ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR 
 
 MECHANICS 
 
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 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/architecturaldraOOhickrich 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR 
 
 MECHANICS 
 
 By I. P. HI CKS. 
 
 A. comprelTLensive treatise on archiitectural drawing for building 
 
 meclnan.ic», showing the learner how to proceed 
 
 step by step in every detail of the work:. 
 
 DAVID WILLIAMS, 
 
 232 to 238 William Street, New York. 
 
 1897. 
 
i^^^ 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Drawing Instruments, . 
 
 Kive Room Cottage, .... 
 
 Drawing the Kloor F*lans, 
 
 Dravs^ing the Elevations, 
 
 Drawing the Details, 
 Tracing Drawings, 
 
 DraA^ving a Stone and. F^rame D>A^elling, 
 Lesson in Oiatlining, 
 Hints on. Planning, . . . . 
 
 Stair Work, .... 
 
 Kramin^g IPlans and Elevations, 
 Architectural Perspective, 
 DraAiving Perspective Figures, 
 
 Use of Hight Lines, 
 Eoreshorteniiig, . . . , . 
 
 Carpenters Tool Chest in Perspective, 
 Elevations in Perspective, 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 S5 
 55 
 57 
 64 
 73 
 75 
 T8 
 82 
 86 
 
PRKKACB. 
 
 The pages which comprise this work have 
 been prepared with a great deal of care, in 
 the belief that there is need of a thorough 
 treatise on architectural drawing for me- 
 chanics, showing the learner how to proceed 
 step by step in every detail of the work. 
 
 The examples given as lessons in drawing 
 embrace a wide range of work, and it has 
 been the aim of the author to select only 
 such figures for practice as are most likely to 
 meet the wants of working mechanics. 
 
 The popularity with which Hicks' Build- 
 ers' Guide has been received has brought 
 many letters of inquiry which have been 
 convincing proof of the wants and needs of 
 mechanics for a work of this kind. No pains 
 have been spared to make it practical for 
 those who desire to profit by self instruction. 
 
 Every subject treated has been made plain 
 and easy to comprehend, and it is believed 
 the work will prove the keynote to success 
 for those desiring instruction in this branch 
 of the building trade. 
 
 To one seeking information of a practical 
 nature, the selection and arrangement of 
 the matter within these pages cannot fail to 
 supply the student with a fund of knowledge 
 not easily obtained in any other work. 
 Thanking the readers for their many kind 
 and favorable expressions of the work as 
 published serially in the columns of Carpen- 
 try and Building, it is now condensed into 
 convenient space for guidance and instruc- 
 tion, and is committed to their use, trusting 
 that it will be favorably received. 
 
 The Author. 
 
 Omaha, Neb., 1897. 
 
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The subject of architectural drawing is one 
 of no small interest to the practical mechanic 
 in whatever branch of the building trade he 
 may be engaged. Carpenters, contractors 
 and builders are often called upon to furnish 
 plans, especially of medium and low cost 
 buildings which are not considered of suffi- 
 cient importance to warrant employing the 
 services of a professional architect. It is in 
 connection with this class of work that a 
 practical knowledge of drawing is particu- 
 larly valuable to the building mechanic, for 
 he who understands drawing sufficiently to 
 take a rough sketch of a floor plan and draw 
 it up in practical shape, presenting the corre- 
 sponding elevation with the details necessary 
 to carry out the design in a comprehensive 
 manner, is the man who, as a rule, readily 
 secures and retains the public confidence. 
 The one who understands and can make the 
 working drawings for buildings has a decided 
 advantage over a competitor possessing little 
 
 or no skill as a draftsman. The ability to 
 1 
 
 draw up a plan after the manner of an archi- 
 tect has the effect to gain for the draftsman 
 the favor and confidence of his patrons in a 
 way that seems to assure them he under- 
 stands his business, and therefore is the more 
 competent to do the work. Thus in cases 
 where competency is required the lowest bid- 
 der does not always stand the best chance in 
 the race for a job. This, and the fact that a 
 knowledge of drawing is necessary to enable 
 workmen to take a set of architects' plans 
 and work from them understandingly, has 
 brought about a desire on the part of many 
 to learn the art of drawing. 
 
 A brief and comprehensive treatise on the 
 subject, giving the practical instructions 
 necessary to carry the work to a successful 
 issue, has long been felt to be desirable. 
 Many books and articles have been written 
 on the subject, but for the most part they 
 have been far from meeting the wants of car- 
 penters and contractors engaged in the gen- 
 eral building trade. Many have been disap- 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS, 
 
 pointed in books, partly because they have 
 not been as practical as could be wished, but 
 more especially because the readers failed to 
 put into practice the principles and ideas 
 which the books illustrated and described. 
 
 In order to obtain the full benefit from a 
 work of instruction on any subject, it is neces- 
 sary to verify what is taught by practice, and 
 this is assuredly the fact in regard to draw- 
 ing. Practice is the most essential point 
 toward the ' advancement and success of the 
 draftsman in the art of drawing, and without 
 it the best books and articles are likely to 
 prove a failure. It will not answer to merely 
 read the instructions and to look at the exam- 
 ples given ; a few ideas may be gained by 
 this course, but to acquire the art and be- 
 come proficient in it will require practice. 
 It is the only successful method to pursue, 
 and, therefore, I say to those who are seek- 
 ing instructions in drawing, take up the rule, 
 pen and pencil and begin practice at once by 
 making the drawings given in connection 
 herewith as lessons in drawing. 
 
 It is not necessary to illustrate and describe 
 all the tools and appliances used in drafting, 
 as this has been done time and again, until 
 every carpenter and contractor is familiar 
 with them ; therefore, I will only describe a 
 few of the most essential tools and appliances 
 
 used in practice. A drawing board, i6 x 24 
 inches, will be large enough for convenience 
 in making the drawings given as lessons, and 
 also large enough for many other purposes. 
 For be it known that a large drawing board 
 for small work is more or less inconvenient 
 and undesirable. In my opinion it is better 
 to have two or three sizes to meet the vary- 
 ing requirements of large and small work. 
 
 Drawing boards should be made of soft 
 wood, with all angles right angles, so that 
 the T square will work properly from any 
 one of its four sides. The T square is an in- 
 dispensable tool in the draftsman's outfit, and 
 it is very desirable to have several sizes. A 
 20-inch blade will meet the requirements of 
 these lessons, but in practice much longer 
 blades will often be required. The cost of a 
 good T square, 20-inch blade, is not great — 
 say about $1 — and in selecting one I would 
 suggest Deane's patent adjustable head. 
 Triangles are very handy and convenient to 
 use in connection with the T square and can 
 be employed to advantage in many ways. 
 Triangles may be had for 25 to 75 cents each, 
 according to size. 
 
 In the way of other tools I would recom- 
 mend a small case of German silver instru- 
 ments of a good quality, containing 4^ -inch 
 dividers, with pen and pencil points and 
 
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 8 
 
 lengthening bar, drawing pen and protractor, 
 the cost of which does not need to exceed $4, 
 although the draftsman can, if he desires, 
 procure a $15 set of instruments. 
 
 Drawing rales are among the necessities 
 that go to make up the draftsman's outfit, 
 and of these he should have several at his 
 disposal. The architect's triangular scale is 
 the king of all rules for setting off the scale 
 measurements of drawings, after which they 
 may be finished by drawing the lines with 
 the aid of the T square, triangles, common 
 rules or straight edges. I do not advocate a 
 general use of the triangular scale with which 
 to draw lines, for the reason that it is a costly 
 rule, very finely and accurately marked, and 
 to make a general use of it in drawing lines 
 would have a tendency to obscure the fine 
 divisions of the rule and thus impair its use- 
 fulness in setting off accurate measurements. 
 The rule should never be used in drawing 
 ink lines, but can be used for drawing the 
 pencil lines necessarily required in outlining 
 a plan, if it is desirable to do so. These 
 remarks are more especially to warn the 
 draftsman against the indiscreet use of a 
 costly rule, which might soon impair its use- 
 fulness or spoil it entirely. The cost of tri 
 angular scales is from $1.50 to $5. They are 
 made in 12 inch and 24-inch lengths, the 
 
 1 2 -inch length being the one in general use. 
 Thus, it will be seen that the draftsman's 
 outfit for drawing need not cost more than 
 $7 to $10. The drawing boards, T squares, 
 triangles and straight edges he can make for 
 himself, thus confining the expense to the 
 case of instruments, the triangular scale and 
 common rules. The author began practicing 
 with a 15 cent outfit,, consisting of a common 
 rale and lead pencil. By the aid of triangles 
 which I made myself, I was enabled to square 
 drawings from the rule, draw the horizontal 
 and plumb lines and finish up the drawing 
 comparatively easy. I merely mention this 
 so beginners will not get the idea that a 
 costly outfit of tools is required ; but to all 
 who can afford it I would say do not retard 
 your progress in drawing by trying to get 
 along without the necessary tools, as it is a 
 waste of time and poor economy. 
 
 In reference to the triangalar scale, it is 
 necessary that the draftsman should become 
 familiar with the different scales represented. 
 This necessity will not be felt so much in 
 copying the drawings here given as lessons 
 as in the making of original drawings. In 
 this the draftsman will soon discover that 
 mental calculations are constantly coming up, 
 and to compute the distances and set them 
 off readily and accurately on the drawing re- 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 quires a thorough knowledge of the drafting 
 scales. Before proceeding with the instruc- 
 tions in drawing we will give a brief descrip- 
 tion of the triangular scale and its uses. By- 
 referring to Fig. I the shape of the triangular 
 scale will be plainly seen. In shape an end 
 section presents the form of an equilateral 
 triangle, traversed lengthwise with a semi- 
 circular groove. This particular shape gives 
 the rule six planes or surfaces, on which the 
 different scales are marked. The shape of 
 the rule permits of the marking being plainly 
 visible to the draftsman, and is specially 
 adapted for making the scale meas- 
 urements of drawings with the great- 
 est accuracy. On the six planes of 
 the rule are marked 1 1 scales, which 
 we will take in their regular order. 
 First one plane is graduated to six- 
 teenths, which, of course, can be used 
 in drafting to represent the scale of 1-16 inch 
 to the foot. The other ten scales are marked 
 on the remaining five planes in pairs and in 
 the following order, 3-32, 3-16, }i, %, ^, %, 
 ^, I inch, lyi inches and 3 inches, to the foot. 
 Placing the rule in position for drawing or 
 setting off measurements we very naturally 
 use the opposite edge from the one facing us. 
 This will be plainly seen by taking a rule and 
 placing it in the position of Fig. i, which will 
 
 bring the scales of 3-32 and 3-16 in proper 
 position by which to draw lines and set off 
 measurements on the drawing. When in 
 this position the scale of 3-32 inch to the foot 
 will be found figured on the plane from left 
 to right and the scale of 3-16 inch to the foot, 
 which is a multiple of 3-32, will be found fig- 
 ured from right to left, in the semicircular 
 groove just above the plane. The scales 
 each have at their starting point 3-32 and 
 3-16 respectively, graduated to sixths and 
 twelfths, for setting of fractional parts of a 
 foot, as in representing inches. 
 
 l^jUgj^^^^jUlf 
 
 / f / ? 
 
 §IIMaMmMMMluliMIMiliUUMUMIiMiUi n 
 
 iiiiniRinE 
 
 Fig. 1.— Broken View of a Triangular Scale. 
 
 Referring to Fig. i we find the following 
 scales shown : At the left end, top plane, i }4 
 inches to the foot ; right end, same plane, 3 
 inches to the foot ; left end, bottom plane, }4 
 inch to the foot and right end, same plane, 
 I inch to the foot. Thus it will be plainly 
 seen that the larger scales are just twice the 
 smaller, and being represented on the same 
 planes the graduations of the smaller scale 
 represent halves of the larger scale and thu 
 
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 work in harmony when properly understood 
 and applied. It will be noticed that the fig- 
 ures of the ^-inch and i-inch scales appear 
 wrong side up, but when the rule is turned 
 end for end, as it should be used in drawing 
 by these scales, the figures will appear right 
 and as follows : The ^-inch scale will be 
 found figured from right to left on the plane 
 and the i-inch scale figured from left to right 
 just above the plane in the semicircular 
 groove. Thus in setting off distances by the 
 inch scale, if }4 foot was wanted the drafts- 
 man could readily locate it by the divisions of 
 the J^-inch scale figured on the plane. All 
 the other scales on the rule are figured in 
 like manner. The scales being figured dif- 
 ferently and in opposite directions the liabil- 
 ity of making mistakes or getting the scales 
 mixed is avoided. 
 
 In setting off measurements from any of 
 the scales always start from the figure o of 
 the desired scale for even feet, and if a frac- 
 tional part of a foot is wanted, count off such 
 part on the fine divisions of the scale and 
 start from this point, then the figures on the 
 scale will represent the feet and inches. For 
 example, the J^ -inch scale has 3^ inch gradu- 
 ated as follows : i. The long lines divide the 
 scale into fourths, which represent 3 inches. 
 2. The next longest lines divide the scale into 
 
 twelfths, which represent inches. 3. The 
 short lines divide the scale into twenty - 
 fourths, which represent }4 inches. Thus 
 by this scale the draftsman can carry his 
 scale measurements to a point indicating j4 
 inches. Now if it were required to set off 6 
 fest 9 inches by the scale, count off 9 inches 
 from the o mark on the scale, which will be 
 the third long line to the right, then start 
 from this point with the measurement and 
 follow the scale marked on the plane to the 
 left to 6, which will give the measurement of 
 6 feet 9 inches. Proceed in like manner in 
 setting off measurements by any of the scales 
 found on the rule. It is not necessary to de- 
 scribe the graduations of all the scales, as to 
 understand the working of one is sufficient to 
 enable the draftsman to readily become famil- 
 iar with the divisions of them all as they all 
 embody the same principle, and it is just as 
 easy to draw by one scale as the other, with 
 the exception of cases where the fine scales 
 bring lines so close together that they cannot 
 be drawn distinctly. 
 
 We will only describe the graduations of 
 the 3 -inch and X-iiich scales to show the 
 contrast and what it is possible to accomplish 
 with the scales. The 3 -inch scale will be 
 found graduated as follows : i. The long 
 lines divide the scale into twelfths, which 
 
6 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 represent inches. 2. The next longest lines 
 divide the scale into twenty-fourths, which 
 represent half inches. 3. The next longest 
 lines divide the scale into forty-eighths, 
 which represent quarter inches. 4. The 
 short lines divide the scale into ninety-sixths, 
 which represent eighth inches. Thus by the 
 
 y 
 
 Fig. 2.— Crown Molding and Fascia Drawn to a Scale 
 of 3 Inches to the Foot. 
 
 scale of 3 inches to the foot the draftsman 
 can carry his scale measurements to a point 
 indicating the eighth part of an inch, which 
 is as fine as required in ordinary practice. 
 
 Referring now to the J^-inch scale, which 
 is the one generally used in making elevation 
 drawings, we find it graduated as follows : 
 The long line divides the scale into halves, 
 which represent 6 inches ; the next longest 
 lines divide the scale into quarters, which 
 
 represent 3 inches ; the short lines and finest 
 divisions of the scale divide it into twelfths 
 and represent inches. Thus by this scale the 
 draftsman can carry his scale measurements 
 to a point indicating the inches in elevation 
 drawings, which is about as fine as it is possi- 
 ble to draw the lines. The architects' trian- 
 gular scale is calculated for fine work, and 
 with it the finest of calculations in drawing 
 can be made. As previously shown, the fine 
 divisions of the ^-inch scale graduated to 
 
 Fig. 3.— Crown Molding and Fascia Drawn to a Scale 
 of )4, Inch to the Foot. 
 
 twelfths make it possible in drawing by the 
 scale to represent an inch on the plan. By 
 the division of % inch into 1 2 parts an inch 
 would represent 48 parts ; hence one of these 
 parts is really the forty -eighth part of an 
 inch, and comes very nearly, if not quite, 
 being finer than the ordinary draftsman can 
 distinctly draw the lines. Thus it will be 
 seen that in drawing elevations great care 
 will be necessary to keep all parts in accord- 
 ance with the scale. For example, to repre- 
 sent the fascia and crown molding of a cor- 
 nice in its usually limited space requires some 
 
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 fine work. The space usaally required for 
 the fascia and crown molding of a cor - 
 nice on the average dwelling is from 5 to 7 
 inches. In this case we will call it 6 inches 
 to make it easy for beginners. According to 
 the scale, 6 inches would be represented by 
 }i inch in the drawing. Now we have only 
 }i inch space in which to draw the lines 
 necessary to represent the fascia and crown 
 molding, and as each member of the fascia 
 and molding requires a line to properly show 
 its profile, it would require at least five paral- 
 lel lines to represent a very plain fascia and 
 crown molding. To draw all these lines in 
 the allotted space is about as fine work as the 
 average draftsman is capable of doing. For 
 example, we will draw the fascia and mold- 
 ing on a scale of 3 inches to the foot in order 
 to distinctly show the different members. 
 Referring to Fig. 2 it will be seen that it 
 
 requires i }4 inch space to show the profile of 
 fascia and molding. To show all these lines 
 in an elevation in the small space of }i inch 
 is no small task, and this is only one example 
 out of inany that arise in architectural draw- 
 ing. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents the fascia and molding 
 drawn to J^-inch scale. In drawing eleva- 
 tions occasionally a line is left out and slight 
 deviations are sometimes made. This is the 
 reason details drawn to larger scales are 
 necessary, in order that the workmen may be 
 enabled to carry out the design to the true 
 meaning and intent of the architect. In 
 making the elevations to the ^-inch scale 
 the draftsman should work to the scale and 
 keep the proper proportions as much as pos- 
 sible, and such parts as cannot be properly 
 shown in the elevations should be represented 
 in the details drawn to larger scales. 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE. 
 
 In the selection of examples to serve as 
 lessons in drawing we have chosen for the 
 subject the plan of a five-room cottage of 
 medium cost. This selection has been made 
 in view of the fact that the architectural draw- 
 ing of medium and low cost dwellings is 
 much sought after by the average mechanic. 
 To acquire the art of making these drawings 
 in a practical manner the learner must be 
 shown how to proceed step by step. To 
 look at a finished drawing the learner may 
 get but a faint idea of the actual work and 
 method of procedure. The full benefit of 
 lessons in drawing can only be fully demon- 
 strated by showing some of the work in dif- 
 ferent stages of completion, with a proper 
 description of the method of proceeding from 
 start to finish, and requiring the learner to 
 exercise his skill and talent by duplicating 
 the work. The art can never be successfully 
 acquired without practice, and these lessons 
 have been especially designed to supply the 
 much needed practice. 
 
 It has been the practice of Carpentry and 
 Building to present floor plans to a scale of 
 
 I -1 6 inch to the foot and elevations y^ inch 
 to the foot. These scales are almost too fine 
 for practical architectural drawing, yet for 
 publication purposes they are more con- 
 venient than the larger scales. Should the 
 floor plans and elevations accompanying 
 these lessons appear to the 1-16 and ^ inch 
 scales, it is specially requested that in the 
 course of practice the draftsman draw the 
 floor plans to ^ or ^ scale and the eleva- 
 tions to }{ scale, as by so doing he will ac- 
 quire the art of drawing in a more thorough 
 manner, because he will be compelled to 
 make calculations for himself, and the art of 
 calculating goes hand in hand with drawing. 
 No one can successfully make drawings with- 
 ®ut calculations. The division and propor- 
 tioning of the scale to different parts of the 
 drawing are continually going on ; therefore 
 to enlarge the drawings to ^ inch scale will 
 in reality give the draftsman better practice 
 than would be derived by copying them line 
 for line by the smaller scales. After the 
 drawings have been successfully made to the 
 ^-inch scale it would be well for the drafts- 
 
A FIVE-BOOM COTTAGE. 
 
 a a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 
 
 CELLAR 
 13'x 21' 
 
 u? 
 
 m 
 
 ] 
 
 s 
 
 
 * 
 
 "1 
 
 Fig. 4.— Method of Drawing Foun- 
 dation Plan.— Scale, 1-16 Inch to 
 the Foot. ' 
 
 Fig. 
 
 5.— The Foundation Plan 
 Completed. 
 
 W 
 
 Fipr. (>.— Portion of Front of Main Floor Plan, Showing "Windows, 
 Doors, etc.— Scale, H Inch to the Foot. 
 
 Fig. 7.— Front of Main Floor Plan 
 Drawn to a Scale of 1-16 Inch to the 
 Foot. 
 
10 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 man to draw them to the ^-inch scale, as it 
 will have a tendency to increase his accuracy 
 in measuring and proportioning drawings, 
 while at the same time it will extend his 
 capabilities as a draftsman. 
 
 The first practice in drawing should be 
 executed with a pencil, and it is quite as well 
 not to attempt the use of ink until the learner 
 has acquired a fair knowledge of pencil draw- 
 ing. In the selection of pencils never choose 
 soft ones, as they will not hold a point fit for 
 drafting, and the crumbling of the lead is 
 sure to work into the paper, giving the draw- 
 ing a dirty, grimy appearance. A hard pencil 
 is best, as with it fine clean lines can be made. 
 
 In making a drawing the outlines are the 
 first consideration and should be made very 
 light, so that in case an error occurs it can 
 be easily erased. It is very likely, and more 
 than probable, that beginners will make 
 some miscalculations, and in drawing lines 
 they are likely to draw past the stopping 
 points or cross lines running on other angles 
 and representing some other part of plan or 
 design. It is necessary that the draftsman 
 watch the work closely and acquire the art of 
 starting and stopping at exactly the right 
 point. This is one important feature in re- 
 gard to drawing and a very essential one in re- 
 gard to pen drawing. After the outlines have 
 
 been correctly drawn the work can then be 
 traced of redrawn, making the lines plain and 
 distinct and completing the drawing through- 
 out in a permanent manner. In regard to 
 paper, it is unnecessary to have any particu- 
 lar kind, as any good quality, with a hard, 
 smooth surface will answer for ordinary prac- 
 tice, although drawing paper is preferable. 
 Having now given a general idea of the 
 essential points in drafting we will proceed 
 with some examples for practice, beginning 
 with the foundation plan of a dwelling. The 
 foundation plan is the plan of the cellar 
 walls, foundation walls, piers, etc., and is 
 usually very easily made.. The starting point 
 in outlining a drawing in nearly all cases 
 should be at the front left hand corner as at 
 A, Fig. 4. The draftsman should work 
 around the plan from left to right, although 
 it is not necessary to adhere strictly to this 
 rule. For example, the draftsman has sev- 
 eral calculations to make in outlining the 
 plan, particularly the front, which forms 
 many angles. Starting at A, draw the lines 
 to B, representing the front, then from A 
 draw the lines representing the left side, rear 
 and right side as A C D B, which completes 
 the outline of the foundation wall. The next 
 step is to set off the thickness of the walls, 
 draw the inside lines and partition walls of 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE. 
 
 11 
 
 the cellar, if any are required. The inside 
 lines of Fig. 4 are so plain and easily under- 
 stood that an explanation is unnecessary. In 
 drawing the inside lines the main point to ob- 
 serve is to first draw all the lines representing 
 the cross walls, making due allowance for 
 thickness of walls, so that when the side wall 
 lines are drawn the foundation walls will be 
 complete. As a finished drawing does not 
 show the method of proceeding as well as 
 one partially finished, we will leave Fig. 4 in 
 its present form showing the draftsman how 
 to start, how to proceed and how to calcu- 
 late the thickness of walls in order to locate 
 the starting and stopping points in drawing 
 the lines. Referring to Fig. 4 it will bo 
 seen that to complete the walls all that is 
 necessary is to draw the lines representing 
 the side walls. We will now proceed to fin- 
 ish by locating and setting off the chimney, 
 piers, and girder under floor joists, cellar 
 window frames, cellar stairs and piers for 
 porches. This being done the drawing has 
 the appearance of Fig. 5 and completes the 
 foundation plan. Girders under floor joists 
 are generally represented by dotted lines, as 
 shown. Our floor plan and front elevation 
 show two chimneys, but as one is intended to 
 start from brackets on the partition wall only 
 one will appear on foundation plan as drawn. 
 
 Great care should be given to locating chim- 
 neys, so that they can be built plumb from 
 their foundation to the finish. In many large 
 cities there is an ordinance prohibiting the 
 building of crooked chimneys in any form. 
 
 In order to explain a few points in regard 
 to doors, windows, etc., we will present a 
 portion of the front wall of the floor plan 
 drawn to a scale of j{ inch to the foot. Re- 
 ferring to Fig. 6, windows are usually de- 
 signated by two lines drawn through the 
 opening, as shown at W ; outside doors are 
 represented by one line usually drawn on the 
 outside wall line, as shown at D. The way 
 a door is intended to swing is designated by 
 a line drawn on an angle, as shown. Inside 
 doorways are represented by open spaces in 
 the partitions with no lines across. The angle 
 lines are frequently used when the draftsman 
 wishes to specifically indicate which way the 
 doors shall swing. Arches are indicated by 
 dotted lines across the opening, as shown at 
 the bay window. Fig. 6. They are also 
 usually marked " arch," as shown. 
 
 To contrast the difference between an 
 architect's working scale drawing and one as 
 usually prepared for publication, the reader 
 is referred to Fig. 7, which shows the front 
 wall of the floor plan drawn to a scale of 1-16 
 inch to the foot. 
 
12 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 DRAWING THE FLOOR PLANS, 
 
 As the draftsman has now been given an 
 explanation of the primary principles and 
 method of drawing plans, we will presume he 
 is ready to advance another step in the art, 
 and we will proceed to the floor plan in full. 
 Referring to Fig. 8, first draw the outside 
 wall line, set off the thickness of walls, locate 
 the joining partition walls, and draw the 
 lines, as shown. Having the wall lines 
 drawn, the next step is to locate the doors, 
 windows, chimneys, etc., which are repre- 
 sented by the short marks across the parti- 
 tions. It will be noticed that in drawing the 
 partition lines they have been drawn across 
 the door openings, and also some of the lines 
 cross at the junction of partitions where they 
 ought not to. The advantage of drawing 
 them this way in outlining will be plainly 
 seen, for by having the outlines of all the 
 partitions in sight the draftsman is better 
 able to make calculations and locate doors, 
 windows and chimneys in the most desirable 
 manner. It should be remembered, how- 
 ever, that the outlines are to be drawn lightly 
 with a pencil, then when we are ready to fin- 
 ish we can easily erase all superfluous lines, 
 thus showing just where to start and stop 
 when drawing permanently with the pencil 
 or pen. This can be done a great deal easier 
 
 and quicker than to make all the calculations 
 before drawing the outlines ; besides there 
 are often several doors and partitions in suc- 
 cession to cause confusion in locating exactly 
 the points of starting and stopping. 
 
 We will now take Pig. 8, and erasing the 
 lines across the door openings and joining 
 partition walls will finish permanently, when 
 it will have the appearance of Fig. 9. By 
 comparing Fig. 8 with Fig. 9 the draftsman 
 will be able to note the change that has taken 
 place in the lines better than words can ex- 
 press it. In addition to the change made by 
 the openings we have drawn a few more 
 lines, finishing the stairs, sink, etc. , and indi- 
 cating the shelves in pantry and closets, 
 making the plan complete. 
 
 In Fig. 10 is shown the method of drawing 
 the roof plan. The inside lines represent 
 the outside line of wall plate and should be 
 drawn first. Next set off the width of the 
 cornice and draw the outside lines. Locate 
 the hips, valleys, ridges and chimneys and 
 finish complete, as shown. 
 
 DRAWING THE ELEVATIONS. 
 
 In the usual course of architectural draw- 
 ing the elevations come next, and very natu- 
 rally they are the most complicated of all to 
 make and appear as an insurmountable diffi- 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE. 
 
 18 
 
 I I. 
 
 D 
 
 D [ 
 
 I I. 
 
 I I 
 
 I I 
 
 T r 
 
 D 
 
 1 g 
 
 I I 
 
 Fig. 8.— Method of Outlining the Floor Plan.— Scale, J6 Inch to the Foot. 
 
14 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Fig. 9.— Appearance of Floor Plan when Completed.— Scale, % Inch to the Foot. 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE 
 
 15 
 
 Fig. 10.— Showing Method of Drawing the Roof Plan.— Scale, H Inch to the Foot. 
 
16 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 culty to beginners in the practice of drawing. 
 As a rule, all things become easy or compara- 
 tively so when we know how to proceed, and 
 with proper instructions we hope those who 
 desire will be able to readily master the 
 difficulties usually met with. We will now 
 start on the outlines of the front elevation, 
 Fig. II. Some may prefer to start from 
 bottom of the foundation and build up, but 
 we have found it more practical in drawing 
 elevations to take the bottom Une of the sill 
 as a starting point from which to make the 
 required calculations. It is always easier to 
 calculate hights in an elevation from bottom 
 of sill up, especially frame buildings, and for 
 the hight of foundation it is no trouble to 
 calculate from the bottom of the sill to any 
 hight it is. desired the foundation should 
 show above the ground line. Hence we will 
 take the bottom line of sill as a starting point 
 and draw the line A B. Set off on line A B 
 the width of front gable, as A C. Calculate 
 the entire hight from bottom of sill to top of 
 roof line, as shown by the scratch marks D, 
 E and F, and draw the perpendicular lines 
 A D, C E and B F, representing the main 
 comers, but do not draw them quite to the 
 point D, E and F, as these were calculated to 
 the top of roof line, and the lines of the cor- 
 nice must come below these points. It is 
 
 easier and more practical to finish drawings 
 from the top down, and when the lines rep- 
 resenting the cornice are drawn they will in- 
 tersect the perpendicular lines of the main 
 corners in the elevation. This will be read- 
 ily seen by comparing the unfinished work of 
 Fig. II with the finished part of Fig. 12. It 
 will be noticed that if the perpendicular lines 
 were drawn full to the scratch marks we 
 would have to cross these lines to finish the 
 cornice, which, of course, would not be a 
 proper thing to do. For convenience in out- 
 lining, the lines can be drawn lightly with a 
 pencil and in full to the points D, E, F, and 
 the part where the lines cross can be erased 
 before finishing. This is a good way to do, 
 as it shows the draftsman just where to start 
 and stop when inking or tracing the drawing 
 permanently. The points D, E, F are also 
 the points from which to calculate the roof 
 elevation, the amount for projection being 
 added on at the bottom, as shown. After 
 drawing the outline of roof locate and draw 
 the outline of the chimneys. The latter can 
 always be readily located from the floor plan. 
 For example, the front chimney passes out the 
 roof by the side of the left wall plate, while 
 the kitchen chimney passes out the roof 
 about 7 feet from the outside line of the right 
 wall plate, which locates it where shown. 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE. 
 
 17 
 
 Chimneys that do not come out the highest 
 portion of a roof should always be con- 
 structed somewhat taller than the ordinary 
 chimney to insure them a good draft, and 
 also for the protection of the roof against 
 fire. It sometimes happens that roofs affect 
 the draft of chimneys, hence the top of a 
 chimney should be nearly as high as the roof 
 through which it passes. Observe that the 
 front chimney top is about on a level with 
 the front gable roof and the kitchen chimney 
 a little above the comb of the main roof. 
 Chimneys which extend above the roof much 
 more than the ordinary hight should have an 
 anchor rod put in, as shown. The next step 
 is to set off the width and hight of bay win- 
 dow from bottom of sill to lower edge of 
 fascia. Set off width of crown molding and 
 fascia, pitch of roof, and draw the lines as 
 shown. 
 
 Next set off the outlines of the small win- 
 dow in the gable. In setting off the outlines 
 of a window or door compute the extreme 
 width and length, including casings, sill and 
 cap, and draw the outside lines as shown. It 
 is more practical to finish a frame from the 
 outside, working toward the center, than any 
 other way. The drawing of doors and win- 
 dows will be more fully illustrated and ex- 
 plained in the details. 
 
 The next step will be to outline the porch, 
 which in all cases should be done before 
 drawing the outlines of any doors or windows 
 that appear under cover of the porch, because 
 it very often happens that a portion of a door 
 or window frame is partially concealed from 
 view by some portion of the porch ; hence 
 the only proper method is to draw the porch 
 first. Then, when the frames are drawn it 
 will be plainly seen just what portion, if any, 
 of them will be hid from view, and there will 
 be no occasion for crossing lines. In most 
 cases the bottom of the porch frieze hides the 
 view of the head casings of frames that ap- 
 pear under cover of the porch. This feature 
 is noticeable in almost every elevation of 
 house design, and there seems to be no avail- 
 able remedy for it. The only plan would be 
 to make the porches higher, and this cannot 
 always be done for lack of space, and, again, 
 extremely high porches look out of propor 
 tion and are equally as bad, if not worse, 
 than hiding the head casings with the porch 
 frieze. In the elevation the porch frieze 
 covers the head casing, as will be plainly 
 seen by referring to Fig. 12, which shows 
 the work in a more finished state. The next 
 step will be to set off the hight of foundation. 
 Draw the ground line, space off the number 
 of risers required and draw porch steps. 
 
18 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Czz] 
 
 Fig. 11.— Method of Outlining Front Elevation.— Scale, % Inch Fig. 12.— The Front Elevation Partially Finished.— Scale, % Inch 
 to the Foot. to the Foot. 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE. 
 
 19 
 
 Fig. 13.— Appearance of Front Elevation when Completed.— Scale 
 ^ Inch to the Foot. 
 
 FijT. 14.— Sectional View of Framing 
 and Foundation.— Scale, 14 Inch to 
 the Foot. 
 
30 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 The three parallel lines full length indicate 
 the base and water table, which extend 
 around the elevation on a line with the 
 porch, as shown. 
 
 Trusting that a fair idea has now been 
 given of the method of outlining and starting 
 the elevation, we will next proceed to carry 
 the work on to a more advanced stage of 
 completion. Having made the outlines as in 
 Fig. II, proceed by drawing the gutter on 
 the roof and finish off the hips. Next draw 
 the lines representing the crown molding and 
 fascia of the main cornice. Draw the gable 
 ornaments, then the line representing bottom 
 of frieze, and finish corner casings down to 
 water table line, as shown. Next finish the 
 attic window. The bay window will be next 
 in order. Finish the lines of the crown mold- 
 ing, fascia and frieze. Draw the corner and 
 middle casings down to water table line. 
 Set off and draw window sills and finish by 
 drawing window casings, sash and panels 
 tinder windows. 
 
 Next we will take the porch and front 
 door. Draw the lines representing the crown 
 molding, frieze and columns, and finish the 
 door frame, as shown. We will omit some 
 of the details of the porch and bay window 
 finish in this drawing, leaving the balance of 
 the work for the drawing as it will appear 
 
 when finished. It is better for beginners to 
 see the work at different stages of comple- 
 tion, as it gives far better ideas of the method 
 of proceeding. 
 
 The next step will be to show the work in 
 a finished state by taking Fig, 12 as we have 
 just left it and proceeding step by step to the 
 finish, when it will have the appearance of 
 Fig. 13. In finishing begin at the top and 
 work down. Chimneys are usually the up- 
 permost portions of drawings, although there 
 are many exceptions in this particular. In 
 this case finish the chimneys down to the 
 roof line to represent the brick. It is not 
 necessary to accurately scale every course of 
 brick unless the chimney is of some special 
 artistic design, in which case it would be 
 necessary to have a detail drawing of it show- 
 ing its entire construction. On common 
 chimneys the size and total hight are ob- 
 served in the drawing, the architect puts in 
 a few lines to indicate the brick, and that 
 usually finishes a chimney. We will now 
 finish the roof. Begin at the top and make 
 parallel lines to represent the roof. It is not 
 necessary to scale the lines to represent the 
 exact number of courses of shingles. It is 
 usually understood and specified that the 
 shingles shall be laid a stated amount to the 
 weather. If there are any belt courses of 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE. 
 
 21 
 
 ornamental shingles, then there should be a 
 detail of the roof drawn to a suitable scale. 
 Next finish bay window and porch roofs and 
 finish down to the foundation, putting in the 
 brackets and all ornamental finish, as shown. 
 The siding comes next, and should be spaced 
 according to the scale as nearly as practicable 
 what it is to be laid to the weather. If pos- 
 sible always space to come out even at bottom 
 and top of frames. In drawing the lines con- 
 siderable care will have to be given the work 
 in order not to draw across casing lines, 
 porch columns and other parts of the finish. 
 Drawing the siding lines is good practice ; it 
 aids very much to insure accuracy in starting 
 and stopping at just the right points. 
 
 The next and last step is to finish the 
 foundation down to the ground line. In this 
 case we have drawn the foundation of stone, ' 
 which is usually represented by somewhat 
 irregular lines, as shown. We have now 
 finished the front elevation, giving it the 
 general appearance of Fig. 13. 
 
 We present in the next illustration, which 
 is Fig. 14, a sectional view of the house, 
 showing the size of timber, manner of fram- 
 ing, hight of cellar, hight of foundation above 
 grade, hight of main story and attic. This 
 drawing is so plain and easily understood 
 that only a brief description is necessary. 
 
 Taking A as a starting point, draw the bot- 
 tom line of sill, then computing the hight of 
 cellar and hight of frame to top of plate, 
 draw the outside wall line from bottom of 
 cellar to top of plate. Set off and draw out- 
 line of rafter from the plate. Next set off 
 thickness of timbers and draw in the follow- 
 ing order : Sill, outside wall studding, rafter, 
 ceihng joist and collar beam. Set off the 
 thickness of the cellar wall with proper foot- 
 ing, hight above groimd line, and draw the 
 lines as shown. Mark the hights of cellar, 
 ceiling, attic and of headers to window open- 
 ings, as shown in the outside wall. The front 
 elevation was given at considerable length, 
 showing every detail from start to finish, but 
 we do not intend to go into the matter so 
 thoroughly in regard to the side elevation. 
 We have given the method of proceeding, 
 and now present Fig. 15, showing the side 
 elevation as it would appear in a finished 
 state, hoping that those of the readers who 
 may be considered as students in drafting 
 will accept it as an example for practice and 
 draw it to the best of their ability after the 
 manner described in connection with the 
 front elevation. 
 
 To aid the draftsman in making the side 
 elevation we have just a little in the way of 
 information to offer. After having the paper 
 
22 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 S 
 
 ■ I ' ' I' 
 i !| ' 
 
 1 
 
 I , i , I . I , I , I . I , I , I . I . I . I . < . t . 1 . 1 . I . I . i 
 
 ^& 
 
 Rg, 15.— Appearance of Side (Right) Elevation Completed.— Scale, % Inch to the Foot. 
 
A FIVE-ROOM COTTAGE. 
 
 23 
 
 fastened on the drawing board place the 
 front elevation on it and to the right, so that 
 the T-square will reach across both drawings. 
 The result of this is that it establishes the 
 hights for many parts of the side elevation 
 and they can be transferred without making 
 so many measurements. For example : The 
 
 hights of porch, bay window, foundation, 
 roof, chimneys and many other parts will all 
 appear the same whether we look at the 
 front elevation or the side elevation and 
 consequently certain parts may be more 
 accurately transferred in the manner above 
 described. 
 
DRAWING DETAILS OF A MODERATE COST COTTAGE. 
 
 The next lessons for practice will be with 
 the details, which are portions of the eleva- 
 tions drawn to larger scales to aid the me- 
 chanic in carrying out the design, and are 
 usually such parts as cannot be properly 
 shown in the elevation. Some of these de- 
 tails will serve as the very best of lessons for 
 practice, therefore it is to be hoped that the 
 learner will give his best attention to the in- 
 structions that follow. We will now consider 
 the details of a window frame for a two-light 
 window, 24 X $6, casings to be 5 inches wide, 
 with molded head casing and cap, scale }4 
 inch to the foot. Referring to Fig. 16 we 
 first draw the outlines, then set off the thick- 
 ness of the sill, width of molded cap and the 
 casing lines. 
 
 The parallel line which extends around the 
 inside of the frame next to the casing line 
 represents the blind stop, and at the bottom 
 of the frame it is the subsill. Next set off 
 the thickness of sash, as shown. The two 
 narrow inside lines represent the glass and 
 putty lines. The division line of the sash 
 extends across the frame from the blind stop 
 lines. We have left Fig. 16 partially finished 
 
 in order to show more clearly the manner of 
 proceeding. It will be noticed that the per- 
 pendicular lines of the sash have been omit- 
 ted. This has been done in order to show 
 that after the outlines of the frame are made 
 the next thing in order is to draw all the hori- 
 zontal lines, or at least all that can be con- 
 veniently drawn, finishing the perpendicular 
 lines last. Fig. 17 shows the frame as it 
 appears in a finished state. It would be im- 
 possible to correctly represent all the lines of 
 this drawing in an elevation drawn to X-inch 
 scale, and in elevation drawings the fine lines 
 are usually left out. The blind stop lines are 
 frequently drawn, but not necessarily re- 
 quired in the elevations. In Fig. 1 7 we have 
 drawn all the lines to show how a frame and 
 window should appear when correctly com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Fig. 18 represents the front door and frame 
 partially drawn. Fig. 19 shows the work 
 finished. The drawings indicate so plainly 
 the method of proceeding and being similar 
 to what has already been described, with 
 reference to Figs. 16 and 17, that further de- 
 scription is unnecessary. 
 
 2i 
 
DRAWING DETAILS OF A MODERATE COST COTTAGE. 
 
 yig-. 16.— Outline Indicating Method of Draw- 
 ing Window and Frame.— Scale, }4 Inch to 
 the Foot. 
 
 Fig. 17.— The Window and Frame Completed 
 —Scale, 3^ Inch to tUe Foot. 
 
36 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Fig. 18.— Method of Drawins: Front Door 
 and Frame. 
 
 Fig. 19.— The Door and Frame Completed. 
 Scale, \'i Inch to the Foot, 
 
DRAWING DETAILS OF A MODERATE COST COTTAGE. 
 
 27 
 
 A detail of the bay window drawn to a 
 scale of ^-inch to the foot is shown in Fig. 
 20 of the engravings. The description and 
 method of drawing the bay window was so 
 thoroughly explained in connection with the 
 front elevation that by comparing Fig. 20 
 with Fig's. II and 12 the draftsman will 
 readily understand the course to be pursued. 
 A vertical sectional view drawn to JE^^-inch 
 scale, which will serve as an example for 
 practice, is shown in Fig. 21. 
 
 We will not give any prescribed method in 
 drawing this figure, believing that it is just 
 as well sometimes for the student to study 
 the drawing and work out the method of pro- 
 cedure for himself. In explanation of the 
 meaning of some of the lines we will say that 
 the outside space represents the middle or 
 comer casings, the second space the outside 
 window casings, third space the sheeting, 
 fourth space the studding, the fifth space the 
 plastering and the sixth space the inside cas- 
 ing. The sections representing the headers, 
 head casings, sills, etc., are plain and easily 
 understood. Fig. 22 represents a horizontal 
 section, drawn to a scale of i inch to the foot, 
 and shows very plainly the sections of the 
 work through the bay window. In the en- 
 graving M C indicates the middle casing, 
 O C the outside casing, B the blind stop, J 
 
 the jamb and I C the inside casing. The 
 other parts are fully explained by the word- 
 ing. Fig. 23 is a detail of porch finish, 
 drawn to a scale of i inch to the foot, and is 
 so plain that little description will suffice. 
 The ornaments in the frieze and comer 
 bracket are simply open spaces. The par- 
 ticular point in this drawing, to which it is 
 desired to call the attention of the draftsman, 
 is the side and face views of the cornice 
 bracket and the manner of showing the dif- 
 ference in appearance. Figs. 24 and 25 are 
 details of the main cornice and of the work 
 in the front gable, drawn to a scale of i inch 
 to the foot, and need no further explanation. 
 They will serve as examples for practice in 
 drawing details. 
 
 A detail of the inside finish, drawn to a 
 scale of i^ inches to the foot and showing 
 the face and sections of base, plinth block, 
 casing and comer block, is presented in Fig. 
 26. We have now completed the details of 
 our house plan, but before concluding our 
 lessons in drawing we wish to give a few 
 examples for practice, to represent a class of 
 work that has not been shown. Fig. 27 rep- 
 resents the shingling of a gable with round 
 and octagon butt shingles, drawn to a scale 
 of }4 inch to the foot. To execute such de- 
 signs on a small scale is a very difficult task. 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 ^\N U\N\VS-N^ 
 
 |-^Vnv. I^xsn- |ix.-~-\\-. f-^^s. 
 
 I ^^;^^^^^~ /-^;;sr~t^v |-J;^»>^:^.^ | 
 
 ■""S^- 
 
 ■^-^^^^yc^-^ h^\^ h^^*^ l^ssSNv- |».\v |^-\\\\v |\\^ 
 
 ^-<x>y ( s-N-^^-xx,V i^^^^rj; 
 
 h- h^^- h - h- 
 
 •^^^sN\\" KV!x 
 
 Jl 
 
 Fig. 30.— Detail of Bay Window.— Scale, M Inch 
 to the Foot. 
 
 Fig. 21.— Vertical Section of 
 Bay Window, Showing Gen- 
 eral Construction.— Scale, J4 
 Inch to the Foot. 
 
DRAWING DETAILS OF A MODERATE COST COTTAGE. 
 
 29 
 
 The method of dfawing may be described as 
 follows : After making the outlines of the 
 finish down to the space required for shin- 
 gles, space and draw lightly the lines repre- 
 senting the courses. Then, for the round 
 butts, draw lines to use as centers in describ- 
 ing the circular lines, as shown by dotted 
 lines in the engraving. For the octagon 
 butts draw lines representing the depth of 
 the octagon cut, as shown by dotted lines, 
 
 M.C. 
 
 Pig. 22.— Horizontal Section of Bay Window, Showing Casings 
 and General Construction.— Scale, 1 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 and finish as indicated, drawing the perpen- 
 dicular lines last. After this has been done 
 erase the superfluous pencil marks and trace 
 the drawing permanently. A more expedi- 
 tious and, perhaps, a better method to pursue 
 with such work is to make patterns showing 
 the profile of the bottom line of courses, as 
 shown by Figs. 28 and 29. These patterns 
 can be made of thin sheet brass, or even of 
 cardboard, and will be found a great help in 
 
 regard to speed as well as in keeping the 
 work uniform. There are many small pat- 
 terns of this kind that can be made to do 
 good service in the way of helps and aids in 
 drafting. 
 
 Fig. 30 shows an octagon plan of a bay 
 window, and Fig. 31 the elevation, drawn to 
 a scale of % inch to the foot. Figs. 30 and 
 31 have been presented with a view of show- 
 ing how to give a drawing the octagon ap- 
 pearance. This bay window is of the same 
 general style as the square one previously 
 shown, with but few exceptions. In this it 
 will be seen that the window sill miters 
 around the comers and the corner casings 
 extend from frieze to sill and from sill to 
 water table, instead of extending from frieze 
 to water table, as shown in Fig. 20. It will 
 be noticed that the side rail of the sash on 
 the side windows does not show on the side 
 next to the middle window. The reason for 
 this is obvious when the plan is properly 
 considered. Looking at an octagon bay 
 window squarely from the front the casings 
 of the frame hide this portion of the sash. 
 In representing the brackets the draftsman 
 has a regular picnic, and it is no small task 
 to do the work properly. As will be seen by 
 referring to the elevation, we have three 
 views of the brackets. Directly in front we 
 
 LlBn^ 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 Of „.T:Tr_,„i 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Pigr. 24.— Detail of Main Cornice.— Scale, 1 Inch 
 to the Foot. 
 
 Figr. 23.— Detail of Porch Finish.— Scale, 1 Inch to the Foot. 
 
DRAWING DETAILS OF A MODERATE COST COTTAGE. 
 
 81 
 
 Pigr. 25.— Detail of Gable Finish— Scale, 1 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 Fig. 26.— Detail of Inside Finish, Showingr 
 Faces and Sections of Base Board, Plinth 
 Block, Casing and Corner Block.— Scale, 
 IJ^g Inches to the Foot. 
 
32 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 get a face view, while next to either side we 
 get kind of a half -face and half -side view. 
 To the extreme right or left corner we 
 would get a full side view of the bracket 
 were it not for the fact that it is partially- 
 concealed by one of the side brackets. This 
 drawing shows that there is a great study in 
 architectural drawing and that much depends 
 upon the judgment and skill of the drafts- 
 man. In fact, there are many things that 
 come up in drafting that are very difficult to 
 represent on paper. The draftsman has to 
 form an idea of how the drawing should look 
 to represent certain things ; then study how 
 to draw them, and lastly and most essen- 
 tially, practice the art. 
 
 TRACING DRAWINGS. 
 
 We will now give a few instructions in 
 regard to tracing drawings with ink. First, 
 the draftsman wants a rule specially pre- 
 pared for the work. Any common rule can 
 be prepared for the purpose in a few min- 
 utes. Fig. 32 shows the shape of rule as 
 used with the drawing pen, the same to be 
 used with the beveled edge down. The idea 
 of this is to prevent the rule touching the 
 paper at the very edge of the ink line. 
 When the rule and ink line touch the paper 
 at exactly the same point, it is very difficult 
 
 to move the rule without making blots. The 
 rule slightly beveled and used in the manner 
 above described is a sure preventive to blot- 
 ting the work if anything like ordinary care 
 is exercised. 
 
 In regard to the position of the pen it 
 should be held with the flat side of one of 
 the nibs to the rule, and very nearly in a 
 perpendicular position. The ink commonly 
 employed is Higgins' American drawing 
 ink, prepared ready for use. This ink dries 
 quickly, the lines can be made very close 
 together, and the rule moved around over 
 the paper almost as fast as desired. The 
 draftsman seldom has to wait more than a 
 few seconds for the ink to dry. 
 
 In regard to filling the pen, there is a quill 
 with each bottle of ink designed for the pur- 
 pose. Our advice is to pay no attention to 
 the quill method of filling the pen. It is too 
 slow and bothersome. Dip the pen right in 
 the ink, and then with a piece of cloth lightly 
 wipe off any ink that remains on the outside 
 of the nibs of the pen, as it would come in 
 contact with the rule and otherwise might 
 cause trouble. Always try the pen on a piece 
 of paper before starting a line to see if it is 
 working properly. On account of the quick 
 drying qualities of the ink it frequently dries 
 on the pen, thus stopping the flow of ink. 
 
DRAWING DETAILS OF A MODERATE COST COTTAGE. 33 
 
 Fig. 27.— Method of Drawing Ornamental Shingles in Gables.— Scale, J^ Inch to the Foot. 
 
34 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Fig. 28.— Pattern for Shingle 
 Work. 
 
 Fig. 29.— Another Shingle 
 Pattern. 
 
 fsWV'.'VA'.VV'uikj^v, 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. .'^2.- Shape of Rule for 
 Use in Inking Drawings. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Figs. 30 and 31.— Plan and Elevation of Octagon Bay Window.— 
 Scale, M Inch to the Foot. 
 
DRAWING DETAILS OE A MODERATE COST COTTAGE. 
 
 This is particularly bothersome, especially 
 in making very fine lines, and the nibs of the 
 pen have to be frequently wiped off and 
 adjusted. Therefore we repeat, be sure the 
 pen is working right every time before you 
 start a line, and then know just where you 
 want to stop the line when you start it. This 
 is about all there is of inking and drawing. 
 Remember to make all drawings lightly with 
 the pencil first, then ink the same lines over. 
 If any superfluous pencil marks remain they 
 can be easily erased with a rubber, which 
 will have no effect on the ink lines. To ink 
 a drawing on architects' tracing paper, place 
 the paper, which is transparent, over the 
 pencil drawing, and the lines will show plain 
 enough to be easily traced. 
 
 We have now passed through a full descrip- 
 tion of the manner and method of making 
 architectural drawings. The subject is one 
 of such wide range and the work that comes 
 up from time to time so varied that perhaps 
 no definite rules can be laid down that will 
 
 meet the requirements in all cases. No two 
 architects would be likely to pursue exactly 
 the same course, yet they would arrive at 
 the same results. To illustrate and describe 
 all phases of the art would make a book seem- 
 ingly without end. In these instructions in 
 drawing we have given the draftsman the 
 principles, method of starting and his course 
 of procedure to the finish. By faithful prac- 
 tice and study of the art he will steadily im- 
 prove, acquire the proper use of the tools and 
 better judgment as to the methods of pro- 
 ceeding in difficult cases. These points 
 must necessarily be left to the judgment 
 of the draftsman as they come up from 
 time to time. Experience and practice 
 will prove of valuable service in the art, 
 and gain for him a knowledge of drafting 
 that can be acquired in no other way. 
 Therefore let him bear in mind that suc- 
 cess in the art depends largely upon a faith- 
 ful adherence to the simple words of study 
 and practice. 
 
DRAWING A STONE AND FRAME DWELLING 
 
 With a view to bringing out new phases of 
 the subject, we next choose for consideration 
 a large two-story stone and frame residence, 
 with tower, octagon and round corners, as 
 well as many other features calculated to 
 produce a wide range of work and give the 
 student the largest amount of study and prac- 
 tice possible to obtain from a single example. 
 The basement and outside stone walls of the 
 building are to be i8 inches thick up to the 
 sscond floor, except the partitions of the 
 basement, which may be 8 -inch brick walls. 
 All outside and partition walls of the frame 
 part are to be of the common 4-inch stud- 
 ding, which, with the lath and plastering, 
 makes about a 6-inch wall. The difference 
 in the thickness of the stone walls and the 
 frame partition walls causes a little study in 
 the laying out of the rooms, in order to pre- 
 vent the offsets in the walls making undesira- 
 ble corners in the rooms. In preparing the 
 floor plans shown in Figs, 33 and 34, the 
 draftsman will see how easy it would be for 
 
 86 
 
 this feature to show itself, and yet by a little 
 study in the way of planning it will be noted 
 how easily it has been avoided. The study 
 of planning and designing goes hand in hand 
 with the drawing, and if one is to draw prac- 
 tical plans every detail of the work must be 
 thoroughly studied. 
 
 The first consideration in starting the work 
 is the number of rooms to be provided, and 
 the size or an approximation thereto, as it is 
 not always possible to deterniine just how a 
 plan will work out on the start. Draw the 
 outlines in pencil so as to take in the desired 
 number of rooms ; then study how to divide 
 them in the best possible manner for light, 
 heat, size and general convenience. It will 
 frequently happen that the general outline 
 will need to be extended at some points and 
 contracted or drawn in at other places ; 
 hence the outlines and general arrangement 
 are the first points to consider. After these 
 have been pencil-sketched and the plan has 
 assumed a tangible form, it can then be per- 
 
DRAWING A STONE AND FRAME DWELLING. 
 
 37 
 
 Fig. 33 First Floor. 
 
 Fig. 34.— Second Floor. 
 
 Scale, l-lt> luch to the Foot. 
 
38 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Kg. 35.— Foundation. 
 
 Fig. 36.— Roof Plan. 
 
 Scale, 1-16 Inclj to the Foot, 
 
DRAWING A STONE AND FRAME DWELLING. 
 
 manently drawn. The first-floor plan is 
 usually the first consideration, and from it the 
 other plans are correspondingly arranged 
 and drawn. 
 
 The first-floor plan represented in Fig. 33 
 shows a few points not covered in previous 
 work. For example, the burners for lighting 
 are represented by a small circle and cross, 
 indicating that the building is to be lighted 
 by gas or electricity. The circles and crosses 
 in the middle of the rooms are center lights 
 from the ceilings, and those in the bedrooms 
 are side lights from the partition, these being 
 usually arranged about 5 feet apart to accom- 
 modate a dressing case, thus giving a light 
 on either side. The boiler in the kitchen for 
 supplying the house with hot water is shown 
 near the chimney. In this connection atten- 
 tion is directed to the location of the bath- 
 room on the second floor. It will be found 
 directly over the kitchen, making the connec- 
 tions short and direct — a special feature of 
 the plumbing that should always be consid- 
 ered. It lessens the labor and expense, while 
 giving better service generally, to locate bath- 
 rooms as near as practicable to the water 
 supply. 
 
 The house is arranged for steam or hot 
 water heating and the little rectangular 
 spaces in the different rooms represent the lo- 
 
 cation of the radiators. 
 By comparing the 
 first and second floor 
 plans with the base- 
 ment plan the general 
 arrangement of the 
 pipes will be seen. 
 A special feature of 
 this plan is in locat- 
 ing the radiators so 
 that as many lines of 
 pipe as possible may 
 be carried parallel 
 with each other to 
 the different rooms. 
 This results in a con- 
 siderable saving of 
 time and money, as 
 well as obviates the 
 necessity of a great 
 deal of joist cutting, 
 which is often the 
 case where the pipes 
 are widely scattered. 
 In the parlor, on 
 the first-floor plan is 
 shown the method of 
 representing a fire 
 place and mantel. 
 The small circles at 
 
 Fipr. 37. — Section Showing 
 Hights of Stories, Windows, 
 &c.— Scale, a Inch to the 
 Foot. 
 
40 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 the outside of plan represent the down spouts 
 or conductors for carrying the water from the 
 gutters on the roof. The basement plan, 
 Fig- 35, shows the general arrangement of 
 the laundry, boiler room, coal bins, etc. 
 The dotted lines outside of the plan show 
 the outside dimensions of the foundation 
 wall. The outside lines to the left and front 
 show the size of the wall over all, which is 
 36 X 45 feet. The next set of Hnes shows 
 the different divisions or the lengths of the 
 wall from angle to angle. The total of the 
 different divisions must equal the extreme 
 length of wall on each side respectively. 
 The drawing sets this forth so plainly that 
 further description is unnecessary. It is 
 obvious that by this method of drawing a 
 plan a mistake in measurement is almost im- 
 possible. 
 
 The roof plan is shown in Fig. 36, the dot- 
 ted lines indicating the wall plate and the 
 outside lines the projection of the cornice. 
 The other lines represent the hips, valleys 
 and ridges, and are easily understood from 
 the drawings. It will be observed that the 
 octagon end of the left gable is finished 
 square from the roof plates, having large 
 brackets to support the projecting comers, 
 thus giving a wider range and diversity of 
 work, so that the draftsman may have a bet- 
 
 ter chance to exercise his skill and talent in 
 the art of drawing. 
 
 A sectional view showing the hights of 
 stories, hights of windows above the floor, 
 lengths of windows, etc. , is presented in Fig. 
 37 of the engravings. The heavy shading or 
 diagonal Hnes indicate the principal sections 
 of the wall up to the top of the second story. 
 Different sections should be drawn at varied 
 angles, so as to show them more distinctly. 
 This will be found especially valuable in rep- 
 resenting members which join in close con- 
 nection, as shown at A of the engraving. 
 W T represents the water table, W the main 
 wall, S sill, and J the jamb of frame and sub- 
 sill. The hight or length of a window is 
 represented by the distance between sill or 
 subsill and head jamb, as shown. For exam- 
 ple, take the first floor. We find the hight of 
 story 10 feet between floor and ceiling ; to 
 the top of lower jamb or subsill i foot 8 
 inches ; hight of window, 6 feet 6 inches. 
 In making the ordinary calculations for win- 
 dows, 6 inches in length is usually allowed for 
 the sash and 4 inches for width ; 3 inches are 
 allowed for bottom rail, i inch for meeting 
 rail and 2 inches for top rail, making a total 
 of 6 inches to be added to the length of glass. 
 The side rails are 2 inches, making 4 inches 
 in width to be added to the glass measure 
 
DRAWING A STONE AND FRAME DWELLING. 
 
 41 
 
 Fig. 38.— Front Elevation, Showing Method of Shading, &c.— Scale, H Inch to the Foot. 
 
42 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOE MECHANICS. 
 
 Thus a two-light 24 x 36 window will require 
 an opening, exclusive of the jambs or frame, 
 2 feet 4 inches by 6 feet 6 inches. These 
 figures are presented in order to give a httle 
 information as to the manner of calculation. 
 
 The frame part of the building starts from 
 the second floor, and the general arrange- 
 ment and construction will be readily under- 
 stood from the drawing. In making the 
 drawing, first draw the outside perpendicular 
 wall line from bottom to top ; then set off 
 the thickness of walls, and proceed to draw 
 the joist lines, floor and plaster lines, divi- 
 sion lines of the different members and sec- 
 tions, and hights of windows and ceilings, 
 leaving the section shading for the last. In 
 figuring a drawing, as in setting off the 
 hights, make the figures before inking the 
 line, which will leave them plain and dis- 
 tinct. 
 
 The sectional drawing must correspond 
 with the elevation as regards the hights of 
 windows, sections, etc. It does not make 
 any material difference which is prepared 
 first if proper calculations are made. By 
 making the sectional drawing first the pro- 
 portioning of the windows to the hights of 
 stories is much easier, because it shows the 
 exact position of the windows as regards the 
 hights on the inside, while the elevation 
 
 shows the general arrangement and appear- 
 ance on the outside. 
 
 Generally the elevation is drawn first and 
 the section drawn to correspond, as it is not 
 always easy to tell from the section just the 
 hight at which a window will look best in the 
 elevation, and a few inches difference on the 
 inside is immaterial ; but it must be borne 
 in mind that the section and elevation must 
 correspond, no matter which is made first. 
 The best way for the draftsman is to make 
 both the section and the elevation at the 
 same time, on the same sheet and in the 
 same line. Leave room to the left of the 
 elevation for the sectional drawing and 
 sketch the elevation ; then sketch the sec- 
 tional drawing and they will -be in proper 
 shape for comparison. Any changes in the 
 planning and proportioning for improve- 
 ment in general arrangement and appear- 
 ance can be readily seen and made before 
 the inking and finishing of the dravv^ings. 
 
 The front elevation of the design is pre- 
 sented in Fig. 38, and, as in a former por- 
 tion of this work, the manner of sketching 
 and finishing an elevation step by step has 
 been shown, we will not repeat the details at 
 this time, but submit the elevation as an ex- 
 ample for practice, calling attention only to 
 the features worthy of note. Working draw- 
 
Of 
 
 DRAWING A STONE AND FRAME DWELLING. 
 
 43 
 
 ings do not necessarily require anything more 
 than plain lines ; but as drawings for pub- 
 lication are frequently embellished with more 
 or less shading to give the design an artistic 
 appearance, attention will be directed to a 
 few points on shading. Shading is not one 
 of the necessary requirements, but by proper 
 shading a more pleasing effect to the eye can 
 be produced, and the draftsman who can dis- 
 play the most artistic skill, combined with 
 other qualifications, is most likely to meet 
 with success. Therefore it is hoped that the 
 few ideas which may be presented will prove 
 but the starting of work which the readers 
 will carry out much better than here indi- 
 cated. We will give the ideas, but the man- 
 ner of best presenting them in drawing can 
 only be acquired by study and practice. 
 
 The starting point of the elevation is taken 
 on the line A B, which is the bottom line of 
 the stone base or water table. The stone 
 below this line may be considered the founda- 
 tion walls, and the shading is represented by 
 somewhat irregular diagonal lines — a com- 
 mon way of representing stone foundations. 
 The block stone above the water table is 
 shaded with diagonal parallel lines, every 
 stone not being shaded, but taking them in 
 an order that prominently distinguishes the 
 corners and openings of the building and 
 
 obviating the plainness in appearance which 
 would otherwise result. The slightly irreg- 
 ularly curved lines on the corners shown 
 from course to course of the stone indicate 
 that the stone are rock faced. If the stone 
 were square faced the corners would be rep- 
 resented by a straight line. 
 
 In the windows the deep black shading 
 represents the glass, while the scallops ex- 
 tending through the windows in a somewhat 
 diagonal manner indicate lace curtains. The 
 two windows to the left in the drawing do 
 not show the right side sash rail, for the rea- 
 son that this portion of the wall is an octagon 
 corner, and in a direct front view this por- 
 tion of the sash is hidden. The roof, how- 
 ever, on this octagon end has been framed 
 similar to a square or plain gable roof, and 
 the projecting corners are supported by large 
 curved brackets, as shown in the elevation. 
 It will be noticed that the roof of the tower 
 is cross lined and appears finer toward the 
 outlines, so as to indicate circular construc- 
 tion. Having now briefly referred to a few 
 points on shading, it is suggested that the 
 draftsman increase his knowledge in this 
 particular direction by closely studying archi- 
 tectural designs as presented in first-class 
 architectural journals. 
 
 Referring now to Fig. 39, the right side 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Fig. 39.— Side (Right) Elevation, Showing Parts of the Work in Different Stages of Completion.— Scale, ^ Inch to the Foot. 
 
DRAWING A STONE AND FRAME DWELLING. 
 
 46 
 
 elevation, we will show the several parts of 
 the work in different stages of completion, 
 believing this to be the best method of 
 clearly indicating the plan of procedure. As 
 before stated, the design should be first 
 sketched in pencil, in doing which it is often 
 necessary or convenient, at least, to make 
 some superfluous lines or marks to aid in 
 setting off different parts of the work, but 
 which are not required in the finished draw- 
 ing. These lines are often necessary in 
 making calculations, and in order to show 
 their usefulness and distinction all such will 
 be represented as dotted lines in Fig. 39. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that all the work 
 is first sketched in pencil, while in the com.- 
 pleted drawing only the lines required arc 
 inked, after which the superfluous lines, rep- 
 resented as dotted lines, may be erased. By 
 closely following the sketch step by step the 
 draftsman will soon become familiar with this 
 work, as a portion of every part, both in a 
 finished and unfinished state, will be shown. 
 The starting point is from the line A B, the 
 bottom line of the stone water table. After 
 this has been drawn set off the hight of the 
 foundation above grade and draw the ground 
 line, as shown. Next set off the angles 
 shown in the plan on the line A B ; compute 
 the hight at the top of rafter or roof at the 
 
 wall plates and draw thok plumb lines of the 
 corners. As the cornice extends below the 
 top of these lines, the portion which extends 
 through the cornice lines is indicated by 
 dotted lines. The tops of these lines, as 
 shown by C, D, E, F, G, are the points from 
 which to make the calculations for the eleva- 
 tion of the roof, and after establishing these 
 points compute the hights of roof at the 
 essential points and draw the general profile 
 of the roof in outline, taking the gables, 
 ridges, hips, valleys and cornice lines. Next 
 outline the finials, cresting, chimneys and 
 gutters. The dotted plumb line showing 
 center of tower and the portion of dotted 
 hip line joining at D plainly indicate that it 
 is necessary to locate this point in order to 
 correctly represent the roof. By comparing 
 Fig. 39 with the first-floor plan it will be seen 
 that the dotted plumb line virtually repre- 
 sents one of the main corners of the plan, 
 but the tower being built out on this comer 
 from the second floor would of course hide 
 the line from view, consequently it should 
 not appear in the finished work. Attention 
 has been called to this simply as one case 
 perhaps out of hundreds where the drawing 
 of temporary lines will aid in making calcu- 
 lations and completing the permanent draw- 
 ing. After these temporary lines have served 
 
 xiesE 
 
 THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 Or 
 
46 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 their purpose they should be erased before 
 inkirig or finishing the work. The dotted 
 Hnes shown in the drawing of the front chim- 
 ney and finial on the tower indicate their use- 
 fulness again in shaping and setting off the 
 different parts of the work. 
 
 The next step is to locate and outline the 
 upper windows. First find the proper hight 
 for bottom of sill and draw the line which 
 will represent the bottom line of frames. 
 Locate the windows on this linj and set off 
 the thickness of the sill. Next set off and 
 draw the size of the opening, allowing for 
 thickness of subsill in the hight. Set off the 
 width of casings, cap, etc., and draw the 
 lines finishing the frame, as shown in the 
 upper right corner of the elevation. The 
 manner of drawing the sash in the frame is 
 plainly shown by comparing the finished win- 
 dow with the unfinished one in the double 
 frame at the left. This method of setting off 
 and drawing frames will be found easier and 
 better than the one set forth in an earlier 
 
 part of this work, as the draftsman is not 
 obliged to make calculations so far in advance 
 of the work. The method referred to is the 
 outlining and drawing of frames, and shown 
 in Fig. 1 1 of a previous article. 
 
 The next step in the progress of the work 
 is the outlining of the porches, -second-story 
 base, first-story frames and so on down to the 
 ground line. 
 
 Having the building now thoroughly out- 
 lined, we will proceed to finish portions of 
 the different parts, so that the learner can 
 see more readily just how to proceed. We 
 will not go through with the finishing step 
 by step, as we believe that the work, as 
 shown in Fig. 39, is presented so plainly that 
 further description is unnecessary. It will 
 be sufScient to say that in finishing begin at 
 the top and work down, which avoids to a 
 great extent rubbing the tools and hands 
 over the finished work, and will aid very 
 much to keep the drawings looking neat and 
 clean. 
 
A LESSON IN OUTLINING. 
 
 For a lesson in outlining which will present 
 a few new features in drawing the attention 
 of the student is directed to Fig. 40, repre- 
 senting in outline the left side elevation. It 
 will be noticed that this view of the plan 
 presents an octagon end from the ground line 
 to the eaves, finished with a square gable, the 
 projecting corners being supported by large 
 brackets. This is a form frequently met 
 with in practice, and will therefore serve as a 
 valuable lesson to those who wish to make a 
 special study of the art of drawing. Begin- 
 ners are liable to grasp the idea that an eleva- 
 tion showing an octagon design should be 
 represented by drawing the side lines of the 
 octagon on a slight angle, as shown by the 
 dotted lines next to the ground line. If this 
 were the case, then all the parallel lines on 
 these sides would necessarily have to be 
 drawn on the same angle from the ground 
 line to the starting of the roof. Such a 
 course as this -would give the drawing a 
 rather crooked appearance. It should be re- 
 membered that all horizontal lines shown in 
 a direct face view of an octagon elevation are 
 47 
 
 to be drawn straight across all sides, as shown. 
 The miter lines shown so distinctly in the 
 perpendicular lines representing the corners 
 plainly indicate the portion of the elevation 
 having the octagon form. 
 
 We do not consider it necessary to give 
 more than a brief description of outlining 
 this elevation, believing it best to leave the 
 greater portion for the study and practice of 
 the learner. First draw the base line, set off 
 the corners and then draw the perpendicular 
 lines of the corners. Calculate the hight to 
 the eaves and draw the bottom line of roof — 
 not the cornice line, but the shingle line, for 
 example. Next compute the hights of roof, 
 gables, etc. , and draw the outline of the roof. 
 Locate and sketch the chimneys, then the 
 cresting, finials, etc. It will be noticed that 
 a comparatively small portion of the front 
 chimney is visible in this elevation, for the 
 reason that as viewed from the left side the 
 roof hides a portion of the chimney. The 
 same is also true of the tower, only a small 
 portion of the top and the finial being visible 
 from the left side elevation. 
 
48 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 \ 7 
 
 \ 7 
 
 I I I I 
 
 ( ( 
 
 VI7 
 
 ] r "I 
 
 Fig. 40.— Side (Left) Elevation in GJeneral Outline.— Scale, H Inch to the Foot. 
 
A LESSON IN OUTLINING. 
 
 49 
 
 These points 
 serve to show- 
 that the plan and 
 corresponding 
 elevations have 
 to be carefully 
 studied and 
 watched during 
 the entire prog- 
 ress of the 
 work. In the 
 sketch is shown 
 a portion of the 
 cresting, fin- 
 ished, in order 
 that the diflEer- 
 ence in the 
 views from the 
 right and left 
 sides of the same 
 may be dis- 
 tinctly seen, as 
 in one view the 
 tower appears in 
 front of the 
 cresting and the 
 other show s 
 x«„ Ai ^^ -1 « -o T. ov what would be 
 
 rig. 41.— Detail of Porch, Showing 
 Method of Drawing the Different the expoScd por- 
 Members.-Scale, % Inch to the ,^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 cresting. These points will be plainly seen 
 by comparing Figs. 39 and 40. In outlining 
 the gutter the lower portion is represented 
 by dotted lines, because in the finishing the 
 . short perpendicular lines representing the 
 small brackets should be drawn before draw* 
 ing the horizontal lines between the brackets. 
 This is plainly shown in Fig. 39. 
 
 After outlining the roof the next in order 
 will be the cornice, such as the molding, 
 frieze, etc. Some advantage can be taken 
 by drawing the parallel cornice lines at the 
 same time the eave line is drawn, as they are 
 in close connection, and all that is necessary 
 is to make proper calculations in doing the 
 work. The next step is to draw the base and 
 water table lines which mark the division of 
 the two stories so distinctly in this drawing. 
 Next calculate the hight of windows to the 
 bottom of sills and draw the lines which are 
 to represent the bottom line of windows. 
 From these lines set off and draw outlines of 
 windows, as shown. 
 
 We think now that the details of outlin- 
 ing have been made sufficiently plain to 
 enable any one to go to work understand- 
 ingly and complete the drawing. "We 
 would recommend that as a lesson for prac- 
 tice nothing could be better than for the 
 learner to complete the imfinished work 
 
50 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 shown in Figs. 39 and 40 in a manner similar 
 to the work shown by Fig. 38, using a scale 
 of not less than ^ inch to the foot. Fig. 41 
 shows a portion of the porch finished in de- 
 tail to the scale of yi inch to the foot. First 
 draw the base and floor lines, then two per- 
 pendicular lines representing the column. 
 Set off the hight from floor to bottom of 
 frieze and draw the bottom line of porch 
 frieze finish, which will give good starting 
 points for all future calculations. From the 
 bottom line of frieze finish the different parts 
 may be readily set off to top of roof. From 
 the floor set off the hight of the railing and 
 draw horizontal lines first, spacing and filling 
 
 in as shown. The turned portion of porch 
 column may be easily drawn by spacing and 
 setting off the hights of the different mem- 
 bers, as shown. The sectional parts show the 
 general construction of the work. The spin- 
 dles are ball turned and set between square 
 upright pieces, as shown. For general prac- 
 tice we would suggest that such details be 
 made on a scale of ^ inch to i inch to the 
 foot. We have now passed through the sev- 
 eral parts of the work of making a set of 
 plans which bring to notice a very wide 
 range of work in the art of drawing, and if the 
 learner has thoroughly mastered the work thus 
 far he is qualified for further advancement. 
 
DESIGN FOR STORE FRONT. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to go into all the 
 details of outlining the elevation, section and 
 plan of the store front, as we believe suffi- 
 cient has been said upon the subject to enable 
 the learner to study the work which will now 
 be presented and to master it without other 
 suggestions than a few brief instructions. 
 The knowledge gained by the practice and 
 experience of working out the several parts 
 of the drawing for oneself will be far more 
 beneficial to the learner than to have men- 
 tioned every little detail, many of which have 
 been thoroughly explained in connection with 
 other drawings. We will, for the most part, 
 take up such portions of the work as possess 
 new features. A special feature to which we 
 wish to call attention is the corresponding 
 lines of width and hights in the plan of the 
 front and sectional view as compared with 
 the elevation. The drawing. Fig. 42, is a 
 combination of the plan of front, sectional 
 view of the walls, etc.^ and the elevation, and 
 it shows plainer than words can describe the 
 relation one part bears to the other. It 
 
 51 
 
 shows very plainly how to draw the elevation 
 in accordance with the plan "of front and to 
 carry up with the greatest degree of accuracy 
 and convenience the section corresponding 
 with the hights shown in the elevation. By 
 this method mistakes and discrepancies in 
 the different parts closely connected are 
 avoided. In order that the learner may start 
 aright, it may be stated that the sidewalk 
 line in the drawing is the most favorable 
 starting point, and it will be found easy to 
 make calculations from this line in any direc- 
 tion necessary to complete the work. The 
 sidewalk line is the base line of the eleva- 
 tion, therefore set off on this line the width 
 of the building and square down sufficiently 
 to draw the plan of the front. Draw the 
 outline of the front and the thickness of the 
 wall ; then set off the doors, windows, col- 
 umns, etc., as shown in the plan. The dot- 
 ted plumb lines show how to carry up the 
 front in accordance with the plan. The loca- 
 tion of the second-story windows, as a matter 
 of fact, necessarily has to be in accordance 
 
53 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
DESIGN FOR STORE FRONT. 
 
 53 
 
 with the front of the second-floor plan. The 
 circular dotted line on the left corner of the 
 plan of the front has been drawn to show 
 how to get the required projection of the 
 oriel window, built out from the second floor. 
 
 i^ 
 
 hMNH 
 
 PARLOR ASITTING ROOM 
 
 ii'x 13' Ay 10 ex 13 
 
 -^^ 
 
 - fcHI=1 
 
 Fig. 43.— Plan of Second Floor, Showing Special Features 
 of Planning - Scale, 1-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 This is plainly indicated by the long dotted 
 plumb line. The starting of the support to 
 the projecting window is from a point plumb 
 
 over the center of the octagon comer in the 
 plan. This, of course, makes the outside 
 scroll appear more elongated than the inside 
 scroll. The window being round and start- 
 ing on the side of an octagon corner accounts 
 for this appearance, and a little study of the 
 plan and elevation will make this point clear 
 to the mind. 
 
 By comparing the elevation with Fig. 43, 
 the second-floor plan, it will be observed that 
 either a direct front view or a direct side 
 view of the plan would show us three win- 
 dows or part of three windows in either a 
 front or side elevation. In the front eleva- 
 tion there is in reality more of the outside 
 window shown than is in strict accord with 
 the second-floor plan. This point will serve 
 to impress upon the mind of the draftsman 
 that it will often require his closest attention 
 in comparing drawings and his best judg- 
 ment in executing the work to keep the pro- 
 portions in accordance with the point of view 
 taken of the plan and elevation. Of the sec- 
 tion showing bights of ceilings, etc. ^ very lit- 
 tle need be said. It should be sketched with 
 the elevation as a guide to correspond with 
 hights of windows, floors, etc. The first-floor 
 hight shows a section of the store front sash. 
 A section in line of the doors would be 
 slightly different, as double transoms have 
 
64 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 been provided in order to lessen the hight of 
 the doors, as shown. 
 
 This store front is designed with heavy cut 
 stone columns from base to the I-beam. 
 From the top of the I-beam the columns are 
 continued with block stone to the cornice line 
 and a stone coping is run across at the bot- 
 tom of the second-story windows. The oriel 
 window, tower and cornice is of frame con- 
 
 struction, although the same design can be 
 executed in sheet metal on a wooden frame 
 work. The body of the work is to be of 
 brick, as are also the arches over the win- 
 dows. The caps to the windows are to be 
 galvanized iron. There are no brick lines 
 drawn in the elevation, as these will be left for 
 the practice of those who wish to still further 
 carry out the design and improve upon it. 
 
HINTS ON PLANNING. 
 
 We will now gfive a few hints in regard to 
 planning, a feature which should also com- 
 mand the attention of good draftsmen. 
 Small and irregular shaped rooms should be 
 avoided. All rooms should have square cor- 
 ners if possible ; projecting corners and re- 
 cesses should not appear in a plan unless 
 caused by a chimney or a bay window. 
 There is nothing nicer than plain, square 
 cornered rooms, especially when it comes to 
 the carpeting and furnishing. Octagon cor- 
 ners should generally be avoided ; also three- 
 cornered closets across the comers of rooms. 
 A much better way for such closets is to 
 allow a little more room in a hall or some 
 other part and build the closet out from the 
 room, as shown on the floor plan. Fig. 43, 
 This circular form gives a much better shaped 
 closet by avoiding the sharp comers, giving 
 more room and leaving the rooms with all 
 square corners. There is also plenty of room 
 left in the hall. Long and narrow halls should 
 be avoided, also steep and crooked stairs. 
 The architect and designer should plan to 
 
 reach as nearly as possible all the rooms on 
 55 
 
 each floor from the main hall and to use all 
 the room to the best possible advantage. 
 
 In the floor plan is shown the method of 
 marking where transom frames are used in 
 the interior ; thus 2' 8" x 6' 8" T 12" means 
 that the transom to be used should be 
 12 inches in hight. The elevation shows 
 the method usually employed in mark- 
 ing size of windows and the figures give 
 the glass measure. 
 
 STAIR WORK. 
 
 We will next touch upon the subject of 
 planning, laying out and drawing stairs. 
 Everybody knows that many a time too little 
 room is left for the stairs, and the result is 
 steep and awkward stairways in what are 
 supposed to be the better class of houses. 
 Much of this is due to ignorance or careless- 
 ness on the part of the designer to make a 
 few figures. It is too often left in this way : 
 ' ' I guess so much for stairs will be plenty. ' ' 
 The best way is to figure it and make sure 
 that there is plenty of room. For the benefit 
 of those who are young in the work of plan- 
 
56 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 ning w^ will show by sketches how to deter- 
 mine the amount of room required, and also 
 give an easy method by which to solve the 
 problem by figures. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 44, which represents a 
 straight flight of stairs, we find the rise as 
 given from floor to floor to be 10 feet. By 
 computing the risers at 8 inches we find that 
 it takes 15 to reach the top floor. It will be 
 seen that we calculate space for only 14 steps, 
 as the fifteenth lands on the floor. Next we 
 calculate the run required for 14 steps. 
 These we have estimated at 10 inches each, 
 making the run 11 feet 8 inches, as shown. 
 The rise and run of stairs are always taken 
 as laid out on the string board, the projec- 
 tion of the step for nosing and molding, as 
 shown at the bottom step, not being counted. 
 From the top of the third riser to the ceiling 
 is 7 feet. Plumb over the third riser, and 
 facing it, we have located the header, giving 
 7 feet head room for the stairs. From this 
 header we count the number of steps back, 
 allow for thickness of riser, an inch or so for 
 work room, and we have the distance between 
 headers, or the length of the well hole, as it 
 is sometimes called. In this case it is 10 feet 
 3 inches. The sketch shows very plainly how 
 to figure the stairs with a certainty as to the 
 room required, and the same general plan 
 
 will hold good in any case. The sketch shows 
 an easy pitch. Stairs are frequently run much 
 steeper, but for good work we advise plenty 
 of room for easy stairs. If it is desired to 
 figure it without a draft, commence at the 
 foot of the stairs, proceeding as follows : First 
 
 Fig:. 44.— Diagram Showing Method of Drawing and Calculating 
 for Stairs.— Scale, 3-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 find the number of risers required, then de- 
 cide upon the amount of head room wanted 
 and see how many risers can be deducted 
 from the hight of the ceiling and leave this 
 room. The space required for steps up to this 
 point will be one step less than the number of 
 risers, and all that is necessary is to count the 
 
HINTS ON PLANNING. 
 
 57 
 
 steps, lay them off on the floor and start the 
 header plumb over the back edge of the 
 last step, or as nearly so as practical. 
 Fig. 45 shows the method of laying out 
 and drawing the plan of winding and 
 platform stairs with a portion of the fram- 
 ing for the floor joists, headers, etc. To 
 find the exact floor space required for the 
 stairs, lay off the run of each step according 
 to actual scale measurement, as shown. It 
 
 Fip. 45.— Method of Drawing, Calculating and Framing 
 for Winding Stairs.— Scale, 1-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 is customary to place three steps as winders 
 in stairs of the average width ; sometimes four 
 steps are placed in the winders, but we 
 would not recommend more than three and 
 never more than four steps in the winders. 
 The space required for the winders is usually 
 taken as a square, the sides of which equal 
 the width of the stairs. For example, if the 
 stairs are 3}^ feet wide, the space required 
 
 for the winders will he ^}4 feet square. The 
 same rule holds good in regard to platforms. 
 As regards the framing for the headers, it is 
 safe to say that a header could be placed flush 
 with the side of the square and third winder, 
 and leave plenty of head room in ordinary 
 dwellings having 9 to 10 foot ceilings, as shown 
 by dotted lines extending across flush with 
 the first post. This would leave room enough 
 on the fioor above for a small closet. If this 
 was not desired, or if for any reason this ar- 
 rangement should not give head room enough, 
 the short header and joists indicated by the 
 dotted lines may be omitted and the frame 
 work put in as shown. From 6 to 10 inches 
 is usually allowed between the string board 
 and the headers for stairs with a rail, or 
 " open stairs," as they are frequently called. 
 At the landing it is only necessary to allow 2 
 or 3 inches between the header and the last 
 riser. This sketch is given to impress upon 
 the mind of the draftsman the importance of 
 good calculation in connection with drawing 
 plans, and that a scale drawing is the best and 
 most effective way to show the calculations. 
 
 FRAMING PLANS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 We will now turn to a few drawings show- 
 ing the method of indicating framing plans. 
 Fig. 46 represents the plan of a farm barn 
 
58 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 with large floor space, driveway running 
 through the building, stable room for five 
 horses, granary and passageways. This plan 
 is well arranged for an addition or an annex 
 to the right, such as a cow stable, for exam- 
 ple, which would be handy to both hay and 
 grain, and would be considerably removed 
 from the horse stable, which is a feature 
 generally desired. It is hardly necessary to 
 show in detail the manner of drawing the 
 sketches presented on this subject. The 
 drawings are plain and easily understood and 
 will serve as good examples for practice, 
 particularly Fig. 47, which shows just where 
 to start and stop the pen without crossing 
 lines which should not be crossed in repre- 
 
 senting the work properly. This figure 
 shows the general framing plan of the sills 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 LJ 
 
 -1 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 FLOOR SPACE 
 
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 BIN 
 
 BIN BIN 
 PASSAGE 
 
 BIN 
 
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 HAY 
 
 
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 PASSAGE \ 
 
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 Pig. 46. - Floor Plan of Baru —Scale, 1-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 Fig. 47.— Method of Drawing Floor Framing Plan.— Scale, 1-16 
 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 and floor joists. It is desirable in stables to 
 have the floor run lengthwise behind the 
 horses, with a double floor in the stalls, the 
 top floor running lengthwise of them. In the 
 driveway it is desirable for the floor to run 
 crosswise, as it is not as slippery to the 
 horses' feet when pulling in loads. It also 
 makes a stronger floor. This we trust will 
 be sufficient reason for the plan of the joists 
 presented in Fig. 47. The plan shows the 
 joists resting on top of the sills and girders, 
 which is a better and stronger method than 
 framing them in, besides being easier and 
 
HINTS ON PLANNING. 
 
 pSE L/fi^- 
 
 OI' THB 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 K 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 N 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 \. 
 
 
 4x4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6x6 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 X 
 
 
 4x4 
 
 / \. 
 
 
 
 
 n> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6x8 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Fig. 48.— Method of Drawing the Right Side Elevation of Frame.— Scale, ^ Inch to the Foot. 
 
60 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Fig. 49.— Method of Framing Left End Bent.— Scale, % Inch to the Foot. 
 
HINTS ON PLANNING. 
 
 61 
 
 quicker. A little study of the framing plan, 
 Fig. 47, will be sufficient to show the drafts- 
 man just how to proceed to draw a similar plan. 
 The framing of the right side elevation of 
 the building is shown in Fig. 48 of the illus- 
 trations. The particular part to which atten- 
 tion is invited is the starting and stopping of 
 the lines at just the right points in drawing 
 the plates and rafters. As previously stated, 
 the first thing is to pencil sketch all work ; 
 then with well guarded movements one can 
 tell just where to start and stop the pen. 
 Suppose, for instance. Fig. 48 is pencil 
 sketched, and we are to ink it. First take 
 the sill lines, then the top ridge line, and 
 after that the outside rafter and post lines. 
 This will give the outline of the entire figure. 
 As the rafters are joined by means of a ridge 
 board and rest on top of the purlin and main 
 plates, while at the same time extending 
 below the main plate, it is necessary to next 
 draw the rafters. First draw the ends, then 
 the length lines, after which the roof can be 
 finished by drawing the lower lines of the 
 ridge board and the plate lines as they would 
 appear between the rafters, thus showing 
 just where to start and stop the short lines. 
 The short lines running perpendicularly from 
 the main plate to the purlin plate show the 
 portion of the purlin posts exposed to view at 
 
 the side of the rafters on account of the posts 
 being thicker. Next draw the main post 
 lines, girt lines, door posts, headers and 
 braces in the order named. A little practice 
 in this kind of work is the best experience, 
 and as the work progresses step by step the 
 best ways and means of accomplishing cer- 
 tain results will come to light and appear 
 plainer and plainer as the draftsman gains in 
 the knowledge of his profession. 
 
 The elevation of the left end bent is shown 
 in Fig. 49, which is self explanatory. A few 
 figures are included to give an idea of mark- 
 ing sizes of timber used. The elevation of 
 the next bent, which shows some changes in 
 the framing, is represented in Fig. 50. This 
 being an inside bent, it is not necessary that 
 the tie girts, to which it is usual to nail the 
 siding, should be in the frame ; in fact, they 
 would only be in the way, so for this reason 
 they are omitted. The purlin girt is left out 
 because it would be in the way of operating 
 a hay fork if one was desired. As this bent 
 is the one directly in front of the horses and 
 next to the barn floor it is necessary that it 
 should be boarded up about 3 feet high. For 
 this purpose tie girts are put in and studded 
 underneath, as shown. 
 
 It would now appear that the subject of 
 architectural drawing had been considered 
 
 TTT., "''THE Ty^ 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 s£iUFORN\' 
 
32 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Fig. 60 —Method of Framing and Drawing Middle Bent.— Scale, % Inch to the Foot. 
 
HINTS ON PLANNING. 
 
 63 
 
 witli sufficient clearness to enable the student 
 to proceed understandingly in ordinary prac- 
 tice and make the working plans so often 
 required in the building trade. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be well to say to 
 those who wish to improve themselves in 
 this subject : study the plans, elevations and 
 details of the buildings that appear from 
 time to time in architectural journals. Many 
 of them show specimens of the finest archi- 
 tectural work, which will s^rve as the very 
 
 best of lessons for study and practice. Study 
 the work ; study how to improve upon it ; 
 study the best manner to proceed, and then 
 try a hand at executing the work by making 
 a few drawings for practice. 
 
 Very small curves, scrolls and ornaments 
 can be best made with a very fine writing 
 pen, as the drawing pen is not adapted to the 
 short and crooked lines forming the curves of 
 molded surfaces, brackets and small orna- 
 ments appearing in elevations. 
 
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 We have now treated the subject of archi- 
 tectural drawing somewhat extensively, going 
 into the details of the various parts of the 
 work in a concise and thorough manner. 
 Actual working drawings to scale measure- 
 ments have been a special feature of the 
 work as one of the principal points of value 
 to the mechanic. Working drawings are 
 what mechanics necessarily require from 
 which to work, and they must always be 
 drawn full size or to some convenient scale. 
 Working drawings show but one side of an 
 object, but if it be required to show more, 
 then a separate drawing is necessary for each 
 side. In preparing elevations of buildings, 
 we have front, right, left and rear elevations, 
 each being represented separately in the 
 working drawings. 
 
 Perspective drawing is a far more difficult 
 subject to understand and master than the 
 making of working drawings. As a rule, the 
 mechanic has little demand for perspective 
 drawings, as they are not to work from, and 
 he who can make the floor plans, front and 
 side elevations, sections ^nd details in a cred- 
 
 64 
 
 itable manner is master of the art of archi- 
 tectural drawing so far as his work is likely 
 to require a knowledge of drawing. So many 
 inquiries, however, in regard to perspective 
 have been received that it is deemed best to 
 give in brief the objects and principles of 
 perspective for the benefit of those who may 
 desire to take up the subject. 
 
 Perspective refers to the appearance of ob- 
 jects as influenced by the position and dis- 
 tance from the eye. Perspective drawings 
 give the appearance from one point of view ; 
 and is an art required more particularly in 
 picture making. In perspective we do not 
 see the size of objects as they really are, but 
 as they seem to be from a given point of 
 view. The perspective view of an object 
 requires that the object be placed in an 
 oblique position to the direct line of vision or 
 point of sight from which it is viewed. For 
 example, the perspective view of a house is 
 obtained by placing the plan in an oblique 
 position to the principal line of vision. In 
 architectural perspective the plan is usually 
 placed on an angle of 45 degrees with the 
 
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 65 
 
 point of sight, A building so placed will 
 show two sides to the draftsman, but will not 
 show either side as it really is, but as it seems 
 to be from the point of sight. By placing 
 objects obliquely to the principal line of vis- 
 ion they not only appear smaller, but their 
 shape also appears changed — that is, the gen- 
 eral outline and appearance seem to take on a 
 different form. There is a science of main- 
 taining a proportional scale in representing 
 the appearance of objects in perspective. 
 
 It is not the intention to enter into the 
 work of perspective m an exhaustive man- 
 ner, but to give a few simple diagrams which 
 will illustrate the principles in a way to be 
 easily understood by the student. Many of 
 the intricacies of perspective drawing can 
 with proper diagrams and explanations be 
 made easy of comprehension to the average 
 mechanic. We will, before proceeding fur- 
 ther, explain a few of the terms and points 
 used in the work. Referring to Fig, 51, let 
 H L represent the horizontal line and P L V 
 the principal line of vision. In a perspective 
 diagram these two lines are always present, 
 and invariably bear the same geometric re- 
 lation to each other. The first indicates the 
 level of the eye, the second is the direct line 
 of vision and extends from the eye of the 
 spectator to the horizontal line, and at right 
 
 angles to it. The length of these lines is 
 variable according to the requirements of the 
 objects to be placed in perspective. The 
 P L V is drawn vertical in order to represent 
 it, but it should be remembered that it is a 
 horizontal line — extending from the eye of 
 the spectator. S P is the station point, which 
 is sometimes called the point of sight, and 
 represents the position of the eye in the dia- 
 gram. When this point is determined — that 
 is, its distance from the horizontal line — it 
 decides the limits of the drawing, for all 
 other points in the diagram are determined 
 by the position of the station point, C V is 
 the center of vision, and is the point in the 
 horizontal line directly opposite the station 
 point. V P is the vanishing point, which 
 may be any point in a diagram where two or 
 more really parallel lines meet, but which, on 
 account of retreating, appear to converge. 
 There may be two or more vanishing points 
 in a diagram, according to the number of 
 planes of the object to be drawn and its posi- 
 tion from the station point. 
 
 All horizontal retreating lines have their 
 vanishing points in the horizontal line, but 
 their positions are variable, depending upon 
 the position of the retreating lines of the ob • 
 ject to be drawn. The P L V is a horizontal 
 line retreating from the eye at the station 
 
66 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 point on an angle of 90 degrees, and its van- 
 ishing point is therefore the center of vision. 
 It is plain that all parallel retreating lines 
 converge to a common point, and all lines 
 
 and as we do not wish to weary the student 
 with a labyrinth of lines and points at the 
 beginning of the subject, we will proceed 
 with the diagram and explain the other points 
 
 MP 
 
 Fig. 51.— Geometrical Drawing and Perspective of a Door.— Scale, 3-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 parallel to the P L V which retreat at an 
 angle of 90 degrees find a common point in 
 the center of vision, which is the vanishing 
 point for all such lines. 
 
 We have now explained a few of the prin- 
 cipal points required in perspective, but other 
 points will come up as the work advances, 
 
 as they come up from time to time. Take 
 for the first lesson in perspective a plain four- 
 panel door, which is about as easy to make as 
 anything in the line of architectural work. 
 Referring to Fig. 51, first draw the horizon- 
 tal line, which represents the level of the 
 eye, and from a point near the center draw 
 
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 67 
 
 at right angles the principal line of vision. 
 On this line determine the station point. 
 This may be assumed at any convenient dis- 
 tance from the horizontal line, but when 
 once fixed the other points are dependent 
 upon its position. Next draw the ground 
 line. This line may be fixed according to 
 the judgment of the draftsman, but very 
 naturally in viewing objects on level ground, 
 the ground line would be from 4^ to 5 ^ feet 
 below the level of the eye or the horizontal 
 line. Now, make the geometrical drawing 
 of the door as shown at A. Draw the door 
 on a scale of 3-16 inch to the foot and 3x7 
 feet in size for convenience. This brings the 
 top of door I }4 feet above the horizontal line. 
 Proceed to outline the door in perspective by 
 drawing from some convenient point on the 
 ground line the first upright line of the door, 
 which remains unchanged by perspective, as 
 at B. Next draw the retreating lines of the 
 top and bottom of the door, and also the top 
 and bottom lines of the panels, to the vanish- 
 ing point V P, as shown. A door placed 
 obliquely to the P L V would be foreshort- 
 ened in width, because the real width would 
 not be seen owing to its oblique position. In 
 order to determine the amount the door 
 would be foreshortened, it is necessary to 
 establish a measuring point, which is done as 
 
 follows : Measure out from C V on the hori- 
 zontal line a distance equal to that from C V 
 to S P, or take the compasses, and, with the 
 distance from C V to S P as a radius, strike 
 a semicircle, and the points where it cuts the 
 horizontal line will be the measuring points. 
 In this example only one measuring point is 
 required, as shown at M P. Having now 
 established what is termed a measuring 
 point, it will next be shown how the fore- 
 shortening of the door is determined. Take 
 the actual width of the door A according to 
 scale and set off this distance on the ground 
 line from the first upright line of the door B, 
 as shown by G S. This measurement is 
 called a geometric scale. From the end of 
 this scale at S draw a line to the measuring 
 point M P, and the place where the line 
 crosses the retreating ground line of the 
 door, as at D, will be the point from which 
 to draw the vertical line, which will establish 
 the perspective width of the door. All the 
 other perspective widths are found in the 
 same manner by setting off from G on the 
 geometric scale the actual scale measure- 
 ments, as, for example, the width of the 
 stiles and panels, arid from these points draw 
 lines to the measuring point, as shown. These 
 lines crossing the retreating ground line de- 
 termine the perspective widths of the stiles 
 
68 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 and panels. The horizontal dotted lines show 
 how the hights are transferred from the 
 geometrical drawing to the perspective. 
 
 For the benefit of the learner it would be 
 well for him to draw the perspective of the 
 
 truly astonishing, and a few carefully made 
 drawings showing different perspective views 
 will soon give the student an idea of the 
 proper manner* of proceeding and lay the 
 foundation for further advancement. As the 
 
 Fig. 52.— Dlaffram Showing Difference in Appearance of Objects Placed in Varying Positions. 
 
 Scale, 3-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 door in different positions, as it will furnish a 
 very good lesson for practice. The door can 
 be placed entirely below the horizontal line 
 or above it, and to the right or left of the 
 principal line of vision, at any distance de- 
 sired. The change of appearance through 
 the variation of the position of the door is 
 
 same general rule applies with the door in 
 any perspective position, it is recommended 
 that the position be changed and the effects 
 thereof studied until the student is a thorough 
 master of this simple illustration of perspect- 
 ive. 
 
 The difference in the appearance of objects 
 
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 69 
 
 placed in various perspective positions is 
 shown in Fig. 52, by contrasting the per- 
 spective view of the post B, which is to the 
 left of P L V and which Extends above the 
 H L, with the perspective view of the post 
 A, which is to the right of the P L V and 
 which has its top below the H L. In this 
 diagram there are two measuring points, the 
 reason for which is that one perspective is to 
 the left of the P L V and the other to the 
 right, which requires that each view shall 
 have its own measuring point, as shown. 
 These two posts are so placed that all retreat- 
 ing lines are parallel to the P L V, therefore 
 but one vanishing point is required for both. 
 When objects are placed in this position they 
 .are said to be in parallel perspective. The 
 post B extends above H L, which is the level 
 of the eye, consequently we cannot see the 
 plane which represents the top of it. All 
 that can be seen of B in its position from the 
 station point are the two sides, as shown. 
 The post A is much shorter than B, and its 
 top falls below the H L ; therefore we are 
 able to see two sides and the plane which 
 represents its top. By going further and 
 supposing A to be a transparent figure and 
 representing by dotted lines those which we 
 could not see in an opaque object, we are 
 able to correctly outline every plane in the 
 
 figure — the four sides, top and bottom, as 
 shown. The principles and methods of draw- 
 ing Fig. 52 are essentially the same as those 
 of the previous diagram and need no further 
 explanation. 
 
 For the purpose of showing the same ob- 
 jects in a different position of perspective, 
 and so that but one measuring point will be 
 required, another diagram is given represent- 
 ing both posts to the right of the P L V, as 
 shown in Fig. 53. The explanation of the 
 two preceding diagrams will enable the 
 learner to readily comprehend the ideas pre- 
 sented in Fig. 53, as the principles are the 
 same as already delineated. We will now 
 leave these diagrams to the practice of the 
 student, recommending that they be made 
 larger than here given, and that the object 
 to be placed in perspective be disposed in 
 different positions until the principles in- 
 volved are thoroughly understood. 
 
 We have thus far only considered objects 
 in such positions that the retreating lines 
 were parallel with the P L V, which is on an 
 angle of 90 degrees and therefore made the 
 center of vision — the vanishing point for all 
 retreating lines. If an object is turned either 
 to the right or left, as indicated in Fig. 54, 
 then the retreating lines are not parallel to 
 the P L V, and the center of vision is no 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 longer the vanishing point. When an object 
 is placed at an angle to the P L V it removes 
 the vanishing point from the center of vision 
 and requires one at the right and left of the 
 center of vision to enable the draftsman to 
 correctly represent the retreating lines. The 
 latter still remain horizontal, consequently 
 their vanishing points will be found in the 
 horizontal line, their positions depending upon 
 the amount the object is turned from the 
 ground line. When an object is turned at an 
 angle from the S P it is said to be in angular 
 perspective. Referring now to Fig. 54, let 
 it be required to draw a figure, for example, 
 2 feet square and 3 feet high in angular per- 
 spective, turning the figure at an angle of 45 
 degrees with the station point. First draw the 
 H L and the P L V, as in the preceding dia- 
 grams. Determine the S P, and with it as a 
 radius describe the semicircle, as shown. 
 Measure off on the semicircle the degree 
 representing the angle at which it is desired 
 to have the lines retreat. Now, as pre- 
 viously shown, a line drawn from the S P at 
 an angle of 90 degrees finds at its intersec- 
 tion with the H L a vanishing point for itself 
 and all lines parallel to it ; so a line drawn 
 from the S P at any angle in intersecting the 
 H L finds a vanishing point for all lines 
 running in that direction. Hence the lines 
 
 directed from S P at a angle of 45 degrees in 
 
 intersecting the H L determine the vanish- 
 ing points, as shown. It will also be ob- 
 
 Fig. 53.— Showinff Diflfereut Positions of Perspective, and that 
 only one Measuring Point is Required for Objects Drawn 
 in Similar Positions.— Scale, 3-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 served that lines drawn from the S P at an 
 angle of 45 degrees strike the measuring 
 points. This may be proven by taking C V 
 
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 71 
 
 as a center and S P as a radius and striking- 
 the circle, as shown in this and the preced- 
 ing diagrams. If the object to be drawn is 
 turned at any other angle than 45 degrees, 
 
 distance from C V, as shown, letting A rep- 
 resent the geometrical size of the bottom of 
 the figure and also the angle at which it is 
 turned from the ground line and station 
 
 Fljr. 64. 
 
 DiagTjtm Showing Vanishingr and Measuring Points when the Object is Turned at an Ang\e of 45" with 
 the Station Point.— Scale, 3-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 then the vanishing points and measuring 
 points no longer occupy the same positions, 
 but this point will be explained in the next 
 illustration of perspective. To complete Fig. 
 54, draw the ground line at some convienient 
 
 point. To place the entire figure in per- 
 spective, draw from the ground line at some 
 convenient distance from the P L V the first 
 perpendicular line which remains unchanged 
 by perspective, as shown by B C . Next 
 
72 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 draw the retreating ground lines from B' to 
 the vanishing points, then the retreating 
 lines of the top from C to the vanishing 
 points, all as shown. Next set off on the 
 ground line the geometric scale from B' in 
 order to determine the foreshortening of the 
 retreating sides. The scale taken is the 
 actual scale measurement of one of the sides 
 of the square A, and it is laid off on the 
 ground line from B' in both directions be- 
 cause there are two retreating sides. From 
 the end of these scales draw the remaining 
 two retreating ground lines to the vanishing 
 points, and the points of crossing the first 
 
 retreating ground lines will be the points 
 from which to raise the perpendicular lines, 
 which will determine the perspective width 
 of the figure. The remaining top retreating 
 lines complete the figure and wiU be easily 
 understood from the diagram. The learner 
 should observe the reduction that takes 
 place in the size of objects when placed 
 in perspective positions, and that the per- 
 spective view changes as the object is 
 moved either to the right or left of the 
 P L V. An object may also be drawn partly 
 in the P L V, as will be shown in the next 
 diagram. 
 
DRAWING PERSPECTIVE FIGURES. 
 
 We will now take up a figure which shows 
 the changes occurring when an object is 
 placed at some angle other than 45 degrees 
 with the station point, and follow it up in a 
 way to involve more of the principles and 
 points which necessarily have to be consid- 
 ered in architectural perspective. The pre- 
 vious diagrams of perspective have been 
 made to illustrate very plain objects, in order 
 that the learner might the more readily be- 
 come familiar with the points and principles 
 involved. The next step is showing in a 
 practical manner a method of drawing the 
 perspective outlines of a plain building. 
 This structure is not a figure with a square 
 base, like the previous one, but is longer 
 than it is wide, and being placed with the 
 end at an angle of 60 degrees with the sta- 
 tion point, there is more involved than in 
 any of the previous perspective figures. Re- 
 ferring to Fig. 55, draw the H L and the 
 P L V, and fix the station point. C V is the 
 center of vision in the horizontal line. With 
 S P as a center draw the semicircle and set 
 ofE a point which will represent the degree 
 
 of the angle at which it is desired the end 
 shall retreat. In this case it is made 60 de- 
 grees ; therefore a line drawn from S P at 
 an angle of 60 degrees will, at the intersection 
 of the horizontal line, find a vanishing point 
 for all lines running in that direction. A 
 line drawn at right angles to the one of 60 
 degrees will, at the intersection of the hori- 
 zontal line, find a vanishing point for all lines 
 running in that direction. As V P i and V 
 P 2 must each have a measuring point, the 
 next thing in order is to locate them. This 
 may be done by taking V P i for a center 
 with S P as a radius and striking the arc 
 shown by dotted line, cutting the H L and 
 establishing M P 2, as shown. Take V P 2 
 for a center with S P as a radius and strike 
 the arc, cutting the H L, locating M P i, as 
 shown. Next draw the ground line and then 
 the nearest upright corner which remains 
 unchanged by perspective. In this case the 
 corner is made in the P L V, .so all that is 
 necessary is to set off the hight on this line, 
 as shown at A. Now draw the retreating 
 lines to the vanishing points, V P i and V P 2, 
 
74 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 VP3I 
 
 SP- 
 
 Flg. 55.— Diagram Showing Change of Vanishing and Measuring Points when the 
 not at an Angle of 45° with the Station Point; also Method of Obtaining the 
 Points for Koof Lines.— Scale, 3-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 Object is 
 Vanishing 
 
DRAWING PERSPECTIVE FIGURES. 
 
 76 
 
 Next comes the foreshortening of the sides. 
 The plan shows the geometrical size of the 
 ground plan and the angle at which it is 
 turned from the ground line. Take the ac- 
 tual scale measurements from the plan and 
 set them off on the ground line, the width to 
 the right of the P L V and the length to the 
 left. These are the geometric scales, and 
 are represented in the diagram by G S and 
 G S'. From the end of these scales draw 
 lines to the measuring points, M P i and 
 M P 2, as shown. The points of crossing the 
 retreating ground lines will be the points 
 from which to draw the two remaining up- 
 right corners of the figure. In developing 
 the roof lines first set off the hight of roof, 
 which in this case is assumed to be as repre- 
 sented by A B. The hights should be set off 
 according to the scale of the geometrical ele- 
 vations, and which will be explained more 
 fully in another diagram by means of a hight 
 line. The roof being on an inclination causes 
 a portion of the roof lines to retreat upward 
 at an inclination, consequently we must find 
 a vanishing point for them. As we have as- 
 sumed the hight of roof to be A B, draw a 
 line from B to V P 2. Find the center of 
 the gable, which may be done by drawing a 
 line from the center of the end geometrical 
 scale to M P I and raising the vertical dotted 
 
 line from the crossing of the retreating end 
 ground line. The intersection of the verti- 
 cal dotted line at C on the line B V P 2 will 
 be the point through which to draw a line 
 from A, which will at its junction with a per- 
 pendicular line raised from V P 2 find a van- 
 ishing point for the upwardly inclined lines 
 of the roof. This point is V P 3. We now 
 draw the further inclined retreating roof line 
 to V P 3, and then the horizontal retreating 
 line from C to V P i, which represents the 
 ridge line. 
 
 We now have one more point to consider — 
 the inclination of the roof line on the further 
 side of the gable, which is downward, hence 
 we must look downward for a vanishing 
 point for all lines running in that direction. 
 To determine this point measure down from 
 
 V P 2 the distance V P 2 is from V P 3, 
 establishing V P 4. A line drawn from C to 
 
 V P 4 will cut the top of the post on the 
 further comer of the gable and thus com- 
 plete the figure. 
 
 USE OF HIGHT LINES. 
 
 A striking illustration of the effect of plac- 
 ing an object in various perspective positions 
 and the use of hight lines or vertical scales is 
 presented in Fig. 56. In the design A and 
 B represent the geometrical size of a frame, 
 
76 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 as, for example, a transom, A showing it 
 standing on end and B resting on its side. 
 C, D, E, F and G are of the same size as A 
 and B, but represent the object in different 
 
 lying flat on the picture plane, which is the 
 surface on which the drawing is made. G is 
 a perspective of the frame standing on the 
 long side in an upright position. It is of 
 
 MP2 
 
 Fig. 56.— Diagram Showing Effect of Different Perspective Positions and the Use of a Hight 
 Line or Vertical Scale.— Scale, 3-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 perspective positions. C and D represent 
 perspective views of the object standing on 
 the narrow end. C and D are both the same 
 size, but C being more distant than D ap- 
 pears smaller. E and F show different per- 
 spectives of the frame as it would appear 
 
 the same size as the other perspectives, but 
 its appearance, as influenced by position and 
 distance from the eye, is greatly changed 
 from the other figures, as may be seen from 
 an inspection of the drawing. The effect of 
 different positions is shown very forcibly by 
 
DRAWING PERSPECTIVE FIGURES. 
 
 77 
 
 C, D, E, F and G. It is also obvious that 
 objects, however placed, have the same 
 vanishing points when their lines and planes 
 are parallel. 
 
 The ground line is usually assumed to be 
 the lower edge of the picture plane, all hori- 
 zontal scales being measured in this line, 
 and it is simpler to have the nearest edge of 
 the object touch this line, as shown by D 
 and E. When objects touch this line they 
 are in the extreme foreground. When ob- 
 jects do not touch this line, but instead are 
 drawn back of it, as C, F and G, the scales 
 are still set off on the ground line or plane 
 of measures, as it is sometimes called, and 
 transferred, as will be shown by reference to 
 the diagram. This is necessary in order to 
 preserve the actual proportions of the differ- 
 ent parts to each other. To make the dia- 
 gram draw the H L, the P L V and the 
 ground line in the usual manner, also fix 
 the station point and the measuring points, 
 as shown. Now, it will be observed that C 
 is set back a considerable distance from the 
 ground line. This distance is assumed when 
 it is not definitely known. In this case the 
 distance is assumed to be V H, and a line 
 
 drawn from H to M P I will, in crossing the 
 retreating ground line, determine the per- 
 spective distance from the ground line from 
 which to start the outline of C. In order to 
 determine the hight it is necessary to have a 
 vertical scale, which is represented by V S. 
 Oh this line set off the actual hight of the 
 object as taken from A, and draw the line 
 from S to the V P, which will determine the 
 perspective hight of C. The perspective 
 width is determined by setting off on the 
 ground line the actual scale width of A, as 
 H I, and drawing the line from I to M P I, 
 as shown. The outline of D is drawn in ex- 
 actly the same manner, the only difference 
 being the position, which is such that its 
 nearest line touches the ground line. E and 
 F are drawn in like manner, but the object 
 lying flat on the picture plane without any 
 hight being represented no vertical scale is 
 needed. G, which is a perspective of B in 
 an upright position, requires a vertical scale, 
 as represented by V^ SI We have now illus- 
 trated the use of the hight line or vertical scale 
 and shown that all distances, however remote 
 or small, may be kept proportional and deter- 
 mined by the horizontal and vertical scales. 
 
FORESHORTENING. 
 
 It has been shown that perspective reduces 
 and foreshortens objects, and it now remains 
 to present another method of producing the 
 same result in the reduction and foreshorten- 
 ing of objects placed in perspective positions, 
 in order that the student may have a choice 
 of methods and be able to use that which will 
 best serve the purpose. For example, take 
 plan A of Fig. 56 and proceed to place it in 
 a perspective position as if it were the floor 
 plan of a frame or the outside sills. Refer- 
 ring to Fig. 57, draw the horizontal line 
 and the P L V. Fix the station point and 
 ground line by assuming some convenient 
 distances, as shown. Next place the plan A 
 at an angle of 45 degrees with the P L V and 
 make the corner D the same distance above 
 the horizontal line as it is from S on the 
 ground line below. 
 
 The vanishing points are found by run- 
 ning parallel with the sides of the plan A, 
 starting from the S P and continuing until 
 the horizontal line is intersected, as shown 
 by V P I and V P 2. This method of find- 
 
 78 
 
 ing the vanishing points for all horizontal 
 lines is very simple, and is practically the 
 same as the method giveii in connection 
 with previous figures. To many, perhaps, 
 this method will present some advantages, 
 as it does not matter to what angle the plan 
 A is placed with the P L V, for the vanish- 
 ing points will be found in exactly the same 
 way as already described. In this case the 
 vanishing points are equally distant from C 
 on the horizontal line, but if the plan A was 
 turned at some other angle, then the vanish- 
 ing points would not be equidistant from C. 
 They would still be found somewhere in the 
 horizontal line, but further removed toward 
 and from the center, according to the angle 
 at which the plan is placed. The measuring 
 points and the geometric scale G S for the 
 foreshortening of the retreating sides of the 
 object have been thoroughly explained in the 
 previous figures. They have been drawn in 
 this figure to show that the two methods 
 produce like results when closely followed. 
 Draw the perspective B, using the geometric 
 
FORESHOR TENING. 
 
 79 
 
 rig. 57.— Diagrram Showingr Another Method of ForeshorteninK in Pei-spective and that the 
 Same Result is Produced when the Principles are Accurately Observed.— Scale, 3-16 Inch 
 to the Foot. 
 
80 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 scales and measuring points to determine the 
 foreshortening of the retreating sides, as 
 shown by the first method. 
 
 We will now proceed to show the second 
 method of foreshortening. Draw lines from 
 the corners of the plan A toward the S P and 
 from the points of intersection with the hori- 
 zontal line drop lines perpendicularly to the 
 ground line. The intersection of these lines 
 with the retreating ground lines will deter- 
 mine the perspective widths of the retreating 
 side of the object, and which will be seen to 
 produce exactly the same result as the former 
 method. There is a line called the picture 
 plane line, shown in the sketch by P P L. 
 This runs parallel with the horizontal line, 
 and by the second method of foreshortening 
 it may be assumed at any convenient distance 
 from the plan when it is not required to make 
 the foreshortening correspond with another 
 method. In this case the picture plane line 
 and the horizontal line are regarded as coin- 
 ciding in order to produce the same effect in 
 the foreshortening. The second method has 
 the advantage that the plan A can be changed 
 to any position and brought very close to the 
 picture plane line if desired. The closer it is 
 brought to this line the less the reduction in 
 the perspective figure. Imagine the plan A 
 brought down until the picture plane line 
 
 coincides with the horizontal line, and they 
 become one and the same ; then it is easy to 
 see that perpendicular lines drawn from the 
 picture plane line would increase to a consid- 
 erable extent the size of the perspective fig- 
 ure B. Thus far the perspective D has been 
 considered without regard to hight. It is 
 reasonable to suppose that if perspective 
 reduces an object in length and width the 
 hight must also in some cases be reduced in 
 order that the figure may be kept propor- 
 tional. For this purpose we must establish 
 a hight line, which is done in the following 
 manner : Run lines parallel with the side of 
 the plan to intersect the picture plane line 
 and from the intersection draw perpendicular 
 lines to the ground line, which will establish 
 the lines on which to set off the hight of the 
 drawing. These lines are called hight lines. 
 In Fig. 57 we have produced a hight line for 
 each side of the object, but in this drawing 
 only one hight line is required. Two hight 
 lines have been given, to show that it does 
 not matter to which side the hight line is 
 produced, as the result is the same. Assum- 
 ing that the object has a certain hight, set it 
 off on the hight lines, as H T or H' T', and 
 the lines drawn from the vanishing points 
 through the points T and T' will establish the 
 perspective hight, as shown. It will be seen 
 
FORESHORTENING. 
 
 81 
 
 by referring to the drawing that the real 
 hight of the perspective figure has been con- 
 siderably lessened from the actual hight of 
 the object, as set off on the hight lines. We 
 have now established the use of a hight line 
 and a second method of foreshortening the 
 retreating sides of objects in perspective. In 
 our last drawing we combined the two meth- 
 ods to show that each produced the same 
 result when certain points were observed ; 
 but if the points referred to were not ob- 
 served, then the result would be vastly differ- 
 
 ent. The latter method has a very decided 
 advantage over the former in the manner of 
 producing the perspective, as the actual 
 proportions of the objects to be placed 
 in perspective may be retained with a 
 much less reduction than usually follows 
 by the former method. We will now pro- 
 ceed to some drawings which will set 
 forth the advantages of the second method 
 of foreshortening and maintaining the ac- 
 tual proportions in producing perspective 
 . figures. 
 
CARPENTERS' TOOL CHEST IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 If the student has thoroughly learned the 
 principles that have been set forth in the 
 preceding figures he should now be able to 
 more readily grasp the ideas of perspective, 
 and not be at all discouraged as the lines in- 
 crease in number with the more complicated 
 figures. We will take for the next exam- 
 ple a carpenters' tool chest, which is a plain, 
 easy figure, with length, width and hight, 
 and an object which will bring into use the 
 best method of making perspective drawings. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 58, we will produce a per- 
 spective figure in accordance with a plan, 
 side and end elevations. Draw the horizon- 
 tal line and P L V, and find the vanishing 
 points as previously given. The ground line 
 and picture plane line are then assumed at 
 convenient distances. Draw the plan to the 
 actual geometric scale of the chest, and at 
 an angle of 45 degrees with the P L V, as 
 shown. The two outer lines represent the 
 base and size of the top, the two inner lines 
 represent the size of the panel in the top. 
 Next lay off on the inside base line the exact 
 location of the stiles of the panels for the 
 
 82 
 
 side and end of the chest. These are repre- 
 sented by arrow-pointed marks, as shown. 
 The marks for determining the perspective 
 size of the top panel have been transferred 
 to the outside line of the base, as the same 
 line represents the h\\\ size of the top. The 
 hight line is drawn by running parallel with 
 the plan to picture plane line, and from this 
 intersection perpendicular to the ground 
 line, as shown. Next draw the retreating 
 ground lines. Set off the hight on the hight 
 line according to the actual scale of the ele- 
 vations and draw the retreating line of the 
 top and end through this point to the P L V, 
 which will establish the perspective hight in 
 full. The perspective hights of the different 
 members are determined by setting off the 
 actual scale of the elevation on the diagonal 
 line across the end of chest and drawing lines 
 from the vanishing point through the points 
 set off on the diagonal line to the P L V. 
 The reason for this method of proceeding will 
 be made plain in the next drawing, prepared 
 especially for the explanation. The per- 
 spective widths are determined by drawing 
 
CARPENTERS' TOOL CHEST IN PERSPECTIVE, 
 
 83 
 
 Pig. 5«.— Practical Application of tbe Best Method of Produeintr a Perspective Figure.— 
 
 Scale, % Inch to the Foot. 
 
84 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 lines toward tlie S P until they intersect the 
 picture plane line, and from this point then 
 drop to the perspective figure on which it is 
 desired to establish the proportional perspec- 
 tive widths. The diagram is very plain, and 
 if carefully studied will convey to the mind 
 of the student the method of establishing 
 perspective distances better than any further 
 description can do. 
 
 In Fig. 59 is represented a partial sketch 
 of Fig. 58, representing the end of the chest 
 in perspective in open Hnes without shading, 
 in order to show more clearly the use of the 
 hight line and the scale. The hight line is 
 found by running parallel with the side of the 
 plan to the picture plane line and from this 
 point perpendicular to the ground line. The 
 perspective hight is found by setting off on 
 the hight line the actual scale hight of the 
 elevation, as A B, and drawing a line from 
 the vanishing point through the point B to 
 the P L V, or central line of vision, as shown. 
 This establishes the full perspective hight, 
 but as there are several different members 
 which go to make this hight we must have 
 some means whereby we can set off the hight 
 of each member respectively. It is plain to 
 be seen that we cannot start from A on the 
 ground line, and if we were to start from the 
 retreating ground line at C and set off the 
 
 hights according to the actual bights of the 
 elevation scale it would make the drawing all 
 
 Fig. 59.— Diagram Showing the Use of Hight Lines and 
 Scales.— Scale, % Inch to the Foot. 
 
 out of proportion. The cause of this is ap- 
 parent, as the hight line A B reduces the 
 
CARPENTERS' TOOL CHEST IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 86 
 
 hight of the perspective from that of the ele- 
 .vation the distance from A to C, so that the 
 actual hight of the perspective is the distance 
 C B. Thus the scale of the perspective is 
 reduced, and in order to set o£E proportional 
 hights on the hight line C B we must work 
 out a proportional scale or adopt another 
 method whereby we can use the elevation 
 scale. It is a very difficult matter to work 
 out a scale for a perspective drawing that 
 would exactly correspond with the elevation 
 scale, and even when 'the scale is found it 
 might be a very difficult one by which to 
 draw, on account of the small divisions it is 
 often necessary to make to carry out the pro- 
 portion of the different parts to each other. 
 For example, take Fig. 59, and with an ele- 
 vation scale of ^ inch to the foot, the scale 
 of the perspective would be a little less than 
 1^ inch to the foot, which would be found a 
 very inconvenient scale by which to transfer 
 hights from the elevation to the perspective. 
 The method of figuring out the scale is as 
 follows : 
 
 Take the scale of the elevation in six- 
 teenths for the third term, which is 8 ; for 
 the second term take the actual hight of the 
 perspective in sixteenths on the hight line 
 from C to B, which is ^j4, and for the first 
 term take the scale hight of the elevation in 
 
 sixteenths, which is 1 3. We now have a math- 
 ematical expression, as follows : 13 : 9)^ :: 
 8 : to the scale required. The operation is 
 easy — gj4 X8-*-i3 = 5 11-13 sixteenths of 
 an inch to the foot, the scale of the perspec- 
 tive drawing by which the hights would have 
 to be, established if set off on the line from 
 C to B. 
 
 Such scales are not practical, and only tend 
 to worry and confuse the mind of the stu- 
 dent. A very simple and practical method 
 of setting off the hights of different members 
 is by means of a scale line, which may be 
 easily drawn after the full perspective hight 
 has been determined. Take the actual scale 
 hight of the elevation, which is shown in 
 the perspective by A B, and set it off from 
 S to L, intersecting the retreating ground 
 line. This line we will call the scale line, 
 and the hight of the different members may 
 be set off on this line according to the eleva- 
 tion scale without any complications of fig- 
 ures and changing of scales. The distances 
 are set off on this line as indicated by the 
 arrow points, and lines drawn from the van- 
 ishing point through these points to the P L 
 V will establish the perspective hights of all 
 the different members to the finest point it 
 is possible to obtain and in the most prac- 
 tical manner. 
 
ELEVATIONS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 In previous lessons the principles of per- 
 spective drawing have been pretty clearly 
 set forth, so that now the mind of the stu- 
 dent should be thoroughly imbued with the 
 subject and ready for the introduction of fig- 
 ures which will lead him to the very point 
 he has sought to obtain — the making of per- 
 spective elevations. From experience we 
 know this to be the most desired part upon 
 which those interested in drawing are seek- 
 ing specific instructions, and that it would 
 be very difficult to successfully instruct be- 
 ginners in the art by means of a few com- 
 plicated figures only partially explained. 
 Hence the student has been advanced step 
 by step to a point where he can readily 
 grasp the principles of perspective in its 
 most complicated forms and master the work 
 which has been the object of his study. 
 
 There remains only a few more points to 
 be explained, and these for the most part 
 will be the methods of locating and finding 
 the vanishing points for roof lines, as it is 
 here the beginner will experience the great- 
 est difficulties. When the roof vanishing' 
 
 86 
 
 points are located they determine the direc- 
 tion of the roof lines, and by observing the 
 scale on the hight line the actual propor- 
 tions are maintained and the whole work 
 soon becomes as easy as plain geometrical 
 drawing. We will take for an example the 
 making of a perspective elevation from the 
 floor plan, front and side elevations, which 
 are represented in Figs. 60, 61 and 62. 
 These figures are the plain geometrical 
 drawings, and will be readily understood. 
 
 The first step is to draw the floor plan at 
 the angle it is desired to place the perspec- 
 tive ; in this case 45 degrees, as indicated 
 in Fig. 6;^. After drawing the plan at the 
 angle required, draw the picture plane line, 
 which may be assumed a short distance be- 
 low the plan. The greater the distance 
 below the plan the greater will be the re- 
 duction in the perspective, as will be seen 
 by reference to Fig. 6^. Next establish the 
 ground line a sufficient distance below the 
 picture plane line to admit of drawing the 
 perspective between the two lines. We now 
 assume the horizontal line and station point 
 
ELEVATIONS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 87 
 
 and determine the vanishing points for the 
 horizontal Hnes the same as described in 
 connection with previous figures. In this 
 drawing the horizontal line has been as- 
 
 FiK. 60.— Floor Plan.— Scale, 1-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 sumed 8 feet above the ground line, and the 
 station point or point of sight has been fixed 
 80 feet from the picture plane line down- 
 ward on the line P L V. In this drawing 
 the lines for determining the vanishing 
 
 points have not been carried out to their full 
 length, as it would make the drawing un- 
 necessarily large ; hence we give the above 
 figures, which will enable the learner to read- 
 ily find the vanishing points without further 
 instructions. The direction of the vanishing 
 points is so plainly indicated that it is hardly 
 possible to mistake their terminations. H L 
 is the hight line, which has been produced 
 the same as described in connection with 
 Figs. 57 and 58. Set off the full hight of the 
 gable on the hight line, as taken from Fig. 61, 
 and represented in Fig. 6^ by H L ; then a 
 line drawn from L' to the right hand vanish- 
 ing point will cut the top of the gable in the 
 perspective figure and determine its perspec- 
 tive hight. Just where the point of gable 
 will touch this line may be determined by 
 drawing the dotted line from the center of 
 the gable cornice line toward the station 
 point to the intersection of the picture plane 
 line, thence perpendicularly to D. A line 
 from D to the left vanishing point represents 
 the ridge line. The points of the rear end 
 of gable may be located in the same manner 
 that point D was found. Set off on the hight 
 line the hight from ground line to the eaves, 
 as H A, and a line from A to the right van- 
 ishing point will cut the lower corners of the 
 front gable and locate C and B, A line from 
 
88 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 C extended through. D will, on intersecting 
 a perpendicular line from the right vanishing 
 point, determine the vanishing point for the 
 upwardly inclined lines of the gable cornice ; 
 likewise a line from D extended downward 
 through B will locate the vanishing point for 
 the downward lines. 
 
 H' A' is the hight H A transferred to rep- 
 resent the hight from the retreating ground 
 line to the eaves by the same method as was 
 shown by Fig. 59. This line is used for set- 
 ting off the hights of different members from 
 the retreating ground line to the eaves. A 
 change in the location of this line will some- 
 times produce changes in the perspective, 
 and the student should use considerable care 
 in placing the position of this line. It is 
 best to keep it as near the principal line of 
 vision as possible. By observing this line 
 closely it will aid very much in determining 
 the proportional hights of different members 
 and is as accurate as any method of which I 
 have knowledge. The dotted lines drawn 
 from the plan toward the picture plane line 
 and from this intersection perpendicularly to 
 the perspective show clearly how the chim- 
 ney, door and window frames and the vari- 
 ous other parts are located and proportioned 
 in the perspective elevation. There is an- 
 other little point which may be explained in 
 
 regard to obtaining the hip lines of the porch 
 roof in the perspective figure. The line 
 III locates the outside corner of hip, then 
 line I 2 on the plan represents the plan of 
 hip, and following the line 222 locate the 
 termination of the hip against the building 
 in the perspective figure, as shown. 
 
 Fig. 61.— Front Elevation.— Scale, 1-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 Enough has now been explained to enable 
 the learner to study out for himself any 
 other portion of the work, and there is no 
 better way to do it than to practice on simi- 
 lar drawings made to >^ or ^ inch scale. A 
 very convenient scale to work out perspec- 
 tives is J^ inch to the foot, and a better pro- 
 portion for the perspective figures will result 
 
ELEVATIONS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 89 
 
 by making the station point 80 feet from the 
 horizontal line. 
 
 With one more diagram to make plain the 
 method of determining roof lines and van- 
 ishing points, we will bring the subject to a 
 close. In this illustration, Fig. 64, the dia- 
 gram is made open in order to avoid too 
 
 Fig. 62.— Side (Left) Elevation.— Scale, 1-16 Inch to the Foot. 
 
 many lines and to show more clearly the exact 
 manner of locating the points necessary for 
 producing the perspective. This figure is 
 similar to Fig. 63, and shows the extension 
 of the lines to the vanishing points and also 
 the manner of determining the amount of 
 cornice projection. The plan has a line 
 drawn around it representing the width of 
 
 the cornice, and the two dotted lines from 
 the opposite corners of the plan show plainly 
 how the cornice projections are determined 
 in the perspective. The picture plane line, 
 the ground line, the horizontal line and the 
 vanishing points for the horizontal lines are 
 made in the usual manner. 
 
 The station point has been fixed at 80 feet 
 from the picture plane line, as in the previ- 
 ous figure. H L represents the hight line, 
 on which set off the full hight of the gable 
 H L, according to the elevation, Fig. 61, 
 and draw the line L V P 2. Set off on the 
 hight line the distance from the ground to 
 top of plate, as H T, and a line drawn from 
 this point to V P 2 will cut the corners of 
 the gable on the wall line, as shown at A 
 and B. The line A, V P i represents the 
 plate on the wall line. The line L V P 2 
 cuts the ridge of the roof on the plane of the 
 wall line of the gable, and the peak of the 
 gable is located by carrying the dotted line 
 from the center of the plan into the per- 
 spective, locating the point C. The point D 
 is located in the same manner, and repre- 
 sents the peak of the gable at the outer edge 
 of the cornice. A line from D to V P i rep- 
 resents the ridge line, as shown. The roof 
 vanishing points will be found somewhere 
 in a perpendicular line directly above and 
 
90 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 below the vanishing point for the horizontal 
 lines of the gable. A line from A drawn 
 through C and extended to intersect the 
 perpendicular line through V P 2 will estab- 
 lish the vanishing point V P 3 for the up- 
 ward inclined lines of the roof. A line from 
 C drawn through B and extended will at the 
 intersection of the same perpendicular line 
 establish V P 4 for the downward inclined 
 lines of the roof. The dotted lines carried 
 into the perspective from the plan show 
 plainly the location of the points on the rear 
 gable, and the dotted lines along the eaves 
 and up the gable show the wall lines and 
 width of cornice. 
 
 Fig. 64 represents a plain roof, and no 
 doubt the learner will often meet with roofs 
 more complicated, but the same principles if 
 closely observed will enable him to solve the 
 problems as they may come up from time to 
 time. If the roof is in any way complicated 
 it is best to draw a plan of the roof in the 
 floor plan from which one is making the 
 perspective, then the different points in the 
 roof may be easily carried into the perspec- 
 tive and correctly located. This will bring 
 to mind the best methods of finding the 
 essential points far better than any other 
 way within our knowledge and experience. 
 
 In making perspective drawings, it is not 
 
 necessary that all the lines that are made 
 for the purpose of locating the required 
 points be regarded as permanent lines, for 
 they may be drawn with a pencil, and in fin- 
 ishing the drawing only those lines need be 
 inked which represent the real perspective 
 figure. 
 
 If by accident a line is inked which is not 
 desired, the best way to erase it is with a 
 small piece of sandpaper folded over the 
 end of a small flat stick cut off at an angle of 
 about 60 degrees. Ink marks can be very 
 effectually removed in this manner without 
 injuring the drawing. It is also best to go 
 over the part erased with a good rubber 
 eraser after the sandpaper application, as it 
 will leave a better surface upon which to 
 draw other lines if any are to be made. 
 
 For making real fine lines it is often 
 necessary to point the drafting pen, as it is 
 probable that one-half of the drawing pens 
 as they come from the manufacturer will 
 not make a very fine line, and it is impossi- 
 ble to make fine lines with a pen not prop- 
 erly pointed. The points of the pen should 
 be so fine that they can barely be distin- 
 guished when looking directly at them. If 
 one can see the points like the point of a 
 saw tooth that has been in contact with a 
 nail, then he cannot make fine lines with 
 
V 
 
 J it* 
 
 |S 
 
 I 1 ' 
 
 1 
 
 '1 
 
92 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 the pen in any event. Ordinarily it is only 
 a few minutes' work to fix the pen, which 
 can be done by screwing the nibs together, 
 holding the pen between finger and thumb 
 and applying it to an oil stone in a kind of 
 circular manner, bearing only lightly on the 
 stone and constantly turning the pen to 
 bring the nibs up to a finely rounded point. 
 They cannot be too sharp, and if properly 
 pointed they will not cut the paper. Some- 
 times it is necessary to try them two or 
 three times before just the right kind of a 
 point is obtained. 
 
 Architectural drawing is a great study, 
 and one which practically has no end, for a 
 person can spend a lifetime in the profes- 
 sion and learn something new to the very 
 last. The chance for improvement and the 
 advancement of new ideas is always open, 
 and none can expect to know everything 
 there is pertaining to this interesting and 
 useful profession. We hope that those who 
 are seeking information on the subject dis- 
 cussed in this work will not be disappointed 
 and give up in despair if their first efforts to 
 follow the instructions do not prove alto- 
 gether satisfactory. Remember that pa- 
 tience and perseverance are necessary 
 requirements for those who follow the pro- 
 fession. Beginners in the art of drawing 
 
 will be likely to be more or less discouraged 
 at the time required to make the drawings, 
 especially if they have other work and can 
 only devote spare time to the study. Bear 
 in mind that architectural drawing is a kind 
 of work that cannot be rushed through like 
 sawing off a board. It is work that has to 
 be done with judgment, care and precision. 
 If one has but little time to devote to the 
 study do not try to do too much at once ; a 
 little work of this kind well done will prove 
 of more lasting benefit than a larger amount 
 poorly executed. There is scarcely any- 
 thing to be learned of drawing from a 
 haphazard and hasty way of working. Start 
 right, even if it does seem slow at first. Be 
 content with the satisfaction of knowing that 
 you are working in a way to gain the best 
 results. Speed and proficiency will come 
 from practice and experience, and in a short 
 time one will find that he can do twice as 
 much work in a given time as he could at the 
 start, and do it better. We would not advise 
 any one to work too long at a time at draw- 
 ing ; when tired and weary of it lay it 
 aside for a while. When the draftsman 
 tires of the work he grows careless and in- 
 different ; his mind will be wandering from 
 the work and poor results are most sure to 
 follow. 
 
ELEVATIONS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 93 
 
 VP3, 
 
 Fig. 64.— Diagram Showing Method of Obtaining Roof Vanishing Points and Determining Perspective 
 Proportions of Cornice,— Scale, 1-32 Inch to the Foot. 
 
94 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FOR MECHANICS. 
 
 Architecture is a study of itself, and the 
 successful architect should have nothing to 
 divert his attention from his work, as it re- 
 quires undivided attention, and to accom- 
 plish the best results he should not work too 
 many hours a day, but be able to work some- 
 what at his pleasure, say from six to eight 
 hours a day. It is wearisome to the mind to 
 work continuously at it without proper rest.- 
 Architectural drawing is a profession which 
 seems to grow in demand and one that still 
 commands a good remuneration for the time 
 consumed in the work. The present rates 
 for architectural services are based as fol- 
 lows : For drawing plans, from i}4 to 2^ 
 per cent, of the cost of construction, and 5 
 per cent, for personal superintendence. It 
 will be readily seen from this that an archi- 
 tect would receive for drawing plans for a 
 $2,000 residence from $35 to $50, and for 
 plans and personal superintendence $100. 
 Considering that such plans could be pre- 
 pared in three or four days, and that the 
 personal superintendence is only occasional 
 visits of a few hours each in looking over 
 
 and inspecting the work as it progresses, it 
 is a pretty fair consideration for services 
 rendered. Yet it is not a higher price than 
 a skillful architect and superintendent should 
 have for such services. There is plenty of 
 encouragement for young architects. The 
 work is pleasant, light and profitable. Re- 
 member that there is always room at the 
 top, that the demand for skilled workmen is 
 constantly increasing and that it is the class 
 of unskilled workmen who are the most un- 
 employed. This should be an incentive to 
 every student, professional man and trades- 
 man to aspire to higher qualifications and 
 attainments in his particular line of business. 
 Skill and talent combined with practice and 
 experience is the one essential qualification 
 which leads to success. 
 
 We trust that the instructions we have 
 given in this work will serve the purpose for 
 which they were intended and give a start to 
 those seeking information that will event- 
 ually bring them to a thorough understand- 
 ing and successful issue on the subject set 
 forth. 
 
 X^ OF THE r 
 
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THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE TA«. 
 
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