GIFT OF 
 
Contents. 
 ^i The prophecy. 1794. By Dr. Timothy Dwight. (Pc 
 
 Assemblv bill no. 49. Introduced by Mr. Holder 
 18, 1&65. An act to establish an agricultur 
 mechanical arts college in Sonoma County. 
 
 "'S Agricultural college. Address of Hon. A. A. I 
 Sept. 21, 1865. 
 
 i>4. Report of the Committee cof the Senate} on ' St 
 university to whom was referred memorial of t 
 Mechanics institute of San Francisco. Feb. 
 
 SJLlltL DMVSUX* J.I1 O11C U. +*$ uy U't *V WIIUA Wft 
 (J.C. p. 21-22) (Repr. fr. No'rth American rei 
 an. 1871). 
 
 ^6 Report con the Oakland college block property, 
 1871. 
 
 *i Our state university and th aspirant to the j. 
 cby Gustavus Schulte} 1872. 
 
 *& Columbia's wrath, not sparing the Regents of i 
 university of California cby Gustavus Schult 
 
 u9 The resignation of the Board of regents, (the 
 members excepted) dictated by a sense of hor 
 duty cby Gustavus Schultei 1'874. 
 
 Reply of D. C. G ilman to criticisms of the Una 
 California made by the Rev. Robert Pattersor 
 Oakland, c 1873 3 (with two letters concerning 
 
 Report on the water supply of the Univ. of Ca] 
 cby Frank Soule,jr.i 1874. 
 
 Report on the water supply of the Univ. of Ca3 
 cby a special committee of the Regents 3 Dec, 
 
 Report of the Committees on public buildings e 
 grounds of the Senate and Assembly, c 1875-76 
 
 Majority and minority reports of the Senate cc 
 on education relative to Assembly bill no. 2 
 c!875-763 (Concerning abolition of Board of 
 etc. ^) . 
 
 15 Report of the Committee on education to the Ac 
 22d session. c!878:j. 
 
 ^/l6 Report' of the Senate committee on education. I 
 
 5 17 Report of the cAssernblyi committee on educatic 
 1883. 
 
 18 Report of cAs.semblyD committee on Agricultu 
 and Mechanics arts college. Feb.15, 18^3. 
 
 ura] 
 
MINING SCHOOLS 
 
 TN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN A. CHURCH, E. M, 
 
 Reprinted ,l>y permission) from the North American Review for January, 1871, at the 
 request of the Trustees of Columbia College. 
 
 1871. 
 
MINING SCHOOLS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN A, CHURCH, E. M, 
 
 Reprinted (by permission) from the North American Review for January, 1871, at the 
 request of the Trustees of Columbia College. 
 
 & F^YNE, Printers. 
 
 1871. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 COLUMBIA COLLEGE, / 
 New York, February 11, 1871. } 
 
 JOHN A. CHURCH, Esq. : 
 
 Dear Sir The article upon Mining Education prepared 
 by you for the " North American Review," and published in 
 the January number of that journal for the current year, 
 presents so complete and clear a view of the state of this 
 important department of technical education, abroad and at 
 home, and especially of the wants of our own country in 
 respect to it, and of the provisions which have been thus far 
 made to supply them, as to induce the belief that it ought to 
 receive a wider circulation than it is likely to secure in the 
 pages of the " Review/' 
 
 The trustees of Columbia College, uAder whose auspices 
 was founded, a little more than six years ago, the first school 
 of Mining Science erected in this country, and the only one 
 in which as yet this branch of education has been made the 
 principal, as it was originally the exclusive, object, have been 
 gratified that, in your historical sketch, you have done justice 
 to their efforts. They have spared no expense in bringing 
 together here all the instrumentalities necessary or desirable 
 for imparting instruction in the several branches of mathe- 
 matical, mechanical, physical, and chemical science, and the 
 applications of those sciences to mine engineering, to metal- 
 lurgy, and to civil and dynamical engineering. They have 
 employed professors whose ability is attested not only by their 
 own well-established reputation, but by the honorable success 
 of the graduates formed under their teaching. They have 
 aimed, and as they believe successfully, to establish here a 
 system of education in which practice shall be as largely as 
 possible combined with theory. It is believed that there is 
 no school of applied science in the country which is sustained 
 at so large an annual expense as this. It is, of course, not 
 sustained by the fees received from its students for tuition. 
 These have never exceeded, arid perhaps have hardly equaled, 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the third part of its disbursements. It is no part of its plan 
 that it should be self-sustaining. On the other hand, it has 
 admitted many students, and continues to admit students, 
 when circumstances justify, free of all charge for tuition. 
 
 The school has thus already contributed, to an important 
 degree, and it is contributing more and more largely every 
 year, to provide a class of men greatly needed in our country 
 for the intelligent development of some of the richest sources 
 of our natural wealth, for increasing the productiveness of 
 such as have been productive, and for drawing profit from 
 others which wasteful ignorance has hitherto attempted only 
 with loss and disaster. It is only necessary that the character 
 of this institution shall become known to those who are inter- 
 ested in the mining and metallurgic industry of our country, 
 that its advantages may be appreciated and its usefulness 
 largely extended. And it is the belief of the trustees that, 
 by the republication and extensive circulation of your article 
 above mentioned, something may be done to convey this 
 knowledge to those whom it might benefit, and through whose 
 benefit the country may be benefited likewise. 
 
 The trustees therefore authorize and instruct me to inquire 
 whether you are willrtig to allow a reprint of the article 
 referred to, to be made for their use. 
 
 I have the honor to be, dear sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 F. A. P. BARNARD, 
 President of Columbia College. 
 
 OFFICE OF THE ARMY AND NAVY JOURNAL, ) 
 New York, February 13, 1871. $ 
 
 Dr. F. A. P. BARNARD, President of Columbia College : 
 
 Dear Sir Your kind letter of the llth is received. I 
 shall be pleased to have the article on Mining Schools repub- 
 lished by the trustees of Columbia College, and more pleased 
 if it prove of any value to the cause of intelligent mining in 
 this country, or to the profession of mining engineering. 
 
 I am. with great respect, 
 Yours, 
 
 JOHN A. CHURCH. 
 
SCHOOLS 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 IN the year 1714 the English Parliament offered the sum of 
 twenty thousand pounds to the discoverer of any means by which 
 the captain of a ship at sea could determine his position on the 
 ocean within thirty miles. Not even this shining reward the 
 greatest, perhaps, ever offered for a scientific discovery, and at that 
 time a fortune in itself could effect the object. A method was 
 proposed, but the committee to which it was referred declared that 
 no astronomical tables existed of sufficient correctness to make it 
 of any value. With the best data the world then possessed, the 
 error might be as great as nine hundred miles ; * and to bring it 
 down even to two hundred miles, an extensive series of new 
 observations of the heavenly bodies must be undertaken. Charles 
 II., to whom the report was made, is said to have exclaimed on 
 reading the letter, " But I must have them observed ;" and he 
 thereupon founded the Observatory at Greenwich, an institution to 
 which every nation that has a marine owes an incalculable debt 
 for the commercial prosperity it enjoys, and upon which the sailor 
 in every clime depends for the safety and certainty with which he 
 traverses the ocean. From thirty per cent, per voyage the rate 
 of insurance when Greece was in her glory to the two and three 
 per cent, which is now current, the decrease of the expenses of 
 
 * F. A. P. Barnard, LL.D., S.T.D., in his Letter to the Board of Trustees 
 of the University of Mississippi, 1858. 
 
f 
 
 6 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 commerce has kept perfect time with the march of scientific inves- 
 tigation and the founding of seats of scientific learning. 
 
 Our own country presents to-day an example of the dependence 
 of industry upon knowledge which is quite as remarkable as 
 that given above. Commissioner Ross Browne, in his report on 
 our Western mines, says that experienced investors in mining 
 property will not pay for a mine more than two and a half times 
 its yearly profit. That is to say, they do not consider it a safe 
 investment unless it returns forty per cent, upon its cost.* The 
 reason of this is plain. With no means of educating miners to 
 their work, the conduct of mines in this country is a lamentable 
 story of mismanagement, energy wrongly directed, and consequent 
 great losses. The thousand millions of gold dollars that have 
 been won from the ground in California are but an inadequate 
 representation of the real wealth that existed there. f Observers 
 have estimated the losses which were at first caused by ignorant 
 and hasty methods of working at two thirds of the gold really at 
 hand, and none have put them at less than one half. A better 
 state of affairs has gradually grown up, but the losses to this day 
 are very much larger than they should be. In California, however, 
 
 * It is, of course, difficult to obtain accurate information of the market value 
 of mines, as the calculations are almost always kept private and estimates 
 based upon problematical cases are not entirely trustworthy. Still, in look- 
 ing over the report of the mining commissioner for 1871, I find one case 
 mentioned the only case in the whole book which gives the figures necessary 
 for a calculation which offers a basis for a very extraordinary exhibition of 
 the different value a mine has in ignorant and in educated hands. The mine 
 is reported to show a heavy deposit of lead ore containing silver to the 
 amount of $400 a ton, and it is yielding 55 tons a day ; daily value of yield, 
 therefore, $22,000. The cost of smelting precisely similar ores in the same 
 valley is given at $20 a ton ; maximum cost of mining, $5 a ton ; daily cost of 
 mining and smelting 55 tons of ore, therefore, $1,375; difference, $20,625. 
 Allowing a loss of three per cent, upon this, we have a daily profit of $20,000. 
 The mine was sold for precisely that sum $20,000. Smelting works could 
 have been built for $40,000, so that the mine would pay for itself and its 
 smelting works twice a week as long as its present yield continues. I do not 
 give this as a calculation minutely correct, but it certainly is an instance of a 
 mine whose real value greatly exceeded its market price : and whose real value 
 would probably have been obtained had its owner sought the aid of an 
 experienced man. 
 
 t Bullion product of California, 1849-1869 $948,000,000 
 
 " " of other States up to 1869 315,000,000 
 
 -Report on Minei, 1871. |1, 263,000,000 
 
 *^ u 
 
 ; it </ 
 
 -*~ Aft & /* 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 1 
 
 the work has been easy to that called for by more difficult ores in 
 Nevada, Montana and Colorado ; and if an investigation could be 
 had of the exact proportion of precious metal saved to the quantity 
 in the ore, the story would be astonishing even to scientific men. 
 Without careful proof it is impossible to make men believe the 
 reports of the few competent observers who have been there, so 
 apparently incredible are the results of recklessness and want of 
 knowledge. It was difficult to introduce even the thinnest entering- 
 wedge of common sense into this hard prejudice against skill and 
 study. For a long time the miners refused all help from schools 
 or scholars ; but the experience of continual trouble with their 
 ores, and the gradually developed fact that they often lost more 
 than they gained, have worked a complete revolution. A begin- 
 ning having been made in New York in 1864, a number of schools 
 of mines, more or less praiseworthy, have been founded in various 
 parts of the United States. In Europe schools of this kind are 
 among the oldest institutions of advanced learning, and our educa- 
 tors naturally look to them as the models upon which our own 
 constructions must be shaped. It is proposed in this paper to 
 point out their peculiarities, and to discuss the requirements of 
 similar schools in this country. / 
 
 Like all other educational "institutions, schools of mines in 
 Europe form part of the system of government ; but unlike the 
 others, their officers, instead of belonging to the department of 
 education, are connected with that of mines. That is to say, 
 schools of this class are regarded as investments which are 
 necessary to make mining either profitable or possible. To the 
 knowledge of which they are the source the mines of Europe are 
 indebted for their ability to work low-grade ores ; and were that 
 knowledge to be now eliminated and the world thrown back to its 
 resources of a century ago, hundreds of mines would have to be 
 given up, and bread would be taken from a hundred thousand 
 mouths. 
 
 Three kinds of schools are found primary, middle, and high 
 schools or academies. The lower schools are among the most 
 peculiar and interesting institutions for education in the world. 
 Wherever there are government mining works of importance, and 
 in some of the great private works, schools are established for 
 teaching workmen of a certain grade the secrets of their calling. 
 They are called in Germany Bergschule, in contradistinction to the 
 high-grade schools, which always bear the name jBergakademie. 
 
8 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 The teachers employed in them are the officers of the works, who 
 usually devote two hours on two or three days in each week to 
 giving plain but strictly scientific explanations of the operations 
 which go on in the furnaces, and of methods of attack in the mine. 
 The nature of the studies followed naturally depends upon the 
 occupation of the scholar. Those who work in the mines receive 
 instruction in mining alone ; and this instruction, instead of being 
 general and intended to fit the learner for the practice of all kinds 
 of mining, is altogether special, and confined pretty closely to work 
 in mines of the kind in which he is employed. 
 
 So, too, in the metallurgical department, the instructor makes no 
 effort to lay down a full course of metallurgy, but aims to make 
 his hearers understand the furnaces at which they daily labor, the 
 nature of the chemical changes produced, the method of dealing 
 with accidents, exact details of construction, and the like. Thus, 
 instead of being eclectic and scientific, the instruction is confined 
 to imparting the traditions of the particular establishment to which 
 the school is attached. In this system we have one cause of that 
 . remarkable conservation of distinct methods of treatment which, 
 until late years, has been so great a hindrance to German metal- 
 lurgy, and has prevented the study and adoption in one quarter of 
 improvements made in another. 
 
 Still, the information gained in these places is a great advance 
 on ignorance, pure and simple; and these schools are as much 
 above nothingness as the Bergakademien, the centres of science 
 and research, are above them. The listeners to these lectures 
 are men who, having had in their youth the minimum of educa- 
 tion required by law, have, in a long course of severe manual labor, 
 lost almost all trace of what little scientific or general information 
 they ever gained. It is a long ladder by which a man climbs up 
 to a position in which he has the right to attend these lectures. 
 Entering a metallurgical work, a young man first spends two or 
 three years in wheeling slag to the waste-heap ; then as much more 
 time at each of the following steps : wheeling ore to the mixing- 
 bed, shovelling ore into the weighing-bucket, weighing ore, work 
 at the roasting heaps, throwing ore into the furnace. Here his 
 progress is slower, and he may remain at the last employment five 
 or ten years. Finally he becomes smelter or tapper of the furnace. 
 The uneducated man can rise no higher. The educated man 
 spends much less time at each of these grades, but go through them 
 he must. He is usually occupied two or three years in all at the 
 

 Mining Schools in the United States. 9 
 
 practical work, and then performs clerical duties in the office. 
 Rising higher and higher, he may in time become director of a 
 smelting establishment or a mining district. The director of the 
 world-famous mines around Clausthal, Andreasberg, and Altenau, 
 in the Upper Harz Mountains, is an instance of a man who has 
 passed through the commonest grades of service to a high position ; 
 he was a picker of ore in his boyhood. Plattner, a thorough 
 chemist, founder of the analysis with the blowpipe, and an elegant 
 as well as scientific writer on metallurgical chemistry, began in the 
 same way. 
 
 Schools of this primary class are composed of the educated and 
 uneducated men, who have been fellow-workmen in the same mine, 
 at the same furnace ; but the former sit in the rostrum, the latter 
 on the benches. The classes are composed of men who have spent 
 fifteen to twenty-five years in the most trying manual labor. The 
 refinements of science, if explained to them, would fall on dull 
 ears. But they have been familiar all their lives with certain 
 phenomena of the bowels of the earth, or others of intensely 
 heated furnaces, and these things they are interested in and can 
 learn about. A simple course in the rudiments of chemistry, 
 physics, machines, and mining engineering, with more careful 
 explanations of that particular portion of these arts which comes 
 under their own observation, teaches them to go about their work 
 understandingly, and to lay aside that vague fear, which the un- 
 taught often have in the presence of great and, to them, mysterious 
 operations of nature or of art.* It adds also greatly to their effi- 
 ciency as workmen, and their safety in circumstances of danger. 
 
 In these remarks on this lowest grade of mining schools, I desire 
 to be far from underrating the value and ability of the lecturers. 
 In small and obscure mountain towns men are found who, in the 
 
 * This is no unimportant consideration. German miners of all grades are 
 exceedingly superstitious, and retain even now, after a century or two of 
 schooling, some of the observances which in old times were a part of their 
 daily life. Martin Luther's confident belief in a personal devil may be at- 
 tributed to the traditions learned in his youth in the Mansfield mining 
 region. His father was a common miner at a time when the fact that mines 
 were the abode of unseen and impish spirits was undisputed. In Saxony, to-day, 
 the miners would be alarmed as well as offended if any one were to descend 
 the mine in any but the traditional costume ; and with many, the salutation 
 Gluck Auf is given with religious care whenever a comrade is met in the 
 passages of the mine. Such men require the most practical and plainest 
 teaching. 
 
10 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 midst of incessant physical and administrative labor, have kept up 
 with the march of science, and taken care not only to make the 
 its latest truths known to their hearers, but also to apply 
 them in the conduct of the works under their charge. Applied 
 science owes to them some of the most remarkable discoveries that 
 have been made ; and they may fairly be said to have done more 
 than their brethren of the closet in developing arts, which besides 
 a knowledge of science in its theory require also a minute convers- 
 ance with its practice. Yon Born, Augustin, and Ziervogel, whose 
 labors in one branch of metallurgy that of the extraction of 
 silver have been so valuable, were all directors of works. 
 
 The next grade of school is one where young men, the sons of 
 miners or smelters, and who may or may not have been employed 
 in their boyhood in the works, obtain a higher kind of instruction. 
 They are not, as are the learners in the lower school, mere work- 
 men, but may rise to any height, though their future is usually 
 that of overseers or directors of small .works. These institutions 
 are still called Bergschule ; but the student spends all his time at 
 study, is instructed in general mineralogy, metallurgy, chemistry, 
 etc. Indeed, his own abilities are the only boundary to his advance. 
 Often the successful student wins the prize of a year or two at an 
 Akademie, and has the advantage of a thorough scientific education. 
 
 These two varieties of schools are united, as at Eisleben and Halle 
 in Prussia, Chemnitz in Hungary, Pribram in Bohemia, etc. ; or 
 only the first kind is found, as at Agordo in Italy, Waldenberg in 
 Silesia, and many other places. Finally, one or both will be found 
 united with a great fiergakademie, as at Freiberg and at Clausthal. 
 Russia, where everything is supposed to be perfect in system, has 
 one Bergakademie, ten first-class and a hundred second-class 
 Bergschule. Prussia has two Akademien, two first-class and ten 
 second-class Schiile. The other states of Europe have also taken 
 similar care to educate their miners of all grades. 
 
 Of the mining academies four may be considered as of first rank. 
 They are those of Paris, Freiberg in Saxony, Berlin, and St. 
 Petersburg.* Austria, though far from lacking in good schools, has 
 none of this grade, for a reason which will be given further on. 
 
 * The schools and academies of Sweden I am obliged to omit, as I have not 
 seen them. Their reputation is, however, very great, and the academy at 
 Stockholm should perhaps be added to the four mentioned above as belonging 
 to the first rank. 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 11 
 
 These institutions, though -working in the same field and giving 
 instruction upon the same subjects, are very different in their scope. 
 Perhaps there are no institutions which take their hue so decidedly 
 from their teachers as schools of applied science, partly because 
 they are fewer in number, more isolated, and therefore in closer 
 rivalry, and partly because the field of instruction being smaller, 
 a man possessed of unusual powers will give a much more 
 decided cast to the studies pursued than can be the case in other 
 schools. Among living examples of this we see Freiberg cele- 
 brated for its course of blowpipe analysis under Bichter, who 
 follows Plattner, the founder of blowpiping as a science. Weis- 
 bach, in charge of machines and surveying at the same school, 
 and Kerl, professor of metallurgy at Berlin, also give to these 
 places a decided character which often governs the choice of a 
 student. 
 
 But schools have also their national characteristics, or owe their 
 peculiar cast to the character of their founder or the object of their 
 foundation. The school at Paris is very mathematical and scien- 
 tific, following in this the bent of modern French scientific study ; 
 Freiberg, having some of the most celebrated mines and smelting- 
 works in the world at its doors, is very practical ; St. Petersburg 
 does it best to be practical, though situated in a morass and with no 
 mines within hundreds of miles, and it is perhaps as scientific as 
 Paris. It combines thorough scientific training with what may be 
 called object- teaching of the highest class. Within the precincts 
 of the school is a very interesting model of a mine, dug in the mud 
 of St. Petersburg, and furnished with galleries, shafts, systems of 
 ventilation, and all the appurtenances of regular mining. The 
 character this school has taken accords with the genius of Peter 
 the Great, impressed upon all enterprises in Russia. He admired 
 the achievements of science, and had experienced the benefits of 
 practice in his own person. 
 
 The chief peculiarity of the French school is its eclectic breadth 
 of instruction. Besides the ordinary subjects of study, the scheme 
 there embraces, under the head of machines, such minutiae of 
 construction that the graduates are fitted to design machines of the 
 greatest variety, whether for use in mines or not ; and under 
 chemistry, agricultural chemistry is taught. The reason of- this is 
 that France turns out every twelvemonth more engineers than she 
 can employ in ten years, and in that country graduates of 1860 and 
 earlier years still come to the offices of public works, railways, and 
 
12 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 mines, and beg for work at a thousand, five hundred francs a year, 
 anything, in short, for the sake of employment. It is not to be 
 inferred that these men are of second-rate ability. Their difficulty 
 is that France has not enough mines nor works of any sort to employ 
 a tenth of the young men who want to become engineers. Natu- 
 rally enough, the schools are obliged to adopt a system of instruction 
 so varied that their graduates shall be fitted for work of any kind. 
 But this mingling of studies is not to be recommended in countries 
 where larger opportunities are offered to the engineer. 
 
 French engineers, however, have an excellent reputation and find 
 employment in all countries of the Continent, Germany, perhaps, 
 excepted. The basis of their superior training, besides the excellent 
 system of instruction, is in their thorough knowledge of mathe- 
 matics, a study which is laid more at the foundation of engineering 
 in France than anywhere else, unless the Russian schools are to 
 be excepted. As before said, the Paris school is par excellence 
 scientific. It has neither mines nor smelting-works ready at its 
 hand, but this disadvantage is partly neutralized by a yearly gov- 
 ernment grant to enable a certain number of students to visit works 
 in other countries. To such travels of the more distinguished 
 scholars of Paris the world is indebted for a great part of its written 
 metallurgy. The collections in this school are also very fine, among 
 the best in the world. 
 
 At Freiberg the distinguishing feature is the opportunity for 
 practice offered by the mines and smelting-works. The ground 
 upon which the Saxon mining town stands is pierced by so many 
 shafts and galleries that their united length is said to be more than 
 five hundred English miles. They yield ore of the greatest variety. 
 Lead, silver, and copper are the principal products of the works ; 
 but the whole number of these is said to be thirteen. Besides 
 those just mentioned, there are gold, bismuth, zinc, arsenic, realgar, 
 sulphuric acid, blue vitriol, and others. The works in which these 
 numerous operations are carried on have always been celebrated as 
 well for the energy exhibited in studying new methods as for 
 their commercial importance. Freiberg has given its name to the 
 best method of amalgamating silver ores, to numerous discoveries 
 in smelting, to the Gerstenhofer, the Pilz, and other furnaces 
 inventions which have altered the methods of working ores over 
 the whole world. In former times the profit from these mines 
 was very great. Freiberg was the royal city of Saxony, had the 
 court, began a cathedral (of which one fine doorway now shows the 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 13 
 
 promised glories), and contained sixty thousand inhabitants. At 
 present its mines, though largely worked, yield but little profit, 
 and its celebrity is due more to its school than to anything else. 
 That has always maintained an excellent reputation, and its pro- 
 fessors are and have been among the most famous men in science. 
 The students have the advantage of practice in the mines, 
 ore-dressing works, and smelting establishments, and, with the 
 exception of the second of these, the practical advantages offered by 
 Freiberg are greater than in any other school. One other thing 
 distinguishes this academy above every other, and that is its course 
 in blowpipe analysis a most important subject, absolutely neces- 
 sary to the engineer, but one which is singularly neglected in other 
 European schools. Besides this, surveying, machines, assaying, 
 and the theory of fuels are among the best treated subjects. 
 Freiberg, more than any of its rivals, is supported by foreigners, 
 partly because the fees required are upon a higher scale than 
 elsewhere, and partly because it is a greater favorite among 
 students.* 
 
 * The following is a list of fees for the principal studies. These fees, it 
 should be mentioned, are the property of the professors, whose incomes are 
 usually made up of a small fixed salary a-i professor, a salary as inspector, 
 adviser, etc., in the works, and fees. The prices are given in thalers, worth 
 72 cents in gold, and the fee covers the course for six months : 
 
 Mathematics, first course . . . . . .20 thalers. 
 
 Mathematics, second course ...... 20 
 
 Descriptive geometry . . . . . . .20 
 
 General elementary mechanics ..... 20 
 
 Elementary mining mechanics . . . . . .18 
 
 Machines, first course ....... 10 
 
 Machines, second course (construction) . . . .20 
 
 Theoretical surveying . . . . . . 15 
 
 Practical " ....... 20 
 
 Theoretical chemistry ...... 20 
 
 Practical " ....... 25 
 
 Analytical " . . - . . . . 30 
 
 Metallurgy, general . . . . . . .20 
 
 Metallurgy of iron ....... 10 
 
 Dry assaying ........ 30 
 
 Wet . . ^ 15 
 
 Blowpipe analysis ........ 20 
 
 Mineralogy ........ 25 
 
 Mineralogical practice . . . . . . .12 
 
 Crystallography ....... 6 
 
 Physics ......... 16 
 
 Geognosy ........ 20 
 
 Lithology 12 
 
 Theory of veins ....... 10 
 
 Practice of Petrography and Lithology .... 8 
 
14 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 The school at Berlin is a transplantation of that at Clausthal in 
 the Harz Mountains. Though the latter has not been given up, it 
 has lost the professors whose labors had made it famous. Others, 
 however, have replaced them, and the school, though its prestige 
 has gone, is perhaps as good as ever. Dr. Von Groddeck, its 
 director, is an able and industrious man, a good instructor, and a 
 scientific student. Among the men who were transferred to Berlin 
 is Kerl, the professor of metallurgy and author of a standard 
 handbook on that subject. This school also has the services of 
 Gustav Rose, Rammelsberg, and other men, leaders and even 
 founders in part of the sciences they have taken up. It was 
 established many years ago, but has only lately begun to have its 
 present almost exclusive importance in North Germany. It is the 
 only school of the highest class connected with an institute, all the 
 others being independent foundations. 
 
 Although Austria has no one school where the sciences of 
 mining and metallurgy are taught in all their length and breadth, 
 its instruction is, nevertheless, of the best kind, but divided among 
 three schools, each of which has its especial field of operations. 
 To the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria belongs the honor of 
 founding at Chemnitz in Hungary, in 1760, the first academy of 
 mines in the world. At that early day the idea of practical 
 
 Mining, first course . ... 20 thalers. 
 
 Mining, second course . . . . . . . 20 " 
 
 Mining laws ........ 15 " 
 
 Book-keeping . ... . 10 
 
 Drawing .... . 15 " 
 
 Besides these sums there are smaller ones to be paid for the use of chem- 
 icals, instruments, etc. The school expenses of a student are perhaps about- 
 one hundred thalers a year, some paying half and some nearly double that 
 sum. Twelve hundred thalers a year, or eight hundred and sixty-four dollars 
 in gold, is the average expense of a student in Freiberg. 
 
 The idea of self-support does not enter into the plan of European schools of 
 mines, which are founded for the benefit of the mining service. On the con- 
 trary, natives of the state receive compensation during their term of study on 
 condition of entering the public service. Since the growth of the mining 
 interest in America, however, and the presence of great numbers of our young 
 men at foreign schools, the pay exacted from foreigners has become of great 
 importance to some of them. At a time when the academy at Freiberg con- 
 tained nearly two hundred students, not one quarter of these were Saxons 
 intending to enter the state service. From forty -five to fifty were from the 
 United States, and this fourth part of the students paid at least one half the 
 fees received by the professors. 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 15 
 
 in preference to strictly scientific training, was uppermost. At 
 Chemnitz the mines produce gold, silver, and lead ores, with all 
 their complications, requiring the knowledge and practice of every 
 device of metallurgy ; and that school is, therefore, the metallur- 
 gical one of the three. Leoben, in Styria, is situated in the midst 
 of the Austrian iron region, and therefore the school for the study 
 of iron-working is situated there. At its head is Tunner, the best 
 authority on scientific iron-working on the Continent. Pribram, 
 in Bohemia, has very large and old mines, and within the last 
 twenty-five years has been the field of operations of Bittinger, 
 undoubtedly the foremost student in the art of dressing ores, and 
 one of the most scientific of inventors. Pribram is his workshop, 
 containing a greater variety of machines than any other similar 
 work in the world. At the school situated here mining and ore- 
 dressing are therefore the principal studies. To the engineer who 
 selects mining, per se, as his exclusive occupation, the shops at 
 Pribram are, perhaps, the most interesting point in Europe. 
 
 This system, formerly so esteemed, of planting the school close 
 to the mine, and restricting its scientific character to a close 
 correspondence with the opportunities for practical experience, is 
 now going out of favor. Of the four principal academies in 
 Europe, I have already shown that three are situated far from 
 mines. Paris and St. Petersburg are so far from the mining-field 
 that " practical courses" are impossible. Berlin has the advantage 
 of the Clausthal mines for the training of her students in the 
 summer months. The additional advantages offered by a great 
 social and scientific centre make the situation of this school 
 perhaps the best of any in Europe. The Austrian government, 
 following the desire of all its engineers, is now considering a 
 scheme for the union of its three schools in one academy of the 
 first class. Austrian engineers have found themselves hampered 
 in their practice by the too exclusive direction of their early 
 studies to one separate division of a subject, which, however 
 comprehensive, is still homogeneous. In point of fact, nothing 
 could be more unfortunate than this seclusion of a school in a 
 mining town. The studies should necessarily give a fair impor- 
 tance to each branch of the subject ; and this cannot be done if 
 the attention and observation of the students is concentrated on 
 only one class of mines. A school situated over a mine does not 
 turn out mining engineers in general, but coal, iron, lead, or 
 copper workers, as the case may be. When undue importance is 
 
16 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 given to one metal or ore, the rest suffer ; and no good school can 
 find illustrations of a full course in one region. Wherever it is it 
 will be separated from the practice of the greater part of the 
 subject, and therefore its location defeats the very purpose of its 
 existence. On the other hand, it was reported a year or two ago 
 in Freiberg on what authority it was not stated that a commis- 
 sion, sent by the Berlin government to ascertain the best seat for a 
 great school of mines for the North German Union, had reported 
 in favor of that place. This step, if made, would be in violation 
 of the lessons' of European experience ; and even if this report be 
 true, it is still doubtful whether such a concentration of schools 
 will ever take place. The University of Berlin would be loath to 
 abandon so excellent a member as its Bergakademie, and the 
 Prussian government is too anxious to see Berlin a " Weltstadt" 
 to suffer one of its most important institutions to be dismem- 
 bered. 
 
 Although for the number, present value, and future promise of 
 its mines, America may be called distinctively the mining country 
 of the world, it was not until 1864 that we severed the bonds of 
 our dependence upon Europe in the matter of instruction. Up 
 to that time we sent our young men abroad for their technical 
 education ; and on their return they brought home, not only men 
 educated to work at particular kinds of mining, and the sectional 
 prejudices which hamper foreign schools of mines, but too often 
 antiquated ideas of management as well, too cumbrous for use in 
 the American field. They copied the faults of foreign engineers ; 
 and it is safe to say that foreigners do not succeed in our mines. 
 A German who has no knowledge of mining may succeed as well, 
 after living here long enough to imbibe a portion of American 
 adaptability and pluck, as an American who also knows nothing 
 about it. But, paradoxical as it may appear, it is still true that a 
 foreigner, who has studied at home, and is quite ready to enter an 
 establishment there and pursue the regular round of promotion 
 with good reputation and even distinction, will be much more 
 likely to make a failure here than his uneducated brother who has 
 been long enough in the country to learn American ways of work- 
 ing. In this remark I broach no theory, but give the general 
 opinion of miners in the West. A few foreigners have distin- 
 guished themselves there ; but an experienced miner will often 
 prefer to trust a tyro born in America rather than a foreigner 
 fresh from home and with all his knowledge new. And the reason 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 17 
 
 of this, instead of being an argument against mining schools, is 
 an argument for them, but for schools in the right place. 
 
 There is an inherent difference in the pure and the applied 
 sciences, in that while the rules of the former are forever true and 
 unchanging, the same in Europe and in America, and in India or 
 Patagonia as well, the latter, by the very fact of their application 
 to given circumstances, and to requirements of fixed conditions, 
 have no immutable laws, except such as they borrow from the 
 pure sciences. The laws of chemistry are fixed the world over ; 
 but operations in the industrial arts that succeed perfectly in 
 England or America fail in India. Nor is distance a necessary 
 element in this diversity. Meteorological differences, obscure 
 variations in material, and the like, seriously affect similar opera- 
 tions, even when they are carried on at no great distance apart. 
 In nothing is the diversity of nature more apparent than in the 
 composition of the earth. The life of the mining engineer is spent 
 in applying the principles of science to this immensely varied 
 mass. Mines are not only very variable among themselves, but 
 the same mine differs in its height and its depth, in its length and 
 its breadth. By the .very nature of things, the engineer must 
 know what differences of treatment the components of this mass 
 require. This can certainly be ascertained as well by the foreigner 
 as by the native. But in addition to these purely scientific ques- 
 tions are others more embarrassing yet. There is the eternal 
 question of profit, with its complications of wages, prices of mate- 
 rial, transportation, etc., and often political and national charac- 
 teristics, which must be understood as well. It is in this latter 
 part of an engineer's requirements that the foreigner fails; and 
 the greater his experience abroad the more likely is he to fail here. 
 For mining engineering, in which term I include metallurgy and 
 all the branches of knowledge which the conduct of mines and 
 smelting-works demands, is not merely a special application of 
 science to industry, but it is for each engineer a special selection of 
 some branch of a great subject. A science that requires such 
 strict devotion requires, too, particular instruction. Even in the 
 beginning the student finds it advantageous to select his particular 
 field of labor, and apply his best powers to its study. 
 
 In Europe this is true in a much higher degree. Schools there 
 owed their foundation to the desire of perpetuating a race of men 
 who understood, not the laws of science, but the technicalities of 
 the particular mine or works with which the school was connected. 
 
18 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 For the mining schools of the lowest grade were founded almost 
 before there was any science, and when instruction was altogether 
 practical. They have themselves been the cradles of science and 
 research. 
 
 Much of this methodical adherence to tradition is still retained, 
 not so much in the schools as in the works where the engineer 
 always finishes his studies with two or three years' practice. In 
 the first steps of his instruction he begins by wheeling a barrow- 
 ful of ore ; but not a step may he stir until his thumbs are in the 
 true traditional position, where the thumbs of all miners who have 
 gone before had rested. From the beginning his drill is like the 
 drill of the soldier. He does everything by a fixed method, which 
 has in it no inherent reason for being used in all places and at all 
 times. 
 
 This cannot be done in America, and the man who has learned 
 to rely upon fixed rules in small things, and have men about him 
 who are accustomed to one way and one method, finds himself 
 unable to work when he crosses the ocean. Wages, habits of 
 work, character of workmen, all is new and everything confounds 
 him. Engineering, like the law, consists not so much in the appli- 
 cation of abstract principles as of good precedents to a given 
 problem. And the trouble with a foreign engineer is that his 
 precedents are all wrong; they cannot be applied here. There- 
 fore, for the real welfare of our mines as well as for the dignity of 
 our nation, it is necessary that we should haye our own schools of 
 mining science. 
 
 This necessity being conceded, the question arises, Can we intro- 
 duce the foreign system entire, with its instruction for workmen 
 of every class? Unfortunately, we cannot. The lower schools 
 depend so closely upon practice in the works that they cannot be 
 carried on without the consent of private owners or the establish- 
 ment of government works. Both of these supports are closed to 
 us, for the government is opposed to public works of profit, and, 
 great as the advantage of educated workmen would be in smelt- 
 ing-works, there is not the least likelihood that any company, 
 however important its operations were, would be willing to give its 
 workmen the necessary instruction. We are, therefore, forced to 
 build our house from the roof down to found the mining academy 
 at once. 
 
 It is evident that, in establishing these schools, care must be 
 taken to restrict their number and to place them in well-chosen 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 19 
 
 situations. It is well for America that experience in Europe has 
 demonstrated the needlessness of placing the school at the mine's 
 mouth. Here it would be impossible to obtain in a small mining 
 community the support required to maintain expensive professor- 
 ships, collections, and libraries. Such an institution needs the 
 nourishment only to be obtained from the innumerable rills of 
 knowledge and wealth which flow into great cities. In Europe 
 the professors are considered as necessary to the development of 
 the mines as the actual directors, and draw their pay from the 
 mining department of the government ; the collections are filled by 
 the constant contributions of the mines, and all specimens 
 which are found belong to the schools, for profit or preservation ; 
 the libraries are filled with works written by the professors and 
 the directors of government establishments. But in America all 
 these things must be paid for by school fees, yearly gifts, or en- 
 dowments. It is far better to concentrate these supplies upon a 
 few well- supported schools than to attempt a thousand diversions 
 of the resources at hand, by adding a course on metallurgy or 
 mining to each of the schools of technical science, or each of the 
 colleges in the country. Indeed, such an addition is far from 
 making a mining school out of these institutions. It is not merely 
 that a school of this kind must have its lectures on mines, 
 machines, metallurgy, mineralogy, geology, chemistry, and other 
 subjects, but these must be made both generally complete and 
 especially adapted to the engineer's wants. A school of mines is 
 a great, complex, comprehensive machine, requiring many men, 
 who all work with one and the same end in view to fit the young 
 engineer before them to grapple with a subject which has puzzled 
 the wisest for centuries, and which is every day coming into closer 
 union with all the other sciences, from meteorology to hygiene. 
 
 The problem presented to us is to establish, upon the American 
 system of self-support, schools, with all their expensive professor- 
 ships, collections, and libraries, which shall in every respect equal 
 the foreign institutions. It is well for us that experience has 
 proved great cities to be the proper seats for them. It is well for 
 us that we start when science is older and the errors of our rivals 
 have been exposed. 
 
 At present there is but one fairly established school of this class 
 in the country that in New York. Institutions which bear the 
 the name of schools of mines are also to be found in New Haven, 
 Boston, Troy, Philadelphia, Ann Arbor, and many other places. 
 
20 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 But those where the instruction is general and complete, as at 
 Cambridge or New Haven, lack the students necessary to form a 
 living school, while the others have no claim to the title they have 
 taken, except by virtue of a course of lectures on metallurgy or 
 mining tacked on to their regular studies. The latter are no more 
 schools of mines than is the Military Academy at West Point, 
 where a course on metallurgy has been given for years. They 
 lack, not only the purpose, the singleness of aim, the undivided 
 attention to one absorbing subject without which a school of this 
 kind has no life, but also the support necessary to carry on so ex- 
 pensive an institution. 
 
 The position of our mining fields is another ruling consideration 
 both in respect to number and position of our schools. In a 
 country covered in every part by mines, any division into districts 
 must be arbitrary. But by taking other elements into the prob- 
 lem, we shall find it not so difficult to point out the limits of these 
 fields, and the best position of the schools. These elements are 
 distance, and what may be called the educational spirit of the 
 different regions. Thus it is plain that the Atlantic and Pacific 
 are too far apart to be well brought within one boundary, 
 and the same is perhaps true of Lake Superior and the Atlantic 
 States. But are we to make one district north and another south 
 of Mason and Dixon's line, one east and another west of the 
 Alleghany Mountains? Certainly not. Great as is the mining 
 industry over all this region, far surpassing that on the Pacific 
 side, it is almost entirely divided between coal-mining and iron- 
 working. The training of engineers for this business should by 
 all means be concentrated in one school, which can also with ease 
 look after the lead- works of the Mississippi Valley and the zinc and 
 copper industries of Pennsylvania and the South. New York is 
 the proper place for this school. It unites the qualities of wealth, 
 literature, and science ; and by its position as the commercial 
 centre of the country, a school there has the advantage of aid from 
 innumerable sources. Its communication with all the Atlantic 
 and Mississippi Valley States is also perfect ; and as to cost of 
 living, which is supposed to be so excessive in that city, a young 
 man can study in New York, with all the high fees and cost of 
 living, for the same sum that students spend in German country 
 towns.* 
 
 * The officers of the New York School have published an estimate of a 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 21 
 
 There is nothing to prevent Lake Superior educating all its 
 engineers in New York for years to come. It is now within 
 forty-eight hours' travel of New York, and the peculiar necessities 
 of its mines can be studied by men working in New York. But 
 in the progress of the educational spirit which is sure to take place 
 in America, the school in New York will become overcrowded. 
 There is a limit to the number of men who can study the same 
 subject in the same school with profit. Probably the largest class 
 one professor can take thorough care of may be put at fifty schol- 
 ars. For a three years' course, such as New York has, this gives 
 a hundred and fifty regular students as the maximum strength of 
 a thoroughly efficient school of mines. I may say, in passing, 
 that fifty engineers a year would be a small supply for this coun- 
 try, but even this is never attained. Instruction in these schools, if 
 well conducted, is severe, and it is a wonderful success to graduate 
 more than twenty-five or thirty per cent, of the students. Of those 
 who do graduate, not more than one half go into the practice of 
 their profession, the others turning off into various channels of 
 business. When, therefore, the educational spirit rises sufficiently 
 high to crowd the New York school, the best disposal of the over- 
 flow would be to an institution in the Lake Superior region, 
 which could look after both the Lake region proper and the Missis- 
 sippi Valley. But until that high-tide mark is reached in New 
 York, and the educational spirit at the Lake has risen suffi- 
 ciently, any school planted there would have but a cramped ex- 
 istence and a limited efficiency. 
 
 As for the Pacific slope, the kind of mining and metallurgy car- 
 ried -on there, confined almost entirely to gold, silver, and lead 
 ores, and the individualism of the methods, as well as the remote- 
 ness of the district, point to the necessity of a school in that part 
 of the country. For this San Francisco is the proper place, as 
 the centre of educational, scientific, and commercial forces on that 
 side of the continent. The new University of California is on 
 
 student's expenses in New York, which is worth reproducing. It includes the 
 yearly fee, $200, and estimates for books, instruments, apparatus, and ex- 
 penses of living for thirty-five weeks, calculated upon a minimum and a 
 maximum basis. It it as follows : 
 
 Minimum. Maximum. 
 Preparatory year ....... $507 $640 
 
 First " 515 655 
 
 Second "....... 528 670 
 
 Third . 535 682 
 
22 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 the point of establishing such a school, and it will have some 
 advantages over any other in this country. Though the mining 
 interest of the Western States and Territories, with all their gold 
 and silver, is not to be compared to that of the Atlantic half of the 
 continent, yet the educational spirit of the people in regard to 
 mining is much higher than anywhere else, as is shown by the 
 eagerness with which they welcome the foundation of the new 
 school, and by the lively expectation they have of important re- 
 sults from it. In the East only scientific men have participated in 
 similar feelings toward the New York school ; but in California 
 and Nevada it is not merely the student of science, the mine own- 
 er, or the mine superintendent, but the average miner as well, who 
 expects and desires great things from the institution a condition 
 of affairs which probably results from the difficulty of working 
 complicated gold and silver ores, the long struggle to find adequate 
 means, and the feeling that the losses in operation are still far too 
 
 The people of that region are, therefore, right in determining 
 to have their own school, which shall make the peculiar needs of 
 their mines its especial study, and shall also introduce the many 
 remarkable innovations they have made, and which have never yet 
 been adequately studied, in the metallurgy of gold and silver, to 
 the knowledge of the world. The study of American metallurgy 
 is one of the most important tasks our schools nave before them. 
 Our knowledge of metallurgical science is almost all drawn from 
 European sources ; the travels of young engineers are made in 
 Europe, and meanwhile our own metallurgy is neglected. It is 
 true that it is behind the foreign methods in some respects, but it 
 is in advance in others, and at all events no general improvement 
 can be expected until its present condition is understood and ex- 
 plained. But while thus giving peculiar and natural importance 
 to their own mines, it is to be hoped that they will not neglect the 
 study of general mining science ; that they will not fail to give 
 their school a distinct active existence, to employ the best-informed 
 and most scientific men, and to spare no pains to make it what 
 New York has already become, one of the best schools in the 
 world more scientific than Freiberg, more practical than Paris. 
 
 The school in New York was founded in 1864. Its beginning 
 was apparently not very promising, and yet its success was really 
 assured from the first. Placed for the first year in three or four 
 cellars of the Columbia College buildings, its appointments were 
 
Mining Schools in the United States. 23 
 
 necessarily imperfect, and the difficulties in its way were very 
 great. But in one respect its future looked bright. It was thought 
 that the school would be considered fairly established if twelve 
 students presented themselves. The number was twenty on the 
 opening day, and before the year was out nearly fifty young men 
 had joined. The next year a building for laboratories, collections, 
 and lecture-rooms was ready, and the number of students was 
 about ninety, increasing to one hundred and thirty the third year. 
 Since the start, in 1864, more than three hundred young men have 
 entered, some for the full course and some for special studies. 
 This gives an average of fifty new pupils a year. 
 
 The course of study is now divided into five parallel divisions : 
 mining engineering ; civil engineering ; metallurgy ; geology, and 
 natural history ; analytical and applied chemistry. A student can 
 pursue any one of these, and take the degree of Engineer of Mines, 
 Civil Engineer, or Bachelor of Philosophy. The course of study 
 occupies three years for the two former, and four years for the 
 last degree. There is also a preparatory year for those who desire 
 to be well grounded in the necessary elementary studies. 
 
 The construction of a school building, and the provision of 
 apparatus, is very far from being all the work accomplished in the 
 six years' life of this institution. The literature of the mining 
 profession in the English language is very imperfect, and it was 
 impossible to conduct the school in any other way than by lectures. 
 These lectures, too, had to be very difi'erent from those delivered in 
 German schools. There the professor not infrequently delivers a 
 loose, often rambling, often too dry, often too agreeable lecture, 
 the object of which, in ordinary cases, is merely to point out to 
 the pupil what direction he should give to his studies. He is 
 expected to go home, and, with the lecture as his guide, to pore over 
 his books, obtaining his real information from them. The cases 
 where the lectures of the professor are expected to be the only 
 or principal source of knowledge are comparatively rare. Here 
 it is very different. The lectures are sometimes all the student has. 
 They must, therefore, be very full in fact, but also well condensed 
 in language, or the course would become interminable. This 
 necessity is far from being a disadvantage. The lectures delivered 
 in New York have the value of original examinations into the 
 sciences they discuss, and when they are published, as is to be 
 hoped they will be in good time, the body of mining science as 
 
24 Mining Schools in the United States. 
 
 contained in American text-books will be very different from that 
 possessed by any other country. 
 
 I have spoken above of the immense labor required to carry on 
 a mining school, and the heterogeneous character of its operations. 
 Of this the school under discussion is a good example. Where 
 there was not a specimen, a crucible, or a furnace, six years have 
 sufficed for the collection of seventy-five thousand specimens, illus- 
 trating geology, mineralogy, and metallurgy ; of models of furnaces, 
 machines, crystals, geometrical sections ; of a library of three 
 thousand volumes ; of laboratories for assay and for chemical opera- 
 tions, which are larger and better than those of any other mining 
 school in the world. The value of all these must be close on two 
 hundred thousand dollars, and the work has been enormous.* Nor 
 can a good school be established with less labor or less expense. 
 But the results are commensurately great. Among all the most 
 famous schools in the world, there is not one so well supplied with 
 apparatus, and not one where all the departments are carried on 
 with the same equal care. Remarkable as it may seem, no school 
 in Europe, unless that in St. Petersburg is to be excepted, can 
 compare with this in the appointments either of its chemical or 
 its assay laboratories. 
 
 If the other schools which are to be founded in this country are 
 established with equal care, fifty years will see a great change for 
 the better in American mines. The enormous losses which are 
 to-day experienced, even in the best conducted works, and the 
 absurdities which are perpetrated in the name of mining, will pass 
 away with the ignorance that causes them. 
 
 * The cost of this school for the last five years of its existence has been 
 $248,049, and its receipts from students $82,134. The first year, which was 
 exceptional, cost only about $28,000, but the average payments are very 
 nearly $50,000, and the average receipts $16,000. These figures may be 
 studied with advantage by those who would be glad to see the country filled 
 with schools of this kind. 
 
JOHN A. CHURCH, 
 
 ENGINEER OF MIKES AND METALLURGIST, 
 
 Plans and Specifications prepared for the General Treatment 
 containing 
 
 GOLD, SILVER, LEAD, POPPER, 
 
 and for the 
 
 STEAM PROCESS OF DESILVERIZATION BY ZINC, 
 CHLORINATIOISr, 
 
 Extraction of Silver by the Wet way, Extraction of Copper by the Wet way, 
 
 39 PARK ROW, NEW YORK, 
 
 PFFICE OF THE y^RMY ^ NAVY JOURNAL. 
 P. O. Box 3201. 
 
. C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES 
 
 533^ 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY