kail(-a)-sascer el kafiefa, the light horse of the army. 
 Reja el nes e] Gebit, the firm hope of the men. 
 Kazienat el melic el saguim, the treasury of the mighty king. 
 Majlis el tenguimat el sali, the high Board of Arrangements. 
 Wocela el selxanat el fikam, the august ministers of the 
 
 empire. 
 Kazienat el melic el falua, the empty treasury of the king. 
 
 22. When the former noun is a dual, its n is elided ; thus, 
 Yedain, two hands ; Yedai'-faras, the (two) forefeet of 
 a mare ; Yedai' el melic, the (two) hands of the king. 
 Jariyatei' el melice, the two damsels of the queen. 
 
 23. If an adjectival word can fitly precede its noun (as 
 a superlative may), it equally well precedes a compound : 
 thus, since Awwal yeum (the first day) is correct, so is 
 Awwal yeum-el-sene (the first day-of-the-year) ; though it 
 is equally good to say, Yeum-el-sene el awwal. [On the 
 same principle we read in Loqman's Fables, heAih jorzet el 
 flaTab, this bundle of wood ; although jorzet el ilaTab heAih 
 appears to be normal, Art. 33.] 
 
 24. Three and even more nouns may be strung together 
 in composition ; but only the last can take the article (or 
 a possessive pronoun), and this makes them all definite.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 37 
 
 Sabat has, ulm faib Allah, God's knowledge of the absent, 
 where Taib and Allah each separately depend on Sulm. 
 The first of three is sometimes the numeral One, used pro- 
 nominally ; E*flad, fern. Uflda' ; as : 
 
 E*flad asla el majlis, one of the members of the Board. 
 Uflda' medayin* el melic, one of the cities of the king. 
 
 Also an adjective which agrees with the former noun is often 
 evaded by paraphrase. Thus, for, The kind exertions of the 
 Pasha, they say, The kindness of the exertions of the Pasha ; 
 making a triple compound, Ilosn mesesui el Baxa. The kind 
 attention of the Right Hon. Fouad Pasha, Ilosn iltifat Fouad 
 Baxa el mosa55am ; lit. the kindness of the attention, etc. 
 
 Serier melic Ixalia, the throne of the King of Italy. 
 Hoboub riyafL el ximal, the blowing of the winds of the North. 
 
 The newspapers carry this concatenation of nouns to an 
 offensive extreme ; as, Tesalloq e^mal sb'moum eheli sayumat 
 el bilad, The dependence of the hopes of the university of the 
 population of the capital of the country ; for, The dependence 
 of the hopes of the whole metropolitan population. Also : 
 Fie ILaqq rouyat dasawi mefqoudet el moyabien, in the matter 
 of the inspection of the claims (or cases) of the losses of the 
 unfortunates. 
 
 25. CONNECTIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 
 
 ~W& (yulg. Ou), and. 
 
 Fa, and next ; and then ; then. 
 
 Lecin, Walecin, Lecinna (with pronouns), but, but yet. 
 
 *Emma, "Wa*emma, Fa*emma, but, however (cseteruru ?). 
 
 * Or, modon.
 
 38 HAITDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 Bel, nay but even : Lat. at, or Germ, sondern. 
 Au, or. 
 
 Imma au, either or. 
 Imma *em, whether or. 
 Iricen em au, whether or or. 
 Imma wa*illa, either (whether) or else. 
 [Catafago has Ya ya, either or. I find it in Robinson 
 Crusoe, but never heard it. Ya, or, is Persian and Turkish.] 
 
 26. Aeheb wa fuSia, gold and silver. 
 
 Rajol Tawiel wa qawi, a man tall and strong. 
 
 Imma cebier au yapier, either great or little. 
 
 Elwan bieS wa soud wa flomr wa koJr, colours white 
 
 and black and red and green. 
 
 Here the connective particle is repeated oftener than with us, 
 and this is popular. But in careful style they are often fond 
 of mere apposition, as the Latins, disregarding particles of 
 connection. Thus : 
 
 Beit flasen, mecien, mottaqin el bina, 
 
 A house handsome, substantial, perfect of building. 
 Fa has idiomatic uses in which it seems to be redundant, 
 like the English interjection Well ! thrown in to gain time 
 for the speaker. It often occurs at the apodosis or response, 
 and may be rendered Then. 
 
 27. Two nouns united by Wa (and) may form the second 
 part of a compound, as : 
 
 Ilb'sn el floqoul wa el fiyaJ, 
 
 the beauty of the fields and woods. 
 
 Ewani ej Aeheb wa el fuSSa, 
 the vessels of gold and silver.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 39 
 
 But to make such a union the former part of a compound 
 (as, Tors wa seif el mediena, the shield and sword of the 
 city) is not approved. The standard order is : The shield of 
 the city, and its sword, Tors el mediena wa seifohe. (Of the 
 pronoun we shall presently speak.) The necessity of this 
 formula is an unpleasant constraint. 
 
 A composite noun may become the complement to an 
 adjective, with the syntax of Art. 14. Thus Faris (Nat. 
 Hist.) has " El jibal el ceGiera(t) xajar-el-yanauber, the 
 mountains which are plentiful in pine trees " ; just as we 
 may say, Ce9ier el xajar, plentiful in trees. But obscurity 
 of syntax accumulates through the barbarous deficiency of 
 the language in this and other small matters. 
 
 3. DEMONSTRATIVES AND EMPHATIC PRONOUNS. 
 
 28. The demonstratives are three, as Hie, Iste, Hie, in 
 Latin;- and originally referred to the three persons, meaning 
 This of mine (or, this here}, That of thine, and That of his 
 (or, that yonder). But the second class naturally abounding 
 most in dialogue has nearly exterminated the third in the 
 spoken language. 
 
 The two first classes, except in Africa, are generally com- 
 pounded with the particle He, Lo ! behold ! 
 
 m. Ae, HeAe, this ; Aec, HeAec, that ; Aelic, that. 
 /. Aie, Tie, HeAih ; Aiec, Tiec, Hetiec ; Tile. 
 pi. (Ola), He*ola, these; Ola*ic, He^olaic, those; (Olalic) those. 
 adv. Hona, Hehona, here ; Honec, there; Honalic, there yonder. 
 CCAC, HeceAe, so; CeAelic, thus, likewise.
 
 40 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABA BIG. 
 
 Also, pronouns of 3rd person : 
 
 Hou, Houa, he 
 Hie, Hiya, she 
 
 Horn (Homma), they (m.) 
 (Hon) Honna, they (/.) 
 
 29. One may conjecture that Ola is really the plural of 
 El, which originally may have meant He (ille) ; but Ola and 
 Olalic seem to he entirely obsolete. Wright, in his grammar 
 of ancient Arabic, says that Olalic is extremely rare, being 
 supplanted by Ola 5 ic. Even Aelic and Tile are called "high 
 style " by Caussin De Perceval ; nevertheless they may be 
 heard when strong emphasis is needed. The classical dual 
 m. HeAein, /. Hetein (these two) is understood, but little 
 used. The same is true of the dual Homa (they two, them, 
 two). Besides, there are many variations of local dialect, 
 with which it may be unwise in this stage to burden a 
 learner. They will be easily picked up on occasion. Those 
 that are here written down cannot be misunderstood, and 
 are classical. 
 
 30. Closely akin to the demonstratives is Het (hither ! 
 bring thou !) which is inflected like an imperative : m.s. Het; 
 
 f.s. Heti ; pi. Hetou. Earis gives the word in popular con- 
 versation, so we may presume that it is popularly understood. 
 Ordinarily one hears Jieb, Jiebi, Jiebou (bring), which is a 
 verb purely modern. 
 
 31. Another remarkable demonstrative is Aou, /. Aet ; 
 pi. Aewien, /. pi. Aewat. Among the Tay Arabs it is said 
 to serve as the relative Qui. In classical use it is like the 
 Greek article in certain connections with a genitive ; as 
 Aewie-hi, TOVS av-rov, those who are his. But in general, 
 prefixed to a noun, it means endowed with; thus, from aql,
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 41 
 
 intellect, Aou saql, intelligent. This is at once classical 
 and popular. The n of Aewien naturally vanishes in the 
 composite state ; thus, Nes Aewie' saql, intelligent men. 
 From Jemal, heauty, Mar*a Aet jemal, a heautiful woman. 
 When Fair (Art. 15) is used to express negation hefore such 
 a compound, it changes Aou to Aie, as Fair Aie saql, not 
 intelligent. See 157 below. 
 
 Yery numerous compound adjectives in English are para- 
 phrased in Arabic by help of Aou. Thus, The sharp-headed 
 whale, el faTb'us AOU el ra*s el fladd ; The golden-eyed duck, 
 el baTT AOU el sain el Aehebieya. So too our adjectives 
 formed in -ed from a noun ; as, The crest^ duck, el baTT 
 AOU el Tb'rra. So after Coll, as Ilurfa, a trade, Aou flurfa, 
 a tradesman, Coll Aie flurfa, every tradesman. In certain 
 cases AOU also changes to Ae, as will afterwards be said. 
 
 The words Sahub (companion) and *Ehl (folk) are astonish- 
 ingly used to replace AOU in this idiom. This appears every 
 way in bad taste and undesirable ; yet it exists as a fact. 
 Within limits, *Ehl is quite good ; as, *Ehl el ieman, the 
 household of faith, i.e. true believers. So a school of 
 philosophy is Ehl. Sabat in higher style has Arbab (lords) 
 in this idiom, as, Arbab el xarr, lords of wickedness, i.e. the 
 wicked. So in GN. : Arbab el woqouf wa el UTlas, men of 
 understanding and of study ; Arbab el flunaf, the craftsmen 
 (^eipoavaK-re^} ; Ehl el kibra, " experts." 
 
 Ae, Aou, must have a real, though distant, relation to 
 English The, which may be traced through Indo-Germanic 
 and Hebraeo-African tongues. 
 
 32. With a proper name, the demonstrative needs to be 
 thrown behind ; as, Istenboul heAe, this (city) Constantinople.
 
 42 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 Observe, that HeAe rajol means, this (is) a man. To 
 express This man, we must insert the article between, as in 
 prose Greek ; HeAe el rajol. [In Syria and Barbary HeAe el 
 is vulgarly shortened into Hel indeclinable ; which confounds 
 it with the interrogative particle (Art. 42). For farther 
 emphasis they say Hel rajol heAe, this very man.] 
 
 33. If This, That, is to be joined to the second of two 
 composite nouns, nothing new arises. They say, *Ism heAe 
 el xai*, the name (of) this thing; Sebab heAe el xopl, the 
 cause (of) this business, exactly as Awamir el melic el kaiyir, 
 the commands (of) the benign king. Nay, even if This or 
 That be isolated, we can say, Sebab heAe, the cause (of) 
 this ; Li^ejl Aelic, on account (of) that. 
 
 But if This, That, have to be joined to the former noun, 
 it is better to throw the demonstrative to the end, as, This 
 son (of) the king, Ibn el melic heAe ; where Hede agrees 
 with Ibn, not with Melic. [In 23 it has been noted that 
 Loqman in a certain phrase violates this rule.] 
 
 It is also popular to adopt Turkish idiom so far as to say, 
 "This king, his son," for "The son of this king"; thus 
 leaving king without any regimen at all. It is a liberty 
 which adds one more element of vagueness to a syntax 
 already vexatiously vague. 
 
 34. We proceed to speak on the substitutes for our 
 COPULA VERB ; is, are ; is not, are not. It has appeared 
 that , are, are very often understood. Yet we cannot say, 
 HeAe el saTTar, for, This (is) the druggist; for the words 
 will mean, This druggist. In such cases we must use Hou 
 (he) or Hie (she) for is, and Horn, /. Honna (they), for are.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 43 
 
 In fact, Hou also stands for am, art, which strikingly testifies 
 to the loss of its original sense. The learner must habituate 
 himself to these uses of Hou, Hie, Horn, Honna. Houa, 
 Hiya, Homma, are more emphatic than Hou, Hie, Horn, and 
 seem to be a modern improvement. (C. de Perceval remarks 
 on Honna as used for the masculine ; but this is clearly in- 
 admissible.) 
 
 35, Examples : 
 
 Hehona may saAib, here (is) sweet water. 
 
 HeAe el may hou barid jiddan, this water is very cold. 
 
 Hona el kobz hou Taiyib, here the bread is good. 
 
 Honec el may rnorr, there the water (is) bitter. 
 
 Honelic el kamr leAieA, yonder the wine (is) delicious. 
 
 HeAe el nebieA flolou ce0ieran, this toddy (is) too sweet. 
 
 Aelic fluyan jaiyid, yonder one (is) an excellent horse. 
 
 Aelic el fluyan hou jaiyid, yonder horse is excellent. 
 
 Tile el dar hie flasena jiddan, yonder house is very handsome. 
 
 Tile el kail kafiefe, yonder horses (are) light (swift). 
 
 Aelic el bafl el aflmar meliell, yonder red mule (is) good. 
 
 HeAec bapl meliell, that (here, is) a fine mule. 
 
 Heola horn nes milafl, these are good men. 
 
 Collo xai* hona cowaiyis, everything here is pretty. 
 
 HeAe hou mi9l heAec, this is like that. 
 
 HeAe el semn maliil ceGieran, this butter is too salt. 
 
 N.B. Meliell in old style is fair, KaKos; but, like each of 
 those words, has changed its sense to Good in general. East 
 of Syria for Good they seem to prefer Zeiyin, Zein, which 
 means Adorned, Pine. For May (water) at Aleppo they use 
 M'wai, i.e. the diminutive Mowaiy. See Art. 84 below.
 
 44 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 36. To omit is often leaves the syntax obscure ; to omit 
 there is is worse. For the latter the best direct substitute is, 
 Youjad, literally it is found (=it exists, it can be had) or 
 the participle Maujoud, found ; as, El sofr youjad (or mau- 
 joud) honec, the (red) stag is found there. For is we may 
 sometimes say, Sar, is become. In classical style, not quite 
 obsolete, we have also the following substitute : 
 
 Inni, I am ; Innec (m.\ thou art ; Inneho, he is. 
 
 Innena, we are; Innecom, ye are; Innehom, they are. 
 
 (See 55 below.) 
 Qolt, enna heAih el sefara innelie menflb'use, I said, that 
 
 this voyage is verily unlucky. 
 
 [In Barbary the imperative Ha, see ! is used to the same 
 effect: Rani (see me! i.e.] I am; Rec, thou art; R.eh, he 
 is, etc. In the Bagdad pashalic, they say ecou for There is ; 
 which perhaps means He-corn, "lo for you!" In Aleppo 
 (what is worst of all) they say, Fiehi, in it, to mean There 
 is, II y a. All these methods, being purely local, are dis- 
 pleasing to the learned, and to all who aspire to a universal 
 Arabic.] 
 
 37. " Is not, Are not," are Leis, /. Leiset, pi. Leisou. 
 These are classical, and still in use. More popular are : Ma 
 hou, /. Ma hie, is not; pi. Ma horn, are not. Ma is the 
 modern particle of negation, La generally that of prohibition ; 
 but it is highly inconvenient that Ma is also interrogative 
 and relative. Nevertheless, even in ancient Arabic, Ma ana 
 hou means Non ego sum, I am not. [Ma hou is contracted 
 to M'ou in Syria ; and Ma hou xai* (is not a thing, i.e. is not 
 a whit, is not at all) into M' oux 1 .]
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 45 
 
 38. HeAih el mediena leiset qadiema jiddan, this city is 
 
 not very ancient. 
 
 Hona ma* youjad kobz Tari, here is not found fresh hread. 
 
 Heola el nes leisou mokTurien, these men are not danger- 
 ous (pi.}. 
 
 Leis hehona kaxar qa-r, there is not here danger at all. 
 
 Ma hou xai* honec, there is nothing there. 
 
 Kobz Tari leis mojcuflfl, fresh bread is not wholesome. 
 
 Hou pair moyuQfl, is unwholesome. 
 
 Medienat Islamboul leiset bi maflall zerrasa wala yunasa, 
 The city of Constantinople is not a place of hus- 
 bandry nor of manufacture. 
 
 The predicate in classical style has a strange tendency to 
 take the preposition Bi (in, with) after it ; as Leis bi kayin , 
 he is not a traitor. This redundant bi is neither necessary 
 nor popular. 
 
 39. The emphatic pronouns of 1st and 2nd person are : 
 
 Ana, I. 
 
 Nailn, Nailna, we (Barb. 
 
 Ent, thou (m. Ente, /. Enti). 
 Entom, ye (/. Entonna). 
 
 Allna). 
 And a classical dual, Entoma, ye two. 
 
 Classical and also current are : 
 
 Lest, I am not. 
 
 Lest, /. Lesti, thou art not. 
 
 Lesna, we are not. 
 Lestom, ye are not. 
 
 * Unless we discriminate mfi from ma, this sentence may mean : 
 "Here what is found is fresh bread."
 
 46 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 40. Examples : 
 Ana bardan* jiddan, 
 
 I (am) very cold. 
 Sase ente jausan, 
 
 perhaps thou (art) hungry. 
 Ana lest saxxan, 
 
 I am not thirsty. 
 Ente AOU saql, 
 
 thou art intelligent. 
 Lesna Aewie' mal, 
 
 we are not wealthy. 
 Ana hou el melic, 
 
 I am the king. 
 Lest ana kadim, 
 
 I am not a servant. 
 Ente hou el mosallim, 
 
 thou art the teacher. 
 
 Naflna horn foqara, 
 
 we are poor. 
 Lestom apniya, 
 
 ye are not rich. 
 Ma ana hou AOU mal, 
 
 I am not wealthy. 
 Robbama ente kayif, 
 
 possibly thou (art) afraid. 
 Ana ma kayif qaT, 
 
 I am not afraid at all. 
 Ente jesour ceGieran, 
 
 thou art too daring. 
 ase ente fair jesour, 
 perhaps thou art not daring. 
 
 41. The word such is associated by us with the demonstra- 
 tives ; so also is same. Such is compounded of so-like in 
 English (solche, swilke, swa-leiks), and the Arabs also ex- 
 press it thus at large by mi01 he^e, or, miGliheAe, which 
 virtually becomes a single word, and might be so written. 
 If a noun follows, El must come between, as MiGliheAe el 
 rajol, such a man. How same is to be expressed will 
 presently appear. In higher style : " From such keep aloof," 
 tebasad san amGel he*wola (Sabat) ; lit. from these specimens, 
 these examples. " Such a condition of things as this," ilala 
 
 * A person who feels cold or warm is bardan, dafyan ; but a thing that 
 imparts cold or warmth is barid, dan ; as, may barid, cold water ; rida 
 dan, a warm mantle.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN' ARABIC. 47 
 
 ce heAih (GN.) ; a condition (such) as this. Here such is 
 understood. 
 
 4. INTERROGATIVES. 
 
 42. The Interrogative Particles may first be attended to. 
 In English we put the nominative after the verb (as, Is it ? 
 Has he ?) and thus dispense with a particle. The Latins use 
 An, -ne, TJtrum, Num ; and, especially in writing, these are 
 needed for perspicuity. In Arab talk, the tone of voice 
 suffices to denote that a question is asked ; yet Paris and 
 Kayat (two extremes) agree in exhibiting the interrogative 
 particles E ? Hel ? in a context emphatically modern. Thus : 
 
 Hou fayuifl, 
 
 he is eloquent. 
 E hou fayuiQ ? 
 
 is he eloquent ? 
 Hel ente el saTTar ? 
 art thou the druggist ? 
 
 HeAe leis yafluifl, 
 
 this is not true. 
 E fa leis heAe yafluifl ? 
 
 is not then this true ? 
 Hel el yabi safi ? 
 
 is the boy hale and well ? 
 
 In Oberl. Dial, it seems that " whether " is always expressed 
 by Jiel inna, in direct as well as indirect interrogation. (But 
 in 2nd Dial, hel without inna] 
 
 43. If an alternative is put (as in Latin Utrum-an) the 
 word Or, which introduces the second member, is expressed 
 by Em ; as : 
 
 E hou akSar ? em ezraq ? 
 
 is it green ? or blue ? 
 
 The particle Fa (then) often follows the interrogative E ; 
 thus with negatives we have E-la ? E-fa-la ? E-ma ? 
 E-fa-leis ? is it not ? is it not then ? But for the past time 
 Lem replaces La ; as Au-e-lem ? or was it not ?
 
 48 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 44. Interrogative Substantive : Man? ManAe? who? Ma? 
 MiUe ? what ? Adjective : m. Ei, Eiyo ; /. Ei, Eiya ; which ? 
 what ? as : Ei rajol, what man ? which man ? Eiya mar 1 a, 
 what woman? 
 
 In asking a question, the word perhaps, haply is often 
 added, as : E lasalla Is haply ? [Ma sase' en yecoun 
 heAih ? (Sabat), what may this be ? p. 94.] 
 
 Sabat has, ManAe ? for Who ? in the formula 
 ManAe elleAi yayyarec salaina flacimen ? 
 quis (est) qui fecit te super nobis pro judice ? 
 This is analogous to MiUe ? 
 
 Adverbs : Ein, where ? 
 
 Ila*ein, whither? 
 Min*ein, whence ? 
 
 Cem, how much? how many ? 
 Ceif, how ? 
 Em'te, when ? 
 
 45. Em'te is compounded of E mete. The classical Mete 
 is either interrogative or relative. In modern use Mete is 
 generally relative, and even so, it is rarer than Lemma, 
 when ; and Em'te expresses " when ? " interrogatively. Yet 
 they say, Ilatte mete ? until when ? how long ? 
 
 Ei (what ? which ?) is of both numbers as well as genders. 
 In Syria they use Eina, like quimam. MaAe, what? well 
 supersedes Ma, which has too many senses. In Syria also 
 Eid (i.e. Ei xai*, what thing ?) is prevalent ; but this ought 
 not to be followed by a noun, since it has the noun xai* 
 within it. 
 
 46. Man, following a noun, may mean "of whom?"; as, 
 Beit man heAe ? house (of) whom (is) this ? but it is surely 
 better to say, Li man he AC el bait ? to whom (belongs) this 
 house ?
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 49 
 
 Manou ? Man hou ? are often heard, especially when the 
 word stands alone ; indeed classically, Manou ? is nominative, 
 and Hana ? accusative. The latter is obsolete. 
 
 Ma, adverbially, may qualify an adjective, with the sense 
 How ! in admiration : as, Ma ana mescien ! how wretched 
 I (am)! 
 
 47. The words Man, Ma, Gem, admit of becoming " in- 
 definite" instead of interrogative ; i.e. mean some, any, a certain 
 quantity. To suggest the right sense, I find it useful to copy 
 Greek accentuation ; and write Man, Ma, Cem, when they 
 are interrogative ; and Man, Ma, Cem, when they are in- 
 definite. In fact, it is natural to elevate the musical tone 
 when words are interrogative. 
 
 Man, Ma, Ei, Ein, Ceif, admit also of becoming Relatives, 
 as will afterwards be noted. 
 
 48. Man hou honec ? who is there ? 
 
 Ei flaiwan hou heAe ? what animal is this ? 
 
 Ei mar'a ? Eina mar s a ? Eiyat imra*a ? what woman ? 
 
 E la e*ilad hona ? is not any one here '? 
 
 Ei hou (Eina hou) el bafl el qawi ? which is the strong 
 mule? 
 
 Ein el yabi el yafier ? where is the little boy ? 
 
 Hel youjad laflm honelic ? is meat (to be) found 
 yonder ? 
 
 E fa la ente bardan ? art not thou then cold ? 
 
 Eiyat hie el ilb'r'mat el moflsine ? which is the bene- 
 ficent lady ? 
 
 4
 
 50 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AKABIC. 
 
 5. PEEPOSITIONS. 
 
 49. The primary prepositions should all be learned at once. 
 They are : 
 
 Bi, in, with, hy. 
 
 Ce, according to, like. 
 
 Pie, in, into. 
 
 Ila', to (with motion). 
 
 Li, to, for. 
 
 Min, from, of. 
 
 Mas, (together) with. 
 ala', upon, against. 
 and, with, at, along. 
 
 (French chez, apud.) 
 San, off from, away from, 
 
 concerning. 
 
 Of these, Ce is the least popular. It is superseded by Mi01, 
 like. It enters into CeAe, like this, so ; HeceAe, thus, so 
 (vulg. Heic) ; CeAelic, like that, so forth, likewise : and in 
 Syria (from the classical Ce-ma, selon que, according as) has 
 come Ceman, "likewise, again." It is right also to say, 
 Ce mi01, ad instar, after the fashion of. CCAC is used for 
 such, as, Li CBAC rajol, to such a man. Of such sort, of this 
 sort, min jomlet he*wola (Sabat). " Such things as," is 
 expressed by minma in Paris. Kuyal flasma, minma la you- 
 jad " noble qualities, such as are not found ." See Art. 
 41, above. The article El coalesces with some of the above, 
 making Bil, Cel, Fil, Ila'l, Lil, Sala'l. [The vulgar say Fiel, 
 but Fil is classical.] Ila' and ala' have lost y, which they 
 sometimes resume. 
 
 50. Of the other prepositions, some are of less immediate 
 importance to the learner, yet it may be convenient to have 
 a list here. 
 
 About (of quantity), naflou. 
 Above, fauq, feuq. 
 According to, tebas. 
 
 After (of time or order), basd. 
 Against, Sudd. 
 Agreeably to, Tubq.
 
 HANDBOOK OF 1IODEKN ARABIC. 
 
 51 
 
 Among,* min jomlet ; bain. 
 Around, Haul. 
 Before (of time), qabl. 
 Behind, wara, kalf. 
 Below, Beneath, Under, teflt. 
 Beside (at side of), lada, ladon, 
 
 janb. 
 
 Besides, ma sada. 
 Between, bain, fie ma bain. 
 Concerning, min naflou. 
 Contrary to, kilaf . 
 During, dawam, TOU!. 
 Except, fair, kala, sada, sewa. 
 In exchange for, bidal, bedal. 
 In front of, qoddam, qobala(t). 
 In presence of, *emam. 
 In proportion to, flaseb. 
 In regard to, fie flaqq. 
 In respect to, min qibal. 
 Instead of, mecen, sawal, 
 
 suwaian san. 
 
 In the midst of,f wasxa. 
 
 Like, mi01, ce mi6l. 
 
 Next after (?), doun, FN.H. 
 
 179. 
 
 Opposite, tojah, tilqa. 
 Over against (face to face 
 
 with vis-ti-vis) fluda, ize. 
 Provided not, flaxa. 
 Since (of time), monA, moAA. 
 Together with, yoflbat. 
 Towards, naflou. 
 Until, Till, flatte', ila fladd. 
 Within, dakil ; vulg. jou- 
 
 wa(t), Sumn. 
 Without, ) karij, 
 Outside of, ) vulg. barra(t). 
 Without (Lat. sine], bila, 
 
 bi pair, min fair, fair; bi 
 
 doun, min doun. 
 
 51. Mi01i (for Ce-mi01i, after the likeness) is very popular 
 in place of Ce. For like are also said IS^uir, Xibh. Fair, 
 before an adjective, was explained Not ; its sense Without 
 displays analogy to German and Greek in forming a negative 
 adjective from Ohne, uvev, without. But Fair means differ- 
 ence, diverse from. Naflou, towards, about, is used to modify 
 a substantive, as the Latins use quasi, "as it were " ; in 
 
 * Boc. under Depuis. 
 
 t In the midst of the people, wasTa '1 qaum. Sab. K.
 
 52 HANDBOOK OF MODEEX ABABTC. 
 
 popular English, " a sort of." Thus, Ilaul el wejh naflb'u 
 cenar eswad, around the face (is), as it were, a black border 
 a sort of black border. A preposition will then, if needed by 
 the noun, precede Naflbu. Thus, Fie naflb'u ybrra, in a sort 
 of bundle. The word Naflb'u simply adds vagueness, and 
 may influence several nouns coupled by Wa, and. Tbul el 
 jo99a naflbu 6ele0 aqdam, the length of the body is about 
 three feet; but it may equally be rendered, "is towards three 
 feet." Thus the word vacillates between preposition and 
 adverb. 
 
 In some connections San seems to mean without : thus, 
 Ente fani sannoh ; Enti fanieya sannoh, thou art rich without 
 it, i.e. thou canst dispense with it. 
 
 Ma-sada and Sewa have the vexatious ambiguity of Prater 
 and Beside(s), meaning either "except" or "in addition to." 
 Sewa as a popular adverb means, " side by side, abreast." 
 Ma-sada strictly means " what passes." 
 
 Lada, Ladon, may be called high style. They are used 
 especially (like old Greek Trapa) in such connections as, At 
 the side of the king ; so, Min lada el melic, from the side of 
 the king. 
 
 52. "Uses of Min. In locomotion it is contrasted to Ha; 
 as, ''from Rome to London"; which needs no farther re- 
 mark : its use for " of " is less regular. The deficiency of 
 "of" in Arabic is supplied, partly by composition of nouns, 
 partly by Min and Li, partly by special evasion or provincial 
 methods. Min differs from San nearly as Latin ab or ex 
 from de. San, like de, may mean " concerning." Min ex- 
 presses the partitive idea of ex ; also the material of a thing.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 53 
 
 It likewise enables us to put El (the) to either of two related 
 nouns. Examples : 
 
 Laufl min flajar, a slab of stone. 
 
 Bab min kaxab, a door of timber. 
 
 CeGier min el maracib, many of the ships. 
 
 Cem min el maracib ? how many of the ships ? 
 
 Sebsa min el Yahoud, seven of the Jews. 
 
 Qaiuis min el masz, a flock of goats. 
 
 El marSa' min el foqara, the sick (ones of the) poor. 
 
 Elf Tabaq min el waraq, a thousand layers of paper. 
 
 Miqdar wafir min *ewani, a copious quantity of vessels. 
 
 Jamasa sa5uima min el nes, a vast company of men. 
 
 El himma min el eheli, the earnestness of the population. 
 
 Mablaf min el noqoud, an amount (sum) of cash. 
 
 Cem min el mosefirien ? how many of the travellers ? 
 
 El kobz radi, mel*en min el raml, the bread (is) bad 
 
 (and) full of sand. 
 
 Kams firaq min el jonoud, five companies of troops. 
 HeAe el fladd min el sasama, such a pitch of greatness. 
 Basd modda min el zeman, after a space of time. 
 HeAe hou wahmieya min e} labaxuiya, this is a fantasy 
 
 of the police. 
 El foyb'un el Tawiele min el xajara, the long boughs of 
 
 the tree. 
 
 Wabil min el iarb, a shower of beating. 
 El qafl.T min el akbar, the dearth of news. 
 El sesat el Geniya min el yabaQ, the second hour of the 
 
 morning. 
 E} Taraf el ximali min el jeziera, the north side of the 
 
 island.
 
 54 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Firs min silc el telefraf, a branch, of the wire (of) the 
 telegraph. 
 
 Wezier min daulat Ameriece, a minister of the govern- 
 ment (of) America. 
 
 Jonaineti min ward, my garden of roses. 
 
 53. For, What sort of ? they say, Eix' min ? as, Eix' 
 min Tair ? what sort of bird ? (Comp. Germ. Was fur ein ?) 
 
 With the partitive Of, the Arabs often repeat a noun, 
 instead of using E*flad (one) pronominally ; thus, for One of 
 the king's cities, they say, not only, Uilda' min modon el 
 melic, but also, Mediena min modon el melic ; and stiff as 
 the latter appears, it is popular, as well as classical. So for 
 Fie Aet leil, on a certain night, they also say, In a night of 
 the nights, fie leila min el leyeli. Min is also used like 
 French du, dela, to mean Some, A portion of ; as, Min 
 soccer, some sugar ; especially in repetition, Minhom min- 
 hom, some of them and others of them. 
 
 54. In ambitious prose, Min is used to satiety in the pre- 
 dicate of a proposition, to make it indefinite. Thus, instead 
 of HeAe mostefluil, this is absurd, they say, HeAe min el 
 mostefluil, c'(est) (une chose) <f absurde. Thus we are more 
 than ever kept in suspense where the predicate will be found. 
 The formula Minma, from what, i.e. "from that which," is 
 similarly abused : as, HeAe minma yoflayyir el bal, this (is) 
 (a thing) of the things which perplex the mind ; where, if 
 minma were simply left out, the sense would be correct 
 enough and the grammar perfect. When a copula-verb (as 
 Cen, was.) is expressed, all is clear, though E s flad (one) be 
 omitted before Min : as, Cen min el *omara, he was (one) of 
 the princes, erat e principibus.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODE11N ABABIC. 55 
 
 , , Min (like our from") often means "because of." Likewise, 
 after a passive verb, it takes the sense of our by. From, 
 after the passive verb, is sometimes rendered by san. Thus, 
 He was corrupted by, infesed min ; It was corrupted from 
 (a better state to a worse), infesed san. 
 
 55. Uses of Li. In general Li, meaning to or for, needs 
 no further particular remark. But, like the Latin dative, it 
 may be used in the predicate, where popular English uses 
 the nominative. Thus : " It is a marvel to me," may be- 
 come, " It is to me for a marvel." The Arabs even say, Ente 
 innec li jahil, thou verily art for a fool, i.e. thou art foolish. 
 HeAe sandi li mosjize, this (is) with -me for a miracle. 
 
 Again, as in Latin either dative or genitive with Est (is) 
 denotes possession, so Li (to) may supply this sense ; especially 
 if of two related nouns the governing is indefinite and the 
 governed definite ; as, A top of the mountain, A son of the 
 king ; we may then use Li for English Of, saying Ra^s lil 
 jebal, Ibn lil melic. Leis lil Drouz diyana koyouyuiya, the 
 Druses have no peculiar religion. 
 
 Li (for) means also on account of; especially with pronouns. 
 Thus, LiheAe, on this account ; LiAelic, on that account ; 
 Li maAe ? wherefore? L'eix' ? why? (=Li ei xai* ?). But 
 with nouns we have generally a paraphrase, as in English. 
 
 Li xan (Min xan, vulg. Alep.), 
 on account of ; from Xan, 
 
 state. 
 
 Lrejl, Min ejl, for the sake of. 
 
 Li sebab, 1 , ,, 
 
 > because of. 
 
 Bi sebab, / 
 
 Min jara', in consequence of. 
 
 56. Uses of Si. It especially expresses the instrument, 
 or mode, or price; as, To buy a thing, "bi Gernan qaliel," at 
 or for a scanty price; to slay a man, " bi]. seif," with or by
 
 56 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 the sword. As expressing the mode, it forms a paraphrase 
 for adverbs and prepositions. Thus : 
 
 Bil collieya, in entirety, i.e. entirely. 
 
 Bil ziyada, in surplus, superfluously. 
 
 Bil paya, in the extreme, extremely. 
 
 Bil rafm san, in spite of. 
 
 Bi moujib, in virtue of. 
 
 Bi wasiTat, by means of. 
 
 Bi xiddat, by dint of. 
 
 Bi pair, Bi doun, without. 
 
 With verbs of motion, Bi must be rendered with, though it 
 still is not identical with Mas (together with); but "come 
 with" a thing is said for " bring" it ; "to go off with " it is 
 to carry it off. Many other verbs take Bi after them, just as 
 in Latin and Greek many verbs govern a particular case, for 
 which no reason appears. The idiomatic uses of Bi are very 
 numerous, and are a main difficulty. 
 
 6. SUFFIX PEONOUNS. 
 
 57. The personal pronouns, attached to prepositions or to 
 nouns, take abridged forms in which the originals are quite 
 disguised. 
 
 -ie, -i, -ya, 
 me, my. 
 
 m. -ec, -c, 
 /. -ic, -ci, 
 thee, thy. 
 
 -ho ? -oh, -hi, 
 him, his. 
 
 -he, 
 her. 
 
 -na, 
 us, our. 
 
 m. -com, 
 /. -con, 
 you, your. 
 
 m. horn ; /. hon, 
 them, their. 
 
 N.B. After a verb, " me " is expressed by -ni. The rest 
 are the same after a verb as after a preposition.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 57 
 
 In the spoken language, -com and -horn are freely used of 
 both genders, and the duals -coma (you two), -homa (them 
 two), are not heard. To express " '#," the feminine -he is 
 often used. It is inconvenient that, in speaking of things, 
 he in classical style constantly means them. 
 
 The suffix, like a Greek enclitic, often changes the accent 
 of the preceding word, and sometimes hereby lengthens 
 a vowel ; thus, Melice, queen, Melieceti, my queen. At 
 other times it cuts out a vowel ; as, SelTana, empire ; Sel- 
 Tan'ti, my empire. 
 
 Thee, Thy, after a long vowel, is -c for the masculine, -ci 
 for the feminine. [But at Bagdad it is always -ci ; in 
 Algiers, it seems, m. and /. are the same.] 
 
 58. System to exhibit all the forms. 
 
 Bie, Biya 
 
 Lie, Liya 
 
 Ileiya 
 
 Minni 
 
 Bee 
 
 Lee 
 
 Ileic 
 
 Minnec, Mine 
 
 Bici (/.) 
 
 Lici 
 
 Ileici 
 
 Minnie (Alep.} 
 
 Bihi, Boh 
 
 Liho, Loh 
 
 Ileihi 
 
 Minnoh, Minho 
 
 Bihe 
 
 Lihe, 
 
 Ileihe 
 
 Minhe 
 
 Bina 
 
 etc. 
 
 Ileina, 
 
 Minna 
 
 Bicom, -n. 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 Mincom, 
 
 Bihom, -n. 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 Sandi 
 
 Baini 
 
 Qabli 
 
 Citebi 
 
 Sandac 
 
 Bainec 
 
 Qablac 
 
 Citebec 
 
 an die 
 
 Bainic 
 
 Qablic 
 
 Citebic 
 
 andoh 
 
 Bainoh 
 
 Qabloh 
 
 Citeboh 
 
 Sandahe 
 
 Bainahe 
 
 Qablahe 
 
 Cithebahe 
 
 Sandana, 
 
 Bainana, 
 
 Qablana, 
 
 Citebana, 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc.
 
 58 HAXDBOOK OF MODERX AEABIC. 
 
 59. Him, his, is ordinarily pronounced -6, as in Hebrew, 
 no h being heard ; but after a long vowel, all authorities bid 
 us pronounce only -h. An Englishman who tries to sound 
 -h, is apt to turn it into fl. I think by pronouncing -hi with 
 as short an t as he can manage, he will come nearest to the 
 sound ; and hi, after all, is classical. [Classical rules bid us 
 say -hi, -him, -hinna, -hima, when a vowel of the i class pre- 
 cedes. The learner may at his pleasure so modify the o of 
 these words. I observe that Faris, as also Leon and Helot 
 in Loqman's Fables, equally with Catafago, give Fie waqtoA, 
 Ha daroA, etc., and do not struggle for Fie waqtifo', Ha 
 Aaxihi, etc. Cherbonneau vacillates.] 
 
 60. Examples : 
 
 Ommi marieSa jiddan, my mother is very ill. 
 
 Aboui (Abi) wa ornnii marJa', my father and my mother are ill. 
 
 Hel abouc Taiyib ? is thy father alive and well ? 
 
 Zeujati hie Taiyiba, my wife is alive and well. 
 
 Ommec sase Taiyiba ? thy mother perhaps is alive and well ? 
 
 Ceif flalec ? how is thy state (thy health) ? 
 
 Eix' bee ? MaAe bee ? what ails thee ? 
 
 Leis xai* biya, nothing ails me. 
 
 Hel heAe lee ? is this thine ? 
 
 Ma hou liya, it is not mine. 
 
 Het ma sandec ! bring what thou hast. 
 
 Leis sandi xai', I have nothing. 
 
 MaAe fie balec ? what is in thy mind ? 
 
 Ma hou xai* fie bali, there is nothing in my mind. 
 
 Salaiya saila, on me (rests) a family. 
 
 Liho aulad yufar, he has little children.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 59 
 
 Lec baqara meliefla, thou hast a fine cow. 
 
 Lihe qoroun Tawiele, she has long horns. 
 
 Ommi hie mas oktec, my mother is with thy sister. 
 
 Hehona hie ommec, here is thy mother. 
 
 Ein aboui (abi) ePen?* where (is) my father now? 
 
 Abouc fil belda, thy father (is) in town. 
 
 Akouc leis fie biladina, thy brother is not in our country. 
 
 Sandana abouc hehona, thy father is with us here. 
 
 alaiya moradec el saziez, on me (rests) thy esteemed wish 
 (i.e. I will try to perform it). 
 
 Akouh rajol meliefl, his brother is a good man. 
 
 Collohom nes mila.ll, all of them are good men. 
 
 Collocom Aewie' himma, all of you are endowed with earnest- 
 ness, i.e. are earnest, energetic. 
 
 Hel okti sandacom el* en ? is my sister with you now ? 
 
 Hona aki mas oktec, here is my brother with your sister. 
 
 Leis masui kobz xari, I have no fresh bread with me. 
 
 Masac sasef folous, you have perhaps small cash with you. 
 
 Eiyoma sandec, hetoh ileiya, whatever thou hast, bring it 
 to me. 
 
 Colloma masac, hetoh ila hona, all that is with you, bring it 
 hither. 
 
 Aelic el iluyan, e la houa lee ? yonder horse, is he not thine ? 
 
 Man hou masac fil dar ? who is with thee in the lumse ? 
 
 Ma sandi cotob, I have no books. 
 
 Leiset sandana aqlam, we have no pens. 
 
 Cen liya *ak, 1 had a brother. 
 
 * Father, Brother, have radicals *hw, *kw, yet are absolutely ex- 
 pressed by Ab, Ak, but in composition the w reappears regularly in 
 popular style ; as, Aboui, my father ; Akoui, my brother ; though Aki ia 
 also heard. Aboui is not classical, though Abou followed by a noun is. 
 
 t ase, perliaps, is said of hope or fear ; and serves to ask a question.
 
 60 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 The particle Ce is never prefixed to a suffix pronoun. We 
 must enlarge it into Ce-mi01i or Mi01i : thus, He is not like 
 me, Ma hou mi9liey(a) ; He is like you, Houa miOlec (or 
 miGlie). 
 
 61. San, like Min, popularly doubles its n before some of 
 the suffixes. Li, according to classical rule, becomes Le or 
 La with suffixes. The sole trace of this seems to be in Loh 
 or Leho (never Lih) for to Mm. (Le means verily.} Catafago 
 writes Lici, Lihe, Lina, Lihom. C. de Perceval and De 
 Braine are silent as to Laho, Lna, etc., which my ear cer- 
 tainly never caught. Lie, Lee, are to be divided L-ie, L-ec 
 (sounded as English lack}. Liya, Biya are perhaps more 
 emphatic than Lie, Bie. In Aleppo Boh prevails over Bihi, 
 yet Bihi is thought better. Cherbonneau writes B'ho even 
 in poetry. 
 
 62. Sand is written with Icisra (i.e. as Sund) by modern 
 literati ; yet C. de Perceval, in doing this, defines the sound 
 by French and. I never heard in this word any vowel but 
 a clear French a. Dictionaries exhibit Sand, Sund, Sb'nd 
 as on a par ; hence we have no motive to struggle against the 
 popular practice. 
 
 63. Several particles assume pronouns suffix. Inna (verily) 
 was named above ; Enna (that) does the same ; also Lecinna, 
 nevertheless : thus, Lecinni, yet I ; Lecinnec, yet thou ; 
 Lecinnoh, yet he; Lecinnena, yet we, etc. The vowel of 
 union which appears in andhe, Bainona, Citebana, etc., 
 must be looked on, in the present stage of the language, as 
 purely euphonic. All prepositions ending in two consonants 
 are apt to need this vowel of union. The learner must not 
 be seduced by the aspect of Qabl-na to pronounce it Qabalna.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" AKABIC. 61 
 
 64. Lehe sainain* jamieletein, she has beautiful eyes. 
 Leho zeuja jamiele, he has a beautiful wife. 
 Sandoh *ehl ceGier, chez lui is a numerous household. 
 Leho saila wafira, he has an abundant (numerous) family. 
 Auladec masui fil rief, thy children are with me in the 
 
 country (ruri}. 
 
 HeAe hou salaihi, this is his duty. 
 MaAe liya salaic (sandec) ? what art thou to pay me '? 
 Qadd eix' bi weddec ? how much dost thou want ? 
 Leis xai* salaiya lee, I owe thee nothing. 
 Leis xai* liya, ilia farxain, I have nothing, but two piastres, 
 Darec fasiefla, zeiyine, thy house is spacious (and) fine. 
 Dari mi01 darec, my house is like thine. 
 Cilahomaf sewa sewa, both of the two are on a par. 
 
 65. As the examples just given may suggest, Sand, Li, 
 Mas, ala are in great use, to supply the verbs Have, Owe, 
 Ought. Sandi, I have in my house, or in my possession ; 
 Liya, I have in ownership ; Masui, I have with me, about 
 me. Thus, Masac siccieneti ? (have you) my knife with 
 you ? Sandi fluyan, ma hou liya, I have a horse, (but) he 
 does not belong to me. 
 
 Debt or Duty is said to rest upon or against the debtor : 
 hence Salaiya, I owe ; Salaiya folous lee, I owe thee small 
 cash. 
 
 66. The suffix (possessive) must be repeated with each 
 noun which we desire it to affect. Thus, "His will and 
 
 * More classical Sainan ten. 
 
 f Perhaps Cilahoma is too high style. Cila(n), both, is dual; ohlique 
 case, Cilei' . It is too good a word to lose.
 
 62 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 pleasure" becomes "His will and his pleasure," Iradetoh 
 wa kaTuroh. 
 
 67. For emphasis they say, Liya ana, to me myself ; 
 Minnec ente, from thee thyself, etc. Also Eiya, as a ful- 
 crum, enables a pronoun in the oblique case to be isolated : 
 thus, 5anant-ec eiyac, " I thought thee (to be) thyself." 
 Eiyac nasbod, wa eiyac nestesuin, " thee we adore, and thee 
 we call to aid." When a verb takes two pronouns after it, 
 one of them must be thus isolated in the modern dialect. 
 
 68. If a demonstrative and a suffix belong to one noun, 
 the demonstrative must follow : as Bafli heAe, this my mule. 
 Similarly with an adjective, as, Bafli el meliefl, my excellent 
 mule. N.B. The suffix is understood to make the noun 
 definite. 
 
 7. AUXILIARY NOUNS, OR QUASI-PRONOUNS. 
 
 69. In English the nouns Self, Sake, Behalf, and others, 
 have lost much of their substantive nature : Self, in par- 
 ticular, has almost degenerated into a pronoun. The same is 
 the case with many Arab nouns. Peculiarly, Nefs (soul), pi. 
 Nofous or generally Anfos, does duty for Self; as do Aet, 
 essence, personality ; Hal, state ; Roufl, spirit, pi. Arwafl ; 
 and even Sain, eye. We may add Mai, property; Ilaqq, 
 right ; which, though abused provincially, seem to have 
 a legitimate use in harmony with good grammar. Aet, pi. 
 Aewat, has too many senses. Besides being an adjective 
 pronoun, as explained in Art. 31 (as, Iloqoul Aet flo'sn, fields 
 endowed with beauty), and (what is perhaps quite old- 
 fashioned) Fie Aet yeum, on a certain day ; it is also much
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 63 
 
 used politically, as, El Aet el solTanieya, tlie imperial self 
 (person) ; El Aewat el ciram, the noble personages. Catafago 
 says absolutely, Aet, a lady. Oberl. uses Aet as indeclinable 
 (iv. Dial.). Lemma raya Aethoma moTarradien, when they 
 saw their (two] selves driven out. 
 
 70. Examples : 
 
 Sabi rama' nef soh fil nehr, a boy threw himself into the river. 
 El Sarab enfoshom, the Arabs themselves. 
 Aroufl ana bi Aeti, I will go in my person (myself). 
 Qatel flal-oh, or roufl-oh, he slew himself. 
 Qal fie nefsoh, or li flaloh, he said in his soul (to himself). 
 Yaxcor roufloh, Yamdall nefsoh, he thanks (he praises) him- 
 self. 
 
 El fluyan maloh, the horse his property, i.e. his own horse. 
 El flaql flaqqi, the field my right, i.e. my own field. 
 El emier sainoh, the prince himself. 
 
 But Sain peculiarly is used to supply the word Same ; as, 
 Fil yeum sainoh (or sainihi), in that day itself, in that same 
 day. Catafago has : At the same time, fie Aet el waqt. 
 Also GN. (91): Bi nef s el neher, in the same day (?) ; Fie 
 nefs Londra, in London itself. Again, Elleti hie lisen Hal el 
 hocouma, which is the mouthpiece of the government itself. 
 GN. 21. Metes, a piece of property (an article, as we say), 
 pi. Emtisa, is said to serve, especially in Africa, as Mai, to 
 express what -is one's own. Mai, Metes, and Ilaqq may 
 sometimes conduce to emphasis and clearness, in connections 
 where at first sight they are vulgar superfluity. Thus, El 
 darahim, flaqq el jouk, means, "the money due for the 
 woollen cloth," literally, "the money, the right of the cloth."
 
 64 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" ARABIC. 
 
 71. But at Moosul or Bagdad I wrote down from the 
 mouths of the people the following redundancies ; suggesting 
 that Mai has hecorue a mere preposition, Of. 
 
 Dibs mal Ilaleb, 
 treacle of Aleppo. 
 
 Dibs mal zebieb, 
 treacle of raisins. 
 
 Zebieb mal dibs, 
 raisins of treacle. 
 
 Laflm mal kinzier, 
 
 meat of hog. 
 El sandouq mal el jemal, 
 
 the box of the camel. 
 El flalieb mal el yb'bfl, 
 
 the milk of the morning, i.e. fresh. 
 
 No such phraseology would be admitted in literature. 
 
 Whether Mali, Malec, in the predicate for Mine, 
 
 Thine, would pass, is also questionable. At Bagdad 
 
 instead of the classical " HeAi citebi wa heAec citebec," this 
 is my book, and that is thy book (which seems to an English- 
 man so very flat), they say, HeAe citebi wa heAec mdlec. 
 Though Mine, Thine .... are expressible simply by Liya, 
 Lee .... (as, Ma hou liya, it is not mine), nevertheless, 
 HeAe citebi wa heAec lee, would be wanting in contrast and 
 point. 
 
 72. It may seem that they can evade the double genitive 
 (24) by Mal or Metes ; as, Celb,' metes el melic, a hound, the 
 property of the king. Both C. de Perceval and de Braine lay 
 down that in such connection the former noun must be pre- 
 ceded by El ; which of course is the case when nothing is 
 meant but " the hound of the king." But perhaps in the 
 opposite case they would prefix Waflud to Celb, for fear of 
 being thought to omit El by accident. 
 
 73. We might enumerate as auxiliary adjectives or parti- 
 ciples, not only E^flad, Waflud, but also Makyouy (belonging,
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERJT ARABIC. 
 
 65 
 
 peculiar, proper), MeAcour (aforenamed). Thus, Ibni el 
 makyouy, my proper son, my own son ; El yabi el meACOur, 
 the aforesaid boy. Indeed MeAcour seems to have none of 
 the stiffness which we feel in aforesaid, aforenamed, but has 
 wide currency. Like to it are the formulas, El moxar ileihi, 
 the alluded-to ; El mouma' ileihi, the hinted-at, the pointed-at. 
 74. Sudda, a number; Jomla, a group; are used like the 
 English several, to express an indefinite number. For the 
 period of some (aliquot) years, min moddat cem sena. A 
 short list of the indefinite words often called pronominal 
 may here be convenient. 
 
 All, coll, jamies, cefEat. 
 
 Each, coll waflud. 
 
 A certain, waflud (before its 
 
 noun). 
 Anyone (quispiam, quisquam, 
 
 after If or a negative), 
 
 e s flad,/ uflda'. 
 Any (positively), eiyoman 
 
 cen, quivis, eiyoma cen, 
 
 quodvis. 
 
 None, la e*flad. 
 Not even one, wala waflud. 
 Several, suddat, jomlat (a 
 
 number] . 
 Both (amlo], cillei* (classical 
 
 nom. cille), or coll-an. 
 Some, basi (i.e. apart}. 
 
 One another ; basS has J ; 
 
 man man. 
 Some others ; basi basS ; 
 
 minhom minhom; minhe 
 
 minhe. 
 Some (ones), aliquot ; cem 
 
 waflud. 
 Other, e*kar, /. s okra', pi. 
 
 *ekara, *ekarien. 
 Other (diverse), fair before 
 
 noun. 
 
 The Rest, el se'ir. 
 Several, \ 
 Divers, | xette'. 
 Sundry, / 
 Some or other, met (after 
 
 noun). 
 
 * Catafago (p. 197) has IS with one J, and he writes it in English 
 letters kild.
 
 66 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN ARABIC. 
 
 "Others than he," in classical style, is variously rendered 
 by Ma sadahi (what passes him), Ma sewahi (what is on his 
 level), and Fairoh, his diverse (?). The roots of ada and 
 Sewa mean Inequality and Equality. 
 
 Bas J (not repeated) is also now used for one another ; but, 
 it seems, incorrectly. 
 
 It was stated (47) that Man, Ma, may become indefinite ; 
 hence the Mn man; and Reja ma, some hope or other. 
 The latter phrase is found in modern literature, and is 
 classical. Freitag renders it qualiscunque. Bocthor (under 
 Momentanement) has li waqti-md, "for a time," for some 
 time or other, temporarily; and it is hard otherwise to 
 express. Fs. has " bi doun qouti-ma," without any food. 
 [It may be well to join md (some or other) by a hyphen to 
 the noun on which it hangs : thus, Li waqti-ma ; retaining 
 i of the Postpositive case.] 
 
 75. Pair is regarded as a substantive by grammarians. 
 Hence with a suffix, Tairhom, others than they; Pairoh, 
 other than he ; and even absolutely, El fair, some one else, 
 thy diverse (?), thy neighbour, in ethical relation. Sewa, 
 Sowa', even, like, is ridiculously explained in lexicons to 
 mean, (1) The same; (2) The opposite [egal; meme chose; 
 autre]. Fair xai% quite another thing, a different thing, is 
 stronger than Xai* e*kar, another thing, a second thing. So 
 with the negative, Leis ce miGliho fie pair mecen, in no other 
 place is anything like it. At the close of a sentence, La fair, 
 la fairoh, nothing else, is used dogmatically, for " so, and so 
 only." Pair seems to be used for the adjectival pronoun No 
 (nullus), not any ; as : Li fair qayad manfisa, for no purpose 
 of utility. Fs.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 67 
 
 8. NUMERALS. 
 
 76. Wafiud, /. Wafluda, means one, a single one, alone. 
 So we have, Wafldi, I alone ; Wafldec, thou alone ; Wafldoh, 
 he alone ; Wafldana, we alone, etc., with all the suffix pro- 
 nouns. Let us here repeat : Waflud, one (emphatical), 
 follows its noun ; as, Fie flaql waflud, in one field. But, 
 Fie waflud flaql, means, in a certain field. But besides ; 
 E J flad, /. Uflda', is one in a pronominal use; which may also 
 be rendered any one (quisquam, quispiam) ; as, La e*flad, 
 not any ; but "WaQud, some one (aliquis, quidam) ; Wala 
 waflud, not even one (ne unus quidem). 
 
 77. The numerals from 3 to 10 collectively take plural 
 nouns, and have the peculiarity that the feminine form 
 looks like masculine and the masculine like feminine. The 
 numerals from 11 to 19 are contracted in modern speech, 
 and have a still shorter vulgar form, which is probably 
 destined to become standard. Six is anomalous ; analogy 
 requires Sidse. 
 
 1 waflud,/. wafluda. 
 
 2 iGnein, /. iGnetein. 
 
 3 GeleGe, /. 0ele0. 
 
 4 arbasa, /. arbas. 
 
 5 kamse, /. kams. 
 
 6 sitte, /. sitt. 
 
 7 sebsa, /. sebs. 
 
 8 Semania, /. 0eman. 
 
 9 tissa, /. tiss. 
 
 10 saxara, /. saxar. 
 
 11 ufldasxar (fludasx). 
 
 12 iGnasx(ar). 
 
 13 0ele0etasx(ar). 
 
 14 arbastasx(ar). 
 
 15 kams'tasx(ar). 
 
 16 sittetasxar (sittasx). 
 
 17 sebsatasx(ar). 
 
 18 0emaniatasxar (0eman- 
 
 tasx). 
 
 19 tissatasx(ar).
 
 68 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 $ nuyf. i sods, pi. esdas. 
 
 -J- 0ol0. \ sobs, pi. esbas. 
 
 -- 6ol0ein. \ 0omn, pi. e9man. 
 
 i robs, pi. arbas. % toss, JP. etses. 
 
 A koms, ^>?. akmas. iV soxr, ^>. asxar. 
 
 The final -a, -e, of the masculines from 3 to 10, becomes 
 -at, -et, at least before a vowel; yet I used to hear (I 
 believe), Sitte rijal, six men; Sittet *omara, six princes. 
 
 78. For the sake of classifying the imperfect plurals of the 
 language, the following table may deserve to be committed 
 to memory. 
 
 TYPES. 
 
 Doroub. 
 
 Eswar. 
 
 Cilab. 
 
 Wozera. 
 
 Cotteb. 
 
 Emcina. 
 
 ( Boldan. 
 
 I (false dual). . ] __. 
 ( legs, tiss sieqan ) ( JNieran. 
 
 1 cities, saxar modon (short plural) .... Borec. 
 
 Contrary to analogy, the gender of the singular noun is 
 remembered in adapting the numeral to its plural. 
 
 79. The remaining cardinals are understood from : 
 
 3 suns, 0ele9 xomous (solar plural) . . . . 
 
 4 moons, arbasat aqmar (lunar plural) . . 
 
 5 men, kamse(t) rijal (manly plural) . . . . 
 
 6 princes, sittet *omara (princely plural). 
 
 7 merchants, sebsa(t) to j jar (mercantile plural). 
 
 8 horses, 0emaniat aflyuna (dactylic plural) . . 
 
 C grooms, tissa(t) folman 
 
 ' (false dual). . 
 
 20 suxrien. 
 
 30 0ele0ien. 
 
 40 arbas uin. 
 
 50 kamsien. 
 
 60 sittien. 
 
 21 waflud wa suxrien. 
 
 32 i0nein wa 0ele0ien. 
 
 43 0ele0e wa arbasuin. 
 121 mieya wa waflud wa suxrien. 
 357 0ele0 mieya wa sebsa wa kamsien.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 69 
 
 70 sebsuin. 7465 sebs elaf wa arbas mieya wa 
 
 80 Gemanien. kamse wa sittien. 
 
 90 tissuin. The units always precede the tens, 
 
 1 00 mieya. and mieya remains singular, against the 
 
 1000 *elf, pi. elef. general rule. 
 
 The cardinal numeral when undefined generally precedes 
 its noun, except waHud ; but El rnisd el arbas, the four 
 stomachs (Paris). " Thousands," in the plural, is also ex- 
 pressible by *01ouf ; but in numeral composition only E J lef 
 is employed. 
 
 80. The ordinals follow. Auwal (first) has fern. Oula' ; 
 the other feminines are regular. 
 
 2nd 0eni(y). 
 3rd GeliG. 
 4th rabis. 
 
 5th kamis. 
 6th sedis. 
 7th sebis. 
 
 8th Gemin. 
 9th tesis. 
 10th saxir. 
 
 Side by side should stand the days of the week. 
 
 Sunday, yeum el e*flad. 
 
 Monday, el iGnein. 
 
 Tuesday, el GeleGe. 
 
 "Wednesday, el arbasa. 
 
 Thursday, yeum el kamies. 
 
 Friday, el jomsa. 
 
 Saturday, el sebet 
 
 (sabbath). 
 
 81. The ordinals from 20th to 90th (by tens) are the same 
 as cardinals; so of 100th, 1000th. In composition, first is 
 rendered by ILadi; thus, 21st, Iladi wa suxrien; also llth, 
 Iladi saxar. So from llth to 19th saxar is added ; as 12th, 
 m. 6eni saxar, /. Geniyat saxara (N.B. with double fern, in- 
 flexion). And a single article suffices, as El Geni saxar, from 
 llth to 19th. But above 20th two articles are used, as, El
 
 70 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 fladi wa el suxrien, the 21st (C. de Perceval). [But the old- 
 fashioned termination -oun supersedes -ten in titles.] 
 
 For ordinals the order rises from the lower to the higher, 
 units, tens, hundreds, etc. 
 
 82. The following is from Caussin de Perceval : " See 
 here the order in which numbers ahove a thousand are ex- 
 pressed. Let us take 3452 : 0ele0et e*lef wa arbas mieya, 
 wa i0nein wa khamsien. In this the tens are preceded by the 
 units. Dates of years are expressed, as with us, by cardinal 
 numbers ; yet in that case they take the opposite order 
 units, tens, hundreds, thousands. Thus, the year 1823 is, 
 Sene 0ele0 wa suxrien wa 0eman mieya wa *elf. No article 
 is added to Sene (year), and the numerals of the units must 
 be put in the feminine, as agreeing with Sene. For the 
 dates of days they generally use cardinal numbers without 
 the article, since the name of the month serves for the com- 
 plement. Thus : Fie arbasat Ilazieran wayalni mectoub, 
 teriekoh kams'tesxar Eiyar, on 4 of June reached me a 
 letter, its date 15 of May. Here the numerals are masculine, 
 because the masculine word yeum, day, is understood." 
 
 9. PLURALS OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 
 
 83. In Art. 78 eight leading types of the imperfect plural 
 were registered. Participles, while used strictly as such, 
 make a perfect plural; masculine in ien (oun), feminine in 
 et. For the first plural type, I place this masculine per- 
 fect plural ; for the second the perfect feminine. When an 
 adjective is used as a substantive, it sometimes employs the
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEKN ARABIC. 71 
 
 plural ien for persons, or et for things ; thus from Kair 
 (Kaiyir), good, Kairat, good things. Nouns expressing 
 tradesmen, of the type Qayyab, butcher, make the plural 
 in ien (oun}. According to classical rule, final n should drop 
 away, if the word become the leading noun of a compound ; 
 but (it seems) the modern tongue retains this n of the plural, 
 though it always drops n of the dual ; as, Kabbazien Bafdad, 
 the bakers of Bagdad ; but, Kabbazei el Saisa, the two bakers 
 of the village. 
 
 84. To the 2nd type of plurals, in et, at, belong 1. Many 
 feminines in -a, -e. 2. Gerunds of the derived forms of the 
 verb, to be hereafter named. 3. Numerous foreign nouns, 
 without regard to gender or termination. 4. Native femi- 
 nines in -', d; which make plurals in ayet, awet. To the 
 last type conform Turkish words in d; as Paxa, pi. Paxa- 
 wet; A fa, pi. Afawet; Korda, small ware, pi. Kordawet. 
 5. Nearly all DIMINUTIVE NOUNS, of the form Colaib, a little 
 dog ; Xowaiya, a little thing ; Mowaiya, a sup of water. 
 
 85. The 3rd type (Josour, Xomous) is extremely preva- 
 lent with nouns, but not with adjectives. The commonest 
 adjectival type is the 5th (Rijal, Cibar), though the 4th, 6th, 
 7th, and 8th are also adjectival. Plural adjectives are rarely 
 heard except in concord with rational agents, and especially 
 in high style are then appropriate ; as, El dowal el cibar, the 
 great Powers ; El wozera el sugam, the chief viziers. But 
 in successive pages Faris uses, as if at pleasure, El flaiwa.net 
 el cibar wa el yupar; El flaiwanet el cebiera wa el 
 
 the animals great and little.
 
 72 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" ARABIC. 
 
 86. A small number of adjectives form a peculiar plural : 
 
 MarieS, sick, pi. MarXa'. 
 Qatiel, slain, pi. Qatla'. 
 Jariefl, wounded, pi. Jarfla. 
 Helic, perishing, pi. Helce'. 
 Farieq, drowned, pi. Tarqa'. 
 
 *Esier, captive, pi. *Esra' (as 
 
 well as *0sera). 
 Maiyit, dead, pi. Haute'. 
 Aflmaq, silly, pi. Ilamqa'. 
 Saries, overthrown in wrest- 
 
 ling, pi. Sarsa'. 
 
 87. The plurals of the following nouns are specially 
 irregular : 
 
 Father, abou, ab, pi. aba. 
 Son, ibn, pi. abna, benie'. 
 Brother, akou, ak, pi. aka, 
 akwa. 
 
 Mother, omm, pi. ommehet. 
 Daughter, Girl, bint, pi. binet. 
 Sister, okt, pi. akawet. 
 Water, may, pi. miy ah, emwah. 
 
 88. "We may treat the " short plural," or tenth type, as 
 regular, when it preserves the vowels of the singular, merely 
 transposing the second ; as, Mille, a religious sect, pi. Milel ; 
 Qobba, a vault, cupola, pi. Qobab. But the singular is often 
 of the form Qazen, Luflaf, or Mediena ; in which case the 
 vowels of the plural are 0, o ; as, Loflof, Modon. Tarieq, 
 a way (lit.}, has pi. Toroq, 10; while Tarieqa, a way (jig.}, 
 has mod. pi. Tarayiq ; also vulg. Tarieqat. 
 
 89. Allowance must be made for euphony, especially with 
 the weak consonants *, w, y. Observe that Ce*s, a cup, pi. 
 Co*ous ; Ka t s, pi. Ro^ous, are of the third type. Daula, 
 pi. Dowal, is of the tenth ; Dawal being converted into 
 Dowal by the w. 
 
 90. We proceed to speak of the MODERN PLURAL, which 
 is very regular and very important. It applies to all nouns
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AKABIC. 73 
 
 which have four or more strong consonants, except when their 
 plural is perfect. 
 
 Menzil, a lodging. 
 Bandar, a naval mart. 
 Kinzier, a pig. 
 
 Kandaq, a moat. 
 Doldol, a hedgehog. 
 Nomnoma, a wren. 
 
 aqrab, a scorpion. 
 To form the plural insert d (e) after the second consonant ; 
 take a (e) for your first vowel, and i, ie (u, ui} for your last, 
 and you have the plurals Menezil, Banadir, Kanezier, 
 Kanadiq, Daladil, Namanim. If the vowel of the singular 
 preceding the last consonant be a or ou, it becomes ie in the 
 plural. Thus (with accent on last syllable of the plurals) : 
 
 Miklab, a claw, pi. Makalieb. 
 Tennour, iron forge, pi. Tenanier. 
 Xak-roura, a barge, pi. Xaka-ruir. 
 Cercedan, rhinoceros, pi. Cerecedien. 
 QarqaSo'un, polecat, pi. QaraqaSuin. 
 
 91. In a large number of nouns *, w, or y are counted as 
 true consonants for this process ; especially in those which end 
 in i (/), as Tabsi(y), a metal saucer, pi. Tabesi(y). So too 
 Zeuraq, a shallop, TaiTal, a great forest ; treated as Zewraq, 
 PayTal, make plurals Zewariq, TayaTul. Yaflmour, a nyl- 
 ghau, ^TJybas, a finger, Madwad, a manger, similarly give 
 plurals Yaflamier, *Eya,bis, Madawid. In Cowara, a hive or 
 comb, Menara, a lighthouse or spire, pi. Cowayir, Menayir, 
 perhaps d has been treated as a*. Many nouns of the type 
 Padier, a pool, Jeziera, an island, follow this law ; the ie 
 being identical with iy ; whence pi. Padayir, Jezeyir, so 
 written in classical books, but, it seems, pronounced Pada-ier,
 
 74 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Jeze-ier, with accent on the last; which indeed gives the 
 simplest theory, assimilating them to Kanzier, pi. Kanazier. 
 Perhaps Cowa-ier, Mena-ier, are also to he thus accented. 
 
 Boflaira, a lake, heing a diminutive noun from Baflr, sea, 
 should have its plural in et ; hut we meet Baflayir (or Ba- 
 ilaier ?) as the plural. 
 
 92. There is also a large class of nouns with d (e) in 
 the FIRST syllable of the singular, in which we must first 
 interpret d into a* ; next, after deriving herehy the modern 
 plural, we must euphonically change a*a or a*e into awa, 
 awe. Thus from Sari(y), a mast, pi. Sawari(y) ; Baqieya, 
 remnant, pi. Bawaqi; and even *Eniya (*E*niya), a vessel, 
 pi. *Eweni. 
 
 93. It is not always possible to foretell when a noun which 
 has not so many as four strong consonants will form its 
 plural by this law ; but when a feminine in -a does not form 
 the perfect plural, and is of one of the types Faniema, 
 Menara, Facihe, Kabiya, the strong presumption is that it 
 will take the modern plural Fanayiin, Menayir, Fawecih, 
 Kawabi. Mediena, a city, Sefiena, a ship, beside the old 
 plurals Modon, Sofon, of the tenth type, have the modern 
 plurals Medayin, Sefayin. 
 
 In some we may be deceived by a noun of unity. Thus, 
 Aobaba, a fly, might suggest a plural Aobayib. But it is a 
 noun of unity, and Aobab means Flies collectively. 
 
 94. Some words, expressing tradesmen, take the Turkish 
 termination -ji; as, Taubji, cannoneer; Bellaurji, dealer in 
 fine glass ; Bostenji, gardener. All such make their plurals 
 in -jieya. Besides, there is a third form, purely Arabic, in 
 -ley (properly the adjective of relation), as Fakouriey, a seller
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 75 
 
 of pottery ; Joukiey, a woollen draper ; Soyoufiey, sword 
 cutler. Words of this form, whether substantive or ad- 
 jective, make their only plural in -ley a, 
 
 IO. Many nouns take two or more plurals, sometimes 
 with a difference of sense ; often one is more old-fashioned 
 or of higher style than the other. The English brothers 
 and brethren will suffice to impress this. Dictionaries give 
 indiscriminately Boflour, Abflar, Biflar, seas; Toloul, Etlel, 
 Tilel, hills, etc. ; and it is often difficult to know which best 
 suits the pitch of the style. Modern use will at last fix on 
 one as suitable for daily life. 
 
 10. COMPARATIVES. 
 
 95. In Arabic, as in French, the same word is Comparative 
 and Superlative ; in fact it has the three senses which we 
 express by " Greater, Greatest, Very great." At other times 
 they evade the comparative, as by saying " Great above me" 
 for " Greater than I." 
 
 Comparatives are of the type Aflsen, Ecbar, but they are 
 not declined like the adjectives of Colour, Art. 12. E*kir 
 (last) is in sense a superlative, but in form is a participle. 
 
 96. Than after the comparative is expressed by Min ; 
 hence after the superlative the partitive Of is generally 
 omitted ; as, Aflsen el kail, the finest (of) the horses. The 
 following examples are instructive : 
 
 Lem yablof, min el somr, ec0er min arbasuin saman, 
 He did not attain, of age, more than forty years. 
 
 MaAe fasalt, ec9er min el e*kar, min el xarr ? 
 What did I do, more than the other, of mischief ?
 
 76 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 El kalay min el Aonoub wa el jarayim hou a5am min el 
 
 kalay min el belaya, 
 
 Deliverance from faults and offences is grander than de- 
 liverance/row miseries. 
 
 Aqya' 'erS MUST, Furthest (of) the land (of) Egypt. 
 Anfas jemies el flaiwanat, wa ajdarhe bil molafla3a, 
 
 Most useful of all the animals, and most worthy of them 
 
 to be noticed. 
 El awwal aqwa' min el 0eni, wa el mauloud min homa 
 
 afialhoma, 
 The first (is) stronger than the second, and the progeny 
 
 from the two (is) better than both. (Faris.) 
 El moqatelat se-te*koA hieya a5am min el jidd wa el 
 
 ilamase, 
 
 The battles will assume a grander mien of earnestness 
 and energy. (Beirout Newspaper, Had. el Ak.) 
 
 In the last, Min for Of, immediately after the comparative, 
 is striking. We might indeed have expected A^am hieya ; 
 so as to bring " hieya min " side by side. Minnoh, Minneho, 
 often mean, " than it (is)." Thus : Inna heAe el ieyal, leho 
 mixya, axbeh bil herwela, minnehe bil raci, as for this stag, 
 to it (is) a gait, liker (more like) to a scamper (amble), than 
 it is to a gallop. 
 
 97. The absolute superlative forms a rare feminine, as 
 Cobra', very great ; o5ma', very mighty. Some make a plural 
 in -ien, as Aqdamien, very ancient ; Afialien, very excellent. 
 Others make a substantival plural, of the type Ecebir, 
 grandees. 
 
 The superlative is generally indeclinable and may precede 
 its noun, as Aflsen rajol, best man, very good man. But
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" ARABIC. 77 
 
 Auwal yeum, the first day, and El yeum el auwal, are alike 
 good. Auwal has a feminine *0ula' (comparable to Cobra' ; 
 also to S 0kra', other), which is used when it follows its femi- 
 nine noun ; as, El senet el oula', the first year ; or Auwal 
 sene. 
 
 In some other phrases (which apparently imitate Turkish 
 idiom) a common adjective precedes its noun and becomes 
 indeclinable. GN. 226 Noshir sa5uim imtinan-na, we 
 declare our immense obligation. The formula, aziez cotob- 
 com, your valued letters, is often quoted. In Faris (Nat. 
 Hist.) such phrases as a5uim kiffatoh, his immense swift- 
 ness ; Ximaliey baflr Europa, the North Sea of Europe ; are 
 not seldom met. Whether this is an improvement to the 
 language, or the very opposite, learned natives themselves 
 must settle. But with the superlative the order is normal : 
 as Bi asla' yautihom, with their highest voice. To the same 
 head we must refer, Bi e*kir nesmat ilayati, with the last 
 breath of my life. 
 
 98. Many adjectives do not form a comparative of the 
 type Ailsen; and their comparative needs to be paraphrased, 
 nearly as in English, by Ecbar (greater), Ec0ar (more), or 
 some other familiar comparative, which becomes auxiliary. 
 This is ordinarily done by making a noun the complement, 
 as in Art. 14. Thus: 
 
 Ec9ar iktilafan (or tefayyoran), more diverse. 
 EcGar wojoudan, more as to existence, more numerous. 
 Axadd qouwaten, more intense as to strength, stronger. 
 Arda' faxmaraten, worse as to fierceness, fiercer. 
 
 But this adverbial case of the noun is not in popular style.
 
 78 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 11. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 99. Relatives in most languages are developed partly out 
 of the interrogatives and partly out of the demonstratives. 
 So in Arabic the interrogatives Man, Ma, may he used, not 
 only for Who ? What ? hut also for He-who, That- which. 
 Nevertheless, in modern style they are limited to the in-, 
 definite relatives Whoever, Whatever. In this use, Ma may 
 be regarded as leaning on the verb, or on the substitute of 
 the verb ; thus, Ma-fat, what is past = the past ; Ma bain, 
 what is between; Ma-jara, what has happened; Ma-kala, 
 what is vacant; Ma-qolt, what thou saidest. These cohere 
 as one word. In speech, the accent will probably distinguish 
 this Ma from Ma, not ; as, Ma kala, it is not vacant ; Ma 
 qolt, thou didst not say. But, Ma qolt ? what didst thou 
 say? is pronounced exactly as Ma qolt. This is a grave 
 inconvenience, to avoid which the moderns wisely prefer to 
 use MaAe (quidnam) in preference to Ma, quid ? 
 
 100. Compounding Man, Ma with Eiy, which? or Coll, 
 all ; we have (with verb Cen, was) : 
 
 Eiyo-man, Eiyoman cen, whosoever (qui que ce soit). 
 Eiyo-ma, Eiyoma cen, whatsoever. 
 For which last, more vulgarly, Eix' ma, Eix' ma cen. 
 
 Also without Ma, Eiyo becomes relative before a noun, if 
 cen follow ; as, Bi eiyo sisr cen, at (any) whatsoever price. 
 
 So Colloman, whosoever ; Colloma, whatsoever. But Col- 
 lama is also adverbial, meaning "However much" (quanta, 
 quantum}, or, in proportion as. 
 
 101. The pronoun LeAi is relative, and nothing else; but 
 unfortunately it must have the article El before it, and,
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEBN ARABIC. 79 
 
 except when it is nominative to the verb, it needs a pronoun 
 suffix as complement, whence elaborate confusion. Thus, El 
 leAi saraf-oh, means either, Who knew him (qui noverat eum), 
 or, Whom he knew (quern noverat). To get the latter sense 
 we have to render it, " Who, he knew him," and then imagine 
 Who him incorporated into Whom. This is one of the 
 grave defects of the language ; for as soon as a sentence 
 assumes even moderate complexity, the syntax is apt to be 
 highly uncertain. LeAi is declined thus : 
 
 El leAi, le quel 
 El leti, la quelle. 
 
 El leAien, les quels. 
 
 El lewet(i), Elleti, les quelles. 
 
 There is also a classical dual, Elleten, Elletein, abs. and obi. 
 of both genders. Also, ElleAi may be used of both genders 
 and numbers, and is vulgarly shortened into Elli. 
 
 The logical complement to LeAi is sometimes placed close 
 to it, with much advantage to clearness, when a preposition 
 goes with it ; as, El leAi bihi, by whom ; El leAi sandoh, 
 with whom. LeAi cannot be preceded by a preposition of its 
 own. Sabat has, Acts ii, 5, Nafar min etqiya el Yahoud, 
 min jemies min teflt el serna* min el qabayil. 
 
 102. El leAi cannot be used when it limits its antecedent, 
 but only when the whole antecedent is affected by it ; as, 
 The man who is present, El rajol, el leAi flaiur. It cannot 
 always be used, even when the antecedent has the English 
 article The ; for instance, after the word All, or with 
 a superlative. Thus, " He gave up all the money which he 
 had," means, " Whatsoever of money he had " ; and " what- 
 soever " cannot be rendered by El leAi. If we express it by 
 Ma, we must transpose, so that Ma may immediately precede
 
 80 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN ARABIC. 
 
 its verb : thus, " Sellem ma cen leho min el darahim." 
 Again : " The first man whom I saw," appears to us fully 
 defined; for it means, "That individual, whom I saw first 
 of men," ilium quern primum vidi. Yet (say the gram- 
 marians) the relative clause here qualifies the antecedent, 
 which is true (so the Latins throw the verb into the sub- 
 junctive : primus homo quern viden'm) ; on this ground El 
 leAi is illegitimate. Yet the adverbial relative Enna (that) 
 is here admissible ; Awwal rajol enni ra*eit-oh, (the) first man 
 (that] I saw (Faris and Kob. Cr.). So Ma is often used after 
 the superlative; as, Hie afkar ma yoynas, these (are) the 
 finest that are made. 
 
 The pronominal complement to El ICAI is not unfrequently 
 suppressed (says Wright) when the sense is clear without it. 
 But his examples show great obscurity resulting. 
 
 103. El leAi begins its own clause, and can have no noun 
 with it. "When its antecedent is understood, a preposition 
 before El leAi may belong to the antecedent, as, Li el leAi 
 to (the man) who . We may then regard El as the pronoun 
 him (Li, to ; El, him ; LeAi, who, etc.). But, even when the 
 antecedent is expressed, and takes El, the Arabs treat it as 
 undefined, if the is changeable into a. Thus, " The man 
 who is able," may mean, " A man, Any man who is able "; 
 in that case they omit the word Who, or even put the 
 demonstrative Hou (he) for it. 
 
 Thus, in general, pronouns of the third person serve for 
 relatives when the antecedent is undefined ; as, Sandi yabi, 
 leho marJ, in my house is a boy, to whom (is) a disease ; andi 
 fluyan, ma hou liya, in my possession (is) a horse, who (is) not 
 mine ; Dar, fie/te jonaina, a house, in which (is) a garden.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 81 
 
 The simultaneous deficiency of the verb "to be " and of the 
 relative is peculiarly unhappy. As in Greek and German, so 
 in Arabic, the article (The) with the participle does duty for the 
 relative with verb. Thus, Folc el solran, el mosadd bi ziena 
 fakira ; the yacht of the sultan, which was equipped with 
 splendid adornment. 
 
 104. An astonishingly barbarous syntax is the use of 
 a finite verb for a participle or verbal adjective, the relative 
 pronoun being understood before it. Thus, Rajol yobyur is 
 good Arabic for " a man discerns"; yet it is also gram- 
 matically correct for " a man who discerns," i.e. a discerning 
 man. This is especially common with the passive verb to 
 supply our verbals in -He, -ive, -ate, etc. When they are also 
 negative, la (not) with the verb almost makes a compound 
 adjective. Thus, Belaya la-yoflya', miseries innumerable (viz. 
 which are not counted) ; la-yof-lab, invincible. 
 
 105. The adverbial relatives when, where .... must be 
 paraphrased, if they have some other antecedent than then, 
 there .... Thus, for "The country where I was re siding," 
 you must say, in which; that is, "The country, which (el 
 leti) I was residing in it." Again : for "A place where there 
 were stones," say, "A place, in it stones," mecen, fiehi flujar. 
 
 106. In Ma-cen, noticed above, the verb Cen appears 
 indeclinable, but Ma yecoun is also common, as, Eix' ma 
 yecoun (Eiyoma yecoun), be it what it may. After super- 
 latives we may often render Ma yecoun by the word possible ; 
 as, Aflsen ma yecoun, the best possible. 
 
 107. Ma also becomes adverbial in the sense of while, 
 so long as; thus, Ma domt flaiyan, so long as I remain alive;
 
 82 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 but Ma-dam more distinctly expresses the sense while before 
 another verb. Ma is otherwise an important element of in- 
 declinable relatives ; as in Basdama, after (apres que], Qab- 
 lama (avant que, ante quam), Einama, IlaiGoma, wheresoever ; 
 from prepositions Basd, Qabl, and from Ein ? where ? IlaiO, 
 where. [In modern literature, IlaiOoma appears, contrary 
 to classical usage, for where, in passages which reject the 
 sense wherever. What is gained by this innovation is nt 
 clear. It seems a pity to confound IlaiG and IlaiGoma.] So 
 Sandama, Waqtima, Iluinima, at the moment that, whenever, 
 Ceifama, however. Toulama, as long as. Nay, verbs enter 
 such compounds, as, Talama, it is long that, it is long since ; 
 Qallama, it is rare that ; CeG'rama, it is frequent that ; but 
 these (immediately before another verb) are virtually equiva- 
 lent to the adverbs Long ago, Seldom, Often. So with the 
 superlatives, Aqallama, (it is) very rare that ; EcG'rama, it 
 is very frequent that. 
 
 In place of Ma, sometimes En (that) is found; as, Basd 
 en, after (postquam) ; Ila' en, Ilatte' en, until ; IIai0 en, in 
 case that, before verbs. 
 
 12. ELEMENTS OF THE VERB. 
 
 108. We begin with the verbs, Ijlis, sit thou ; Zekrif, 
 decorate thou. 
 
 There are three cardinal tenses, the Imperative (mood), 
 the Aorist, and the Perfect. We omit at present the Dual 
 and the Plurals Feminine, which are rarely used. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 m.s. ijlis 
 m.s. zekrif 
 
 /*. ijlisi 
 f.s. zekrifi 
 
 pi. ijlisou 
 pi. zekrifou
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 83 
 
 , { ' 
 
 ajlis 
 ozekrif 
 
 f l.{ 1 - 
 
 nejlis 
 nozekrif 
 
 '{' 
 
 *{' 
 
 jelest 
 zekraft 
 jelesna 
 zekraf na 
 
 2. tejlis(i) 3 m. yejlis 3/. tejlis 
 
 tozekrif(i) yozekrif tozekrif 
 
 2. tejlisou(n) 3. yejlisou(n) 
 
 tozekrifou(n) yozekrifou(n) 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 2. jelest(i) 3 m. jeles 3/. jeleset 
 
 zekraft(i) zekraf zekrafet 
 
 2. jelestom(ou) 3. jelesou 
 
 zekraftom(ou) zekrafou 
 
 There is no difference in the inflections of the two verbs, 
 except that Zekrif takes o for the first letter of its aorist. 
 The i in parenthesis for the 2nd pers. sing, denotes the 
 feminine. N.B. In old Arabic the perfect singular had 
 final vowels, thus: 1. jelesto; 2 m. jeleste; 3 m. jelese. 
 The final vowels may be kept before a suffix ; nay, perhaps 
 we can thus distinguish Balafna (we have arrived or attained) 
 from Balafa-na (or Bal'[>a-na), it has reached us. Paris occa- 
 sionally writes the 2nd m. as Jeleste, even without a suffix. 
 To retain this final vowel discriminates 2nd person from 1st, 
 and involves no countervailing evil. 
 
 To distinguish the person of Jelest we may add Ana (I) or 
 Ente (thou) ; but it is often done more delicately by a suffix, 
 if Enna or Lecinna precedes ; as, Ennec jelest, that thou hast 
 sat ; Lecinm jelest, yet I have sat. 
 
 Knowing the imperative (as Ijlis, Zekrif) we can inflect 
 the three tenses as above ; observing, as to the vowels, only 
 these simple rules : 
 
 (0) The vowels of the perfect in the spoken language are 
 always " Fathite," as in the Table, in verbs of such type.
 
 84 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AEABIC. 
 
 (5) The last vowel of the aorist is always that of the im- 
 perative the other vowels as in the Table. The last vowel 
 may be a, , 0, in a triradical verb, but is invariable in the 
 quadriradical. 
 
 (c) If the vowel be a, i, the first vowel of the imperative 
 is * ; but if o then o : as, Ijlis, sit thou ; lo/ras, cut thou ; 
 Okroj, go out; OrboT, tie, bind. 
 
 The ancient verb distinguished in the aorist two moods by 
 a different vowel (o, a} added to the end. But this is totally 
 lost and irrecoverable. 
 
 109. The classical dual in 2nd and 3rd person is sometimes 
 used. Final a, e, is its mark. 
 
 IMPER. 2. ijlise. 
 
 AOE. 2. tejlise(n), 3 m. yejlise(n), 3 /. tejlise(n), as 2nd 
 person. 
 
 PERF. 2. jelestoma, 3 m. jelese, 3/. jeleste. 
 
 The plurals feminine with the old vowels involve much 
 confusion. "When now used, it is with a slight change, 
 apparently as follows (-on, for hon, honna, is the element) : 
 
 IMPEE. 2f.pl. ijli'sn or ijlison. 
 
 AOE. 2f.pl. tejlisn, tejli'son; 3f.pl. yejlisn, yejlison. 
 
 PEEF. 2/. pi. jeleston, 3f.pl. jeleson. 
 
 110. A verb like Mrr (Imperative Morr), with second and 
 third radical the same, is called SUED. It has a slight 
 irregularity in the modern perfect. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 ( marart 
 ( marrait 
 ( mararna 
 I marraina 
 
 marart(i) 
 marraiti 
 marartom 
 marraitom 
 
 rnarr, 3 m. 
 
 marrat, 3f. 
 
 marrou
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEK ABABIC. 
 
 85 
 
 The forms Marrait, Marraina, etc., fruitfully confound the 
 root Mrr with Mry. They will perhaps be driven out by 
 cultivation of the language. 
 
 111. When the second radical is w or y, the verb is called 
 Concave or HOLLOW, as in the types Qoum, Sier. The aorist 
 and imperative have then no irregularity. But in the perfect 
 the long vowels ou, ie, are shortened in 0, *', before two con- 
 sonants in 1st and 2nd person; making Qomt, Qomti, Qomna, 
 Qomtom ; Sirt, Sirti, Sirna, Sirtom. Also in the 3rd person 
 singular and plural the long vowel of both becomes a, e ; 
 Qarn, Qamat, Qamou; Ser, Serat, Serou. The popular im- 
 peratives Qoum, Sier, most legitimately supersede Qom, Sir, 
 which rest on an exploded law of euphony. 
 
 The two hollow verbs Coun (be), Suir (become), deserve 
 chief attention. 
 Be thou, Coun, /. Couni, pi. Counou. 
 
 1. Ecoun, 2. Tecoun(i), 3. Tecoun, tecoun. (s.) 
 1. Necoun, 2. Tecounou(n), 3. Yecounou(n). (p.} 
 (1. Cont, 2. Cont(i), 3. Cen, cenet. (.) 
 (1. Conna, 2. Contom, 3. Cenou. (p.} 
 Become thou, Suir, /. Suiri, pi. Suirou. 
 
 Shall c 1. Ayuir, 2. Tayuir(i), 3. Yasuir, tayuir. (s.) 
 become, ( 1. Nayuir, 2. Tayuirou(n), 3. Yayuirou(n). (p.} 
 
 Have ( 1. Surt, 2. Surt(i), 3. Sar, Sarat. 
 become, ( 1. Surna, 2. Surtom, 3. Sarou. 
 Some hollow verbs have a in the aorist, as : 
 
 Shall be, 
 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 IMPEK. 
 
 AOR. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 Sleep 
 
 Naum 
 
 Nam 
 
 Enam 
 
 Nimt, Nam 
 
 Fear 
 
 Kauf 
 
 Kaf 
 
 Akaf 
 
 Kift, Kaf 
 
 Dread 
 
 Heiba 
 
 Heb 
 
 Eheb 
 
 Hibt, Heb
 
 86 HANDBOOK OF MODEKX ARABIC. 
 
 112. The Perfect Tense is (on the whole) best rendered by 
 the English " Compound past " or " Present past," as, Jelest, 
 I have sat : but we need to render it "I sat," if the context 
 shows historical time to be intended. Also, after In or IAC, 
 If, it means future perfect ; nearly as in English we say, 
 When you have done, After you have done, for, When you 
 shall have done, etc. In this case the verb of response (classi- 
 cally) is also in the Perfect, though we render it as Present 
 Time. The moderns prefer to say Incen, if so be, and then 
 adopt our idiom as to tenses. 
 
 113. The Aorist has immense latitude. First and chiefly, 
 it supplies the whole subjunctive mood ; but in this sense 
 the final n is always dropped from 2nd or 3rd plural. The 
 particle Li (for) prefixed to the aorist, in good style, suffices 
 to make it Hortative, as, Li ejlis ! let me sit ! Li yejlis ! let 
 him sit ! and supplies this deficiency of the imperative. On 
 the contrary, La (not) with 2nd or 3rd person in the spoken 
 tongue uniformly expresses Prohibition, like Latin Ne with 
 subjunctive ; as, La tejlis ! do not sit ! La yesier ! let him 
 not proceed ! With 2nd or 3rd pers. pi. of Aorist we can use 
 the termination -oun to give an indicative idea after La. 
 Thus, La yejidoun, they do not find. La, Ma, cannot be 
 joined with the imperative. The affinity of La for the sub- 
 junctive appears even in careful style where it follows 
 a relative, as in Id man for H^TIS, nequis. Thus, IIai0 la man 
 yaqhir-oh, where no one (QTTOV ym/rt?) may domineer over 
 him. Fs. 
 
 114. The Aorist is also indicative. After Lem (not) it 
 expresses past time ; as, Lem ejlis, I did not sit, I have not 
 sat ; which is apt to be very perplexing. It may in general
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 87 
 
 express Present, Past, or Future, nearly as the Latin present 
 tense in poetry, or in vivid narrative and prophecy, the con- 
 text alone suggesting the time intended. It is often simply 
 Present, as, Oried, I will, I wish ; La oried, Ma oried, I do 
 not choose. Lem, La, Len, in classical rule, make the aorist 
 Past, Present, Future ; but La yejlis, Bitteth not ; Len yejlis, 
 will not sit, shall not sit, appear to be "high style." 
 
 115. To define Future time sharply the simplest method 
 is that of prefixing Se to the aorist, which modern literature 
 decidedly adopts : as, Se-yejlis, he will sit ; Se-yemorr, he 
 will pass. This too is perhaps high style. On Auxiliaries 
 we shall speak below. Futurity is often denoted beyond 
 question by the context: as, "I go to-morrow," i.e. "I shall 
 go to-morrow." 
 
 But again, In lem ejlis, if I shall not have sat, recovers for 
 us futurity, as with, In jelest, if I shall have sat. 
 
 116. The participles have little irregularity. They make 
 fern. sing, in -a, -e ; m. pi. in -ien, -uin (-oun) ; /. pi. in -et, 
 -at. The active participle of the types Ijlis, Ixrab (drink), 
 Xien (sully), Loum (blame), is, Jelis, Xarib, Xayin, Layim ; 
 the radical w being merged into y in the last. 
 
 The passive of the same types (when the sense admits 
 a passive) is, Maxroub, drunk up ; Maxien, sullied ; Maloum 
 (for Maxyoun, Malwoum), blamed. The surd verb is regular 
 in the passive participle, as, Mesdoud ; but the active par- 
 ticiple is generally contracted ; as, Marr for Marir ; Iladd 
 for Iladid. The quadriradical verb has participles, act. 
 Mozekrif ; pass. Mozekraf . 
 
 117. An active participle, with am, art, is, are, understood, 
 supplies the present indicative of the verb. But if the
 
 88 HANDBOOK OF 1IODERX ARABIC. 
 
 nominative be then a pronoun, it must be expressed: as, 
 Ana ralu, I am "well satisfied; Houa rayiH, lie (is) going. 
 Also, in this use the plural of the participle is legitimately 
 in -oun, rather than -ien; and even in speech one hears -oun. 
 Thus, Hel entom reciboun ? are you riding ? 
 
 118. If the word while is added to a participle in English, 
 the Arabs express it by wa hou (and he), or wa horn, wa ana, 
 etc. ; in which case also the plural in -oun is preferable. 
 Thus, He sleeps while walking, Yenem wa hou maxi. They 
 sleep while walking, Yenemou(n) wa horn maxiyozm. 
 
 119. But if wa hou, wa ana, etc., is not inserted, and the 
 active participle singular is in apposition to the nominative of 
 the verb, it assumes the adverbial state, by adding -an, -en 
 as, He came riding, Ja reciban ; or, if the participle be 
 plural, it will take the form -ien, not -oun; as, Ja*ou reci- 
 bien, they came riding. 
 
 120. In fact, wa hou, wa ana, etc., with the participle, 
 express our while with the verb, even when the preceding 
 verb has a different nominative : as, Dakal beiti, wa ana 
 nayim, he entered my house, while I (was} sleeping ; or with 
 the plural, Dakal beitna, wa nallne nayimoun, while we 
 (were) sleeping. 
 
 121. The Arab gerund often (like our own) does duty for 
 an infinitive ; but in the spoken language it is generally 
 evaded, as by the modern Greeks, who have replaced it by 
 the subjunctive. Thus, for Dost thou wish to drink water ? 
 a Latin might say, Visne bibas aquam ? instead of, Visne 
 libere aquam ? and an Arab says, Hel toned (en) texrab 
 may? No word must interpose between En (that) and its 
 verb ; hence when En is dropped, the verb (texrab) leads
 
 HANDBOOK OP MODERN AEABIC. 89 
 
 the clause. Dost thou wish the boy to go ? is : Hel toried 
 yaroufl el yabi ? not El yabi yarouil.. 
 
 When the student has reached this point in the grammar, 
 he is at a stage in which a large mass of the language may 
 be picked up. He is recommended to proceed at once to the 
 Third Part (Praxis], and turn back only when occasion sug- 
 ges^s, to that which we have to add concerning Grammar. 
 In fact, every learner of any language will be wise to do as 
 children do. Let him, with the smallest grammatical appa- 
 ratus, accumulate the largest possible acquaintance with 
 popular words. Let him combine them as often as possible 
 in the simplest ways ; and postpone all intricacies of syntax, 
 and all delicate inquiries, until he is very familiar with the 
 material. 
 
 13. TYPES OF THE NOUN. 
 
 122. Many nouns are derived from verbs, some verbs from 
 nouns. We have already observed 1. A noun of unity, 
 ending in -a, -e; and 2. A diminutive of the types Colaib 
 (little dog), Boflaira (little sea, lake). 3. A noun of place 
 or time has the type of Mafrab or Mafrib, the west, place or 
 time of sunset : so Maslaf , hayrack ; Maqyab, canebrake ; or 
 with feminine ending, MabTaka, a melon bed ; Mesbasa, 
 a place of wild beasts; from BaTuik, melon; Sebos, wild 
 beast. 4. The noun of instrument differs from the last in 
 having i for its first vowel ; it also sometimes elongates its 
 second vowel into d. Thus, Minfak, bellows ; Mijmara, 
 brazier ; Miftefl, key ; Miqlaya, frying-pan. Many of these, 
 numbered 3 and 4, are verbal nouns.
 
 90 HANDBOOK. OF MODEBN ARABIC. 
 
 Abstract nouns may sometimes be regarded either as 
 gerunds of verbs, or as related to an adjective ; in some cases 
 the two are distinguished by a vowel. 5. The active gerund 
 has very often the type KaTf, carrying off ; Kalq, creating ; 
 iarb, a beating. 6. A noun of unity from this has the type 
 Aarba, a single blow. 
 
 7. So Sefar, travelling ; FaraQ, rejoicing, gladness. 8. Hence 
 the noun of unity, Sefara, a voyage. 
 
 9. The abstract nouns, Cibr, greatness ; Cobr, grandeur ; 
 Sufr, smallness; 36fr, contemning, contempt (if indeed this 
 vocalization be right), are related to the adjectives Cebier, 
 Safier ; so Roky, cheapness, to Eakiey ; Somn, fatness, to 
 Semien. Also in the feminine form, Sorsa, quickness, with 
 Series ; Bosda, distance, farness, with Basuid. 10. Ci0ra, 
 plenty, is the abstract to Ce0ier, much ; but this type is 
 commonest when the root is surd. Thus, Qilla, de6cienoy, 
 with Qaliel ; Riqqa, thinness, with Raqieq ; Xidda, intensity, 
 with Xadied; LJAAB, deliciousness, with LeAieA. 11. From 
 hollow verbs come such as Toul, length, with Tawiel; and 
 in feminine, Jouda, goodness. 
 
 12. With neuter verbs, Jolous (sitting) is a common 
 gerundial type. 13. Not less common is the type Sohoula, 
 ease, both for abstract nouns and for the gerund of neuter 
 verbs. 14. Citeba, writing, is again gerundial. 15. Nearly 
 the same is the type Najaba, nobleness, extremely common 
 for abstract nouns. 16. BaAiele, vileness, is a somewhat 
 rarer type. In El kaziena, the treasury ; El Kaliefa, the 
 Caliph, it is concrete.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" AEABIC. 
 
 91 
 
 123. In a tabular view they stand thus: 
 TYPES OF NOTJNS. 
 
 1. kobz-e 
 
 5. Zarb 
 
 11. Toul, Tuib 
 
 2. colaib 
 
 6. Zarba 
 
 jouda 
 
 boflaira 
 
 7. sefar 
 
 
 3. ma frab 
 
 8. sefara 
 
 12. jolous 
 
 mabxaka 
 
 9. cibr 
 
 13. sohoula 
 
 4. minfak 
 
 cobr 
 
 
 
 
 14. citeba 
 
 miklab 
 
 sorsa 
 
 
 mijmara 
 
 10. ciGra 
 
 15. najaba 
 
 miqlaya 
 
 qilla 
 
 16. raAiele 
 
 The commonest gerunds (of the primary " triliteral " verb) 
 are of the types Nayr, Jolous, Farafl, Citeba, Sohoule. Of 
 these the two last are like our nouns in -tion, and make the 
 plural in -et. Of the rest, Nayr is the commonest type for 
 active verbs, Jolous and Farafl. for neuter verbs. 
 
 124. Special list of abstract nouns of 15th type, related to 
 adjectives. 
 
 Naflafa, leanness. 
 LaTafa, gentleness. 
 Seqama, sickliness. 
 Radawa, badness. 
 Weseka, dirtiness. 
 Melafla, comeliness. 
 3arafa, elegance. 
 Fala^a, uncouthness. 
 Najaba, nobleness. 
 
 Belada, stupidity. 
 Tabawa, doltishness. 
 Jehela, ignorance. 
 Sal aba, solidity. 
 a5ama, mightiness. 
 Sesada, happiness. 
 Mehera, skilfulness. 
 Ilalawa, sweetness. 
 Marara, bitterness.
 
 92 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Frequently there are two forms ; as, LOT and LaTafa, 
 Sesada and Sosouda, etc. ; the same thing happens in most 
 languages. The Dictionary, and not the Grammar, must 
 inform a learner what form of gerund, or of abstract noun, 
 is practically current under each root. 
 
 14. AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 125. LET is expressed by 'Das (more classical) or Kalli 
 (more popular), prefixed to 1st or 3rd person of the aorist : 
 as, 'Das-ni axrab, let me drink (in Latin, sine me lilam) ; 
 Kallieni axouf, let me see ; Kalliena nexouf, let us see. 
 Xouf is a popular verb; more classical is, 'Das-ni ara', let 
 me see. But in good style the mere particle Li suffices to 
 express our Let ; as, Li yefout, let him pass in. In Syria 
 Te is used as a hortative particle (Latin age), instead of Li; 
 as, Te yaroufl, let him go. [I think that Te means come, 
 being the imperative of the verb *Ete fr , he came. But De 
 Perceval interprets it as a contraction of Ilatte, until.] 
 
 126. GOING is popularly rendered by Kayifl, exactly like 
 English ; but in Barbary they say Maxi, walking. Thus 
 Paris has, Hel hou rayifl en yojaddid el jidal ? Is he going 
 to renew the dispute? (lit. en yojaddid, ut renovet, that he 
 should renew). But this use of Kayifl is no more in high 
 style than is Going in English. 
 
 127. WILL, expressing purpose, has many substitutes, all 
 of them followed by the aorist, with En (that) often under- 
 stood. Chiefly : Oried, I wish, I will, I choose ; Moradi en, 
 (it is) my wish that ; Qaydi en, (it is) my design that ; or, 
 Ana qayid, I am designing; Ana sazim, I am resolving; 
 Ana nawi, I am intending; Ehomm, I meditate.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 93 
 
 Faris has, Nawi terni-or, (it is) intending to rain, for, it 
 is going to rain. 
 
 In Aleppo, Bedd (contracted, it seems, from Bi wedd) is 
 in general use. From Wedd, wish, choice, will, comes Bi 
 weddi, (it is) in my will ; Bi weddec, (it is) in thy will, etc. 
 Hence they make, Beddi aroufl, I will go ; Beddec teroufl, 
 thou wilt go, etc. This is perhaps confined to Syria. If Si 
 wedd be pronounced in full, it must probably be admissible 
 anywhere ; but the Aleppines use it to express Futurity as 
 well as Will or Wish. Ausadtoh, enni oried orie-ho ieyah, 
 I promised him, that I will show it him. Rob. Cr., p. 208. 
 
 128. For mere FUTURITY, nothing is better than the classi- 
 cal particle Se- prefixed to the aorist ; which is still living 
 in literature. Thus, Se-yaroufl, he will go ; Se-naroull, we 
 shall go ; Se-tera', thou shalt see. 
 
 ' At Bagdad, Yecoun (it will be) gives a future notion to 
 the verb ; as, Yecoun yaroufl, he will go ; Yecoun rail, he 
 will have gone. Yayuir, it will be, may be in like manner 
 employed ; as, Yayuir ternxor, it will rain. 
 
 The verb Ezmas, he hastened, or rather the participle, 
 Mozmis, hastening, is also current, as follows : Hou mozmis 
 yabies, he is hastening to sell, i.e. he is on the point of selling. 
 So, Yoxfi sala el hilec, it is on the point of destruction. F. 
 Mozmis and Moxrif (impending) express what is about to be ; 
 thus, Moxrif sala mokaxara, it is about to be dangerous; 
 Moxrif sala el dokoul, about to enter. Sab. 
 
 129. CAN, expressing ability, is rendered by Aqdir, I am 
 able ; or Ana qadir ; or Liya qodra en, to me (is) power that. 
 Or again, they say, Ana qabil, I am capable ; Liya qabilieya
 
 94 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AEABIC. 
 
 en, to me (is) capacity that. At Bagdad they say, Oxuiq, or 
 O-ruiq sala en, I have force for ; or, Liya Taqa en. (More 
 ordinarily, with a negative, Ma OTuiq, or La Taqa liya hi* en, 
 means, I have no resisting power ; I cannot withstand 
 a disease; I cannot afford an expense.} Literati are fond of 
 the strangely obscure word, Esteiuis, I am able. "Worst of 
 all by far is the idiom of Aleppo, which pronounces Aflsen, 
 I am able ; apparently meaning Oflsin (ivth form), I succeed. 
 Thus, I do not succeed to do a thing, means, I cannot. 
 
 For CAN, meaning possibility, you may say Yomcin, it is 
 possible ; or participle Momcin ; and Emcen, it was possible. 
 Negatively, La yomcin, Ma momcin, it is not possible ; Lem 
 yomcin, it was not possible ; Ma teheyya liya, it was not at 
 hand (in promptu] for me ; or again, MofLa.1, Mostefluil, 
 impossible, absurd. Also, La yayuM, it is not sound, 
 virtually means, It cannot be. 
 
 It is also in Arabic idiom to say, La telilaq yedi sala en 
 My hand does not reach so far that . More shortly, Leis 
 fie yedi, it is not in my hand, i.e. I am not able. In Syria 
 this is cut down into Fieya, it is in me ; Ma fiec, it is not in 
 thee ; i.e. I can, thou canst not. 
 
 130. For MAY (of permission) we can use Tejouz, it passes, 
 it is permitted ; Yayuflfl, it is sound ; Yobafl, it is open and 
 free. Also the participles Jayiz, MobaflL Or Yesoup liya, 
 it is allowed me. May in a question is sometimes evaded by 
 an adverb meaning perhaps ; thus, Ma sase' en yecoun heAe ? 
 (Sab.) What may this be ? What possiUy will this be? 
 
 Fans exhibits the singular ellipsis, Hel liya en ? is it 
 for me that ? i.e. is it permitted to me that . So even in
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 95 
 
 English, It is not for me to do so and so (Non meum est 
 ut ). But the omission of the verb " to be," as well as the 
 predicate, makes the Arabic ellipsis very harsh. 
 
 131. OUGHT admits a like elliptical phrase, Salaiya en, 
 (it rests) on me that. Besides, we can say, Yenbafi, it befits ; 
 Yelieq, it beseems ; Yejib, it behoves ; or Wajib salaiya, (it 
 is) a duty on me. Again, Yaflaqq salaiya, it is right for me ; 
 Yayuflfl liya, it is proper for me ; Yajmol, it is comely, or 
 becoming ; Yaqtaiu, it is required. The most popular of 
 these is Wajib salaiya. Besides we can use Yelzem, Lezim. 
 en, though this rather means Need, necessity. 
 
 132. For MUST, two formulas are highly popular. La bodd 
 en, no escape that ; La bodd (en) teroufl, thou must neces- 
 sarily go. Next, Lezim, which originally meant, sticking 
 close, has somewhat degenerated ; so that they now say, 
 Lezimni, it is necessary for me, i.e. I must, or, I want, 
 I need. This word is greatly overworked by the vulgar. 
 
 133. The verb Cen (it was) is also auxiliary in Arabic; 
 not only to make a passive verb, as in English, but to form 
 tenses by its peculiar force of time since Yecoun is essentially 
 future* and Cen is historical time, i.e. it was, not it has been. 
 Hence we obtain : 
 
 Arouil, I go. 
 
 Roflt, I went or have gone. 
 Cen roflt, I had gone. 
 Yecoun roflt, I shall have 
 gone. 
 
 I am to go. 
 
 * So De Perceval positively asserts ; and, it seems, with great reason. 
 
 Cen aroufl, ) T 
 
 [ I went. 
 Cont aroufl, ) 
 
 Yecoun aroufl, I shall go,
 
 96 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 1335. We can hardly class as auxiliary the verbs which 
 express to begin, before another verb. These are Ebdi, I 
 open; E*koA, I take; Ajsal, I set, set to; Axras, I insti- 
 tute ; ATfoq, I establish ; Ayuir, I become. All drop a 
 part of their sense to assume the meaning of Begin : the 
 commonest is Ebtedi (in vnith form, see 136), whence Ibteda, 
 Mobteda, a beginning. These verbs are followed by Enna 
 (that, quod, <m) with the aorist Indicative of the other verb ; 
 not by En (ut, Tva) with subjunctive ; apparently because an 
 attained result, not a mere intention, is expressed. Thus, 
 The sailors began to howl, Jasalou el mellafloun yowel- 
 wiloww ; Ibtedou or Sarou yayrokoww, they began to shout. 
 It is here seen that the particle Enna (that) is readily 
 dropped from the phrase. 
 
 Cen roILt or Cont roflt, also supplies, I should hare gone ; 
 and Cen arouH (Cont aroufl), I should go ; under a non- 
 existing hypothesis. The double compounds, Cen yecoun 
 aroufl, / was to go, and Cen yecoun roflt, / was to have gone, 
 are perhaps peculiar to Bagdad ; as, Beddi aroufl, I am to 
 go ; Cen beddi aroufl, or rather Cont beddi aroufl, I was 
 to go; are Syrian. 
 
 15. CLASSES OF THE VERB. 
 
 134. Quadriradical verbs, such as Zekrif, have their 
 vowels all fixed, and in the modern language scarcely go 
 beyond the two following Forms, typified by the Impera- 
 tives zekrif, tezekraf. 
 
 The learner must use this and such like tables for reference, 
 when he meets with a verb of such a class. Until the case 
 occurs, he will not be able to use the table to advantage.
 
 HANDBOOK OF 1TODERX ARABIC. 
 
 97 
 
 FORM. 
 
 i. 
 
 ii. 
 
 Imperative 
 
 zekrif 
 
 tezekraf 
 
 Aorist 1 p. s. 
 
 ozekrif 
 
 etezekraf 
 
 Perfect 3 p. s. 
 
 zekraf 
 
 tezekraf 
 
 Gerund 
 
 zikraf 
 
 tezekrof 
 
 Participle act. 
 
 mozekrif 
 
 motezekrif 
 
 Participle pass. 
 
 mozekraf 
 
 [motezekraf] ? 
 
 The two "forms" are often comparable to what we call 
 Voices in Latin and Greek. In fact the n nd is ordinarily 
 either like a Passive or a Reflective ("middle") voice to 
 the I st . In that case there cannot be any passive participle 
 to the II nd form. But the n nd form may be an independent 
 verb. Older Arabic admits of a m rd form izkawrif, and 
 a rv th izkarfif. 
 
 135. Triradical verbs have more numerous forms. Even 
 in the spoken language ten must be counted, though no one 
 verbal root possesses them all. To exhibit the types, it is ex- 
 pedient to form all from a single root as if they all existed. 
 The root Bdl, imperative Ibdil (exchange) may represent 
 all the types. In the classical tongue every form except 
 the ix th has its passive distinct from its active ; but we 
 confine ourselves to the passive of the first form. The active 
 first form alone has the vowel of the aorist doubtful, as also 
 the form of the gerund doubtful, as stated in 108, 122. Its 
 active participle is also peculiar, not being formed by initial 
 m. Any of the forms may have a passive participle, even 
 
 7
 
 93 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HODERN ARABIC. 
 
 in the spoken language, if the sense of the form itself be 
 that of an active verb. Only the ix th form is always a neuter 
 verb, and can have no passive. 
 
 When there is a passive participle, it is formed from the 
 active participle (in all forms but the I st ) exactly as in the 
 quadriradicals, by changing i of the last syllable into a. (This 
 i might be u, if a coarse consonant were in juxtaposition.) 
 
 1 36. Scheme of the Ten Forms of the Triradical Verb : 
 
 
 IMPERAT. 
 
 AOR. 1 p. s. 
 
 ?ERF.3p.S. 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 I. 
 
 ibdU 
 
 abdil 
 
 badal 
 
 (badal) 
 
 bidU 
 
 Pass. 
 
 
 
 obdal 
 
 bodil 
 
 
 
 mabdoul 
 
 ii. 
 
 baddil 
 
 obaddil 
 
 baddal 
 
 tebdiel(a) 
 
 mo baddil 
 
 in. 
 
 badil 
 
 obadil 
 
 badal 
 
 ( bidal | 
 ( mobadala / 
 
 mobadil 
 
 IV. 
 
 abdil 
 
 obdil 
 
 abdal 
 
 ibdal 
 
 mobdil 
 
 P' 
 
 tebaddal 
 
 etebaddal 
 
 tebaddal 
 
 tebaddol 
 
 motebaddil 
 
 U 
 
 tebadal 
 
 eteba'dal 
 
 tebadal 
 
 tebadol 
 
 motebadil 
 
 VII. 
 
 inbadil 
 
 anbadil 
 
 inbadal 
 
 inbidal 
 
 monbadil 
 
 VIII 
 
 ibtedil 
 
 abtedil 
 
 ibtedal 
 
 ibtidal 
 
 mobtedil 
 
 IX. 
 
 ibdall 
 
 abdall 
 
 ibdall 
 
 ibdilal 
 
 mobdill 
 
 X. 
 
 istebdil 
 
 estebdil 
 
 istebdal 
 
 istibdal 
 
 mostebdil 
 
 The t due to the vm th form becomes d after d or z, A 
 after A, T after T, S, y, 5. Also if *, w, or y be the first 
 radical it becomes t before t in the vrn th . Thus the root 
 Wcl makes Ittecil (for Iwtecil) in vni.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 99 
 
 137. All the gerunds of the derived forms make plural in 
 -et. The gerund of u. might be tebdiela or tebdila, instead 
 of tebdiel, which is standard. In in. mobadala is a com- 
 moner form than bidal ; but both often co-exist. 
 
 It will be seen that in. is formed from 11., and vi. from v. 
 (except in the gerund) by the same simple law. After duly 
 understanding this we might drop m. and vi. from the Table. 
 Forms vn. and vin. are likewise formed by a common law ; 
 so that either will suffice as a type. 
 
 Form x. is remarkable, ist being prefixed to the root. 
 This is explained completely from Coptic, from Zouave, from 
 Assyrian, and from certain traces in Chaldee or Hebrew. A 
 form is in fact lost, whose imperative was Sebdil; and from 
 this Istebdil was formed, nearly as vm. from i. The form 
 Sebdil was a Causative verb, but it is superseded by iv. 
 
 The tenses are inflected according to the laws explained in 
 108. Carefully note the initial o in the aorist of 11., in., iv. 
 Observe also that the last vowel is i in the imperative (and 
 aorist) of 11., in., iv., vii., vm., x., but is a in v., vi., ix. 
 Yet in the participle active of all the forms it is i. 
 
 138. Any two forms, as Ibdil and Badil, are strictly in- 
 dependent verbs, as in Latin fugio and fugo, or sedeo, sido, 
 sedo. In fact sometimes they are as unlike in sense as fero 
 and ferio, condo and condio. Such phenomena are very de- 
 ceptive. It is always safest for the learner to learn nearly 
 every form for itself, as if it were a new verb. 
 
 Nevertheless, the n nd or m rd being given active verbs, we 
 can positively infer the existence and meaning of the V th or 
 vi th ; for the v th always is to the n nd and the vi th to the in rd
 
 100 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 its reflective, neuter, or passive. The ni th , when it exists, 
 is passive to the I st , if the I st be active ; or else to the iv th . 
 
 The iv tlx is properly causative to the I st . Hence if the I st 
 be neuter the iv th is its active. If the I st be active the rv th 
 has two accusatives. 
 
 The vm th is comparable to the Greek middle voice, in 
 relation to the I st , and often supersedes the I st arbitrarily. 
 In other instances it serves as a true passive to the I st . 
 
 The n nd is (perhaps most properly) frequentative or in- 
 tensive of the I st ; as, IqTas, cut ; QaTTus, cut in pieces, 
 chop up ; Icsir, break ; Cessir, break in pieces. But it is 
 often causative to the I st , and the modern tendency is to work 
 it entirely in this direction, and nearly supersede the iv th ; 
 apparently because vowels are obscurely and corruptly sounded. 
 Yet even when ir. and rv. are both causative, the sense 
 sometimes differs, because n. is still frequentative and im- 
 perfect. Thus from the root TJslam, know thou, comes n. 
 Sallim, teach thou (as a teacher who repeats or causes to 
 repeat) ; but iv. Aslim, inform, advertize, viz., by a complete 
 single act. 
 
 The in rd is often related to the primitive, as a Latin verb 
 compounded with Con. It almost always governs an accusa- 
 tive, and the syntax differs from that of the I st . Something 
 mutual is ordinarily suggested, often rivalry. Thus, Ectob 
 lee, I write to thee, Ocetib-ec, I le-write thee ; Aqsod, I sit, 
 Oqasud-ec, I sit-with thee ; but Oqsud-ec, Oqassud-ec, I seat 
 thee. 
 
 The ix th is comparable to a Latin inceptive verb in -esco, 
 and is especially used for verbs of Colour, as erubesco, 
 nigresco.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 101 
 
 The x th often expresses Desire (like a verb in -urio). It 
 also expresses a Judgment ; as, I judge a thing small, or 
 great. But sometimes it is a mere neuter verb, it may be, 
 with a very obscure relation of sense to the primitive : as, 
 Istemarr, he persevered; IsteTas, he was able (from root 
 Tws) ; Isteqall, he was plenipotentiary, unrestricted, inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 The vi th often expresses Pretension or Affectation : as, 
 Tebaha, he made display of finery ; Tefakar, he played the 
 self-glorifier. 
 
 The relation of the v th and vi th to the n nd and ni rd is 
 obviously the same as that of the n nd to the I st of Quadri- 
 radicals. Also the m rd and iv th of Quadriradicals are 
 analogous to the vn th and ix th of Triradicals. 
 
 139. By means of these derived forms, the language is at 
 no loss to express the Passive idea. It is not wonderful, then, 
 that the vocalized Passives have almost vanished out of the 
 spoken language. None of them had any Imperative or any 
 Gerund. The Aorist was formed by vowels o, a the Perfect 
 by vowels o, i. The vocalized Passive of i. is heard popularly 
 in a few words ; indeed, is used freely by the newspapers in 
 very unpretending and businesslike relations ; hence it may 
 be inferred that it will be quite recovered with the progress 
 of literary cultivation. Thus from Octob, write ; Oqtol, 
 kill ; come passives Cotib, Qotil ; Yocteb, Yoqtel. 
 
 When the vm th is active, it sometimes takes a vocalized 
 passive : thus from Intekib, elect thou ; Ontokib, he was 
 elected ; Ontekab, I am elected (eligor). Here the Perfect 
 takes o, o, i ; the Aorist o, e, a. 
 
 The Passive of in. changes d of the Perfect active into ou.
 
 102 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 16. DEGENERATE VEEBS. 
 
 140. Triradical verbs degenerate when the second and third 
 radical are the same, or when one or more radical is weak ; 
 that is, when it is *, w, or y. 
 
 "We have seen that the participle of the Surd verb under- 
 goes contraction ; as Marr for Marir, Xadd for Xadid. A 
 similar contraction occurs in the ni rd and vi th forms, but not 
 in the Imperative. JN^or indeed can such contraction apply 
 in the gerund xiddd of m. The forms n. and v. follow the 
 standard of Ibdil perfectly ; so do the imperatives of all 
 forms but i. and x. But it is worth while to present a 
 nearly full table. The words in italics follow the law of 
 Ibdil. No Surd verb has a ix th form. 
 
 
 IMVER. 
 
 AORIST. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 I. 
 
 xidd 
 
 axidd 
 
 xadd 
 
 (xadd) 
 
 xadd 
 
 III. 
 
 xudid 
 
 oxadd 
 
 xadd 
 
 1 xidud i 
 ( moxadda j 
 
 moxadd 
 
 IV. 
 
 axdid 
 
 oxidd 
 
 axadd 
 
 ixddd 
 
 moxidd 
 
 VI. 
 
 tex&dad 
 
 etexSdd 
 
 texa"dd 
 
 texadd 
 
 motexadd 
 
 VII. 
 
 inxddid 
 
 anxadd 
 
 inxadd 
 
 inxidud 
 
 mouxadd 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ixtedid 
 
 axtedd 
 
 ixtedd 
 
 ixtidud 
 
 moxtedd 
 
 X. 
 
 istexidd 
 
 estexidd 
 
 istexadd 
 
 istixdud 
 
 mostexidd 
 
 The only Passive Participles are the types Maxdoud of i. 
 and Mostexadd of x.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 103 
 
 141. Hollow verbs are quite regular in u., in., v., vr., ix. 
 (There is one such verb in- ix. from the root Eswadd, black ; 
 hence Moswidd, nigrescens.) Some are regular in iv. as 
 YoAwij, he necessitates. "We saw in the Participle of i. the 
 verb " hollow by w " assume y instead ; the same takes place 
 in the Passive of i. except the participle, and in iv., vn., 
 viii., x. Thus when a verb in one of these forms is given, 
 we cannot tell by its aspect whether the root has w or y. 
 The types stand thus : from root Q,wl. 
 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 AORIST 1. 
 
 PERF. 3. 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 PARTIC. 
 
 i. Pass. 
 
 
 
 oqal 
 
 qiel 
 
 
 
 maqoul 
 
 IV. 
 
 aqiel 
 
 oqiel 
 
 aqal 
 
 iqala 
 
 moqiel 
 
 VII. 
 
 inqal 
 
 anqal 
 
 inqal 
 
 inqiyal 
 
 monqal 
 
 VIII. 
 
 iqtel 
 
 aqtel 
 
 iqtel 
 
 iqtiyal 
 
 moqtel 
 
 X. 
 
 isteqiel 
 
 esteqiel 
 
 isteqal 
 
 istiqala 
 
 mosteqiel 
 
 The feminine form of the Gerund in rv. and x. deserves 
 remark. 
 
 142. When the first radical is w or y, the verbs <are called 
 Assimilated. If the verb be y, the verb in modern use is all 
 but regular ; only after o the y becomes u. If the first 
 radical be w, this letter is dropped in the Aorist, according 
 to the best style ; as, Wejed, he found ; Ejid, I find. But 
 Surd verbs of this class treat w as a strong radical, as Awodd, 
 I love. We have also said that in vm. the wt becomes U.
 
 104 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 143. When the 3rd radical is w or y, the verbs are called 
 Defective. They are of four classes, as follows : 
 
 1 Aor. 
 3 Perf. 
 
 1. apzou 
 faze 
 
 2. armi 
 rama' 
 
 3. anse' 
 nesi 
 
 4. arsa' 
 rasa' 
 
 maraud 
 
 throw 
 
 forget 
 
 feed cattle 
 
 of which the 1st is defective in w, the rest in y. 
 
 In the 2nd and 3rd pi. of Aorist, and pi. of Imperative, w 
 or y is clipped out ; though in Barbary they say, Termiyou, 
 Yermiyou, for the normal Termou, Yermou. 
 
 The perfects are slightly irregular. 
 
 1. 2. 
 
 3. 
 I. pi. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Tazeut 
 Faze, -et 
 Pazeuna 
 Tazeutom 
 Tazeu 
 
 Ramait 
 Rama, -met 
 
 Nesiet 
 
 Rasait, 
 
 Nesi, -siyet 
 
 etc. 
 
 Nesiena 
 
 as Rama 
 
 Nesietom 
 
 
 Nesou 
 
 
 Ramaina 
 
 Ramaitom 
 
 Ramau 
 
 The Active Participle is in all of the type razi(y). 
 
 The Passive Participle is Mafzouw, for 1, and Mermiey 
 for 2, 3, 4. 
 
 Verbs defective in w are few ; and in modern use they all 
 tend to supersede w by y. In all the derived forms this is 
 done. Otherwise, these forms have no irregularity, but that 
 y falls away after a, and o becomes i before y. Thus in the 
 Gerund of v., Terammi(y) for Terammoy. Also, as usual, 
 -at/a replaces -cfa in feminine participles passive. 
 
 A suffix, by changing the accent, introduces d, e, for a, e, 
 in 3rd person masculine singular of the perfect. 
 
 144. Of verbs " Hamzated" in 1st radical, *ekaA (take) is 
 the type. In Imperative of i., initial i or o is dropped
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEKN ARABIC. 105 
 
 (with *) ; as, KOA, take thou ; Mor, command ; Col, eat thou. 
 After o the * becomes w, as, TowakiA for To^akiA (reprove) ; 
 hence, vulgarly, in the whole form the * is apt to become w. 
 Surd verbs of this class take w for * in their aorist ; as, 
 *Enn, he groaned ; Aor. Awinn. Indeed in modern use w has 
 displaced * in the whole root *Ejj (catch fire, flame out) ; as, 
 Wejj, Aor. Yawijj ; and Wejja, a blaze. 
 
 145. When Hamze is 2nd radical, as in Is* el (ask), the 
 participle is Meswoul for Mes*oul, a microscopic difference. 
 The only derived form of this whole class (says C. de Per- 
 ceval) is seyal of in. 
 
 146. When Hamze is 3rd radical, the only irregularities 
 are such as obvious euphony suggests. But in popular use 
 these verbs merge their * in y. 
 
 147. Yerbs doubly defective are chiefly the following : 
 
 a. Ja, he came ; Eji, I come (Tesal, come thou !). Peri. 
 
 Jiet, I came ; Jat, she came ; Ja*ou, they came ; Jayi, 
 coming; Mejie, arrival. Pass, jie, ventum est. 
 
 b. *Ete, he came ; *Etet, she came ; Eteit, I came ; Etou, 
 
 they came ; Eti, I come ; Yetou, they come ; Eti, coming ; 
 Itiyan, arrival. vi th form, Terete. Imperative, Te* 
 (come). 
 
 c. Xa 4 , he wished ; Xat, she wished ; Xiet, I wished ; Xa*ou, 
 
 they wished ; Yexa, he wishes. 
 
 d. Sa% he misbehaved; 1. 2. p. Sout. In iv. Esa, he mis- 
 
 managed ; Aor. Osie. 
 
 e. *Aba*, he refused ; like *Ete*. 
 
 /. *Eyes, he despaired ; Aor. E*wies ? 
 
 g. Ea*a, he saw ; Ra*et, she saw ; Ra*eit, I saw ; Ra*ou, 
 they saw. Ara', I see ; Arou, they see. Ha, see thou.
 
 106 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AKABIC. 
 
 Passive Ro*i, it was seen ; Aor. Yora, it seems, is seen. 
 
 iv. Orie, I show; Arie, show thou (vulg. Arwi, Eawwi). 
 
 T. Tera*a liya, it appeared to me, but more popularly, 
 
 Terawa. in. Raya, he played the hypocrite (made a 
 
 show). 
 
 *Ete* and Ra*a are both popular words, but not in the 
 physical sense, in which Ja and Xaf supersede them. *Ete* 
 means, to come as an event ; part. El *eti, the future, ven- 
 turus. Ra*a means, he saw with the mind, he judged (Ray, 
 opinion), he saw a vision (Rouya, vision). Thus, In ra s eit, 
 if you shall have seen (it good). 
 
 148. The inability to compound verbs with prepositions 
 is a grave defect in Arabic. In part they supply it by the 
 creation of new roots, in part by detached prepositions (which 
 nevertheless cannot enter derivatives), and in part by a rather 
 arbitrary use of the derived forms. We have seen that the 
 m rd is often like a Latin compound of Con ; this is but a hint 
 at the practice. The vii th is sometimes like a Latin com- 
 pound of Re ; and so of others. 
 
 Let an Englishman reflect on some of our own verbs, as, 
 Bring up ; which, for secondary meanings, has Rear or Edu- 
 cate, Yomit, and (popularly) Pull up, Rein up suddenly, 
 Bring to a sudden stop. If we met some Arabic root in- 
 terpreted in a dictionary, 1. Educate, 2. Yomit, 3. Check 
 a horse, we might think it a monstrosity. This will suffice to 
 indicate how an injudicious lexicographer increases difficulty. 
 In fact, the pupil should, if possible, confine himself for a 
 while to the primary cardinal senses.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODKEN ABABIC. 107 
 
 149. We are accustomed to form a Passive Participle even 
 from a verb which has a detached preposition ; as, from " I 
 allude to a thing," "the thing alluded to" The Arabs seem 
 to aim at, but miss, this idiom. They cannot bear the 
 preposition isolated ; hence they attach to it a superfluous 
 pronoun suffix, in defiance (it might seem) of logic. Thus, 
 from Oumi ileihi, I hint at it (nod to it), they get, El xai* el 
 mouma ileihi, the thing hinted at. This pervades the language. 
 
 We may partially explain it by the analogy of the Latin 
 impersonal use of the Passive verb ; especially since the par- 
 ticiple in this idiom has no concord with the preceding noun. 
 Thus, " The slaves above mentioned," " The slaves spoken 
 of," El sabied el maqoul sanhom ; not, maqouloun or ma- 
 qpula, though Sabied is plural. The concord to Sabied is 
 found in the plural horn ; and Maqpul is impersonal, like 
 Latin Dictum (est) for Diximus. Thus a rude translation 
 might be, Ol servi ol dicebatur de iis ; i.e. Ol servi, de quibus 
 dicebatur. And in this idiom the second El is often said to 
 be put for ElleAi, who. In fact, the vocalized passive is 
 occasionally used like the Latin impersonal verb. It is well 
 to put a comma after El, when it is thus used. In GN., El 
 macen, el mafouga bihi el e0er el xariefa, the place, wherein 
 (are) preserved the honoured relics. Here mallfouga in fern. 
 agrees with e0er, imperf. plur. 
 
 17. ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 
 150. Adverbs of Time : 
 
 Afterwards, basdan ; pop. 
 
 basdoh. 
 Again, aiSan (see also 153). 
 
 Already, qad (with Perfect 
 
 only). 
 Always, dayiman.
 
 108 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABA.BIC. 
 
 At length (see 153). 
 Before (adv.], qablan. 
 Beforehand, min qabl. 
 Besides,* sada. 
 Daily, yeum bi yeum ; yeu- 
 
 man fa yeuman. 
 Early, beccier. 
 Earlier and later, sebiqan 
 
 wa lafLuqan. 
 
 Ever (with negative), *ebadan. 
 Ever since, min basdoh [Boc. 
 
 under Depuis] ; mond ui- 
 
 naidin. 
 
 For ever, ila el *ebad. 
 Formerly, sebiqan. 
 Henceforward, min basdoh ; 
 
 min el* an wa yasudan. 
 Hereafter, seuf. 
 Hitherto, ila el*en. 
 Instantly, alan, fil al, fil 
 
 sesa, lil waqt, fil uin. 
 Lately, can qarieb [also Soon]. 
 Long ago, Talama (it is long 
 
 ago that). 
 
 No longer (see 153). 
 Meanwhile, fil e0na. 
 Never at any time, la ... fie 
 waqti-md . . . *ebadan. GN. 
 
 Now, el* en ; heAe el waqt ; 
 
 heAe el sesa. 
 Now and then (at times, 
 
 occasionally), aHyanan ; 
 
 uin fa fluin. 
 Just now, tewa (a little while 
 
 ago, Alep.) ; bi heAe el 
 
 qorb. 
 Often, amrar ceGiera ; mira- 
 
 ran ; coll qaliel ; ceG'rama 
 
 (it is often that) ; [ceGie- 
 
 ran (Ob. Dial.), too much]. 
 Very often, ecGarma. 
 How often ? cem marra ? 
 Once, marraten ; marraten 
 
 ma ; marra waJluda. 
 Presently, in a minute, mar- 
 rat *okra'. 
 Previously, *enifan. 
 Not long ago (recently), 
 
 *enifan [Boc. Nagueres]. 
 Rarely, nadiran ; zehiedan ? 
 Quickly, sajilan ; seriesan. 
 Seldom, qallama (it is seldom 
 
 that). 
 Sometimes, aHyanan ; auqat 
 
 auqat ; basi auqat ; waq- 
 
 ten. 
 
 * Besides that they bow the head, they also , ada ennehom yaflnoun 
 ra*sehom, fa*innehom aiian.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AEABIC. 
 
 109 
 
 Sometimes sometimes ; 
 
 marraten marraten ; 
 
 teraten teraten. 
 Soon, san qarieb [also, Lately] ; 
 
 lailuqan, Kaz. (?) ; san- 
 
 ma qaliel (ere long). 
 Still, basdoh (vtdg. ?) ; HI 
 
 sesa (see also 153). 
 
 151. Adverbs of Quantity : 
 Almost, ilia qaliel, ced (see 
 
 153). 
 
 Barely, (bi) mojarrad. 
 Enough, cifaya(ten). 
 Entirely, bil collieya. 
 Few, qaliel(oun). 
 Gradually, tedriejan, Tuba- 
 
 qan san Tubaq. 
 Little, qaliel. 
 A little, xowaiya. 
 Little by little, xai*en fa 
 
 xai*en. 
 Less, aqall. 
 In the least, adna* xai* (the 
 
 slightest thing). 
 Many, ceGier(oun). 
 
 152. Conjunctions governing 
 According as, } cema, 
 
 As, ) miQlima. 
 
 As if, ce^enna. 
 
 Then (at that time), IAACC ; 
 
 waqta^Liin ; uina s iAin, 
 
 yeuma*iAin. 
 To-day, elyeum. 
 To-morrow, fadan. 
 Yesterday, *ems. 
 Not yet, lil sesa ma , li} 
 
 sesa la . Also, la ... 
 
 basd, lem . . . basd. GN. 
 
 > cem ? 
 
 Much, ceGier. 
 
 How much ? 
 
 How many ? 
 
 How much ? qadd eix' ? 
 
 How many ? cem . . . sada- 
 
 dan? 
 
 More, ecBer. 
 Nearly, teqrieban. 
 Only, faqai- (vulg. bes). 
 Scantily, Sanien ? (Bocthor, 
 
 Scarcely, ceudan ? bil jehd ; 
 bilceid? bilcedd. (See 153.) 
 Somewhat, xai*en, nausan. 
 Somewhere about, qadar. 
 Totally, qaTuba(ten). 
 Verbs : 
 Because, . li*enna ; bi sebab 
 
 enna ; li*ejl enna. 
 Before (antequam), qablama.
 
 110 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 fair enna. 
 
 Although,* | wa^in, walau, 
 Though, ) mas en. 
 Not hut that, nasam enna. 
 Not but that, ilia inna (also, 
 
 Nevertheless, in Faris). 
 In case,f bi Hai9(en). [Bi 
 
 flaiG ceAe, in such a case 
 
 as this.] 
 On condition that, sala en, 
 
 bi xarr en. 
 Except that, 
 Only that, 
 Forasmuch as, Hai9 inna ; 
 
 iA enna (iA inna?), Rob. 
 
 Cr., 244. 
 
 Inasmuch as, bi ma inna. 
 On the ground that (as 
 
 though), sala enna. 
 However (quocunque modo), 
 
 ceifama. 
 
 How much soever, mehma. 
 How often soever, collama, 
 
 mehma. 
 
 [However, adv. = Howbeit, 
 
 be it as it may, ceifamacen.] 
 
 If, in, incen, iAe ; lau (were 
 
 it that). 
 
 If ever, i 
 
 Lest, li s ella, liceila. 
 
 As long as, madam, Toulima, 
 
 ma. 
 
 As much as, qaddama. 
 Insomuch that, sala enna, 
 
 hi naus flatte (in sort 
 
 that}. 
 
 that, ya laite. 
 In proportion as, collima, 
 
 qaddima, flashima, qad- 
 
 rima. 
 
 In respect that, min ai0 enna. 
 Seeing that, Since, na5aran 
 
 en, iAecen, lemmacen. 
 Ever since, monA (DIOAA), 
 
 monA en-, monAoma-. 
 As soon as, sandama, auwal 
 
 ma, flalima, waqtima, 
 
 Huinima. 
 
 That (ut, I'va), en. 
 That (oW, quod), enna. 
 So that, atte' *inna; sala 
 
 enna, hi naus en. 
 In that, fie *enna. 
 In order that, li, cei, licei, 
 
 ilatte. 
 
 * The response is "Walecinna, attamen. Yet, in place of Although, we 
 may say simply Indeed, profecto, quidem, viz. Nasam inna (quasi, Granted 
 that] ; since Walecinna makes the logic clear. 
 
 t Kazimirski says, Bi Hai9 en, a tel point que.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Ill 
 
 That not (ut ne, iva //), ella, 
 
 ceila. 
 
 Till, Until, Hatte, ilatte en. 
 Unless, ilia, iAlem. 
 Unless it were that, laula. 
 When, lemma, IA, IAC ma 
 
 (mete' ?). 
 
 Whenever, lAma. [Be it 
 when it may, LA. ma cen.] 
 Where, flai0. 
 Whereas, flal inna. 
 Wherever, flaiOoma, einama. 
 Whilst, bainama, sandama, 
 madam (bima), b'iAma, fiema. 
 
 153. There is a tendency of the language (shared by 
 Hebrew) to express adverbs of time by verbs ; as by saying, 
 " He repeated to go," instead of, " He went again." Thus : 
 
 1. Ma sad, he did not repeat, degenerated into "not 
 again." La tesoud tefsal-he, do not do it again. 
 
 2. " No longer" is expressed by the verb Baqi (it remained 
 over, continued), which changes with the person. Thus : I 
 no longer visit him, ma baqiet ozeyiroh ; or, ma abqa fie 
 mozeyiratoh. Also, La yaso'ud yaji, he no longer comes. 
 
 3. For Almost, it is classical to use Ced. Thus, They 
 almost touch one another, cedou yetemassou ; where Ced is 
 rendered, " he failed narrowly." So Bocthor. 
 
 4. Faris employs this verb with the negative for Scarcely : 
 La yeced toujad, (the one-humped camel) is scarcely found. 
 Sabat, Acts xxvii. 7, omits La from Ced. " We scarcely 
 were come over against Cnidus," cedna en noqabil Medos. 
 Under Raser (tout au pres) Boc. has : Fat jenb-oh, Hatte' 
 cSd yaydom-oh, almost. Under Hanquer he has ced yaqas, 
 il a manque de tomber, he all but fell. But Bocthor and 
 Catafago take no notice of Ced. Freytag and Kazimirski 
 give it just opposite senses, though both agree that Wala 
 ceudan (not even scarcely) means not at all. The language
 
 112 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 needs a word for "scarcely"; Bil jehd, by effort, is not 
 always appropriate. Whether Bocthor's word Aanien can he 
 often used is not at all clear. In the "Algiers Mercury" 
 I read, " Bil ceid flatte qaTas mesefet miel wa nuyf," he hardly 
 even traversed the distance of a mile and a half. Perhaps 
 bil ceud was intended, or bil cedd (a peine, Boc.). In Aleppo, 
 anjaq (scarcely), from Turkish, is used. 
 
 5. "At length" is supplied by the verb soud, without the 
 negative : Ceif sad intaqal el llocm ila millet okra' ? Quo- 
 modo tandem transiit imperium in sectam alterum ? Ilatte' 
 yasoud el insen yastaqid , eb usque ut tandem homo 
 crediderit ; MaAe terahi, yasoud yarodd he*ola sun ? 
 Quidnam vides, (quod) tandem avertat hosae ab ? ad 
 yaqdir yosefir, tandem potuit iter facere. 
 
 6. We constantly say, "He continues to work," for "he is 
 still working." So the Arabs have, Ma zel (he has not 
 ceased =Lem yezel) with the Adverbial participle, for Still, 
 or with the aorist. This is both popular and classical. 
 Basdoh for "still" (as, Ra*eit el celb, basdoh flaiyan, Eob. 
 Cr., I saw the dog, still alive), though popular, is hard to 
 defend. De Perceval calls it Maronite Arabic. 
 
 7. For "he rises early," "come early to me," they may 
 use the verb Beccir (n.), to be early at a thing. Kazimirski 
 has Beccirou, for, they were too early (at the evening prayer), 
 which shows the verb not to be confined to the morning. 
 
 The classical language has many curious verbs that imply 
 time ; as, RouJl, go in the evening, Isri, travel by night, 
 Obcor, do something early, etc.; but the sense of these is 
 now modified.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERX ARA.BIC. 113 
 
 18. ANCIENT CASES OF THE NOUN. 
 
 154. The ancient Noun had three possible Canes, which 
 I venture to call the Absolute, the Postpositive, and the 
 Adverbial Cases. (To name them Nominative, Genitive, and 
 Accusative, suggests false ideas to a Western learner.) Duals, 
 plurals in -oun, and certain adjectives, had but two cases, 
 which may be called Absolute and Oblique. We will speak 
 of these last first. 
 
 In the Dual the Absolute is in -an, -en, the Oblique in 
 -ain, -ein. 
 
 In the Perfect Plural, the Absolute is in -oun, -oun, the 
 Oblique in -ien, -uin. 
 
 In the modern language the forms in -dn, -oun, are almost 
 confined to the simple predicate which has no copula ex- 
 pressed (see 117-120), and even there is not insisted on. 
 The form in -dn, -oun, is also used in careful style for 
 a direct nominative (i.e. subject of a verb), when it is not 
 affected by any introductory particle. 
 
 155. The three cases are marked by the inflexions -on, -in, 
 -en (-an), when the noun is undefined; but these are never 
 written in the text. Moreover, if the noun be defined the n 
 falls away ; leaving only -o, -i, -e (-a). It is impossible for 
 the modern tongue to retain these ; for the final -o at once 
 suggests the sense -oh (his), and final -i the sense (my), 
 except indeed another suffix be attached, which begins with 
 a consonant. Thus we can without inconvenience say, Bila- 
 do-com, Biladi-com, Bilada-com. But this being limited to 
 the suffixes -M, -com, -horn, is not worth while to retain, or at 
 least, as a fact, has not been retained. Whether it is worth
 
 114 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 while to struggle for Li biladi-com, as better than Li bilad- 
 com, or Li bilada-com, is evidently an unsettled question 
 with Paris and Catafago. The learner has at present a right 
 to ignore the -o, -i, -a, entirely. 
 
 156. The inflexion -on also (it seems) is confined to poetry 
 and ancient style. The rules of grammar concerning -on and 
 -an are so complex and so arbitrary, that, once lost, they are 
 of necessity irrecoverable by a nation. As they never con- 
 duce to perspicuity or any imaginable good, we have a right 
 to rejoice that they are dead. [If they are still retained 
 among the Wahabees, as Mr. Pal grave seems to say, that will 
 not lead to their renewed use elsewhere.] 
 
 157. The Postpositive Case was assumed by a noun, chiefly, 
 1. After a preposition. 2. After an adjective, or pronoun 
 adjective, preceding its noun. 3. After another noun with 
 which it is in composition. In the last it is like the Latin 
 genitive ; in the second it is monstrously unlike. In Art. 31 
 it was remarked that Aou saql, intelligent, after Pair, passes 
 into Pair Aie saql. Here Aie is the Postpositive Case of AOU. 
 Such an idiom is now exceptional. The only general question 
 in the modern dialect is, whether at all to retain -i, -in, after 
 a preposition. To Min biladz-com, and such like, allusion has 
 been made. In phrases which are equivalent to an adverb, 
 the termination -in is not certainly quite dead. Catafago's 
 Dictionary (at least in the Anglo-Arabic part) may be said to 
 represent modern mercantile Arabic ; and he has many such 
 phrases as the following, the noun being undefined : 
 
 Grievously, bi colli fammm. 
 Incautiously, bi colli faflatm. 
 
 Intentionally, bi 
 Impetuously, bi xiddatm.
 
 BANKBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 115 
 
 When two nouns following a preposition are joined by wa, 
 lie generally adds in to the former only : 
 Sluggishly, bi coll(i) ceselm wa ihmal. 
 
 Stingily, bi coll(i) Tamaswn wa bokl. [Yet elsewhere, bi coll 
 Tamas. Also : Intently, bi coll(i) jaddm wa jehdm.] 
 
 When the noun is followed by an adjective, he generally 
 adds -in to the noun alone. Thus : 
 
 Signally, bi wejhm mexhour. 
 In a happy hour, bi sesatm messoudat. 
 Perhaps these are mere attempts of merchants to read 
 Arabic like scholars. I cannot remember to have heard 
 anything of the sort in my narrow experience ; nor does 
 C. de Perceval mention it any more than De Braine. 
 
 158. The Adverbial Case is extremely common, 1. Tor 
 forming adverbs, whether from noun, adjective, or participle, 
 as, Xai'en, somewhat; Baftaten, suddenly; Basuidan, afar; 
 Dayiman, always. 2. "With a noun which expresses either 
 a point of time or duration of time ; as, Padan, on the 
 morrow (from Pad, Padwa, in nominative) ; Neheran wa 
 leilan, by day and by night ; Xehran cemilan, an entire 
 month ; Suxrien yeuman, for twenty days. 3. As said in 
 119, Ja reciban, he came riding. But we must enlarge this 
 to contain every indirect Predicate ; thus, I made him happy, 
 Ana jasaltoh sesuidw (i.e. in a happy state}. 4. The Cognate 
 Accusative of our Latin and Greek grammars is rendered by 
 the Adverbial Case ; in fact, we generally need a preposition 
 in English ; as, they rejoiced with mighty joy ; Faraflou 
 faraflflw za^uiman. Akin to this is the double accusative, 
 Melli el ce s s nebieAew, which we must render, "Fill the
 
 116 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 glass with wine." Yet both these instances belong to " high 
 style." 5. When an undefined noun is complement to an 
 adjective (as in 14) it falls into the adverbial case, as, 
 Saguim qowwaten. But this is perhaps more antiquated 
 than Saguim el qowwa. 6. After Inna, which opens a clause, 
 nearly like "As regards," writers add the adverbial case; 
 thus, Inna kadim# fie e*flad el adyira, now as regards a 
 servant in one of the abbeys. 
 
 The misfortune of this adverbial case is, that in unpointed 
 prose even the learned neglect it with feminines in at, et ; and 
 do so for the highly unsatisfactory reason, that in that case 
 no textual " Elif " is added to guide the reader's eye ! This 
 suggests that the idiom utterly died out and has been partially 
 recovered by learned effort. If it cannot be recovered for 
 feminines as well as masculines it does not seem worth any 
 pains. To limit the use strictly to adverbs seems then the 
 wiser course. 
 
 159. It may be well here to observe that though an un- 
 defined noun or adjective in the predicate remains unmodified, 
 if the copula verb (is, are) is understood, yet when some 
 verb like Cen (was), Suir (is become), etc., is expressed, the 
 predicate at once falls into the adverbial case, exactly as in 
 Ja recib<m. This seems at first unnatural; but it must be 
 considered that Cen wezier, means, A vizier existed; there 
 was a vizier. Hence if we wish to say, He was a vizier, it 
 relieves ambiguity to express it by, Cen wezienm. After all, 
 we may soften the harshness of the last to ourselves, by 
 regarding it as equivalent to, He was for a vizier, Erat pro 
 ministro regis. The adverbial case is still used in dictionaries
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN ARABIC. 117 
 
 to express the Western accusative following an active verb, 
 when the noun is indefinite ; as, Ra*eit rajolaw, I saw a man. 
 This certainly is not popular ; it belongs to a scientific nota- 
 tion. Words of the form Aflmaq cannot take -an, yet I find 
 e'kanm in GN. as well as ekar. 
 
 The pronoun AOU has AC for its adverbial case, Aie for 
 its postpositive. Thus from AOU saql, wise, we have Cen 
 cle saql, he was wise. From AOU el fikama, endowed with 
 grandeur, flaSrat Aie el fikama. The procession was one of 
 delightful aspect, Cen el maucib de mai^ar behiej.
 
 118 
 
 PAET III. PEAXIS. 
 
 1. TABLES OF PLURALS. 
 
 f 
 m rd type, xomous, (jw*^-i ; molouc, 
 
 is very often of the type xams, 
 fern. 
 
 Z-y" 
 
 ^ . The singular 
 i , sometimes xetle, 
 
 *.^i 
 
 sea, bollb'ur (or 4, 5) 
 potherb(s), boqoul 
 cow (ox), boqour 
 belly, boTo'un 
 tear, domous 
 road, doroub 
 bough, [>oyb'un (or 4) 
 throat, flolouq 
 forest, floroux (or 4) 
 field, floqoul 
 
 pi. sodoud koTo'uT kodoud 
 soyoun fo*ous ro s ous 
 
 saddle, sorouj 
 back, Sb'hour 
 star, nojoum 
 river, nohour (or 4) 
 flower, zohour (or 4) 
 eagle, nosour 
 heart, qoloub 
 horn, qoroun 
 rock, yb'kour 
 flesh, meat ; lofloum 
 
 soyouf boyout 
 *OTOU! *omour
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 119 
 
 V th type, rijal, 
 
 qidra, kettle, pi. 
 fluyn, fortress, 
 jild, hide, skin, 
 jisr, bridge, 
 
 iv th type, aqmar, jUjl ; aulad, 
 Harx, forest, p\ 
 kobz, bread, 
 welad, child, 
 maTar, rain, 
 xajara, tree, 
 kaxab, timber, 
 marse, cord, 
 jesed, body, 
 jism, substance, (3) < 
 jirm, body, bulk, (3) 
 
 c. 
 
 qird, male ape, pi. & 
 jiA.r, root (as turnip), tj j^ 
 jiAS, bole, trunk, 
 surq, root, vein, 
 
 mauja, wave, 
 marS, disease, 
 qofl, padlock, 
 sinn, tooth, 
 ILajar, stone, 
 qalam, reedpen, 
 flabl, rope, 
 qixr, husk, 
 bab, door, 
 riefl, wind, 
 
 Just 
 
 Common with adjectives whose 
 
 singular is of the form cebier, 
 
 rajol, man, pi. Jl^. 
 
 celb, dog, t_?^ 
 
 bafl, mule, 
 jebal, mountain, 
 
 belad, district, pi. 
 flajar, stone, (i' 
 
 bint, girl, 
 Hair, wall,
 
 120 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 baflr, sea, 
 siete, plate, 
 raxab, fresh date, 
 yaflfa, platter, 
 
 / 
 
 pi. j\~? kaima, tent, pi. 
 
 Aieb, wolf, c-^lj j 
 
 Geub, garment, ^-r-'^H 
 
 Giyab for Giwab. 
 
 cibar, su5am, sufar, milafl, diyar (precincts], nise (women]. 
 
 f ^ 
 
 vi th type, *omara, \"Jt\ , solema, UJ (learned men). 
 
 pi. 
 
 jehil, ignorant, pi. 
 sefieh, wanton, 
 *esier, captive, 
 
 wezier, vizier, 
 weciel, deputy, 
 sefier, ambassador, 
 
 ra*ies, captain, chief, pi. ro*ese. 
 
 vn th type, cotteb, C >IL ; tojjar, j\-&? ; especially from 
 a participial adjective formed as L-^J^ r^T^ (Mercantile or 
 Reduplicate Plural). Thus, /lL>. , Jl>- , 5^5 , <-_. w& 
 
 vin th type, especially from singulars of the form ^Ix* ; 
 zeman, pi. ezmina (Dactylic Plural). 
 
 mecen, place, pi. 
 zeman, time, 
 jenalL, wing, 
 
 metes, piece of } 
 property, ) 
 
 samoud, pillar, 
 libes, trowser, 
 
 aL-M 
 
 Jau, a light, 
 lisen, tongue, 
 Husan, horse, 
 f-olam, groom 
 
 pi. 
 
 ~ \ M 
 
 (lad, young man), 
 silah, weapon, <Ls~* ! | 
 
 In a surd root transposition takes place ; as, from Serier,
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 121 
 
 cradle, throne, pi. Esirra, for Esrira ; Hilel, crescent moon, 
 pi. Ehilla for Ehlila. 
 
 rx th (False Dual). 1st with three strong radicals, less 
 common. Folam, lad, pi. Folman, ^L^Jc ; Bilad, country, 
 pi. Boldan, ^JuU; Xaxba, rod, stick, pi. XoTban, ,^1.^2-1 . 
 Mswan, women. 2nd with hollow root ; Nar, fire, pi. 
 Nieran, ^r*-> 
 
 soud, pole, stick, pi. suidan, 
 
 seq, leg, pi. sieqan, 
 
 flayix, flaiT, wall, pi. fluiTan, ^Ik..^. 
 
 kaif, thread, pi. kiexan (3), l 
 
 xale, a shawl, pi. ^ iL-i or J Li 
 
 xabb, young man in prime, pi. xobban, 
 
 yabi, boy, pi. yobyan, 
 
 X th (Short Plural), Borce, pool, pi. Borec ; Mediena, city, 
 pi. modon. 
 
 *omma, nation, pi. omam, +s\ 
 
 jo00a, carcase, pi. jo0e9 ci-l5j- 
 
 dobba, bear, pi. dobab, '-r*^ 
 
 quTTa, cat, pi. quTaT, ? 
 
 mille, sect, pi. milel, Jl^* 
 
 ?? 
 qazen, cauldron, pi. qozon, j^jJ 
 
 luflaf, counterpane, pi. loflof, 
 
 9 
 
 sefiena, ship, pi. sofon, ^iLo 
 
 The learner may practise himself in Arabizing the nouns 
 which here remain in European type.
 
 122 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AEABIC. 
 
 2. EXERCISES ON OF. 
 
 It was observed above that our of is often evaded in Arabic. 
 In fact, we also can say, Love to one's country, A desire after 
 riches, A hankering for food ; which supersede of by another 
 preposition. This is done especially when the former of two 
 nouns is a verbal substantive, of which the Arabs also take 
 advantage. Examples : 
 
 El modafasa san el selTana, the defence of the empire. 
 
 El wajibet el oula' sala el jonoud, the first duties of soldiers. 
 
 El akbar san moqabala, the news of a personal meeting. 
 
 Iluseb san afsalihom, account of their doings. 
 
 UAtiyaj ila kidmathe, need of her service. 
 
 Lozoumoh min el mawasir, his need of the water-pipes. 
 
 El temettos bil hodou, the enjoyment of tranquillity. 
 
 Ana xahid sala asmaliho, I am witness of his works. 
 
 El cefaya fil jonoud el baflrieya, the sufficiency of the marine 
 troops. 
 
 Bil rapm san el amTar, in spite of the rains. 
 
 La makafa min tejdied il fetn, (there is) not fear of the re- 
 newal of the uproar. 
 
 Talb qarS min mablaf darahim, a demand of a loan of a. sum 
 of money. 
 
 Oqqat sasel, an ounce of honey. 
 Milsaqat masdan, a spoon of metal. 
 Cies min el flarier, a pouch of silk. 
 Sofloun bellaur, dishes of fine glass. 
 TJflda' tile el asdad, one of those numbers. 
 CeQier min afyaniho, many of its boughs.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 123 
 
 Ana moxakkuy li melieceti, I am a representative of my queen. 
 Arbas mieya belt min xisri, four hundred stanzas of my poetry. 
 Hie sala aflsen flal min el rafla, it is in the best state of repose. 
 Damaxq cenet maflaTT lil uSTurab, Damascus was a focus of 
 
 commotion. 
 IVemma yarat el*an menzilan li] selam, wa mercezen lil 
 
 hodou, yet it has become now an abode of peace, and 
 a centre of tranquillity. 
 Jebal Lobnan hou manbas lil xiqaq wa el fetn, Mount Lebanon 
 
 is a fountain of division and sedition. 
 El sesa saxara min el neher, the hour ten of the day. 
 Rajfa qawieya min zelzelet il *erS, a strong shock of earth- 
 quake. 
 El sayifl jemiesoh min el akxab, the quarter (is) all of it of 
 
 wood (timbers). 
 Fie mecenain min jism el imraa, in two places of the woman's 
 
 body. 
 El qoTb el ximalieya min el cornet el *erSuiya, the north pole 
 
 of the terrestrial globe. 
 Cen wabil maTar *ems, there was a heavy shower of rain 
 
 yesterday. 
 Jomhour wafir min asyan el *eheli, an abundant concourse of 
 
 the chief men of the population. 
 Ziyadat fayidat el yolfl, the immensity of the advantage of 
 
 peace. 
 Sorsat qusay jinayatoh, the swiftness of the punishment of 
 
 his offence. 
 Min Taraf jelalet ImperaTour Numse, on the part of the 
 
 majesty of the Emperor of Austria.
 
 124 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 3. SMALL TALK, WITHOUT VERBS. 
 
 Min ein baflac he ABC ? whence is that mule of thine ? 
 Houa min Ispania, he is from Spain. 
 Bafli aflsen min flumarec, my mule is better than thy ass. 
 "Wa fluyani aflsen min baflec, and my horse is better than thy 
 
 mule. 
 
 Huyanoh cediex faqaT, his horse is a gelding (hack) only. 
 Lil darb el cediex kair, for the road a hackney is good. 
 ala '1 darb leis meliefl el celLail, on the road a bloodhorse is 
 
 not good. 
 
 El bafl meliefl lil sefar, a mule is good for travel. 
 El *erS Taiyiba hona jiddan, the soil is very good here. 
 *ErS Ilaleb collohe mokyuba, the soil of Aleppo is all fertile. 
 Hie jaiyida, masloum ! it is excellent, no doubt ! 
 Collohe sehile wa wasisa hona, all of it is level and wide here. 
 Hona monesiba lij rocoub, here it is suited for riding. 
 Walecin honelic wasura jiddan, yet yonder it is very rugged. 
 Ei nasam ; el jibal saliya, yes ; the mountains are high. 
 Fil doroub Tuin ceQier, in the roads is plentiful clay (mud). 
 El jemal leis monesib lil suin, the camel is not suited to mud. 
 Meliell el bafl sala'l jebal, the mule is good on the mountain. 
 Fi] sehl asen el jemal, on the plain better is the camel. 
 El jemal qawi wa mecin, the camel is strong and stout. 
 "Walecin ajra' el ILuyan, yet swifter (is) the horse. 
 Masloum ! akfaf el kail, no doubt ! horses are lighter. 
 El bifal fie biladi melieHa, the mules in my country are good. 
 Bifalecom axwal min bifalina, your mules are taller than ours. 
 Nasam ; ecbar wa aqwa', yes ; bigger and stronger.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" ARABIC. 125 
 
 Robbama el flumar sandacom cebier, possibly the ass with. 
 
 you is large. 
 Fie biladina el Hamier yafiera, in our country the asses are 
 
 small. 
 Bil Jlaqq ! leisou flamier, bel jiflax, in truth ! they are not 
 
 asses, but donkeys. 
 El jaflx sanied, motsub jiddan, the donkey is stubborn, very 
 
 tiresome. 
 
 Sasb lil rocoub, wa ha/ru, difficult for riding, and slow. 
 El bifal sandana faliya, the mules with us are dear. 
 El bafl afla' min el cediex, the mule is dearer than the hackney. 
 Bel min el fluyan aiian, nay, even than the horse too. 
 La ! el ceflail el *eyliey afla' bil ceGier, no ! the genuine 
 
 bloodhorse is dearer by far. 
 
 Ein ibnec el najjar ? where is thy son the carpenter ? 
 Hou fayib sanna min xehrain, he is absent from us for two 
 
 months. 
 HeAih el sesa houa fie Bafdad, (at) this hour (moment) he is 
 
 in Bagdad. 
 
 Hel zeujetoh masoh honec ? is his wife with him there ? 
 La, bel collo sailetoh hona, no, but all his family is here. 
 E tile el bilad aflsen min biladina? is that country better 
 
 than our country. 
 
 Ilalethe meliefla, bil ILaqq, its condition is good, in truth. 
 Leiset aflsen min flaletna fie colli xai*, it is not better than 
 
 our state in everything. 
 Coll el matjar honelic auses minnoh sandana, all the trade 
 
 yonder (is) wider than it (is) with us. 
 Tile el bilad fLarra ceGieran, that country is hot excessively. 
 El xams aflarr minnehe hona, the sun is hotter than she is here.
 
 126 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 El belda mePana min el fabar, the town is full of dust. 
 Sand el enher el rief moGmir, along the rivers the country is 
 
 fruitful. 
 
 El donya sokna fil yaif, the world is hot in the summer. 
 El ILoqoul qaflula min el ILarr, the fields are parched by the 
 
 heat. 
 
 4. AT THE CLOSE OF A JOURNEY. 
 
 El donya mofayyima, the world (sky) is cloudy. 
 
 0arat el riefl, the wind has sprung up. 
 
 TemTor, sala 5anni, fil sesa, it will rain, in my opinion, in 
 
 a minute. 
 
 Waqis maxar fil bosda, rain (is) falling in the distance. 
 "Wa iAe ! jayi salaina, and lo ! (it is) coming on us. 
 SafluiH ! el ma-rar zekak ( fazier), true ! the rain is profuse 
 
 (copious). 
 
 El amd lillah ! ma hou yaqies, thank God ! it is not sleet. 
 Giyabi mabloula, my clothes are wetted. 
 Lecinni lest bardan ceSieran, yet I am not extremely cold. 
 HeAe el maxar hou dafi, this rain is warm. 
 Nadfa' (Netedaffa') basdoh (basdan), we shall get warm 
 
 afterwards. 
 
 Hel el kan basuid min hona ? is the caravanserai far hence ? 
 El mesefe moqarib mielein, the distance is about two miles. 
 El waflal samieq jiddan, the mire is very deep. 
 Masloum ! cen wabilan min maTar, surely ! it was a torrent 
 
 of rain. 
 
 EPen waqiTa raxxa faqaT, now (is) falling a drizzle only. 
 E baflec tesban min el Tuin, is thy mule wearied by the mud ?
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 127 
 
 Ba[>li ma hou Gebit jiddan, my mule is not very firm. 
 
 Cetifoh semiece ceGieran, his shoulder is too thick. 
 
 Qawayimoh raqieqa bil faya, his legs are delicate in extreme. 
 
 Dabba miQl heAe arda' min flumar, a beast like this is worse 
 than an ass. 
 
 "Walecin iahroh sariei, yet his back is broad. 
 
 Hehona yarat el *erS yebise, here the ground is become dry. 
 
 El darb auses minnohe qablan, the road is wider than it (was) 
 before. 
 
 Taiyib ! el dawabb naxiexa (nixaT), good ! the beasts are in 
 spirits. 
 
 Eheh ! nayul ila'l kan fij. sesa, ha ! we shall reach the cara- 
 vanserai quickly. 
 
 Qoddamana nes ceGieroun, before us are many people. 
 
 Collohom reciboun, all of them riding. 
 
 Leisou jemieshom rijal, they are not all men. 
 
 Honelic niswan min basuid, yonder are women afar. 
 
 El niswan ecGar min el rijal, . . (are) more numerous than. . . 
 
 ala 5anni, hie qafila, in my opinion it is a caravan (company 
 of travellers). 
 
 Aelic hejien abyaS, that yonder is a white dromedary. 
 
 Min jomlathom jiflax ceGiera, among them are many donkeys. 
 
 Wa honec rajolein sala jemal, and there, two men on a camel. 
 
 Selam salaicom, peace (be) to you. 
 
 ~Wa salaicom el selam, and to you (be) peace. 
 
 Balafna ila '1 menzil, we have reached the alighting place. 
 
 Hel mensoum el kan ? is the caravanserai well arranged ? 
 
 Oybor daqieqa, fa nasrif, be patient a moment, then we 
 (shall) know.
 
 128 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 5. AT THE CARAVANSERAI. 
 
 Cennis auSati, sweep my chamber. 
 
 Leis xai* hona me^b'um, not (any) thing here is well arranged. 
 
 Cennest el *erJuiya, ya kawaja, I have swept the floor, sir. 
 
 El micnese me^ousa, the broom (is) spoiled. 
 
 Piraxi leis naSuif, my bed is not clean. 
 
 Ente nassen, ya aki (akoui) ! thou art sleepy, my brother ! 
 
 La taifi el nar, do not put out the fire. 
 
 El nar (fern.} inxafat, is put out. 
 
 Bi weddina fada*, we want dinner. 
 
 Oqsod sala'l diewan, sit on the sofa. 
 
 Ijlis janbi, sit by me. 
 
 Ijlis sand el sofra, sit at the table (tray of leather). 
 
 Jieb el fada% bring the dinner. 
 
 HQ'TT el Tasam sala'l sofra, put down the food on the table. 
 
 Nawilni sicciena, hand me a knife. 
 
 Onawiloh lee, hehona, I hand it to thee, here. 
 
 Etenawaloh ruin yedec, I receive it from thy hand. 
 
 Hel oqaddim lee laflme ? shall I present to thee a bit of meat ? 
 
 Lazimni soteiya (siete : Alep.\ I need (opus mihi) a plate. 
 
 Ein el siyat (Alep.~] ? where are the plates ? 
 
 A sandac el yofloun ? are the dishes with you ? 
 
 Collohe mas el sececien, all of them with the knives. 
 
 Collohe cenet fie korji, all of them were in my saddle-bags. 
 
 Hehona el yofloun flalura, here (are) the dishes ready. 
 
 Coll xai* qoddamacom, everything (is) before you. 
 
 'KoA laflme mas cisrat kobz, take .... morsel of bread. 
 
 'Col min el rozz masan, eat (some) of the rice together.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEA.BIC. 129 
 
 Oried semne max el kobz, I wish a (piece of) butter with the 
 
 bread. 
 
 Sase toried el milfl, perhaps you wish the salt. 
 Ma e'col ceSier min el milll, I do not eat much of salt. 
 ATyab el zobd min el semn sandi, nicer is fresh butter than 
 
 salt butter in my opinion. 
 
 Min kaTuri alLsen el jobon, from my liking better (is) cheese. 
 Lecin ma texrab xai*, but you do not drink (any) thing. 
 Genet el jarra mePana, the urn was full. 
 Rou ! jieb el bellaura, go ! bring the decanter. 
 Fiehe limonada Taiyibe, in it (is) nice lemonade. 
 La takloT fiehi may, do not mix it in water. 
 Leiset ILolwa ceGieran, it is not sweet too much. 
 Xarab el borteqan yosjibni aflsen, orange-wine (sherbet) 
 
 pleases me better. 
 Melli qadaflui, fill my goblet. 
 Ce s s yapiera tecfieni ana, a small glass suffices me. 
 E Toried te*col ezyad (zed, Alg. ceman, Syria), wishest 
 
 thou to eat more ? 
 
 AsTuini el xiqqat el *okra', give me the other piece (half). 
 Bi weddi e*col xoqfa ceraan (Alep.}, I will eat a slice more. 
 Kalliy heAih el cisra, finish this morsel. 
 Hehona loqma Taiyibe, here is a nice mouthful. 
 EstecSir bi kairec, I wish multiplication to your welfare (i.e. 
 
 I thank you). 
 
 Ce06er kairec ! (God) multiply thy welfare ! 
 Kalayna : xiel el yooun, we have done : remove the dishes. 
 Hel toried texrab* toton (Alep.} ? wishest thou to smoke 
 
 tobacco ? (tobaA). 
 
 * Drink.
 
 130 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 an *iAnec, ana ma axrab, by thy leave, I smoke not. 
 
 Ma aH6bb qalioun, I do not love a straight pipe (Alep.']. 
 
 El narjiele taqTas saqli allsen ; lau cen kaTuri, en axrab, the 
 
 cocoanut* hits my mind better; if it were my liking 
 
 that I smoke. 
 
 El iGnain farad xai* sandi, the two (are but) one thing with me. 
 Eobbama teflobb qahwe au txay ? possibly thou lovest coffee 
 
 or tea ? 
 
 La : oried el ralla, I wish rest. 
 Meliefl. ! ente testerieil, good ! thou shalt take rest. 
 NalLna naxrab el txay, we will drink tea. 
 Hel el may sokn ? is the "water hot ? 
 AsTuini mowaiya sokna, give me a little water hot. 
 Adier balec, yapli el may, turn thy mind (that) the water boil. 
 He AC el fin j an yafier, this coffee-cup (is too) small. 
 Jieb Ta.se : hiya ecbar, bring a cup (flat cup) (saucer) : this 
 
 is bigger. 
 
 IIoTT txay bil cefaya, put in tea in sufficiency. 
 Ismeloh qawi, make it strong. 
 Ma axrab txay min fair Halieb, I do not drink tea without 
 
 milk. 
 Kairieya, enna sandana ILalieb, (it is) good luck that we have 
 
 milk. 
 
 Bel hona qaimaq ailan, nay, here is clotted cream too. 
 Fair enna leis masui soccer Ingliez, only that I have not with 
 
 me English sugar. 
 ase taqdir texraboh bila soccer? perhaps thou art able to 
 
 drink it without sugar ? 
 
 * Alep. i.e. The pipe in which the smoke passes through water in 
 a cocoanut shell.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN A.EABIC. 131 
 
 Aradt exteri min soccer ; fa, min qillet bakt, ma 
 
 I wished (that) I buy some sugar ; then, by ill luck, did not 
 baqiyat wala oqqa wafluda sand el doccen. 
 remain not even a single ounce at the shop. 
 
 Ma yaSorr, it does not hurt. 
 
 Ma lezim el soccer, not needful (is) sugar. 
 
 Melli el Tase, fill the cup. 
 
 TefaSSal, wa ixrab, do favour, and drink. 
 
 Axcor faSlec wa jamielec, I thank thy favour and thy polite- 
 ness. 
 
 Bila Jlalieb Tari au qaxta, ma yayufLll el txay, 
 
 Without fresh milk or cream, is not right the tea. 
 
 Lau cont Talabt minni qahwe, toujad sandi qahwe 
 
 If thou hadst demanded coffee of me, is found with me coffee 
 min Mauka, el qahwet el flamra, 
 of Moka, the coffee the red. 
 
 Toxarrifni ; lecin aHabb liya ej txay, 
 
 Thou honourest me ; but more acceptable to me (is) tea. 
 
 ala ka/rurac, according to thy pleasure. 
 
 E toried el Taset el *okra' ? dost wish a second cup ? 
 
 La : wailuda tecfieni (toceffieni), no : one suffices me. 
 
 YayuJlfl, all is right. 
 
 6. ON DESSERT. 
 
 Hel sandac xai* lil noql (dessert) ? 
 
 Sandi anwas xette' min el fawacih, 
 
 I have kinds diverse of fruits. 
 
 Qoul, eix' min fawacih flaSir AC! waqt, 
 
 Say, what sort of fruits (is) ready this moment.
 
 132 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 Hehona zebieb, wa belall, wa leuz, wa tien, wa jeuz, 
 Here raisins, dates, almonds, figs, walnuts, 
 
 wa temarhindi, wa fairohe. 
 
 tamarinds, and others than these. 
 
 El zebieb *ecl Taiyib, ailsen min el sunab sandi. 
 Raisins (are) good eating, better than grapes (in my opinion). 
 
 Emma sandi sunab ailan melieHa. 
 But with me grapes too (are) good. 
 
 Min ein texteri el sunab ? 
 Whence buyest thou grapes ? 
 
 La (Ma) axteri qaT ; collohe min jonaineti. 
 
 I buy not at all ; all of them (are) from my little garden. 
 
 ase texteri el temarhindi wa el belall. 
 Perhaps thou buyest the tamarinds and dates. 
 
 Haqq fie yedec ; jonaineti jaiyida, 
 
 (Thou art right) my garden (is) excellent, 
 
 "Walecin ma yomcin en toUsin coll el fawacih fie 
 But it is not possible that should succeed all fruits in 
 
 mecen wallud. 
 one place. 
 
 Lasall tokrij kamr min el sunab. 
 
 Haply thou elicitest wine from the grapes. 
 
 La ; ne*col el sunab, wa* ilia noqaddidhe li zebieb. 
 So ; we eat the grapes, or else we dry them for raisins. 
 
 Jieb liy xowaiyat el zebieb. 
 Give me a little raisins.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 133 
 
 E Toried te*col kobze mashe ? 
 Wilt eat bread with it? 
 
 Oried ; fa axrab mowaiya basdoh. 
 I will ; and drink water after it. 
 
 La ! bi faSlec ! ente lest Moslim. 
 No ! by thy favour ! thou art not Mussulman. 
 
 El Nayari leisou sayifien el kamr. 
 Christians are not abhorrers of wine. 
 
 Safluifl : fa minhom siccieroun. 
 
 True : then (some) of them are drunkards. 
 
 Min el fawacih el flolwa taqdir tesmal el dibs : fa hou ce 
 From sweet fruits thou canst make syrup (treacle) : and it is 
 
 miGli el sasel. Min el kobz wa el zebieb tesmal 
 
 like honey. From bread and raisins thou makest 
 
 faTb'ur meliefl. El kamr, wa ceAe el nebieA, leis monesib 
 breakfast good. Wine, and so too the toddy, is not suitable 
 
 lil faTour Wa mas heAe, el Fransewieya fa 
 for breakfast. For all that, the French 
 
 yaxrabounoh bil faTour [aliban. 
 drink it at breakfast prevalently. 
 
 La towakiAni : celamec leis maSbouT : lecinnehom 
 Eeprove me not : thy speech is not accurate : but they 
 
 yaxraboun el qahwe (coffee) [aliban. 
 
 Ah ! fie fair emcina tetefayyar el sada. 
 different places is different the custom.
 
 134 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 In tefayyar Taqs el donya, fa flalan tetepayyar el ma*ecil. 
 If vary the climate, then instantly the victuals vary. 
 
 Fil flarr yosjibni el flalieb el flamiz, wa fil bard el qahwe 
 In heat pleases me milk acid, in cold 
 
 bi flalieb sokn. Taiyib hona flalieb el masz ; emma 
 with milk hot. Nice here (is) milk of goats ; but 
 
 aTyab sandi flalieb el baqar. 
 
 nicer with me (is) milk of cows. 
 
 Aoqt ana marra(ten) flalieb el jaruous, wa fie kaTuri hou 
 I tasted once milk of buffalo, and in my liking it is 
 
 min cileihoma. Li coll waflud Aauqoh el makyouy. 
 nicer than both. To each one (is) his peculiar taste. 
 
 7. TALK WITH A COOK ON CATERING. 
 
 A. Ya Waness, lazim-ni eiyac. "W. Ya kawaja ! eix' textehi ? 
 John ! I want thee. Sir ! what dost thou wish ? 
 
 A. Oried, en teji masui ila'l souq. 
 
 I will, that thou come with me to the market. 
 
 W. Bi weddac xai* sase lil pada. 
 
 Thou wantest something perhaps for dinner. 
 
 A. Nasam : en texteri laflm panam. 
 
 Yes : that thou buy flesh (of) sheep. 
 
 "W. La, seiyidi ; ma yayuflfl lee. 
 
 No, sir (my lord) ; it will not be well for thee.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN" ARABIC. 135 
 
 A. Pa leix' heAe ma yayuflfL liya ? 
 
 Then why will this not be well for me ? 
 
 W. LalLm karouf aJlsen : houa raky. 
 Flesh of lamb is better : it is tender. 
 
 A. Lezimni ailan lift wa jazer. 
 I need also turnips and carrots. 
 
 Sase fil souq kiSar wa boqoul. 
 
 Perhaps in the market (are) greens and potherbs. 
 
 W. Fie heAe el j en coll el koiara faliya. A. Ma yaiorr. 
 In the present season all greens are dear. It hurts not. 
 
 EcGar ma yayuir, el baTn ye*koA qaliel. 
 
 Utmost that it may be, the belly takes (but) little. 
 
 W. ala ganni, nailna sayizien ila jobon. 
 
 my notion, we (are) needing cheese. 
 
 A. Hel youjad jobon fil souq ? (is found f) 
 W. Youjad honec Taiyib, rakiey (cheap"). 
 
 A. Ente falTan : colloma hou Taiyib, yar fali. 
 
 Thou (art) mistaken : whatever is good, is dear. 
 
 Hel sandana xowaiya minnoh ? 
 Is with us a little of it ? 
 
 ~W. Ma yabqa xai% ilia qaliel. 
 
 Nothing remains, except little. 
 
 Lezimni semn min xan (li*ejl) pilau. 
 I need butter for (AlepJ] a rice-dish. 
 
 A. E toriedoh min xanec ente ? 
 
 Wishest thou it on account of thyself ?
 
 136 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 "W. La, seiyidi: tesrif, fie heAe el fayl qouti 
 
 No, my lord : thou knowest, in this season my food 
 
 el rozz bi Halieb faqa-r. 
 (is) rice with, milk only. 
 
 A. Fa*emma el rozz bi semn aiian hou saix (victual} melieil. 
 
 "W. Sadaqt. Lecin, wa*in Tasami leis xai* ICAICA jiddan, 
 Thou art right. But even if my diet is not very nice, 
 
 fa melieil li qowweti wa moyuILIL 
 
 yet (it is) good for my strength wholesome. 
 
 Wa*emma cen celamona fie lallm HI sofratec. 
 
 But our talk was on (concerning) .... thy table (tray) . 
 
 Yomcin tellobb yaknie ? 
 
 It is possible you like a stew (ragout) ? 
 
 E la toried aiboq xouraba ? 
 
 Dost thou not choose, I cook soup ? 
 
 A. La tosTuini meslouq ; bel el mexwiey 
 
 Do not give me boiled (meat) ; nay, but roasted 
 
 aUsen sandi. 
 
 (is) better with me. 
 
 W. SalLuilL, lazimec karouf. El San ma yecoun 
 
 Certainly, thou needest lamb. The mutton will not be 
 
 Taiyib, laula tesloqoh. Wa ente, leix' toried teji 
 nice, unless thou stew it. But why wilt thou come 
 
 masui? Aflsen, en exteri ana bifairec. 
 
 with me ? (It is) better, that I buy without thee.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 137 
 
 A. Ente wafldec ? Hel sandec folous ? 
 Thou alone ? Hast thou money ? 
 
 W. AsTuini xai' min folous : fa afloTT 
 
 Give me somewhat of money : then I will set down 
 
 sala waraqa, eix'ma (eiyoma) exteri. 
 on a paper, whatever I buy. 
 
 A. Yayuflfl. 'KoA el noqoud. 
 It will do. Take the cash. 
 
 8. WITH MULETEERS OX A JOURNEY. 
 
 A. Heya, heya ! qad Talasat el xams. 
 
 Ho ! ho ! already the sun has come out (up). 
 
 Ya baffalien, flammilou el dawab(b). 
 muleteers, load (n.) the beasts. 
 
 El neher Talas salaina. Qoumou ! Li neroufl ! 
 
 The day has risen upon us. Get up ! Let us go ! 
 
 Ya el cesele' ! Leis licom xajasa en teqoumou ? 
 ye lazy ones ! Have ye not bravery to get up ? 
 
 Tesal, Yousef ! li nollammil ana wa ent. 
 
 Come, Joseph ! let us load (the mules), I and you. 
 
 B. I AC cen toried, ana oUammil wa ente temsic e] dabbe ; 
 If thou choose, I (will) load and thou hold the beast ; 
 
 wa*illa, ana amsiche, wa ente toilammil. 
 or else, I will hold her, and thou shalt load.
 
 138 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AKABIC. 
 
 A. La la ! allsen en arboThe fil *ibziem ; Gomm inna 
 No ! better tbat I fasten her in the buckle ; thereupon 
 
 noHammil iGnaina sewa sewa. 
 we (shall) load, we two together. 
 
 El aHmal Gaqiele, wala yaqdir waflud waJldoh sala' *en 
 The loads are heavy, nor is able one (man) alone for that 
 
 yarfashe. Ilammil ente min janib, wa *ana oammil 
 he lift them. Load thou from (one) side, and I (will) load 
 
 min el janib el *okra'. Fehemt xai 4 minni ? 
 
 from the other side (f . ) . Hast thou at all understood me ? 
 
 B. Melieil ! li narfas sala'l bafala. Yecfi. 
 Good ! let us lift upon the mule. It suffices. 
 
 A. La ! irfas ezyad. 
 No ! lift (it) more. 
 
 B. A el waqt el rafasa bil ziyada. 
 This time the lifting (is) in excess. 
 
 A. "WaTTU, Hatte' yecoun colloh sewa'. 
 Lower (it), until it shall be all of it even. 
 
 B. OrboT min janibec, wa asTuini el Habl. 
 Tie from thy side, give me the rope. 
 
 A. Meliell heceAe. B. 'KoAoh ! 
 Good in that way. Take it ! 
 
 A. Oybor xowaiya. HeAe qayuir. Ma yecfi. 
 
 "Wait a bit. This (is) (too) short. It does not suffice. 
 
 IIoll elleAi rabaxtoh, wa Tawwiloh. 
 
 Loosen (that) which thou hast tied, and lengthen it.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 139 
 
 B. MelieU ! Nawilni e} Taraf . Imsic ! 
 
 Good ! Hand (in.) to me the end. Hold (it) ! 
 
 A. Ana mesicoh. Fil sesa ILammil ! 
 I (am) holding it. Now (this moment) load ! 
 
 B. Ana moHammil. Ya, eix' heAe el mirbaTa ? 
 I (am) loading. 0, what (is) this fastening ? 
 
 Ma ana qadir aHoll he. (Lest ana qadir sala Hallihe.) 
 I am not able to untie it. 
 
 A. IqTashe bi mousi. 
 Cut it with my clasp knife. 
 
 B. Lala : yecoun kisera ; fa basdoh ma 
 No : it would be a loss (a pity) ; then afterwards it is 
 
 yeswa' xai*. Aflsen el yabr. 
 worth nothing. Patience is better. 
 
 Wa flallaitoh [flalaltoh]. 'KoA el flabl, wa xouf [on5or] 
 And I have untied it. Take the rope, and see (look) 
 
 imma heAe yecfiec. A. Yecfi. OrboT meliefl, 
 
 whether this suffices thee. Tie it well, 
 
 wa irmi liya Taraf el flabl min teflt baTn il dabba. 
 throw to me the end of the rope under belly of the beast. 
 
 B. HeAe hou el Taraf. Imsi'coh. A. Ana mesicoh. 
 This is the end. Hold it. I am holding it. 
 
 Xoddoh ecGar min jihtec. B. Yayuflfl. Irceb ! 
 Tighten it more thy side. All is right. Mount !* 
 
 * The verb means either Mount or Eide ; so, either Get on board 
 a ship, or Make a voyage.
 
 140 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 C. Kallieni amxi xowaiya, wa el bafla teroufl qoddam. 
 Let me walk a bit, shall go in front. 
 
 B. La ! heAih dabbe, leis minhe xai ft meliefl : 
 
 (as for) this animal, there is nothing good from her : 
 
 terns wa tercoS ; wa iAe herabat, ma yomcin 
 she kicks and runs ; if she has fled, not is possible 
 
 ilflaqohe. Lezimec, imma terceb, au 
 
 overtaking her. You must either ride, or 
 
 temsiche dayiman bil lijam. El iktiyar saleic. 
 you hold her always by the bridle. The choice (is) on thee. 
 
 ala kaTurec. 
 According to thy liking. 
 
 C. Cen liya tesab ceGier : el rocoub aflsen. 
 Was to me fatigue much : riding (is) better. 
 
 Sesudni min fallec. B. B'ism Illah ! irceb ! 
 
 Assist me by thy favour. 
 
 D. Pa ana, bi weddi arceb wafldi. 
 As for me, (it is) in my wish to mount alone. 
 
 Imsic el dabbe, li*ella tehrib minni. 
 Hold the beast, lest she flee from me. 
 
 B. Racebt* meliefl : cute xaTur. 
 
 Thou hast mounted well : thou (art) clever. 
 
 D. Hel ana ma qoltoh lee ? B. Miel xowaiya sala kalf, 
 
 Did I not tell thee ? Lean a little backward, 
 
 * To mount without stirrups on to a travelling saddle is very difficult.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 141 
 
 Hatte' terceb asen. Souq ila qoddam. 
 
 that thou mayest ride better. Drive forward. 
 
 Ana mosesud el *ekara', wa arjas ileic basdoh. 
 I (am) helping the others, I return to thee afterwards. 
 
 RouH xowaiya xowaiya, sala sohouletec. A. Roull bil 
 Go (rowaidan) gently, at thy ease. in 
 
 sajl : xouc, xonc ! B. Collohom Hammalou, -wa 
 haste ! prick ! All of them have laden, and (are) 
 
 horn jayien warana. C. Ente tesabt ceGieran. 
 
 coming behind us. art tired (hast toiled) too much. 
 
 B. Ah ! ma hou xai* heAe el xiqa. HeAih hie yanasatna. 
 
 is nothing this misery (toil). This is our trade (art). 
 
 A. El tesab leis fie heAih, lecin fil molaqayat il arab, 
 The fatigue is not in this, but in the meeting of the Arabs, 
 
 elleAien auqat auqat yosarriyouna ; wa basS el 
 
 who times times strip us (naked) ; a part of the 
 
 kofara yo5allimou salaina: heAe hou el tesab elleAi 
 road-guards oppress us which 
 
 nan lesna motesawwidien salaihi. 
 we are not accustomed to. 
 
 "Wa^emma, *emr el teflmiel wa el flaTT fa hou sehil salaina. 
 But the affair of loading and depositing is easy to us. 
 
 C. El hewa Taiyib el-yeum. B. Taiyib, el flamd lillah ! 
 The air is nice to-day. praise to God ! 
 
 ,A. Nasmel el-yeum GelaOien miel. 
 We make to-day 30 miles.
 
 142 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN ARABIC. 
 
 D. "Wa ceif bi weddicom tercebou TOU! el neher ? 
 bow will you ride all tbe day ? 
 
 A. La ! qabl el So'hr nefloTT, flatte' netesaxxa wa 
 
 before noon we set down, until we sup and 
 
 noTsum el dawabb, wa basdoh nosefir min jadied, 
 feed tbe beasts, afterwards we travel anew, 
 
 wala nefloTT ilia qarieb min el leil. 
 nor set down except near (to) the nigbt. 
 
 D. El-yeum baTaina: ma flammalna ilia 
 
 To-day we have been sluggish : we did not load except 
 
 basd Tolous il fajr. 
 
 after coming forth of the dawn. 
 
 C. La ! el neher ma cen Talas HI sesa. 
 the day had not come forth yet. 
 
 A. El lau, elleAi qad ra*eitoh, cen Sau el qamar : 
 The light which already you perceived, moon 
 
 *emma el fajr Talas, basdama conna flammalna zeman. 
 came forth, after that we had loaded (a long) time. 
 
 C. Sadaqt. Lecin ei hie sesat el neher fie AC! waqt ? 
 
 You are right. But what is the hour at this time ? 
 
 A. Bil flaqq, yabqa ezyad (zod) ila'l Sohr sesatein 6ela0e. 
 In truth remains (encore] to noon two hours (or) three. 
 
 C. Lau cen sesa wafluda, lecen aflsen el floloul hona ; 
 If it were one hour, verily were better unpacking here, 
 
 iAecen he AC el maulus meliefl jiddan, wa fieh el 5ull 
 since this place in it shade
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 143 
 
 wa el may, wa el flaTab wa flaxiex lil baheyim. 
 water, firewood, grass for the animals. 
 
 A. Ma yobimm : basdoh nolaqi fair mecen aflsen 
 It imports not : afterwards we meet anotber place better 
 
 minnoh. Xoucou, li najri fie heAe el bard. 
 Prick ye ! let us run in this cold. 
 
 Basd ej So'hr textidd el sokouna. Fie waqtihi 
 
 After noon the heat grows intense. Instantly 
 
 nofettix lina maflall, nestigull wa 
 
 we search out for us a place, in which we shade and rest 
 
 nartefl (vm.) fiehi sesa sesatein. 
 ourselves an hour (or) two hours. 
 
 C. Masqoul. Salaic el 116cm. 
 
 A wise thing. On thee (rests) the decision. 
 
 A. Hehou el niauius elleAi qolt lee salaihi. 
 Here is (maTrafl) which I told thee of. 
 
 Aflsen min el auwal bi ceGier. 
 
 (It is) better than the first by much. 
 
 Ana sarif heAe el Tarieq meliefl (jaidan). 
 I know this way well. 
 
 Cem marra maxait fie heAih el yaflari ! 
 
 How many times (roflt wa jiet) in these plains (deserts) ! 
 
 Lau cen flaTTait bali sala '1 flujar, 
 
 If I had (flaTaTt) set my mind upon the stones, 
 
 le cont asrif coll waflud bi youratoh. 
 verily I should know each one by its figure.
 
 144 HANDBOOK OF MODEEX AEABIC. 
 
 C. Bin naflb'TT? (Ein nenzil?) A. Inzil hona, 
 
 Where set we down? (Where alight we?) Alight here, 
 
 teilt heAih el xajara. Hie mozallala, wa el raml nasum. 
 under this tree. It is shady, and the sand soft. 
 
 C. Wa^amma hona min ein ne s koA el flaTah lil maTbak ? 
 But here whence take we firewood for cookery ? 
 
 A. Ya ente ! hel taTloh lee fil yaflra coll xai* 
 thou ! dost thou require in the desert 
 
 maihouT? el Tabaka besieia hona, bila wajaq. 
 accurate ? the cooking is simple here, without a stove. 
 
 Ismel Goqba (joura) fil raml, wa*illa 'koA lee 
 Make a hole in the sand, or else take for thee 
 
 flajarain GelaGe, wa reccib salaihe el Tanjara, 
 
 two stones (or) three, and mount on them the stewpot, 
 
 wa axsul tefltehe min basar il jimal il yabis 
 and kindle beneath it (some) dung of camels dry, 
 
 elleAi texoufofl qoddamec, wa fil sesa yestewi 
 
 which (ten5oroh) thou seest . . instantly will be dressed 
 
 el Tabiek, eiyoma yecoun moradec taxbok. 
 
 the dish, whatever it may be thy will (that) thou cook. 
 
 B. ase toried el rozz ? HeAe sehil. C. Einasam. 
 Perhaps thou wishest rice ? This is easy. Yes. 
 
 La tebTui. D. El e*karien ma yaxbokou xai*'. 
 
 Be not slow. The others do not cook (any) thing. 
 
 B. Ah ! man ye* col jobon, wa man ye*col buyal. 
 one eats cheese, another eats onions.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 145 
 
 A. Hehou ! el may faliyan. C. HOTT el rozz fil may. 
 Lo ! the water is boiling. Put the rice water. 
 
 Naflflu el fitaya. B. Leix' testesjil heceAe ? 
 Set aside the cover. "Why hastest thou so ? 
 
 C. Moradi arqod qalielan, li*enna ma nimt 
 
 My wish (is that) I sleep a little, because I slept 
 
 xai* heAih el leile. 
 not at all this night. 
 
 B. Xouf ! collohom qadd *ecelou, wa heAe el sesa hom 
 See ! all of them already have eaten, and at present they 
 
 raqidien. Fie waqtihom yaqoumou wa yoflammilou. 
 (are) sleeping. Presently they will rise and load. 
 
 C. Ente e fa ma te*col ezyad xai* ? 
 Dost not thou then eat something more ? 
 
 B. Yecfi : axcor failec. 
 
 It suffices : I thank thy favour. 
 
 C. Ana rayiJl afsil yedaiya; basdoh arqod hona. 
 I am going to wash my two hands; afterwards I sleep here. 
 
 B. Sandama ente rafid, fa ana afsil ej Tanjara wa ej 
 "While thou (art) sleeping, I wash the stewpot and the 
 
 yofloun, fa afloTThe fil saiba. 
 dishes, then I put them into the wallet. 
 
 C. Masloum, heAe el mecen Taiyib. 
 Surely, this place is good. 
 
 Xomm el hewa wa e} rieil el leti tehobb salaina. 
 Smell the air and the wind which blows upon us. 
 
 10
 
 146 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 9. COPTIC FEAST. 
 
 31. Xouf, ya Fanous, imma flaSir lina el [>ada. 
 See Stephanus whether ready dinner. 
 
 F. Coll xai* ilaSur. 
 
 M. Ifrax ej. sofra wa mandielehe, wa jieb el Tasam. 
 Spread out table and its cloth, bring the food. 
 
 Fa ente, e ma tafsil yedaic ? 
 
 dost not thou wash thy two hands ? 
 
 A. Ei nasam, afsilhe. (Yes, I wash them.) 
 
 M. Ya BaTras, jieb el Taxt wa el ibrieq. Dawwirhe, flatte' 
 Peter, bring the basin jug. Carry them round until 
 
 coll man yoried yapsil yedaih, fa yafsilhe. 
 whoever wishes to wash his hands, may wash them. 
 
 Tesal ila hona, ya qasies ! Iqteribou, jemiescom. 
 Come hither, priest ! Approach all of you. 
 
 Wa ente, ya rahib Simsan, e fa la (ma) teteqaddam ? 
 monk Simeon, dost thou not advance ? 
 
 S. La ! ya seiyidna. La to*wakiAni, ana ma 
 
 our lord. Do not reprove me, I (am) not 
 
 *ecil semien. 
 eating fat (gras). 
 
 M. Ah ! leix' ma qoltoh liya qablan ? Conna Tabakna 
 
 why didst not tell it to me before ? We would have cooked 
 
 lee xai 1 min e} semac. S. Lala ! ma yafltej. 
 
 fish. is not needed (vin.).
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 147 
 
 M . E,oufl, ya Fanous ; jieb lina sasel nafil wa zeitoun. 
 Go bring honey of bees olives. 
 
 Marflaba bicom, ya mosallimien. 'Colou wa ixrabou 
 Welcome to you, doctors ! Eat ye drink ye 
 
 bi kacrurcom. El neher Tawiel, wa (el flamd lillah !) 
 at your liking. The day (is) long praise to God ! 
 
 el *ecl ceGier. 
 the food (is) plentiful. 
 
 Hel te*col, ya qasies, min el mexwiey ? 
 Eatest thou, priest, of the roasted ? 
 
 G. Min mexwiey mefroum, fa j inna 6*00!. 
 
 hashed (minced) verily I eat. 
 
 M. Cobb, ya mosallim Zeitoun ! sala heAec el yafln 
 
 Overturn (pour out), Doctor Olivier, upon that dish 
 
 min qars maflxiey, fleAe el flalieb bil toum. 
 of gourd stuffed, this milk with garlic. 
 
 Z. B'ism illah ! ya seiyidi. 
 
 M. Jieb, ya Bairas min sand el senbousqiey, 
 
 Bring from the shop of the confectioner, 
 
 el karouf el maHxiey. 
 lamb stuffed. 
 
 B. Fanous rail li ye 4 koAoh. S. Hehou jayi bihi. 
 
 Stephanos is gone to take it (get it). coming 
 
 M. IIoTToh fil wasaT. N. Rayiflatoh melielLa. 
 
 Put down midst. Its odour
 
 148 HANDBOOK OF MODERX AEABIC. 
 
 G. Wa el Tosma allsen. M. Hel ente tesrif Tosmatoh ? 
 the taste is better. Knowest thou its taste ? 
 
 G. La lil sesa : lecin ana flastebtoh heceAe. 
 Not yet : but I computed it thus. 
 
 M. 'KoA, wa Aouqoh ! G. Ah ! flaqqaten ! heAe hou *ecl el 
 Take taste it. verily ! this is food 
 
 mosallimien. Ya, eix' flalawetoh ! 
 of doctors. what its sweetness ! 
 
 M. Eix' te*col, ya mosallim Zeitoun ? 
 
 Z. Ana fa e*col yaknie, e*col waraq-a-daliya, e s col 
 I, why, I eat (ragout) leaf of vine, 
 
 senbouseq, wa min jomlat kairat, elleti tosTuihe 
 
 patties (any) among good things, which thou givest 
 
 lina bil ziyada. M. "Wa ente, ya mosallim Salieb ? 
 us in excess. Doctor Lacroix ? 
 
 3. Ente, ya seiyidi, asxait liya farrouja, wa ana samil 
 
 hast given me a chicken, I (am) making 
 
 texriefl suSamiho. M. E fa tesrif sala '1 texriell ? 
 dissection of its bones. knowest about 
 
 tS. Texriell el laflm el ma-rbouk, fa ana sarifoh. 
 Dissection of meat cooked, why ! 
 
 M. Li naxouf xaTaratec fie texriell heAe el karouf. 
 Let us see thy cleverness in carving this lamb. 
 
 5. La! ente flarrait (flaTaxt) yedec salaihi (hast put).
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 149 
 
 Cemmil xoflec wa farriqoh lil Joyouf. 
 Complete thy work divide it to the guests. 
 
 M. La ! heAe hou waguifa lil mosallim Nayur. 
 this is a function for Doctor Victor. 
 
 Yedaihi qawieya. (His two hands (are) strong.) 
 
 N. Bism illah ! 'koA ente ! qasemtoh salaic. 
 
 accept (this piece) ! I have apportioned it to thee. 
 
 Z. Ya heAih el xoqfa ! heAa faqaT yecfieni (yoceffieni) 
 this slice ! suffices me 
 
 yeumain. "N. IAC lee xai* zeyid, iqsimoh mas el qasies. 
 two days. If thou hast superfluous, share it with. 
 
 Z. Masqoul ! BiULaqq hou leAieA, wa Tosmatoh meliefla. 
 "Wise (saying). In truth its taste 
 
 Man, basd heAe al Tasam, ye*col hadinjan, TamaTuin, 
 "Who, after these viands, eats melongene, tomatoes, 
 
 sunab, borteqan ? G. HeAe colloh riell wa mowaiy. 
 oranges? wind and water. 
 
 M. Wa el rozz, e ma teflobboh ? (dost thou not like it ?) 
 
 G. Aflobb el coscosou ; amma xouraba min el rozz, fa ma 
 tosjibni qaT. M. Wa ceif e] rozz hi flalieb ? 
 
 G. Ya *akoui, jaiyid, iAe cen hi misc wa sanbar kam. 
 excellent, if with musk ambergris raw. 
 
 M. Xouf heAe el rahib el mescien, raSu bil sasel wa el zeitoun. 
 See this monk wretched, pleased with honey and olives. 
 
 S. Ya seiyidi, li coll xai* waqtoh (to everything its time).
 
 150 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Sandi, basS el auqat, tecfieni qarqouxa : amma, ixe 
 
 With me, some times, dry crust (biscuit) but, if 
 
 jani xai* aflsen (estesrif lee) la armieh lil cilab. 
 comes to me I confess I do not cast it to the dogs. 
 
 M. "Wa el suSam (bones], e ma termiehe ? S. El suSam hie 
 
 qaraqiex el cilab, wa esnani ma yaqdirou salaihe. 
 the biscuits of dogs, my teeth are not competent. 
 
 M. Hel esnanec qadirien sala'l baqlawa ? S. Ma asrif min 
 strong (enough) for cheesecake. I know not for 
 
 zeman : fa^inna ma jarrabtohom fie heAih el flaje. 
 
 (long) time : for I have not tried them in this affair. 
 
 M. Axouf fil sesa. Xiel (Remove), ya Panous, heAe colloh, 
 
 wa jieb lina el baqlawa. Eix' teqoul fie heAe ? 
 S. HeAe, fie ganni, aflsen min el jobon. 
 M. Jarriboh. (Try it.) S. Ya ya ! colloh soccer wa lauz. 
 A. Ilaqqaten ! heAih el baqlawa Taiyiba. 
 
 Hel sameltomhe fil dar ? M. Yah la ! El niswan e fa 
 Did ye make them ? (Would) women 
 
 yasrifou yasmilou heAe ? Tabbak el sinjaq samelhe. 
 know to make cook of the flag (regiment?). 
 
 E". Bil flaqq, sajieba ; jadiera bil sanajiq. 
 marvellous ; worthy of the flags. 
 
 Z. La bodd, yerouH mayrouf ceGier fie samel mi01 heAe. 
 
 No escape ! goes (vanishes) expense in making
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 151 
 
 M. Farxain 6ela0e bil ecGar. 'Col minhe. 
 
 Two or three piastres at most. Eat of them. 
 
 A. Yecfieni, fa Deceit ceGier. (I have eaten much.) 
 
 M. Tafsil yedaic. Bairas! jieb el Taxt wa el ibrieq mas 
 Thou shalt wash bason jug 
 
 el yaboun, li nafsil yedaina. Wa ente, Fanous ! jieb 
 soap our hands. bring 
 
 lina el qahwe. F. "Wa el masoun, e fa la ejieboh ? 
 coffee. metal dish. 
 
 M. Kalli fawacih el noqla wa el molebbeset 
 
 Leave fruits dessert sugar-plums (sweetmeats) 
 
 wa qary eljobon el Afranji ; wajieboh. Lacin la tokalli 
 cake cheese Yet do not leave 
 
 el barnak bila jarra, wala el qomqom bila sarqiey. 
 filtering stand nor (retort) without arrack. 
 
 N. Ana (aqoul lee ec flaqq) bi ciGrat ma xarabt min 
 I from plenty (of) what I have drunk of 
 
 el saraqiey wa xarab, baqiyat nar fie misdati : 
 
 arrack sherbet, has remained fire stomach 
 
 fa el*an moradi en axrab mowaiya. 
 
 now my wish (is) a sup of water. 
 
 M. La ! kalli yejiebou lee qadafl min limonada wa 'koA lee 
 let (them) goblet take 
 
 loqaimat selala. Ya abouna Jarjes, e ma topanni 
 
 small mouthful salad. our father sing 
 
 lina xai* Ael waqt ? (to us something now ?)
 
 152 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 G. Ya seiyidna, min ein toried yailas el yaut, lemma 
 
 whence come forth sound (nomin.} when 
 
 el bacra. mePan ? Tesrif enna barmiel mePan ma 
 belly (is) full ? Knowest barrel full not 
 
 yaTunm xai*. M. Lala, heAe ma yemnasac qax. 
 tinkle hinders at all. 
 
 G. Fa li ofanni iAen ! B'ism illah ! 
 Let me sing then ! 
 
 10. TWO TRADESMEN. 
 
 M. Ahah ! e ma teqoum ? eix' heAe e] nasas basd -rolous ul 
 dost not arise ? slumber out-coming 
 
 xams? hel ente mar'a (woman?); *em rajol? (or man?) 
 e ma texouf el xams ? qoum ! aqoul lee. 
 
 N. La towakiAni. Elbarifl. inni cont sand ILabiebi 
 
 . Excuse me! The (day) past I was with my friend 
 
 (yaduiqi, yaflubi). Ecelna, xarabna, fariflna wa 
 
 qasadna sand el sofra (ma s ida) ila' nuyf il leil. Fa 
 we sat at the tray ? (table) till midnight 
 
 *ana ma jiet ila hona, ilia qarieb min el me*Aena. 
 I not came hither, except near the calling to prayer. 
 
 M. Meliefl jiddan. El bariJD. baxaltom hi sebab el xarab, 
 Yery good. Yesterday ye idled by cause of drink
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 153 
 
 wa el yeum tebxalou bi sebab el naum. Bainama ente 
 to-day ye idle sleep. While thou 
 
 heceAe baTTal, manou yaxmel xoflec ? manou 
 so an. idler who does thy business ? who 
 
 yajQ.com darac ? e ma lee mar'a wa aulad ? manou 
 
 governs thy house ? a woman (ivife). 
 
 yecsiehom ? manou yoTSumhom ? N. Ah ! Rabbona 
 clothes them ? who feeds them ? our Lord 
 
 ceriem, wa hou el modabbir. Hel yomcin yanse' 
 
 (is) generous he is the director. can he forget 
 
 kalayiqoh ? M. E fa ma qal fil citeb il saziez : 
 his creatures ? Hath he not said in the book precious, 
 
 " Ismel, wa ana osesudac ? " N. Masqoul. Lecin. 
 Act and I will aid thee ? Wisely said. 
 
 eix' asmel ? Ana TOU! el esbous fil xofl, wa tesabi bil 
 I, length of week business, my toil (is) 
 
 ziyada. 0omm, e ma esteiluqq en e^koA liya yeum, li 
 in excess. do not I deserve to take for me a day, 
 
 afrafl fieh wa e*col wa axrab mas el as flab ? 
 that I may rejoice in it .... companions ? 
 
 M. Sadaqt : xoplec wa tesabec ceGier. 
 
 Thou art right : thy business and toil (is) too much. 
 
 Ya mescien, ceif yomcin taybor sala heAe colloh ? Min 
 
 unhappy ! how canst thou endure against all this ? Of 
 
 el yabaJl teqoum basd Tolous el xams : basd fasl 
 
 a morning thou risest after sunrise : after washing 
 
 el wejh wa el yedain, texrab el qahwe.
 
 154 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 Basdoh, teroufl lil flanout (doccen). (to the shop.) 
 
 Toulima teqsod honec, texouf el nas wa toyaflub 
 
 As long as thou sittest there, companiest 
 
 (mas)hom. Te*koA darahim min heAe wa min heAec. 
 "Waqt el Sohr te'col wa texrab meliefl. Basd el 
 
 sayr tefloq wa teqfol el doccen; wa 
 
 afternoon fastenest and padlockest the shop 
 
 lemma yexoufouc *ehl darec sala satebet il bab, 
 when see thee thy household at threshold 
 
 yoMur lee el ma*ida (sofra Alep.\ salaihe el *ecl, 
 get ready table, upon it food, 
 
 kamse sitte jonous ; te s col wa texrab mas jemasatec *ecle 
 five six kinds thy company food 
 
 Taiyibe, wa bil mehl. Wa*emma heAe colloh tesab ! 
 nice and at leisure. But all this (is) toil. 
 
 H". Ente taiflac salaiya. M. La : bel etecellem bil ILaqq. 
 H". Ana sarif ennec tetecellem bil Jaflc. (speakest in ridicule.) 
 
 Lecin asterif lee el flaqq ; heAe el solouc elleAi ente qoltoh 
 I confess truth procedure. 
 
 Ael waqt, inni moteTawwad salaihi. Wa*emma, bima 
 verily, I am used to it. But when 
 
 etelaqa ana mas el ayHab, fa iAAec innena ne*col, nexrab 
 I meet with comrades, then verily we eat, drink, 
 
 wa nenbasix bi farafl as5am. 
 
 and relax ourselves with mighty joy.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN ABABIC. 155 
 
 M. Eix' heAe el farafl el assam ? qoum ! waflud yeste*nec 
 What is this mighty joy ? Arise ! some one awaits thee 
 
 sala'l doccen, wa moradoh(en) yaxteri minnec jouk. 
 at the shop, his wish (is) to buy woollen cloth. 
 
 Tesal, celimoh. Come and talk to him. 
 
 "N. Yayuflfl. Ya walad, jieb liya Hawayiji.* 
 It is right. Boy ! bring me my clothes. 
 
 P. Eix' min Aawayij ? N". Astuini qamieja (qamieya) 
 
 What sort of clothes ? Give me (camicia) a shirt 
 
 naqiya, wa qonbaz diemiey min dakil il yandouq. 
 clean gown futaine (dimity-fustian). 
 
 Sarwali min jouk wa yadrieyati wa barnousi hona sala'l 
 My trowsers my waistcoat hooded cloak 
 
 flabl. Ein el tarbaux wa el xaxe ? 
 
 rope. Where is the red cap and muslin (turban) ? 
 
 P. Coll xai s [wajid] flalur. Hehona el jawarieb. 
 Everything (ready). Here (are) stockings. 
 
 E tai-lob xai* fairahe ? Dost thou demand anything else ? 
 
 N. AsTuini el fluzem, wa el jezm el jadieda. 
 Give me belt boots new. 
 
 P. 'KoAhe : wa houheAe maflrama. E testej zod 
 
 Take it : lo here a kerchief. Needest thou more 
 
 (ezyad ?) N. La : jieb el ma', li apsil wejhi. 
 P. Fil sesa. Yestenec e} rajol. (The man awaits thee.) 
 
 * Hawayij, necessaries, is used for one's lag gage, also for clothes.
 
 156 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 11. CLOTHIER AND HIS CUSTOMER. 
 
 N. E ma naxrab el qahwe, ana wa ente, qablama neroufl ? 
 
 M. Ah ! das nerouQ. bila xarb el qahwe. E ma naxrabob fil 
 doccen ? JS". Yomcin. Lecin moradi naxrab hona. 
 
 M. Ana xarabtoh min el yabafl. : hel ente tellsobni yayiman ? 
 ~N. Roufl, 'koA el miftefl. wa imxi qoddam, li teftefl el doccen. 
 
 P. Ana rayifl. JS". Wa naflna warac. M. Ilbis qaba-c.* 
 I (am) going. We behind thee. Put on thy robe. 
 
 K Hel ilbis elleAi bil farwa? M. Ceif lee Haje bil farwa ? 
 that which fur ? need of fur ? 
 
 El yeum, el sokouna ceSiere. 'KoA lee heAih el kafiefe. 
 N. Bism Illah ! naroufl. P. Selam salaic, ya seiyidi. 
 
 Q. Salaic el selam. El tejir e fa marieS ? wa^illa fayib ? 
 Is the merchant sick ? or absent ? 
 
 P. La ! hou heAe jayi waraya. 
 
 here he is, coming behind me. 
 
 Q,. Ceif jayi ? Ana qasud hona sala el qahwe fie isti^aroh 
 How coming ? I (am) sitting in expectation of him 
 
 min miqdar sestein. Hel yeftefl coll yeum heceAe ? 
 
 P. La. Easoh, heAih el leile, cen youjasoh xai^en ; sala 
 His head, last night, pained him somewhat 
 
 xan (min xan) heAe, ma jiena sala '1 sada. Hou heAe 
 jayi. Ana e fa ma qolt lee ? 
 
 * De Braine. Perhaps it is Algerine, in this sense.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 157 
 
 N. La towakiAni. Ana marieJ xai*en, wa raqadt li hede el 
 
 waqt. Q,. SuILflatec ! lecin yomcin, etsabtec bil ziyada. 
 Thy health ! but possibly I tired thee. 
 
 N". La ! lil Icildf (bel) ana hou elloii moTsub salaic, wa^emma 
 on the contrary, it is I that (am) tiresome to thee, but 
 
 ente istenaitni zeman. 
 
 thou hast waited for me a (long) time. 
 
 Q. Ah ! la ictira9 minnoh ; (ma obali). Ente tesrif, enna 
 (there is) no concern ; I do not mind, knowest, that 
 
 suidi qarieb ; wa moradi e*kod minnec jouk, bihi 
 my festival (birthday) I wish to take with which 
 
 asmel qaba. N. Aflmar ? wa s illa arjawan ? 
 I (may) make. Eed ? or purple ? 
 
 Q,. Arjawan. N. Hou sandi. Ta sali ! jieb basTat jouk el 
 It is with me. AH ! bring a strip of 
 
 arjawan. Eix' taqoul fie hede el jouk? E ma hou 
 
 meliell ? Lau cen dort el mediena, ma tolaqi miGlaho. 
 If you had gone round the city, you meet not its like. 
 
 Q. Melieh ! qadd eix' el Airas ? N. Bi sitte riyalat. 
 how much the ell ? At six dollars. 
 
 Q. Eix' heAe el celam ? tellsobni faxieman hi coll xai*, 
 What is this saying ? countest me simpleton 
 
 ce*inna ana fie sb'mri ma xoft jouk, ilia heAe ? Wa 
 as if I in my life never saw cloth but this ? 
 
 he AC el jouk bi sittet riyalat el Airas !
 
 158 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 N. Gemenoh hecede, ya seiyidi. IAC aradt te'koAoh, 'koAoh : 
 awema (or not) te^coAoh ? kalliehi. Bil Ilaqq, ma tolaqi 
 fil mediena collihe jouk mi01 heAe. Soufoh (its wool) 
 
 mi01 flarier, wa launoh zehi. Ah ! ma allsen el qaba, 
 like silk its hue gay. how handsome the robe 
 
 elleti tesmalhe minnoh ! (which you will make of it.) 
 Q,. Sailuifl, el jouk meliell ; lecin el Gemen fali. 
 
 !N". Coll xai* yallriz seumatoh. (See Bocthor, Valoir.) 
 
 maintains ? its valuation (claims, gets its price ?) 
 
 Youjad fil bazer jouk bi riyalain, wa youjad bi sitte riyalat. 
 Q. Nasam: lacin Aelic allsen min heAe. . . . (better than.) 
 
 N. Saddiqni, auxa min jouki heAe. 
 
 Believe me, it is inferior to this my cloth. 
 
 Q,. E toried te*koA lee kamse riyalat ? (wilt thou take ) 
 N. La kamse : li*enni xaraitoh (ixteraitoh) bi ec0ar. 
 
 Q. Ma yaJltej totsub rouflac, wala ana rouflui. Akir 
 
 needs not, I tire thy spirit, nor I the end, last 
 
 el celam, osTui lee kamse riyalat. IAC cont toried, 
 'koA el darahim. Incen ma toried, fa ofettix liya 
 
 waflud fairac, yossufni bi flajeti. 
 
 some one other than thee, will aid me in my affair. 
 
 N. Sala katurac. Ya tera' toflsin *emrec ! 
 At thy pleasure. I hope, wilt well-manage. 
 
 Q. Leix' tesmel masya heceAe ? bil flaqq, ente Tammas. 
 "Why actest with me thus ? In truth covetous.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEA.BIC. 159 
 
 "N. ase toried hedieya minni ; fa 'koA lee el jouk bila Gemen. 
 Perhaps a present the cloth without price. 
 
 Q. La : bi darahimi ma tosTuini ieyaho ; fa ceif heAe hedieya ? 
 for my money thou givest it not ; is this a present ? 
 
 N. Bais heAe el jouk bi kamse riyalat, e fa hou bil darahim ? 
 To sell this cloth for five dollars, is that for money ? 
 
 ala dieni, ixteraitoh ana fil zeman il sebiq bi kamse 
 On my faith, I bought it myself in former time for five 
 
 riyalat : walecin li*enna ente zebouni, wa yabart salaiya 
 dollars, but because my customer, waitedst 
 
 heceAe min bocra, 'koAoh bi kamse wa nuyf. 
 
 Q,. ala Aimmeti ma yeswa (is not worth) xai s ecGar min el 
 kamse ; wa^emma ezied lee el nuyf . 
 
 N. Cem toried min el eAras ? Q,. Kamset eAras. Qies meliefl. 
 How many ells wishest thou? Measure (it). 
 
 N. Xouf ! inni qistohe temama ; kamse. Iqxas, ya walad, 
 See ! I have measured it Cut, boy ! 
 
 hona, wa UTwiehe : wa jemies el Gemen hou sebsa 
 here, fold it : the whole of the price is 
 
 wa suxrien riyal wa nuyf riyale salaic liya, ya seiyidi. 
 Q. Taiyib ; fa 'koA el foroux. N. Kai-urac salaiya. 
 
 I 12. WITH A TAILOR. 
 
 Q,. Moradi, en tofayyul wa tokayyix liya heAih el jouka. 
 I wish you to cut out and sew for me this cloth.
 
 160 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AKABIC. 
 
 Lecin lezim en teqieshe, wa tei^or imma yettefiq 
 But you must measure it, and look whether fits 
 
 miqdarhe li qameti. B. Cem min el eAros tejieh liya ? 
 its size to my stature. How many ells bringest ? 
 
 Q. Arhas eAros. B. Sadaqt. *Emma ma yecfie qaT. 
 
 Q. Qadd eix' ta-rlob fauq min heAe ? How much . . . above this ? 
 
 B. Asouz ezyad nuyf Airas. (I need more % ell.) 
 
 Q. "Wa sandi Airas cemil (a whole ell). 0omm inna eix' 
 tekoA ente sala heAih el ciswa ? (for this garment). 
 
 B. Ma aqdir ao\Lob aqall min kamse wa arbasuin fuJIa. 
 I cannot ask less than 5 and 40 silver. 
 
 Q. Saflfl el *emr ; fa absaG lee bi yed kadimi el nuyf Airas el 
 All right I send my servant 
 
 naqiy. E toried o*weddi lee aiXan ciswati el satieqa, 
 deficient I hand to thee my old garment 
 
 lecei sala miGlihe tesmel el jadieda ? 
 
 B. La yafltej : asrif qiyasec : wa ofayyul lee libs aflsen min 
 Is not needed : thy measure : cut out a dress 
 
 heAe. Lecin aqoulec : Fie somri ana ma kayya-rt 
 But I tell thee : In my life I never sewed 
 
 arkay minnoh. "Wa el coif a* e fa tos-ruihe liya ? wa s illa 
 a cheaper than it. trimming(?) givest it ? or 
 
 aflb'TThe min sandi, wa teroddhe liya basdoh. 
 
 shall I put it from my own, and thou repay it . . . ? 
 
 * Additional materials, superfluity.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 161 
 
 Q. Wa eix' heAe el colfa zod (bil ziyada) ? 
 
 B. E ma tesrif, ennoh minxan el sejaf la bodd min 6ele0 
 knowest not, that for the flounce, no escape from 3 
 
 eAros a-rlas, bi farxain el Airas : horn sitte foroux : fa 
 ells of satin, at 2 piastres an ell : six piastres : 
 
 el ezrar wa el qarran [>arx : heAe sebsa : wa el flarier 
 buttons laces (loops), seven silk 
 
 robs farx: lAen, colloh sebsa poroux wa robs (7^). 
 
 Q. Ma kammant qax heAe el tekmien : wa s inni flasebt, en 
 I never estimated estimate : but I counted to 
 
 os-rui lee, masada el jouk, kamse wa arbasuin fuiSa, 
 give thee, beside the cloth, five forty 
 
 wa terodd liya el ciswe cemile mocemmale. 
 
 you give back to me the garment complete, finished. 
 
 B. La yomcin. Fauq tesabi wa ciraya, fa hel asiui lee 
 Above my toil wages, I give thee 
 
 aiSan sebsa Gemaniya foroux? Ente ma ta5onnoh wala 
 also 7 or 8 piastres ? Thou dost not think it, nor 
 
 toriedoli minni (wish it from me). 
 Q,. Hel min el lezim, en teflb'TT el sejaf ? (to put the flounce). 
 
 B. Eiwa, lezim : la bodd minuoh. Wa min farwa, fa cen 
 Yes, necessary : no escape from it. And of fur 
 
 aGman minnoh min axlas, in yar melieJl wa jemiel. 
 more costly of it than satin, if it were good. 
 
 Eix' toried minni, ya seiyidi. 
 
 11
 
 162 HANDBOOK OF MODERX ARABIC. 
 
 Q. AUsen en teHoTT el a-rlas, wa ma qolt liya tewa (just 
 now}. Fa arodd lee el Geman. (I will repay the cost.) 
 B. Ana bi kidmatec (at thy service). "Wa mas el selame. 
 
 13. A STATIONER "WITH A PAPER MERCHANT. 
 
 A. Selam salaic, ya kawaja ! (0 sir !). 
 
 B. Salaic el selam, ya seiyidi el xeik ! (sheikh"). 
 A. Sandac xai* cefiT (waraq) ? B. andi. 
 
 A. Q,add eix' el corras ? 
 
 How much the (quire De Br.) 
 
 B. On5or el cefiT qablan, wa basdoh etecellem. 
 
 Look at the paper first, and afterwards I will speak. 
 
 A. MelielL : Hull el yb'rra. B. HeAe hou el cegiT : e ma 
 Good ! untie the bundle. This is the paper : 
 
 hou Hasen ? A. Masloum, jamiel : fa eix' sala el corras ? 
 
 B. IIoTT liya mieya wa saxara foroux, wa 'koA lee 0ela0a 
 
 wa sittien corras (110 piastres, 63 quires}. 
 
 A. Ma yayuIHL heceAe : bel li neterabax awwalan sala coll 
 It is not well thus : but rather let us covenant first about each 
 
 rizma, Gomm basdoh etefeccer cem waJQ.uda e s kod minhe. 
 packet, afterwards I will consider how many I take. 
 
 B. ala ka/rurac : iAen, tosTuini farxain sala' el corras : fa 
 
 tejid saxara fie colli rizma (you will find 10 in . . .).
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 163 
 
 A. Ma yafltemil : wa hou Judd flusebec el sebiq, bil collieya. 
 It is inadmissible against thy former reckoning, entirely. 
 
 ala ganni, parx waflud ecOar minma testelluqq. 
 
 In my opinion, a single piastre (is) more than it deserves. 
 
 B. La : fa^emma ma yokalliyni : bel ras maloh ecGar min el 
 No : but it does not clear me cost price is more than the 
 
 [>arx el wallud. OUsob ente, qadd eix tocellif 
 single piastre. Compute thyself, how much it cost 
 
 min Bendiqieya ila hona. 
 from Venice to this place. 
 
 A. Ente tasrif, fa *ente testebir resmalac : lecin ma salaiya, 
 
 knowest considerest : but it does not rest on me, 
 
 en etedakal fie *emrec : ana el xari. IAC aradt 
 that I meddle in thy affair : I (am) the buyer. If thou wish 
 
 tebies, fa bies liya. IAC lem toried, fa qoul liya : 
 "Yonsum Allah!" Pa e*koA kamse rizem, fie coll 
 rizma saxara ceraries ; wa osTuic 0emanien farx. 
 
 B. Bil ILaqq, ente ma, sb'mrec, xoft cefix aflsen min heAe. 
 
 A. Ma ra s eit aflsen : yafluiH : lecin xoft ceGier miGloh. In 
 
 xa 1 'llah, yeji liya el nafs elleAi ja liya min fairoh. 
 
 B. 'KoA lee aiJan kamse rizem. (take 5 packets more.) 
 
 A. La : heAe yecfi liya. Basdama estenfis minnoh, wa yeji 
 liya el folous, eji lee marra *okra'. Ael waqt ma baqi 
 
 sandi darahim bil cefaya. La : wa dieni ! 
 remains not . . . money ... by my faith !
 
 164 HANDBOOK OF MODEKtf ARABIC. 
 
 B. Ma obali. (Ma salaiya. Ma sala ball.) aybor salaic. 
 I do not care. (It is not on my mind.) I wait for thee. 
 
 A. Fa cem xehr taybor ? B. Aybor salaic xehrain. 
 
 how many months wilt wait ? 2 months. 
 
 A. E J koA, incen taybor sittet axhor. (if ... 6 months.) 
 
 B. Sittet axhor ! eix' min el celam hou heAe ? 
 
 A. Lecin ma okalliy nefsi fie xehrain. Min ein ajieb el 
 But I do not clear myself in 2 months. Whence 
 
 Gemanien riyal el okra' ? El mablaf ma hou min el 
 the 80 other dollars ? The sum is not (a matter) to be 
 
 mostehen. Lala ! Ma yomcin ; Aqall ma yecoun, 
 
 made light of. It cannot be ; the least that. . . 
 
 aTlob GeleG axhor. B. Ismas liya. Aqoul lee Tarieq 
 
 e*kar, aflsen min heAe. AqsiT ma bainana, wa ente 
 another way, Apportion what is between us 
 
 toufieni el dain bil qosouT. A. Fa ceif yaylall bainana ? 
 shall pay me instalments. shall it be settled 
 
 B. Aqoul lee. Ente yalLub doccen, wa ma yeji lee el darahim 
 
 master of a shop, comes money 
 
 dafsa walLiida, bel qalielan qalielan, sala qadar el bak 
 single stroke, little by little, according to sale 
 
 wa el xira'. Emma, li*en noshil salaina el Tarieq, 
 and purchase. But, for that we may ease to us the way, 
 
 li naqsiT el Gemanien riyal, Haqq el kamse rizem el 
 let us distribute the 80 dollars (due to) the 5 packets
 
 HANDBOOK OF MOD KEN ARABIC. 165 
 
 Geniya, sala Gemaniya [>arx coll el jomsa : wa basd 
 xehrain wa nuyf fa la yabqa liya sandec xai*. El 
 foroux el Gemanien el oula', fa tedfashe heAih el sesa. 
 Eix' teqoul fie heAe ? A. Meliefl. 
 
 $ 14. SPECIMEN OF PEOSE WITH FEW VERBS. 
 
 TeQt jins el *ibl toujad nausan ; cile-homa 
 Under the genus of Camels are found 2 kinds ; each of the two 
 
 ceriem el Tabas, sa5uim el nafs li soccen barrieyat 
 generous in stamp, immense of utility, dwellers desert 
 
 Afrieqieya, wa bilad el Sarah wa fairahe min el bilad elleti 
 of Africa country Arabs others than it of districts which 
 
 tellt kaTT el Seraxan. Fa e 4 ad homa el Dohemij, wa 
 under line Cancer. one of the two Bactrian Camel 
 
 hou A.OTI senamain. Fa el e s kar el Jemal, fa hou AOU 
 
 two humps other Camel endowed with 
 
 senam wallud, wa a5am qouwaten min el Dohemij, wa 
 one hump mightier in strength than 
 
 ecGer wojoudan minnoh. 
 
 more abundant in existence than he. 
 
 Wa lil Jemal ra s s yapier bil nesebat ila su5m joGGetoh, 
 camel has head small in proportion to great size carcase 
 
 wa OAnan qayuiraten, wa sb'nq Tawiel, monflani. "Wa 
 two ears short neck long flexible.
 
 166 HAXDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 irtifasoh ila Airwat senamoh nallb'u sitt aqdam wa nuxf. 
 elevation to top hump about six feet half. 
 
 Wa laun wabaroh, fie qorb min el senam, qatim ; wa fie 
 hue shag in neighbourhood of dull, dim ; 
 
 se s ir jismoh, launch ce*enna flomra kafiefe. "Wa liho 
 rest body as if red light. he has 
 
 Aenab Tawiel wa manasim mofarrafla monxiqqa ; walecinnehe 
 tail long pad-feet distended split and yet they (are) 
 
 fair monfaVula. "Wa fie seqoh toujad sitt sb'qad. Wa liho 
 not separated. his leg are found six knots. 
 
 misda kamise, fair el misd el arbas, elleti hie li coll 1 
 a stomach fifth without stomachs four which are to every 
 
 Haiwan mojtirr. Wa hou yabour sala '1 saTx wa el jous, 
 animal ruminant. he is patient against thirst hunger 
 
 wa sala rafs el asba el Seqiele seiran seriesan fie 
 
 lifting (carrying) packages heavy a march swift in 
 
 sefarat Tawiele. 
 journeys long. 
 
 15. NEWSPAPER EXTRACTS. 
 
 1. Qad 5aherat flarieqa fil xehr il maiu fie 
 
 Ab*eady appeared a conflagration in the month past in 
 
 Ezmier; wa bil rafm san mobadarat il ILocouma li 
 Smyrna, and in spite of the hastening of the Government to 
 
 UTfaihe, uflteraq bihe mi*ya wa kamsoun doccen wa 
 extinguish it, was burnt by it 100 and 50 shop and
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARAIUC. ID/ 
 
 basl maflallet. Wa ceAelic fil xehr il 
 
 several places (blocks of houses). And likewise in the month 
 
 maSu qad ixteddat el sawayuf fie XOTOUT 
 
 past became intense the gales (storms) on the coasts of 
 
 Rodos ; fa Aehib bi *e0'rihe basi el sefayin. 
 Khodes ; vanished in their track a portion of the ships. 
 
 2. Sailuifa fie Piladelfia axherat, naqlan 
 
 A (newspaper) sheet in has published by transcript 
 
 can moresela waradat ileihe, fluseb 
 
 from a correspondence (which) arrived to it a computation of 
 
 el Aeheb el leAi karaj min California wa Australia bi moddat 
 the gold which came forth from the space of 
 
 il saxar senien il *ekiera : fa cen sebas mi j ya milyaun franc, 
 the ten years last and it was 7 100 million 
 
 3. El Matjar. Jamies el aynaf, wa el essar 
 Commerce. All descriptions (of articles), and the rates 
 
 sala Halihe, lem tofraq xai*en san el esbous 
 
 according to their condition ; did not differ at all from week 
 
 ul niaiu ; wa lasieyima woqouf el flarace bi sebab 
 
 past especially the stoppage of movement (is) by cause 
 
 il amTar il fazierat, el leti hebaTat fie heAe el esbous. 
 of the rains copious which have fallen in this week. 
 
 4. Uslan. Narjou el basS min el moxtericien, el leAien 
 A notice. We entreat that part of the subscribers who 
 
 liPen lem yadfasou Gemen el jornal san heAe el sam, 
 
 hitherto have not paid the price of the journal (for} this year,
 
 168 HANDBOOK OF HCDER^ ARABIC. 
 
 en yobadirou bi uiyal Aelic; li'ennoh qad fat cl 
 
 that they hasten to present it ; because already is passed the 
 
 waqt el mosayyan HI dafs. 
 time appointed for paying. 
 
 5. Inna el vapour el Fransewi Seyyid-Nous, sarrafnacom 
 As to the steamboat French we informed you 
 
 sannoh sebiqan, enna sefluboh vapour e*kar ; li*enna 
 
 concerning it formerly that (is) towing it (worn.) another because 
 
 *eletoh cenet tesaTTalat. Gomma fehemna min qabiTanoh, 
 its engine was disabled. Next we learned from its captain 
 
 ennehom yallaflouhe, wa yar bihi el cefaya lil 
 
 that they have mended it, is become sufficiency (ability) for 
 
 sefar. Fa sefar neher el sebet el maSu. 
 
 the voyage. it set off the day of Saturday past. 
 
 6. Seflat el flb'boub motenaxxixa jiddan, wa qad tasalet 
 Area (Market) grain(s) active (lively) very have risen 
 
 essar el flunxat il Muyriey il tojjariey min 32 ila 33 el 
 the rates of wheat Egyptian mercantile from to 
 
 ceile. El flarier qaliel, lecinnoh rayij : 
 
 measure (tub). silk (is) scarce, but it (is) selling-fast 
 
 el beladiey min 170 ila 190 el oqqa. El manifatoura, lem 
 native ounce. manufacture did 
 
 tezel essarhe motemessece, mas ennoh lem yezel el 
 
 not cease its rates holding fast, although ceased not the (cargo) 
 
 warid mottayulan. 
 
 arriving continuous (the arrival continued incessant).
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 169 
 
 7. Marsielia fie 4 Edar. El zeit ; yar salaihi jomlet 
 Marseilles on March.. oil a number 
 
 mabyouTat, wa lasieyima lil yaboun. El simsin motenaxxiT 
 of purchases especially for soap. sesame lively 
 
 jiddan, wa inbas minnoh janib sa5uim : wa qad tasalet 
 is sold extent (quantity) have risen 
 
 essaroh. Fa hie bi susr 60. 
 its rates. it (is) at rate 
 
 8. Janab Adabizedeh xaras bi samel xaracet 
 
 His honour has begun to make a partnership 
 
 cerka.net [azl, moqassem resmalhe sala 500 
 
 of a factory of spinning, being divided its capital over 
 sehman, wa coll 1 sehm 2000 farxan. Wa ibteda* 
 lots (shares) every lot piastres. was begun the 
 
 ictiteb el esma. Wa heAih el xarace la taqbal 
 
 enrolment of the names. this partnership does not accept 
 
 xaries^m fair mosteniun fie Darnaxq. Wa el cerkana tedour 
 a partner except domiciled the factory is seeking 
 
 sala el may. 
 after water. 
 
 9. Jelelet melicet Ingilterra qad kaTabat fie Alleraania 
 Majesty queen of England had betrothed in Germany 
 
 ullda' binathe li Dernier Hesse Darmstad ; wa el Lord 
 one of her daughters prince 
 
 Palmerston flaiar li Baries, wa isteqam bihe arbas wa 
 was present at Paris, (pop.} stayed there 4 
 
 suxrien sesa bi mofladaOet ceOiera. 
 20 hours in interviews many.
 
 170 HANDBOOK OF MODEEN AEABIC. 
 
 10." Veniesia wa nawafLuihe qad woSusat bil taflyuinat 
 Yenetia its precincts are placed fortifications 
 
 il metiene, wa*in tecon lem tasher sala el Numse 
 substantial, although, has not appeared to Austria 
 
 hi*yat flarb fie Ixalia. 
 a case of war against Italy. 
 
 11. Sardienia *ellafat jaixain, el waflud ittejah li 
 
 has made up two armies ; the one fronts to 
 
 nailuyat el Mincio hi ri*eset el jineral Marmora, wa el 0eni li 
 the side (frontier) headship general the second 
 
 nafluyat el Bo bi riyeset Cialdini wa jineralain pairoh. 
 
 the Po two generals beside him. 
 
 Wa qad *omirat kamset saxara firqa min jonoud el moflafa.gat 
 are under command 15 detachment troops National 
 
 el *ehlieya, bil tewejjoh ila maraciz moktelifa. 
 Guard to front centres (sites) diverse. 
 
 12. Beirout. Mese el kdmis el ma5u, qad istedsa' flaSrat 
 
 Evening of Thursday past invited (nomin.') 
 
 yaflub el daula Fouad Baxa janab ma^mourie 
 
 owner ? of lordship their honours (accus.} the legation 
 
 wa qanayul jeneralieyat el dowal il fakiema lil saxa. Wa 
 Consuls General of the Great Powers to supper. 
 
 cenet waliema ilafila. Qalouhe bi coll 1 sorour in . 
 
 banquet fully -attended. They ended it with all joy. 
 
 13. Wa qad sayyanat daulatoh neher el iGnain 
 
 appointed his lordship (nom.) (accus.} Monday
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 171 
 
 wa neher el kamies min coll 1 esbous li mowajahet ro'ose el 
 Thursday of every week to meet the chiefs of the 
 
 milel wa ayilab el mayalilL wa el dasawi. Wa se-yetexarra- 
 sects men of business causes. they will be 
 
 foun ledaihi min el sesat il sedise flatte' e} sesat il 
 
 honoured (with interview) hour sixth until 
 
 tesisa : wa yadkoloun bi moujib il noumero el leti 
 
 ninth they will enter by virtue of the numero which 
 
 tosTa lihom sala el bab. 
 
 will be given to them at the door. 
 
 14. Risele min Marsielia fie 28 el maSu toslin enna el 
 A dispatch from Marseilles of the past notifies that 
 
 ficr el samm fie Franse ittejih ila hedou min jihet 
 general opinion France turns its eye to tranquillity in respect 
 
 netiejet moqabalet Yarsouvia : wa *enna heAih 
 
 to the result of the personal meeting at Warsaw 
 
 el moqabala intehet fie 26 el xehr ; wa enna el uslanat el 
 was ended vin. of the month the notices 
 
 siyesieya mo^umina. 
 political (are) confident. 
 
 15. El tejrieda el Fransewieya fie Coxin Suin qad 
 
 expedition French Cochin China 
 
 temellecet fie 13 Niesen sala mediena Mietou. Fa 
 had possession on the 13th April of the city 
 
 cenet lihe mercez^w metienw. 
 
 it (the city} was to it (the expedition] for a firm centre.
 
 172 HANDBOOK OF MODKEN ARABIC. 
 
 16. Q,ad cotib min mediena Londra, enna el Lord Jon 
 Had been written from city London, 
 
 Rousel, ni^ur karijieyat Ingilterra, qal fie uflda' jilset 
 overseer of foreign affairs said in one of the sessions 
 
 majlis el somoum, ennoh la yara', wala 
 
 of the Assembly of Commons that he does not see not even 
 
 min jihe wafluda, kaTar<m, yakxi minnoh sala el yb'lfl 
 from any side (any) danger from which he fears for the peace 
 
 el samm mas Ingilterra. Fa'inna la mesiele, sanhe 
 general with In fact (there is) no question from which 
 
 yomcin en yenjim el kaTar. 
 
 it is possible that danger may arise. 
 
 17. Bisele min Corfou, uUda el jezeyir el sebs, aslanat 
 
 A dispatch one of the seven islands has notified 
 
 bi intixab qutel bain *eheli el mediena 
 
 outburst combat between the families (population) of the city 
 
 wa sasecir el moflafa5at il Ingliezieya ; Aehib 
 
 and the soldiers of the guard (garrison) English ; in which 
 
 bihi suxroun jerielLan min el farieqain. Wa Aelic fie 21 Eiyur. 
 came off 20 wounded from the two parties. May. 
 
 18. El akbar el *ekiera. Akbar Tourien toslin, enna el 
 
 news last. News of Turin notify 
 
 jaix el iTaliani woius sala qadam il yolH. Wa la raib 
 army is placed upon a footing of peace, no strife (doubt) 
 
 enna Aelic daliel sala nieyat jelelet il melic Victour 
 
 is a proof for the intention of the majesty of king
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 173 
 
 amanou*el sala dawam il yolfl wa el selam. "Wa li heAe 
 Emmanuel for continuance therefore 
 
 irteflat el efcar min jihet flarb fie ITalia. 
 
 gained repose (men's) thoughts in respect to war 
 
 19. Bisele min Tourin toslin, enna el Q,6nt Cevour, nagur 
 
 karijieyat ITalia, qad waqas fie Eiyar marieSan. omm 
 foreign affairs fell in May sick. Next 
 
 tewaradat el akbar bi izdiyad marloh ; flatte' 
 
 kept arriving news (nom.") with increase of his disease until 
 
 akbarat risele fie G.IIazieran, ennoh qad teweflV fie 
 
 reported a letter (nom.} June departed in the 
 
 yaball Aelic el yeum. 
 morning of that day. 
 
 20. Inna mausim el aflal jiiyid fie coll 1 mecen. 
 
 season (crop) produce (is) excellent in every place. 
 
 "Wa el ma*moul, enna essar el HunTa se-tecoun bi raka 
 
 the thing hoped (is) that rates of wheat will be in cheapness 
 
 sa5uim, lem tente5uroh bilaclona fil 
 
 vast, which has not seen ? our country (nom.} in 
 
 senien il *ekiera. 
 the last years. 
 
 21. Ce Aelic mausim el flarier jaiyid : innama el xaraniq, 
 So too the season of silk only ? cocoons 
 
 essarhe eFen bi sain il nozoul ; wa hie min susr 20 ila 23 el 
 
 at present crisis of decline rate 
 
 oqqa. "Wa el flarier el beladiey 210. 
 ounce. native
 
 174 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AKABIC. 
 
 22. La yokfa', enna el Q,6nt Cevour qad teweffa' fie 6 
 It is no secret, that Count departed life 
 
 Ilazieran bil sesat il sebisa min el yabaH fie mediena Tourin. 
 June hour 7 morning 
 
 ~Wa li heAih el moyuibat il mow s ellima qad istapraqat Ixalia 
 at this affliction painful is plunged 
 
 bi*esrihe bi aGwab el ILudad, el le/d bihi xareche 
 
 in entirety in garments of mourning wherein shares with her 
 
 baqyat el xosoub aiian : li*enna faqd (foqoud) heAe el 
 the rest of the peoples also because the loss of this great 
 
 sa5uim qad *e90ar fie coll il qoloub; flatte' inna asda 
 (man) has made a print on all hearts ; so that verily the foes of 
 
 ittiflad iTalia nefsehom a5herou el *esef, bil ixtirec 
 the union of Italy themselves displayed sorrow in partnership 
 
 mas benie' waTanhom, sala faqd Aelic e] xehim. 
 
 with the sons of their home at the loss of this energetic (man). 
 
 EPen yasrif *ehl el so'yr miqdar 
 
 Now knows the people (nom.} of the age the scale (accus.) 
 
 faSloh wa semou himmetoh bi teqaddom 
 
 of his merit and loftiness of his purpose by the progress of 
 
 biladoh : fa i inna cenet afceroh el *ekiera (wa hou sala 
 his country : and in fact were his last thoughts (while he (was) 
 
 firax il nizes) mottejihe li yalall biladoh wa 
 
 on the bed of agony) turned towards the good order of 
 
 ziyadat nejafluhe. 
 
 the increase of its prosperity.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 175 
 
 23. Majlis Vienna qad *ecced UTalet el 
 Assembly of Vienna had confirmed prolongation of 
 
 yolfl. min jihet Ixalia : fa wejh asmaloh ila el uylaflat 
 peace on the side of aspect of its deeds (is) to reforms 
 
 il malieya, wa uylafl. kalal bilad il Majar. 
 financial and the reform of disorder of the country Magyars. 
 
 24. Inna daulat Franse qadd aqarrat hi masrifat 
 
 dynasty of France has avowed its acquaintance* with 
 
 memlecet iTalia, cema axher Aelic yafluifat 
 
 the kingdom of Italy, as has published (ace.} newspaper 
 
 el Patrie wa el Monitour. [* i.e. has recognized.] 
 
 (nom.) of 
 
 25. El gazettet el resmieya fie Vienna axherat qarara 
 
 gazette official has published a statement 
 
 min ni*5ur maliyat el Nimse, yoslim enna f ayidat 
 
 of the overseer of finance of Austria (which) notifies interest 
 
 el qari ul *ehliey todfas min basd Niesen bi sb'mla(?) fuSiuiya. 
 of the national debt shall be paid after April in coin silver. 
 
 26. Bina*an sala *emr flaArat yaflub el na3arat il jaliele, 
 In pursuance of the order of oversight august 
 
 qad modd firs min silc il telepraf ila seraya el 
 
 is extended a branch wire of telegraph palace of 
 
 ma^mourieyat il mosteqilla, li*ejl il mokabara mas el 
 the Commission plenipotentiary communication 
 
 flocoumet il senieya fie Damaxq bil mawadd il resmieya. 
 Government sublime on matters official.
 
 176 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 27. E 4 flad solema Prousia (Borousia) qad qaddam, basd el 
 One of the savans of Prussia has presented 
 
 bafla0, ila jamsuyat el masarif fie Berlin, sadad 
 research to the Association of Connaisances the number 
 
 xoso'ub il cor*et il *er5uiya. Fa qaddam el masdal, 
 
 of the people of the terrestrial globe. average(?) 
 
 el leAi asTa-h, bi milyar wa mi*yetein wa Gemaniya wa 
 which he gave, 1000 million two hundred eight 
 
 Gemanien milyeunan. 0omma ilaseb el an was el 
 eighty million. Then he computed the kinds (races) 
 
 insenieya bil inqisem. 
 human separately. 
 
 28. TJslan. Noslin ila' el jomhour, enna el kawaja 
 A notice. "We notify to the public the monsieur 
 
 abd Allah Ilasoun el baris fie fenn il taywier bil 
 who excels in the art of delineating with 
 
 yed, wa el monfarid bil ittiqan heAih el yanasa bi heAih 
 the hand the unique in the perfection of this profession 
 
 el bilad, mostesudd li samal coll 1 maTloub yoqaddam 
 
 (is) ready to perform every demand (which) is presented 
 
 liho min el tayawier il moktelifa. "Wa ce Aelic, you j ad 
 
 to him of drawings (paintings) diverse. So too, is found 
 
 andoh, teflt el Talab, sudda min el tayawier il lezima lil 
 under demand a number of drawings necessary 
 
 ceneyis wa lil boyout. Wa hou, sada san ittiqan 
 churches houses. besides the perfection of his
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AKABIC. 177 
 
 yanasatoh, yabies bi susr rakuiy. Fa man arad bi Talab 
 workmanship sells at a rate cheap, whoever wishes to demand 
 
 minnoh xai*en, li yafliur ila mecteb 
 
 of him (any) thing let him present himself at the office 
 
 yafluifatna. 
 of our paper. 
 
 29. Ilarieqat Tooley Street, el leti naxiyat fie Londra fie 
 The conflagration of which arose 
 
 22 Ilazieran, cenet lem tezel motewayala(ten) li fladd 1 
 June did not cease continuing to the limit of 1 st 
 
 Temouz fie ma bain arbasat eswaq, flaiGoma* cenet ibtedat. 
 July between four streets, where it had begun. 
 
 30. Marsielia fie 6 Temouz. La axfal sala el flarier. El 
 Marseilles on 6 July. No dealings in silk. 
 
 qarJ el soOmaniey 77. 
 Ottoman loan 
 
 31. Inna flaJrat yaflub-el daula Daoud Baxa, leilet el 
 
 arbasa il maiuya, ejab iltimes el kawaja Jarjis Madwar, 
 "Wednesday accepted the entreaty of Mr. Georgius 
 
 fa xarraf menziloh lil saxa. Wa cenat leile zehiya bil 
 honoured his dwelling supper. a night gay with 
 
 anwar wa elet e} Tarab : fa qaSat daulatoh 
 
 lights instruments of emotion ended (it) his lordship (nom.} 
 
 * IlaiGoma, wherever, is classical ; but flai9, where. Catafago gives 
 flaiGoma, where, which seems to be common, but less correct. 
 
 12
 
 178 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 mesroura(ten) bi ma teqaddam lihe min el kadamat. 
 delighted with what was presented to (it) of services. 
 
 32. Inna el zienat el leti yarat fil Istenat el Salieya, bi 
 As to adornment which was in Sublime Place, on 
 
 foryat el jolous el sesuid el homayouniey, cenat 
 occasion of the sitting (on throne) happy imperial, it was 
 
 sala faya ma yecoun min el behjat, el leti a5herathe 
 extremity of what may be of delight displayed 
 
 jemies el *eheli min el milel il moktelifa fie jamies xawarh 
 all the families of the sects diverse in all the roads 
 
 el Istena wa maQallathe wa nawafluihe dakilan wa karijan ; 
 places precincts within without 
 
 flatte' cen ranien el afrafl wa el sorour yowayul el *efaq 
 so that echo (tinkle) of joys delight reached horizon 
 
 mokbiran bi afrafl el *ommat, el leti lem yecon naus min 
 declaring joys nation, which there was no kind of 
 
 meserrat, ilia wa a5heratoh bi ibtihej sa5uim. 
 joyfulness, but it displayed it with mighty glee. 
 
 33. Neher el e*flad fie 7 Temouz, qad ja 1 flalrat yaflub el 
 The day of Sunday July came 
 
 daula QabuTan Baxa ila menzil flairat sefier daulat 
 Gate-holder Chief lodging ambassador 
 
 Ingilterra el fakiema, Sir Henry Bulwer ; (el leAi usterah 
 mighty (on whom supervened 
 
 marS lezemoh el firax ;) lecei yeftaqid 
 
 illness (which) caused him to keep his bed) to inquire after
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 179 
 
 aflwal yuflflatoh min ladon flaSrat il Aet il xahenieyat il 
 the state health on the part of personage regal 
 
 jeliela. *Emma flairat el sefier fa cen mamnounan jiddan li 
 august. But ambassador obliged at 
 
 heAe el iltifat il sa5uim ; wa terejja HaSrat yaflub el daula 
 attention besought 
 
 QabuTan Baxa, en yoqaddim texeccoratoh wa mamnounieyatoh 
 present his thanks obligation 
 
 ila janib il sarx il molouciey ; cema rawah morasil 
 
 to the side of throne royal as narrated it a correspondent 
 
 min el Istenat il Salieya ila jornal Ezmier. 
 from Sublime Place to journal Smyrna. 
 
 34. Aflwal Ameriece lem tezel bil irtibec il sa3uim 
 Circumstances of continued in entanglement vast 
 
 rain jihet il flarb bain el janoub wa el ximal. Wa liPen 
 in respect to the war south north. hitherto 
 
 lem yeterajjail el nayr li e^ILad, wa leis siwa' el 
 
 did not preponderate victory there is nothing but 
 
 aSrar el jesiema HI farieqain, el leti laflaq te*0ierohe 
 huge losses two parties of which has reached the impress 
 
 bi ec9ar aqsem el cor*e, li sebab tasTuil il 
 
 to most parts of the globe by reason of the disabling of the 
 
 matejir il rnotesalliqa mas tile el bilad. 
 commerces connected with that country. 
 
 35. MaHacim Ingliezieya. Inna el flumar, la yejib 
 Courts of Justice English. As for the ass, not behoves
 
 180 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AEABIC. 
 
 en na0qol salaihi ec6ar min el insen. "Wa liAelic, teflarracet 
 that we load on him more than therefore was stirred 
 
 pairat el Taba-ruiya Clark fie e t ad eswaq Londra, 
 the zeal of the policeman in one of the streets of 
 
 fi.aiQoma nagar flumaran mescienan, yaflmil fauq 
 (Hai9, where") he saw an ass wretched (who) carries above his 
 
 Taqatoh ilumlan Geqielan. "Wa mas heAe, fa cen tfafluboh 
 strength load heavy. in spite of his owner 
 
 (el mosemma' William Abbot) seciban sala heAe el flaiwan 
 named pouring on this animal 
 
 el mescien wabilan min el iarb il xadied sala ra*soh wa 
 wretched a shower of beating violent on head 
 
 sulamoh wa janboh wa jamies jawariH jesedoh ; flatte' cen el 
 bones side all limbs of body until 
 
 dam* yesiel minnoh min coll 1 mecen. Fa elqa' el qabS sala 
 blood streams place. he laid arrest 
 
 safluboh Abbot; Qoinma me00eloh *emam el qaJu. 
 his owner ; then submitted him in presence of magistrate. 
 
 Fa se*eloh qayilan : 
 he asked him saying : 
 
 ( QdKu.} " Li maAe *eAAeit heAe el flaiwan ? " 
 "Why hast thou ill-used this animal ? 
 
 (Abbot.} " Ceif tosemmi heAe flaiwanan ? wa hou 
 How dost thou name this an animal ? and he is 
 
 flumar ; la ec0ar. 
 an ass ; no more.
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARA.BIC. 181 
 
 Q. " Wa asb'nn, enna el ecGar tewaflQoxan min el i0nain, 
 I think, that the greater in brutality of the two 
 
 leis hou el flumar. "Wa lecin li maAe aujasteho bi heAe 
 is not the ass. but why hast thou pained him. on this 
 
 el miqdar ? Fa hel bi heAih el wasiTa yamxi ecGar ? " 
 scale ? "Will he by this means walk more ? 
 
 A. " La ! bel bil Judd, cen yanam. "Wa lecin ana 
 No : on the contrary, he went to sleep. Yet I did 
 
 ma aujastoh." 
 not pain him. 
 
 Q. " Ente iarabteho sala ra*soh wa sala suSamoh, 
 Thou didst beat him on his head and bones 
 
 ilatte sel el dam s min jirafloh." 
 until streamed his wounds. 
 
 A. " Ah bah ! heAe leis bi xai ft sala el llumar. Fa *inni 
 Ah bah ! this is nothing In fact I (am) 
 
 maujous ecGar minnoh ; li*enna imrati waledat, 
 
 pained more than he ; for my wife has given birth 
 
 we lem tasod taqdir en tasmel samelan, mas enni 
 has not been longer able to do work although I (am) 
 
 bi fayat il ufltiyaj iia kidmethe." 
 in extreme need of her service. 
 
 IIuinaiAin teqaddam el iabaTuiya, wa qal : 
 Just then came forward the policeman, and said : 
 
 " Ya moula s i ! inna el llumar, qaddamtoh 
 
 master, as for the ass, I have presented him (brought
 
 182 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 ila bab il maJlcema. Pa *in aradt en tefflaxoh, 
 him) to tbe door of the Court. if thou wish to examine him, 
 
 qoum bina, li nai^or hi eiy flale hou." "Wa lil flal 
 get up with us, that we see in what state he (is). instantly 
 
 karaj el qaJu Cenouces, mas cetim sirrihi wa coll* 
 went out the cadi Knox ? with his secretary 
 
 mowa55ufeihi li ziyarat il flumar il mescien, el leAi cen 
 his functionaries to visit the wretched ass, who was 
 
 bil jehd yesta-ruis el woqouf sala qawayimoh. "Wa iluinima 
 scarcely able to stand on his legs. as soon as 
 
 rajasou li mecenihom, qal el qalu ila el moxteci 
 
 they returned to their place the (man) complained 
 
 salaihi : "Ente waflx : fa *innec bi coll 1 qasewa wa 
 against : Thou (art) a brute thou cruelty 
 
 faXab Zarabt heAe el ilaiwan el mescien. Fa aflcom 
 violence didst beat I judge 
 
 saleic bil sijn xehran : wa ete s essef li ceuni 
 
 against thee with prison for a month I regret at my being 
 
 lem aqdir ejid lee quyayan a5am." 
 unable to find a punishment greater. 
 
 Fa karaj el maflcoum salaihi ; wa hou yaqoul 
 
 went out the (man) judged against he says 
 
 motemarmiran ; "El flumar ma hou xai* : wa mas heAe, fa 
 grumbling is nothing for all that, 
 
 *inni qad iarabt imrati ecGar ; wa lem yoflcem 
 
 I have beaten my wife no (thing) was judged
 
 HAIfDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 183 
 
 salaiya, ilia bi Gemaniyat eiyam fil sijn." 
 
 against me, except with eight days in prison. 
 
 36. Yoqal, enna el Ab el Moqaddas qad nal yuflflatoh 
 It is said, Father Holy has obtained his health 
 
 el temma, wa mozmis en yoflafug sala siyasetho, el leti 
 complete he is hastening to attend to his administration 
 
 etbashe(?) li add eFen. 
 to the limit of now. 
 
 37. Inna llaSrat yallub el sesada Gorya Baxa, moteyarrif 
 
 his honour, lord of felicity, ruler, rector 
 
 el Qods el xarief, qad qaddam li kidmat il 
 
 of Jerusalem the noble, has presented to the service of the 
 
 jonoud il xahenieya baflain wa jawadain ; wa 
 
 troops regal two mules two steeds (chargers) 
 
 qob(b)ilet taqdimetoh heAih bi coll 1 maH50U5uiy. 
 was accepted his present happiness. 
 
 38. Inna HaSrat yaflub el daula wali Ezmier, qad 
 
 governor of Smyrna 
 
 manas Tabasat faznat Armenieya, 5aharat bil 
 
 has hindered printing poem ? (which) appeared 
 
 moddat il *ekiera bi tile el mediena, b'ism "El Zehra" 
 space of time latest in that city, with name 
 
 li i enna cenet -robkat bi doun istie^Aen au rokya min el 
 
 it was printed without asking leave or permission 
 Jlocouma. 
 government.
 
 184 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 39. Neher el e*flad fie 11 Ab, sand el sesat il Gemma ilia 
 
 Sunday August hour 8 th all but 
 
 kamse daqayiq, fladaGat fie Ezmier rajfa qawieya min 
 5 minutes occurred Smyrna shock strong 
 
 zelz'elet il *erL 
 quake earth. 
 
 40. Cotib min Eidien el celam ePeti : Inna el e0mar 
 Was written discourse following fruits (crop) 
 
 el tien tesquT min el a pan dayiman : wa qad qiel, enna nuyf 
 figs drop boughs always it was said half 
 
 el maflyoul qad Aehib hi heAih el wasiTa ; wa enna, el leAi 
 crop is gone means that what 
 
 baqi, radi jiddan ; wa coll he AC, min el marS el leAi 
 remained, bad (is) from the disease 
 
 istaflwaz sala heAih el e0mar. 
 has taken possession of this crop. 
 
 41. El simsim wa el qoTn bi flale jaiyida fil waqt 
 
 sesame cotton (are) in excellent condition 
 
 il ILalur : innema rielL el ximal, el leAi hebb bi heAe el 
 present only wind north has blown 
 
 esbous, qad aiarr jiddan bil zeitoun, wa ceser ceGieran min 
 week has hurt olives has broken much 
 
 afjfanoh. (his boughs?) 
 
 42. El ilarr xadied jiddan, Hatte' *innoh la yoTaq ; wa 
 
 heat intense so that even it is intolerable
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEUJf ARABIC. 185 
 
 zelezil el *erS motewayule. Wa qad axsarna bi Oemaniya 
 quakes of earth continuous we have, felt eight 
 
 rajfet bi moddat sesat qaliele. 
 shocks space of hours few. 
 
 43. Seilat el Aoboub moteflassenat el aflwal. El 
 Area (Market) of grain (is) improved 
 
 manifatoura lem tezel motenaxxuTa : wa s emma mal el 
 manufactures lively, active goods of the 
 
 qabban, fa aqall Qarace minhe 
 
 large* scales, less movement of them. * Heavy goods. 
 
 44. Jelalet el ImperaTour Napolion qad tewejjah min 
 Majesty has turned his face (set off] 
 
 Paries ila Viexi fie Franse ; wa qabaletoh el *eheli bi 
 Paris Vichy confronted him the people 
 
 ibtihej saguim. 
 delight. 
 
 45. Akbar Iialia el janoubieya toslin bi qalaqil jadieda ; 
 
 southern inform disturbances new 
 
 wa enna el jineral Cialdieni noyub qayidan li jaix il 
 that general is appointed leader army of the 
 
 janoub : wa yete s emmeloun enna floSouroh fie Napoli 
 south they consider (expect] his presence in Naples 
 
 se-yohemmid el hiyaj. 
 will quell the uproar. 
 
 46. Lem yezel el uiTurab motemeccinan fie aqxar 
 Did not cease commotion growing strong regions
 
 186 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AKABIC. 
 
 Ameriece ; wa lem tczel el Aarb el *ehlieya toheddid el 
 of America war domestic threatens 
 
 jamies min el farieqain. 
 whole two parties. 
 
 47. Inna sb'mdat bilad el Ma jar qaddamat li jelalet Im- 
 
 (Diet] of Hungary presented to Majesty 
 
 peraTour il Numse el sarX el moteiammin texallobat 
 Austria address containing demands 
 
 biladihom : wa ausadathom jelaletoh bi UST& el jawab 
 of their promised them to give answer 
 
 sala* ma, bihi yalifl el memlece wa kair el xasb el 
 according to the interest kingdom good plebs 
 
 somoumiey. * According to that wherein (is) the interest, etc. 
 
 common. 
 
 48. Yoqal enna el flb'conmat el Fransewieya qad ustemadat 
 It is said that government has resolved 
 
 en toxayyid miena sascerieya b'ize jezierat el Dirli, asni, 
 to establish a harbour military opposite island I mean 
 
 wm-bain Brest wa Xerborj, mas samel maidan. fesiell, 
 between besides making area spacious 
 
 yomcinoh en yeses arbasuin *elf jondiey. 
 which may possibly contain 40,000 soldiers. 
 
 49. Yeloufl. ennoh yar el ustumad sala nayb Mousiou 
 It is evident the resolve to appoint Monsieur 
 
 Bandieni sefieran fauq el sada, wa mostemidan mofawwalan, 
 ambassador beyond custom trustee entrusted
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 187 
 
 li daulat Franse b'ize memlecet iTalia el jadieda; wa 
 to govern 1 coram kingdom new 
 
 Mousiou Bicera sefieran li ITalia fie Franse. 
 
 50. Inna yuflflat janab sefier daulat Ingllterra b'ize 
 
 health of the Sire Ambassador of coram 
 
 el bab il sali qad ittejehet lil teqaddom ; wa yoqal, 
 
 Porte High has faced round towards* advancing 
 
 ennoh se-yeAheb li tafyier il hewa li s ejl nawal 
 
 that he will depart to change the air for the sake of attaining 
 
 yufldatoh el temma. 
 
 his health complete. * Has taken a turn for the better. 
 
 51. E s flad vapourat el Messejerie el Fransewieya, el 
 One of steamboats Messagerie 
 
 mosemma' Prouisien [biEawiesien?] cenmonta5aranmin Souria 
 named Perousine ? was expected from Syria 
 
 monA neher il iGnain el maSu. Wa miesadoh, en 
 
 ever since Monday last. its promise (of time) (was) 
 
 yeAheb Geni yeum ila Marsielia ; wa lil'en lem yayul. 
 that it go 2 nd day to hitherto it has not arrived. 
 
 "Wa Aelic, li fladiGa jarat fie *eletoh, fa 
 
 that (was), for an accident (which) happened in its engine 
 
 *ekkaratoh fie Rodos. Wa s emma xaflnoh, fa qad ja,* bihi 
 retarded it at Rhodes. But its cargo, came with it 
 
 el vapour el Rousi, el mosemma' Xersones. 
 the Russian steamer, named Chersonese.
 
 188 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ABABIC. 
 
 ' 52. Nawaflu Teselia motemettisa bil hedou 
 
 Borders (Tracts) of Thessaly (are) enjoying repose 
 
 wa el raflat el temma, bi himme wa sunayat flalrat yaflub 
 rest complete, care providence owner of 
 
 el daula wa el behe Tayib Baxa. 
 lordship brilliancy 
 
 53. Jelelet melic el Swied, basd ziyaretoh Paries, qad zer 
 Majesty Sweden, after his visiting Paris had visited 
 
 mediena Londra, wa dosa' lil saxa sand yaflub el semou, el 
 was asked to supper highness 
 
 Lord Palmerston. 
 
 54. Xasat el akbar san moqabala(tin) se-taflyal 
 Is diif used the news of a confronting,* loliich shall happen 
 
 fie mabain jelelet ImperaTour Napolion, wa jelelet melicet 
 between his Majesty the Emperor queen 
 
 Ispania. * A personal meeting. 
 
 55. Gazettet Bombay fie 27 Temouz aslanat, bi j enna el 
 
 hewa el ayfar qad fetec bi maqaTasat moktelife fil Hind, 
 air yellow (cholera) had attacked districts divers in India. 
 
 56. Yoqal enna leis ittifaq bain iabaT ul sumarat il 
 It is said, that is no concord officers fleet 
 
 Fransewieya wa SabaT ul sumarat il Ingliezieya ; li*enna el 
 
 Fransewieyien yoriedoun en yecounou wafldohom el Hoflamien 
 the French wish to be . alone they Protectors 
 
 san jeziera Madaqasqar b'isrihe. 
 of island collectively.
 
 HANDBOOK OP MODERN ARABIC. 189 
 
 57. Qad HadaGat zelzele sa5uima fie Antiegou fie Ameriece : 
 
 fa hodimat heAih el mediena : fa mat bihi min Aelic *elfan 
 was demolished this city : died from that 2000 
 
 nefsen. 
 
 58. El xiqaq lem yezel fie Ameriece ; wa lem tezel el 
 
 schism ceased not in 
 
 istisdadat el ILarhieya. 
 preparations warlike. 
 
 59. Inna llaSrat yallub el sa5ama wa el iqtidar, maulana 
 
 grandeur authority, our master 
 
 el solTan el as5am, qad arsel ila el iarb-a-kana miqdaran 
 sultan mightiest, had despatched Mint a quantity 
 
 wafiran min *ewani el Aeheh wa el fuSSa, mas el *emr el 
 copious vessels gold silver order 
 
 sali hi iarbihe sb'mlaten. 
 high to stamp them for coin. 
 
 60. Ceteh jornal Ezmier fie 9 Ah : Qad oslin hi aywat 
 Wrote journal August : was notified by cries 
 
 el silafl, neher el GelaGa, fie 6 Ah, sand el sesat el 
 
 " all'arme" (alarm) full day Tuesday at hour 
 
 saxira mese, ixtifal el nar fie yayifl el Islam. Fa teraceS el 
 10 th morning, activity of fire quarter ran together 
 
 nes ; lecin bil ba/rul cen ijtihed li UTfaihe : Ii 4 enna 
 men ; but in vain was the effort to extinguish it because 
 
 hoboub riyaH el ximal ezed el lehieb, wa 
 
 blowing of the winds of the North increased the flame
 
 190 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 esras bi imtitedoh : wa la sieyima li^enna el yayiil, elleAi 
 hastened to extend it especially quarter wherein 
 
 naxabat bihi el nar, cen jamiesoh min el akyab, wa qarieba 
 shot (up) the fire all of it planks (wood) near 
 
 boyoutoh li basSuhe [basi], na5aran li Zaiqat 
 
 its houses to one another in respect of the narrowness 
 
 eswaqoh wa xawarishe. Fa cenet el moyuiba sa5uima, wa 
 of its streets and its roads. was calamity vast 
 
 el kisera somoumieya. Wa isteqamat ehwal el nar tissa 
 loss general continued the terrors of the fire 9 
 
 sesat, doun en testai-uis sala teuqiefihe qouwa baxarieya, 
 hours without that shall avail to stop it force human 
 
 na5aran li sorsat mesierihe sala janaQ ul hewa. Wa lemma jat 
 speed of its march wing air. when 
 
 el sesat el sebisa min el yabail, tewaqqaf at el nar, basdama cenet 
 
 daraset sebasatasxar Aalluya(ten) wa Hay an, tafltewi sala 
 levelled 17 township parish, (which) contain 
 
 sebas mi^eya wa sebasuin beiten, wa 0ele0a jawamis, wa 
 
 700 70 house 3 chief mosques 
 
 arbasa mesejid, wa 9ele0a medaris. Wa lau cenet laflaqat 
 4 mosques 3 colleges if it had reached 
 
 bi yayifl el Yehoud, le ma cen fair Allah yaslem, ila *ein 
 quarter Jews, none save God knows, whither 
 
 montehehe. Wa qad auqasat heAih el moyuibat el moriesa 
 its end. has thrown down this calamity awful
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODEEX ARABIC. 191 
 
 ec0ar foqara *ehl el Islam bi Hale moilzine ; li^enna *olouf 
 poor people state mournful thousands 
 
 minhom, aybaflou bila melja*, yestegulloun bil kiyam, au 
 (who) passed morning refuge, shade themselves in tents 
 
 yasroloun wojouhehom li flarr il xams. 
 expose faces heat sun. 
 
 Bijal el flb'couma qad samalou ma yajib salaihom. Fa 
 Men of the Gov 4 had done what was a duty 
 
 sasecir el moflafaga wa el Taupajieya wa baflflarat el sefayin, 
 soldiers of garrison artillery crews of ships 
 
 homma ixtapalou bi himma, yaqyar sanhe coll 
 
 these worked (were busy) earnestness falls short of it 
 
 mediefl. Wa lasieyima el wali, o0man Baxa, fa ittejeh bi 
 eulogy (nom.} especially Governor set out by 
 
 nefsoh li maflall il moyuiba, wa mece9 flatte' el yabafl. 
 himself place of calamity tarried until morning. 
 
 Wa*emma baflflarat el qabaq el Fransewi Fontounoui wa 
 But the crews of ship of the line Fontenoy ? 
 
 el vapour Heroun fa qad herasou sand 5ohour el flarieqa mas 
 steamer hurried at appearance of conflagration 
 
 ceGier min JabayuThom, wa qaddamou kadamat collieya ila 
 many of officers offered (gave) services entire to 
 
 el mediena, Haseb xaTarathom. Wa ce Aelic ceGieroun min 
 the city, cleverness. so too many of
 
 192 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 
 
 asyan el tebasat el ajnabieya qad a5herou jeserathom bi 
 gentry subjects foreign displayed bravery 
 
 teuqief el nar, flal mesierhe. 
 stopping during its progress. 
 
 61. Qad fotifl fie 6 XobaT [1862] majlis el Parleman fie 
 
 was opened February assembly in 
 
 Londra ; wa telat jelelet melicet Ingilterra fiehi koTbatbe el 
 London ; read majesty queen her address 
 
 senawieya, toslin bihe sorourhe wa irtiZahe min 
 annual in which she declares her joy satisfaction 
 
 sula.qa.tihe mas qouwat Europpa el ajnabieyat, el leti lem 
 connections powers of foreign which not 
 
 tezel moxaddada bi ribaT ul ILobb. Wa Giqathe, bi sb'dm 
 ceased strung tight bond amity. her trust ( is) in non- 
 
 wojoud sebab, yestai-uis en yaSorr bi yolfL Europpa. 
 
 existence of cause (which) may be able to hurt peace of 
 
 Gomma tecellemat san el teswieyat il morSuya el leti 
 Next she spoke concerning settlement satisfactory which 
 
 jarat mas Ameriece, bi ko'youy fladiGat il sefienat 
 took place with in respect to the occurrence of the ship 
 
 il Ingliezieya ; wa san ittiflad il qouwat il 0ela0 fie mesielet 
 [the Trent] agreement Powers Three question 
 
 il Mecsiec ; we san tejriedat il Suin, wa axpal Maracix. 
 Mexico expedition of China affairs of Morocco. 
 
 62. Ila' ILaSrat el moxtericien. Bi coll 1 sorour in 
 To Messieurs contributors (subscribers). With all joy
 
 HANDBOOK OF MODERN ARABIC. 193 
 
 noqaddim cl teheni ila '1 j curies bi dokoul heAe 
 
 we present congratulations to all on the entrance of this 
 
 el sain el j allied, se^ilicn el Maula', en yajsaloh 
 
 year new asking the Lord (Master) that he make it 
 
 cainau mobaracen, maqrounan bil teufieq wa '1 nejafl. 
 a year blessed coupled with prosperity and success. 
 
 Noslin ila' ilairat*' el moxtericien fil Isccndaricya, eiina 
 We notify to (our subscribers) in Alexandria that 
 
 he AC el sadad faqaT, elleAi hou auwal sadad heAe el cam, 
 this numero only, which is first numero of this year 
 
 yayulhom min yed wecielina el kawaja Escender 
 will reach them from the hand of our agent Mr. Alexander 
 
 Toubeni : wa min basdoh narjouhom, en yestelimou 
 
 henceforward we entreat them that they receive 
 
 jornalethom min wecelet el PosTa; li*eimenu 
 
 their journals from the agencies of the Post because we 
 
 norsil07<f li coll 1 minhom rasen, marraten mas el 
 
 despatch it to all of them by the head, sometimes with the 
 
 Moscouvi, wa marraten mas el Fransewi, *em el NimseAvi. 
 Muscovite, sometimes with the French or Austrian. 
 
 63. Inna el mosehimien fil Tarieq bain Beirout wa 
 
 As regards the shareholders in (rail)way between 
 
 Damaxq, elleAien eFen lem yadfasou el qisT el Gelib el 
 Damascus, who now have not paid instalment third 
 
 * IlaSrat, yn-esence, used like Majesty, Excellency, as a title ; but alike 
 for the sovereigu or for auy respectable person. 
 
 t Jornal, masc. though as a foreign word, it has j?/. in -et. 
 
 13
 
 194 HANDBOOK OF MODERN AliAHIC. 
 
 maTloub monA xrhr Xoba/r, norsil cshemhom ila 
 
 demanded since month February we shall despatch shares to 
 
 Baries, lecei tobfis honec bi moujib el madda 11, 
 
 Paris, in order that may be sold there by virtue of article 
 
 el motesalliqa bi Aelic, min qawanien el Xarace ; IAC 
 relating to that (topic) of the canons (rules) Association if 
 
 lem yadfacou heAe el qisT min ePen li fladd 15 
 
 they (shall) not have paid this instalment limit 
 
 Temouz el qadim. 
 July approaching. 
 
 Inna el mosehimien, ellcAicn dafasou el qosouT li 
 As for the shareholders who have paid instalments up to 
 
 Jladd ePen, yejib floiourhom min ibtida xehr 
 
 the present time, is right their personal presence beginning 
 
 Temouz el qadim ila maJlall el Xarace yeumieyan, min 
 
 July approaching, place (office) the Company daily from 
 
 el pesa 9 ila 11, li qabl el fayidat el mostellaqqa lihom. 
 
 hour to get-in-hand interest (profit) due to them. 
 
 I'lUNTEl) }iY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.
 
 A 000 093 461 2