«? JeI s ^^M i "j^m, B «j m ^^H M m r'^fmi M APPLETONS' School and Colle&e Text-Books TjCbtiTL, Gr-peel^, Syrtac, Hebrew. Arnoli By Beza. Butle: N( Caesar Cicen Corne Crosb G Friez G t ith the ;es. 0. 0. :ies. Gate! Harl iS the Arnolds First Latin Book. Second Latin Book. Progressive Exercises. A Complete Course for the Firi't Year. A Latin Grammar, for Schools and Colleges. A Latin Grammar, for Schools and Colleges. Revised edition. 1881. The Elements of Latin Grammar, for Schools. A Latin Header, intended as a companion to the author's Latin Grammar. A Latin Reader. With Exer-iscs. A New Latin Header. With References, Suggestions, Notes, and Vocabulary. Standard Classical Text-Books. Harkness, Albsrt. Series of Latin Text-Book^. 12mo: A Practical Introduction to Latin Conposiiion. For Schools and Colleges. C I C 1 most iise i instil Herl Hors John Lati Line Lind c Livy Lord Ovid Qnin Qmn Salk Sews o Spen Taci Thac ^1 Tyle UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES Verg i'. - — Adar Anal Anti Arno •, etc. Books of f Cicero, ary. ay of the Iready in classical Qd Exer- forMem- and Con- tUlO. A e^-^^' THE GREEK PREPOSITIONS, STUDIED FROM THEIR ORIGINAL MEANINGS AS DESIGNATIONS OF SPACE. BY F. A. ADAMS, Ph. D. It is of more importance to us to learn liow the Greeks spoke than to know what they said. — Jelf. ; '> -. , - ■> - - ^ NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1, 3, AND 5 BOND 8TKEET, 1885. CI', It ; COPTKIGHT, 1885, By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. t mTRODUCTION. "Whatevek theory we adopt of the origin of lan- guage, it is agreed by all scholars that its words are derived largely from notions of things in space. This book presents the results of a study of the Greek Prepositions from the stand-point of that admission. No class of words in the Greek is more important than the Prepositions ; and none are more imper- fectly understood ; yet these are the words that, be- yond all others, bear on their face the suggestions of space. But the clew is soon lost that conducts from these primary uses into the wide realm of thought, of reasoning, of will, of passion, and life. And yet such a clew there must be, connecting by real, though subtle analogies, the primary meanings with all the ^ meanings which follow. ^ But learners of the Greek find no harder thing, after passing the rudiments, than to fix in mind the meanings of verbs compounded with prepositions. The difiicnlty is natural, and on the whole creditable to the intellect of the embarrassed student. He has nothing but his memory to aid him ; neither the Die- 160839 iv Introduction. tionary nor the Grammar give instruction liere — they give only authority. The learner is left with few in- citements to his power of discrimination and logical deduction. The definitions in the Lexicons burden his memory ; they do not instruct him to find his way. Even Treatises on the Greek Prepositions do not evince any systematic endeavor to interpret the prepositions through a logical deduction from their primary meanings as designations of space. The learner under these conditions naturally becomes in- different ; for what he cannot do intelligently, he becomes, after a time, willing not to do at all ; and, perhaps, in the end, he adds one to the number of those who complain that they have spent much time on the Greek with little profit. To show that the picture here outlined is not too highly colored, let a college graduate, who has done well in his Greek, take, for example, the verb Xeiireiv ; and, prefixing to it successively the prepositions aTro, hta, 6/c, iv, eTrl, Kara, jrapa, vtto, let him form English sentences that, if written in Greek, would require the use of these prepositions respectively compounded with the verb. His certain failure is the result of many former defeats, where his natural inquisitive- ness has not been encouraged and rewarded. When he finds the verb nevetv compounded with ava, with hta, iv and Kara, with irepl and utto, he finds himself in a hke difficulty. The adjectives S>}Xo9, e/cSv^Xo?, evSrjXo'i, KaTdBr]Xo<;, all contain the Introduction. v notion dear^ with differences wliicli forbid the use of one for another. What are these differences? And through what lines of thought does the learner come to see these differences, so that the knowledge of them shall no longer depend on a burdened mem- ory, but shall be a natural possession of his instructed intelligence? The present work is an endeavor to clear somewhat this seeming Jungle of the Greek Prepositions — to show that it is not a jungle, but a garden, whose alleys and paths have become over- grown through neglect, and lost to view. Or — to speak without a figure — the object of this work is contained by implication in the following Thesis r The Greek Prepositions, suggestive primarily of notions of space, show through all their uses such analogy to the primary meanings as affords aids in- dispensable to a satisfactory understanding of the lan- guage. The motive and object of the work, thus stated, naturally lead to the question of its method. It be- gins by analyzing the notions of space, and the notions that accompany these in nature ; it then seeks for the analogues of these in human experience. Thus the whole field of human life, of thought, passion, and purpose, is laid open, and the Prepositions enter it in their own right. The store-house of facts used in the present study is the language of the Greek Literature — the Greek Language at its best. As the work is Psychological, vi Introduction. not Etymological, it does not discuss the origins of words. It is not tlie forms of the words, but the thought that underlies them, that is here the object of search ; not the changing fortunes through which a written word has passed till it comes to the form in which we have it in our hands ; but what the word means now that is in our hands, and how it comes to mean what we know it does mean. As the prepositions primarily denote relations of space, we have in these notions, and others which these carry with them, a point of departure — not a working hypothesis awaiting its justification, but a basis of facts settled by common consent; ova primarily means u])^ and Kara down; hri means primarily on or upon, and vtto means under / and so of the rest. In beginning at this point we begin where the learner must begin ; and where he must stay till he learns to love the Greek, if he ever comes to love it at all. As the ideas of space and the notions these carry with them were always present, it is reasonable to beheve that they were operative in the formation of language from the first; that they served as land- marks pointing out the paths along which human speech should move. For reasons already suggested, the present work does not enter this wide and at- tractive field. It is written with the humbler aim of aiding the students who are learning to read Greek, and the teachers whose work is to instruct them. This work makes no claim to be a complete Introduction. vii treatise on tlie Greek Preposition. The author has restricted himself to the presentation of the subject in a single line of observation — omitting whatever was not pertinent to his special object. In this view he trustfully commends it to the hospitable reception that will be readily accorded to a thoughtful endeavor on new ground. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. This book, it is believed, may, with advantage, be put in the hands of learners as soon as they have left the reading of detached sentences, and have entered on continuous prose. It should not tlien, however, be made matter for consecutive recitations. The positions are new, and too important to be treated thus in mass; each point should be elucidated by in- stances found in the text of the student's daily reading. The author would ofter to the consideration of his fellow-teachers a plan hke the following: Select from the book a single prepo- sition, and make the whole, or a part of the matter relating to it, and no more, the subject of one, or at most two recitations, the teacher eagerly lending his maturer thought to the pupils to aid them in the new line of study. Then let him direct that for the next two weeks (or more, at his discretion) that preposition be marked for special attention whenever it occurs in the read- ing of the class. At the end of this time let all these instances be reviewed, in the combined light of the statements in the book on that preposition, and of the quickened attention which the pupils will not fail to give to the word thus singled out. Let the prepositions be taken up, one' at a time, in a way like this, and the result will be not to load the memory with words of definition, but to quicken the apprehension of the thought that underlies them. The past will not be forgotten; and eager study will daily bring its own reward. EREATA. Page IS, middle, /o?' tokt read ras. 21, liue 8 from bottom, for Kacrx^Gf = Karea-xf read KacrxeBe = KOTeVxe. 21, line 6 from bottom, /or i.vi(Txov read avicrxov. 27, top, for Seiv, KoraSfii' read Selv, KaraSelv. 29, top, foi' ^rjTiiy, ava^-qreiv read ^7)tuv, avaQr]Teti>. 31, line 9, /or Karti^ov read KaTit^ov. 31, line 10 from bottom, /or (rrjixdwciev read a-riixaivotev, 39, top, for iKpTjyeiro read ucpriyelro. 43, line 2, for opvfjLaySov read 6puj.iay5ov. 44, liue 3 from bottom, /or i/jxas read rifxas. 45, bottom, for can read cave. 59, liue 4, for rais read rals. 60, line 1, for rov aiyaXhv read tov alyaXov. 63, line 12 from bottom, /or irotetv read iroiiiv. 65, line 1,/or i on a golden staff, ava aKyyKTpw (II. 1 : 15), the preposition is adverbial, the Dative case being the usual case to denote definite or fixed position. In the jDhrases, ava poov, up stream ; Kara poov, down stream ^ ava KXlfxaKa, up stairs j Kara xklixaKa, down stairs, the nouns appear as objects respectively of avh and Kara ; but these words are still adverbial in force — the accusative case being the natural case to express the distance passed over. 11. In the expression, He sent the shaft, Kara aTrj6o<;, straight against the hreast, the character of the act helps us to the meaning as much as the prep- osition ; Kara suggests a straight motion, as a stone dropped in the air falls straight, and the accusative is the usual case to mark the point where the action ter- Am and Kara. Primarily Adverbial. 7 minates. So, to shoot an arrow, Kara aKoirov, is to send it straight against the marh ; it can not fail to hit, and a machine might do this. The fact of straight motion, terminated by the mark, exhausts all there is in the expression. But the phrase, to shoot an arrow, Kara aKorrov, does not mean straight against the mark; it means to shoot at it with the design to hit it. It may hit, or it may miss, and still be sent, Kara gkottoO. An engine can not do this, for it has no brains. He who shoots, Kara o-kottov, will make allowance for the fall of the arrow, that is, its deflexion by gravitation ; and, for a side wind, if there be one. The Genitive here is causative, showing the action of the marTc on the shooter, inciting to his endeavor. This makes the phrase perfectly clear. It is not, as the Lexicon says : To^euety Kara gkotzov, " to shoot at, because the arrow falls down upon its mark." This is misleading. It would imply that the end of the arrow's motion was the mark. This is not asserted. The end of the arrow's motion was the mark, if it was lucky enough to hit it ; if not, it was something else which it did hit. The phrase suggests not the end of the arrow's motion, but the end of the shooter's shooting, namely, to hit the mark. So, in the words to pour water, Kara ')(eipb<^, upon the hands, the pith of the phrase is not to show the way the water runs on the hands, but to show how the careful servant that had the water behaved to the guest. If the water had been rimning on the hands from a spout, Kara ^eipo? would not have been used. 8 The Greek Prepositions. We have been led unawares into positive state- ments about cases, and tbese statements may seem dogmatic. They are not dogmatic at all. "We have simply accepted the hint of l^ature, and following that hint we find we have in hand just the phrase that meets the case. The shaft sent Kara arrjdo'i, straight to the hreast, goes no whit straighter than a stone goes when falling freely to the ground. The arr/Oo^ is in the line of the shaft's motion through its whole course, just as the point finally struck by the stone falling freely is in the line of the stone's motion through its whole descent. We have here the dii'ect object, and of course in the accusative case. The phrase would be just the same if the object thus strack were not aimed at, or were not even seen. But in aiming at a mark the object acts first on him who throws, inciting and directing his act ; it is the point of departure, or cause or source of that in- citement, and therefore must be in the genitive. We should not encumber ourselves with the thought that in actual experience things thrown up are not commonly thrown straight up, and therefore can not come straight down. This is pertinent in treating of projectiles ; but the natural imagination pictures uj) and dowji as perpendicular. He went on hoard, ava vtjo^ e^rj, not that ava with the genitive means on' but, he went up, and the thing calling forth and determining the action was the ship. hva and Kara. Meanings derived from Analogy. 9 12. If the students asks, "Wliy dwell on discrimina- tions in the thought that can not be expressed in translation ? It would be a sufficient answer, if there were no other, to say : It is for this very reason they are presented and pressed on the attention. This is the way to escape from bondage to words ; to learn how to treat them as our servants and helpers, not our masters. Thought is nimble, words are clumsy and slow ; the student should patiently learn the best that these last can do as interpreters of the first. CHAPTEE lY. 13. ava AND KaTa. meanings derived from analogy. As objects naturally fall by the law of gravitation, the actions of men, when performed according to their proper law, have an analogy to motion downward, and are often designated by the aid of the preposition KaTa. The proper law for a judge is to decide justly, Kara BiKaiov. The proper law for a witness is to testify truly, that is, Kar aXT^Oecav. Cyrus saw that the Greeks were conquering all before them, to Ka& avTovalvovdvoi}9 denotes motion downward not up- ward. 'Am has here its derived meaning, suggestive of indefiniteness in the result, as when a stone is thrown upward, it cannot be known beforehand how far it will go, so dva^7]Telv, to search without an idea of what you may find. If the student be willing for the sake of science to accept a very lowly illustration of dva^r)Teiv, let him look at the early scavenger bending over a heap of rubbish, hook in hand ; or, rising to the dignity of history (see Hdt. 1 : 137), If the matter were searched to the hottoyn, dva^'nTeofxeva, one of these things would be discovered. 'Am in the above cases quite drops its primary suggestion of space, and serves the im- portant dynamic idea which is affiliated with it. 41. 'AvakveLv, to set free, as (Od. 12 : 200) i/j,€ 8' e'/c BecTficov dveXvaav, and they set me free from my honds ; the result of this act was that he who had been bound was now free to go as his own will prompts — the will is as free as air. But to let loose the dogs upon the game is not dvaXveiv, for dogs have not free will. To undo the web, dvaXvetv, the act leaves the threads free and floating. To dissolve a 30 The Greek Prepositions. body into its unknown elements, and so find wliat those elements are; or — to take a live example — to analyze dynamite, and find what it is made of. KaraXi^eii/, to separate the known parts of a thing, and so destroy the thing, as a bridge, the frame of a house, a government. 42. The verb KaQopav is sometimes said to mean the same as the simple verb opav^ and it is said some- times to mean to see clearly ', these statements are misleading. It means to see what you are looking for — what you have a special interest in seeing. If one loses a jewel, and searches for it, he may see a hundred other things, and ever so clearly; thus far his seeing is expressed by the simple verb opav\ — but, when he sees what he was looking for, it is KaQopav.^ Xerxes, looking towards the shore, surveyed his land forces and his ships (Hdt, 8:44).- Looking to- wards, KaOopav — it was in order to see, and thereby determine the great question before him, that he or- dered the survey. The looking was indeed down, from the tower, but this is not the emphatic thing in the action, Kvpoelaa (Eur. Med. 24). Observe in tlie above example the suggestion of power in eVt, and of subordination in viro. 69. ^'Apx^iv, to he first in doing a thing / as to lead is characteristic of a ruler, the word comes nat- urally to mean to rule ^ iirapxeiv, to rule over — exercise authority ujpon a particular district ; %(«pa? eirdp'xco iroXKrj'i, T ride over a large country (Xen. Cyr. 4:6, 2) ; virapxetv, to he fi/rst in an act thought of as the cause or incentive to other acts — Kke a founda- tion. Socrates (Mem. 2:3) is urging two alienated brothers to love each other ; it is a great provisioji for friendship, irpomfe the yoke ujpon the con- quered, iTTiTtdevai,, the conquered bea/r it, inro^epetv ; if in battle one side moves upon the other, eTnevai, eirep'xea-Oai, eTnirlirTeiv, the other side hold the rela- tion vTTo, under. If they accept the assaidt, we say 'Ttto, Under ; Accessory Notions. 49 vTToSixovTac ; if tbej flee from under it, v7rocf)euyov- (TLV. The study of eVt is suspended here to be resumed in a comparison of it with the preposition irpo^. T4. The compound i^rjyeladai, (see by anticipation Prep, ck) suggests that the leading has its source in the subject of the verb; vc^-qyelaOai presents the leader as subordinate to some other person, or power, or to some ulterior object of his own ; he leads as the colonel under instructions leads his regiment into battle ; he leads as the hare leads the hounds ; as the fugitive leads his pursuer ; as the pioneers, marking out and clearing the road, lead the army. Thuc. 1 : 78, If you are determined to have war, we will do our best to avenge ourselves on you, in the way in which you set us an example, v^rj'r]yetadai. To draw them ujp in order for battle, v^ydaQai (Anab. 6 : 5, 25) — viro recognizes a subordination ; it was an act preparatory to the inevitable battle before them — like the leading out, virojyeiv, of the dogs pre- paratory to a hunt. Compare with this Hdt. 1 : 151, They resolved in common assembly to follow the lonians, whatever 50 The Greek Prepositions. way they should lead, e^rjyecovTai ; here the lonians act from their own arbitrary choice ; the other party accept their action and conform their own to it, Anab. 2 : 1, 18, 6 Be KXeap;^09 ravra vcf)7]yeiTo, now in this Clearchus was covertly trying to lead, ^aXivo'i he vTroaTpeyJra^, hut Phalinos evading, dex- terously shunning — vivo, away from under. Xen. Equest., The colt is trained to go before his trainer, keeping the road. To go before is r] it is the cold that acts on the man. 82. Not only is something of reciprocity uniformly suggested by tt/jo?, but in many cases the chief action in a phrase is suggested to the imagination not in the subject of the verb, but in the object of this preposi- tion. It is hard for thee to hick against the pricks, Trpo"? K6vrpa 'KaKrl^etv. Here it is not the one who kicks, but the thing kicked that, for the imagination, does the chief work. In the realm of mechanics ac- 54: The Greek Prepositions. tion and reaction are equal, but in the realm of feeling tliey may be very different, 83. In the story of Ulysses in the cave (Od. IX), the Cyclops, grasping two of the visitors, swung them high and dashed them on the ground^ ttotI (tt/oo?) yaiij KOTTTe. Here the action, to the imagination, passes quite over from the subject of the verb to the object of 'Kpo'^—from what the two visitors did to the floor to what the floor of the cave did to them — Ik S' ijK6(f)a\o<; ')(aixaZLa KcoTrr}. He holds it there to draw the sword, therefore iirl ; but if, with the sword drawn, he holds his fingers to the edge to test its keenness, the preposition for to would be 7rp6aTO • HdrpoKko^ Se (ptka eireireiOeO'' eralpcp. Thus he spoke ; and FatroGlus obeyed his dear friend's word ; more fully, obeyed his dear friend in it — in the matter — eVt referring to what had been said. ^N'ew Testament, What man is there of you, whom, if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone, \iQov iinScoa-eL avrcp ; ivill give him, iirl, for his asking. 122. II. 1 : 569, Zeus uttered his threat, and Hera feared, hending her heart to his will, eiri'yvdfji-y^raa-a (fjiXov KYjp. Compare dvaryvd/xTrrebv (Sec. 28). Anab. Y : 4, 9, And Seuthes asked, '^pero : " would you even be willing to die for this one ? " Then, after an answer had been given, we read iTVTjpero 6 "tevd-qq, Seuthes asked thereupon. This would usually be translated, Seuthes asked further, as if eVl here denoted simply the addition of a second question ; 'EttI and 7r/)09 ni Composition. 71 this is not tlie tliouglit — the thought is that the sec- ond question is made on the basis of the answer to the first. 'E-TTt never suggests the addition of things which are co-ordinate — that is the office of tt/jo?. It may be excusable to translate mr]p&To by asked further, but that is not strict ; it is a concession for the sake of a smoother phrase. 123. Menelaus in fight with Paris (II. 3 : 369), springing iipon him (eVal'fa?), caught him by his horse-hair crest, and turning around {iTrio-Tpiylra^;), be- gan to drag him in among the well-greaved Achaians. In the first participle eVt looks to the object of the action (Eng. upon) ; in the second it means more dis- tantly the same ; we translate it turning round ; literally it means tmming ujjon, i. e., turning toward, so as to face those to whom he was about to drag his victim. Farther on in the same story, when the hel- met strap had broken and the helmet was free in his hand, Menelaus, eirLhivrjaa^;, sivingmg it around for a throw, slung it away among the Achaians. Let us drop the eVl, and find the simple Zuvelv in another place. Od. 9 : 384, when Odysseus and his party had to do with the Cyclops Polyphemus, he says (Odys. 9 : 382) : My companions, taking up the burning stake thrust it into his eye, and I, standing above, turned it about, eUveov : here the verb denotes the main ac- tion, and is simple. But look forward in the same story (v. 538), when the Cyclops took up a huge stone, swinging it around, iirihivi'iaa^ ; eVt for the throw. T2 The Greek Prepositions. 124. We read in Herodotus that a smith, in dig- ging a well many feet below tlie ground, came upon, a coffin, iirervxe aopu). Had he found water, that would have called for the verb Karervx^v, for else- where Herodotus tells us of a physician, who, after trying many medicines on his patient, at last hit on the right thing, and effected a cure, Karervxev. 1 came upon hy chance, iirervxpu ; something happened to me, Trpoaervx^v. 125. AeiKvvvat, to show, 2^oint out an object ; eVt- hetKvvvai, to exhibit, i. e., having the object already in view, to proceed and point out its qualities — as to explain a machine, an invention. Such a showing is an eVtSei^t?. It shows what there is in or belonging to a thing. 126. 'EK€v^ denotes the equipments needed in car- rying on a business, whether in a shop, a kitchen, a ship, or a camp ; aKevd^eiv is to furnish or make such equipment; KaraaKevd^etv is to furnish what is es- sential and permanent — to organize completely. An army KaTaa-K€va(TT6%>}9, know all the Jews (Acts 26 : 4). Why eV in tlie first phrase, and ttTTo in the second ? 'E/c, because Paul's character — which he was now defending — was a continuous growth out of his youth, as a tree from its root ; while airb serves simply to fix a date — and this is done by the recollection of concurrent outward events. 112. Thuc. 2 : 15, This had been the way of living among the Athenians from very early times, airo rov irdvv dpxp-Lov. The reign of Theseus introduced a great change. From this i^ eKelvov — growing out of this — they have ever since observed a yearly festival in commemoration of their completed union. Note here, as in the case above, the difference in the prep- ositions ; diro belongs to the mere skeleton of history — e'l makes us feel its pulse. 113. Mem. 2 : 7, 2, We neither obtain anything out of the earth, e/c ri}? 7759, for our enemies control that ; nor from our houses, utto rwv oIklwv, for there 82 The Greek Prepositions. is a lack of people to rent them; tlie earth brings forth of herself, therefore e/c, the houses do not.' Leading from the arm, e'/c tov ^pa-)^lovov Oecbv 76701/6x69, some by far descent, dirb, others immediately from, e'^. CHAPTER XIII. aTTO AND CK m COMPOSITION. 145. Trees fall, and so perish, iKirlTrrovaiv ; so kings falling from their power — from all that made ' In Liddell and Scott's Lexicon, lih ed., there is a mistake in Art. 'EK, which it may not be improper to note here. Page 428, line 16: "With a part, to mark the point of time,