GIFT OF 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
THE 1918 TECHNICAL SERIES 
 
 Elements of Western Water Law (revised) 
 
 By A. E. Chandler $2.50 
 
 Elements of Fuel Oil and Steam Engineering 
 
 By Robert Sibley and Chas. H. Delany $3.00 
 
 Public Utility Rates 
 
 By C. E. Grunsky (Announcement later) 
 
 TECHNICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 Crossley Building, San Francisco 
 
Elements 
 of 
 
 Fuel Oil and Steam Engineering 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE DEALING 
 WITH FUEL OIL, FOR THE CENTRAL 
 STATION MAN, THE POWER PLANT 
 OPERATOR, THE MECHANICAL EN- 
 GINEER AND THE STUDENT 
 
 BY 
 ROBERT SIBLEY, B. S. 
 
 Editor Journal of Electricity; formerly Professor of Mechanical 
 Engineering, University of California; Fellow American 
 Institute of Electrical Engineers; Member American 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers, and Past- 
 president of the San Francisco Section. 
 
 AND 
 
 CHAS. H. DELANY, B. S., M. M. E. 
 
 Steam Power Plant Specialist, Pacific Gas & Electric Company; 
 
 Lecturer on Steam Engineering, Extension Division 
 
 University of California; Member American 
 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers. 
 
 First Edition 
 
 San Francisco: 
 
 Technical Publishing Company 
 London: E. & F. N. Spon, Limited 
 
 1918 
 
-\ Y * 
 
 Copyright, 1918, by the 
 Technical Publishing Company 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Fuel oil in its power generating characteristics is 
 a factor of prime importance on land and sea in these 
 momentous times. 
 
 The clarion call to service is heard on all sides. 
 And in answering this call, it must be remembered 
 that to save is to serve. 
 
 Implicitly hoping that this book may aid in es- 
 tablishing a fuller knowledge of the fundamental laws 
 of fuel oil and steam engineering, and that a conse- 
 quent saving in fuel will inevitably result where these 
 laws are properly put into practice, no matter how 
 small may be the resulting good, the authors offer to 
 the engineering 'and industrial world at this time this 
 work, which had its incipiency six years ago in cer- 
 tain power economy tests in Oakland, California, later 
 to be used in lecture notes at the University of Califor- 
 nia, and finally to be rounded out by a study of power 
 plant practice in California covering a period of several 
 years. 
 
 The book has as its underlying theme a study of 
 fuel oil power plant operation, and the use of evapora- 
 tive tests in increasing the efficiency of oil' fired plants. 
 To accomplish this end the subject matter has been 
 treated in three main subdivisions : First, an exposi- 
 tion of the elementary laws of steam engineering ; sec- 
 ond, the processes involved in the utilization of fuel 
 oil in the modern power plant ; and, third, the testing 
 of boilers when oil fired. 
 
 In treating the first subdivision, the elementary 
 laws of steam engineering are set forth in a new man- 
 ner, in that the viewpoint is taken from that of the 
 oil-fired instead of the coal-fired power plant operator. 
 In the second subdivision, the results of considerable 
 labor and analysis are set forth from the collecting and 
 collating of data involved in burner, furnace, and fuel 
 
 vii 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 oil tests, hitherto appearing, in disconnected form and 
 in widely varying sources. In the third subdivision 
 the authors have given definite suggestions for fuel 
 oil tests largely suggestions recently presented per- 
 sonally by the authors at the invitation of the Power 
 Test Committee of the American Society of Mechan- 
 ical Engineers at a hearing of the Committee in New 
 York City for the purpose of standardizing the rules 
 for boiler tests where oil is used as a fuel. 
 
 The many illustrative problems that have been 
 worked out in the chapters on steam engineering and 
 boiler economy are based upon the data obtained from 
 the latest edition of Marks & Davis' "Tables and 
 Diagrams of the Thermal Properties of Saturated and 
 Superheated Steam," published by Longmans, Green 
 & Company, which may be purchased through any 
 reputable book dealer for the sum of one dollar. For a 
 careful study of these illustrative examples the reader 
 should provide himself with a copy of these steam 
 tables, although this is not necessary for most of the 
 discussions on fuel oil and furnace design as treated 
 in the text. 
 
 The six beautiful views of the economy measuring 
 apparatus installed at the Long Beach Plant of the 
 Southern California Edison Company, featured in this 
 book, are extended through the courtesy of R. J. C. 
 Wood, superintendent of generation for the Southern 
 Division of that company. 
 
 Throughout the work the authors have attempted 
 to set forth standard practice in fuel oil and steam 
 engineering. As a consequence they are indebted to 
 a large group of manufacturers, engineers and power 
 plant operators for their timely suggestions in point- 
 ing out and developing the fundamental laws of fuel 
 oil and steam engineering practice that are dwelt upon 
 in this work. 
 
 ROBERT SIBLEY. 
 CHAS. H. DELANY. 
 
 San Francisco, U. S. A. 
 May 1, 1918 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I Page 
 The Modern Power Plant for Fuel Oil Consumption 1 
 
 The Storage Tank Pumps for Storage Supply The Hot- 
 Well Feed-Water Heaters Feed- Water Pumps Econo- 
 mizers The Boiler The Superheater The Separator Re- 
 ciprocating Engines or Steam Turbines Condenser Wet 
 Vacuum Pumps Dry Vacuum Pumps. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Fundamental Laws Involved in Fuel Oil Practice 14 
 
 Newton's Laws of Motion Three Fundamental Units of 
 Length, Mass and Time Velocity, Acceleration, and Force 
 Defined Conception of Work and Power Various Types of 
 Energy Employed for Useful Work. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Theory of Pressures 23 
 
 The Steam Gage The Difference Between Absolute Pres- 
 sure and Gage Pressure The Column of Mercury Vacuum 
 Pressures Confusion in Pressure Units Relationship of 
 Pressure Units Inches of Water and Pounds Pressure per 
 Square Inch The Thirty Inch Vacuum The Practical Form- 
 ula for Conversion of Pressures To Reduce Barometer 
 Readings to the Standard Thirty Inch Vacuum Corrections 
 for the Brass Scale of a Barometer Example Corrections 
 for Altitude and Latitude. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Measurement of Temperatures 32 
 
 Fixed Points for Thermometer Calibration The Various 
 Temperature Scales Employed Relationship of Fahrenheit 
 and Centigrade Values Relationship of Fahrenheit and 
 Reaumur Values Relationship of Centigrade and Reaumur 
 Values Methods of Temperature Measurement Estimation 
 by Flame Color The Melting Point of Metals and Alloys 
 The Method of Immersion The Alcohol and Mercurial Ther- 
 mometers The Expansion Pyrometer Electrical Thermom- 
 eters The Radiation Pyrometer Standardization and Test- 
 ing of Thermometers The Stem Correction. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 The Elementary Laws of Thermodynamics i ,. . 43 
 
 The Irrefutable Experiments of Davy Joule's Complete 
 Demonstration of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat The 
 First Law of Thermodynamics Boyle's Law Charles' Law 
 The Absolute Scale The Composite Law of Gases A 
 Formula for Gas Density To Compute "R" for Any Gas 
 Further Illustrative Examples. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Water and Steam in Fuel Oil Practice 52 
 
 Three States are Possible in All Bodies The Fundamental 
 Principle in Steam Engineering Steam Engineering Still 
 Supreme The Formation of Ice Latent Heat of Fusion 
 
 ix 
 
x CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 The Formation of Steam Latent Heat of Evaporation 
 Other Variations Occur with Changes of Pressure Data 
 Easily Taken from Steam Tables Total Heat of Steam 
 Total Heat of Dry Saturated Steam Other Instances of To- 
 tal Heats. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 The Steam Tables in Fuel Oil Practice ,. . . 61 
 
 The Steam Tables as Adopted in this Discussion Recap- 
 itulation of Fundamental Evaluations Analysis of a Typical 
 Page of Steam Tables Temperatures in Fahrenheit Units 
 Pressures in Absolute Notation Pressures in Atmospheres 
 Specific Volume Specific Density The Heat of Liquid 
 The Latent Heat of Evaporation Total Heat of Dry Satu- 
 rated Steam Internal and External Work Entropy of 
 "Water The Entropy of Evaporation Total Entropy Tables 
 for Superheated Steam. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 How to Compute Boiler Horsepower 72 
 
 The Meaning of the Word "Rating" The Development of 
 the Word "Horsepower" The Boiler Horsepower The Con- 
 version of Boiler Horsepower to Mechanical Horsepower 
 Units The Myriawatt as a Basis of Boiler Performance 
 Relationship of Boiler Horsepower and Myriawatts The 
 Builder's Rating To Compute Actual Boiler Rating. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Equivalent Evaporation and Factor of Evaporation. ........ 79 
 
 The Standard that Has Been Adopted Dry Saturated Steam 
 Wet Saturated Steam Superheated Steam To Compute 
 the Boiler Horsepower. 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 \ How to Determine Quality of Steam . ., 85 
 
 Dry Saturated Steam Superheated Steam Computation of 
 Total Heat of Superheated Steam Steam Calorimeters The 
 Determination of Superheat Determination of Moisture in 
 Saturated Steam The Barrel or Tank Calorimeter Surface 
 Condenser Tank Calorimeter. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 The Steam Calorimieter and Its Use in Fuel Oil Practice. . 93 
 
 The Chemical Calorimeter The Throttling Calorimeter The 
 Limitations of the Throttling Calorimeter The Electric 
 Calorimeter The Separating Calorimeter Correction for 
 Steam Used by Calorimeter The Sampling Nipple Conclu- 
 sions on Moisture Measuring Apparatus Latent Heat of 
 Evaporation A Second Formula for Heat of Evaporation 
 Relationship of Specific Volume for Superheated Steam A 
 Simplified but Limited Formula Other Relationships Exist. 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Rational and Empirical Formulas for Steam Constants . . . 102 
 
 The Value of Formulas in Steam Engineering Relation Be- 
 tween Temperature and Pressure of Saturated Steam The 
 Total Heat of Saturated Steam Regnault's Formula Hen- 
 ning's Formula Latent Heat of Evaporation A Second 
 Formula for Heat of Evaporation Relationship of Specific 
 Volume for Superheated Steam A Simplified but Limited 
 Formula Other Relationships Exist. 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 CHAPTER XIII Page 
 
 The Fundamentals of Furnace Operation in Fuel Oil 
 
 Practice 107 
 
 The Fundamentals of the Tea-Kettle and the Boiler are 
 the Same Inefficiency of Tea-Kettle Operation Efficiency 
 in the Modern Steam Boiler a Necessity Efficient Furnace 
 Construction of Utmost Importance Fuels Defined An Air 
 Supply Essential Furnace Operation The Fuel Oil Burner 
 and Its Function The Path of the Furnace Gases The 
 Economizer and Its Economic Value Quantity of Air Re- 
 quiredThe Draft Gage and Its Principle of Operation- 
 Apparatus for Determining Ingredients of Outgoing Chimney 
 Gases Draft Regulating Devices The Chimney. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 The Boiler Shell and Its Accessories for Steam Generation. 114 
 
 The Laws of Heat Involved in Steam Generation The 
 Principle of Operation of the Steam Boiler Mathematical 
 Equation for Heat Transference Mathematical Law for 
 Total Heat Absorption Relationship of Rate of Heat Trans- 
 fer Necessity for Boiler Accessories Injector or Pump for 
 Feed Water Supply Check and Non-Return Valves The 
 Steam Gage and the Water Gage Manholes Provision for 
 Expansion The Mud Drum Safety Valve. 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Boiler Classification in Fuel Oil Practice 122 
 
 The Boiler Drum and Tubes Internally and Externally Fired 
 Boilers The Return Tubular Boiler The Fire Tube and the 
 Water Tube Boiler Vertical and Horizontal Types Illus- 
 trations of Principles of Construction and Operation The 
 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler The Parker Boiler The Stirling 
 Type The Heine Type Marine Boilers. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 Fuel Oil and Specifications for Purchase j 131 
 
 Advantages of Crude Petroleum as a Fuel Liquid Fuels 
 Classified Physical and Chemical Properties of Oil Odor 
 and Color Moisture Sulphur, Gas and Other Ingredients 
 Specifications for the Purchase of Oil. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 Boiler Room Instructions for Fuel Oil Burning 140 
 
 Inspection Tests Involved Preliminary Precautions Con- 
 necting Up Boiler Units Low Water Encountered Avoid 
 Making Repairs Under Pressure Removal of Sediment 
 Keep Out Cylinder Oil Cooling and Cleaning the Boiler- 
 Putting Boiler Out of Service. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 How to Compute Strength of Boiler Shells in Fuel Oil 
 
 Practice , 147 
 
 The Strength of the Solid Plate The Strength of the Net 
 Section Resistance to Shear Resistance to Compression 
 Efficiency of the Riveted Section Gage Pressure Necessary 
 to Burst the Solid Boiler Plate Bursting Pressure of the 
 Seamt The Safe Working Pressure Example of a Lap 
 Joint, Longitudinal or Circumferential, Double-Riveted. 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XIX Page 
 Furnaces in Fuel Oil Practice 157 
 
 Fuel Oil Furnace Operation The Commercial Furnace 
 Regulation of Air Importance of Air Regulation Service 
 for One Boiler Only. 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 Burner Classification in Fuel Oil Practice 166 
 
 The Inside Mixer The Outside Mixer An Example of the 
 Mechanical Atomizer . The Home-Made Type of Burner 
 Front Shot and Back Shot Burners Quantity of Steam Re- 
 quired Number of Men Required for Operating Oil Fired 
 Boilers Caution. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 The Gravity of Oils in Fuel Oil Practice. ., 176 
 
 The Method of the Westphal Balance for Exact Measure- 
 mentDetails of Procedure Computations Involved. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 Moisture Content of Oils 184 
 
 Summary of Methods Employed in Determining the Moisture 
 Content The Approximate Method of Treatment Error in 
 Assuming Percentage by Weight is Same as Percentage by 
 Volume. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 Determination of Heating Value of Oils 191 
 
 An Approximate Method Based on the Baume Scale Du- 
 long's Formula Based on the Ultimate Analysis The Fuel 
 Calorimeter The Parr Calorimeter The Principle of Opera- 
 tion Detailed Operation of the Parr Calorimeter Prelimin- 
 ary Precautions The Explosion of the Charge and the Tak- 
 ing of Temperatures The Correction for Temperature Read- 
 ings Higher and Lower Heating Value. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 Chimney Gas Analysis 203 
 
 The Taking of the Flue Gas Samples and Analysis To 
 Ascertain the Carbon Dioxide Content of a Flue Gas To 
 Ascertain the Oxygen Content of a Flue Gas To Ascertain 
 the Carbon Monoxide Content of a Flue Gas To Ascertain 
 the Nitrogen Content of a Flue Gas An Approximate Check 
 on the Orsat Analysis Chemical Formulas for Preparing 
 the Absorption Solutions The Hemphel Apparatus for De- 
 termining the Hydrogen Content Conclusion on the Orsat 
 Analysis. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 Analysis by Weight, and Air Theoretically Required in 
 
 Fuel Oil Furnace 210 
 
 Relationship of a Component Weight to the Whole Funda- 
 mental Laws Involved A Concrete Rule for Conversions 
 Weight of Air Theoretically Required for Perfect Fuel Oil 
 Combustion Correction for Hydrogen Appearing in Fuel 
 Analysis Oxygen Theoretically Required for Fuel Combus- 
 tion Air Required per Pound of Fuel Burned. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 Computation of Combustion Data from the Orsat Analysis. 218 
 
 Air Actually Supplied to Furnace per Pound of Fuel Burned 
 An Illustrative Example A Second Formula for Ascer- 
 taining Air Actually Admitted to the Furnace Weight of 
 Dry Flue Gas per Pound of Fuel Ratio of Air Drawn Into 
 Furnace to that Theoretically Required. 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII Page 
 
 Weighing Water and Oil 230 
 
 Volumetric Method of Measurement Method of Standard- 
 ized Platform Scales Weighing of the Oil Sampling the 
 Oil Supply General Sampling of Fuel Oil for Purchase 
 Sampling with a Dipper Continuous Sampling Mixed 
 Samples. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 Measurement of Steam Used in Atomization 236 
 
 Mathematical Expression for Flow of Steam Apparatus 
 Employed in Measuring Steam in Atomization Calibration 
 of Orifice Numerical Illustration. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 The Taking of Boiler Test Data .241 
 
 The Object The Instructions for Boiler Tests The Test for 
 Efficiency Under Normal Rating Time of Duration of Test 
 The Beginning and Stopping of a Test The Weighing of 
 the Water The Heat Represented in the Steam Generated 
 The Oil, Its Measurement and Analysis The Steam Used 
 in Atomization The Boiler Efficiency The Overload Test 
 The Quick Steaming Test Observations Necessary Pres- 
 sure Readings Temperature Readings The Flue Gas An- 
 alysis The Test as a Whole. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX 
 
 Preliminary Tabulation and Calculation of Test Data 249 
 
 The Log Sheet for Weighing the Water Log Sheet for the 
 Fuel Oil Fed to Furnace Other Data to be Taken The 
 General Log Sheet The Plotting of the Test Data. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 The Heat Balance and Boiler Efficiency 255 
 
 Total Heat Absorbed by Boiler Heat Absorbed by Boiler 
 for Atomization Net Heat Absorbed by Boiler for Power 
 Generation Loss Due to Moisture in the Fuel Loss Due 
 to Moisture Formed by Burning Hydrogen Loss Due to 
 Heat Carried Away in Dry Gas Loss Due to Incomplete 
 Combustion Loss Due to Evaporating Steam for Atomiza- 
 tion Loss Due to Superheating Steam Used for Atomiza- 
 tion Total Loss in Atomization Loss Due to Moisture in 
 Entering Air Stray Losses Summary of Heat Balance 
 Net Boiler Efficiency Boiler Efficiency as a Steaming 
 Mechanism Summary of Data Used. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 Summary of Suggestions for Fuel Oil Tests and Their 
 
 Tabulation 265 
 
 Efficiency for Oil Fired Boilers Defined Tabulation of Fuel 
 Oil Test Data Principal Data and Results of Boiler Test. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 The Use of Evaporative Tests in Increasing Efficiency 
 
 of Oil Fired Boilers 270 
 
 Furnace Arrangement Oil Burners Draft Flue Gas An- 
 alysis for Maximum Efficiency Regulation Records. 
 
xiv CONTENTS 
 
 APPENDIX I Page 
 
 Illustrative Problems 279 
 
 Thirty-three Examples Solved in Detail, Illustrating the 
 Computations Involved in Economy Tests for Oil Fired 
 Boilers. 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Conclusions and Recommendations on Petroleum 292 
 
 The Summary of a Comprehensive Investigation on Crude 
 Petroleum undertaken by a Committee of the California 
 State Council of Defense. 
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 Helpful Factors in Fuel Oil Study and Conservation 311 
 
 Herein may be found a discussion of the various state and 
 federal aids that have been established to forward the study 
 of efficient use of fuel oil and its conservation. 
 
 Index . ..- 314 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 To the University of California and its splendid traditions 
 whatever is good and helpful within these pages is affection- 
 ately dedicated by the authors. 
 
A LAKEVIEW GUSHER TO SAVE IS TO SERVE 
 
 A huge fuel oil gusher with a capacity of ten thousand barrels daily 
 was tapped recently by the Standard Oil Company in California, and 
 not a drop lost. A thorough knowledge of the fundamental principles 
 involved in fuel oil and steam engineering practice is another powerful 
 factor for good in meeting the present fuel shortage and in putting 
 the three hundred and fifty million barrels of this product now mined 
 annually in the United States to its highest and most economic use. 
 
FUEL OIL AND STEAM 
 ENGINEERING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE MODERN POWER PLANT FOR FUEL OIL 
 CONSUMPTION 
 
 H E enormous growth of 
 the e 1 e c t r i c ,a 1 industry 
 throughout the world dur- 
 ing the past decade has 
 entirely revolutionized 
 methods of power develop- 
 ment. Especially is this 
 true west of the Rocky 
 Mountains, where gigantic 
 natural water powers have 
 been put to a useful pur- 
 pose. Owing to the fact, 
 however, that most of the 
 western streams show a 
 great variation in flow in 
 the different seasons of 
 the year, it is not always 
 
 possible to depend solely upon waterpower for the sup- 
 ply of electrical energy. In recent years the advent of 
 crude petroleum upon the Pacific Coast, representing a 
 total annual production of over one hundred million 
 barrels, has made it possible when rainfall or water 
 supply is lacking to economically supply the needed 
 power. During certain hours of the day, too, when the 
 so-called peak load conditions are to be met by a cen- 
 tral station, additional electrical energy over that pos- 
 sible to supply from the hydroelectric station is found 
 to be necessary. Hence, the steam power plant, con- 
 
 A 20,000 h.p. Curtis Turbine In- 
 stalled in San Francisco 
 
s. ! 
 
 c 
 
 S-o^-S c <D w 
 
 i| till II 
 
 , 
 
THE MODERN POWER PLANT , , ^,: ;3; 
 
 sisting of large concentrated units, is now recognized 
 as an indispensable auxiliary to continuity of service. 
 
 In order that there should be no excessive loss 
 in distribution, these concentrated steam power units 
 are usually found in the heart of the great distribution 
 centers. Especially is this true where abundance of 
 circulating or cooling water may be obtained. Thus 
 we find in Central California, Station A and Station C 
 of the Pacific Gas & Electric Company, and the Fruit- 
 vale Station of the Southern Pacific Company, all sit- 
 uated in the distributing centers of San Francisco and 
 its immediate vicinity. In the Los Angeles district we 
 find that the Redondo and Long Beach plants of the 
 Southern California Edison Company, owing to the 
 lack of abundant cooling water near the distribution 
 center are situated at a distance from it of some fifteen 
 or twenty miles. 
 
 It will now be interesting and instructive to ex- 
 amine the details of a typical power installation of 
 the sort just hinted at. 
 
 First, we shall describe the so-called steam cycle or 
 the journey of the steam-making water from the time 
 it enters the steam boiler until it has passed through 
 the turbine, or power unit, and returned again to the 
 boiler; secondly, we shall consider the circulating 
 water which is necessary in large quantities to convert 
 the exhaust steam back again into water; and thirdly, 
 we shall also touch briefly upon the journey of the oil 
 from the time it leaves the cars at the sidetrack until 
 it disappears from the chimney as a flue gas. We shall 
 also touch briefly upon the general size and functions 
 of apparatus employed to accomplish these results. 
 
 The Steam Cycle 
 
 The Storage Tank. The supply of water for 
 ste.aming purposes is usually brought to a make-up or 
 storage tank from supply wells either on the imme- 
 diate premises or nearby property. If these are not 
 found, it is brought from rivers, lakes, or other bodies 
 
frtfEL 'OIL 1 'AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 *m'YiTe*v^cimty;-Vf*irrmany cases is purchased from 
 some water company supplying the municipality. The 
 storage tanks are varied in size, shape and capacity 
 from a small tank, used as a receiver and hot-well, to a 
 number of tanks, large and small, used for storage 
 purpose only. 
 
 The use of storage tanks depends upon the source 
 and quantity of water supplied and the load carried 
 by the plant. Where there is a steady and positive 
 source of supply, the tank may be of small capacity. 
 In some cases where the supply is small and the stor- 
 age at different periods is unfit for use, larger storage 
 and settling tanks are required, and at times even fil- 
 tration and cleaning tanks also are employed. 
 
 Pumps for Storage Supply. The tanks above 
 alluded to are filled either by pumps, gravitation flow, 
 siphons, or piping from a water company's main. 
 There seems to be no 
 standard type of 
 pump. Both recip- 
 rocating and rotary 
 appear in standard 
 practice. On the 
 other hand, many 
 plants have wells and 
 water is lifted by air 
 pressure. This, on 
 account of the total 
 absence of working- 
 parts, is particularly 
 useful, where there 
 are a number of scat- 
 tered wells, and, also, 
 
 When it becomes Measuring- and Purifying Tank 
 
 necessary to handle for water supply at Re- 
 
 dirty water, that is, 
 
 water containing sand, grit, and dirt in suspension. 
 This air lift consists of a partially submerged water 
 pipe and an air supply pipe. The casing of the well 
 is driven below the lift pipe. The lift pipe is set 
 
THE MODERN POWER PLANT 5 
 
 in the well either with air surrounding it between the 
 pipe and the casing or with a cap over the casing, 
 making the space in the casing air-tight. In some in- 
 stances the well casing is used directly as the lift pipe. 
 
 The Hot- Well. The water from the storage tanks 
 is either pumped or is caused to flow by gravity to a 
 socalled hot-well. The hot-well is a tank which stores 
 the water before it passes to the feed-water heater. It 
 receives water from the condenser and admits an addi- 
 tional supply from the storage tanks to meet the 
 needs of steam generation. 
 
 Feed-Water Heaters. From the hot-well, water 
 is taken into the feed-water heater. The function of a 
 feed-water heater is to heat the entering water to a 
 temperature approximating that of evaporating condi- 
 tions in order to keep the boiler at as even a tempera- 
 ture as possible and at the same time to put the 
 exhaust steam from the auxiliary apparatus to some 
 useful purpose. 
 
 Feed-water heaters are divided into two general 
 types : open and closed. In the open heater the steam 
 comes in direct contact with the cooling water, and it 
 there is a sufficient quantity of exhaust steam, it raises 
 the water to 212 deg. F., the excess steam passing to 
 the atmosphere. In a closed heater, on the other hand, 
 the water and steam do not come in contact with each 
 other, the water usually passing through a set of tubes 
 while the steam is brought in contact with the outside 
 of the tubes. 
 
 Feed-Water Pumps. The water is forced into the 
 boiler by means of feed-water pumps, which may be 
 either ordinary reciprocating or multistage centrifugal 
 pumps, the latter being especially adapted to large 
 power plants. 
 
 In steam plants where closed feed-water heaters 
 are used, the boiler feed pumps are placed before the 
 heater, thus pumping through the heater to the boiler. 
 When open feed-water heaters are used, however, the 
 boiler feed pumps are placed between the heater and 
 the boiler. 
 
6 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Economizers. Economizers are sometimes in- 
 stalled as well as feed-water heaters. The economizer 
 is a series of pipes through which the feed-water 
 passes, placed in the path of escaping gases from the 
 boiler furnace. 
 
 The Boiler. The boiler next receives the water 
 from these heaters and converts it into steam at the 
 desired pressure and temperature. The main types of 
 
 The Redondo Power Plant of the Southern California Edison 
 Company with Oil Storage Tanks 
 
 boilers are water and fire tube. Modern practice in- 
 dicates a decided preference for water tube boilers. A 
 water tube boiler consists of steam and water drums 
 placed on the top and a mud drum placed below, the 
 two being connected by a series of tubes filled with 
 water or steam. The fire is below these tubes, and 
 the heat from the furnace is made to pass around 
 them several times by means of baffles or partitions, 
 thus supplying heat for steam generation. 
 
THE MODERN POWER PLANT 7 
 
 The Superheater. The water being thus con- 
 verted into saturated steam by heat from the furnace 
 of the boiler, is next passed through a series of tubes 
 known as a superheater. These tubes are exposed in 
 a heated portion of the gas passage and thus the steam 
 is raised to a point much higher than its saturated 
 temperature. 
 
 The Separator. From the superheater the steam 
 passes through suitable piping to a separator, placed 
 between the boiler and the engine, or between the boil- 
 er and the turbine. This separator is placed as near 
 the power unit as possible in order to remove all con- 
 densed steam that may be found in the pipes. One 
 form of separator performs its function. by quickly re- 
 versing the direction of the flow of steam, thus depos- 
 iting the water into a drip which is drained off into 
 the condenser. Another form gives a rotary motion to 
 the entering steam thus hurling particles of water 
 off by centrifugal force and collecting it in proper 
 receptacles. Again, baffle plates are at times em- 
 ployed wherein the flow is interrupted by corrugated 
 or fluted plates, and the particles of water adhering to 
 these are then drained off. 
 
 Reciprocating Engine or Steam Turbines. The 
 
 steam next goes from the separator to the main power 
 generating units. The main units in earlier practice 
 were reciprocating engines ; in modern installations 
 they are steam turbines. 
 
 Reciprocating engines may be divided into sev- 
 eral classes, the details of which will not be outlined 
 in this general discussion. Suffice it to say, however, 
 that the main principle upon which reciprocating en- 
 gines act is that steam enters a cylinder under pressure, 
 thus forcing ahead a piston which is connected to a 
 crank arm, thereby causing rotation and the conse- 
 quent generation of power. 
 
 Steam turbines are divided into two general 
 classes known as impulse turbines and reaction tur- 
 bines. In the impulse turbine steam is allowed to 
 expand in passing through a nozzle, thus causing the 
 
8 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 steam to travel at an enormous velocity. The steam, 
 having acquired this velocity by impinging against 
 movable blades, causes rotation and the consequent 
 generation of power. In the reaction turbine, how- 
 ever, the steam is allowed to enter the buckets or ro- 
 tating vanes at a comparatively low velocity. These 
 vanes are so designed that the steam may expand in 
 this movable portion and by means of its expanding 
 pressure cause rotation and hence the generation of 
 power. 
 
 Turbines as a general rule have two other classi- 
 fications, known as vertical and horizontal. The ver- 
 tical turbine revolves upon a vertical shaft, which is 
 supported at the bottom by a thin film of oil under 
 the high pressure of about 900 to 1000 Ib. per in. The 
 horizontal turbine, however, as the name indicates, 
 rotates on a horizontal axis, and is supported in the 
 usual manner by means of suitable bearings. 
 
 Condenser. From the steam turbine, the steam, 
 having expanded to its useful limit, is dropped into 
 an incasement through which cool water is being 
 passed. Upon coming in contact with this cooling de- 
 vice the steam is again converted into water. The 
 apparatus performing this function is known as a con- 
 denser, there being two general classes : surface con- 
 densers and jet condensers. 
 
 In the surface condenser the steam from the tur- 
 bine and the cooling water from a nearby source of 
 supply do not come into direct contact, but the cooling 
 water is passed through inclosed tubes around which 
 the steam from the turbine or power unit is made to 
 pass. This type of condenser is used where large 
 quantities of water are available for cooling purposes 
 but not for steaming purposes. Thus the use of salt 
 water, the only abundant supply available for ocean- 
 going steamships and large power plants situated near 
 the ocean, makes a condenser of the surface type im- 
 perative for such installation. 
 
 In the jet condenser the supply of cooling water is 
 allowed to mingle with the steam as it drops from the 
 
THE MODERN POWER PLANT 9 
 
 turbine or power unit and thus the steam is at once 
 condensed into water. The water from the jet, being 
 pure in supply, may be used in the hot-well for steam 
 purposes. 
 
 Wet Vacuum Pumps. The condensed steam, now 
 in the form of water, is pumped from the condenser 
 back again into the hot-well by means of what is known 
 as the wet vacuum pump. This pump may be either a 
 reciprocating or rotary pump, but in general the ro- 
 tary type seems to have the preference. Thus the 
 entire cycle for the water is traced from the make-up 
 tank or hot-well through the boiler and power unit, 
 and back again to the hot-well. 
 
 Dry Vacuum Pumps. The condenser also has a 
 dry vacuum pump in order to remove from the steam 
 space within any air which may have been trapped 
 from the steam generated in the boiler. This pump 
 is nothing more nor less than an ordinary air com- 
 pressor so designed that it will take air at a very 
 low pressure and compress it up to atmospheric pres- 
 sure, thus pumping, as it were, into the outer atmos- 
 phere such air as may have been entrapped in the 
 condenser. 
 
 Circulating Water Cycle 
 
 From the description of the working of the con- 
 denser it is seen that cooling water is necessary to 
 convert the steam in the condenser back again into 
 water. This cooling supply is known as circulating 
 water, which is usually taken through pipes from 
 some large natural lake or river or even the ocean and 
 forced by means of reciprocating or rotary pumps 
 through the condenser back again into the open. The 
 water in its journey is raised in temperature in the 
 surface condenser system from 15 to 20 deg. F. above 
 its entering condition. 
 
 The Oil Cycle 
 
 Of general interest to boiler testing and operation 
 is the oil cycle employed in the utilization of crude 
 
10 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Cross-section of the Babcock & "Wilcox Boiler Oil-fired 
 
 petroleum as a fuel. Let us then briefly trace the jour- 
 ney the oil makes through the modern power plant. 
 
 In the larger installations the oil is sidetracked 
 from the main railway line in specially designed cars 
 or barges for its easy conveyance and handling. An oil 
 heater, consisting of a coil through which steam is 
 passing, is lowered into the car in order to warm the 
 oil as it is drawn, thus making its transfer considerably 
 
 The Staples & Pfeifer Fuel Oil Atomizer 
 
THE MODERN POWER PLANT 11 
 
 easier. By means of a pump this oil is then taken into a 
 storage tank which may be of wood, steel, or concrete, 
 depending upon the permanence of design thought 
 necessary. From this storage tank the oil is pumped 
 through oil heaters, the exhaust from the pumps in 
 many cases being utilized in still further heating the 
 oil before it reaches the burner or atomizer. 
 
 An atomizer is a device used to vaporize or spray 
 the oil into the furnace in fine globules or particles. 
 This is accomplished by means of steam, air, or some 
 mechanical contrivance. Immediately upon its being 
 
 The Peabody Fuel Oil Atomizer 
 
 sprayed into the furnace carefully designed air regu- 
 lating devices admit sufficient air from below to cause 
 perfect combustion. The heat thus liberated from 
 the oil due to its burning with the oxygen is caused 
 to flow in and around numerous tubes through which 
 water is passing and thus this water is converted into 
 steam. After passing these tubes the heated flue gases 
 brought to life by the burning of the oil with the enter- 
 ing air are then conducted through the chimney out 
 into the atmosphere. 
 
 An -interesting detail in the boiler plant is the 
 automatic system of firing employed to minimize labor 
 and improve efficiency in burning the oil. The Moore 
 patent fuel oil regulating system which, from one cen- 
 tral point, controls the oil supply, the atomizing steam 
 
12 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 and the amount of air to each furnace, is an interesting 
 example. 
 
 This regulator is actuated by the pressure from 
 the main steam header so that any variation in steam 
 requirements will cause a corresponding change in 
 the amount of oil fired, due to an increase or decrease 
 in the steam supply to the oil pumps and atomizers. 
 Any fluctuation in steam pressure operates a gov- 
 
 Steam to Burner Regulator 
 
 ernor whose power arm controls a bleeder valve on the 
 oil pump discharge line, thus cutting off the oil supply 
 if the steam pressure is too high and rcduuktg it if too 
 low. Any change in pressure in the oil main, in turn, 
 controls the amount of steam for atomizing and of air 
 for burning the oil. 
 
 It is found that a simple straight line relationship 
 exists between the amount of steam required for atom- 
 izing the oil and the amount of oil burned. Two dia- 
 phragms are employed to balance the pressures in 
 the oil main and in the steam main connected to the 
 burners, these pressures in this instance being 200 Ib. 
 and 80 Ib. respectively. Any difference in oil pressure 
 
THE MODERN POWER PLANT 13 
 
 operates a rotary chronometer valve in the steam main 
 through the medium of a fulcrum, water motor and 
 lever connecting rod. Likewise the variance in oil 
 pressure actuates a counterweighted rock shaft which 
 moves the dampers so as to vary the amount of air 
 admitted for combustion. 
 
 General Summary 
 
 Thus it is seen in this brief description that by 
 using crude oil as fuel three main cycles of operation 
 are synchronously carried on in the modern power 
 plant. Briefly summarizing, these are as follows : 
 
 Water is taken through the boiler, converted into 
 steam and passed through a driving mechanism, after 
 which the steam is reconverted into water and this 
 water again passed through the boiler. Simultaneously 
 with this action water is being pumped through the 
 circulating system to bring about the conversion of the 
 steam from the power unit into water. Again oil in a 
 finely atomized or gaseous state is being fed through 
 pipes into the furnace, where it immediately combines 
 with the proper quantity of oxygen from the entering 
 air, and thus sufficient heat is liberated from the oil 
 to evaporate the water supply of the boiler into steam 
 for power generation. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS INVOLVED IN FUEL 
 OIL PRACTICE 
 
 N the awful throes of the 
 French Revolution and 
 the immediate years fol- 
 lowing, the old saying 
 that "every cloud has its 
 silver lining" proved true 
 in certain lines of scien- 
 tific advancement, for the 
 metric system of units 
 was conceived and put 
 into practice at that 
 period. 
 
 Our modern system of 
 Arabic numerals, now 
 practi c a 1 1 y universally 
 ad P. ted throughout the 
 civilized world, required 
 over five hundred years of human fumbling and 
 competition with the old Roman method of nu- 
 merical representation, before a complete replacement 
 was accomplished, so intensely are we all creatures 
 of habit and slaves to tradition. 
 
 And so it is that although a period of a century 
 is now passed since the institution of the metric sys- 
 tem, modern central station engineering practice is 
 still entangled with Fahrenheit scales, 'boiler horse- 
 powers, mechanical horsepowers, myriawatts, Baume 
 scale readings for gravity, inches of mercury vacuum, 
 pounds pressure per sq. in., feet and inches all units 
 related so unscientifically and empirically as to cause 
 bewilderment in itself. 
 
 MeC c h a ^ c s a un E Hs er ft y 
 
 14 
 
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS 15 
 
 In the following discussion, however, the authors 
 will endeavor to set forth the various units of ex- 
 pression in such simple language that it is hoped that 
 even the beginner may have little difficulty in under- 
 standing their meaning. Let us first get some concep- 
 tion of the need for units of measurement and how 
 such units are fundamentally conceived. 
 
 Newton's Laws of Motion. Fable has it that Sir 
 Isaac Newton, when a boy in England, lying one day 
 under an apple tree and gazing upward, saw an apple 
 fall to the ground. The contemplation of this phenom- 
 enon led Newton to give to the world three funda- 
 mental laws upon which modern engineering science is 
 built. Briefly stated these laws are as follows : 
 
 Law 1. Every body continues in a state of rest or a state 
 of uniform motion in a straight line 'except in so far as it 
 may be compelled by force to change that state. 
 
 Law 2. Change of motion is proportional to impressed 
 force and takes place in the direction of the straight line 
 in which the force acts. 
 
 Law 3. To every action there is always an equal and 
 contrary reaction; or the mutual actions of any two bodies 
 are always equal and oppositely directed. 
 
 Hence a force is said to be acting according to 
 Law 1 whenever the physical conditions are such that 
 velocity is changed in magnitude or direction. Thus, 
 when a train of cars is started or stopped, a force is 
 necessary to cause this phenomenon, and this is evi- 
 dently a change in the magnitude of the velocity, un 
 the other hand, in the rotation of a fly wheel, the ve- 
 locity may change solely in direction without a change 
 in magnitude, and yet a force be necessary to maintain 
 its parts in equilibrium. Hence a force may be con- 
 sidered as a push or a pull acting upon a definite por- 
 tion of a body, but this tendency may be counteracted 
 in whole or in part 'by the action of other forces. In 
 the latter instance the force is usually denoted as pres- 
 sure, and it is the consideration of this latter case, or 
 the consideration of pressures, that will largely concern 
 our attention in the generation of steam in a boiler. 
 
16 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Three Fundamental Units of Length, Mass and 
 Time. In considering Law 2, it is seen that there is 
 some inherent property in matter that makes it difficult 
 to set it in motion. Physicists have defined this quality 
 of matter as being the inertia of a body. Inertia is 
 expressed quantitatively in engineering practice in 
 terms of its mass, which is measured in pounds. In 
 order that these quantities, force and mass, now intro- 
 duced may be quantitatively measured, it is necessary 
 to have some fundamental units upon which to base our 
 computations. Three units only are fundamentally re- 
 quired ; namely, a unit of length, a unit of mass, and a 
 unit of time. Scien- 
 tific practice has de- 
 duced for these units 
 the centimeter, the 
 gram, and the sec- 
 ond, which are well 
 known and need no 
 further illustration. 
 In engineering prac- 
 tice, however, espe- 
 cially among Eng- 
 lish-speaking people, 
 the foot, the pound, 
 and the second seem 
 to be in almost uni- 
 versal usage. We 
 shall consequently 
 largely express our 
 deductions in terms 
 of these latter units. 
 
 Velocity, Acceleration, and Force Defined. Hav- 
 ing now decided upon the three fundamental units of 
 measurement, let us look into other fundamental 
 definitions and secondary units to be employed. 
 
 Since engineering science must deal with motion 
 and the change of motion per unit of time, it is neces- 
 sary that we have units wherein to measure them. 
 Change of distance per unit of time is known as ve- 
 locity and is expressed in feet per second. A change 
 
 Electrical Energy from Steam 
 Turbine in San Francisco 
 
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS 17 
 
 in distance may, however, be undergoing a change, and 
 this phenomenon is known as acceleration, which is 
 measured by the change of velocity in feet per second. 
 
 Since a force P is fundamentally denned as being 
 proportional to the change in motion of a body, it 
 follows that a force is equal to a constant, M, multi- 
 plied by the change in motion, or, in other words, 
 multiplied by the acceleration, a. 
 
 When M is in pounds mass and a is acceleration 
 in ft. per sec. per sec., the force P is measured in 
 poundals. The pound force is the unit, however, that 
 has 'been universally adopted in engineering practice. 
 The pound is such a force as will give to a pound mass 
 the same change of motion per second as is acquired 
 by a body falling freely to the earth's surface. A body 
 falls to the earth's surface with an acceleration of g ft. 
 per sec. per sec., wherein g has an average value of 
 about 32.16. We have then the fundamental mathe- 
 matical expression for force in pounds as follows : 
 
 P^Ma .................................. (1) 
 
 Whenever, however, it is necessary to ascertain 
 the mass M in pounds from the known weight W of 
 the body in lb., it is necessary of course to divide W 
 by g in order to ascertain the mass. Thus we have in 
 
 W 
 this case P = a ........................... (la) 
 
 g 
 
 Thus, if an automobile weighing 3000 lb. acceler- 
 ates from a stand-still to forty miles per hour in fif- 
 teen seconds, we compute the force required to accom- 
 plish this as follows : 
 
 3000 40 X 5280 
 P = - X 
 
 32.16 60X60X15 
 
 Since this total force must be supplied from the 
 engine cylinder this now gives us a preliminary clew 
 as to how the total engine cylinder area is to be pro- 
 portioned. 
 
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS 19 
 
 Bodies acquire different changes of motion per 
 second, or, in other words, different accelerations at 
 different points on the earth's surface. A formula has 
 been established by means of which proper corrections 
 may be made. A concrete illustration of this will ap- 
 pear in the next chapter wherein a mercury column is 
 used to measure atmospheric and vacuum pressures at 
 different latitudes and altitudes. 
 
 It is unfortunate that mass and force have the same 
 unit of expression, for they are definite distinct phys- 
 ical concepts and should be carefully distinguished in 
 order to avoid confusion. 
 
 Conception of Work and Power. In Law 2 we 
 are informed that the change of motion takes place 
 in the direction of the straight line in which the force 
 acts. It is often convenient to note quantitatively the 
 product of the force and the distance through which 
 the force acts. This product is called "work" and is 
 numerically computed by multiplying the force in 
 pounds by the distance in feet through which the force 
 acts. The resulting computations are then expressed 
 in foot-pounds (ft. lb.). Thus, if the mean effective 
 pressure, P, in a cylinder is measured in pounds per 
 sq. in. and the piston has an area of A sq. in., it follows 
 that the total force or pressure acting in the direction 
 of the motion of the piston is PA. When this force has 
 pushed the piston the length of its stroke, L ft., the 
 work accomplished is PLA ft. lb., since this is the pro- 
 duct of the force and the distance through which the 
 force acts. If there are N working strokes per minute, 
 the ft. lb. of work accomplished every minute are now 
 seen to be PLAN. 
 
 The mention of the words "per minute" in the last 
 statement now indicates to us that the time taken to 
 perform a given quantity of work in engineering prac- 
 tice is of vast importance. Consequently this fact 
 necessitates still another unit of measurement, name- 
 ly that of power. Power is defined as the time rate 
 of doing work. The horsepower is the basic unit. 
 When 550 ft. lb. of work are performed per sec., or 
 33,000 ft. lb. per minute, a horsepower is said to be 
 
20 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 developed. Hence, since in the above engine cylinder 
 PLAN ft. Ib. per min. are being developed, the horse- 
 power is computed as follows : 
 
 PLAN 
 H.P.=- - (2) 
 
 33,000 
 
 Thus, in Alameda, California, a certain Diesel oil 
 engine has a piston area of 113.15 sq. in., a stroke of 1.5 
 
 The Steam Gage Tester Illustrates the Application of a Funda- 
 mental Law, wherein a Pressure is Balanced Against the Force 
 Due to Gravity 
 
 ft., a mean effective pressure of 77.3 Ib. per sq. in., 
 .and each cylinder makes 125 working strokes per 
 minute. Hence, each cylinder develops . 
 
 77.3X1.5XH3.15X125 
 
 H.P. = = 50.0 
 
 33,000 
 
 In a later discussion the particular power units 
 employed in steam engineering practice will be con- 
 sidered in minute detail, such, for instance, as the 
 horsepower, the boiler horsepower, and the myriawatt. 
 
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS 21 
 
 Various Types of Energy Employed for Useful 
 Work. Another important consideration is that of the 
 physical characteristic of a body Which enables it to 
 perform work. This physical quality possessed by a 
 body which enables it to perform a definite quantity of 
 work is spoken of as its energy. Energy then 'is the 
 capacity for work. In general we meet with two great 
 classes of energy. One is that of kinetic energy, or 
 energy of motion. According to Law 2, if the motion 
 of a body be changed, a force is required. Hence a 
 body actually in motion possesses kinetic energy. The 
 other type of energy is known as potential, or energy 
 of position. Thus steam moving with a high velocity, 
 by the nature of its kinetic energy, is enabled to drive 
 the wheels of an impulse turbine. On the other hand, 
 crude petroleum when heated so that it will unite with 
 the oxygen of the air gives out energy in the form of 
 heat, which may be caused to do useful work. The 
 energy inherently latent in the crude petroleum is 
 known then as potential energy. Engineering practice 
 is largely concerned with the harnessing of various 
 forms of energy. Looking about us in nature and in 
 modern engineering accomplishment, we may see nu- 
 merous instances of energy. The steam engine and 
 steam turbine indicate a form of mechanical energy; 
 the incandescent light, or the dynamo, that of electrical 
 energy; the evolving of heat in the burning of crude 
 oil, that of chemical energy ; the human conducting 
 of affairs, that of human energy ; the rays of light from 
 the sun, dissipating eternally 10,000 h.p. over each acre 
 of the earth's surface, that of solar energy, and so on 
 indefinitely. Modern investigation has conclusively 
 established the fact that all types of energy are inter- 
 changeable, and though some types of energy are more 
 readily convertible into other types, yet the basic law 
 is true that no energy in sum total is ever destroyed, 
 and on this basis, or law, known as conservation of en- 
 ergy, practically all of our engineering formulas and 
 computations are evolved. 
 
 The conversion of the chemical energy of crude 
 oil into heat energy of the furnace and thence into 
 
22 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 steam largely concerns our attention in this discussion. 
 Thus each pound of California crude oil will be found 
 in later articles to contain approximately 18,500 Brit- 
 ish thermal units of heat energy. This energy of one 
 pound of oil when wholly converted into mechanical 
 energy* is sufficient to lift a person weighing 150 
 pounds through a vertical skyward journey of some 18 
 miles. Hence the study of the application of such 
 enormous reservoirs of energy, latent in crude pe- 
 troleum, will prove intensely interesting and in- 
 structive. 
 
 The Safety Valve Shows the Possibility of Safety 
 Application, when Pressures Become Unbalanced 
 
 Bearing in mind these fundamental laws, we 
 should now be able to see mentally the exact changes 
 of energy that are going on in the modern power plant ; 
 first as chemical energy in oil, next as latent heat 
 energy in furnace gases, then as latent heat energy in 
 steam, next as energy of motion in the moving parts 
 of the powder generating apparatus, where the final 
 transformation into electrical energy is brought about. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THEORY OF PRESSURES 
 
 N the preceding discus- 
 sions we have seen that 
 a force is said to be act- 
 ing whenever the phys- 
 ical conditions are such 
 that the velocity of a 
 body tends to be changed 
 in magnitude or direc- 
 tion. If two opposing 
 forces are equally bal- 
 anced, there is simply a 
 tendency to change mo- 
 tion and such a force is 
 known as a pressure. 
 This opposing force in 
 the case of a gas or vapor 
 under pressure is sup- 
 plied by the walls of the 
 
 containing vessel. Pressures then constitute an im- 
 portant phase of steam engineering practice. 
 
 The Steam Gage. In steam engineering practice 
 heavy pressures, that is pressures above the atmos- 
 phere, are usually measured by means of an instru- 
 ment known as a steam gage. This gage consists of a 
 piece of hollow metal bent into a circular shape which, 
 under pressure, tends to straighten out. This straight- 
 ening effect is proportional to the pressure under 
 which the boiler is working. A rack and pinion move- 
 ment, placed on the end of this curved piece of metal 
 in the steam gage, causes the needle of the gage to 
 indicate pressure readings. By comparing this gage 
 with a definite standard its accuracy is ascertained. 
 
 23 
 
 The Thermometer Suspension 
 for Barometer Correction 
 
24 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Difference Between Absolute Pressure and 
 Gage Pressure. There is a point at which a gas is 
 said to exert no pressure. This expanded condition 
 of a gas has never been wholly realized in practice, yet 
 this very beginning point or zero value is most con- 
 venient in expressing pressure valuations and such 
 denotations are known as absolute pressure values. 
 The steam gage attached to the boiler does not read 
 absolute pressure values, but such pressure readings 
 are known as pounds pressure per sq. in. (gage) which 
 means that one must add the absolute pressure of the 
 atmosphere, P a , to the gage reading, P g , in order to 
 ascertain the true absolute pressure P under which the 
 boiler is generating steam. Thus 
 
 Thus, if a pressure gage of the steam boiler reads 
 186.4 Ib. per sq. in. and the pressure of the atmosphere 
 is found to be 14.6 Ib. per sq. in., the absolute pressure 
 under which the boiler is operating is 
 
 P = 186.4+ 14.6 = 201.0 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 The Column of Mercury. The most accurate 
 method of measuring small pressures such as the pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere and condenser vacuum pres- 
 sure is by means of a vertical column of mercury. 
 
 7 
 
 h 
 
 The Principle of the Atmospheric Barometer, the 
 
 Condenser Vacuum and the Measurement of 
 
 Pressures above the Atmosphere 
 
 In its simplest form this consists of a long glass tube 
 closed at one end and filled with mercury. The tube 
 is then inverted and the open end placed in a vessel 
 of mercury exposed to the atmosphere or condenser 
 as the case may be, as shown in the illustration. 
 
THEORY OF PRESSURES 
 
 25 
 
 In the case of atmospheric pressure determination 
 the mercury will at once lower itself in the long tube 
 until the height of enclosed mercury above that in the 
 vessel is sufficient to balance the pressure from the 
 atmosphere without. If the barometer be at sea-level 
 and the temperature of the mercury column 32 F., 
 the height of mercury will now measure exactly 29.921 
 inches for such standard conditions. 
 
 Vacuum Pressures. It has already been pointed 
 out that measurement of pressure by means of the 
 
 Interior and Exterior View of Steam Gage, showing Principle 
 of Operation 
 
 steam gage indicates a pressure over and above that 
 exerted by the atmosphere and consequently to ascer- 
 tain the true absolute pressure of the fluid under meas- 
 urement we must add to the gage reading the atmos- 
 pheric pressure of the day. And so in the measuring 
 of the pressure of a condenser, unavoidably there has 
 grown up a similar but opposite custom in which the 
 pressure is measured down from the atmosphere. Such 
 a reading is known as a vacuum pressure. In order 
 then to ascertain the absolute pressure P under which 
 a condenser is operating it is necessary to subtract 
 the vacuum pressure reading P v from the atmospheric 
 pressure reading P a . Thus 
 
26 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 P = Pa Pv .... .......................... (2) 
 
 Thus if a condenser is operating under 28.5 in. of 
 vacuum and the atmospheric pressure is 29.92 in., we 
 mean that the actual air and steam still undisposed 
 of in the condenser exert an absolute pressure equiva- 
 lent to the difference between 29.92 and 28.50 which is 
 1.42 in. of mercury. 
 
 Confusion in Pressure Units. We now see that 
 readings in inches of mercury for low pressure and 
 pounds pressure per sq. in. for high pressure are ex- 
 pressions that are not at all comparable to each other 
 and hence their interrelation becomes an endless 
 source of confusion. 
 
 Relationship of Pressure Units. By careful meas- 
 urement of the atmosphere at sea-level, scientists have 
 established that the height of a mercury column with 
 the mercury at 32 F. in temperature is 29.921 in. 
 Such a column of mercury one square inch in cross- 
 section weighs 14.696 Ib. This gives us at once a 
 method by which we may transfer inches of mercury 
 I m into pounds of pressure per square inch P. Thus 
 
 I m 29.921 
 
 - ........... .................. (3) 
 
 P 14.696 
 
 Inches of Water and Pounds Pressure per Square 
 Inch. Very slight pressures are often measured in 
 inches of water above or below atmospheric pressures. 
 Thus, in determining the draft of a chimney, a "U" 
 tube is inserted into the chimney, and the height of 
 the unbalanced portion of the water column indicates 
 the draft in the chimney in inches of water. Since a 
 column of water 1728 in. high and one square inch in 
 cross-section at 100 F. weighs exactly 62 Ib., the 
 inches of water I w may be converted into Ib. pressure 
 per sq. in. P by the formula 
 
 I w 1728 
 
 P 62 
 
 The Thirty Inch Vacuum. In engineering prac- 
 tice a thirty inch mercury vacuum is considered to be 
 
THEORY OF PRESSURES 
 
 27 
 
 the point of absolute zero in pressure. This is not 
 strictly true, however, for we have just seen that such 
 an absolute zero point is reached under a vacuum pres- 
 sure of 29.921 in. of mer- 
 cury. The reading of 
 the column of mercury 
 in this case is taken 
 when the mercury is at 
 a temperature of 32 F., 
 which is the standard 
 temperature for scien- 
 tific measurement. If, 
 however, we change our 
 standard to that of 58.4 
 F. the same weight or 
 pressure of mercury now 
 measures just 30.0 in. 
 This temperature is 
 more nearly that of the 
 condenser room where 
 atmospheric pressures 
 are read and since it 
 makes a column of even 
 thirty inches in height, 
 we shall adopt such a 
 reading at 58.4 F. as 
 standard for absolute 
 vacuum measurement. We shall, however, bear in 
 mind that the same column at 32 F. would stand at 
 29.921 inches. 
 
 The Practical Formula for Conversion of Pressures 
 Since we have thus established an even unit for the 
 standard vacuum, we may also consider 14.7 pounds 
 pressure per square inch as its equivalent instead of 
 the cumbersome figure of 14.696 as stated above. This 
 involves an error of four points in fifteen thousand 
 which is negligible. Our formula for reduction on the 
 thirty inch vacuum becomes 
 
 Im 30 
 
 -'.. (5) 
 
 P 14.7 
 
 Typical Condenser Barometer for 
 Steam Turbine Operation 
 
28 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 To Reduce Barometer Readings to the Standard 
 Thirty Inch Vacuum. Although 58.4 is nearer the 
 condenser room temperature than is the 32 F. basis, 
 still for accurate measurement the actual temperature 
 of the medium surrounding the mercury column 
 should be ascertained and thus a correction must be 
 made to reduce the height of the mercury column to 
 what it would read if at a temperature of 58.4 F. 
 
 This is best illustrated by taking a concrete exam- 
 ple. Let us suppose that the mercury column inserted 
 into the condenser of a turbine reads 28.56 in. when 
 the mercury temperature is 82 F. and that a barom- 
 eter in the vicinity indicates the atmospheric pressure 
 in the condenser room to be 30.08 in. of mercury 
 when its mercury column is at 78 F. 
 
 The first thing to be done in the solution of this 
 problem is to ascertain what the two mercury col- 
 umns would have read had their respective mercury 
 columns been at 58.4 F. Scientific investigation indi- 
 cates that the expansion of mercury is according to 
 the following equation in which I t is the height in 
 inches of mercury at t F. and I m at 58.4 F. 
 
 I t = I m [1.0026 + .000104 (t 58.4) ] (6) 
 
 Hence, to ascertain the true vacuum reading in inches 
 of mercury we find by substitution 
 
 28.56 I m [1.0026 + .000104 (82 58.4) ] 
 .M m = 28.415. 
 
 Similarly to compute the corrected barometer 
 reading of the day, we find by substitution that 
 
 30.08 = I m [1.0026 + .000104 (78 58.4) ] 
 .M m = 29.942. 
 
 The net absolute pressure will now be the differ- 
 ence between the corrected atmospheric barometer 
 reading and the corrected vacuum reading for the 
 condenser, which according to equation (2) is 
 
 IP = 29.942 28.415 = 1.527 in. of mercury. 
 Since all standard vacuums in engineering prac- 
 tice are now measured on a 30 inch vacuum basis, we 
 
THEORY OF PRESSURES 29 
 
 find that the corrected vacuum reading I cv for a con- 
 denser is 
 
 lev = 30 Ip .............................. (7) 
 
 .M cv = 30 1.527 = 28.473 in. (vacuum). 
 
 This corrected vacuum reading I cv which in this 
 case is 28.473 is commonly spoken of as the vacuum 
 referred to a 30 inch barometer. 
 
 For delicate scientific work this reading should 
 be carried to still further refinements by making a cor- 
 rection for the expansion of the brass on the barom- 
 eter scale and also for a variation in gravity at the 
 particular place of measurement. At high altitudes 
 and extreme northern and southern latitudes such a 
 correction is essential. 
 
 Corrections for the Brass Scale of a Barometer. 
 
 Professor Marks in his computation of steam tables for 
 condenser work published by the 
 Wheeler Condenser and Engi- 
 neering Company has ably dis- 
 cussed the correction for relative 
 expansion of mercury and the 
 brass scale of the barometer as 
 follows : 
 
 The linear expansion of brass 
 is about one-tenth that of the ap- 
 parent linear expansion of mer- 
 cury exerting a constant pressure. 
 Where a mercury column has a 
 
 A hand Adjuster brass scale extending its whole 
 
 ' height which is free to expand 
 
 with changes in temperature, the 
 
 readings on the brass scale of the height of the mercury 
 column must be corrected for the relative expansion 
 of the mercury and the brass scale. The following 
 table is taken from table 99 of the Smithsonian phys- 
 ical tables and gives the constants for various barom- 
 eter heights by which to multiply the temperature 
 correction in order to obtain the corrections of the 
 mercury column. 
 
30 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Reduction of Barometric Height to Standard 
 
 Temperature Cor 
 
 rections for 
 
 Relative Expansion 
 
 of Mercury 
 
 and Brass Scale. 
 
 Height of 
 
 Correction 
 
 Height of 
 
 Correction 
 
 Barometer 
 
 in inches per 
 
 Barometer 
 
 in inches per 
 
 in inches. 
 
 deg. F. 
 
 in. inches. 
 
 deg. F. 
 
 20.0 
 
 O.iOOlSl 
 
 28.0 
 
 0.00254 
 
 20.5 
 
 .00185 
 
 28.5 
 
 .00258 
 
 21.0 
 
 .0(0190 
 
 29.0 
 
 .00263 
 
 21.5 
 
 .00194 
 
 29.2 
 
 .00265 
 
 22..0 
 
 .00199 
 
 29.4 
 
 .00267 
 
 22.5 
 
 .00203 
 
 29.6 
 
 .00268 
 
 23.0 
 
 .00208 
 
 29.8 
 
 .00270 
 
 23.5 
 
 .00212 
 
 30.0 
 
 .00272 
 
 24.0 
 
 0.00217 
 
 30.2 
 
 0.00274 
 
 24.5 
 
 .00221 
 
 3.0.4 
 
 .00276 
 
 25.0 
 
 .00226 
 
 30.6 
 
 .00277 
 
 25.5 
 
 .00231 
 
 30.8 
 
 .00279 
 
 26.0 
 
 .00236 
 
 31.0 
 
 .00281 
 
 26.5 
 
 .00240 
 
 31.2 
 
 .00283 
 
 27.0 
 
 .00245 
 
 31.4 
 
 .00285 
 
 27.5 
 
 .00249 
 
 31.6 
 
 .00287 
 
 Example: Reading of barometer 29.84, tempera- 
 ture of barometer 77 F. In the foregoing table the 
 nearest figure to 29.84 is 29.8 opposite which the cor- 
 rection factor is .0027. If it is desired to reduce the 
 barometer to a 58.4 F. standard, the change in tern- 
 
 Five Outlets for Measuring Chimney Draft Pressures 
 with One Draft Gage 
 
THEORY OF PRESSURES 31 
 
 perature is from 79 to 58.4 = 20.6 and multiplying 
 .0027 by 20.6 we get .056 inches as the barometer cor- 
 rection. Subtracting this from 29.84 in. we get the 
 barometer reading for mercury at 58.4 F. as 29.84 in. 
 .056 in. = 29.784 in. 
 
 Corrections for Altitude and Latitude. Since the 
 height of a mercury column gives true pressure read- 
 ings so long as it represents a definite force or weight 
 and since the weight or force of gravity varies at dif- 
 ferent altitudes and latitudes over the earth's surface, 
 it is necessary to enter such a correction when the 
 extreme refinements of the work in hand demand it. 
 The standard value of gravity is taken at 32.173. The 
 following formula, in which I mg is the correct reading, 
 g is the gravity coefficient, A the latitude, and h the 
 altitude at the point of pressure measurement, may be 
 applied for this correction. 
 
 32.173 .082 Cos2A .000003 h 
 
 Img=[- -] I m ..-. (8) 
 
 32.173 
 
 Thus in a certain engineering investigation in 
 Berkeley, California, where the latitude is 38 and the 
 elevation 50 ft., the condenser mercury column cor- 
 rected for temperature read 28.473 in. What should 
 its properly corrected reading be when gravity is taken 
 into consideration? 
 
 By substitution 
 
 32.173 .082 X -2419 .00015 
 Img = - -X 28.745 
 
 32.173 
 
 32.153 
 
 - X 28.473 = 28.464. 
 
 32.173 
 
 Such refinements as the one for brass scale cor- 
 rection and especially for latitude and altitude read- 
 justments are not necessary in most steam engineer- 
 ing tests. It is well, however, to bear in mind such 
 computation in case investigations of extreme detail 
 should arise. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES 
 
 HEN the finger is inserted 
 into a cup of warm water 
 and then again into water 
 formed by the melting of 
 ice a distinct sensation is 
 felt in each case. Many 
 years ago scientists and 
 philosophers attempted to 
 explain this sensation by 
 assuming that a substance 
 existed which they called 
 "caloric" whose entrance 
 into our bodies caused the 
 sensation of warmth and 
 whose egress therefrom 
 gave the sensation of cold. 
 But heat, if a substance at 
 all, cannot be similar to 
 
 t h substances With 
 
 . . 
 
 which we are familiar, 
 since a hot body weighs no more than one which is 
 cold. 
 
 The discussion in this article is not concerned 
 directly with heat but rather with one of its 
 effects, namely, that of change in temperature. 
 From the above it is readily seen that temperature 
 is an indicator of the physical effect of heat rather 
 than a quantitative means of heat measurement. This 
 statement is easily proved, for when we place our 
 fingers alternately upon a piece of cold and hot 
 ^f on at the temperatures mentioned for water in the 
 
 32 
 
 A Thermocouple for High Tern- 
 perature Measurement 
 
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES 33 
 
 opening paragraph of this discussion, the same phys- 
 ical sensation is experienced. Yet to transform the 
 iron from a temperature ot freezing water to that of 
 boiling water takes far less heat than for the trans- 
 fer of water under similar conditions. 
 
 Fixed Points for Thermometer Calibration. Since 
 water is the most generally distributed substance 
 throughout nature and one of the most convenient 
 for handling in the laboratory its freezing point and 
 boiling point are used by common consent as two 
 definite marks for temperature calibration. Thus in 
 the Centigrade scale the freezing point of water .is the 
 zero point and the boiling point of water under stand- 
 ard conditions of atmospheric pressure is the one 
 hundred unit point. Again, in the Fahrenheit scale 
 the freezing point of water is the thirty-second division 
 point and the boiling point of water the two hundred 
 and twelfth division point. Similarly for the Reaumur 
 scale, the freezing point of water is the zero division 
 point and the boiling point of water, the eightieth 
 division point. 
 
 The Various Temperature. Scales Employed. The 
 Centigrade scale as described above has grown into 
 rapid use in scientific investigation and now may be 
 said to be universally adopted throughout the world 
 for such practice. The Fahrenheit scale, on the other 
 hand, has so ingrained itself into engineering practice 
 that engineers are loath to part with it in spite or 
 its cumbersome and unscientific divisions. In this 
 work, then, we shall be compelled to express temper- 
 ature measurement in the Fahrenheit scale. The 
 Reaumer scale, mentioned above, finds slight applica- 
 tion in this country and in such places where it is 
 employed it is used for measurement in stills and 
 breweries. All three of these scales are often for 
 scientific purposes transformed to a socalled absolute 
 zero which is 459.4! yF. below the ordinary zero 
 on the Fahrenheit scale. A free discussion of this 
 absolute scale will be set forth in a discussion on 
 
34 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 thermodynamic laws of gases which will be found in 
 another chapter. 
 
 Relationship of Fahrenheit and Centigrade Values. 
 
 In order that transfers from one thermometer scale 
 to another may be conveniently and rapidly accom- 
 plished, it now becomes necessary to develop some 
 simple mathematical relationships whereby this may 
 be done. Since all of the scales are graduated uni- 
 formly between the freezing and boiling point of water, 
 their relationship may be said to be linear. In the 
 study of analytical geometry we find that such rela- 
 tionships may be expressed by the straight line 
 formula : 
 
 y 
 
 X 9 X, 
 
 (i) 
 
 The Linear Relationship of Temperature Scales 
 
 wherein x and y represent any simultaneous tempera- 
 tures expressed in different scale readings and the 
 subscripts 1 and 2 represent definitely known points in 
 correspondence. In order then to find a relationship 
 between the Fahrenheit and Centigrade scale, if x rep- 
 resents the Fahrenheit and y the Centigrade, we find 
 that Xj would be 32 when y is 0, and x 2 would be 212 
 when y 2 is 100. Consequently we derive a relationship 
 thus: 
 
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES 35 
 
 F 32 C 
 
 21232 100 
 
 180 
 F 32 = C 
 
 100 
 9 
 .-. F 32 = C (2) 
 
 5 
 
 As an example, if the entering water in a boiler 
 test is 84 F., this value is converted at once to the 
 Centigrade scale by substituting in the formula 
 
 9 
 F 32 = C 
 
 5 
 
 5 5 
 
 or C = (F 32) = (84 32) = 28.9 
 9 9 
 
 Relationship of Fahrenheit and Reaumur Values. 
 A relationship between the Fahrenheit and Reaumur 
 scales is similarly established. 
 
 9 
 /.F 32 = R ' (3) 
 
 4 
 
 Thus in order to illustrate the application of this 
 formula a temperature of 84 F. reduces to the Reau- 
 mur scale as follows : 
 
 9 
 84 32 = R 
 
 4 
 
 .-. R = 23.1 
 
 Relationship of Centigrade and Reaumur Values. 
 To develop a relationship between the Centigrade and 
 Reaumur scales the same reasoning is involved. 
 
 5 
 /.C = R (4) 
 
 4 
 
36 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Thus to convert a Centigrade reading of 28.9 
 into the Reaumur scale, we substitute directly 
 
 4 
 R = C 
 
 5 
 
 . 4 
 or R = X 28.9 = 23.1 
 
 5 
 
 In case that rapidity is necessary in the conversion 
 of one scale to another and extreme accuracy is not 
 required, a conversion chart is easily constructed 
 whereby these three scales may be converted graph- 
 ically from one to the other. 
 
 Methods of Temperature Measurement. The 
 
 ascertaining of correct temperatures is of ex- 
 treme importance. Due to the wide range of tem- 
 peratures that occur in practice, a number of different 
 methods of temperature measurement are necessary. 
 The method to be employed depends upon the range 
 of temperature involved and often too upon the access- 
 ibility of the object whose temperature is desired. 
 We shall describe first the approximate methods that 
 are used in the ascertaining of temperatures. 
 
 Estimation by Flame Color. A number of years 
 ago in the steel industry, it was found that a flame 
 emitted definite gradations of color depending upon 
 its temperature. In 1905 the Bureau of Standards 
 issued a bulletin covering this point and made a state- 
 ment that one may ascertain temperatures with an 
 accuracy of 100 to 150 F. by means of eye judgment. 
 It is stated, however, that it is impossible to ascertain 
 temperatures above 2200 F. As this is the upper 
 limit of furnace heating in steam engineering, we 
 need not then be concerned with exceeding the limit. 
 
 In a booklet published by the Halcomb Steel 
 Company, 1908, the following tabulation is given t(/ 
 aid eye judgment in estimating temperatures: 
 
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES 
 
 37 
 
 c. 
 
 op 
 
 Colors. C. F. 
 
 Colors. 
 
 400 
 
 752 
 
 Red, 
 
 visible 
 
 in 
 
 the 
 
 dark 
 
 1000 
 
 1832 
 
 Bright cherry-red 
 
 474 
 
 885 
 
 Red, 
 
 visible 
 
 in 
 
 the 
 
 twilight . . 
 
 1100 
 
 2012 
 
 Orange-red. 
 
 525 
 
 975 
 
 Red, 
 
 visible 
 
 in 
 
 the 
 
 day-light . 
 
 1200 
 
 2192 
 
 Orange-yellow. 
 
 581 
 
 1077 
 
 Red, 
 
 visible 
 
 in 
 
 the 
 
 sunlight . 
 
 1300 
 
 2372 
 
 Yellow-white. 
 
 700 
 
 1292 
 
 Dark 
 
 red 
 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 2552 
 
 White welding heat 
 
 son 
 
 1472 
 
 Dull 
 
 , , 
 
 1500 
 
 2732 
 
 Brilliant white. 
 
 oUU 
 
 900 
 
 1652 
 
 
 1600 
 
 2912 
 
 Dazzling white 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 (bluish white). 
 
 The Melting Point of Metals and Alloys. Another 
 method of approximately ascertain- 
 ing the temperature is by means of 
 the melting points of alloys and 
 metals. A number of these alloys 
 are on the market and are con- 
 venient in ascertaining the approxi- 
 mate temperature of furnaces and 
 other heat generating apparatus. 
 
 The Method of Immersion. A 
 
 third method is by heating a piece 
 of metal of known weight and spe- 
 cific heat to the temperature of the 
 furnace and then immersing the 
 heated body in water. By knowing 
 the rise in temperature of the water, the tempera- 
 ture of the furnace may be approximately ascertained. 
 The loss of heat in the hot substance is evidently 
 equal to the heat gained by the water. Let t x be the 
 unknown temperature of the hot substance, M x the 
 weight of the hot substance in lb., M w the weight 
 of the water in lb., t 2 the final temperature of the 
 water, t x the initial temperature of water, and c x the 
 specific heat of the hot substance ; then, if we assume 
 that the specific heat of the water is 1, we may write 
 at once 
 
 A Cup for Melting 
 Alloys 
 
 M x (t x 1 2 ) c x = M w (t 2 1 
 
 M w (t 2 -t a ) 
 Therefore, t x = - f- t 2 
 
 (5) 
 
 M x c x 
 
 Mean specific heats of a number of metals which 
 may be used for this purpose are as follows : 
 
38 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The 
 
 Mean Specific Heats. 
 
 Ordinary Mean for High 
 
 Substance. Temperature. Temperature. 
 
 Platinum ................... 032 .038 
 
 Iron (cast) ................. 130 .180 
 
 Nickel ..................... 109 .136 
 
 As an example let us suppose that 4 Ib. of cast 
 iron heated to an unknown temperature is plunged 
 into 20 Ib. of water at 64 F., thereby raising the 
 water to a temperature of 124 F. By substituting 
 in the formula, we have 
 
 20(124 64) 
 
 tx = - -+124= 1791 F. 
 
 4X-180 
 
 Alcohol and Mercurial Thermometers. 
 
 For accurate temperature readings 
 up to 900 F. the expansion of 
 liquids is made use of, for experi- 
 ment shows that the expansion of 
 a liquid is proportional to the rise 
 of temperature. Since alcohol has 
 a low freezing point, in fact so low 
 that it cannot be reached by any 
 natural temperature, the alcohol 
 thermometer is usually made use of 
 for low temperature readings. Since 
 its boiling point is also compara- 
 tively low, it is impracticable for 
 high temperatures. Mercury, on the 
 other hand, is an excellent substance 
 to use in thermometers as the varia- 
 tion in its expansion coefficient 
 with rise of temperature is such 
 that' the deleterious effect of the 
 expansion coefficient in the glass 
 tube is very nearly offset by the 
 compensating error introduced by 
 assuming a constant expansion coefficient for the 
 mercury. Mercury boils at 676 F. and for many de- 
 grees below this point gives off considerable vapor. 
 As a consequence the ordinary mercurial thermometer 
 
 Hygrometer for 
 
 Boiler Room 
 
 Humidity 
 
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES 
 
 39 
 
 cannot be depended upon for a higher temperature 
 than 500 F. An ingenious device, however, enables 
 us to make use of the mercurial thermometer up to 
 800 or 900 F. A small amount of nitrogen gas is 
 put in the upper column of the thermometer tube 
 and as the mercurial column expands it consequently 
 compresses the nitrogen gas. The reactive pressure 
 of the gas upon the mercury raises its boiling point 
 so that the high temperatures above indicated can 
 be accurately read. 
 
 The Expansion Pyrometer. For the estimating 
 of temperatures higher than 900 a number of types 
 of instruments are employed. The expansion py- 
 rometer, which acts upon the principle that the ex- 
 pansion of metals is proportional to the rise in tem- 
 perature may be quite accurately used between the 
 range of 1200 to 1500 F. 
 
 Electrical Thermometers. - - Electrical thermo- 
 
 i meters are, however, the 
 
 most satisfactory and ac- 
 curate for steam engineer- 
 ing practice. Electrical 
 thermometers act upon 
 two distinct physical prin- 
 ciples. One class operates 
 upon the principle that 
 the junction point of two 
 metals when heated gen- 
 erates an electromotive 
 force which is propor- 
 tional to the temperature 
 rise. Consequently if the 
 readings are made by 
 means of a delicate gal- 
 vanometer, calibrated to 
 read degrees Fahrenheit, 
 an accurate type of instru- 
 ment is at once evolved, 
 based upon the experi- 
 
 Thermo- couple Ready for In- 
 sertion in the Furnace 
 
 The other principle is 
 
 mental fact that the resistance of a metal varies with 
 
40 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the temperature rise. . Hence, by measuring this rise in 
 electrical resistance by delicately calibrated instru- 
 ments, an accurate thermometer results. The thermo- 
 
 Pyrometer 
 
 Principle of Operation of the Thermo-couple 
 
 couples made use of for the former type of electrical 
 . thermometer usually consist of platinum with plati- 
 num alloyed with 10 per cent of rhodium. In the lat- 
 ter class the resistance element is enclosed in a highly 
 refractory substance. 
 
 The Radiation Pyrometer. Where temperatures 
 are above the limit of measurement by rare metal 
 pyrometers, or where the point of high temperature 
 is inaccessible to the thermo-couple, the radiation 
 pyrometer is employed. This instrument is focused 
 on the hot body at a distance. The heat radiating 
 from the object under investigation is reflected by 
 a concave mirror in the back of the pyrometer tele- 
 scope and concentrated at a focus point on a small 
 thermo-couple. This thermo-couple gives off elec- 
 trical energy proportional to the temperature of the 
 radiating body, and as a consequence the temperature 
 is thus ascertained. 
 
 Thus, the whole range of temperatures met with 
 in engineering practice is covered by some form of 
 accurate temperature indicating device. The Bureau 
 of Standards at Washington is ready to calibrate for 
 a small fee any thermometer sent to them. At least 
 
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES 
 
 41 
 
 one carefully calibrated thermometer should be kept 
 for reference or comparison in the laboratory of any 
 one interested in steam engineering testing. 
 
 Standardization and Testing of Thermometers. 
 
 The testing of thermometers is of utmost im- 
 portance. All thermometers should be carefully cali- 
 brated for refined steam engineering tests. The 
 Bureau of Standards has issued in. its circular No. 8, 
 an excellent guide for such work. All thermometers 
 are calibrated when completely immersed in the sub- 
 stance whose temperature is being ascertained. 
 
 The Stem Correction. In engineering practice 
 temperatures of steam and water are 
 usually ascertained by setting the 
 thermometer into a well which is 
 sunk into the pipe conveying the 
 steam or water. This well is filled 
 with mercury or oil and the heat 
 transferred to the thermometer by 
 conduction. As a consequence, how- 
 ever, a portion of the thermometer 
 protrudes in the atmosphere above 
 the well and is consequently at a 
 lower temperature. A so-called stem 
 correction is hence necessary to as- 
 certain the correct reading of the 
 thermometer. 
 
 This correction is large if the number of degrees 
 emergent and the difference of temperature between 
 the bath and the space above it are large. It may 
 amount to more than 35 F. for measurements made 
 with a mercurial thermometer at 750 F. 
 
 The stem correction may be computed from the 
 following formula : 
 
 Stem correction = K n(t 2 tj (6) 
 
 K = factor for relative expansion of mercury in glass ; 
 
 0.00015 to 0.00016 for Centigrade thermometers; 
 
 0.000083 to 0.000089 for Fahrenheit thermometers , 
 
 at ordinary temperatures, depending upon the 
 
 glass of which the stem is made. 
 
 Well for 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 Insertion 
 
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 number of degrees emergent from the bath. 
 
 temperature of the bath. 
 
 mean temperature of the emergent stem. 
 
 Galvanometer for Delicate Temperature Measurement 
 
 Thus suppose that the observed temperature was 
 100 C. and the thermometer was immersed to the 20 
 mark on the scale, so that 80 of the mercury column 
 projected out into the air and the mean temperature 
 of the emergent column was found to be 25 C., then 
 
 Stem Correction = 0.00015 X 80 X (100 25) 
 -= 0.9. 
 
 As the stem was at a lower temperature than 
 the bulb, the thermometer read too low, so that this 
 correction must be added to the observed reading to 
 find the reading corresponding to total immersion. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY LAWS OF THERMO- 
 DYNAMICS 
 
 S pointed out in the dis- 
 cussion on temperatures, 
 scientists in former times 
 conceived that the phe- 
 nomena accompanying the 
 addition or subtraction of 
 heat could only be ex- 
 plained by the existence 
 of a fluid which they called 
 "caloric." 
 
 But these scientists or 
 calorists, as they were 
 called, had to give a hith- 
 erto unknown property to 
 their substance and main- 
 tained that "caloric" was a 
 weightless fluid. This 
 substance also had the property of rilling the inter- 
 stices of bodies and of passing between bodies over 
 any intervening space. To illustrate, they said, 
 "caloric" would 'fill the interstices of a body as water 
 enters a sponge. Now, when we squeeze a sponge 
 some of the water oozes out and wets our hands. The 
 calorists assumed that the friction or rubbing of a body 
 with the hand for instance, made the hand warm be- 
 cause friction was supposed to decrease the capacity 
 of a body for holding "caloric," and as in the squeez- 
 ing of the sponge, water oozes out, so caloric oozed 
 out and made the hand feel warm. 
 
 The Irrefutable Experiments of Davy. Davy, 
 however, exploded this theory in 1799, when by rub- 
 
 43 
 
 The Establishment 
 of Boyle's Law 
 
44 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 bing two pieces of ice together, he actually caused 
 the ice to melt. This evidently would be impossible 
 under the caloric theory above stated, according to 
 which friction caused capacity for caloric to be de- 
 creased. Yet here was evidenced the adverse. From 
 
 The Furnace Gases and Entering- Air Obey Rigid but Simple 
 Thermodynamic Laws. (Boiler Fronts at .Long Beach Plant of 
 the Southern California Edison Company.) 
 
 time immemorial, men have considered that the force 
 of truth is almighty, and yet how slow the human race 
 is to overthrow an imperfect but well-established the- 
 ory. For instance, so powerful was Sir Isaac Newton's 
 grip on the scientific world that because he announced 
 that no successful correction could ever be made for 
 the uneven refraction of light rays in lenses, the whole 
 world for fifty years thoroughly abandoned the idea 
 of ever being able to use refractive telescopes, and con- 
 sequently, during that period we find telescopic re- 
 flective mirrors used entirely. 
 
 Joule's Complete Demonstration of the Mechanical 
 Equivalent of Heat. And so it was in the case of the 
 theory of heat. Notwithstanding the all-powerful dem- 
 onstration of Davy in 1799, it remained for Joule, 
 nearly .fifty years later to finally put forth the fin- 
 ishing data to forever overthrow the caloric theory and 
 
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 45 
 
 introduce the modern idea of heat. This eminent sci- 
 entist constructed a machine in many respects similar 
 to an ice-cream freezer, the essential difference being, 
 however, that the machine was used to increase the 
 heat in the liquid instead of cooling the same. Joule 
 conceived the idea that heat was one form of energy. 
 Should this be true, it should be mutually convertible. 
 One of the easiest methods of measuring energy is the 
 well known pile driver. Energy is definitely computed 
 by weighing the hammer in pounds and multiplying 
 this weight by the distance in feet through which the 
 weight falls. The result is foot pounds energy. By 
 a clever contrivance constructed somewhat on this 
 principle, Joule measured the amount of energy ab- 
 sorbed in his machine and the consequent rise of tem- 
 perature in the liquid. He soon established the fact 
 that a definite number of foot-pounds of mechanical 
 energy was equivalent to a definite number of heat 
 units in the liquid. This experimental result is most 
 important and is one of the basic principles of mod- 
 ern engineering. Careful scientific measurements have 
 proved that one British thermal unit, or B.t.u. of heat 
 energy is equivalent to 777.5 foot-pounds of mechanical 
 energy. 
 
 The First Law of Thermodynamics. From this 
 discussion it follows that the first and greatest law of 
 thermodynamics is the mathematical expression of the 
 fact that heat energy and mechanical energy are 
 mutually interchangeable. Thus if W represents en- 
 ergy in foot-pounds ; H, energy in heat units ; and J, 
 this experimentally determined constant, we have the 
 relationship 
 
 W==HJ (1) 
 
 In steam engineering practice H is usually ex- 
 pressed in B.t.u. and the quantity J has a value of 777.5 
 as has been stated above. In other words, 1 B.t.u. 
 of heat energy is equivalent to 777.5 ft. Ib. of mechan- 
 ical energy. In the chapter on units, we have defined 
 the fundamental unit of energy, namely the foot-pound. 
 This unit of heat energy now introduced, known as the 
 
46 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 British thermal unit is the l/180th part of the heat 
 necessary to raise one pound of water from 32 F. to 
 212 F. under standard atmospheric conditions of pres- 
 sure. This is the unit which has been adopted by 
 Marks and Davis, in their ''Steam Tables and Dia- 
 grams" and although differing from other previously 
 existing units is nevertheless practically universally 
 adopted at this time. 
 
 Boyle's Law. Early in the last century, Boyle 
 established the fact that a perfect gas, such as air, 
 follows very closely the law known as Boyle's law, 
 that the product of its pressure and volume is always 
 constant provided the temperature is kept constant. 
 Expressing this in mathematical symbols, if p is the 
 absolute pressure in Ib. per sq. ft. ; v, the volume in 
 cu. ft. cccupied by 1 Ib., we have the relationship 
 
 p v = po v (2) 
 
 Steam is not a perfect gas and hence does not obey 
 this law with exactness, still the formula may be used 
 with a fair degree of accuracy when considering super- 
 heated steam. Accurate formulas will be given later 
 for steam variation. As an instance, however, oi ap- 
 proximate computation, let us consider a boiler oper- 
 ating at 186.3 Ib. gage or 201 Ib. absolute pressure 
 per sq. in., and producing superheated steam at 527 F. 
 If we know the volume at one pressure we may ascer- 
 tain approximately the volume at another pressure. 
 In the steam tables the volume of steam at 201 Ib. 
 pressure per sq. in. is found to be 2.83 cu. ft. per Ib. 
 Hence at 250 Ib. pressure the volume would become 
 
 200 X 2.83 
 
 v = 2.26 cu. ft. per Ib. The steam tables 
 
 250 
 
 give this quantity by actual experiment as 2.31. Hence 
 the formula is seen to work with superheated steam 
 within 2.5 per cent of accuracy. For chimney flue gases 
 and air, however, Boyle's law is very exact. 
 
 Charles' Law. In 1806 another law was found 
 connecting the variables of a perfect gas. This great 
 law, known as Charles' Law sets forth the fact that 
 
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 
 
 47 
 
 when the pressure is kept constant the volume of a 
 gas increases proportionately to the increase in tem- 
 
 Superheated Steam Approximately Obeys Simple Thermodynamic 
 Laws. (Superheated Steam Ducts of Station C of the Pacific Gas 
 & Electric Company in Oakland.) 
 
 perature. Thus if t is the temperature in degrees 
 Fahrenheit this law states that 
 
 t 32 
 
 - - 
 
 491.6 
 
 (3) 
 
 As an illustration, if we wish to compute the 
 volume that 1 Ib. of air would occupy in a furnace at 
 2100 F., knowing that v has a value of 12.39 cu. ft. for 
 
 air at 32 F. then v = 12.39 
 
 2100 32 
 
 491.6 
 
 ' = 69.8 
 
 cu. ft. 
 
 The Absolute Scale. The establishment of this law 
 indicates the fact that all temperatures should natur- 
 ally be measured from a point other than that of the 
 freezing temperature of water. Thus it is seen from 
 the above that a point of 459.6 below the ordinary 
 Fahrenheit scale would be known as an absolute zero. 
 Throughout this work then T will represent the abso- 
 lute scale and t the ordinary scale. Thus 
 
 T = t + 459.6 . .............. (4) 
 
48 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Composite Law of Gases. Since it is seen 
 that the product of the pressure and volume is pro- 
 portional to the change in absolute temperature we 
 shall now write one of the most useful formulas in 
 the computation of gas constants, namely that 
 
 pv = RT (5) 
 
 in which R is a constant. 
 
 Saturated Steam Obeys not at all the Simple Laws of Thermo- 
 dynamics. (Circulating Water Pumps Operated by Saturated Steam 
 at the Redondo Plant of the Pacific Light & Power Corporation.) 
 
 In the case of air, let us see if we can compute 
 this constant. Experimentally it is found that the 
 volume of air in a boiler room temperature of 84 F. 
 is 13.71 cu. ft. per Ib. when the atmospheric pressure 
 is 14.7 Ib. per sq. in. Substituting in the above for- 
 mula we have 14.7 X 144 X 13.71 = R (459.6 + 84) . 
 Therefore R = 53.3. 
 
 A Formula for Gas Density. If we let y be the 
 density of a gas, it is evident that it has a value equal 
 to the reciprocal of v in the above equation. In other 
 words the density of a gas is the weight of 1 cu. ft, 
 under standard conditions of pressure and temperature. 
 We may then write without further proof the formula, 
 
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 49 
 
 T 
 
 (6) 
 
 To Compute "R" for Any Gas. In the measure- 
 ment of gases there is a standard pressure and tem- 
 perature to which all gas volumes and densities are 
 reduced in order to have some basis of comparison. 
 These standard conditions are the ' temperature of 
 freezing water and the pressure of the atmosphere at 
 sea-level. 
 
 From the equation last written above, it is now 
 evident that since p and T are constant for all gases 
 under this standardized method of comparison, 
 then the product of R and y must also be constant. 
 This gives us a method or rather formula by which we 
 may obtain the value of R for any gas if we know its 
 density. The molecular weights of all gases may be 
 obtained by reference to any standard book on elemen- 
 tary chemistry. 
 
 Let us multiply both sides of the above equation 
 by the molecular weight m and by rearranging the 
 terms, we have 
 
 pm 
 Rm = - 
 
 yT 
 
 For oxygen y = 0.089222 Ib. per cu. ft. at atmos- 
 pheric pressure and 32 F. and m = 32. 
 
 14.7 X 144 X 32 
 
 .'. Rm = - -=1544. 
 
 0.089222X491.6 
 
 Since this product Rm is always a constant, we 
 have for any perfect gas that 
 
 1544 
 
 m 
 
 This formula together with the preceding general 
 formulas for pressures and volumes now enables us to 
 ascertain practically all the constants for perfect gases. 
 
 As an example let us assume that the temperature 
 of an escaping chimney gas is 400 F. What would be 
 
50 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the density of the nitrogen content of the escaping 
 flue gases? First find the value for R for nitrogen for 
 which m = 28. 
 
 1544 
 
 /. R = =54.98 
 
 28 
 Hence since 
 
 We have 54.98 
 
 T 
 14.7 x 144 
 
 459.6 + 400 
 . . y = .04475 
 
 It is always convenient to express volumes as 
 the number of cu. ft. per Ib. Hence when the symbol 
 V is used it will mean the total volume content of 
 the gas under consideration. If M represents the 
 weight of this volume V we have the relationship 
 
 Mv = V (8) 
 
 or since pv = R X T, therefore 
 
 pV MXRT (9) 
 
 Thus if we have given 18.805 Ib. of dry flue gas we 
 can easily compute the volume it would occupy when 
 leaving the chimney at 400 F., if it is known that 
 the value of R for the chimney gas is 51.4. Thus 
 
 14.7 X 144 V = 18.805 X 51.4 X (400 + 459.6) 
 /. V = 393.5 cu. ft. 
 
 Further Illustrative Examples. In order to still 
 further illustrate the wide uses to which the formulas 
 above given may be applied in engineering practice, 
 the following seven problems are worked out in full : 
 
 1. Find the volume of one pound of air in a compressor 
 at a pressure of 100 Ibs. square inch, the temperature being 
 32 F. 
 
 From Boyle's Law: 
 
 p v = PO v 
 at 32 F., v for 1 Ib. of air is 12.39 cu. ft. and p = 14.7 X 144 
 
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 51 
 
 14.7 X 144 X 12.39 
 
 = 1.82 cu. ft. Ans. 
 
 100 X 144 
 
 2. From Charles' Law find the volume of one Ib of air 
 at atmospheric pressure and 72 F. 
 
 t. 32 72 32 
 
 v = v (l + - ) =12.39 (1 +- ) =13.4 cu. ft. Ans. 
 
 491.6 491.6 
 
 3. Find the temperature of two ounces of hydrogen con- 
 tained in one gallon flask and 'exerting a pressure of 10,000 
 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 2 oz. = 1 gal. 
 16 oz. = 1 Ib. or 8 gals = 1.068 cu. ft. 
 
 pv 10,000 X 144 X 1.068 
 Then T = = 
 
 R 765.86 
 
 .'. T = 2050 F. (abs.) Ans. 
 or t = 2050 459.6 = 1590.4 F. Ans. 
 
 4. How large a flask will contain 1 Ib. of Nitrogen at 3200 
 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure and 70 F.? 
 
 p = 3200X144, T = 459.6 + 70 = 529.6, R = 54.98 
 
 RT 
 
 pv = RT v = 
 
 P 
 
 54.98 X 529.6 
 
 ..v = = .0631 cu. ft. Ans. 
 
 3200 X 144 
 
 5. Ten Ibs. of air at 200 F. occupy 120 cu. ft. What 
 
 must be the pressure? 
 
 V = 120 
 M= 10 
 R= 53.33 
 T = 659.6 
 
 MRT 10 X 53.3 X 659.6 
 
 .'.p = 2950 Ib. per sq. ft. 
 
 V 120 Ans. 
 
 6. How many Ibs. of air does it take to fill 5600 cu. ft. 
 at 15 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure and 60 F.? 
 
 pV = MRT 
 V = 5600 p = 15X144 R = 53.3 T = 459.6 + 60 = 519.6 
 
 15 X 144 X 5600 
 
 ..M = = 437 Ibs. Ans. 
 
 53.3 X 5119.6 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 WATER AND STEAM IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 S we look about us in na- 
 ture, we find that all in- 
 animate creation presents 
 itself to us in three dis- 
 tinct physical states. Cer- 
 tain bodies, for instance, 
 of themselves readily 
 maintain their shape while 
 others, although non va- 
 riant in density, neverthe- 
 less seem to have no par- 
 ticular physical configura- 
 tion but seek, due to the 
 force of gravitation, the 
 lowest level attainable and 
 consequently must as a. 
 rule be held in a cantain- 
 
 A Typical Boiler^Settmg in Fuel j n g yesse l. On the Other 
 
 hand, a third class of 
 
 bodies is found not only possessing no particular phys- 
 ical configuration, but which actually seem inherently 
 desirous of expanding to such an extent that they must 
 as a rule be completely housed, bottom and top, in a 
 containing vessel. 
 
 In the class room or in the power plant, it is easy 
 to find illustrations of these three general classifica- 
 tions. Thus, chalk, iron pipe, and coal are instances 
 of the first division and are known as solids. Crude 
 petroleum, water, and kerosene are instances of the 
 second division, and are called liquids. Finally, air, 
 steam, and producer gas illustrate the third division, 
 and are called gases. 
 
 52 
 
WATER AND STEAM 53 
 
 These States are Possible to all Bodies. The 
 most interesting thing about these socalled states 
 of matter, and indeed the item of most importance 
 to the engineer, is that by varying the pressure ex- 
 ternally forcing itself against the sides of any one of 
 these bodies and by adding or subtracting the heat that 
 may be held in store within the body itself, any solid 
 may be converted into a liquid and then into a gas, or 
 any liquid may be converted into a solid or a gas, or 
 any gas may be converted into a liquid then into a 
 solid. 
 
 The Fundamental Principle in Steam Engineering. 
 It is this property of matter that makes the opera- 
 tion of the steam engine possible. For if we were 
 not able to heat water and convert it into steam, it 
 would be impossible to make use of this liquid for 
 steam engineering purposes, although it is the most 
 widely distributed in nature. 
 
 Again, since fuel oil must be converted into the 
 gaseous state before it readily and efficiently burns 
 beneath the boiler, it would certainly be cumbersome 
 and impractical for its use in the great majority of 
 central stations if it could not be conveyed through 
 pipes or in oil tanks as a liquid from the oil fields to 
 the place of consumption. 
 
 Steam Engineering Still Supreme. Since water 
 is so widely disseminated in nature and since it can be 
 readily and efficiently changed from one state to an- 
 other, it is the working substance that today still 
 drives the vast majority of power developing mechan- 
 isms in the industries in spite of the rise of the gas 
 engine and the great modern evolution in water power 
 development. 
 
 Let us then trace the physical phenomena that 
 accompany the transformation of water into the solid 
 state which of course is necessary in the production 
 of ice, and again from the liquid to the gaseous state 
 which becomes necessary in the production of steam. 
 
 The Formation of Ice. Let us first start with a 
 pound of water at ordinary temperatures say at 62 F. 
 As we begin to lower the temperature, in other words 
 
54 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 to draw off heat, the volume slightly decreases. Thus 
 the pound of water now occupies less space than for- 
 merly. Hence, if this water was on the surface of a 
 mountain lake and the night was getting cooler, the 
 surface water would sink to the lake bottom and 
 allow warmer water from the bottom to rise only 
 to be cooled at the surface to again drop to the bot- 
 tom. This is what is known as water circulation and 
 is very important in steam generation, as we shall 
 see later. 
 
 When, however, the water under consideration 
 lowers to a temperature of 39.4 F., a strange thing 
 happens. Something develops in its internal struc- 
 ture that now makes the water expand as the temper- 
 ature is further lowered. A unit volume of water now 
 becoming lighter than formerly, no longer will it sink 
 to the lake bottom but remains on the surface. Hence 
 when a short time later the water on the surface is 
 lowered to 32 F. or freezing point, ice is formed on 
 the surface only, since water is a poor conductor of 
 heat. Nature thus protects the fish in the waters 
 below. 
 
 Coming back from the mountain lake, however, to 
 the formation of ice in the ice plant, when the tem- 
 perature has reached 32 F., although heat be now 
 driven off, the water does not lower itself in temper- 
 ature but remains at this temperature until it has all 
 been converted into ice. 
 
 Latent Heat of Fusion. The quantity of heat 
 necessary to form one pound of ice at 32 F. from one 
 pound of water at 32 F. is a definite measurable quan- 
 tity and is known as the latent heat of fusion. By 
 careful measurement, the latent heat of fusion for 
 water has been found to be 142 B.t.u, That is, to 
 convert one pound of water at 32 F. into ice at 32 F. 
 requires the drawing off of as much heat as would 
 approximately be required to lower one pound of 
 water one hundred forty-two degrees in temperature. 
 
 When this pound of water is converted into ice, 
 its volume still further expands. Hence, one pound 
 of ice will float in water. This accounts, of course, 
 
WATER AND STEAM 55 
 
 for the floating of icebergs on the water surface, and 
 furthermore this sudden increase in volume accounts 
 for the rupture in pipes and other nuisances that occur 
 in severely cold weather. 
 
 Going back to our pound of water now converted 
 into a pound of ice, let us again proceed to draw off 
 heat. It is now found that we may lower the tempera- 
 ture of the ice much more easily than when it existed 
 as a liquid. Indeed only about one-half the heat is 
 required to be drawn off per degree lowering in tem- 
 perature while its volume practically remains constant. 
 
 The Formation of Steam. Let us now proceed to 
 a consideration of the physical changes and phenom- 
 ena that occur when water passes into steam. Start- 
 ing with water at say 62 F., as we add heat the 
 temperature increases at the rate of about 1 F. for 
 every unit of heat energy added to the water. At 
 the same time the volume slightly increases. Hence, 
 if our pound of water under consideration be sit- 
 uated at the bottom of the well-known tea-kettle, 
 the observation of which led James Watt to the inven- 
 tion of the steam engine, this pound of water 
 becoming now less dense will rise to the top 
 and cooler water at the top will sink to the bot- 
 tom which in turn is passed again to the top as it 
 becomes heated to make way for more water from 
 the top to be heated along the portion exposed to 
 the heat application. Thus the water becomes warmer 
 and warmer and the transference from bottom to top 
 continues. The ease with which this transfer of 
 heated bodies of water takes place has much to do 
 with efficient operation of the steam boiler which may 
 be likened to an enlarged tea-kettle with accessories 
 and appurtenances to care for its increased responsi- 
 bilities as compared to tea-kettle operation. 
 
 Latent Heat of Evaporation. The water in this 
 manner continues to absorb heat until if under atmos- 
 pheric pressure, it reaches a temperature of 212 F. 
 At this point, however, vast quantities of heat may be 
 added and still the water will remain at this tempera- 
 ture although it may now be observed that steam is 
 
56 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 being formed which too, has the same temperature 
 as the water. Not until 970.4 B.t.u. or sufficient heat 
 units to raise ten pounds of water almost one hundred 
 degrees in temperature have been added to the pound 
 of water at 212 F. will the pound of water become 
 
 300 
 
 00 
 
 190 
 
 HEAT UNITS ,N B.TM. 
 
 200 
 
 +00 600 GOO tOOO 1200 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE HEAT DIAGRAM 
 
 Here is graphically indicated the history of a pound of water in its 
 relationship with temperature and heat. Beginning at 32 deg. F. 
 and atmospheric pressure, by drawing off heat the horizontal line 
 ab is traced, showing that the temperature remains constant until 
 the water is completely converted into ice, after which the tem- 
 perature rapidly falls at the rate of about one degree for every 
 half unit of heat drawn away. By the addition of heat, however, 
 at point a, the curve ae is traced, which indicates that the tem- 
 perature rises with absorption of heat at the approximate rate of 
 one degree for each unit of heat absorbed. At -212 deg. F. and 
 atmospheric pressure the horizontal line eg is traced until 970.4 
 B.t.u. are absorbed. After all the water is thus converted into 
 steam the curve gh is traced for superheated steam, which rises 
 at the rate of about one degree for every .47th of a B.t;u. absorbed. 
 
 entirely converted into steam at 212 F. This quan- 
 tity of heat necessary is important in steam engineer- 
 ing and is known as the latent heat of evaporation 
 for water under atmospheric pressure conditions. To 
 
WATER AND STEAM 57 
 
 be succinct, in steam engineering practice the quantity 
 of heat necessary to convert one pound of water at a 
 given temperature and pressure into dry steam at the 
 same temperature and pressure is known as the latent 
 heat of evaporation for that temperature and pressure 
 and is usually expressed by the symbol L t . Steam 
 boilers seldom operate at a pressure so low as that of 
 atmospheric conditions. Indeed, while such a pressure 
 is but 14.7 Ib. per sq. in., the modern boiler in the cen- 
 tral station operates at something like ten to fifteen 
 times this pressure. This fact materially complicates 
 computation in steam engineering, for it is found that 
 at pressures different than that of standard atmos- 
 pheric conditions the latent heat of evaporation is 
 wholly different. Indeed, so complex is this law of 
 variation that no one as yet has been able to give an 
 exact formula for its determination, although in sub- 
 sequent chapters approximate equations will be set 
 forth. Hence, it has become necessary to refer to 
 carefully compiled steam tables for such information 
 and a later chapter will set forth the manner of their 
 use. 
 
 Other Variations Occur With Changes of Pres- 
 sure. When water passes into steam, the volume 
 say of one pound vastly increases. At atmospheric 
 pressure the volume of steam is about sixteen hun- 
 dred times what it was when existing as water. At 
 other pressures the volume relationships will of 
 course be different. Again when the pressure in- 
 creases at which steam is formed, the volume be- 
 comes less in proportion. No accurate mathematical 
 formula has been found for this relationship, hence 
 once again must we appeal to the steam tables. 
 
 Data Easily Taken from Steam Tables. By ex- 
 periment it has been found that varying amounts of 
 heat are required to raise water from a particular 
 initial temperature to the boiling point, for the boil- 
 ing point is not reached until a higher temperature 
 is attained as the pressure is increased. On the other 
 hand, less heat is required to convert a pound of 
 water at these higher boiling points into steam. Since 
 
58 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the volume and density too vary under varying pres- 
 sures, the entire problem now becomes one of picking 
 the proper constants for the particular temperature 
 and pressure under discussion and when one by a 
 little practice can use the steam tables with facility, 
 it is surprising to see how simply and directly most 
 problems in steam computation may be solved. 
 
 Total Heat of Steam. Often in steam engineer- 
 ing practice problems arise in which we must express 
 the total heat of steam quantitatively represented in 
 each pound under consideration. It makes little dif- 
 ference at what point we begin to estimate such 
 heat relationships, but by common consent the freez- 
 ing point of water has been adopted. Hence, the total 
 heat of steam is the heat required to raise one pound 
 of water from 32 F. to the boiling point added to the 
 heat required to convert this water into steam at 
 that temperature. If the steam exist as superheated 
 steam, there must also be added the heat required to 
 raise dry saturated steam to the temperature of super- 
 heat. The various mathematical formulas for com- 
 puting these numerical results will be taken up later 
 in a chapter entitled Quality of Steam. 
 
 At this particular time we shall write down the 
 simplest of these formulas as an illustration. 
 
 Total Heat of Dry Saturated Steam. The total 
 heat of dry saturated steam, written H t for a given 
 temperature t, is the sum of the heat of liquid and 
 latent heat of evaporization for that temperature. 
 
 Hence we may write this important fundamental 
 equation 
 
 H t = ht + L t ' (1) 
 
 Thus the total heat of steam at 212 F. is 
 
 H t = 180 + 970.4= 1150.4 B.t.u. 
 
 Other Instances of Total Heats. If, however, the 
 steam is evaporated from the water and then super- 
 heated, that is, an additional quantity of heat is added 
 after all the water has become steam, it will then begin 
 to rise in temperature and the quantity of heat neces- 
 
WATER AND STEAM 59 
 
 sary for each degree rise in temperature is about one- 
 half that required per degree rise when it existed as 
 water. This exact ratio is however quite variable and 
 ranges between .46 and .60 depending upon the pres- 
 sure and degree of superheat attained. Hence once 
 again appears the necessity of steam tables. 
 
 It is now readily seen that in general three definite 
 and distinct considerations present themselves in the 
 solution of problems involving the computation of 
 total heat. The first instance is one in which the 
 steam exists in a dry state and at the temperature and 
 pressure at which it is generated from the water. Such 
 steam is known as dry saturated steam. The second 
 instance is that in which the steam is not completely 
 dry, but holds in suspension small particles or globules 
 of water, and in this instance the mixture is known 
 as wet saturated steam. The third instance is of 
 especial importance in modern central station practice 
 and involves what is known as superheated steam. In 
 this case the steam is first formed by evaporation from 
 water into dry saturated steam, after which it is con- 
 veyed through pipes that are exposed to high tem- 
 peratures, thus causing the temperature of the steam 
 to be still further raised, although the pressure prac- 
 tically remains constant. 
 
 The complete solution of these three instances for 
 computation of total heats will be found in the chap- 
 ter on Quality of Steam as stated above. Meanwhile 
 the thorough mastery of the fundamentals of the phys- 
 ical properties of water as herein set forth will be of 
 vast assistance in a clear understanding of this later 
 discussion. 
 Examples 
 
 1. The water entering a feed-water heater is at a tem- 
 perature of 75 F. and leaves the heater at 190 F., what is 
 the heat absorbed per Ib. of water? 
 
 From the steam tables the heat of liquid at 75 F. is 
 43.05 B.t.u. and at 190 F. it is 157.91 B.t.u. Hence the heat 
 absorbed per Ib. of water is 
 
 157.91 43.05 = 114.86 B.t.u. Ans.' 
 
 2. Waiter enters a boiler at 160 F. and is converted into 
 dry saturated steam at 200 Ib. pres, per sq. in. abs., what is 
 
60 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the total heat required to evaporate each Ib. of steam? 
 
 The heat in the entering water at 160 P. fs from the 
 steam tables 127.86 B.t.u. The total heat of dry saturated 
 steam at 200 Ib. pres. abs., i*s 1198.1 B.t.u. H'ence the actual 
 heat necessary to evaporate each Ib. of steam is 
 1198.10 127.86 = 1070.24 B.t.u. Ans. 
 
 3. If the heat of liquid for boiling water at 212 F. is 
 180 B.t.u. and the latent heat of evaporation is 970.4 B.t.u., 
 how much heat is required to evaporate a pound of water 
 from an open water heater which is receiving its supply at 
 64 F.? 
 
 Each Ib. of water entering at 64 F. has a heat of liquid 
 of 32.07 B.tu. Water evaporating into steam at 212 F. 
 has a heat of liquid of 180 and a latent heat of evaporation of 
 970.4 B.t.u., making a total heat of evaporation of 1150.4 B.t.u. 
 for every Ib. of water so evaporated. Hence the net heat 
 required is 1150.40 32.07 = 1128.33 B.t.u. Ans. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE STEAM TABLES IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 T has already been shown 
 that since no simple 
 mathematical laws have as 
 yet been devised to ex- 
 press the temperature, 
 pressure, latent heat, heat 
 of liquid and other funda- 
 mental properties of steam 
 and water that are abso- 
 lutely necessary in the 
 solution of steam engi- 
 neering problems, we must 
 resort to carefully com- 
 piled steam tables. 
 
 Practically all the re- 
 search and scientific in- 
 vestigation along the lines 
 of pure steam engineer- 
 ing of the last half century have been devoted 
 to the more complete establishment of some of the 
 fundamental constants involved in the steam tables. 
 
 The three most important of these are the zero 
 point of the absolute temperature scale, the proper 
 value for a constant employed in the conversion of 
 mechanical energy into heat energy, and the exact 
 determination of the heat required to evaporate one 
 pound of water from 212 F. into dry saturated steam 
 at 212 F. 
 
 Since these values are continually found by more 
 careful and exacting experimental work to be slightly 
 different than formerly held, we find that the steam 
 tables of recent publication are different than those of 
 former years. 
 
 The Book of Steam Tables 
 
 61 
 
62 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Steam Tables as Adopted in this Discussion. 
 
 The Steam Tables and Diagrams as computed by 
 Marks and Davis and published by Longmans, Green 
 & Company are today universally recognized and are 
 adopted as the standard compilation for the problems 
 cited in this discussion. 
 
 In the rear of these steam tables an interesting 
 discussion of the methods employed by these inves- 
 tigators in arriving at the three fundamental con- 
 stants mentioned above is given. The result of these 
 investigations shows that the absolute zero is to be 
 taken at 459.6 F., the mechanical equivalent of heat 
 at 777.5, and the latent heat of steam at 212 F. to 
 be 970.4 B.t.u. 
 
 Recapitulation of Fundamental Evaluations. 
 
 These three constants are so important that they 
 should be memorized and for emphasis let us recapit- 
 ulate their exact interpretation. 
 
 The absolute zero is now found to be a point sit- 
 uated at 459.6 F. below the zero point on the Fahren- 
 heit scale or 491.6 F. below the freezing point of 
 water. At such a temperature it is supposed to be 
 impossible to further draw off heat from any substance 
 for at this temperature the heat storage is supposed 
 to be absolutely exhausted. 
 
 The mechanical equivalent of heat as given above 
 means that the energy represented by one B.t.u. or 
 British thermal unit of heat is equivalent to 777.5 ft. 
 Ib. of mechanical energy. Or if one pound of crude 
 petroleum contains 18,500 B.t.u., it possesses as stated 
 in a previous chapter, sufficient energy to raise a 
 human being weighing 175 Ib. a vertical upward dis- 
 tance of over 18 miles. 
 
 The latent heat of steam at 212 F. and atmos- 
 pheric pressure means that the quantity of heat neces- 
 sary to evaporate one pound of water at 212 F. into 
 dry saturated steam at 212 F. is found experimentally 
 to be 970.4 B.t.u. 
 
 Analysis of a Typical Page of Steam Tables. Let 
 
 us now proceed to analyze a page of Marks & Davis' 
 
STEAM TABLES 63 
 
 steam tables, column by column. The illustration as 
 given is found on page 12 of this compilation and we 
 shall follow across the page the line corresponding 
 to a temperature of 231F. 
 
 Temperatures in Fahrenheit Units. Since all 
 steam engineering computation is based on temper- 
 atures represented in the Fahrenheit scale instead of 
 the Centigrade system, the temperatures are here 
 listed in the Fahrenheit units. 
 
 Pressures in Absolute Notation. This column 
 means that the pressures here given represent the 
 pressure in pounds per sq. in. at which water will boil 
 when the temperature is that as listed in the first 
 column. Further on in the steam tables an exactly 
 
 Table 1 : Temperatures 
 
 ,. > M Sp.Vol. Density Heat Latent Total Internal Energy Entropy T 
 
 Temp. Pressure ft< )bs pe { ofthe heatof heat of B tu " / J2 1 Temp. 
 
 Fahr. Ibs. Atmos* per Ib. cu. ft. liquid evap. steam Evap. Steam Water Evap. Steam Fahr. 
 
 t p - vors Vv horq Lorr; H lorp E nor L/Torr/T Nor* t 
 
 230 20.77 1.413 19.39 0.0516 198.2 958.7 1156.9 884.3 1082.4 0.3384 1.3905 1.7289 230 9 
 
 231 21.16 1.440 19.05 0.0525 199.2 958.1 1157.2 883.6 1082.7 0.3399 1.3875 1.7274 231 
 
 232 21.56 1.467 18.72 0.0534 200.2 957.4 1157.6 882.8 1083.0 0.3414 1.3844 1.7258 232 
 
 233 21.% 1.494 18.40 0.0543 201.2 956.7 1158.0 882.1 1083.2 0.3429 1.3814 1.7243 233 
 
 234 22.37 1.522 18.09 0.0553 202.2. 956.1 1158.3 881.3 1083.5 0.3443 1.3784 1.7227 234 
 
 235 22.79 1.550 17.780.0562 203.2 955.4" 1158.7 880.61083.8 0.34581.37541.7212 235 
 
 236 23.21 1.579 17.47 0.0572 204.2 954.8 1159.0 879.8 1084.0 0.3472 1.3725 1.7197 236 
 
 237 23.64 1.609 17.17 0.0582 205.3 954.1 1159.4 879.1 1084.3 0.3487 1.3695 1.7182 237 
 
 238 24.08 1.638 16.88 0.0592 206.3 953.4 1159.7 878.3 10S4.5 0.3501 1.3666 1.7167 238 
 
 239 24.52 1.668 16.60 0.0602 207.3 952.8 1160.0 '. 877.6 1084.8 0.3516 1.3636 1.7152 239 
 
 240 24.97 1.699 16.32 0.0613 208.3 952.1 1160.4 876.8 1085.0 0.3531 1.3607 1.7138 240 
 
 241 25.42 1.730 16.05 0.0623 2093 951.4 1160.7 876.1 1085.3 0.3546 1.3578 1.7124 241 
 
 242 25.88 1.761 15.78 0.0634 210.3 950.7 1161.1 875.3 1085.6 0.3560 1.3550 1.7110 242 
 
 243 26.35 1.793 15.52 0.0644 211.4 950.1 1161.4 874.6 1085.8 0.3575 1.3521 1.70% 243 
 
 244 26.83 1.826 15.26 0.0655 212.4 949.4 1161.8 873.8 1086.1 0.3589 1.3493 1.7082 244 
 
 A Typical Page from the Steam Tables 
 
 similar table may be found to the one cited except in 
 this latter instance the pressures are made to vary 
 pound by pound and the corresponding boiling tem- 
 perature of water given. 
 
 In this instance, then, we read that a pressure of 
 21.16 Ib. per sq. in. will be produced before the water 
 boils or the formation of steam begins at 231 F. This 
 pressure, by the way, is in absolute units and would 
 not be the pressure read on the steam gage of a boiler 
 room. Since the steam gage indicates pressures above 
 the atmosphere, one must subtract from this reading 
 in the steam tables the atmospheric pressure of the 
 
64 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 day in order to find the proper gage pressure. Thus, 
 in this instance, if the atmospheric pressure of the day 
 be 14.7 Ib. per sq. in., a steam gage in a boiler room 
 
 1010 
 
 c 
 
 LOGO 
 
 Marks & Davis Method of Collating Data for Specific 
 Heat of Water from Three Noted Investigators 
 
 would read 6.46 Ib. per sq. in., when the water in the 
 boiler is 231 F. 
 
 This precaution is most important and the stu- 
 dent should carefully reread the former chapter on 
 pressures if he does not thoroughly understand the 
 conversion of gage pressures, inches of vacuum, 
 inches of mercury, etc., into standard absolute pres- 
 sure units. 
 
 Pressures in Atmospheres. In many engineering 
 computations pressures are given as so many atmos- 
 pheres instead of pounds per square inch. The pres- 
 sure of the standard atmosphere is usually taken as 
 14.7 Ib. per sq. in. but for very exact work it is more 
 accurately 14.696 Ib. per sq. in. Hence this column 
 is computed by dividing each item in the preceding 
 column by 14.696, which in this instance is found to 
 be 1.440 atmospheres. 
 
 When, however, the reading is below that of 
 ordinary atmospheric pressure, such values are often 
 
STEAM TABLES 65 
 
 desired in inches of mercury since vacuum pressures 
 for the condenser are given in such units. This par- 
 ticular column is therefore found by dividing the cor- 
 responding line in the preceding pressure column by 
 the number of inches of mercury equivalent to one 
 pound pressure per square inch. It is to be remem- 
 bered that this does not even yet give the reading in 
 inches of vacuum. Pressures in absolute inches of 
 mercury, and inches of vacuum cause seemingly end- 
 less confusion. A complete discussion of this feature 
 was taken up under the chapter on pressures and its 
 careful review is emphatically recommended if arij r 
 unsettled question still exists in the mind of the 
 reader. 
 
 Specific Volume. The cubic feet occupied by one 
 pound of dry saturated steam at a given temperature 
 and pressure is known as the specific volume of the 
 steam for that temperature and pressure. 
 
 This is a factor often necessary in steam engineer- 
 ing computations. Yet no known means has ever 
 been invented whereby this factor can be accurately 
 ascertained by experiment. The task is indeed one 
 that involves such difficulties as to make its determi- 
 nation by experiment practically impossible. The 
 science of higher mathematics has come to the rescue 
 and here is indeed an instance where purely theoretical 
 deductions have brought about a practical solution 
 of an otherwise unsolvable problem in steam engineer- 
 ing 
 
 This relationship involves the latent heat of evap^ 
 oration L ; the absolute temperature T at which the 
 saturated steam is formed; the ratio of the increase 
 in pressure A p to the increase in temperature A t of 
 boiling points taken immediately below the tempera- 
 ture under consideration and immediately above it; 
 the specific volume of the steam v that is found, which 
 of course, is the unknown value we are desirous of 
 computing; and the specific volume of a space occu- 
 pied by one pound of water v t immediately before its 
 conversion into steam. Algebraically the relationship 
 is expressed thus : 
 
66 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Ap 
 
 At 
 
 (v-vj .................... (1) 
 
 From the steam tables we will take our values 
 for A p and A t immediately below corresponding to 
 230 F. and immediately above corresponding to 
 232F. Hence 
 
 At (232 230) =2. 
 
 Ap= (21.56 2077) 144 = 0.79 X 144=114. 
 
 T 231+459.6 = 690.6. 
 
 L = 958.1X777.5. 
 Vl = .016 cu. ft. 
 
 Substituting, we have 
 
 114 
 958.1 X 777.5 = 690.6 ( - ) (v .016) 
 
 2 
 .'.v= 18.98 
 
 The value in the table is 19.05 which is seen to 
 be about one-third of one per cent in error. This dif- 
 ference is probably due to the fact that decimals 
 neglected in computation were made use of by the 
 compiler of the steam tables, and then too the small 
 pressure and temperature variations were probably 
 taken nearer together than is possible in the data 
 actually set forth in the steam tables. 
 
 Specific Density. The weight in fractions of a 
 pound of one cubic foot of dry saturated steam is 
 known as its specific density. 
 
 It is evident that if one pound of steam occupies 
 19.05 cu. ft. as taken from the previous column, then 
 1 cu. ft. of steam would weigh 1/19.05 of a pound 
 which is 0.0525 Ib. Hence this column is computed in 
 each case by taking the reciprocal of the data given 
 in the preceding column. 
 
 The Heat of Liquid. This is one of the most 
 important columns necessary in steam engineering 
 practice. Since the heat of liquid technically means 
 the quantity of heat necessary to raise one pound of 
 water from 32 F. to the temperature under consider- 
 
STEAM TABLES 
 
 67 
 
 ation, it is evident that by experimental data as given 
 in this column it has been found that to raise one 
 pound of water from 32 F. to 231 F., 199.1 B.t.u. 
 are necessary to be applied from an outside source. 
 
 Determination of the Specific Heat of Superheated 
 S'team from Investigations of Knoblauch. 
 
 The Latent Heat of Evaporation. Data for the 
 latent heat of evaporation has been determined by 
 careful experimental means. It is by definition the 
 quantity of heat necessary to convert one pound of 
 water at the temperature and pressure indicated into 
 dry saturated steam at the same temperature and 
 
68 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 pressure. In this instance it is seen that to convert 
 one pound of water at 231 F. into dry saturated 
 steam at 231 F., 958.1 B.t.u. are necessary to be ap- 
 plied from an outside source. 
 
 Total Heat of Dry Saturated Steam. The total 
 quantity of heat required to raise the temperature 
 of one pound of water at 32 F. to the temperature at 
 which dry saturated steam may exist under the pres- 
 sure exerted in the particular instance, added to the 
 quantity of heat then necessary to convert this water 
 completely into dry saturated steam is known as the 
 total heat of dry saturated steam. Numerically speak- 
 ing, it is seen that this column is at once obtained 
 by adding the heat of liquid and the latent heat of 
 evaporation. In a word, this column is the sum of 
 the two preceding columns. Thus 
 
 H 23 i = n 23i + L 231 (2) 
 
 .-.H 2S1 = 199.1 + 958.1 = 1157.2. 
 
 Internal and External Work. One wonders where 
 the heat disappears when it is being continually ap- 
 plied to water at the boiling point and yet the temper- 
 ature of the water or steam does not increase. 
 
 Up'on careful investigation it is found that it dis- 
 appears first in an internal absorption due to inter- 
 molecular rearrangement as water passes into steam 
 which thereby stores up a considerable quantity of 
 energy to be given out again when the steam is con- 
 densed back into water. The energy that disappears 
 in this manner is known as energy necessary to per- 
 form internal work. 
 
 On the other hand in the generation of steam from 
 water the volume is vastly increased. The pushing 
 back against external pressure to make room for such 
 an increased volume performs external work. So that 
 the energy applied in steam generation which goes 
 toward latent heat of evaporation may be divided into 
 two classifications, known as external and internal 
 work. 
 
 No one has as yet found a method of directly 
 measuring internal work. We may, however, meas- 
 
STEAM TABLES 
 
 69 
 
 are external work or even compute it and then by 
 subtraction from total energy absorbed arrive at a 
 value for internal work. 
 
 In a former chapter on gases it was shown that 
 the external work accomplished by a gas expanding 
 under constant temperature and pressure is com- 
 puted universally by subtracting the initial volume 
 from the final volume and then multiplying this re- 
 sult by the pressure. Thus 
 
 External Work == p (v vj 
 To convert this into B.t.u., we have 
 
 External Work = 
 
 P (v 
 
 (3) 
 
 777.5 
 
 From the tables it is seen that in this instance 
 p = 21.16 X 144, v = 19.05, Vl = .016. 
 
 .'. External Work = 21.16 X 144 (19.05 .016) 
 
 = 74.6 B.t.u. 
 /. Internal Work = 958.1 74.6 = 883.5 B.t.u. 
 
 Entropy of Water. In certain advanced prob- 
 lems in steam engineering, engineers and physicists 
 have found it convenient to invent fictitious qualities 
 of steam. While many have endeavored to give a 
 
 auu 
 600 
 
 6 
 
 zoo 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 (. 
 
 <~> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bi 
 
 >.a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ol 
 
 i 
 
 
 ' 
 
 'rea 
 
 
 ^.-r 
 
 ^7//1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 2/4 t 
 
 > t 
 
 /O tZ 14 16 1.7! 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE ENTROPY DIAGRAM 
 
 By the invention of a fictitious quality of water and steam, known 
 as entropy, the plotting of a diagram is made possible, so that an 
 area represents heat added. Thus, in the diagram above, the 
 abscissas are entropy and the ordinates 'absolute temperatures. 
 The area abcf is exactly 180 units, which is the heat required to 
 raise water from 32 deg. F. to 212 deg. F. Similarly, the area fcde 
 is 970.4 units, which is the heat required to evaporate one pound 
 of water at 212 deg. F. into steam at 212 deg. F. 
 
70 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 physical interpretation of entropy, perhaps it is clearer 
 for the student to consider it as merely a mathemat- 
 ical fiction which, however, often becomes extremely 
 useful for the representation of steam engineering 
 problems and indeed assists wonderfully in their solu- 
 tion. 
 
 On this assumption, entropy may be defined as 
 such a quantity that when plotted against absolute 
 temperatures the area under the curve connecting all 
 such points will numerically represent the amount of 
 heat supplied to one pound of matter in order to 
 accomplish the indicated change in temperature. Thus 
 in the instance at hand if one should plot a curve 
 with ordinates representing absolute temperatures and 
 with abscissas representing the entropy for each cor- 
 responding temperature, the area under this curve 
 would be exactly 199.1 units. For it takes 199.1 
 units of heat energy to raise one pound of water from 
 32 F. to 231 F. or on the absolute scale from 
 491.6 F. to 690.6 F. 
 
 By analysis in higher mathematics it is found 
 that entropy of water may be quite closely computed 
 by the formula 
 
 (9 = log e - - (4) 
 
 T, 
 
 Wherein 6 is the entropy of water, T 2 the absolute 
 temperature at the end of the heat application and T x , 
 the absolute temperature at the beginning which is 
 usually taken at the melting point of ice or 491.6 F. 
 on the absolute scale. Thus in this instance 
 
 T 2 231+459.6 
 
 6 = loge = log e (- -) 
 
 T! 32 + 459.6 
 
 (690.6) 
 
 = 2.306 Iog 10 = .3399. 
 
 (491.6) 
 
 The values in the steam tables were arrived at 
 by a slightly more accurate process than this by tak- 
 
STEAM TABLES 71 
 
 ing into account the fact that the specific heat of 
 water is not constant as heat is added. 
 
 The Entropy of Evaporation. Since the tem- 
 perature remains constant during the evaporation of 
 water into dry saturated steam, it is evident that the 
 entropy curve in this case would simply be a rectangle 
 as shown in the illustration wherein one dimension 
 is of length T and the area swept off is of L units. 
 Hence, the entropy for heat of evaporation is evidently 
 
 L 
 
 Entropy of evaporation = (5) 
 
 T 
 or in this instance, 
 
 958.1 
 
 Entropy of evaporation = 
 
 231 + 459.6 
 
 = 1.3875 
 
 Total Entropy. The sum of the entropy value for 
 water and for heat of evaporation is called the total 
 entropy of dry saturated steam. This is evidently 
 arrived at numerically by adding together the two 
 preceding columns. Thus, total entropy = entropy 
 of water + entropy of evaporation (6) 
 
 . ' . Total entropy = 0.3399 + 1.3875 = 1.7274. 
 
 Tables for Superheated Steam. In later pages of 
 the steam tables are to be found data relative to su- 
 perheated steam. As a subsequent chapter will deal 
 largely with superheated steam computations, we 
 shall delay the consideration of superheated steam 
 tables until the reader has been more thoroughly 
 grounded in other fundamental computations of dry 
 saturated steam. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 HOW TO COMPUTE BOILER HORSEPOWER 
 
 HAT energy is never cre- 
 ated or destroyed is a 
 fundamental postulate of 
 modern engineering prac- 
 tice. All of our machines 
 and driving mechanisms 
 are, then, simply devices 
 by means of which we 
 may convert one form of 
 energy into another form 
 to suit our convenience 
 or meet the demands of 
 industrial activity. Thus 
 an electric generator does 
 not create energy but is 
 merely a device whereby 
 energy existing in the 
 waterfall or in the steam 
 
 How James Watt would Have , . , , 
 
 standardized a Mechanical turbine may be converted 
 SSo^ion e P a n a m a - into electrical energy. 
 
 Neither does the energy 
 
 exist inherently in the waterfall, but due to the emis- 
 sion of heat from the sun, this water has first been 
 drawn from the ocean into the clouds to be later de- 
 posited on the lofty mountain peaks. Due to this su- 
 perior position it is ena'bled to develop water power 
 energy and thus transfer the energy of the sun's rays 
 into more useful form to ease man's burdens. And so 
 with the steam boiler, we have fundamentally a me- 
 chanism by which energy latent in fuel oil or other 
 combustible is first given out as heat energy of com- 
 bustion to be immediately converted into latent heat 
 energy of steam. 
 
 72 
 
BOILER HORSEPOWER 73 
 
 The Meaning of the Word "Rating." The rapid- 
 ity with which this conversion of one form of energy 
 into another form may be accomplished is known as 
 the rating of the mechanism involved. Thus a small 
 boy may by means of a block and tackle hoist a huge 
 weight to the top of a modern sky-scraper and at a 
 later observation one may see a team of horses strain- 
 ing to their utmost to accomplish the same task. By 
 close inspection, however, it will be found that the 
 small boy has by means of intervening pulleys been 
 able to take from thirty to forty times longer to ac- 
 complish what the horses did in a comparatively short 
 time. Hence power, the basis of comparative effort, 
 is the time rate of doing work. 
 
 The Development of the Word "Horsepower." 
 After his invention of the steam engine, James Watt 
 soon found that he must devise some unit or measuring 
 stick, as it were, with which to measure the power of 
 his mechanism. As he was a pioneer in the art, he had 
 to cast about for some convenient unit to adopt. What 
 more natural unit should he consider than that of the 
 dra>ft horse? After watching a horse drawing up 
 large cakes of ice into an ice house by the use of a 
 snatch block, it occurred to him that when the horse 
 pulled up a fairly good load he must be doing a cer- 
 tain amount of work. After making several experi- 
 ments he found that by adding more sheaves to the 
 blocks the horse could raise a greater load but it took 
 more time to do it. He found that the average dray 
 horse was able to raise a load of 550 Ibs. at the rate 
 of 60 ft. per minute, or to do 33,000 ft. Ibs. of work 
 per minute. This unit Watt called a horsepower and 
 applied it to the measurement of the power of his 
 steam engines. 
 
 The Boiler Horsepower. In the early days of the 
 steam engine the principle of the conservation of en- 
 ergy had not been firmly established. Indeed that heat 
 was a form of energy at all was a debated question for 
 many years after the steam engine became of vast prac- 
 tical importance. 
 
74 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 THE MECHANICAL HORSEPOWER 
 The Unit of Power in Modern Steam Engineering 
 
 THE KILOWATT 
 
 The Unit of Power in Electrical Engineering, which is 1.34 times 
 the mechanical horsepower 
 
 THE BOILER HORSEPOWER 
 
 The Unit of Power in Boiler Practice, which is 13.14 times the 
 mechanical horsepower 
 
 THE MYRIAWATT 
 
 The Unit for Boiler Rating Proposed by Certain National Engi- 
 neering Societies, which is 13.4 times the mechanical 
 horsepower 
 
BOILER HORSEPOWER 75 
 
 Hence, since the energy latent in steam was not 
 then known to be the underlying reason for the power 
 driving action of the steam engine, the first rating of 
 the boiler was made on the basis of power develop- 
 ment in the engine which received its supply of steam 
 from the boiler in question. Thus a boiler that could 
 supply steam to operate a steam engine developing 50 
 indicated h.p. was said to be a 50 h.p. boiler. Later it 
 became evident, due to the rapidly increasing 
 efficiencies of the steam engine that such a rating was 
 wholly variable. It was found, however, that under 
 ordinary working conditions a boiler which could 
 evaporate 30 Ib. of steam per hr. at 70 Ib. pressure 
 and taking feed water at 100 F. could usually operate 
 a 1 h.p. engine, consequently this mode of boiler rating 
 became popular. 
 
 In 1884, the American Society of Mechanical En- 
 gineers adopted the following definition for the boiler 
 h.p. : That a boiler evaporating 34.5 Ib. of water at 
 212 F. into steam at 212 F. per hr. should be known 
 as a 1 h.p. boiler. 
 
 The. Conversion qf Boiler Horsepower to Mechan- 
 ical Horsepower Units. In later years the principle 
 of the conservation of energy finally became well estab- 
 lished and when engineers began to compute the 
 actual energy represented in a mechanical horsepower 
 as originally adopted by James Watt and then com- 
 pare this to the energy represented in the steam gen- 
 erated by what was known as a one horsepower boiler, 
 it was found that the boiler horsepower represented 
 the conversion in unit time of over thirteen times the 
 energy represented in the mechanical horsepower unit 
 acting over the same unit of time. 
 
 It is instructive to follow this computation as it 
 will familiarize the reader with these two distinct 
 units. Let us then proceed to an analysis. The me- 
 chanical horsepower unit is defined' as a performance 
 of work or conversion of energy at the rate of 33,000 
 ft. Ib. per minute. Since 1 B.t.u. of energy has been 
 found to have its equivalent in 777.5 ft. Ibs. of mechan- 
 
76 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 ical work, it is seen that 33,000 ft. Ib. of work per min- 
 ute, or 1,980,000 ft. Ib. of work per hr. may be repre- 
 sented by 2547 B.t.u. per hr. From the definition of 
 the boiler horsepower above mentioned, as that 
 adopted by the American Society of Mechanical Engi- 
 neers, it is seen that since it requires 970.4 B.t.u. to 
 evaporate 1 Ib. of water at 212 F. into steam at 
 212 F., one boiler horsepower represents 34.5 X 970.4 
 B.t.u. per hr. or 33,479 B.t.u. of heat energy per hr. 
 Hence, when we compare the boiler horsepower with 
 the ordinary horsepower it is seen that the boiler 
 horsepower represents a unit which is 13.14 times 
 larger than the ordinary horsepower. 
 
 The Myriawatt as a Basis of Boiler Perform- 
 ance. In recent years, due to the tremendous 
 growth in the electrical industry, engineers have 
 recognized the inconsistencies of the boiler horsepower 
 unit and an effort has been made by the national 
 engineering societies to make a more rational 
 standard of rating. As a consequence, the American 
 Institute of Electrical Engineers has proposed that 
 the Myriawatt be adopted as a standard of boiler 
 rating instead of the Bl. h.p. (A Myriawatt is the 
 power equivalent of 10,000 watts or 10 kw. which 
 converted into heat units become 34,150 B.t.u. per hr.) 
 Although it is still to be remembered that the Myria- 
 \vatt does not yet make output and input of electrical 
 units expressible in like quantities, since output is 
 usually expressed in kilowatts, still the factor of 10 
 furnishes a basis readily convertible and makes pos- 
 sible a change in units without materially upsetting 
 the old boiler h.p. range 01 capacity. 
 
 If, then, a -boiler evaporates M pounds of steam 
 per hour .and the total heat of each pound of steam so 
 evaporated be H and the heat of liquid represented in 
 the feed water be h f , then the rating of a boiler in 
 Myriawatts is evidently 
 
 M (H h f ) 
 
 / Myriawatts (1) 
 
 34,150 
 
BOILER HORSEPOWER 77 
 
 Relationship of Boiler Horsepower and Myria- 
 watts. Similarly, ( since one boiler horsepower is 
 equivalent to heat absorption of 33,479 B.t.u, per houry 
 and a myriawatt to 34,150 B.t.u. per hour, then we may 
 convert a rating- in Myriawatts to a rating in boiler 
 horsepower or vice versa by the relationship : 
 
 Rating in boiler horsepower 34,150 
 
 ...(2) 
 
 Rating in Myriawatts 33,479 
 
 The Builder's Rating. In the commercial evolu- 
 tion of the steam boiler there has grown up a method 
 of rating boilers by "rule of thumb" process. It is 
 evident that the area of the steam generating surface 
 of the boiler actually exposed to the heated gases of 
 the furnace has something to do with the capacity of 
 the boiler. For different designs of boilers, however, 
 the particular factor to be applied varies widely. It has 
 become of common acceptance, however, that 10 sq. ft. 
 of boiler surface exposed to the furnace heat shall be 
 considered on this rule of thumb comparison as equiv- 
 alent to one boiler horsepower. Hence to compute the 
 builder's rating of a boiler we must compute the area 
 in square feet of the surface exposed to the furnace. 
 By dividing this area A by ten we arrive at the Build- 
 er's Rating: 
 
 A 
 
 . ' . Bl. h.p. (Builder's rating) = . (3) 
 
 10 
 
 As a detailed illustration, let us take the case of a 
 Parker boiler installed at the Fruitvale Power Station 
 of the Southern Pacific Company in Oakland, Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 This boiler is made up of thne banks of tubes with 
 two drums above, half exposed. In detail we compute 
 as follows : 
 
 Tubes 4 in. diameter, circumference = 12.566 in. = 1.0472 ft. 
 Tubes 18 ft. long 18 X 1.0472 =18.85 sq. ft. of H. S. 
 
 Tubes 20 ft. long = 20 X 1.0472 =20.94 sq. ft. of H. S. 
 
78 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Heating Surface, Bottom Row of Tubes: 
 
 20 tubes with) 18 ft. of Heating area 
 
 length exposed to gases = 18.85 X 20 = 377.00 sq. ft. 
 
 Heatfng Surface, First Pass: 
 100 tubes with 20 ft. of 
 
 length -exposed to gases = 20.94 X 100 = 2094.00 sq. ft. 
 
 Heating Surface, Second Pass: 
 80 tubes with 20 ft. of 
 
 length exposed to gases = 20.94 X 80 = 1675.20 sq. ft. 
 
 Heating Surface, Third Pass: 
 80 tubes with 20 ft. of 
 
 length exposed to gases = 20.94 X 80 = 1675.20 sq. ft. 
 
 Drums : 
 
 2 drums 54 in. diameter, 18% ft. of length 
 exposed to gases : circumference = 14.1 ft. ; 
 V 2 of circumference 7 ft. = 7x 18.5 X 2 = 259.00 sq. ft. 
 
 Total 6080.40 sq. ft. 
 
 Hence, we have that the builder's rating of this boiler 
 should be 
 
 6,080.4 
 
 Bl. h.p. (Builder's rating) = = 608.04. 
 
 10 
 
 To Compute Actual Boiler Rating. Since it is 
 seen from the fundamental definition of the boiler 
 horsepower that the standard reference boiler gener- 
 ates its steam from water at 212 F. into steam at 
 212 F., we must next develop a factor by which we 
 can reduce ordinary boiler performances of high tem- 
 peratures and pressures to this fictitious standard be- 
 fore we can proceed further. The next chapter will be 
 devoted to this consideration. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION AND FACTOR 
 OF EVAPORATION IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 |N the previous chapter it 
 was seen that as the fun- 
 damental definition of the 
 boiler horsepower is based 
 upon a fictitious boiler 
 that receives its feed 
 water at 212 F. and then 
 evaporates it into dry sat- 
 urated steam at 212 F. 
 and atmospheric pressure, 
 we must now develop 
 some factor by which we 
 can reduce boiler perform- 
 ances as actually met with 
 in practice to this fic- 
 titious standard. 
 
 In order also to com- 
 pare the steaming quali- 
 ties of two different boil- 
 ers or indeed to compare 
 the same boiler under dif- 
 ferent conditions of water supply and steam generation, 
 it is necessary that some standard of comparison be 
 adopted. Thus a boiler under its normal condition 
 of operation may be found to evaporate 13.61 Ib. of 
 water per Ib. of oil fired per hour when taking its 
 feed water at 169.1 F. and converting it into super- 
 heated steam at a temperature of 527 F. and a pressure 
 of 185.3 gage. On the other hand, the identical boiler, 
 when steaming under overload conditions of a feed- 
 water temperature of 174.1 F., a superheat tempera- 
 
 piping in Boiler Setting 
 where Superheat Tem- 
 peratures are Taken 
 
 79 
 
80 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 ture of 536.9 F. and gage pressure of 194.1 Ib. per 
 square inch may be found to evaporate only 13.17 Ib. 
 of water per Ib. of oil fired, even though the same 
 quality of oil be used in each instance. It is evident 
 then from sight that to compare these two evaporative 
 quantities without taking account of the actual heat 
 transferred from the fuel to the steam in the boiler 
 would be a possible source of error. 
 
 The Standard that Has Been Adopted. To avoid 
 inconsistencies and to develop some rational method 
 of comparison, engineers have found it convenient and 
 accurate to reduce all evaporative quantities of a boiler 
 to a definite standard. In order to follow out this 
 standardized comparison, all steam generating per- 
 formances of boilers read as if the boiler took its feed 
 water at 212 F. and atmospheric pressure, and con- 
 verted it into dry saturated steam at 212 F. and at- 
 mospheric pressure, as set forth in the standard defini- 
 tion of the boiler horsepower in the last chapter. It is 
 clearly evident that no such theoretical boiler has ever 
 existed, yet this standard of comparison is found very 
 convenient. Thus in any case of boiler performance, 
 if M e represents such an equivalent or comparative 
 standardized evaporation in Ibs. of water per Ib. of fuel, 
 and M w the Ib. of water actually evaporated in the boiler 
 under conditions of test, we may now invent a factor 
 to be known as the factor of evaporation, F e , whereby 
 such performances may be readily reduced : 
 
 M.-M W . F e (1) 
 
 In the same way, the equivalent evaporation of 
 water per hour may be computed from the formula 
 
 M eh = M wh . F e (2) 
 
 wherein M e h and M wh represent hourly conditions of 
 evaporation. 
 
 Let us next analyze the factor of evaporation and 
 see how we may actually compute its value for any 
 given case. We have previously found that in the 
 operation of the boiler, steam appears in three differ- 
 
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION 81 
 
 ent conditions or qualities, namely in what is known 
 as dry saturated, wet saturated, or super-heated steam. 
 Let us then consider the evaluation of the factor of 
 evaporation for these three distinct instances. 
 
 Dry Saturated Steam. In the case of dry satur- 
 ated steam, the water enters the boiler already pos- 
 sessing a heat of liquid h f corresponding to its en- 
 trance temperature which may be readily found in the 
 steam tables. This water is next converted into dry 
 saturated steam which has a total heat (H e ) corres- 
 ponding to the pressure at which the evaporation takes 
 place. Consequently the actual heat which has been 
 transferred from the boiler shell to the water is 
 (H e h f ) heat units. But to evaporate one pound 
 of water at 212 F. into dry steam at 212 F. requires 
 970.4 heat units. Hence if M w pounds of water are 
 evaporated under test conditions, the number of 
 pounds M e under standardized conditions would evi- 
 
 (H.-h.) 
 
 dently be M w . Therefore, for dry sat- 
 
 970.4 
 urated steam 
 
 (H e h f ) 
 
 F e (dry saturated steam) = (3) 
 
 970.4 
 
 Thus in the case of a boiler which takes its feed 
 water at 101.8 F. and converts it into dry saturated 
 steam at 180 Ib. pressure per square inch, from the 
 steam tables we find that H e is 1 1196.4 and h f is 69.8, 
 hence the factor of evaporation is 
 
 H96.4 69.8 
 
 F e = -=1.16 
 
 970.4 
 
 Wet Saturated Steam. In the case of wet sat- 
 urated steam all of the water entering the boiler 
 is not converted into steam. As a consequence a cer- 
 tain portion of heat (h e h f ) is required to raise the 
 temperature of the water from entrance temperature 
 t f to the temperature of evaporation t e and if only X e 
 
82 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 parts of a lb. are then evaporated into steam, only 
 X e L e B.t.u. are required to accomplish this result. 
 Hence, the total heat required per lb. of water so 
 evaporated is (h e + X e L e h f ). 
 
 As a consequence the factor of evaporation in 
 this case may from similar reasoning be expressed by 
 the formula 
 
 (h e + X e L e h f ) 
 
 F e (dry saturated steam) = - - (4) 
 
 970.4 
 
 As an instance showing the application of this 
 formula let us assume that the boiler above men- 
 tioned did not evaporate the water into dry steam but 
 that upon investigation it was found to contain 5 per 
 cent moisture. What now is its factor of evaporation? 
 From the steam tables we find that h e is 345.6, L e is 
 850.8 and h f is 69.8. Therefore the factor of evapora- 
 tion is 
 
 345.6 + .95X850.8 69.8 
 
 F e = 1.117 
 
 970.4 
 
 Superheated Steam. In the third instance steam 
 is not only evaporated to a dry saturated condition, 
 but is finally sent from the boiler in a superheated 
 condition. The steam tables are so arranged that we 
 may find the heat necessary to raise the total heat 
 of superheated steam when its pressure and temper- 
 ature are known. Considering that the water entered 
 the boiler at 32 F., let us then call H s the total heat 
 of superheated steam. Since now the water entered 
 the boiler with a heat of liquid equal to h f the actual 
 heat entering each lb. of steam evaporated in the boiler 
 under these conditions is (H s h f ) heat units. Hence 
 in this instance the factor of evaporation is likewise 
 from similar reasoning computed by the formula : 
 (superheated steam) 
 
 H. h, 
 
 F e (superheated steam) = (5) 
 
 970.4 
 
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION 83 
 
 To follow up the same example as set forth in the 
 preceding illustration, let us assume that the steam 
 is evaporated under the conditions hitherto mentioned, 
 but that it appears superheated to the extent of 100. 
 Looking in the steam tables we find that the total 
 heat H 8 of superheated steam at 180 Ib. pressure 
 and 100 superheat is 1254.3 and that the heat of liquid 
 h f is 69.8, consequently the factor of evaporation is 
 
 1254.3 69.8 
 
 970.4 
 
 1.22 
 
 To Compute the Boiler Horsepower. Since now 
 by means of formula (2), we are enabled to compute 
 the equivalent evaporation of M eh in pounds of water 
 per hour that the boiler under test would evaporate 
 were it taking its feed water at 212 F. and converting 
 it into dry saturated steam at the same temperature, 
 we can at once compute the horsepower of the boiler. 
 
 PLATFORM SCALES AND TANKS FOR WATER 
 
 MEASUREMENT 
 
 The boiler immediately to the right of the platform scales is 
 under test. The tank below the platform scales into which 
 the water is emptied after being weighed, is utilized to fur- 
 nish all water for the boiler during the test. At the begin- 
 ning of the test a hooked gage registers the height of the 
 water in this tank, and at each hourly period thereafter suf- 
 ficient water is weighed and emptied into it from the tanks 
 above to maintain this exact level. By means of these data, 
 properly taken, the factor of evaporation and the boiler horse- 
 power are easily computed. 
 
84 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Under such conditions of operation for every 34.5 Ib. 
 of water evaporated per hour, the boiler is developing 
 one boiler horsepower. Hence to compute the boiler 
 horsepower, we write the formula : 
 
 M eh 
 
 Bl. hp. = - - (6) 
 
 34.5 
 
 Thus if a boiler has an equivalent evaporation of 
 23,350 Ib. of water per hour, its horsepower is found 
 to be 
 
 23,350 
 
 Bl. hp. = 676.7 
 
 34.5 
 
 We could of course develop an expression for the 
 computation of boiler horsepower by taking into 
 consideration the heat absorbed by the generation of 
 steam per hour. For in our discussion in the pre- 
 vious chapter it was shown that one boiler horsepower 
 is equivalent to the absorption of 33,479 heat units 
 per hour. Hence, by computing the heat absorbed 
 by the total pounds of steam generated per hour 
 and dividing this by 33,479, we can compute boiler 
 horsepower and arrive at the same answer as given 
 in the above formula. It is better, however, for the 
 beginner to follow fundamental definitions rather 
 than attempt too many short cuts to gain quick re- 
 sults. 
 
 In conclusion the important relationship to bear 
 in mind is the vast difference between the socalled 
 mechanical horsepower and the boiler horsepower 
 which was brought out in the previous discussion. 
 With this relationship firmly fixed it must be remem- 
 bered that equivalent evaporation is such. an evapora- 
 tion as would be brought about by taking in water 
 into the boilers at 212 F. and evaporating it into dry 
 saturated steam at 212 F. and atmospheric pressure. 
 The formulas deduced above for equivalent evapora- 
 tion and factor of evaporation enable us to do this. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 HOW TO DETERMINE QUALITY OF STEAM IN 
 FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 TEAM as used in engi- 
 neering practice is said 
 to be wet saturated, dry 
 saturated or superheat- 
 ed, depending upon the 
 degree to which heat 
 has been applied in its 
 generation. 
 
 Wet Saturated Steam 
 
 As its name implies, 
 wet saturated steam is 
 saturated steam in 
 which are suspended 
 small globules or parti- 
 cles of water. Since 
 such globules or parti- 
 cles of water indicate 
 that insufficient heat 
 has been applied, and 
 consequently steam 
 generation is imperfect, 
 it is the function of all 
 good boilers to generate 
 steam as free from water as possible. 
 
 Although steam be generated dry or even super- 
 heated it may, however, after passing through con- 
 ducting pipes appear at the power generating unit in 
 a wet condition. Hence the determination of moist- 
 ure content and the heat loss due to its presence is an 
 important one in steam engineering. 
 
 Let us assume X to be the proportion by weight 
 of dry steam that exists in wet- saturated steam. Then 
 
 85 
 
 Thermometer Inserted for 
 Superheat Measurement 
 
86 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the total heat represented in every pound of such sat- 
 urated steam at temperature t is 
 
 H t = h t + XL t (1) 
 
 This is evident at once when we consider that to raise 
 each pound of original water from 32 F. to the temper- 
 ature t, it required h t heat units. On the other hand 
 since a proportion by weight equal to X has actually 
 gone into steam, the heat required in the latent heat 
 of evaporation is but XL t . 
 
 Dry Saturated Steam. As one may infer from the 
 heading, saturated steam that contains no moisture is 
 called dry saturated steam. In the chapter on prop^ 
 erties of water the determination of its total heat was 
 illustrated quite fully. We may, however, derive the 
 equation for total heat of dry saturated steam from 
 the equation above for wet saturated steam. For in 
 this latter instance since no water is present, evidently 
 
 X becomes equal to unity. Hence for dry saturated 
 steam 
 
 H t = h t + L t (2) 
 
 Superheated Steam. It has been hitherto pointed 
 out that when water is being evaporated into steam the 
 temperature remains constant until all the water dis- 
 appears. So long, however, as steam remains in con- 
 tact with the water from which it is being formed it 
 is either dry or wet saturated steam and its tempera- 
 ture cannot be raised above that which normally rep- 
 resents the boiling point of water for the pressure 
 under which the steam is being generated. 
 
 It has, however, been found of immense economic 
 value in steam engineering practice to actually use 
 steam that is heated over a hundred degrees in excess 
 of the temperature at which saturated steam may be 
 generated under the existing pressure conditions. It 
 is seen that such steam must, of course, first become 
 absolutely dry and then any additional heat that may 
 be added goes toward raising its temperature if the 
 pressure be kept constant. 
 
 This is accomplished in the modern steam gener- 
 ating units by conducting the saturated steam from 
 
QUALITY OF STEAM 87 
 
 the main drums in which it is generated and passing 
 it through pipes exposed to highly heated portions of 
 the boiler furnace. Such a system of pipes is known 
 as a superheater. The steam quickly absorbs sufficient 
 heat to completely dry it and still further raise its tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Computation of Total Heat of Superheated Steam. 
 
 If a definite constant quantity of heat were required 
 to superheat a pound of steam one degree in tempera- 
 ture for all ranges of temperature and pressure, we 
 could write down a comparatively simple formula for 
 arriving at the total heat of superheated steam. Since, 
 however, this specific heat constant has a wide range 
 of .46 to .60 it is impossible to do so. 
 
 Hence in each case of temperature, pressure and 
 degree of superheat, we must refer to steam tables in 
 order to find the proper value of total heat of super- 
 heated steam. And, indeed, this too is necessary to 
 find all the other constants that relate to superheated 
 steam. 
 
 The fundamental definition remains the same, how- 
 ever namely that the quantity of steam required to 
 raise one pound of water from 32 F. to the tempera- 
 ture t corresponding to the boiling point of water for 
 the pressure at which the steam is generated, added 
 to the latent heat of evaporation for this pressure, to- 
 gether with such additional heat as may be required to 
 raise the one pound of now dry saturated steam to the 
 degree of superheat given, is known as the(total heat 
 of superheated steam i H s . Expressing this algebra- 
 ically we have 
 
 H s = h t + L t + C pm (t. t) (3) 
 
 As an example let us suppose that superheated 
 steam is being generated at ordinary atmospheric pres- 
 sure and delivered at a temperature of 312 F. We will 
 suppose that the mean specific heat C pm for the range 
 of temperature and pressure under consideration is 
 say 0.46. Then from the tables, we find 
 
 h t = 180. L t = 970.4. t. = 312. 
 
88 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 t = 212. C pm = .46 
 . ' . H s 180 + 970.4 + .46 (312 212) 
 
 = 180 + 970.4 + 46 = 1196.4 B.tu, 
 
 It is most important that the student should re- 
 member that although the value H s may be taken 
 directly from the steam tables, still it is based on the 
 several steps above taken. In many steam engineering 
 problems this separate analysis or dissecting must be 
 done so it is well to clinch this matter without delay. 
 
 Steam Calorimeters. The word calorimeter often 
 causes considerable confusion because there are two 
 entirely different and distinct types of mechanism that 
 bear this name in engineering practice. Fundamen- 
 tally it means "a measurer of heat." In order to deter- 
 mine the heat contained in fuel an instrument known 
 as a calorimeter is employed which will be described 
 in later pages. At this point, however, we shall now 
 proceed to describe several types of an instrument 
 
 TEMPERATURE DETERMINATION FOR SUPERHEATED 
 STEAM 
 
 In taking: the temperature for superheated steam a thermometer 
 should be inserted as near the superheated drum as practicable. 
 The thermometer has suspended at its side a second thermometer 
 in order to ascertain the proper correction to be made for that 
 portion emerging from the bath in which the main thermometer 
 rests so that the stem correction may be made. In the illustration 
 may be seen the point at which the thermometer well for ascer- 
 taining the superheated steam temperature was inserted in finding 
 the superheat for an installation in Oakland, California. 
 
QUALITY OF STEAM 89 
 
 that bears the same name and yet is entirely differ- 
 ent both in design and in aim to be accomplished. 
 
 The steam calorimeter is an instrument used in 
 steam engineering practice to determine the exact 
 quality of steam, whether it be wet saturated, dry 
 saturated, or superheated, and to what extent. Since 
 the thermometer and the carefully calibrated pressure 
 gage constitute the easiest and most direct method of 
 ascertaining superheat, the uses of the steam calori- 
 meter are usually limited to determination of mois- 
 ture in wet saturated steam. 
 
 The Determination of Superheat. The method of 
 ascertaining superheat will now be set forth. 
 
 A thermometer is inserted in the outlet of the su- 
 perheater drum, and the temperature read, and at the 
 same instant the pressure of the superheater drum 
 is read on a steam gage attached to this drum. If now 
 the thermometer reads 539 F. and the steam gage 
 reads 178.5 Ib. per sq. in. and the atmospheric pres- 
 sure is 14.7 Ib. per sq. in., we proceed as follows : 
 
 The absolute pressure of the superheated steam is 
 the sum of 178.5 and 14.7 which is 193.2 Ib. per sq. in. 
 Referring to steam tables, we find that water boils, 
 or rather saturated steam is generated, at a temperature 
 of 379 F. when under a pressure of 193.2 Ib. per sq. in. 
 Hence, the superheat of the steam under consideration 
 is the difference of 539 and 379, which is 160 F. 
 
 Determination of Moisture in Saturated Steam. 
 There are many methods that may be used in deter- 
 mining the moisture content of saturated steam. The 
 particular method to be employed depends much upon 
 the accuracy desired and the degree or intensity of the 
 moisture content present. 
 
 The Barrel or Tank Calorimeter. In this method, 
 which should never be used except for approximate 
 results, the steam is allowed to pass up through a bar- 
 rel of water. Of course, the steam at once condenses 
 into water and the resulting mixture with the water in 
 the barrel raises the temperature. By taking the pres- 
 sure of the steam and the two temperatures of the 
 
90 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 water the one before applying the steam and the 
 other after its application together with the weights 
 of the water involved, we may at once write a math- 
 ematical relationship to determine the moisture con- 
 tent. 
 
 If we neglect radiation and other stray losses, the 
 heat gained by the water in the barrel is equal to that 
 lost by the steam under test. 
 
 In all the subsequent discussions in this chapter 
 let us let subscripts represent conditions of steam in 
 the boiler; 1 subscripts, the initial conditions in the 
 barrel; 2 subscripts, the final conditions in the barrel; 
 and W will represent the weights involved. 
 
 The total heat of each pound of entering steam 
 is by equation (1) found to be (h -f- X L ) and since 
 after this pound of condensed steam mixes with the 
 water in the barrel it still has h 2 units of heat, there 
 is then a net loss of (h -\- X L h 2 ) heat units. In 
 the same way each pound of water in the barrel gains 
 (h 2 h t ) heat units. If W units of steam are in- 
 volved and W units of water are found in the barrel 
 at the beginning of the test, we know then, since 
 heat lost by the steam is equal to heat gained by the 
 water, neglecting radiation and other losses, that 
 
 W (h + X L h 2 )=W 1 (h 2 hO 
 
 WL 
 
 (4) 
 
 As an example, it was found in a test that a steam 
 main under 90 Ib. pressure (gage) deposited 3 Ib. of 
 condensed steam "into a vessel that contained 27 Ib. of 
 water at 62 F., thereby raising the temperature to 
 175 F. We compute the proportion of dry steam in 
 the main as follows : 
 
 P = 90 Ib. per sq. in. (gage) = 104.7 Ib. per sq. in. abs, 
 
 Wi = 27 Ib., W = 3 Ib. t t = 62 F., t 2 = 175 F. 
 Hence from steam tables 
 
 L =: 885.4, h -=301.8, ^ = 30.1, h 2 = 142.9. 
 
QUALITY OF STEAM 91 
 
 27 (142.9 30.1 ) 3 (301.8 142 .9) 
 . . X = - -- .968 
 3 X 885.4 
 
 . ' . X 96.8% dry steam in steam under test. 
 
 Surface Condenser Tank Calorimeter. This 
 method varies from the one just set forth in that the 
 condensed steam does not mingle with the water in 
 the barrel. To accomplish this the steam is passed 
 through a coil of piping which is inserted in the tank. 
 As the steam comes in contact with the cooling surface 
 of this pipe, it is condensed into water and of course 
 the heat thus liberated or given out is absorbed by the 
 water in the tank and its temperature correspondingly 
 raised. Hence in this instance, it is necessary to 
 weigh the water in the tank and the condensed steam 
 discharged through the coil. It is also necessary to 
 take the pressure of the steam under observation and 
 to note the temperature of the tank water before and 
 after application as well as the temperature of the 
 water discharged from the coils. 
 
 Proceeding by similar reasoning as set forth in 
 the former instance, the heat lost by each pound of 
 steam is sure to be (h + X L h 3 ), wherein the 
 subscript 3 is to denote the condition of the steam 
 condensed into water as it emerges from the coil. The 
 heat gained by each pound of water in the tank is also 
 seen to be (h 2 hj heat units. Hence if W lb. of 
 condensed steam are discharged and W x lb. of water 
 are found in the tank, since the heat lost by the steam 
 is equal to that gained by the water, neglecting radia- 
 tion and other minor losses, we have 
 
 W (X L + h _ h s ) = W (h 2 hj 
 
 W^h, hj W (h hj 
 
 '. Xo = - - 
 
 WL 
 
 (5) 
 
 00 
 
 To illustrate, let us assume that one pound of 
 steam at a pressure of 100 lb. per sq. in. absolute is 
 passed through coils immersed in a tank containing ten 
 
92 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 pounds of water at an initial temperature of 100 F. 
 At the conclusion of the condensation the water in the 
 tank is found to be at a temperature of 204.5 F., 
 while that emerging from the coils is 210 F. The 
 quality of the steam is at once found by substitution 
 in the formula as follows : 
 
 From the test data we have p = 100 lb., W = 
 10 lb., W = l lb., t 1 = 100 8 F., t a = 204.5 F, and 
 t 3 =:210 F. From the steam tables, we find h 1 ==68, 
 h 2 = 172.5, h 3 = 178, h -=298.3, L = 888.0. 
 
 10 (172.5 68) 1 (298.3 178) 
 
 ..X = =1.05 
 
 1 X888 
 
 Since the quality of steam is greater than unity, 
 it is evident that the steam in this instance is super- 
 heated. 
 
 The principle upon which the more accurate steam 
 calorimeters operate is in general accomplished along 
 similar lines. We shall, however, reserve further dis- 
 cussion on the subject un,til the next chapter wherein 
 we shall deal at length with these calorimeters. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE STEAM CALORIMETER AND ITS USE IN 
 FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 We come now to a consideration of the methods 
 used in steam engineering practice to accurately de- 
 termine the moisture content of saturated steam. In 
 the preceding chapter certain approximate methods 
 were set forth, but in the following discussion it will 
 be seen that by care and patience the moisture con- 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 THE THROTTLING CALORIMETER AND THE SAMPLING 
 NOZZLE 
 
 In the typical throttling calorimeter, steam is drawn from a verti- 
 cal main through the sampling nipple, then passed around the 
 first thermometer cup, then through a one-eighth inch orifice in a 
 disk between two flanges, and lastly around the second thermometer 
 cup and to the atmosphere. Thermometers are inserted in the 
 *vells, which should be filled with mercury or heavy cylinder oil. 
 Due to the fact that the heat content in the steam under the ex- 
 panded condition with which it reaches the second thermometer, is 
 much less, the heat thus liberated superheats the steam at this 
 point and thus a means is given for ascertaining the moisture or- 
 iginally in the steam sample. 
 
 tent of saturated steam may be ascertained with a 
 wonderful degree of accuracy. 
 
 93 
 
94 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Chemical Calorimeter. The chemist has a 
 method of determining the moisture content which 
 finds little application in the steam engineering labo- 
 ratory, but in the chemist's laboratory it is performed 
 with a remarkable degree of accuracy. Certain salts 
 absorb moisture held in a vapor. Hence by passing 
 wet saturated steam over such salts, the moisture 
 content is taken from the steam and by weighing the 
 moisture so absorbed the degree of moisture held in 
 suspension is ascertained. 
 
 The Throttling Calorimeter. By reference to 
 the steam tables it is seen that when saturated steam 
 exists at say 200 Ib. pressure per sq. in., each pound 
 of steam represents a storage of heat equal to 1197.6 
 B.t.u. For it is seen from the steam tables that it 
 took 354.4 B.t.u. to bring the original pound of water 
 from 32 F. to its boiling point and then an additional 
 843.2 B.t.u. to evaporate this water into dry satu- 
 rated steam. 
 
 Let us suppose for a minute this steam at 200 Ib. 
 per sq. in. were allowed to flow through an orifice and 
 expand into a chamber which was at but 14.7 Ib. per 
 sq. in From the steam tables it is seen that saturated 
 steam existing under such a pressure holds in storage 
 but 1150.4 B.t.u. What then becomes of the difference 
 between 1197.6 B.t.u. and 1150 B.t.u. represented by 
 the heat held in storage in the two instances? Evi- 
 rteiuJy if the main at the lower temperature be well 
 hooded so that no heat escapes, the heat given out 
 must go toward superheating the steam at the lower 
 pressure. Since the specific heat of superheated 
 steam at the lower pressure is about .47 the 47.2 
 B.t.u. that are liberated would evidently superheat 
 the steam about 100. The actual measurement, then, 
 of this superheat gives us at once a most accurate 
 method of determining the quantity of moisture present 
 in the steam at the original pressure. For if we find 
 that the steam is superheated only 25 F., instead of 
 100 F., evidently some of the mixture must have 
 been water, for otherwise its existence at the higher 
 
THE STEAM CALORIMETER 
 
 95 
 
 temperature as steam would aid in superheating still 
 further the lower temperature. 
 
 A throttling calorimeter, then, is simply a con- 
 trivance by which we allow steam to pass from its 
 high pressure through a small opening where its tem- 
 
 THE SEPARATING CALORIMETER 
 
 In this type of separating calorimeter the steam, with its moisture 
 enters from the steam main at 6 and is forced to travel downward 
 toward 3 at a high velocity. At 14, however, the direction is sud- 
 denly reversed upward toward 7 and later passes downward through 
 4 and out into the atmosphere at 8. When the sudden reversal 
 takes place at 14, the moisture in the steam collects at 3 and its 
 content is measured on the gage 12. The steam content, on the 
 other hand, is calculated by means of Napier's formula as it passes 
 through the orifice at 8 as illustrated in the text. 
 
 perature and pressure are taken before it passes out 
 into the atmosphere. Prior to its passage through 
 the small opening, the temperature and pressure of 
 the steam is noted. Let us denote by "s" subscripts 
 the conditions of superheated steam in the low pres- 
 sure chamber, "o" subscripts the steam in the steam 
 main, and "3" subscripts saturated steam at the pres- 
 sure of the low pressure chamber. 
 
 Each pound of wet saturated steam in the steam 
 main has X parts by weight existing as dry steam.' 
 Hence the total heat represented in each pound of this 
 
96 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 steam is evidently (X L + h ) heat units as seen 
 from close inspection. In the same manner each pound 
 of steam in the lower pressure chamber holds in stor- 
 age [H 3 -|- C pm (t s t 3 )] heat units as seen from pre- 
 vious reasoning. Since no heat is allowed to escape, evi- 
 dently these expressions are equal one to the other, or 
 
 X L + h == H 3 + C pm (t. 1 3 ) 
 
 C pm for the low pressures has a value of 0.47, hence, we 
 have 
 
 H 3 + 0.47 (t. t s ) h H s h 
 X = - ....(1) 
 
 L L 
 
 in which H s is the total heat of superheated steam in 
 the low pressure chamber. Its numerical value may 
 be taken directly from the steam tables when the 
 pressure and degree of superheat are known. 
 
 As an illustration, let us assume that the pressure 
 in the steam main is 153.6 lb.. per sq. in. abs. and that 
 its temperature is found to be 362.9 F., thus indi- 
 cating at once that the steam is saturated and not su- 
 perheated. After it has expanded into the low pres- 
 sure chamber it is found to have a temperature of 
 261.3 F. and a pressure of 14.8 lb. per sq. in. absolute. 
 
 From the steam tables we find L = 859.6; 
 h = 334.8 ; H 3 = 1150.5 ; t. = 261.3 ; t 3 = 212.4 F, 
 
 1150.5 334.8 .47 (261.3 212.4) 
 
 .-.X = ^ = .9758 
 
 859.6 
 
 Therefore the steam is evidently 97.58 per cent dry. 
 The Limitations of the Throttling Calorimeter. A 
 
 little consideration of the underlying principle of the 
 throttling calorimeter brings to light a definite range 
 of limitation to its usefulness. It will be remembered 
 that this fundamental principle consists in liberating 
 sufficient heat at the lower pressure not only to 
 evaporate any moisture that may exist but to actually 
 superheat the entire mixture. If there is not suffi- 
 cient heat liberated, that is if too much water is held 
 in suspension in the saturated steam, the steam at the 
 
THE STEAM CALORIMETER 9? 
 
 lower pressure fails to become superheated and hence 
 we have no means of measurement. 
 
 Thus if steam pass from 100 Ib. absolute pressure 
 per sq^ in. to 30 Ib. absolute pressure per sq. in., the 
 total heat at the upper pressure is (X L -|- h ) which 
 from the steam tables becomes (X 888 + 298.3) heat 
 units and that at the lower pressure is H 3 , or 1163.9, 
 if it be not at all superheated. Hence we have 
 
 X 888 + 298.3 = 1163.9 
 
 865.6 
 
 . ' . X = = .9748 
 
 888 
 
 This means that if there is a greater moisture content 
 than 2.52 per cent the steam calorimeter will fail to 
 work because the mixture in the lower pressure space 
 does not become superheated. 
 
 If instead of having the low pressure of 30 Ib. 
 absolute per square inch, the steam in the calorimeter 
 had been throttled down to 14.7 Ib. the value of H 3 
 would have been 1150.4 instead of 1163.9 so that X 
 would become .9597 and the limit of the calorimeter 
 in this case would be 4.03 per cent of moisture. 
 
 Again if instead of steam at 100 Ib. absolute pres- 
 sure we had steam at 200 Ib. and allowed the sample 
 in the calorimeter to be throttled down to 14.7 Ib. it 
 may be found in the same way that the limit of the 
 calorimeter is 5.66 per cent of moisture. It is thus 
 seen that the greater the difference in pressure be- 
 tween the high pressure and the low pressure in the 
 calorimeter, the greater is the range of the calori- 
 meter. 
 
 The Electric Calorimeter. It is now evident that 
 if a definitely measurable quantity of heat could be 
 added to the steam before it was allowed to expand, 
 even very wet steam might be accurately measured 
 by the throttling calorimeter. This is seen at once 
 when we analyze the total heats involved. If E 
 be the heat units added to each pound of steam, then 
 the total heat possessed by each pound of steam in 
 
98 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the high pressure main is (X L to + n o +E ) heat units 
 and since the heat in each pound of steam in the lower 
 chamber is H s , we have, since no heat escapes 
 
 X L + h + E = H s 
 TT Vi F 
 
 J-J-s 11 -L^o 
 
 ' X = . (2) 
 
 L 
 
 In the Thomas electric meter an electrical me- 
 chansim has been invented whereby a series of small 
 wires electrically heated impart a known quantity of 
 electrical energy to the steam. This electrical energy 
 dissipates itself as heat and since we can transfer 
 electrical units into heat units and vice versa, a ready 
 means is provided to assist the throttling calorimeter 
 in doing its work by adding sufficient heat to widen 
 the range of the throttling process. 
 
 Thus, although the throttling calorimeter was 
 found definitely limited above as set forth, let us in- 
 vestigate a case where the electrical calorimeter may 
 be used. Let us assume the upper pressure to be 200 
 Ib. per sq. in. and the lower pressure 15.0 Ib. per sq. 
 in. In this case there were electrically added exactly 
 40 B.t.u. of energy and the temperature of superheat 
 t s was found to be 233.0 F., hence from the steam 
 tables we find 
 
 L = 843.2 ; h = 354.9; t s = 233.0; hence, H B = 1160.1 
 1160.1 354.9 40 
 
 = 0.908 
 
 843.2 
 
 The Separating Calorimeter. In the separating 
 calorimeter the moisture is mechanically separated 
 from the steam. If we know the total amount of steam 
 passing and also the weight of the water separated 
 from the steam, it is of course an easy problem to 
 compute the dryness of the steam. Thus, if W\ is 
 the weight of water separated per hour in the calori- 
 meter and W 2 the weight of dry steam passing out of 
 the calorimeter per hour, we have by inspection 
 
THE STEAM CALORIMETER 99 
 
 W 2 
 
 X. = (3) 
 
 W, + W, 
 
 Hence, if a separating calorimeter deposits 285 Ib. of 
 water per hour and if 10,000 Ib. of dry saturated steam 
 leave the calorimeter per hour, the dryness of the 
 steam is 
 
 10000 
 
 X - = 0.972 
 
 10000 + 285 
 
 There are many principles upon which the sepa- 
 rating calorimeter may operate. There are two forms, 
 however, which are more usual than others. In one 
 instance the steam mixture is given a rotary motion 
 in its journey and consequently the water particles 
 are thrown off by centrifugal force and collect in a 
 drip below. In the other instance the stream flow 
 receives a sudden reversal in direction. As dry steam 
 easily performs this feat and water insists upon con- 
 tinuing its former direction of flow a separation is 
 thus mechanically effected. 
 
 This type of instrument is not as accurate as the 
 throttling type, as it does not get all the moisture out 
 of the steam. When large quantities of moisture are 
 present, however, it proves useful in taking out the 
 bulk of the water or moisture while a throttling cal- 
 orimeter connected in series later on accurately meas- 
 ures the remaining water content present. Thus by 
 such a method of operation any degree of moisture 
 present in steam is easily and accurately measured. 
 
 Correction for Steam Used by Calorimeter. In a 
 
 great many instances the total weight of steam passing 
 per hour through the steam main under test is of prime 
 importance. Since most forms of calorimeter operate 
 by diverting a portion of this steam out into the at- 
 mosphere, it becomes necessary to have some quick 
 and ready means of computing the quantity of steam 
 so diverted. 
 
100 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Many years ago Napier deduced an approximate 
 formula for the flow of steam into the atmosphere from 
 a high pressure source. This formula is well within 
 the degree of accuracy required for steam diverted 
 through the calorimeter. If W is the pounds of steam 
 flowing per second, p the pounds of pressure per square 
 inch exerted 'by the steam in the main, and a the area 
 of the orifice in square inches through which the steam 
 passes, then 
 
 pa 
 W = (4) 
 
 70 
 
 The Sampling Nipple. The American Society of 
 Mechanical Engineers recommends a sampling nipple 
 made of one-half inch iron pipe closed at the inner end 
 and the interior portion perforated with not less than 
 twenty one-eighth inch holes equally distributed from 
 end to end and preferably drilled in irregular or spiral 
 rows with the first hole not less than one-half inch 
 from the wall of the pipe. (The failure to determine an 
 average sample of the steam is the principal source of 
 error in steam calorimeter determinations. "> 
 
 Conclusions on Moisture Measuring Apparatus. 
 Summing up the arguments of this chapter we see that 
 for comparatively small quantities of moisture present 
 in steam, the throttling calorimeter is the most accurate 
 device for its quantitative determination. If, however, 
 large quantities of moisture are present, two methods 
 present themselves. Either we must first remove the 
 major portion of the moisture by means of a sepa- 
 rating calorimeter and later determine the remaining 
 moisture content by means of the throttling calori- 
 meter, or we must add a definite quantity of heat to 
 the original steam supply by means of a device such 
 as the Thomas Electric calorimeter and then deter- 
 mine with proper computation factors the moisture 
 present by means of the throttling calorimeter. 
 
 As already shown the throttling calorimeter may 
 be used up to moisture of 4 per cent for steam at 100 
 
THE STEAM CALORIMETER 
 
 IQ1 
 
 lb. pressure and up to a lit- 
 tle over 5 per cent for 
 steam at 200 lb. pressure. 
 Most boilers deliver steam 
 containing not more than 
 \y 2 per cent or 2 per cent 
 of moisture so that for near- 
 ly all ordinary work the 
 throttling calorimeter has 
 sufficient range, and owing 
 to its great simplicity and 
 remarkable accuracy it is 
 almost universally used. 
 It is possible to make up a 
 throttling calorimeter by 
 means of pipe fittings by 
 providing a disc within a 
 pair of flanges having a 
 small hole to act as the 
 
 A Suggestion for a Convenient 
 
 and compact Type of Throt- throttling agent ; or the 
 
 throttling may be done 
 merely by partially opening 
 
 the valve on the sampling nipple close to the main steam 
 pipe. An extremely convenient design of calorimeter 
 and one that can be readily moved from place to place 
 is shown in the illustration. In this design a steam 
 jacket is provided to prevent, as far as possible radia- 
 tion losses from the calorimeter. For many further 
 useful pointers and detail rules in ascertaining the 
 moisture content of steam the reader is referred to the 
 latest edition of "Steam" .by the Babcock & Wilcox 
 Company, and to the report of the Power Test 
 Committee of the American Society of Mechanical 
 Engineers which is to be found in Vol. 37, transactions 
 A. S. M. E. for 1915, to which publications we are 
 indebted for much of the information contained in 
 this discussion. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 RATIONAL AND EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR 
 
 STEAM CONSTANTS IN FUEL OIL 
 
 PRACTICE 
 
 It has hitherto been pointed out that the relation- 
 ships of temperature, latent heat and other steam prop- 
 erties are so complicated with varying pressures that 
 no one as yet has been able to set forth simple mathe- 
 matical equations for their representation. 
 
 There exist, however, a vast number of more or 
 less complicated formulas that express with some de- 
 gree of accuracy a relationship between these vari- 
 ous factors. When such a relationship is deduced 
 from some process of reasoning based upon known 
 laws the equation is said to be rational. If, on the 
 other hand, some one by sifting through the sands of 
 time, as it were, has happened upon an equation with 
 no rational backing the formula is said to be em- 
 pirical. 
 
 Most of the equations used to set forth steam 
 variables are party rational and partly empirical. 
 
 Any equation, unless it be comparatively simple, 
 is of little practical use to the steam engineer, for he 
 may pick the values desired from the modern steam 
 tables with such facility that it is really burdensome 
 to try and remember any formulas connecting these 
 properties. 
 
 The Value of Formulas in Steam Engineering. 
 In certain theoretical reasoning, however, a formula 
 setting forth these relationships becomes often of in- 
 estimable value and indeed at times leads one to at- 
 tain data otherwise impossible to compute. Such is 
 the case of the formula from which the specific volume 
 of saturated steam is obtained by computation and set 
 forth in Chapter VII. Here it is found impossible 
 to obtain by experiment that which is easily com- 
 puted by application of this formula. 
 
 102 
 
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS 103 
 
 We shall next set forth some of the comparatively 
 simpler relationships or equations that have been de- 
 vised or annunciated by various authors. These will 
 serve to give the student an insight only into such 
 complicated formulas that arise in attempting a math- 
 ematical expression for these data. 
 
 Unless one desires to go deep into the theoretical 
 discussions of vapors and superheated gases such a 
 brief introduction is nevertheless fully sufficient for 
 the mastering of most problems in steam engineering 
 computation. 
 
 Relation Between Temperature and Pressure of 
 Saturated Steam. It has already been set forth that 
 water boils or that saturated steam begins to be 
 formed from water at different temperatures for each 
 variation in pressure. No one as yet has set forth a 
 simple rational formula connecting this relationship. 
 In the issue of Power of March 18, 1910, is to be 
 found a formula which is the simplest and yet one 
 of the most accurate empirical relations yet estab- 
 lished. This formula connects the temperature in 
 Fahrenheit degrees with the pressure in pounds per 
 sq. in. at which water boils, and is as follows: 
 
 t = 200p* 101 (1) 
 
 For a pressure of 10 Ib. per sq. in. the error is 
 but 0.28 per cent, while for 300 Ib. per sq. in., it be- 
 comes but 0.32 per cent. The intermediate values are 
 far less in error, so that this formula has, indeed, a 
 wide range of usefulness. 
 
 The Total Heat of Saturated Steam. Almost a 
 century ago Regnault gave to the world his celebrated 
 data on steam engineering. So accurately and so 
 carefully did he perform his work that even today his 
 experimental results are used in steam engineering 
 computation, although of course corrections are ap- 
 plied where certain constants involved in computation 
 are now known to have different values. 
 
 Regnault's Formula. Regnault's formula for the 
 total heat H t of saturated steam at temperature t is 
 one of the simplest ever invented and is as follows : 
 
 H t = 1091.7 + 0.305 (t 32) (2) 
 
104 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Let us test this formula by comparing its results with 
 those set forth in the steam tables for 235 F. 
 Regnault's Formula: 
 
 H 235 = 1091.7 + 0.305 (235 32) =1153.6 B.t.u. 
 
 H 235 = 1158.7 B.t.u. 
 
 1158.7 1153.6 
 
 . . Error = X 100 = 0.44% 
 
 1158.7 
 
 Hence we see that for low temperatures the error 
 involved by using the classic equation of Regnault is 
 less than one-half of one per cent. 
 
 Henning's Formula. Marks and Davis have in 
 the rear of their steam tables set forth a formula of 
 Henning, which though somewhat more complicated 
 than Regnault's is, however, very accurate. This 
 formula may be expressed as follows : 
 
 H t = 11 50.3 + 0.3745 (t 212) 0.000550 
 
 (t-212) 2 (3) 
 
 Let us now test the accuracy of this formula by sub- 
 stituting the same temperature of 235 F. as used in 
 Regnault's formula. 
 By Henning's formula: 
 
 H 235 = 1150.3 + 0.3745 (235 212) 0.000550 
 
 (235 212) 2 = 11 58.64 B.t.u. 
 From steam tables: 
 
 H 235 = 1158.7. 
 
 1158.7 il58.64 
 
 . . Error = - X 100 = .0052% 
 
 1158.7 
 
 Hence the error involved in the use of this formula 
 is seen to be extremely slight. 
 
 Latent Heat of Evaporation. Thiesen, after ob- 
 serving certain limits toward which the latent heat of 
 evaporation seemed to tend, suggested the following 
 formula for the latent heat of evaporation of water: 
 
 L t = 138.81 (689 t) - 315 (4) 
 
 Let us compare this with the steam table data for a 
 temperature of 235 F. 
 Thiesen's formula: 
 
 L 235 = 138.81 (689 235)- 315 = 953.7. 
 
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS 105 
 
 Steam tables : 
 
 L 235 = 955.4 
 
 955.4 _ 953.7 
 
 . . Error = - X 100 = 0.178% 
 
 955.4 
 
 While the error here found is comparatively small, 
 at higher temperatures this error becomes excessive. 
 Hence we should apply this formula with due regard to 
 its limitations. 
 
 A Second Formula for Heat of Evaporation. Stu- 
 dents in the classes of mechanical engineering at the 
 University of California have established a relation- 
 ship for latent heat and temperature aL follows : 
 
 L 2 = 1209423 1289.5 t (5) 
 
 This formula is simple and yet accurate to within 
 one-third of one per cent for a wide range of tempera- 
 tures of from 100 F. to 350 F. and with three-fourths 
 of .one per cent for practically the entire range involved 
 in steam engineering practice. The constants set 
 forth were obtained by the method of Least Squares. 
 
 Relationship of Specific Volume for Superheated 
 Steam. In the chapter on Heat and Elementary Laws 
 of Thermodynamics, it was shown that the pressure, 
 volume, and absolute temperature of a perfect gas are 
 connected by a very simple relationship as set forth in 
 the composite formula given in equation (5). In- 
 deed, it was shown that while superheated steam is 
 not a perfect gas,, still for approximate results this 
 equation may be used. 
 
 For accurate work, however, the equation of Linde 
 is found quite satisfactory although exceedingly cum- 
 bersome in its application. This equation connects 
 the pressure p in pounds per sq. in. and specific vol- 
 ume v in cu. ft. per pound with the absolute tempera- 
 ture T in the following relationship : 
 
 pv = 0.5962 T p (1 + 0.0014 p) 
 
 150300000 
 [ -0.0833 ] (6) 
 
106 BTJEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 To illustrate the application of this formula, let us 
 endeavor to find the specific volume of superheated 
 steam at 526.8 F. used in a turbine test when the 
 steam was under a pressure of 187.2 Ib. per sq. in. 
 absolute. 
 
 It is seen that the absolute temperature of the 
 superheated steam was 
 
 T = 526.8 + 459.6 = 986.4 
 
 and since the absolute pressure p was 187.2 Ib. per 
 sq. in., we have by substitution in the formula 
 
 v = 3.05 
 From steam tables : 
 
 v = 3.05 
 
 Hence in this instance the formula appears to be ab- 
 solutely accurate for the range of units involved in the 
 steam tables. 
 
 A Simplified but Limited Formula. A convenient 
 formula for a pressure of 175 Ib. per sq. in., the ap- 
 proximate pressure involved in steam turbine opera- 
 tions, has been worked out by the mechanical 
 engineering students at the University of California 
 for superheat between fifty and six hundred degrees 
 and is as follows : 
 
 v _ 2.67 + .00377 t, (7) 
 
 Wherein t s is the number of degrees superheat. The 
 accuracy of this formula is within one-half of one per 
 cent for the range of superheat above set forth. 
 
 Other Relationships Exist. By making use of 
 certain theoretic considerations in thermodynamics 
 many other equations might be written setting forth 
 still other relationships involved in the determination 
 of steam constants, but sufficient illustrations have 
 now been given the reader for a thorough introduction 
 to such formulas. Perhaps after all the most impor- 
 tant lesson one derives from their use is that their 
 application is often so tedious and their range of ac- 
 curacy often so questionable, that one had better stay 
 on well trodden paths and master to their fullest ex- 
 tent the application of the steam tables and diagrams 
 in the solution of all steam engineering problems. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE FUNDAMENTALS OF FURNACE OPERA- 
 TION IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 ANY of us are familiar 
 with the famous painting 
 that pictures James Watt 
 as a boy gazing in wide- 
 eyed amazement at the 
 homely tea-kettle spouting 
 forth its hitherto unhar- 
 nessed power generating 
 vapors. The eyes of the 
 youth are illuminated with 
 that strange and wonder- 
 ful light that set forth in 
 a measure some of the 
 dreams of constructive im- 
 agination which must 
 have been filling his con- 
 sciousness at that time. 
 
 The great inventor of 
 the steam engine undoubt- 
 edly saw in the tea-kettle 
 before him, not the home- 
 ly object of the kitchen, 
 but in its expanded form one of the most necessary 
 mechanisms for modern industrial development 
 namely, the steam boiler. 
 
 Let us then examine the fundamental operation 
 and construction of the steam boiler, and consider this 
 great giant of modern industrial aggrandizement to 
 see wherein it varies from its progenitor the homely 
 tea-kettle of Watt's boyhood dream. 
 
 The Fundamentals of the Tea- Kettle and the 
 Boiler are the Same. The tea-kettle in its construction 
 
 Air Ducts for Furnace 
 Floor 
 
 107 
 
108 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 and operation may be considered under three sepa- 
 rate discussions. First, there must be some means 
 of generating and imparting heat; secondly, a con- 
 tainer for the water and steam must be constructed 
 with physical characteristics to meet the stresses and 
 strains involved ; and, thirdly, the cycle of physical 
 operations through which the water and steam pass 
 in the generation of steam is of vast importance. 
 
 The tea-kettle operation in its simplest analysis 
 consists of a flame placed beneath a metal container. 
 This metal container absorbs the heat from the 
 flame and transmits it to the water within the con- 
 tainer. When sufficient heat has been absorbed by 
 the water within the container to raise its temperature 
 to the boiling point corresponding to the external pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere, the tea-kettle boils or in the 
 language of the steam engineer the tea-kettle generates 
 steam. 
 
 In its fundamental makeup, the boiler too, quite 
 closely follows this familiar and homely object the 
 tea-kettle. For in the modern boiler heat is first gen- 
 erated in a furnace. This heat is then imparted to a 
 metallic drum or tubes through which water is passed. 
 When sufficient heat is thus imparted to raise the tem- 
 perature of the water to the boiling point for the 
 pressure involved, steam generation takes place. 
 
 Inefficiency of Tea Kettle Operation. In modern 
 kitchen economics but little attention is paid to the 
 manner in which the heat is imparted to the tea-kettle. 
 Usually the stove lid is taken off and the kettle placed 
 over the fire space thus created. Some minutes later, 
 the house-wife, ignorant of the vast heat losses that 
 have taken place, returns to draw off the hot water 
 .thus inefficiently obtained as convenience may require. 
 As a matter of fact, the slightest and most casual in- 
 vestigation shows that in the United States millions 
 of dollars are wasted every year for lack of reasonable 
 care in the kettle operation. This loss is, nowever, 
 so widely distributed over thousands of homes that 
 it is not felt in any concentrated form. 
 
FURNACE OPERATION 109 
 
 Efficiency in the Modern Steam Boiler a Necessity. 
 In the case of the modern central station, however, 
 efficiency is the cry of the day. For with competition 
 on all sides and regulating commissions to limit the 
 
 TYPICAL BOILER FRONT IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 In this illustration may be seen the fuel oil atomizer in the ash pit 
 entrance, the hooded steam pipes for supplying steam used in atom- 
 ization, the fuel oil supply pipes, the damper control, the draft 
 gage and other accessories for fuel oil operation. 
 
 prices charged for the power supply, the utmost in eco- 
 nomic steam generation is essential. 
 
 Hence, in modern steam boiler operation, espe- 
 cially in its heat generating properties, a wide varia- 
 tion from tea-kettle operation is in vogue, not so 
 much in fundamental principles involved as in effi- 
 ciency of methods employed in the heat generating 
 mechanisms. 
 
 Efficient Furnace Construction of Utmost Im- 
 portance. - - To accomplish this efficiency an enclosed 
 compartment beneath the boiler proper is built. This 
 is known as the furnace. In this iurnace heat gener- 
 ating substances such as coal, wood, and crude pe- 
 troleum are burned. In the study of chemistry it has 
 been found that certain primary elements, notably 
 carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur, upon coming in con- 
 
110 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 tact with heated oxygen undergo a chemical reaction 
 and in doing so give out enormous quantities of heat. 
 It is the generation of this heat and its ultimate ab- 
 sorption by the water in the boiler that makes the 
 modern steam engine and steam turbine the giants in 
 commercial enterprise that today they represent. 
 
 Fuels Defined. In nature, substances such as 
 coal, wood and crude petroleum are found in vast 
 quantities and since these contain large amounts of 
 free carbon and hydrogen, they make excellent arti- 
 cles for heat generation and are called fuels. 
 
 An Air Supply Essential. It has been mentioned 
 that a supply of oxygen is absolutely necessary so 
 that a chemical reaction may take place and thus 
 liberate the heat held in suspense in the fuel. The 
 air about us is made up of about twenty per cent 
 oxygen and eighty per cent nitrogen. The nitrogen 
 is an inert, valueless ingredient that must pass int;o 
 the furnace, absorb some of its heat and go out 
 through the chimney, thus conducting away into the 
 outer atmosphere some of the heat generated. The 
 oxygen, however, upon coming in contact with the 
 heated carbon, hydrogen and sulphur of the fuel, 
 readily chemically reacts with them. 
 
 Enormous quantities of heat are thus liberated, 
 later to be absorbed by the water of the boiler, even- 
 tually to produce the steam delivered for the driving 
 of the steam engine or the steam turbine. 
 
 Furnace Operation. Since this series of articles 
 is largely concerned with fuel oil practice, let us 
 briefly outline the furnace operation for such practice. 
 In a later chapter this will be taken up in more detail. 
 
 The Fuel Oil Burner and Its Function* The fuel 
 oil is sprayed into the furnace by means of an atomizer 
 or burner which pulverizes the oil and delivers it in a 
 gaseous vapor or in small globules at the hottest place 
 in the furnace. Air is admitted from below and as soon 
 as the temperature is raised to the ignition point chem- 
 ical reaction takes place with the atomized fuel oil, 
 and thus heat is generated. This heat is absorbed by 
 
FURNACE OPERATION 111 
 
 the gases of the furnace and consequently their tem- 
 perature is at once raised often times to 2300 deg. or 
 2500 deg. F. These furnace gases consist of the inert 
 nitrogen that partly constituted the entering air, the 
 carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide formed by the 
 burning of the carbon, water vapor formed by the 
 burning of the hydrogen, sulphur dioxide formed by 
 the burning of the sulphur content, which latter ingre- 
 dient is always small, and a considerable quantity of 
 free oxygen depending on the amount of excess air 
 admitted to the furnace. 
 
 The Path of the Furnace Gases. In their ex- 
 panded condition, due to the absorption of such huge 
 quantities of heat, the gases now travel upward. As 
 they come in contact with the boiler drums or tubes 
 through which water is circulating, the gases are, of 
 course, cooled and the temperature of the water 
 raised. In this manner the gases, having been chilled 
 or lowered in temperature to 500 deg. or 600 deg. F., 
 are finally passed up through the chimney, and steam 
 generation within the boiler is accomplished. 
 
 The Economizer and Its Economic Value. - - In 
 some boiler installations a series of tubes through 
 which cold water is passing, is placed between the 
 boiler and the chimney. The chimney gases are thus 
 forced to give up still more of their heat. These out- 
 going chimney gases are consequently reduced still 
 further in temperature. 
 
 Such a device, as cited above, is known as an 
 economizer. This reduction in the temperature of 
 the out-going chimney gases reduces the draft of the 
 chimney. Hence, the economizer is an economic suc- 
 cess so long as the saving in feed-water heating is 
 greater than the interest on the cost of the economizer 
 installation and other apparatus necessary to produce 
 artificial draft, plus the cost of maintenance of this ad- 
 ditional apparatus. 
 
 Quantity of Air Required. It has been observed 
 that the entrance of air into the furnace is absolutely 
 essential for furnace operations. Too much air, how- 
 
112 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 ever, is detrimental, for more oxygen may be admitted 
 than can be economically used by the fuel. Hence, 
 too great an excess of air simply means the passage 
 up through the chimney of excess gases which absorb 
 heat only to convey it out into the atmosphere with- 
 out performing a useful function. In successful boiler 
 operation, therefore, some means must be provided, 
 first to measure the draft; second, to test the ingre- 
 dients of the outgoing gases ; and third, to regulate the 
 entrance of air into the furnace. 
 
 The Draft Gage and Its Principle of Operation. 
 
 A draft gage usually consists of a column of water 
 placed in a U-tube. The pressure in the chimney is 
 less than the atmosphere without. Therefore, if one 
 end of this tube is inserted into the chimney and the 
 other rests under the atmospheric pressure without, 
 the difference of water level thus obtained in the 
 U-tube indicates the draft in inches of water. This 
 may be converted into pounds pressure (absolute) per 
 square inch by applying the formulas previously set 
 forth in the chapter on pressures. 
 
 Apparatus for Determining Ingredients of Out- 
 going Chimney Gases. For economic boiler operation 
 the steam engineer should know the exact composition 
 of the outgoing chimney gases. Since this is a matter 
 of vast importance a later chapter will be given in 
 which detailed discussions of methods involved and 
 apparatus employed will be given. Suffice it to say 
 at this point, however, that by means of such appa- 
 ratus the engineer may determine whether the fuel is 
 being properly consumed in the furnace and whether 
 too little or too much air is being admitted into the 
 furnace. 
 
 Draft Regulating Devices. In fuel oil practice the 
 proper supply of air may be determined to a nicety. 
 Hence some means must be provided to regulate the 
 air supply with the same precision. This is done by 
 varying the amount of opening of either the ash pit 
 doors or the boiler damper or both. If the air is reg- 
 ulated by partly closing the ash pit doors and leaving 
 
FURNACE OPERATION 113 
 
 the damper wide open a strong draft may occur inside 
 the boiler setting which tends to draw air in through 
 the brick walls. As this is a detriment it is preferable 
 to regulate the air by means of the damper. 
 
 The Chimney. After the gases have passed 
 through and around the various heat absorbing tubes 
 and drums employed in the modern steam boiler and 
 economizer, they are shot up into the atmosphere 
 through a long vertical passage. The structure hous- 
 ing this passage is known as a chimney, The height of 
 the chimney and its area of cross-section through 
 which the flue gases pass have an important bearing 
 on the economic boiler or rather furnace operation. 
 
 In a general way, the reader now has a grasp of 
 the fundamentals involved in modern furnace opera- 
 tion for the steam boiler. We shall next consider the 
 container or shell for steam generation and its acces- 
 sories. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE BOILER SHELL AND ITS ACCESSORIES 
 FOR STEAM GENERATION IN FUEL OIL 
 PRACTICE 
 
 ET us now consider some 
 of the fundamental laws 
 involved in heat trans- 
 ference, and then discuss 
 the container or shell em- 
 ployed in steam genera- 
 tion together with the 
 accessories that must ac- 
 company any high pres- 
 sure steam generating 
 unit to accomplish safe 
 and efficient operation. 
 
 Going back once again 
 to the homely tea-kettle 
 for a simple illustration, 
 we find that the container 
 for the water and steam 
 usually consists of a flat 
 bottomed metallic vessel 
 with free opening to allow 
 the steam generated to 
 
 escape to the atmosphere. There is also usually to be 
 found an opening with a lid covering at the top where 
 water may be passed in or the vessel cleaned at more 
 or less irregular periods of operation in household 
 economics. 
 
 In the case of the steam boiler, however, vast im- 
 provements in physical configuration and construction 
 become a necessity. Let us then examine some of 
 these differences. 
 
 The C.lean, Clear Cut Appear- 
 ance of the Oil Fired 
 Boiler Room 
 
 114 
 
THE BOILER SHELL 115 
 
 The Laws of Heat Involved in Steam Generation. 
 
 The transference of heat is found by experimental 
 observation to take place in three separate and distinct 
 ways namely, by conduction, by radiation, and by 
 convection. 
 
 On a wintry night if one stands in front of a blaz- 
 ing fireplace it is easy to find illustrations of these 
 three methods of heat transference. Thus standing, 
 one feels the heat radiating to his face in outward pro- 
 jections from the fire, for if an article such as a solid 
 screen, opaque to heat radiation, be placed between 
 the face and the fire the sensation of heat on the face 
 immediately disappears. If now from behind the 
 screen one holds a metallic poker in the hot fire, it 
 will not be long before the poker even at the point be- 
 hind the screen becomes so hot by conduction that it 
 cannot comfortably be held in the hand. And finally 
 should a sudden gust of wind blow down the chimney 
 a hot gust of air may be driven out into the room and 
 around the screen to the observer's face, thus iUustrat- 
 ing the transference of heat by convection. 
 
 The Principle of Operation of the Steam Boiler. 
 Let us then see how these three methods of heat trans- 
 fer are utilized in modern boiler operation. 
 
 As has been previously noted, the burning of the 
 fuel in the furnace causes enormous quantities of heat 
 to be given out in the furnace space. This heat is 
 immediately absorbed by the furnace gases, thereby 
 raising them to a high temperature. By convection 
 currents, and also by radiation, this heat is now trans- 
 ferred to the outer surface of the boiler shell and 
 tubes containing the water that it is desired to con- 
 vert into steam. The metallic shell and water tubes 
 having now absorbed the heat, convey it to their inner 
 surface by conduction where it is transferred to the 
 water in the boiler. This water, becoming heated, ex- 
 pands, and, due to its lighter density thus created is 
 forced to go to the top of the water surface to make 
 way for cooler, heavier water which in turn absorbs 
 heat and disappears to make way for other water. 
 This last activity is evidently again transference by 
 
116 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 convection currents and such a movement of water 
 is called circulation. The efficient manner in which 
 this circulation takes place has much to do with the 
 economic operation of the boiler. 
 
 Mathematical Equat ; on for Heat Transfer. In 
 1909 Dr. Wilhelm Nusselt . of Germany devised a 
 formula whereby the factors involved in the rate of 
 transference of heat are set forth quantitatively. This 
 formula reduced to English units by the Babcock and 
 Wilcox Company in their book on Steam is as follows : 
 
 x w (Wc p )- 786 
 a = 0.0255 (1) 
 
 (d)-- 4 (AX) 
 
 Wherein a is the transfer rate in B.t.u. per square 
 foot of surface per degree difference in temperature ; 
 W is the weight of pounds of the gas flowing through 
 the tubes per hour; A is the area of the tube in square 
 feet, d is the diameter of the tube in feet ; c p is the 
 specific heat of the gas at constant pressure; x is the 
 conductivity of the gas at the mean temperature and 
 pressure in B.t.u. per hour per square foot of surface 
 per degree Fahrenheit drop in temperature per foot; 
 and x w is the conductivity of the steam at the tempera- 
 ture of the wall of the tube. 
 
 Mathematical Law for Total Heat Absorption. 
 
 The application of this formula is cumbersome and in- 
 deed upon careful analysis it is seen to be largely 
 empirical in its nature. Let us then cast about for 
 another equation. 
 
 Stefan's law sets forth that the heat absorbed 
 per hour by radiation is proportional to the difference 
 of the fourth powers of the absolute temperature of the 
 furnace gases T and the absolute temperature of the 
 tube surface t of the boiler. In addition to this if 
 we add the loss of heat given up by the outgoing gases 
 due to their cooling from the absolute temperature T t 
 to the absolute temperature T 2 on the assumption that 
 the boiler tubes have absorbed all this heat, we have 
 for the total heat absorption : 
 
THE BOILER SHELL 117 
 
 T 4 t 4 
 
 E=16QO[(- -)-( ) 1S 1 + WC(T 1 -T 2 )...(2) 
 
 1000 1000 
 
 In which E is the total evaporation of a boiler meas- 
 ured in B.t.u. per hour, S 1 is the area of boiler surface, 
 W is the weight of gas leaving the furnace and pass- 
 ing through the setting per hour, and C is the specific 
 heat of the gas. 
 
 Relationship of Rate of Heat Transfer. By means 
 of the integral calculus it may now be found from the 
 above equation that the rate of heat transfer R may be 
 expressed by the equation 
 
 WC (T, t ) 
 R= -loge- (3) 
 
 S (T 2 -t) 
 
 This law shows an important relationship of tem- 
 peratures whereby we may design condenser shells as 
 well as boiler shells to accomplish a maximum rate 
 of heat transfer. 
 
 In the Babcock and Wilcox type of boiler the con- 
 stants involved in heat transference have been quite 
 accurately ascertained. By substituting these con- 
 stants the above equation is found to reduce to the 
 simple relationship : 
 
 W 
 
 R = 2.00+.0014- - (4) 
 
 A 
 
 Necessity for Boiler Accessories. Since the mod- 
 ern boiler operates under pressures and temperatures- 
 far in excess of the tea-kettle and since the quanti- 
 ties of water involved are far beyond hand operation, 
 the necessity for the creation of accessories to prop- 
 erly care for these increased responsibilities early be- 
 came apparent in the evolution of steam engineering. 
 
 Injector or Pump for Feed Water Supply. In or- 
 der to supply the boiler with the necessary water in- 
 volved in steam generation the injector has made its 
 appearance in some instances, while feed-water pumps 
 are used in other instances. 
 
118 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Since the modern boiler operates at from 100 to 
 275 Ib. pressure per sq. in., it is evident that the water 
 must be 'forced into the boiler, for no ordinary water 
 supply is obtainable to meet such adverse pressures. 
 
 The type of pump most frequently met with for 
 
 Stop, Check, and Blow-off Valves 
 
 boiler feed purposes is the ordinary duplex double act- 
 ing pump in which the steam cylinder is made larger 
 than the water cylinder to enable the water to be 
 forced into the boiler at a pressure greater than that 
 of the steam itself. Pumps of this type are very re- 
 liable and if chosen of sufficient size so they can be 
 operated at slow speed give excellent satisfaction. 
 
 For large power plants the centrifugal pump is 
 coming into favor owing to the small space it occupies 
 and the small attendance required. It is built in four, 
 five or six stages, depending on the water pressure 
 required, and may be driven by either an electric motor 
 or a small steam turbine. 
 
 The operation of the injector is accomplished by 
 drawing a certain amount of steam from the boiler and 
 allowing it to attain an enormous velocity. This 
 steam then comes in contact with the feed water 
 supply which at once converts this impinging steam 
 into water. The immense impetus of the outflowing 
 steam and the conversion of the latent energy of this 
 steam into kinetic energy of motion causes the feed 
 water to be sucked in and driven against the check 
 valves of the boiler with such force as to overcome 
 the opposing pressure and allow such water to enter 
 as may be needed. 
 
THE BOILER SHELL 119 
 
 The injector is limited in its field of operation by 
 the fact that the water must be cold enough to con- 
 dense the injected steam in other words the injector 
 cannot pump hot water. As the hotter the feed water 
 the more economical the plant the injector is only suit- 
 able in plants where there is no hot water available. 
 This condition exists on the locomotive where the in- 
 jector finds its greatest usefulness. 
 
 Check and Non-Return Valves. In order that no 
 water should flow back out through the entrance valve, 
 some means must be provided. Many 
 types of valve are used in practice to 
 perform this function. An illustration 
 of a typical type of check valve is 
 shown in the picture exhibited here- 
 with. 
 
 The Steam Gage and the Water 
 Gage. In the operation of the tea- 
 Pet c^ks for kettle the escaping of the steam into 
 water Level the atmosp h e re readily prevents the 
 possibility of explosion, and the ever watchful eye 
 of the attendant is utilized to see to it that the 
 water supply is sufficient for safe operation. The use 
 of high pressures and inclosed boiler shells makes 
 it imperative in steam engineering to have some 
 means of ascertaining the pressure under which the 
 boiler is operating and to determine the height of 
 the water in .the boiler shell. The 
 steam gage meets the former require- 
 ment. This type of instrument was 
 described in the chapter on pressures. 
 
 To ascertain the water level in the 
 boiler shell, the installation of water 
 columns enclosed in glass tubes makes 
 visible the height of the water in the 
 A Safet Gage boiler. The water column is located 
 so that its center is at about the proper 
 height of water in the boiler. The upper end of the 
 column is connected to the steam space of the boiler 
 and the lower end to the water space, so that the 
 
120 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 water in the column always rises to the same height 
 
 as the water in the boiler. The bottom of the glass 
 
 must be a little higher than the lowest level at which 
 
 it is safe to carry the water to prevent damage by 
 
 overheating the sheets or tubes, and the top of the 
 
 glass must be a little lower than the level at which 
 
 water would begin to be lifted and carried out with 
 
 the &team. Pet-cocks are provided so that the 
 
 |B water column may be cleaned of sedi- 
 
 \ ment at frequent intervals to insure 
 
 ^^^ its safe and accurate operation. Since 
 
 ^HvHMH the ascertaining of the exact water 
 
 ^^r \ height in the boiler is of such vast 
 
 importance, three additional pet- 
 
 \\ jJll coc ks called Gage Cocks are usually 
 
 ^h|H^fll installed near the water glass. One of 
 
 these is located above the proper water 
 
 level, the second at about the water 
 
 [ level, and the third below it. Hence, 
 
 upon trial if the boiler is properly op- 
 siphon for Keep- . , ,, . ,,. . , 
 ing steam Gage erasing, the first should emit colorless 
 
 Dry dry saturated steam, the second water 
 
 vapor and the third hot water. 
 Manholes. To clean and examine the boiler in- 
 terior some means must be provided by which access 
 may be had to its interior. On all modern types of 
 boilers will be found man-holes and hand-holes where- 
 by this access may be obtained when occasion arises. 
 Provision for Expansiorai. The excessive temper- 
 atures under which a boiler operates and the sudden 
 change from one temperature to another make it abso- 
 lutely imperative that some means be provided to 
 take care of uneven expansion in its parts. Most boil- 
 ers on the market do not for this reason allow the 
 boiler shell to rest upon the furnace structure, but 
 on the other hand the boiler is suspended from above 
 and all suspended parts .are allowed to swing free 
 with ample clearance between them and the brick- 
 work. The care with which uneven expansion and 
 its disastrous results are provided for makes much 
 for efficient boiler design. 
 
THE BOILER SHELL 
 
 121 
 
 The Mud Drum. Since all water contains a cer- 
 tain amount of impurities, some space must be set 
 aside for the collection and segregation of ithese im- 
 purities. Such a compartment is known as the mud 
 drum. This is cleansed at definite periods by blowing 
 down the boiler, that is by opening the blow-off valve 
 at the bottom of the mud drum and allowing some of 
 the water to escape from the boiler into the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 Safety Valve. All boilers are definitely stand- 
 ardized so that steam generation must not exceed a 
 certain pressure development. To 
 prevent this excessive generation of 
 pressure a safety valve is always in- 
 stalled. These are in general of two 
 types, the one having its outlet to 
 the outside air controlled by a spring 
 set for the pressure desired, the 
 other controlled by a weight and 
 lever arm set for the blow-off pres- 
 sure desired. Since the total pres- 
 sure required to open the valve 
 equals its area in square inches times 
 the pressure in pounds per square 
 inch the compression in the spring or the weight on 
 the lever may be determined in advance for any de- 
 sired pressure in the boiler. 
 
 Having now a general ground work of boiler 
 shell characteristics in their relation to heat transfer, 
 and bearing in mind the accessories that must accom- 
 pany the modern boiler, we shall next consider the 
 commercial type of boiler and its classification. 
 
 Pop Safety 
 Valve 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 A Battery of Fifteen 
 
 oil-fired, requiring but Two 
 Men for Their Operation 
 
 BOILER CLASSIFICATION IN FUEL OIL 
 PRACTICE 
 
 N the generation of steam 
 by the tea-kettle the cycle 
 of operations through 
 which the water and steam 
 pass is quite simple. The 
 heat applied at the bottom 
 of the tea-kettle is ab- 
 sorbed by the water along 
 its surface exposed to the 
 heat application. As this 
 heat is absorbed the water 
 Boilers is raised in temperature 
 and due to its immediate 
 expansion becomes lighter 
 than the water above it and {consequently passes 
 to the top to allow cooler water to descend, which in 
 turn becomes heated and passes to the top to make 
 way for still other water to become heated. This cycle 
 of operations continues and finally evaporation takes 
 place. The steam thus generated passes to the atmos- 
 phere without. 
 
 In the modern high pressure steam boiler the op- 
 eration is somewhat more complicated. The water 
 circulation proceeds on the same general principle but 
 since steam generation is the important function and 
 not merely the supplying of hot water as in the tea- 
 kettle, some space must be provided wherein to store 
 the steam that is generated. This is usually accom- 
 plished in the space above the water level in the main 
 boiler shell or drum. If superheated steam is to be pro- 
 duced, the saturated steam is conveyed from this space 
 
 122 
 
BOILER CLASSIFICATION 123 
 
 into tubes known as a superheater. These tubes are 
 exposed to the hot furnace gases and the steam pass- 
 ing through them readily absorbs heat, thus super- 
 heating the saturated steam to any temperature de- 
 termined upon. 
 
 The Boiler Drum and Tubes. It has been men- 
 tioned that the tea-kettle is a most inefficient boiler and 
 so it is. While mechanical stresses and strains in- 
 volved necessitate the employment of cylindrical shells 
 for boilers, still the boiler itself resembled in the early 
 days of the steam engine but slight variations from 
 the tea-kettle. 
 
 It soon became apparent, however, that the actual 
 surface exposed to the heated gases of the furnace has 
 much to do with efficient steam generation. Hence 
 while the first type of boiler was made in a solid shell, 
 variations from this standard soon made their appear- 
 ance. Let us now examine some of these types. 
 
 Internally and Externally Fired Boilers. In the 
 
 earlier type of boiler the fire was kindled beneath the 
 solid cylindrical boiler shell. Such a type became 
 known as an externally fired boiler. Later the boiler 
 compartment was hollowed out and the fire kindled in- 
 side this hollow space, thus introducing the internally 
 fired type. The locomotive boiler is today an illus- 
 tration of this type of boiler. 
 
 The Return Tubular Boiler. Another type soon 
 developed wherein the fire was kindled beneath and 
 the flue gases returned to the front part of the boiler 
 through a series of flutings or tubes passing through 
 the main part of the boiler shell. Such a boiler became 
 known as a return flue boiler or return tubular boiler 
 depending upon whether or not the tubes or flutings 
 exceeded six inches in diameter the flue being the 
 larger diameter and the tube the smaller. 
 
 The Fire Tube and the Water Tube Boiler. A 
 
 great many types of boilers finally made their appear- 
 ance on the market in some of which the fire passed 
 through the tubes which were surrounded by water in 
 the boiler shell, and in other instances the water passed 
 
124 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 THE B. & W. MARINE TYPE OF BOILER FRONT VIEW 
 
 Water tube boilers for marine service are built as modifications of 
 both the B. & W. and the Heine type, the tubes being shorter and 
 smaller in diameter than is the case in stationary boilers. These 
 boilers are encased in steel, lined with light insulating material in- 
 side, instead of being set in brick. They are constructed of the 
 highest grade of forged steel. Marine boilers frequently carry 
 pressures as high as 300 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 through the tubes around the external surface of which 
 the heated gases were made to pass. The former be- 
 came known as fire tube while the latter were called 
 water tube boilers. It is generally conceded that where 
 rapid steaming is required the latter type is far prefer- 
 able. 
 
 It is now universally the custom to use water tube 
 boilers in large stationary power plants. The prin- 
 cipal reasons are the following: 
 
 1. Small floor space required. 
 
 2. Greater safety at high pressures due to the small 
 diameter of the drums and tubes. 
 
BOILER CLASSIFICATION 
 
 125 
 
 THE B. & W. MARINE TYPE OF BOILER REAR VIEW 
 
 3. Greater flexibility so that expansion strains are not 
 injurious. 
 
 4. Rapid steaming and sudden change of load more 
 easily accommodated. 
 
 Tubular boilers still have their field in small one 
 man plants, where owing to the large quantity of water 
 contained in the shell they maintain a uniform pres- 
 sure with but little attention. 
 
 Tubular boilers of the Scotch marine type are still 
 extensively employed in marine work where owing to 
 the steadiness of the load they have met with great 
 success. 
 
 Vertical and Horizontal Types. Still other clas- 
 sifications are made based upon whether the tubes and 
 boiler shell be in a horizontal or vertical position, the 
 former being called, as one would presume, the hori- 
 zontal and the latter the vertical type of boiler. As 
 time went on still other boilers appeared which could 
 
126 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 neither be called horizontal nor vertical but an inter- 
 mediate classification became necessary. 
 
 Let us now examine two types of boiler used in the 
 modern central station in order the more clearly to 
 grasp the fundamentals of boiler design and principles 
 of operation. 
 
 Illustrations of Principles of Construction and Op- 
 eration. Before proceeding to the brief description 6f 
 these two types of boiler, the reader must bear in mind 
 that these particular two are picked as best setting 
 forth principles of construction and operation, and not 
 necessarily as a preference for commercial installation. 
 Many types of boiler are today upon the market and 
 in their separate and distinctive features such possess 
 characteristics that must be carefully considered in 
 making a commercial choice. With this understanding 
 let us then proceed to examine these two boiler types 
 of commercial practice. 
 
 The Babcock and Wilcox Boiler. By a close ex- 
 amination of the illustration shown on page 10, the 
 Babcock and Wilcox boiler is seen to be composed of 
 one or more horizontal shells or drums from which are 
 suspended a series of inclined tubes. 
 
 In this type of boiler installation the oil burner is 
 located in the rear of the furnace and the fuel oil is 
 shot forward toward the front ; thus this type is known 
 as the "Back-shot" type of installation. The heated 
 gases then pass upward and around the tubes through 
 what is known as the first pass. At the top of this 
 pass the heated gases envelop the lower half of the 
 boiler shell and are then diverted downward through 
 and around the superheater tubes shown immediately 
 below the drum until the journey through the second 
 pass is completed. At the rear of the furnace wall 
 they are once again diverted upward through the third 
 pass and then after contact with the boiler shell, they 
 are conveyed out through the breeching up the stack 
 or chimney. In this manner the heated gases are 
 brought into intimate contact with the water tubes and 
 efficient steam generation accomplished. 
 
BOILER CLASSIFICATION 127 
 
 Water Circulation. The water for steam gener- 
 ating purposes is introduced through the front drum- 
 head of the boiler. It then passes to the rear of the 
 drum, downward through the rear circulating tubes to 
 the sections. Then it courses upward through the 
 tubes of the sections to the front headers and through 
 these headers and front circulating tubes again to the 
 drum where such water as has not been formed into 
 steam retraces its course. The steam formed in the 
 passage through the tubes is liberated as the water 
 reaches the front of the drum. The steam so formed is 
 stored in th steam space above the water line. 
 
 The Parker Boiler. Another type of boiler which 
 is exceedingly interesting, as its operating principles 
 are almost diametrically opposite to the foregoing is 
 that of the Parker boiler. 
 
 As seen from the illustration on page 18, the fuel 
 oil is shot from the front of the furnace to the back. 
 The heated gases in their journey toward the rear come 
 in contact with the lower set of tubes and at the rear 
 they pass up through the superheater. They are then 
 deflected back horizontally toward the front, passing 
 parallel along the water tubes. At the front they return 
 again to the rear along the third set of tubes and also 
 along the lower half of the boiler drum above. 
 
 Water Circulation. Water enters the upper set of 
 horizontal tubes from the front without passing first 
 into the boiler drum above. At the rear it is conveyed 
 upward into the drum which has a longitudinal dia- 
 phragm separating the steam section above from the 
 water section beneath. This water having emptied 
 upon the diaphragm in the upper compartment flows 
 down along the diaphragm to the front. At this point 
 it is dropped down into the next section of tubes to be 
 again discharged upward into the upper rear section to 
 flow again down along the diaphragm to the front and 
 again to be lowered into the lowest section of hori- 
 zontal tubes to return into the diaphragm section above 
 as saturated steam. 
 
128 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 It is seen by comparing those two types of steam 
 generation that contrary and opposite theories are 
 used. The fiirst fires the oil flame from the back 
 toward the front, while the latter applies the opposite 
 process. The first admits the water into the drum and 
 
 A Milwaukee High Pressure Horizontal Tubular Boiler 
 with Full Front and Suspension Setting 
 
 then produces a water circulation from the lower sec- 
 tions upward; the latter takes the water first through 
 the top sections and winds up at the lower. The first 
 sets forth the theory of right angle impingement of 
 heated gases against the water tube surface while the 
 latter takes the paralleling flow theory. The remark- 
 able thing about the whole comparison is that both 
 have produced wonderfully efficient steam generating 
 achievements in carefully conducted fuel oil tests on 
 the Pacific Coast. 
 
 The Stirling Type. The Stirling boiler consists 
 of three steam drums connected to one mud drum by 
 means of bent tubes. The bending of the tubes does 
 away with the necessity of using headers and further- 
 more provides for expansion of the tubes due to 
 change in temperature. As a result this boiler is not 
 only simple in design but very flexible and capable 
 of withstanding a good deal of abuse. The baffles are 
 
BOILER CLASSIFICATION 129 
 
 arranged in such a manner that the gases of com- 
 bustion travel up the front bank of tubes, down the 
 middle bank and up the rear bank. This boiler may 
 be fired by either the front shot or the back shot 
 oil burner. With the front shot burner the flame is 
 forced right among the front bank of tubes which are, 
 therefore, effective as heating surfaces. The back shot 
 burner has the advantage of shooting the gases for- 
 ward to a large combustion chamber so that more 
 perfect combustion can be obtained, although at the 
 expense of making the heating surface of the front 
 bank of tubes less effective owing to the fact that 
 the gases do not come in such intimate contact with 
 these tubes. 
 
 Other boilers of the general Stirling type are the 
 Badenhausen, the Rust boiler and the Erie City ver- 
 tical boiler. 
 
 The Heine Type. The Heine boiler is a horizontal 
 water tube boiler similar to the B. & W. boiler ex- 
 cept that instead of having separate headers the tubes 
 are all expanded into a single water leg at the rear 
 and another at the front. These water legs have large 
 flat surfaces which have to be strengthened by stay 
 bolts. Owing to the fact that all of the tubes are 
 connected to the same water legs, this boiler is not 
 as flexible as the other two types described above. 
 The Heine boiler is usually provided with horizontal 
 baffles so that the gases of combustion pass first to 
 the rear of the boiler and then forward among the 
 tubes and then back again. With this arrangement 
 of baffling the front shot oil burner introduced through 
 the front wall is very successful. Other boilers of the 
 Heine type are the Keeler and Edgemoor boilers. 
 
 Marine Boilers. For mercantile marine service 
 the standard boiler for many years has been the Scotch 
 marine boiler which is a fire tube boiler consisting 
 of a large shell within which are placed corrugated 
 furnaces, a combustion chamber at the rear and tubes 
 running forward from the combustion chamber to the 
 front of the boiler, whence the gases pass through 
 
130 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the uptakes to the smokestacks. Owing to the large 
 size of the shell, Scotch boilers are made of excess- 
 ively thick steel and consequently are entirely lacking 
 in flexibility. They are, therefore, liable to give trou- 
 ble due to expansion strains from change in tempera- 
 ture and are successful only where the load is abso- 
 lutely steady as it is on ordinary merchant ships. 
 
 In the navy water tube boilers are used exclu- 
 sively and these are coming into use more or less 
 in the mercantile marine as well. 
 
 Water tube marine boilers are built as modifica- 
 tions of both the B. & W. and the Heine types, the 
 tubes being shorter and smaller in diameter than is the 
 case in stationary boilers and the boilers being en- 
 cased in steel, lined with light insulating material in- 
 side, instead of being set in brick. 
 
 For torpedo boat destroyers and other small high 
 speed craft, boilers of the Thornycroft type are used, 
 which consist of a large number of -very small diam- 
 eter tubes expanded into upper and lower drums. some- 
 what similar in general type to the Stirling stationary 
 boiler. TheSe boilers are extremely light and are 
 rapid steamer^ which are necessary characteristics of 
 bbifers for high speed boats. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 FUEL OIL AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR 
 PURCHASE 
 
 ETROLEUM has been 
 known in the United 
 States from prehistoric 
 times. It is certain that 
 the mound builders had 
 wells from which petro- 
 leum was obtained. These 
 are still in existence along 
 with the most modern of 
 our own times. 
 
 Petroleum was used y as 
 a medicine by many tribes 
 of Indians. It was sup- 
 posed to have many mag- 
 ical as well as medicinal 
 properties. Its inflammable 
 nature seems also to have 
 
 The Saybolt Electrical Equip- been known. 
 
 ment for Flash and AT '.. .' > 
 
 Fire Tests No use was discovered 
 
 for petroleum other than 1 
 
 as a medicine until in 1852; when a chemist, by the 
 name of KiefJ bethought himself of distilling it and 
 extracting 'froni it the more volatile portions! The 
 American people took readily to the use of these oils 
 as illuminating agents from the fact that for some time 
 previously the mineral oils, extracted from lignites 
 and anthracites, according to the process of Sellegries, 
 the Swiss chemist, were in current use. 
 
 Enormous Consumption of Fuel Oil in the Indus- 
 tries. The use of crude petroleum as a fuel .for steam 
 generation and power production has now an .estab- 
 lished position in all parts of the industrial world. 
 
 131 
 
132- FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Especially is this true on the Pacific Coast and in the 
 southwestern section of the United States where the 
 enormous yield of this product in Oklahoma, Texas 
 and California now constitutes an ever-increasing- fac- 
 tor in the total production of the world. Indeed, Cali- 
 fornia alone with her yield of over one hundred million 
 barrels in 1917 produced over 25 per cent of the world's 
 output. 
 
 At ite first incipiency it was thought that the 
 probable production of crude petroleum would be 
 limited to but a few years. Due to this factor many 
 power plants on the Pacific Coast were constructed so 
 that an easy change over to operation by coal could 
 be made should this time ever arrive. It is now recog- 
 nized by many that the probable yield of oil will last 
 as long as the coal fields of the world. Hence this 
 uncertainty is largely dispelled in the industrial pro- 
 duction of power. 
 
 Advantages of Crude Petroleum as a Fuel. Oil 
 has many distinct advantages over coal. Due to the 
 simple mechanisms that are involved the cost for 
 handling fuel oil is far less than for coal. By the 
 elimination of stokers an important labor item is found 
 unnecessary. Again for equal heat value oil occupies 
 much less space than coal. Hence for ocean-going 
 vessels it is especially applicable. Combustion too is 
 more perfect, so that the quantity of excess air re- 
 quired is reduced to a minimum. The furnace tem- 
 perature may be kept practically constant as the fur- 
 nace doors need not be opened for cleaning or work- 
 ing the fires. Smoke may to a large measure be elim- 
 inated with the consequent cleanliness of heating sur- 
 faces. Again, the intensity of the fire is subject to 
 delicate regulation and sudden load fluctuations are 
 easily handled. Oil does not disintegrate or lose its 
 calorific value when stored. In the boiler room the 
 cleanliness and freedom from dust and ashes results 
 in a saving in wear and tear in machinery. Hence it 
 is clearly evident that the efficiency and the steaming 
 capacity of a boiler, oil-fired, is increased in a marked 
 manner. 
 
FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS 133 
 
 The disadvantages of fuel oil are of comparatively 
 small moment. For this reason wherever oil can be 
 obtained at a reasonable figure as compared to the 
 prevailing market price of coal it has attained a 
 marked popularity in steam generation and in the 
 industries. 
 
 Let us then look into some of the physical prop- 
 erties of this new and important source of heat gen- 
 eration. 
 
 Liquid Fuels Classified. Petroleum is practically 
 the only liquid fuel sufficiently abundant and cheap 
 to be used for the generation of steam. There are 
 three kinds of petroleum in use, namely, those yielding 
 on distillation paraffin, asphalt and olefine. To the 
 first group belong the oils of the Appalachian Range 
 and the Middle West of the United States. These are 
 a dark brown in color with a greenish tinge. Upon 
 their distillation such a variety of valuable light oils 
 are obtained that their use as a fuel is prohibitive 
 because of price. To the second group belong the oils 
 found in Texas and California. These vary in color 
 from reddish brown to a jet black. Since they are 
 used extensively as a fuel in the United States, our 
 discussion in this chapter shall largely be concerned 
 with this class of oils. The third group comprises the 
 oils from Russia, which like the second group are used 
 largely for fuel purposes. 
 
 Physical and Chemical Properties of Oil. Mineral 
 oils as found in nature, are a mixture in indefinite 
 proportions of several combinations^ hydrogen and 
 carbon designated as hydrocarbons. Oxygen and sul- 
 phur are found in very small amounts. Nitrogen is 
 found in a smaller proportion than the latter. 
 
 On account of the complexity of their composition, 
 mineral oils differ considerably both physically and 
 chemically. 
 
 Odor and Color. Oil is generally found in a very 
 fluid condition in North and South America, while in 
 Russia and East India it is found in a very dense and 
 syrupy condition. They all possess a characteristic 
 
134 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 odor while their color varies from amber or greenish 
 yellow to dark brown. By reflection they are all greenish. 
 
 Effect of Heat. Heat will separate the different 
 hydrocarbons successively according to their volatility 
 and cause them to dissociate at higher temperatures. 
 Low temperatures will solidify these products, the 
 highest freezing at a lower temperature. 
 
 Density of Various Oils. The density varies from 
 0.765 to 0.970 compared with water at 4 degrees C., as 
 found in nature (crude). Distillates will be much 
 lighter. 
 
 Densities of Oils 
 
 Orig-in of Crude Specific Gravity 
 
 Persia . 0.777 
 
 East Indies 0.821 
 
 Kyouk-Phyon (Burma) 0.818 
 
 California 0.960 
 
 , Pennsylvania 0.850 
 
 South America 0.852 
 
 Russia ..i 0.836 
 
 India .,...- 0.955 
 
 Terra-di-Lavors (Italy) 0.970 
 
 Physical Properties of California Oils. We shall 
 now consider as a typical example a sample of Cali- 
 fornia crude petroleum taken from an average of forty 
 samples drawn from the Kern River oil field by repre- 
 sentatives of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. 
 
 The specific gravity or density of fuel oil is an im- 
 portant factor to be known and is the ratio of the 
 weight of an oil sample as compared with the weight 
 of an equal volume of water. The average oil sample 
 is found to have a specific-gravity of .9645, which on 
 the Baume scale at 60 F. is 15.16. Hence, the aver- 
 age gallon of fuel oil weighs 8.03 Ibs. 
 
 The determination of the gravity of fuel oil and 
 the relat : onship of specific gravity with gravities ex- 
 pressed on the Baume scale are of such importance 
 that a subsequent chapter has been set aside for de- 
 tailed discussion and analysis. 
 
 The Calorific Value of Fuel Oil. In steam boiler 
 economy the heat prod ucing j value of the fuel per 
 pound consumed in the furnace is of utmost impor- 
 
FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS 135 
 
 tance. The average sample of Kern River oil gen- 
 erates or gives out 10,307 calories per gram, which 
 ^transferred to steam engineering units is found to be 
 ; 18,553 B.t.u. per pound or 148,980 B.t.u. per gallon 
 of oil. 
 
 Oil, like water, requires the actual absorption 
 of an enormous quantity of heat in its conversion 
 
 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT FOR FUEL OIL TESTING 
 
 In the gathering of fuel oil data for boiler tests the three things 
 to be ascertained accurately are the specific gravity, the moisture 
 content, and the calorific value of the oil sample. The principal 
 pieces of apparatus necessary are the Westphal Balance, the chem- 
 ist's scales, a Parr calorimeter, and a still with their accessories as 
 shown. In the text of this article these physical characteristics of 
 fuel oil are set forth. In later discussions the laboratory procedure 
 in order to ascertain each of these points will be discussed in sep- 
 arate chapters. 
 
 into the gaseous state. Indeed the latent heat of 
 evaporation for fuel oil is approximately 966 B.t.u. per 
 pound under atmospheric pressure, as compared with 
 9/jQ.4 for the latent heat of evaporation of water as 
 set; forth in previous discussions. Hence, the actual 
 heat given out by the average sample above referred 
 to is approximately 19,519 B.t.u. per pound, but since 
 
136 . FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 we must gasify the oil to make use of its heat gen- 
 erating characteristics in the furnace the net value of 
 18,553 is solely of commercial importance. 
 
 The determination of the calorific value of fuel oil 
 and the many computations involved are of such vast 
 importance that several chapters have been set aside 
 for future discussions of these various factors. 
 
 The Flash Test and the Burning Point of Oil. 
 The flash test of an oil is the temperature at which it 
 gives off inflammable vapors. For the purpose of 
 safety in handling, fuel oils should not give off inflam- 
 mable vapors below 150 F. The flash point of an oil 
 is determined by heating the oil in a vessel adjacent 
 to which is a small flame. When the oil has been 
 heated to a point where vapor rises and ignites from 
 the flame, this temperature is called the flash point. 
 The flash point of the average California oil is 108 C. 
 or 226.4 F. 
 
 The burning point of oil is the temperature at 
 which its ingredients will permanently ignite. This is 
 determined by continuing the heating of the oil after 
 the flash point has been ascertained until the "flash" 
 becomes permanent, that is, until the oil ignites and 
 continues to burn quietly. For the average Kern 
 River oil sample the burning point is found by the 
 open cup test to be 130 C. or 266 F. 
 
 Viscosity. Some oils are more fluid or mobile 
 than others. All are familiar with the difference be- 
 tween "cold molasses" and " hot molasses." And so 
 in oil flow we have a similar phenomenon. This ten- 
 dency for the particles of oil to cohere to one another 
 is known as viscosity. Viscosity is determined by 
 measuring the time it takes oil to flow through a 
 standard sized tube under standard conditions. On 
 the so-called Engle's scale the average viscosity of 
 Kern River oil at 20 C. is found to be 915.6. The vis- 
 cosity is very materially lessened as the temperature 
 is increased. Hence at once is seen the advantages 
 of oil heating both for efficiency in transmission 
 through long pipe lines, and for feeding the oil to the 
 
FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS 137 
 
 burners. In power plants the oil is heated to a tem- 
 perature of 160 F. before reaching the burners. 
 
 Moisture. All oils have a certain quantity of 
 moisture present either in a free state or in the form 
 of an emulsion, and its presence is always a hindrance 
 to the full development of the heat producing qualities 
 of the oil, Since this is a matter of great importance, 
 the methods used in the quantitative determination of 
 moisture present in fuel oil will be set forth in a sub- 
 sequent chapter. The average Kern River sample 
 contains about .5 per cent moisture. Hence the actual 
 fuel oil ingredient is 99.5 per cent. 
 
 Sulphur, Gas and Other Ingredients. All oils 
 have a certain quantity of sulphur present. This sul- 
 phur has a heat producing quality, yet its deleterious 
 effect in producing obnoxious gases and the corroding 
 effect it has on the boiler tubes and other metallic 
 parts makes a certain excess of sulphur most undesir- 
 able in the use of fuel oil. The average Kern River 
 oil sample contains .83 per cent sulphur. There is no 
 gasoline ingredient found in this oil sample. On the 
 other hand, refined lamp oil appears to the extent of 
 6.6 per cent and refined lubricants to the extent of 
 39.2 per cent. The refining losses are 5.9 per cent and 
 distilling losses, .5 per cent. The commercial asphaltum 
 present is 47.3 per cent, thus indicating why California 
 oils are known as possessing an asphaltum base. 
 
 Specifications for the Purchase of Oil. In the 
 
 above discussion of the physical properties of fuel oil 
 it is seen that the flashpoint, burning point, viscosity, 
 heating value, moisture content, sulphur content, and 
 other characteristics are fundamentally concerned in 
 the commercial evaluation of crude petroleum. The 
 United States government is a great consumer of fuel 
 oil and below are given eleven important items estab- 
 lished by the U. S. Bureau of Mines to aid the gov- 
 ernment in properly specifying its requirements for 
 oil purchases. The points set forth are also of funda- 
 mental importance for the economic use of fuel oil in 
 
138 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 all steam boiler practice and the reader should carefully 
 bear them in mind. 
 
 Specifications for Fuel Oil 
 
 (1) In determining the award of a contract, con- 
 sideration will be given to the quality of the fuel 
 offered by the bidders, as well as the price, and should 
 it appear to be to the best interest of the government 
 to award a contract at a higher price than that named 
 in the lowest bid or bids received, the contract will 
 be so awarded. 
 
 (2) Fuel oil should be either a natural homoge- 
 neous oil or a homogeneous residue from a natural oil ; 
 if the latter, all constituents having a low flash point 
 should have been removed by distillation ; it should 
 not be composed of a light oil and a heavy residue 
 mixed in such proportions as to give the density de- 
 sired. 
 
 (3) It should not have been distilled at a tem- 
 perature high enough to burn it, nor at a temperature 
 so high that flecks of carbonaceous matter began to 
 separate. 
 
 (4) It should not flash below 60 C. (140 F.) in a 
 closed Abel-Pensky or Pensky-Martens tester. 
 
 (5) Its specific gravity should range from 0.85 
 to 0.96 at 15 C. (59 F.) ; the oil should be rejected 
 if its specific gravity is above 0.97 at that temperature. 
 
 (6) It should be mobile, free from solid or semi- 
 solid bodies, and should flow readily, at ordinary at- 
 mospheric temperature and under a head of 1 foot 
 of oil, through a 4-inch pipe 10 ft. in length. 
 
 (7) It should not congeal nor become too sluggish 
 to flow at C. (32 F.) 
 
 (8) 'It should have a calorific value of not less 
 than 10,000 calories per gram (18,000 British thermal 
 units per pound); 10,250 calories to be the standard. 
 A bonus is to be paid or a penalty deducted according 
 as the fuel oil delivered is above or below this standard. 
 
FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS 139 
 
 (9) It should be rejected if it contains more than 
 2 per cent water. 
 
 (10) It should be rejected if it contains more than 
 1 per cent sulphur. 
 
 (11) It should not contain more than a trace of 
 sand, clay, or dirt. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 BOILER ROOM INSTRUCTIONS FOR FUEL 
 OIL BURNING 
 
 Many fatal accidents both to life and property 
 have happened due to foolhardy methods in design 
 and operation of the steam boiler. This early became 
 so apparent that rigid governmental inspection of 
 boiler operation was insisted upon. To aid in sys- 
 tematic inspection the Department of Commerce and 
 Labor at Washington has issued general rules and 
 regulations for such supervision under Form 801 en- 
 titled Steamboat Inspection Service. Many insurance 
 companies have, too, put into force rigid rules of in- 
 spection to safeguard their interests in assuming 
 risks. The most complete publication on the sub- 
 ject, however, is to be found in the recently published 
 report of the Boiler Code Committee of the American 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers, entitled : "Rules 
 for the Construction of Stationary Boilers and for Al- 
 lowable Working Pressure." These rules have been 
 adopted by law in a number of States, including Cali- 
 fornia where they have been incorporated in the Safety 
 Orders of the State Accident Commission. 
 
 In the discussion taken up in this chapter only 
 fundamentals will be considered. The thorough mas- 
 tering of these fundamentals will, however, enable 
 the reader to understandingly read the deeper discus- 
 sions alluded to above. 
 
 The Inspection Tests Involved. The testing of 
 the water and steam gages, the checking of fittings 
 and appliances, and the trying out of the safety valves 
 and other accessories constitute, of course, important 
 details of boiler inspection. The most important fea- 
 ture, however, is to ascertain by computation the 
 maximum allowable working pressure that may be 
 
 140 
 
BOILER ROOM INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 141 
 
 safely put upon the boiler. After this maximum al- 
 lowable pressure is ascertained the boiler is subjected 
 to a hydrostatic pressure test by filling the boiler 
 
 AN INSPECTOR'S TESTING AND PROVING OUTFIT 
 
 Here is a typical outfit for boiler and power plant inspectors. It 
 consists of a standard test gage, a screw test pump, a gage hand 
 puller, a hand set and other useful conveniences. 
 
 completely with water and then pumping enough ad- 
 ditional water into it to raise the pressure to the de- 
 sired point. This apparatus is held under proper con- 
 trol and the total pressure put upon the boiler is one 
 and one-half times the maximum allowable working 
 pressure. 
 
 Thus if the maximum allowable working pres- 
 sure on a boiler is 160 Ibs. per square inch above the 
 
142 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 he test pressure' t0 b# \ applied- should he 
 j24Q Ibs,. pef square inch. 
 
 Many carefully compiled instructions have from 
 time to time been issued by various boiler makers, 
 inspectors, and others interested in economic and safe 
 operation. The instructions compiled by J. B. Warner, 
 chief inspector of the San Francisco department of 
 the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance 
 Company are especially good, and largely the ideas 
 appearing in the following lines come from this 
 source : 
 
 Preliminary Precautions. Whenever going on duty 
 in the boiler room, find out, first of all, where the 
 water level is in the boilers. Never lower nor re- 
 plenish the fires until this is done. Make sure that 
 the gage glass and gage cocks, and all the connections 
 thereto, are free and in good working order. Do not 
 rely upon the glass altogether, but use the gage cocks 
 also, and try them all, several times a day. 
 
 Before starting up the fires, open each door about 
 the setting and look carefully for leaks. If leaks are 
 discovered, either then or at any other time, they 
 should be located and repaired ; but cool the boiler off 
 first. If leaking occurs at the fore and aft joints, the 
 inspecting company should be notified at once. This 
 is important, whether the attendant considers the 
 leakage serious or not; and it is especially important 
 when the boiler has a single bottom sheet, or is of 
 the two-sheet type. 
 
 When a boiler has been emptied of water, do not 
 fill it again until it has become cold. 
 
 In preparing to get up steam after the boiler has 
 been out of service, be sure that the manhole and hand- 
 hole joints are tight. Do not use gaskets that are thin 
 and hard. 
 
 Vent the boiler in some way, first, to permit the 
 
 escape of air. Then fill the boiler to the proper level, 
 
 open the dampers, and start the fires. Start them 
 
 early so as to have the pressure up at the required 
 
 'hour, without forcing. 
 
BOILER ROOM INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 143 
 
 Ventilate the setting thoroughly before lighting 
 the fire. Never turn on the fuel supply when start- 
 ing up without first placing in the furnace a lighted 
 torch or a piece of burning waste to ignite the fuel 
 instantly. 
 
 Connecting up Boiler Units.- In firing up a boiler 
 that is to be connected with others that are already 
 in service, keep its stop-valve closed until the pressure 
 
 A PORTABLE BOILER TEST PUMP 
 
 After the maximum allowable working steam pressure for the 
 boiler has been computed, the boiler is then submitted to a hydro- 
 static test of one and one-half times this allowable pressure. The 
 above apparatus is especially adapted for those having frequent 
 occasion to make hydrostatic tests of boilers. 
 
 within the boiler has become exactly equal to that 
 in the steam main. Then open the stop valve a bare 
 crack, and slowly increase the opening until the valve 
 is wide open. The complete operation should occupy 
 two minutes or more. Close the valve at once if there 
 is the slightest evidence of any unusual jar or dis- 
 turbance about the boiler. See that the steam main 
 to which the boiler is to be connected is thoroughly, 
 drained before the valve is opened. 
 
 Low Water Encountered. In case of low water; 
 immediately shut off the oil supply at the burners; 
 Do not turn on the feed under any circumstances, and 
 do; not open the safety-valve nor tamper with it .. in 
 
1^4 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 any way. Let the steam outlets remain as they are. 
 Get your boiler cool before you do anything else. 
 
 Avoid Making Repairs Under Pressure. No re- 
 pairs of any kind should be made, either to boilers or 
 to piping, while the part upon which the work is to be 
 done is under pressure. This applies to calking, to 
 tightening up bolts under pressure, and to repairs of 
 any kind whatsoever. 
 
 The safety-valve must not be set at a pressure 
 higher than that permitted by the insurance com- 
 pany's policy. Try all safety-valves cautiously, every 
 day. If the actual blowing pressure, as shown by the 
 gage, exceeds the pressure at which the valve is sup- 
 posed to blow, inform the office immediately, so that 
 prompt notice may be sent to the company. The 
 safety-valve pipe should never have a stop-valve 
 upon it. 
 
 Removal of Sediment. To remove sediment from 
 the bottom of the boiler, open the blowoff valve in 
 the morning, or before the circulation has started up. 
 The valve should be opened wide for a few moments, 
 but it should be opened and closed slowly, so as to 
 avoid shocks from water-hammer action. When sur- 
 face blowoffs are used, they should be opened fre- 
 quently, for a few minutes at a time. 
 
 In case of foaming, check the draft and shut off 
 the burners. Shut the stop-valve long enough to find 
 the true level of the water. If this is sufficiently high, 
 blow down some of the water in the boiler, and feed 
 in some fresh. Repeat this several times if necessary. 
 If the foaming does not stop, cool the boiler off, empty 
 it, and find out the cause of the trouble. 
 
 Keep Out Cylinder Oil. Cylinder oil must be kept 
 out of the boilers, because it is likely to cause over- 
 heating of the plates. Oily deposits may be removed, 
 in large measure, by scraping and scrubbing, although 
 more efficient methods of treatment may be required 
 in bad cases. If kerosene is used in a boiler, keep all 
 open lights away from the manholes and handholes, 
 both when applying the kerosene, and upon opening 
 
BOILER ROOM INSTRUCTIONS 145 
 
 the boiler up afterwards ; and ventilate the inside of 
 the boiler thoroughly, after oil has been used in it. 
 
 Fusible plugs should be filled with pure tin. 
 They should be renewed or refilled as often as may be 
 necessary to keep them in good condition. 
 
 Cooling and Cleaning the Boiler.-^In cooling a 
 boiler before emptying it, first let the fire die out, and 
 then close all doors and leave the damper open until 
 the pressure falls to the point at which it is desired 
 to blow. Clean the furnace and let the brickwork cool 
 for at least two hours before opening the blowoff 
 valve. If it is desired ( to cool the boiler further, after 
 it has been emptied open the manhole and leave every- 
 thing else as in full actual service - - the fire doors, 
 front connection doors, and cleaning doors being 
 closed, and the damper and ash-pit doors open. 
 
 First cool the boiler as explained in the last para- 
 graph. Never blow out under a pressure exceeding 
 ten or (at most) fifteen pounds by the gage. 
 
 The engineer must find out for himself how often 
 h ; s boilers need to be opened and cleaned. In many 
 plants it is necessary to clean every week, while in 
 some favored few it is sufficient to clean every three 
 months. When using kerosene or large amounts of 
 scale solvent, or when (as in the spring-time) the 
 water becomes unusually soft, the boilers must be 
 opened oftener than usual. In washing out a boiler, 
 wash the tubes from above, as well as from below. 
 
 Never touch any valve whatsoever, in any part 
 of the room, while a man is inside of a boiler, nor 
 even after he has come out again, until he has report- 
 ed that his work is finished and that he will not enter 
 the boiler again. It is well to lock the stop-valve and 
 blowoff valve upon every boiler in which a man is 
 working, while other boilers are under steam. Pad- 
 locks and chains may be used for this purpose. 
 
 In water-tube boilers the covers opposite the 
 three rows of tubes nearest the fire should be taken off 
 once a month, and the tubes thoroughly scraped and 
 washed out; and all the tubes should be thoroughly 
 scraped and washed out at least once in four months. 
 
146 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 This is for water of average quality. If the water is 
 bad, clean the 'tubes oftener. 
 
 When mechanical hammers or cleaners are em- 
 ployed for removing scale from tubes, the pressure 
 used to operate them should be as low as will suffice 
 to do the work. Do not allow the cleaner to operate 
 for more than a few seconds upon any one spot, and 
 see that it goes entirely through the tube. Avoid high 
 temperatures in the steam or water used to operate 
 the cleaner. 
 
 Putting Boiler Out of Service. - - In putting a 
 boiler out of service, it should be cooled, emptied, and 
 thoroughly cleaned, both inside and outside. The set- 
 ting should likewise be cleaned in all its parts. Leave 
 the handhole covers and manhole plates off. After 
 washing the interior of the boiler, let it drain well. 
 Then see that no moisture can collect anywhere about 
 the boiler, nor drip upon it either 'internally or exter- 
 nally. Empty the siphon below the steam gage if the 
 boiler room is likely to be cold, or take the gage off 
 and store it safely away. 
 
 Do not allow moisture to come in contact with 
 the outside of the boiler at any time, either from leaky 
 joints or otherwise. Keep the mud drums and nipples, 
 and the rear ends of horizontal and inclined tubes in 
 water-tube boilers, free from sooty matter. If internal 
 corrosion is discovered, notify your employers at once. 
 
 Examine your boilers carefully in all their parts, 
 whenever they are laid off, and keep them as clean 
 as possible, both inside and outside. See that all 
 necessary repairs are made promptly and thoroughly. 
 Keep the w r ater glass and pressure gage clean and 
 well lighted. If any contingency arises that you do 
 not understand, report the matter to your employers 
 at once; and if you think it possible that ;serious 
 trouble may be impending at any time, shut down the 
 boiler .immediately. 
 
 Inform yourself respecting any local laws or or- 
 dinances relating to the duties of engineers and fire- 
 men, or to the plant in which -you work. If there be 
 any such; attend to them faitHfully. 
 
-CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 HOW TO COMPUTE STRENGTH OF BOILER 
 SHELLS IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 In order to ascertain by computation the maximum 
 allowable pressure we must first compute the bursting 
 strength of the solid boiler shell, then find the weak- 
 est part of this shell, which, of course, will give us 
 
 rt-r.t 
 
 k _._. t&'- -- 
 
 STANDARD FORM OF TEST SPECIMEN 
 
 In order to thoroughly test out plate material for boilers, a form of 
 standard specimen has been established by the Boiler Code Com- 
 mittee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The 
 above illustration shows the standard form for the tension, cold- 
 bend, and quench-bend test to be made from each boiler plate as 
 rolled. 
 
 the point where the shell would really give way. We 
 next compute the steam gage pressure that would 
 cause the boiler to rupture at this weakest point. This 
 is known as the bursting pressure. It is important to 
 note here the difference between the bursting pressure 
 of the boiler and the bursting strength of the boiler shell. 
 The former indicates the reading of the steam gage at 
 which the bursting will take place while the latter indi- 
 cates the unit internal pressure in the boiler material 
 when rupture occurs. 
 
 As a working gage pressure for boiler operation 
 a factor of safety of 5 is often used that is, a gage 
 pressure 1/5 that of the bursting pressure is consid- 
 ered as the largest gage pressure that may be safely 
 put upon the boiler. It should be noted that when 
 'considering the safety of a boiler we always deal with 
 
 147 
 
148 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 gage pressure and not absolute pressure. The burst^ 
 ing pressure of a boiler is the difference between the 
 pressure inside the boiler and the pressure outside, 
 when rupture would occur, and as the latter is always 
 the pressure of the atmosphere the bursting pressure 
 must be the amount the inside pressure would be 
 above the atmospheric pressure, which is the same 
 thing as gage pressure. 
 
 In order to ascertain the breaking strength of boil- 
 er material, a sample known as a standard form is put* 
 to test. Experimentally it has been found that whether 
 a piece of material is subjected to rupture by tension, 
 compression, or shear, the unit force required to rup- 
 ture a square inch section, is equal to the total force 
 observed in rupturing the specimen in each particular 
 case divided by the cross-sectional area. This funda- 
 mental law enters largely in computation of boiler 
 strength. Let us then proceed to this analysis. 
 
 The Strength of the Solid Plate. In the study of 
 gases and vapors it has been experimentally estab- 
 lished that the pressures exerted by such substances 
 are felt equally in all directions at any given point un- 
 der consideration. Let us then consider the most dis- 
 astrous direction for pressure action. This evidently 
 would be in such a direction as would tend to tear the 
 boiler shell apart. If the length of shell considered be 
 of length p equal to the distance from center to center 
 of the riveted section or what is known as the pitch 
 of the rivets, we have for a boiler of thickness t a 
 resisting area of pt square inches. If the solid shell 
 will not burst until each square inch of area has upon 
 it a unit force of S t pounds, the total resistive force, 
 according to the experimental law stated in the pre- 
 vious paragraph is evidently pt S t . Hence if A is the 
 strength of solid plate, we have 
 
 A = tpS t (1) 
 
 Rule I. Multiply the thickness of the plate by the 
 pitch of the rivets and by the tensile strength of the 
 
STRENGTH OF BOILER SHELLS 
 
 149 
 
 plate. The result is equal to the strength of solid 
 plate. 
 
 A DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF INTERNAL 
 BOILER PRESSURE 
 
 Since the pressure of a vapor is exerted equally in all directions we 
 should consider that direction which would produce the most active 
 results in tearing apart a boiler when deducing expressions for the 
 safe working pressure. In order to ascertain the total pressure 
 tending to burst the riveted section shown in the middle figure 
 above, the pressure should be taken with the direction as shown 
 by the arrows in this figure. 
 
 As an illustration, let us compute the strength of 
 the solid plate for a boiler whose thickness of shell 
 is ]/$ in., whose spacing* of rivets is 1^ in., and whose 
 tensile strength, stamped upon the boiler plate is found 
 to read 55,000 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 Applying Rule I, we have that the strength of 
 solid plate is 
 
 A = tpS t = 0.25 X 1.625 X 55,000 = 22,343 Ib. 
 
 The Strength of the Net Section. As in the case 
 of the weakest link determining the strength of the 
 chain, so the strength of the boiler shell is determined 
 by its weakest section. This will evidently be at 
 the point where the shell has been perforated for the 
 insertion of rivets. The actual area that will resist 
 rupture is now no longer pt but since it has been 
 weakened 'by an area dt wherein d represents the 
 diameter of the rivet hole, B, the net resistive force 
 now becomes 
 
 B = (pt dt) S t = (P d) tS t (2) 
 
 Rule II (a). From the pitch of the rivet subtract 
 the diameter of the rivet hole, then multiply by the 
 thickness of the plate and again by the tensile strength 
 of the plate. This result is equal to the strength of 
 
150 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 the plate between rivet holes in other words to the 
 strength of the net section. 
 
 Taking as an illustration the same boiler men- 
 tioned in Rule I, we have, if the diameter of trie rivet 
 hole is 11/16 in., that the strength of the plate B be- 
 tween rivet holes is 
 
 B = (p d) tS t = (1.625 0.6875) 0.25 X 55,000 
 = 12,890 Ib. 
 
 Resistance to Shear. A boiler may not only fail 
 by bursting apart the actual shell material but the 
 rivet itself may give way. Under pressure the riveted 
 boiler seam may pull apart and cut or shear off the 
 rivet similar to the action that would take place by 
 using a huge pair of shears. The area of cross-section 
 of the rivet is evidently the only opposition that such 
 an action would receive over the distance between one 
 set of rivets in case of a single row of rivets, or if there 
 be n rows of rivets, the area resisting shear is n times 
 that for a single row. Hence, the force that would 
 oppose rupture due to shear is evidently n (.7854d 2 ) 
 S B , where S s is the pounds pressure exerted over each 
 square inch of cross-section under shear. From re- 
 sults shown by tests, average iron rivets will shear at 
 38,000 Ib. per sq. in. in single shear and 76,000 Ibs. 
 in double shear; steel rivets at 44,000 Ibs. in single 
 shear and 88,000 Ibs. in double shear. Hence we 
 have that the resistance to shear C for a riveted sec- 
 tion is 
 
 C == .7854d 2 nS s (3) 
 
 Rule II (b). Multiply the area of the rivet 
 (.7854d 2 ) by the shearing resistance as follows If 
 iron rivets in single shear, allow 38,000 pounds per 
 sq. in. of section, or if of steel allow 44,000 pounds 
 per sq. in. If the resistance is in double shear add 
 100 per cent to the above. The result is the bursting 
 pressure for shear. 
 
 Continuing the example above cited, we have that 
 the shearing strength C of one rivet in single shear is 
 
STRENGTH OF BOILER SHELLS 151 
 
 C = n X .7854d 2 S s = 1 X .7854 X -6875 2 X 44,000 
 [ '=16,332 Ib. 
 
 Resistance to Compression. Again the rivet may 
 be forced to give way by having its longitudinal sec- 
 tion (dt) actually crushed if the total crushing force 
 of the steam pressure exceed dtS c , where S c is the 
 crushing pressure in Ib. per sq. in. over each unit 
 area of the rivet. Hence the resistance to compression 
 D is 
 
 D = dtS c . . . (4) 
 
 Rule II (c). Multiply the diameter of the rivet by 
 the thickness of the boiler plate and then multiply by 
 the unit bursting stress for compression for the rivet 
 which is taken at 95,000 Ib. per sq. in. The result is 
 equal to the strength of the rivet section for compres- 
 sion. 
 
 The resistance to compression D for the example 
 above cited is then 
 
 D = dtS c = 0.6875 X 0.25 X 95,000 = 16,328 Ib. 
 
 The Efficiency of the Riveted Section. We now 
 
 see that the riveted section weakens the solid plate 
 in three ways. In the first place, the boiler may give 
 way more easily because a section equal to the rivet 
 hole has been cut from the solid plate. In the second 
 place, the rivet may be actually sheared in two, and 
 
 
 
 Shearing 
 1 Point , 
 
 A SINGLE RIVETED LAP JOINT FOR BOILER PLATES 
 
 By taking into consideration the stresses involved in a sectional 
 distance equal to the pitch of the rivets, P, as shown, we are en- 
 abled , to deduce, the safe working gage pressure for boiler opera- 
 tion. 
 
 in the third place, it may be crushed longitudinally. 
 The next thing to do then is to determine the ratib 
 that' each one of ' these factors bbafs' to the strength 
 
152 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 of the solid plate and adopt the weakest or smallest 
 ratio as the possible point where rupture will take 
 place. Compute these three efficiency ratios for the 
 joint EJ as follows : 
 
 BCD 
 
 Ej = ,== , = (5) 
 
 A A A 
 
 Rule III. Divide the strength of the weakest sec- 
 tion by the strength of the solid plate. (See Rute I). 
 The result is the efficiency of the riveted section. 
 
 Thus in the example cited we have seen that the 
 strength of the solid plate is 22,343 lb., that its strength 
 between rivet holes is 12,890 lb., that the shear- 
 ing strength is 16,332 lb. and that the crushing 
 strength of the plate in front of one rivet is 16,328 lb. 
 Hence, the weakest place is in the strength between 
 rivet holes and consequently the efficiency of joint 
 Ej is 
 
 12,890 
 
 Ej = = .578. 
 
 22,343 
 
 Gage Pressure Necessary to Burst the Solid Boiler 
 Plate. We come now to the most interesting point of 
 our analysis, namely to compute the bursting pressure 
 of the solid plate. 
 
 In the discussion of the strength of the solid boiler 
 plate we found that the force of steam pressure acting 
 so as to tear the boiler plate apart longitudinally would 
 evidently prove most disastrous in 'bursting the solid 
 boiler plate. Since the pressure of steam exerts itself 
 equally in all directions, we shall compute the total 
 pressure available in this particular direction as this 
 would give us the critical pressure for our present con- 
 sideration. 
 
 If the boiler is of length 1 inches and inner diam- 
 eter D inches the area of steam pressure is Dl. Since 
 now the boiler gage pressure is P s lb. per sq. in., the 
 total pressure of the steam would evidently be 
 P 8 D1 lb. To resist the boiler tearing apart there is a 
 
STRENGTH OF BOILER SHELLS 
 
 153 
 
 strip of boiler metal on each side of length 1 and thick- 
 ness t. Hence the total metallic area of resistance is 
 2 It. If now the force of resistance offered by the 
 metal is S t lb. per sq. in., we have, when an explosion 
 or bursting apart is about to take place, that this re- 
 sistive pressure is 2 ltS t . 
 
 Equating these two pressures, we have 
 P B Dl = 21tS t 
 
 or s = 
 
 2tS t 
 
 D 
 
 ts t 
 
 D/2 
 
 (6) 
 
 Thus we formulate. 
 
 Rule IV. Multiply the thickness of the plate by 
 the tensile strength of the plate and divide by the 
 radius (one-half of the diameter). The result is equal 
 to the bursting pressure of the solid plate. 
 
 p - 
 
 A DOUBLE RIVETED LAP JOINT 
 
 By introducing a number of rows of rivets for riveted lap joints the 
 shearing strength and the crushing strength of the riveted section 
 are proportionately increased, while the tensile strength of the net 
 section remains the same. 
 
 In the example previously cited we now compute 
 the bursting pressure of the solid shell of the boiler 
 under consideration for a boiler diameter of 36 in. as 
 
 follows : 
 
154 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 0.25X55,000 
 
 764 Ib. 
 
 36/2 
 
 This means that a gage pressure of 764 Ibs. per 
 sq. in. would rupture the given boiler if it existed 
 without a riveted seam. 
 
 Bursting Pressure of the Seam. But our boiler 
 under consideration would evidently burst before the 
 bursting pressure of the-^olid plate were reached for 
 the riveted section has/ weakened its total strength. 
 In Rule IV we found that the efficiency of the riveted 
 joint is the ratio of the strength of the weakest point 
 to the strength of the solid plate. Hence we have 
 
 that; the gage pressure P at which the boiler will 
 
 - probably rupture at the riveted joint is 
 
 P = P 6 E, ...(7) 
 
 Rule V. Multiply the bursting pressure of the 
 solid plate by the efficiency of the joint. This result 
 is equal tb the bursting pressure of the seam. 
 
 Thus since the efficiency of the ^joint Ej is found 
 to be .578 and the bursting pressure P s of the solid 
 plate to be 764 Ib., we have that the bursting pressure 
 P of the jjoint which is the weakest part of the boiler 
 construction is 
 
 p = p s Ej = 764 X .578 = 442 Ib. 
 
 The Safe Working Pressure. Of bourse the boiler 
 is never allowed to operate anywhere near this burst- 
 ing pressure. A factor of safety is insisted upon. 
 The U. S. tables are based upon a factor of safety of 
 3.5 for drilled holes and 4.20 for punched holes, which 
 are the lowest factors allowed in any civilized coun- 
 try* The factor in most European countries is either 
 5 or 6. In any case, if factor of safety f is used, we 
 have that the working pressure P w is found from the 
 formula, ' ],. 
 P 
 
 Pw = - - -...(8) 
 
 f 
 
STRENGTH OF BOILER SHELLS 
 
 155 
 
 The rule advised by the Hartford Insurance Com- 
 pany's inspectors is as follows : 
 
 Rule VI. Divide the bursting pressiire of the 
 seam by the following safety factors: to 125 pounds, 
 4.2; from 125 to 150 pounds, 4.5 ; 150 pounds or over, 5. 
 The result is the safe working pressure under which 
 the boiler is to operate. The American Society of 
 Mechanical Engineers in their Boiler Code require a 
 factor of safety of 5 for all new boilers. 
 
 A DOUBLE RIVETED BUTT AND DOUBLE STRAP JOINT 
 
 In general the butt joint doubles the shearing- strength of the joint 
 while the net tensile strength and the crushing strength of the joint 
 remain the same as in the lap joint discussion. 
 
 Thus in the case at issue the safe working pres- 
 sure P w becomes 
 
 P 442 
 
 P w = - 105 Ib. 
 
 f 4.2 
 
 Recapitulating the discussion of the six rules, we 
 now see in its completeness the method involved in 
 computing the safe working pressure of a boiler. In 
 this particular instance we find that a boiler of 36 in. 
 diameter, with y\ m - plates and a single row of rivets 
 spaced l^j in. apart may safely operate under 105 Ib. 
 pressure (gage). 
 
156 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Example of a Lap Joint, Longitudinal or Circum- 
 ferential, Double-Riveted. By similar reasoning we 
 may now compute the efficiency of a lap joint which 
 is double riveted whether longitudinal or circum- 
 ferential. Thus, if the tensile strength of a boiler is, 
 stamped 55,000 Ib. per sq. in. with thickness of plate 
 5/16 in., pitch of rivets 2% in. diameter of rivet 
 hole % in., we have by applying our rules : 
 
 A = 2.875 X 0-3125 X 55,000 = 49,414. 
 B= (2.875 0.75) 0.3125x55,000 = 36,523. 
 C = 2 X 44,000 X 0.4418 = 38,878. 
 D = 2 X 0.75 X 0.3125 X 95,000 44,531. 
 
 36,523 
 
 ..Ej = - -=.739 
 
 49,414 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 FURNACES IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 Interior of a Furnace, show- 
 ing Brickwork and Air 
 Spacing 
 
 ET us now set forth the 
 cycle of operations neces- 
 sary in the utilization of 
 crude petroleum as an 
 economic factor in the 
 production of steam. The 
 oil in a heated state and 
 under pressure must be 
 sprayed into a heated 
 compartment or furnace 
 so that its particles are 
 in fine globules or even 
 in a gaseous state. Such 
 an operation is known 
 as atomization and this 
 must be accomplished in an efficient and thorough 
 manner. Three methods are utilized in practice to 
 accomplish this. In the first instance steam under 
 pressure is mixed with the oil and the ingredients 
 thus shot into the furnace. In the second instance 
 compressed air is used to accomplish this result, and 
 in the third instance, some mechanical device or phys- 
 ical characteristic of the oil is made use of to whirl 
 or thrust the oil into the furnace in a pulverized or 
 atomized state. Literally hundreds of inventions have 
 been made to effect the atomization of oil. It is to be 
 remembered, however, that in the consideration of fuel 
 oil economy, the furnace and its efficient construction 
 are after all the real factors that go toward economic 
 fuel consumption. 
 
 Fuel Oil Furnace Operation. When the oil is 
 atomized, it must be brought into contact with the 
 requisite quantity of air for its combustion, and this 
 quantity of air must be at the same time a minimum 
 
 157 
 
158 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 to avoid undue heat losses that may be carried away 
 in the outgoing flue gases. To accomplish this result 
 the checkerwork under .the burners that control the 
 admission of air must be properly designed. The 
 proper quantity of air admission as a whole is con- 
 trolled by means of draft regulation. An illustration 
 
 
 
 THEORETICAL DISPLAY FOR BRICKWORK AND AIR- 
 SPACINGS 
 
 In the nine illustrations shown above .are graphically displayed the 
 behavior of the furnace jflame and the formation of carbon for va- 
 rious arrangements of air spacings below the flame. In the ninth 
 instance a theoretically perfect flame is obtained. 
 
 of how this may be sensitively controlled was shown 
 in the chapter on the fundamentals of furnace opera- 
 tion. 
 
 To accomplish the even admission of air into the 
 furnace the arrangement of the check-board of brick- 
 work below the flame is of utmost importance, .other- 
 wise unequal heating and imperfect combustion is sure 
 to follow. Let us then examine a chart formulated by 
 E. N. Percy of the Standard Oil Company's technical 
 staff.j In Fig/ 1 we have a fan-s;haped flame with open- 
 ings between all the bricks. The flame .does not cover 
 all of the bricks, hence, no matter what the conditions 
 are there will be an excess of air and the boiler cannot 
 
FURNACES 159 
 
 >vork economically since it costs as much to heat air 
 as it does to heat water. Fig. 2 shows two large open- 
 ings under the middle of the flame ; such a flame will 
 burn hot in the center and deposit carbon in the cort 
 ners as shown. In Fig. 3 we have a large opening 
 under the flame flow; this arrangement will cause the 
 flame to tear and burn intensely at the center while 
 depositing carbon around the corners, as well as allowr 
 ing cold air to rise and strike the boiler directly. The 
 large opening in Fig. 4 allows quantities of oil to 
 escape over the flame; intense combustion will take 
 place close to the burner, thereby over-heating it, and 
 at the same time the flame will be irregular and 
 ragged. It will smoke and deposit carbon at the tips. 
 The transverse openings between all the bricks as 
 shown in Fig. 5 allows at all times a great excess of 
 air and hence 1 are not economic. Fig. 6 shows draft 
 orifices in the neighborhood of the burner; such a 
 flame will burn clear at the tips, but it will smoke and 
 deposit carbon near the burner. The longitudinal 
 slots in Fig. 7 tend to tear the flame. In Fig. 8, the 
 arrangement gives a broader and more correctly 
 shaped flame, still an excess of air is admitted and 
 cold air allowed to pass up against the boiler because 
 the : draft slots extend beyond the end of the flame. 
 Fig. 9 approaches more nearly to the correct arrange- 
 ment of bricks and the correct shape of flame for a 
 flat flarne furnace. 
 
 An excellent furnace is shown on page 162, which 
 sets forth the floor plan of a back shot furnace ar- 
 rangetrient, the burner being set in a recess in thi 
 bridge wall. The recess is made large enough for the 
 removal of the burner and piers of fire brick are built 
 on the furnace floor in front of the recess so that 
 there, is an opening about 12 in. by 9 in., through which 
 the mixture of oil and steam enters the furnace from 
 the burner. A certain quantity of air enters through 
 the same opening, being drawn in by the force of the 
 oil and steam. A bracke't is provided to hold the 
 burner at the center of the opening. 
 
160 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Air openings through the checker work on the 
 grates commence some 8 or 10 in. from the burner, 
 the number of openings and the width increasing 
 gradually until about two feet from the burner the 
 openings extend across the full width of the furnace. 
 There are no openings between the burners near the 
 bridge wall so that no air can enter except where it 
 comes in contact with the atomized oil. The fire brick 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF AIR SPACES AND GRATE BARS FOR 
 FUEL OIL PRACTICE 
 
 The details of furnace construction have more to do with efficient 
 operation in the burning of fuel oil than anything else. In each 
 particular installation this matter should receive careful attention. 
 In the illustrations are shown the plan and elevation of the air 
 spaces and grate bars for the Parker boiler installation for the 
 Fruitvale Station of the Southern Pacific Co. This boiler developed 
 an evaporative efficiency of 83.69 per cent under trial test. 
 
 piers between the burners become hot and assist in 
 the ignition of the oil. 
 
 The distance the air openings are extended from 
 the burners and the total area of air openings depends 
 on the draft available and the capacity required from 
 the boiler. With a draft of .1 of an inch in the fur- 
 nace a free area of 2^2 sq. inches per rated boiler 
 horsepower through the checker work and J^ sq. in. 
 per horsepower around the burner, making a total of 
 3 sq. ins. per horsepower, is sufficient to operate the 
 boiler from its rated capacity up to 50% overload. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 161 
 
 If more capacity than this is required either a greater 
 furnace draft must be provided or more openings 
 through the checker work must be installed so as to 
 increase the area. The amount of stack draft neces- 
 sary to maintain .1 of an inch furnace draft depends 
 upon the type of boiler and the capacity at which it 
 is operated as this will determine the draft loss 
 through the boiler. The loss of draft between the 
 
 A FORMER TYPE OF FURNACE 
 
 In this view the floor plan of a back shot furnace arrangement is 
 shown. The burner is set in a recess in the bridge wall. This de- 
 sign has proven of high order in central station installations of the 
 West, but has now been replaced by the more recent type shown 
 on the following page. 
 
 breeching and the furnace usually runs from about 
 .15 of an inch at the boilers' rating up to .8 or one 
 inch at double rating. 
 
 The location of the flame can be varied by chang- 
 ing the height of the burner above the checker work, 
 this height usually varying from 4 in. to 8 in. or 9 in. 
 The character of the flame can also be varied by 
 changing the distance the air openings extend from 
 the burners. It is customary to have the furthermost 
 air openings about four or five feet distant from the 
 burner, the furnace floor beyond this point being cov- 
 ered with solid brick. By bringing the air openings 
 
162 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 somewhat farther out than this the flame can be made 
 to turn up or by having the air openings extended out 
 a shorter distance the flame can be made to hug- 
 closely to the floor of the furnace. 
 
 The Commercial Furnace. Illustrations are 
 shown in this article that set forth the check-board 
 
 12'- 7 
 
 ELEVATION 
 
 AN EXCELLENT FURNACE ARRANGEMENT 
 Here is an excellent furnace arrangement designed for a 524 hp. 
 boiler with standard low setting. The checker work on the grate 
 bars shown in shaded area represents openings 2V 2 by 3 in. through 
 the brickwork. The free area through the checker work is 2.44 sq. 
 in. per hp., around the burner 0.62 sq. in. per hp., making a total 
 free area of 3.06 sq. in. per hp. 
 
 of brick work for air admission in the commercial 
 practice of boiler economy. Let us now consider all 
 the principal factors that must be considered in pick- 
 ing an efficient type of commercial furnace. 
 
 The furnace must be constructed of such heat 
 tested brick-work that it will stand up under the high 
 temperatures developed and the refractory material 
 of which it is composed must be so installed as to 
 radiate heat to assist the combustion of the heated 
 ingredients of the fuel. 
 
FURNACES 163 
 
 This combustion must be entirely completed be- 
 fore the gases come in contact with the heating sur- 
 faces of the boiler. Otherwise, the flame will be 
 extinguished, possibly to unite later in the flue con- 
 nection or in the stack. This means that ample space 
 must be provided in the volumetric proportions of the 
 furnace to insure this combustion before the gases 
 begin to travel upward against the boiler surfaces. 
 
 Finally, there must be no localization of the heat 
 on certain portions of the heating surfaces or trouble 
 will result from overheating and blistering. This is 
 one of the more serious defects that had to be over- 
 come in the earlier days of fuel oil practice. The 
 burner has much to do with the avoidance of this 
 localization activity. 
 
 Regulation of Air. The area of air openings 
 through the checker-work should be made of sufficient 
 size to operate the boiler at the maximum capacity 
 required and then when operating at lighter loads the 
 air supply should be very carefully regulated. There 
 are two ways by which the air can be regulated, 
 namely, by the damper at the outlet of the boiler or 
 by the ash pit doors. If the air is regulated by the 
 ash pit doors, the damper being left wide open, there 
 will be a strong draft within the setting tending to 
 cause air to leak in through all the cracks in the brick 
 work. The strong draft also tends to pull the gases 
 through the setting by the shortest cuts so that a thin 
 stream of gases flows through and the setting is not 
 properly filled out so that some of the heating surface 
 is not swept by the gases. 
 
 If on the other hand the ash pit doors are left 
 wide open and the air is regulated by partly closing 
 the damper, the draft inside the boiler setting is very 
 slight so that the air leakage is reduced to a minimum. 
 There is little force tending to change the direction 
 of the flow of the gases so that they travel of their 
 own momentum to the furthermost corners and fill 
 out the setting completely, thus coming in contact 
 with all the heating surface of the boiler. It is, there-- 
 fore, much better to regulate the air by means of the 
 
164 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 damper than by means of the ash pit doors. In the 
 case of very light loads, however, it is best to use both 
 the damper and the ash pit doors because if the 
 damper alone is used there may be a positive pressure 
 produced in the upper part of the setting causing gas 
 and smoke to leak out into the fire room. 
 
 Importance of Air Regulation. The regulation 
 of the air supply is one of the most important things 
 in the operation of oil fired boilers. If there is not 
 
 PLAN OF BRICKWORK AND AIR SPACINGS IN MARINE 
 PRACTICE 
 
 In the practical application of the theoretical deductions for proper 
 air spacing-s, commercial designers differ somewhat from the theo- 
 retical reasoning- involved. In this illustration is shown the brick- 
 work and air-spacings for Scotch marine boilers recommended by a 
 prominent company. 
 
 enough air a great waste of fuel may occur as it is 
 possible to feed the oil into the furnace in large quan- 
 tities and if there is not enough air to burn it the oil 
 and gas will simply pass up to the chimney unburned. 
 On the other hand, it is possible to waste just as much 
 
FURNACES 165 
 
 fuel by allowing too much air to enter the furnace as 
 all of the extra air is heated up and passes out at the 
 temperature of the chimney gases, carrying away with 
 it an enormous amount of heat. To determine accu- 
 rately the amount of air required for the best condi- 
 tions it is necessary to analyze the flue gases. Many 
 plants, however, are not provided with the apparatus 
 necessary for this and in such cases the air may be 
 regulated with a fair degree of accuracy by an obser- 
 vation of the smoke discharged from the stack. For 
 perfect combustion there should be no smoke and if 
 any smoke appears it means incomplete combustion 
 and not enough air. If there is no smoke, however, 
 it does not follow that the conditions are right, as no 
 smoke may mean either just the right amount of air 
 or a large excess of air. To properly regulate the air, 
 therefore, if the boiler is operating with no smoke the 
 damper should be gradually closed until a light gray 
 smoke just begins to appear; if then the damper is 
 opened very slightly this smoke will be barely percep- 
 tible and the conditions for the most economical 
 operation will be obtained. 
 
 Service For One Burner Only. Where boilers 
 having more than one burner are operated at very 
 light loads it is necessary at times to have only one 
 burner in operation, the other burners being shut off. 
 For such service as this it is very desirable to have 
 the ash pit divided into as many sections as there are 
 burners so that when one burner is shut off the ash 
 pit door opposite that door can be closed tight and no 
 air from the other ash pit doors will enter the furnace 
 opposite that particular burner. With this arrange- 
 ment it is possible to operate a large boiler at frac- 
 tional loads and still maintain fairly good economy. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 BURNER CLASSIFICATION IN FUEL OIL 
 PRACTICE 
 
 In 1902 and 1903 the U. S. Naval Fuel Oil Board 
 made an exhaustive inquiry into burners of various 
 types. In their report a classification of burners was 
 set forth which comprehensively details the funda- 
 mentals of various types of burners known as the 
 drooling, the atomizer, the chamber, the injector, and 
 the projector types. 
 
 In the drooling type the burner allows the oil 
 to drool from an upper opening down to a lower open- 
 ing from which the steam is issuing. An atomizer 
 burner allows the oil to drop directly on the steam. 
 The chamber or inside mixer atomizes the oil within 
 the burner after which it issues from an orifice of the 
 desired form. An injector burner is designed pri- 
 marily to operate without a pump as it is presumed 
 that the oil will be sucked from the reservoir by the 
 siphoning or injector-like action of the steam jet 
 inside. In the projector burners the steam blows the 
 oil from the tip of the burner. 
 
 Two other general classifications prevail depend- 
 ing upon the character of the flame emitted namely, 
 the fan tail and the rose. In the former type the 
 burner produces a flat flame while in the latter a circu- 
 lar flame is sent forth. 
 
 The three principal types of burner that are 
 encountered in central station practice are, however, 
 known as the inside mixer, the outside mixer, and the 
 mechanical atomizer. 
 
 The Inside Mixer. In burners of this class, the 
 steam and oil come into contact, and the oil is atom- 
 ized inside of the burner itself, and the mixture issues 
 from the burner tip ready for combustion at once. 
 The Hammel burner is of this type. 
 
 166 
 
BURNER CLASSIFICATION 
 
 167 
 
 The accompanying cuts illustrate the construc- 
 tion of this burner. Oil enters at A, flows through 
 D into the mixing and atomizing chamber C ; steam 
 enters at B, passes through F, E, and then through 
 three small slots, G, H and I, into mixing chamber 
 C where it meets the oil, and as these small steam 
 jets cut across the oil stream at an angle, the energy 
 
 THE INSIDE MIXER TYPE OF BURNER 
 
 In burners of this type the steam and oil come into contact and the 
 oil is atomized inside' the burner itself. The mixture then issues 
 from the burner tip ready for combustion. The Hammel burner 
 shown in the illustration above is of this type. 
 
 of the steam is utilized. The burner requires for its 
 operation about 2 per cent of the steam generated by 
 the boiler. The heavy hydrocarbons of the oil are 
 atomized, the light hydrocarbons are vaporized, and 
 the completed mixture issues from the burner and 
 ignites like a gas flame. In normal service there is 
 no tendency to carbonize, and the only way in which 
 carbonizing can be caused is by turning off the steam 
 and leaving the burner filled with oil instead of blow- 
 ing it out before shutting down. 
 
168 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 All oil is usually more or less gritty and will 
 cause wear of some part of the burner. This is pro- 
 vided for in the Hammel burner the removable plates 
 K K can be quickly replaced. 
 
 The Outside Mixer. In the outside mixing class 
 the steam flows through a narrow slot or horizontal 
 
 "On Connection 
 
 THE OUTSIDE MIXER TYPE OF BURNER 
 
 In this type of burner the steam flows through a narrow slot or 
 horizontal row of small holes in the burner nozzle. The oil flows 
 through a similar slot or hole above the steam orifice and is picked 
 up by the steam outside of the burner and thus atomized. The 
 Peabody burner which is shown in this illustration is a typical 
 burner of this type. 
 
 row of small holes in the burner nozzle ; the oil flows 
 through a similar slot or hole above the steam orifice, 
 and is picked up by the steam outside of the burner 
 and atomization thus accomplished. The Peabody 
 burner is typical of this class. It will be noted that 
 the portions of the burner forming the orifice may be 
 readily replaced in case of wear or if it is desired to 
 alter the form of the flame. 
 
 An Example of the Mechanical Atomizer. As an 
 illustration of one of the many interesting types of 
 burners that produce atomization by the mechanical 
 process, let us consider for the moment the rotary 
 burner of the Fess System Company. The mechanism 
 that accomplishes the atomization is operated by a 
 small electric motor as shown of Y^ to Vs h.p. The 
 motor operates a rotary pump through a worm gear. 
 This pump brings the crude oil from the storage tank 
 and applies it to the burner, which is placed in the 
 center of the fire box. The burner rotates at a suf- 
 ficient speed to thoroughly atomize the oil by centri- 
 
BURNER CLASSIFICATION 169 
 
 fugal force and by the proper admission of air a 
 smokeless flame is produced equally distributed 
 throughout the fire box. 
 
 A MECHANICAL TYPE OF ATOMIZER 
 
 Many types of mechanical atomizer may be seen upon the market 
 in which various physical laws are made use of to accomplish 
 atomization. In the mechanism shown in the illustration, which 
 is that of the Fess System Company, the burner is caused to 
 rotate at a sufficient speed to thoroughly atomize the oil by cen- 
 trifugal force. By the proper admission of air a smokeless flame 
 is produced, equally distributed throughout the fire-box. 
 
 The Home-Made Type of Burner. Patented oil 
 burners are practically unknown in the oil fields. 
 Every operator makes his own burner out of ordinary 
 fittings. The construction varies somewhat depending 
 upon the ideas of the maker and the quality of 
 oil burned. The general principle of the burner is 
 illustrated in the sketch. No oil pumps are used, the 
 oil being supplied by gravity from a tank set from 6 
 to 10 feet above the ground. 
 
 An important peculiarity of the burner is that it 
 is self-regulating to a great extent. The impact of 
 the jet of steam issuing from the inner pipe produces 
 a back pressure on the oil issuing from the annular 
 space between the pipes. If the steam valve is adjusted 
 for good atomization any increase of the steam pres- 
 sure will cause more steam to flow through the inner 
 pipe. This will increase the back pressure at the tip 
 and choke back the oil coming from the annular space, 
 thus decreasing the fire. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the steam pressure drops, 
 the back pressure at the tip is decreased, more oil 
 will flow and the fire will be increased. 
 
170 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 This type of burner is sensitive to variations in 
 steam pressure. As the steam pressure goes up, the 
 fire is cut down until a point is reached at which the 
 fire becomes spasmodic or "bucks." 
 
 While this self regulating feature helps to main- 
 tain constant pressure on the boiler, it is not econom- 
 ical because as the steam pressure increases, thus 
 diminishing the quantity of oil, the quantity of steam 
 
 THE HOMEMADE BURNER 
 
 This ingenious type of homemade burner is a product of the oil 
 fields. The impact of the jet of steam which issues from the 
 inner pipe produces a back pressure on the oil issuing from the 
 annular space between the pipes, thus making the burner self- 
 regulating to a great extent. 
 
 increases with the pressure. Thus, the less oil is 
 burned the more steam is used for atomizing, which 
 is just the opposite of what it should be. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the burner is that it will 
 begin to atomize when the steam pressure is less thin 
 a pound above atmosphere. As soon as a sizzle is 
 heard issuing from the steam pipe, the burner wiil 
 make a fairly good fire. 
 
 Front Shot and Back Shot Burners 
 There are two general methods by which B & W 
 or Stirling boilers can be fired with oil, known as the 
 
BURNER CLASSIFICATION 171 
 
 front shot and the back shot. With the front shot ar- 
 rangement the burner is introduced through the front 
 wall and the flame is shot back towards the bridge 
 wall. With the back shot arrangement the burner is 
 placed at the bridge wall and the flame shoots forward. 
 Owing to the fact that the tubes are inclined down- 
 wards toward the rear, the back shot arrangement 
 gives a larger furnace volume at the end of the furnace 
 farthest from the burner. This is of considerable ad- 
 vantage in permitting the gases to expand and cause 
 perfect combustion. Another advantage of the back 
 shot burner with the B & W boiler is that the flame 
 is shot forward and comes in contact with the front 
 end of the tubes, whereas with the front shot burner 
 the gases are forced back close to the front baffle and 
 do not have any tendency to fill the front pass of the 
 boiler. This condition is illustrated in the adjoining 
 cuts. The result is that with the front shot burner a 
 considerable portion of the heating surface is by-passed 
 by the gases and is therefore, non-effective. With the 
 Stirling boiler, however, while the back shot burner 
 gives the best furnace, the front shot burner causes 
 greater effectiveness of heating surface. 
 
 Quantity of Steam Required. The regulation of 
 the quantity of steam used for atomizing the oil is 
 a matter of very great importance, for if more steam 
 is used than is actually needed there is not only a 
 waste of the excess quantity of steam but also there 
 is a loss of the heat required to raise the temperature 
 of this extra steam up to the temperature of the 
 escaping gases. With careless operation the quantity 
 of steam supplied to the burners sometimes amounts 
 to as much as 5% of the total steam generated by the 
 boiler, whereas with proper care in operating, this 
 quantity can be reduced below 1%. A simple way to 
 adjust the quantity of steam supplied is to gradually 
 close down on. the steam valve to the burner until 
 drops of oil fall on the furnace floor. The drops burn 
 and scintillate and can be readily seen and this scin- 
 tillation indicates that there is not sufficient steam 
 to atomize the oil. As soon as this point is reached 
 
172 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 B. & W. BOILER WITH FRONT SHOT OIL BURNER 
 
 With this furnace arrangement the flame does not fill out the first 
 pass, so the front end of the tubes do not do their share of the 
 work. 
 
 the steam valve should be opened just enough to stop 
 the scintillating action. This method will insure suf- 
 ficient steam being supplied but no more than neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The quantity of steam supplied to the burner 
 bears an important relation to the furnace arrange- 
 ment and the air supply, as both the shape and char- 
 acter of the flame change when the quantity of steam 
 is varied. With too much steam an intense white 
 flame is produced which has a tendency to cause local- 
 ization of heat on the brickwork or the tubes. With 
 the proper amount of steam and correct air regulation 
 a soft orange-colored flame is produced which fills 
 out the furnace and has a good deal the appearance 
 of a flame from a soft coal fire. This flame will some- 
 times appear smoky in the furnace but the smoke 
 disappears before the gases reach the stack. It is, 
 therefore, unnecessary to have an absolutely clear 
 flame in the furnace. 
 
 It is not a difficult matter for an experienced man 
 in charge of the boiler plant to properly adjust the 
 steam and oil valves so as to get the right amount of 
 steam. It is often very difficult, however, to get the 
 
BURNER CLASSIFICATION 
 
 173 
 
 B. & W. BOILER WITH BACK SHOT OIL BURNER 
 
 With this furnace arrangement the gases have ample volume in 
 which to burn, and they distribute themselves over the entire first 
 pass, resulting in efficient operation. 
 
 firemen to use sufficient care in making these adjust- 
 ments. A simple method of preventing too much 
 steam being used for atomizing where boilers are 
 operated at a fairly steady load is to provide a disc 
 with a small hole in it, in the steam to burner line. 
 This disc restricts the quantity of steam that can pass 
 through to the burner. The size of the hole in the 
 disc depends on the steam pressure used and on the 
 capacity required from the boiler and must be deter- 
 mined by experiment. In a plant using 200 Ib. steam 
 pressure a hole 5/16 in. in diameter has been found 
 large enough to supply all the atomizing steam re- 
 quired for a 600 h.p. boiler. A by-pass should be 
 provided on the steam line so as to pass steam around 
 the disc in case it is found necessary to force the boiler 
 at any time above its normal capacity. By providing 
 the by-pass with a valve having a rising stem it can 
 be seen at a glance whether the valve is open or shut. 
 
 The quantity of steam required for atomizing 
 depends largely on the temperature of the oil. The 
 hotter the oil the less steam is required. In central 
 station work the oil should be heated up to about 180 
 
174 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 STIRLING BOILER WITH FRONT SHOT OIL BURNER 
 
 With this furnace arrangement the tubes are swept by the hot 
 gases for their full length, but this advantage is gained at the 
 expense of furnace efficiency owing to the smaller volume available 
 as combustion chamber. 
 
 Fahrenheit on the pressure side of the pumps, the 
 pressure carried running from 40 to 60 Ibs. 
 
 Number of Men Required for Operating Oil Fired 
 Boilers. The number of men required to operate 
 boilers fired by oil is much less than the number 
 required to operate a coal burning plant. In an oil 
 burning central station a fireman can operate six or 
 seven large boilers having three oil burners each, and 
 in addition attend to the feeding of the boilers with 
 water. In other words, a plant having 26 or 28 boilers 
 would require only four firemen on a watch besides 
 a man to look after the feed pumps, oil pumps and 
 keep records of oil consumption, temperatures, etc. 
 
 Caution. In operating oil fired boilers it is ex- 
 tremely important to avoid any accumulation of gas 
 in the boiler setting, consequently, no oil should be 
 
BURNER CLASSIFICATION 
 
 175 
 
 STIRLING BOILER WITH BACK SHOT OIL BURNER 
 
 This furnace arrangement gives a splendid furnace with large vol- 
 xime, but the gases come in contact with only about one-third of 
 the tubes in the front bank, so that the effectiveness of the heating 
 surface is impaired. 
 
 allowed to get into the furnace unless there is a fire 
 to ignite it and no more oil should be fed into the 
 furnace than can be burned with the available quan- 
 tity of air and atomizing steam. Any accumulation 
 of gases inside the settings is liable to cause explo- 
 sions which may result in serious damage. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 THE GRAVITY OF OILS IN FUEL OIL 
 PRACTICE 
 
 Fuel oil is classified, marketed, and designated by 
 its gravity. Gravity is denoted in two distinct ways. 
 The scientific method of notation is known as the 
 
 "specific gravity," which is 
 the ratio of the weight of 
 a given volume of the oil 
 to that of an equal volume 
 of pure water. There has, 
 however, grown up in prac- 
 tice an empirical method 
 of representing the gravity 
 of oil by what is known as 
 the B a u m e scale. This 
 scale has two separate and 
 distinct formulas for its 
 conversion to specific grav- 
 ity readings. One formula 
 is for liquids heavier than 
 water and the other for 
 liquids lighter than water. 
 In each instance the scale 
 is graduated to 100 degrees 
 and overlaps 10 degrees. 
 
 Antoine Baume, a 
 French chemist of the 
 eighteenth century, distin- 
 guished for his success in 
 Baume Hydrometers the practical application of 
 
 the science, was the inven- 
 tor of the so-called Baume scale now universally 
 adopted in fuel oil practice for denoting the gravity 
 of crude petroleum. 
 
 176 
 
GRAVITY OF OILS 177 
 
 The Scale for Liquids Heavier Than Water. 
 
 Baume hit upon a unique plan for the establishment 
 of his scale. Certain fixed points were first determined 
 upon the stem of the instrument. The first of these 
 was found by immersing the hydrometer in pure 
 water, and marking the stem at the level of the sur- 
 face. This formed the zero of the scale. Fifteen 
 standard solutions of pure common salt in water were 
 
 then prepared, containing respectively 1, 2, 3 15 
 
 per cent (by weight) of dry salt. The hydrometer 
 was plunged in these in order and the stem having 
 been marked at the several surfaces, the degrees so 
 obtained were numbered 1, 2, 3 15. 
 
 The instrument thus adapted to the determination 
 of densities exceeding that of water was called the 
 hydrometer for salts. 
 
 Expressed mathematically in its relationship with 
 the specific gravity S, the Baume degree reading B 
 becomes for liquids heavier than water : 
 
 145 
 
 S - (1) 
 
 145 B 
 
 The Scale for Liquids Lighter Than Water. 
 
 Since practically all grades of crude petroleum are 
 lighter than water, we are most interested in the 
 method of expression for this latter phase of gravity 
 denotation. 
 
 The original Baume hydrometer intended for 
 densities less than that of water, or the hydrometer 
 for spirits, as it was called, was constructed on a sim- 
 ilar principle to that for the hydrometer of salts above 
 described. The instrument was so arranged that it 
 floated in pure water with most of the stem above the 
 surface. A solution containing 10 per cent of pure 
 salt was used to indicate the zero of the scale, and the 
 point at which the instrument floated when immersed 
 in distilled water at 10 R or 54^ F. was numbered 
 10. Equal divisions were then marked off upwards 
 along the stem as far as the 50th degree. 
 
178 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Confusion in Expression for Specific Grav- 
 ity and Baume Readings. Modern gravities are ex- 
 pressed for liquid temperatures of 60 F. instead of 
 54^ F. as above set forth. This fact together with 
 other inconsistencies and errors in observation have 
 led to the invention of some seventeen different math- 
 ematical expressions, by various investigators and 
 scientific bodies, to properly set forth a relationship 
 between specific gravity and Baume readings for 
 liquids lighter than water. The contest has simmered 
 down to two equations in American practice. 
 
 The formula that is used by Tagliabue in his 
 tables, and that has been adopted by the Petroleum 
 Association, which embraces within its membership 
 practically all of the oil refiners of the United States, 
 is as follows : 
 
 141.5 
 
 (2) 
 
 131.5 + B 
 
 On the other hand, in Kent's Mechanical Engi- 
 neer's Handbook is found a formula which has been 
 adopted by the United States Bureau of Standards 
 and which receives the strong endorsement of the 
 mechanical and electrical engineers of the Pacific 
 Goast. The formula is : 
 
 140 
 
 (3) 
 
 130 +B 
 
 The Limitations of the Hydrometer. The hydro- 
 meter method of ascertaining the gravity .of crude 
 petroleum is at best only approximate, a3 one may 
 readily surmise. In order then to ascertain the gravity 
 of oil with scientific accuracy, a more refined method 
 is necessary. This is usually accomplished by deter- 
 mining the specific gravity of the oil with whatever 
 moisture content it may contain by means of an actual 
 water equivalent comparison, and then converting this 
 into degrees Baume.. This roundabout method once 
 again emphasizes the uselessness of employing the 
 Baume scale. If the moisture content of the oil has 
 
GRAVITY OF OILS 179 
 
 been ascertained, a computation is then made in order 
 to arrive at the actual specific gravity or Baume read- 
 ing for the moisture free oil. 
 
 The Method of the Westphal Balance for Exact 
 Measurement. Let us then examine in detail such a 
 method. The Westphal balance is a convenient and 
 accurate method by which the specific gravity of fuel 
 oil may be obtained to four decimal points. As shown 
 in the illustration, the apparatus necessary consists of 
 a balance arm, supported on knife edges, from one end 
 of which is hung a glass bulb, the other end being 
 counter-weighed. Along the balance arm are nine 
 notches, the hook supporting the glass bulb being in 
 the position of the tenth notch. The glass bulb has a 
 displacement of exactly five grams of pure water at 
 4C, which is the point of maximum density of water, 
 the density for which scientific gravity comparisons 
 are made. Hence if the bulb above described were so 
 immersed in water at 4C. a five gram weight would 
 establish equilibrium if hung from the hook. This 
 would indicate a specific gravity of 1.0000. 
 
 The zero point of the balance is adjusted by turn- 
 ing a thumb screw, which forms one point of the three 
 point support shown in the figure, until the pointers 
 are opposite each other before the bulb is immersed. 
 For specific gravities less than 1 .0000 the five gram 
 rider called the unit weight is hung in a notch such 
 that equilibrium is nearly reached, never exceeded. 
 This gives the first decimal place. The 1/10, 1/100. and 
 1/1000 unit weights are then hung respectively in 
 notches so that equilibrium is finally established. The 
 specific gravity is then read directly to four decimal 
 places by noting the notches in which the riders hang, 
 commencing with the largest rider. Thus when the unit 
 weight hangs in the ninth notch, the l/10th weight in 
 the sixth notch, the 1/100 weight in the seventh notch, 
 and the 1/1000 weight in the third notch, the specific 
 gravity is evidently .9673. 
 
 Details of Procedure. Before proceeding with a 
 gravity determination, the oil sample should be al- 
 lowed to stand in the laboratory several hours in order 
 
180 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 that any drops of water in the oil may settle. A small 
 quantity is then poured from the sample can into a 
 suitable glass jar. The Westphal balance, having been 
 dusted with a soft brush, is then adjusted to equilib- 
 rium and the specific gravity of the sample obtained. 
 
 A COMMERCIAL BALANCE FOR DETERMINING SPECIFIC 
 GRAVITY OF OIL 
 
 The common hydrometer is not of sufficient accuracy to determine 
 the specific gravity of oil used in fuel oil tests. A simple and 
 accurate method for such determination is accomplished by the 
 employment of a Westphal Balance as shown in the illustration. 
 The specific gravity is first ascertained by comparison of the oil 
 \vitn a water standard and then by means of the mathematical 
 relationship connecting specific gravities and Baume readings, the 
 latter gravity reading is ascertained. 
 
 The temperature is also ascertained by means of the 
 thermometer inserted in the oil sample. Since specific 
 gravities of fuel oil are by common practice referred to 
 
GRAVITY OF OILS 181 
 
 at a temperature of 60F., it is now necessary to make 
 a second determination at a temperature differing by 
 15 to 20F. from the first, in order that we may have 
 sufficient data with which to compute what the gravity 
 would be at 60 F. temperature. 
 
 To take this second reading the temperature of 
 the sample in the jar may be raised by immersion in 
 a water bath. In doing this great care must be taken 
 to allow no water to get into the oil. 
 
 Computations Involved. Let us next illustrate 
 the computations involved in a gravity determination. 
 Let us assume that by means of the Westphal balance, 
 the oil sample is seen to have a specific gravity (SJ of 
 .9644, at a temperature (t x ) of 68.9F., and a specific 
 gravity (S 2 ) of .9587 at a temperature (t 2 ) of 86.6 F. 
 Since the specific gravity has changed (S S 2 ) over 
 a temperature change of (t^_ t 2 ) the change for 1F. 
 
 (S x S 2 ) 
 
 would be - ; This change in specific grav- 
 
 ity for 1F. is the coefficient of expansion (C e ), for the 
 oil and may be expressed by the formula 
 
 (Si S,) 
 
 C. = - - .............. ........ ..... (4) 
 
 (t, - - t 2 ) 
 
 In the particular case then we now find that 
 
 .9644 .9587 
 
 C e = -- : - = .000322. 
 68.9 86.6 
 
 The coefficient is thus seen in this case to represent 
 an intermediate value, for in practice we find that in 
 different oils C e varies from (.00027) to (.00042). 
 From the fundamental definition of the coefficient 
 of expansion it is now seen that at 60 F., the specific 
 gravity becomes 
 
 S = S 1 + C e (60- 1.) ....... .............. (5) 
 
182 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Consequently by making the proper substitutions for 
 the case cited we find that the numerical value of the 
 specific gravity of this oil sample for 60F. is 
 
 S = .9644 + [ .000322 X ( 8.9) ] =0.9673 
 
 In order to convert this specific gravity to the 
 Baume scale we now, by substituting in formula given 
 above for such conversion, find that 
 
 141.5 
 
 B=- -131.5 14.78 
 
 0.9673 
 
 Assuming that this particular oil sample has been 
 found to contain 0.5 per cent by weight of moisture 
 and 0.484 per cent by volume, let us now see how we 
 should find the specific gravity of the dry oil. Let V w 
 represent the percentage of water by volume and 
 S w , S , S m represent respectively the specific gravity 
 of the water, dry oil, and moisture. Then we may 
 write the following relationship : 
 
 100 V w V w 
 
 S m = S (- -)+S w (- -) ........ (6) 
 
 100 100* 
 
 From scientific tables we find that S w at 60 F. has 
 a value of .9990, and from the Westphal balance S m 
 has been found to be .9673. By transforming the 
 formula above it is seen that 
 
 v w 
 
 v 
 
 1.00- 
 
 100 
 
 ................... (7) 
 
 100 
 
 Consequently S may now be computed numerically. 
 .9673 .00484 X -9990 
 
 1.00 .00484 
 
 .9671 
 
GRAVITY OF OILS 183 
 
 If it is desirable to ascertain the Baume reading 
 for the dry oil, we next ascertain its value from the 
 above relationship of specific gravity and the Baume 
 scale from equation (2). 
 
 141.5 141.5 
 
 B=- -131.5 - -131.5 = 14.8 
 
 S .9671 
 
 According to formula (3) this Baume reading 
 would of course be computed as follows: 
 
 140 140 
 
 B=- -130 = 13014.8 
 
 S .9671 
 
 When a large quantity of oil is to be purchased 
 and it is desirable to carry the Baume reading to still 
 further decimal points, the two formulas will not of 
 course check; hence, one or the other of these form- 
 ulas should be agreed upon prior to a purchase of any 
 magnitude. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 MOISTURE CONTENT OF OILS 
 
 From our previous discussion of steam genera- 
 tion in the modern central station it was found that 
 
 something over a thousand 
 heat units are necessary to 
 convert water at ordinary 
 temperatures into saturated 
 steam. When moisture 
 appears in the oil used for 
 heat generating purposes 
 in the furnace it is evident, 
 then, that large heat losses 
 may thereby be involved. 
 For, not only must this 
 AN ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN moisture be converted into 
 OIL CENTRIFUGE saturated steam, but this 
 
 in this centrifug-e the four steam itself must be super- 
 
 - heated to the temperature 
 of the outgoing chimney 
 thus dissipating 
 energies that should go 
 toward steam generation in 
 the boiler. 
 
 Hence the water involved in fuel oil composition 
 is a dead loss which should be avoided as far as pos- 
 sible. Settling tanks accomplish much in drawing off 
 the water content, but when the water appears in the 
 oil as an emulsion it is almost impossible to com- 
 mercially segregate it from the oil. Since, then, all 
 fuel oils contain a certain amount of moisture, the 
 careful determination of its exact proportions often 
 becomes an important problem in efficient steam 
 engineering performance. 
 
 Summary of Methods Employed in Determining 
 the Moisture Content! There are ten methods by 
 
 uated are caused to rotate by 
 electric power and the water 
 thus caused to separate from gases 
 the oil. The consequent meas- 
 urement of the moisture pres- 
 ent is then easily ascertained. 
 
 184 
 
MOISTURE CONTENT 185 
 
 which the moisture content of oil can be ascertained 
 with approximate accuracy. For detailed information 
 on this subject the reader is referred to Technical 
 Paper No. 25 of the United States Bureau of Mines 
 entitled, "Methods for the Determination of Water in 
 Petroleum and its Products." These methods may be 
 briefly summarized as follows: 
 
 The moisture content of 'heavy oils and greases 
 may be (approximately) ascertained by (the loss of 
 weight due to heating. ) 
 
 The moisture content of oil may be approxi- 
 mately obtained by diluting a sample with a sulphate 
 and then causing separation by action of gravity. A 
 diluent is to be avoided in this process, as inac- 
 curacies are liable to be introduced. 
 
 Again by diluting with a solvent and separating 
 the moisture content by means of a centrifuge, ! the 
 moisture content is determined with a slightly greater 
 degree of accuracy than by either of the above 
 methods. 
 
 By treating a sample with calcium carbide, 
 another convenient method is also arrived at, and its 
 accuracy is approximately within 3% of the water 
 percentage if care is observed. The sample, too, may 
 be treated with;sodium]and a convenient and accurate 
 method results. 
 
 A color comparator is sometimes used, but the 
 method is only approximate, as is also the method of 
 treating a sample with normal acids. The ( electrical 
 treatment, on the other hand, is successful in break- 
 ing up an emulsion on a commercial scale, or reducing 
 the water content of an oil to such a condition that it 
 may be successfully treated in some other manner. 
 An emulsion is a physical condition of the oil and 
 water wherein the water is held in such intimate 
 contact with the oil ingredients as not to be readily 
 separated by gravity or other ordinary means. 
 
 Again, too, (distilling a sample mixed with a non- 
 miscible liquid; proves accurate to .033 grams of water 
 per 100 cc. of benzine and oil in the distillate. 
 
186 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The most reliable method, however, is that 
 accomplished by directly (distilling^off the water. This 
 method is convenient and accurate to about .003 grams 
 of water in the distillate, if the water is cooled to 
 about 35 F. 
 
 The Approximate Method of Treatment. The 
 
 method hinted at above wherein the sample is treated 
 by a foreign agent will now be briefly set forth, since 
 such a preliminary determination often proves suffi- 
 ciently accurate for the issues involved. 
 
 The method here outlined is especially applicable 
 for the lighter 'oils. A burette graduated into 200 
 
 A GOETZ ATTACHMENT FOR WATER DETERMINATION 
 
 By attaching the pipe shown in the lower part of the figure to 
 a faucet, sufficient power is obtained from the city main to cause 
 the rapid rotation of the two arms shown in the figure. This high 
 rotative speed, due to the centrifugal force developed, causes the 
 separation of the moisture from the oil. 
 
 divisions is filled to the 100 mark with (gasoline, land 
 the remaining 100 divisions with the oil, which should 
 be slightly warmed before mixing. The two are then 
 shaken together and any shrinkage below the 200 
 mark filled up with the oil. The mixture should then 
 be allowed to stand in a warm place for 24 hours, 
 during which the water and silt! 1 will settle to the 
 bottom. Their percentage by volume can then be 
 correctly read on the burette divisions, and the per- 
 centage by weight calculated from the specific grav- 
 ities. 
 
 Details Involved in Determination of Distillation. 
 Since the method of determination by distillation is 
 
MOISTURE CONTENT 
 
 187 
 
 STILL WITH HOOD USED FOR WATER DETERMINATION 
 
 Many methods are utilized in determining the water content of oil. 
 The simplest and most accurate method for fuel oil tests is that 
 of distillation. In this method a sample of the oil is poured into 
 a still and raised sufficiently in temperature to evaporate the 
 water and not the ingredients of the oil. By condensing the mois- 
 ture and ascertaining its proportions the moisture content is 
 easily ascertained. 
 
 to be recommended above all others, we shall now 
 proceed to the details of its accomplishment. Stated 
 in simple words, the method consists in heating a 
 sample slightly above the boiling point of water but 
 not so high as to cause the vaporizing of other in- 
 gredients of the oil. As a consequence, the water 
 passes over and leaves water-free oil in the sample. 
 
188 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Apparatus Involved and Preliminary Pro-) 
 ceedings. To quantitatively determine the moisture 
 content the sample is placed in a copper vessel known 
 as a still, which is about 4 in. in diameter and 6 in. 
 high. The still is then placed in an asbestos hood 
 through which a projecting stem connects to a con- 
 denser and a burette where the condensate is meas- 
 ured in a graduated tube. The (can from which the 
 sample is to be drawn lis first immersed in a water 
 bath with its cover released. After the water consti- 
 tuting the bath has been raised to a temperature of 
 150 to 170 F., the cover to the can is fastened 
 tightly, and the can agitated for several minutes in 
 order that any water that may have settled at the 
 bottom may be thoroughly mixed with the oil. For 
 successful agitation the sample can should not be 
 filled more than two-thirds with oil. ' 100 cc. of oil 
 sample,) measured in a graduated jar, are now poured 
 into the still. The exact measurement of the oil is 
 difficult without experience, as froth collects on the 
 surface of the oil and tends to obscure any definite 
 meniscus. 
 
 The( jar is next washed with 50 cc. of benzol and 
 50 cc. of toluene. The washings are poured into the 
 still. : Since toluene- has a tendency to absorb small 
 quantities of water, accurate results may be inter- 
 fered with if the toluene is not previously saturated. 
 In order to avoid such a possibility when opening a 
 fresh bottle, 5 to 10 cc. of water should be added. The 
 presence of water in the bottom of the bottle shows 
 that the toluene is saturated, but care must be taken 
 not to pour this water into the still w r hen washing 
 with the toluene. 
 
 The still must be gently shaken without splash- 
 ing in order that its contents may be well mixed, and 
 then placed in the asbestos hood and connected with 
 the condenser. A hood and cover are provided, as 
 shown in the illustration, to surround the still with a 
 blanket of air- at a uniform temperature. The still is 
 then heated gradually to a temperature of about 300 
 F., which is uusally accomplished after about fifteen 
 
MOISTURE CONTENT 189 
 
 minutes of heating. Since the boiling point of water 
 has been now exceeded, the moisture in the sample 
 begins to pass over into the condenser, and after the 
 lapse of another: fifteen minute period the distillation 
 is complete. A thermometer for temperature control 
 is seen at the right side of the asbestos hood in the 
 illustration. 
 
 The Process of Distillation. The process of dis- 
 tillation is interesting. At about 176.7 F./theibenzol 
 first passes over. This wets the condenser tube so 
 that the moisture which is soon to follow will not 
 readily cling to the tube but the more easily pass down 
 into the measuring burette. The toluene 'follows at 
 230.5 F., and carries down with it any water which 
 happens to remain in the condenser tube. The tolu- 
 ene does not, however, pass over in its entirety, since 
 usually from 15 to 20 cc. remain in the still with the 
 oil. In order to make up this deficiency in ftoluene 
 (about 15 cc. are poured down the condenser tube to 
 free any small drops of w r ater J that may persist in 
 remaining.- j This, however, does not affect the accu- 
 racy of the work, since the water content is finally 
 separated by filtration and the w T ater content thus 
 obtained is alone measured. 
 
 The still while at a high temperature is drained, 
 and, as its contents are now entirely free from 
 water, it may be used again without additional 
 cleaning. 
 
 Anylsmall drops of waterjthat cling to the side of 
 the graduated measuring tubes must be released by a 
 short wire./ If now the resultant water is read in cc. 
 the percentage of water by volume in the oil is easily 
 obtained, since the water is separated from the 
 mixture of benzol and toluene in the filter bottle. 
 
 A Numerical Determination. Let us then follow 
 this process by means of an illustrative example. Let 
 us assume that 100 cc. of oil have been drawn as a 
 sample, that 100 cc. of benzol and toluene have been 
 poured with it into the still, and that the resultant 
 distillate shows .484 cc. of water. It then follows 
 
190 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 directly that the percentage of water by volume is 
 .484. 
 
 Error in Assuming Percentage by Weight is 
 Same as Percentage by Volume. The percentage of 
 water by weight is not exactly equal to its percentage 
 by volume, but may be taken equal to it for all prac- 
 tical purposes of boiler testing. This error is then 
 nominal except with very light oils or any oil with 
 considerable moisture content. Thus, if an oil sample 
 of 100 cc. contains .50 cc. of water at 60 F., it will 
 weigh .484 X -999 = .483 5 grm. 
 
 The percentage of water by weight is therefore 
 .4835 divided by .9673, which equals .50%. The factor, 
 .9673, appearing in the above, is the specific gravity of 
 the oil sample at 60 F. This was ascertained by 
 means of a Westphal balance, which is shown in detail 
 in the preceding chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 DETERMINATION OF HEATING VALUE 
 OF OILS 
 
 To determine the efficiency of boiler operation it 
 is necessary to know the heat producing value of the 
 oil used in firing. Again, since oil is usually sold com- 
 mercially by the barrel, the heat producing value of 
 the product must be known in order that the engineer 
 
 3* 
 
 24- 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 IS 
 16 
 17 
 16 
 13 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ 
 
 k/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 / 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 } 
 
 1 ( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 |l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19300 J3500 
 
 THE GRAPHIC LAW FOR CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS 
 
 In this illustration is shown how a large number of experimental 
 values often enable the engineer to ascertain an empirical law for 
 setting forth experimental data. By plotting the heat determina- 
 tions for fuel oil against their gravity expressed in Baume read- 
 ings, the experimenter deduced an equation for determining the 
 calorific value of water free oil when its gravity Baume is known. 
 
 191 
 
192 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 may ascertain the economic value the product may 
 prove to his client in its use in the power plant 
 for the generation of steam. 
 
 An Approximate Method Based on the Baume 
 Scale. The heat producing value of oil is usually ex- 
 pressed in the number of heat units per unit of mass 
 that the oil will give out when it is completely burned 
 in a furnace. In engineering practice this is usually 
 expressed in B.t.u. per pound of oil so burned. 
 
 There are various methods of ascertaining this 
 value. An approximate method is that based upon 
 the gravity of the oil. To establish this method a 
 large number of samples with the gravities of the 
 oil free from moisture expressed in Baume read- 
 ings were accurately determined as to their heating 
 value. These values were plotted on a chart and it 
 was found that the following relationship is approxi- 
 mately true in which H represents the heat units in 
 B.t.u. liberated per pound of fuel burned: 
 
 H = 17680 + 60 B (1) 
 
 Thus in analyzing a composite sample of forty 
 samples of Kern River oil, the United States Bureau 
 of Mines found that its calorific value was 18562 B.t.u. 
 per Ib. of oil, in which the oil had .5% moisture, and 
 that the Baume reading of this oil when free from 
 water was 14.78. According to the formula above, 
 which was first announced by Professor Joseph N. 
 LeConte of the University of California, the heating 
 value of this oil when free from moisture should be 
 
 H = 17680 + 60 X 14.78 = 18,566 B.t.u. per Ib. 
 
 In this instance then it is seen that this approximate 
 method checks with considerable accuracy, since the 
 water-free oil showed by actual test to have a heating 
 value of 18,658 B.t.u. per Ib. In the utilization of this 
 formula, however, it must be remembered that the oil 
 must be taken as anhydrous, or in other words that the 
 oil sample is moisture free. 
 
 Dulong's Formula Based on the Ultimate Analy- 
 sis. The second method of arriving at the calorific 
 value of crude petroleum is by means of Dulong's 
 
HEATING VALUE 193 
 
 formula. This formula is based upon the ultimate 
 analysis of the oil in which the heat value of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and sulphur are taken into account. 
 
 In the burning with oxygen of one pound of car- 
 bon, one pound of hydrogen, and one pound of sul- 
 phur it has been established experimentally that 14600, 
 62000, and 4000 B.t.u. of heat energy are respectively 
 given out. Hence it is evident that if a one-pound 
 sample of fuel oil has C proportions by weight of car- 
 bon, H proportions of weight of hydrogen and S pro- 
 portions by weight of sulphur, the total heat given 
 out by the one-pound sample will be 
 
 H = 14,600 C + 62,000 H + 4000 S 
 
 In the chemical analysis of fuels a certain amount 
 of oxygen (O) is always encountered. This of course 
 kills, as it were, its combining weight of hydrogen. 
 Since oxygen unites with one-eighth of its weight of 
 hydrogen, the net hydrogen available for heat gen- 
 
 O 
 
 crating purpose is (H ). 
 
 8 
 
 Hence we have Dulong's formula 
 
 O 
 
 H = 14,600 C + 62,000 (H ) + 4000 S. . . . (2) 
 
 8 
 
 For California oils, Dulong's formula seems to 
 indicate a heat value per pound of about 5% i ' excess 
 of the true value. In other words, it indicates a heat- 
 ing value of about 19,500 B.t.u. per Ib. of California 
 crude oil, while a great number of calorific tests have 
 shown that the average value is about 18,500 B.t.u. 
 per Ib. 
 
 The Fuel Calorimeter. The most accurate 
 method of determining the heating value of a sample 
 of oil is by the employment of some form of calori- 
 meter, wherein a sample of definite mass is burned 
 and the heat given out ascertained. The fuel calori- 
 meter is an entirely different instrument from the 
 
194 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 THE EMERSON FUEL CALORIMETER 
 
 In this type of calorimeter the fuel sample is placed in the bomb, 
 the bomb inverted, as shown in the sketch, and filled with oxygen 
 which is accomplished by means of the spindle valve at the top 
 of the bomb. After filling the calorimeter with distilled water and 
 firing the sample by means of an electric circuit, the rise in tem- 
 perature of the water in the calorimeter is ascertained, and the 
 calorific value of the fuel thus determined. 
 
 THE ATWATER-MAHLER BOMB CALORIMETER 
 
 This type of calorimeter is applicable to the highest scientific work. 
 It permits of determining the exact amount of water and carbon 
 dioxide in the products of combustion, thus enabling the error due 
 to the condensation of the water in the bomb to be overcome and 
 therefore making it possible to calculate the exact amount of heat 
 the fuel should produce under boiler conditions. 
 
HEATING VALUE 195 
 
 steam calorimeter used for measuring the moisture of 
 steam, which was described in an earlier chapter. The 
 fuel calorimeter is a true instrument for measuring 
 heat, as its name implies. Calorimeters in general 
 may be divided into two classes, the one known as the 
 
 . THE PARR CALORIMETER UNASSEMBLED 
 In this type of calorimeter a carefully weighed oil sample is burned 
 with a chemical agent without the use of free oxygen. The ease 
 with which it may be manipulated commends its use for commer- 
 cial application. For scientific work, however, a type of the 
 Bomb calorimeter is to be preferred. 
 
 continuous method and the other as the discontinuous 
 method. In the former instance a sample is contin- 
 ually burned, and the average results ascertained over 
 a considerable period. This method is only applicable 
 for gases and some unusual types of oils. The discon- 
 tinuous process is on the other hand the most advan- 
 tageous for the determination of the heating value of 
 crude petroleum. 
 
 Several methods are employed in the application 
 of the discontinuous calorimeter. Most forms of such 
 calorimeters consist essentially of a strong combustion 
 chamber with a crucible for holding the sample ; valves 
 for charging the chamber with oxygen in order to 
 properly burn the sample ; a method of igniting the 
 sample; and a vessel of water in which the bomb or 
 
196 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 explosion chamber is immersed in order that the re- 
 sultant heat may be absorbed by this water and thus 
 carefully measured. This latter vessel is usually sit- 
 uated in a second compartment which serves as a 
 jacket. The main principle upon which such calori- 
 meters depend is based upon the fact that the burning 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur with an artificial 
 supply of oxygen presents the most accurate method 
 of liberating the latent heat in the fuel and the ascer- 
 taining of its quantitative proportions. Types of this 
 calorimeter familiar in the market are known as the 
 Mahler, the Hempel, the Atwater, the Emerson, and 
 the Carpenter. 
 
 s The Parr Calorimeter. In the commercial deter- 
 mination of the heating value of crude petroleum, 
 however, it is often incon- 
 venient to secure oxygen 
 under the proper pressure 
 required for the successful 
 operation of this type of 
 calorimeter. In recent years 
 there has appeared upon 
 the market a much simpler 
 design of calorimeter 
 which seems to have suffi- 
 cient accuracy for most 
 commercial uses and is in- 
 deed quite simple in opera- 
 tion. This is known as the 
 Parr calorimeter and is the 
 invention of Professor 
 S. W. Parr of the Univer- 
 sity of Illinois. 
 
 The Principle of Opera- 
 tion. In the Parr calori- 
 meter a definite mass of oil 
 is introduced into a strong 
 cylinder of metal called the cartridge, along with some 
 accelerator together with a measure of potassium 
 peroxide. The potassium peroxide furnishes oxygen 
 for combustion and the accelerator, which is usually 
 
 CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW 
 OF THE PARR CALOR- 
 IMETER 
 
HEATING VALUE 
 
 197 
 
 potassium chloride, insures that all the fuel may be 
 burned. The ignition is effected electrically by the 
 burning out of a fine iron wire immersed in the mix- 
 ture. 
 
 As shown in the illustration, the cartridge D, in 
 which the sample is placed, is closed up, inserted into 
 a can of water A, and the whole place.d in a fibre ves- 
 
 THE MAHLER BOMB CALORIMETER 
 
 This type of calorimeter represents one of the most accurate for 
 the determination of the calorific value of fuel oil. The bomb is of 
 enameled steel. The burning of the oil sample is accomplished by 
 supplying an outside source of oxygen as in the Emerson Calori- 
 meter. 
 
 sel B, which thus brings about careful heat insulation. 
 After causing an explosion by means of an electrical 
 contact spark in the cartridge D, the cartridge is given 
 a rotary motion by means of the pulley P and the 
 heat which is given out from the cartridge due to the 
 burning of the ingredients is rapidly absorbed by the 
 water in the vessel A. If then we know the mass of 
 the sample burned, and the mass and temperature of 
 the water before and after the explosion, we can com- 
 pute the heat value of the fuel. 
 
 Detailed Operation of the Parr Calorimeter. 
 
 Let us now go into the details of this calorimeter 
 operation. A well lighted closet should be used for 
 all calorimeter work so that air currents which might 
 otherwise prevent uniform radiation can thus be elim- 
 inated. The outside of the calorimeter cup and of the 
 
198 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 fibre insulating case should be entirely free from 
 moisture for the same reason. The calorimeter cup A 
 is filled with 2000 grams of water. The cartridge or 
 bomb in which the sample is placed has a water equiv- 
 alent of 135 grams ; that is, it absorbs the same amount 
 of heat as 135 grams of water would under the same 
 range of temperature. Hence, the total water equiva- 
 lent W e is 2135 grams. As the mass of oil is also deter- 
 mined in grams, the water equivalent W e divided by 
 the mass of oil fired, W , becomes an abstract ratio, 
 and, if this ratio is multiplied by the rise in tempera- 
 ture of the water in degrees Fahrenheit, the result is 
 heat units per pound of oil, or, if the temperature is 
 expressed in degrees Centigrade, the result becomes 
 calories per gram. 
 
 The water is best measured in a 2000 cc. flash. 
 About 2003 cc. of water are used instead of an exact 
 2000 cc., since the specific gravity of water at ordinary 
 room temperatures is slightly less than unity and this 
 increased volume is necessary to measure weights vol- 
 umetrically. 
 
 The thermometer which is employed in tempera- 
 ture measurements has a range of from 65 F. to 90 F. 
 and is standardized by the Bureau of Standards at 
 Washington. Graduation errors are known to within 
 .01F. The thermometer scale is divided to .05 and 
 with care may be read to .005. The greatest chance 
 for error in fuel calorimeters is in reading tempera- 
 tures, since it is difficult to avoid parallax. Conse- 
 quently as the rise in temperature seldom exceeds 5, 
 an error of .01 is equivalent to 2% error in the work. 
 
 Preliminary Precautions. Before placing the 
 sample, the cartridge should be wiped clean and dry, 
 as moisture will condense on it if it has been standing 
 for some time.- The top and bottom pieces, as well as 
 the gaskets and electrical terminals, should be dry, 
 since the moisture on them takes part in the chemical 
 reaction and thus introduces considerable error. The 
 cartridge should be tightly assembled, and 1.500 grams 
 of accelerator (potassium chloride), weighed to the 
 nearest reading of .005 grams, placed therein. The 
 
HEATING VALUE 199 
 
 oil is weighed in a small flask with an eye dropper and 
 about .04 to .05 grams (8 to 12 drops) dropped into 
 the cartridge upon the accelerator which absorbs the 
 oil. Upon reweighing the flask of oil and the dropper, 
 the net weight of the oil sample is at once obtained. 
 A measure full of sodium peroxide is added and the 
 contents thoroughly mixed with a stiff wire. With 
 care no oil and very little peroxide will adhere to the 
 wire. The sodium peroxide should be supplied by the 
 calorimeter manufacturer, as inferior grades are apt 
 to contain variable and detrimental products of com- 
 bustion. 
 
 About 3 in. of No. 4 iron wire for firing the charge 
 are next looped on the firing terminals and tested out 
 to insure a good electrical contact. The firing current 
 is usually supplied by a few dry cells or from a storage 
 battery. 
 
 The stem of the bomb is next fastened in place 
 and the vanes attached. The cartridge is placed in the 
 calorimeter cup, the cover and pulley attached, and 
 the cartridge stirred by a small motor for about five 
 minutes. The motor may be of the toy variety and is 
 usually placed in the lighting circuit with a lamp 
 resistance. The electric circuit is controlled with a 
 two-throw switch so that the motor may be cut in and 
 out without interfering with the illumination in the 
 closet. The motor speed should be as nearly constant 
 as possible, since a variable speed will cause a variable 
 rate of radiation from the calorimeter. The rotating 
 bomb should have from 100 to 150 revolutions per 
 minute. 
 
 The Explosion of the Charge and the Taking of 
 Temperatures. The thermometer is next placed into 
 the water bath through a hole in the cover and should 
 be supported so that it does not touch the metal cup 
 which contains the water. After a steady initial tem- 
 perature has been reached, the firing circuit is com- 
 pleted through the pulley, and the resulting tempera- 
 tures read every minute for the succeeding ten min- 
 utes, in order to ascertain the correction to be made 
 for uniform radiation. This series of readings is taken 
 
200 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 in order to ascertain the law of radiation and then to 
 make a proper correction for the error involved. 
 
 Thus, for a period of about five minutes the tem- 
 perature will rise until a maximum is reached, after 
 which it will begin to fall. The radiation during the 
 first five minutes is assumed to be at the same rate 
 as that observed during the entire radiation period. 
 
 Let us assume the following experimental data: 
 
 Water equivalent of calorimeter 135 grams 
 
 Weight of water used 2000 
 
 Weight of oil used 3765 
 
 Per cent moisture in oil 5% 
 
 Weight of accelerator 1500 
 
 Room temperature 70 F. 
 
 Temperature of mixture when fired, 73.665 F. 
 
 Com'-ustion Period 
 
 1 min 77.45 
 
 2 " 78.15 
 
 3 " 78.42 
 
 4 " 78.44 
 
 5 " 78.45 
 
 Radiation Period 
 
 6 min 78.44 
 
 7 " 78.42 
 
 8 " 78.40 
 
 9 " 78.385 
 
 10 " 78.370 
 
 The Correction for Temperature Readings. Since 
 from the above it is seen that the temperature falls 
 off from its highest reading, t h , or 78.45F. to 78.37F. 
 in five minutes, it is evident that in one minute it 
 would fall off .016 F. As a consequence at the end of 
 the combustion period, in reality the thermometer 
 should have read greater than t h or 78.45F. by an 
 amount equal to the radiation t r which is (.080) over 
 the first five minute period. In addition to this cor- 
 rection, by consulting a correction scale furnished by 
 the Bureau of Standards, the thermometer should be 
 corrected for 78.45F. by an amount equal to t c or 
 
 2 
 
 (-.053) and for the minimum temperature t m or 
 73.665F. equal to t c or (-.043). From the instru- 
 ment maker there has also been furnished data indi- 
 cating a correction for the chemicals and wire em- 
 ployed, amounting to t w or (0.373). Hence the true 
 
HEATING VALUE 201 
 
 maximum temperature t 2 and the true minimum tem- 
 perature t-L are ascertained by the formulas : 
 
 t th 4- t,. 4- tr 4- tw 
 
 . (3) 
 
 2 
 
 tn t m 4- t c 
 
 . (4) 
 
 1 
 
 
 Substituting in the particular case cited, we have 
 
 t 2 = 78.450 .053 + .080 .373 = 78.104 
 ^ = 73.665 .043 = 73.622 
 
 Since a careful comparison of this calorimeter 
 with the most accurate type of calorimeter known in 
 the laboratory has shown that the heating value per 
 pound of oil is .73 of the total heat liberated, we have 
 
 .73 We 
 
 (t O .................... (5) 
 
 W 
 We now have in this instance 
 
 .73X2135 (78.104 73.622) 
 H=- -= 18562 B.tu. 
 
 .3765 per Ib. of oil 
 
 as fired. 
 
 If it is desired to ascertain the heating value of 
 this oil when free from moisture, it is only necessary 
 to divide by the percentage of dry oil in the fuel. Thus 
 if the oil sample contained .50% of moisture we find 
 that the heating value per pound of dry oil would be 
 according to this calorimeter determination 18562 
 divided by .995 which is 18658 B.t.u. 
 
 Higher and Lower Heating Value. In the opera- 
 tion of the calorimeter the gases produced by the 
 combustion of the sample of oil are cooled down to the 
 temperature of the water in the calorimeter. In the 
 case of carbon which, on igniting with oxygen pro- 
 duces CO 2 , this cooling of the gas has no important 
 
202 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 effect since CO 2 remains a gas at all ordinary tempera- 
 tures. Hydrogen, on the other hand, on uniting with 
 oxygen forms steam, H 2 O, which is condensed to 
 water in the calorimeter as soon as its temperature 
 drops below 212F., and in condensing gives up its 
 latent heat to the calorimeter. When fuel oil is burned 
 under a boiler the gases are always discharged at a 
 temperature higher than 212 so that the latent heat 
 of steam formed by the combustion of the hydrogen 
 content is not available and cannot be absorbed by 
 the boiler. Hydrogen combines with eight times its 
 weight of oxygen so that for each pound of hydrogen 
 burned nine pounds of water are formed, and as the 
 latent heat of steam is 970 B.t.u. per pound, there are 
 approximately 9X^70 = 8730 B.t.u., which cannot be 
 recovered unless the gases are cooled below 212F. 
 Deducting this from 62000 B.t.u., the heating value of 
 one pound of hydrogen determined by a calorimeter, 
 gives 52,270 B.t.u., which is called the lower heating 
 value of hydrogen. 
 
 Since oil contains a considerable proportion of 
 hydrogen it has a lower heating value as well as the 
 ordinary or higher heating value. If a sample of oil 
 contains 12 per cent of hydrogen, and the higher heat- 
 ing value by calorimeter test is 18562 B.t.u. per pound, 
 then the lower heating value is 18562 .12 X 8730 = 
 17515 B.t.u. per pound. In boiler testing work it is 
 the universal custom to base calculations on the higher 
 heating value as given by the calorimeter, but the 
 lower heating value is ordinarily used when calculat- 
 ing the efficiencies of gas engines. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 CHIMNEY GAS ANALYSIS 
 
 We have found in preceding discussions that for 
 practical purposes the gases passing out through a 
 
 chimney from the central 
 station boiler are usually con- 
 sidered to be composed of 
 carbon dioxide, oxygen, car- 
 bon monoxide and nitrogen. 
 Since these constituents are 
 usually determined volumet- 
 rically we sh a 1 1 represent 
 them by the symbols V , V 2 , 
 V 3 , and V 4 , respectively. We 
 shall now proceed to a discus- 
 sion of the usual methods em- 
 ployed in determining the flue 
 gas analysis during the boiler 
 test. 
 
 The Taking of the Flue Gas 
 Samples and Analysis Cer- 
 tain solutions have been 
 found in the chemist's labora- 
 tory that will absorb carbon 
 dioxide and will not absorb 
 oxygen, carbon monoxide or 
 nitrogen. Again another so- 
 lution has been found that 
 will absorb oxygen but will 
 not absorb carbon monoxide 
 or nitrogen. And still a third 
 solution has been found that 
 will absorb carbon monoxide 
 but will not absorb nitrogen. 
 A carbon dioxide recorder If then a contrivance can be 
 
 203 
 
204 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 set up so that a flue gas sample may be successively 
 washed in these solutions, a means is provided for 
 determining an analysis by volume. 
 
 Let us then see how the flue gas analysis is taken. 
 The apparatus (see page 210) consists of a wooden 
 case with removable sliding doors which contain a 
 measuring tube or burette B, three absorbing bottles 
 or pipettes, P', P", and P"'. In addition a leveling 
 bottle A and connecting tube T are also provided. 
 
 The tube E is connected to the point in the chim- 
 ney situated immediately beyond the breeching. The 
 instrument is first set in operation by closing the stop- 
 cocks f, g, and e, d being open. By lowering the level- 
 ing bottle A, a sample of the gas is drawn into the 
 burette B. This preliminary sample is then expelled 
 to the atmosphere by raising the bottle A and allowing 
 the gas thus put under pressure to pass out through 
 a by-pass at d. This process is continued until it is 
 considered that an average sample has been drawn 
 into the burette B. The leveling bottle A is next 
 lowered so as to cause the water in burette B to come 
 to its zero mark. By raising the bottle A the water is 
 again forced into burrette B and the gas sample ex- 
 pelled through stopcock e into the pipette P', in which 
 there is a chemical solution that absorbs carbon diox- 
 ide, but will not absorb oxygen, carbon monoxide or 
 nitrogen. 
 
 To Ascertain the Carbon Dioxide Content of a 
 Flue Gas. Exactly 100 cc. of gas were originally 
 drawn into the burette B. If now the leveling bottle 
 A is again lowered to draw the gas back through stop- 
 cock e, the volume in the burette will be found to 
 have lessened in quantity so that instead of reading 
 zero it now reads N which indicates directly the 
 volume of carbon dioxide that was present in the gas, 
 for evidently this volume has been absorbed in the 
 pipette P'. Hence, we have 
 
 V^N, (1) 
 
 To Ascertain the Oxygen Content of a Flue Gas. 
 In a similar manner the gas sample in the burette B is 
 now forced through pipette P", in which is a solution 
 
CHIMNEY GAS ANALYSIS 
 
 205 
 
 that will absorb free oxygen in the sample but will 
 not absorb carbon monoxide or nitrogen. By means 
 of the leveling bottle A, the sample is next drawn back 
 into the burette B and a reading N 2 noted. It is now 
 evident that the oxygen content of the flue gas may 
 be computed from the formula 
 
 V 2 = N 2 -V t (2) 
 
 To Ascertain the Car- 
 bon Monoxide Content of 
 a Flue Gas.- The pipette 
 P'" similarly contains a 
 solution which readily ab- 
 sorbs the carbon monox- 
 ide present in the gas, but 
 will not absorb nitrogen. 
 Hence we proceed as in 
 the two former instances 
 and return the gas sample 
 to the burette which now 
 reads N 3 . Consequently 
 the carbon monoxide 
 which was present in the 
 flue gas is obtained from the formula 
 
 To Ascertain the Nitrogen Content of a Flue Gas. 
 
 We assume that all of the gas which remains in the 
 sample is nitrogen. Consequently the nitrogen con- 
 tent is obtained from the formula 
 
 THE RECORDING 
 GAGE 
 
 A revolving dial 
 record is con- 
 stantly in operation 
 in the modern cen- 
 tral station for fuel 
 oil consumption in 
 order to ascertain 
 the carbon dioxide 
 component of the 
 flue gases. This 
 view gives the 
 reader a concep- 
 tion of its appear- 
 ance as installed 
 in the power sta- 
 tion. 
 
 V 4 =100-(V 1 +V 2 
 
 (4) 
 
 An Approximate Check on the Orsat Analysis. 
 
 Air is found by weight to have 76.85% hydrogen and 
 23.15% oxygen. By volume this analysis will be found 
 to be 79.09%> nitrogen and 20.91% oxygen. Since 1 
 unit by volume of oxygen forms 1 unit by volume of 
 carbon dioxide in the burning of pure carbon the actual 
 percentage of nitrogen in the chimney gases is not 
 altered but should remain 79.09% if perfect combus- 
 tion is maintained. 
 
 On the other hand, when imperfect combustion is 
 tinder way, or in other words, when some carbon 
 
206 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 monoxide is being formed, 1 unit by volume of oxy- 
 gen forms 2 units by volume of carbon monoxide. 
 Hence when pure carbon is the fuel, the suni of the 
 percentages of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and J/ the 
 carbon monoxide must be in the same ratio to the 
 
 TO BOILER ROOM INDICATOR 
 
 TO RECORDING GAUGE 
 
 ABSORPTION CHAMBER 
 
 INDICATING 
 COLUMN 
 
 FILTER 
 
 WATER ESi GAS INLET 
 
 JAR 
 
 A RECORDER FOR COMBUSTION OPERATION 
 
 From the discussion in the text it may be inferred that a knowl- 
 edge of the carbon dioxide component of the flue gas enables us 
 to judge concerning the combustion taking place in the furnace. 
 The principle involved in the type of carbon dioxide recorder as 
 shown is that a change of volume in a gas produces a change of 
 pressure. A continuous sample of the flue gas enters at A and 
 in passing through the absorption chamber the carbon dioxide is 
 absorbed and consequently a reduction in pressure takes place. By 
 the calibration of suitable manometer tubes the instrument may be 
 made to read the carbon dioxide component direct. 
 
CHIMNEY GAS ANALYSIS 207 
 
 nitrogen present as the oxygen in the air is to the 
 nitrogen component, namely as 20.91 : 79.09. This is 
 a convenient check upon a flue gas analysis in the 
 progress of the experiment. Thus if an analysis of 
 chimney gas is found to contain by volume 9.5% car- 
 bon dioxide, 10.2% carbon monoxide, 5.2% oxygen, 
 and 75.1% nitrogen, according to this proportion, we 
 should have 
 
 10.2 
 
 9.5_|_5.2_| . 75. i = 20.91 : 79.09 
 
 2 
 
 Upon investigation this will be found to be approxi- 
 mately true and well within the limit of experimental 
 accuracy. 
 
 As California crude oil contains usually about 
 11% of hydrogen, the ready checking above indicated 
 proves of no avail since the hydrogen content is not 
 taken account of in the Orsat or flue gas analysis. 
 As the relationship serves, however, to clinch our 
 ideas of volumetric proportions of entering air and 
 outgoing flue gases, it is well to bear it in mind. 
 
 In boilers fired by coal containing little hydrogen 
 the CO does not usually exceed 1 or 2% and the sum 
 of the Orsat readings CO 2 + O -f- CO is usually be- 
 tween 20 and 21%. When burning oil, on the other 
 hand, the sum of these readings may be as low as 16 
 or 17% due to the large proportion of hydrogen in the 
 fuel, which means an apparent nitrogen content of 
 83 or 84%. The reason for this is that the water 
 vapor formed by the burning of hydrogen condenses 
 in the Orsat apparatus and occupies practically no vol- 
 ume, but the oxygen which unites with the hydrogen 
 brings with it the same proportion of nitrogen as does 
 the oxygen that unites with the carbon. Consequently 
 the Orsat indicates a larger proportion of nitrogen 
 than would occur if the fuel were pure carbon. 
 
 Chemical Formulas for Preparing the Absorption 
 Solutions. The bottle A and the measuring tube or 
 burette B contained pure water only, while the first 
 pipette P' in which carbon dioxide is absorbed con- 
 tains sodium hydrate dissolved in three times its 
 
208 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 weight of water. The second pipette P" in which oxy- 
 gen is absorbed contains Pyrogallic acid dissolved in 
 sodium hydrate in the proportion of five grams of the 
 acid to 100 cc. of the hydrate, and in the third pipette 
 wherein carbon monoxide is absorbed cuprous chloride 
 is contained. These chemicals are sold by most of the 
 large dealers. 
 
 Another series of formulas which work equally 
 well and in many cases are more easily prepared, are 
 the following: 
 
 To absorb the carbon dioxide, potassium hydrox- 
 ide is used, and is made by diluting 500 grams of com- 
 mercial potassium hydroxide in one quart of water. 
 To absorb the oxygen, potassium-Pyrogallite is used 
 wherein five grams of solid acid in 100 cc. of potas- 
 sium hydroxide above mentioned is prepared. When 
 over 28% of oxygen is present, it is necessary to use 
 12 grams of commercial potassium hydroxide to 100 
 cc. of water. To absorb the carbon monoxide, cuprous 
 chloride is used which is prepared by covering the 
 bottom of a quart measure with cuprous chloride 
 (Cu O) to a depth of ^ths of an inch. The measure 
 is then filled with hydro-chloric acid, shaken and 
 allowed to stand until it becomes colorless. The cop- 
 per wire is then placed in the solution and left to 
 stand for a number of hours. 
 
 The Hemphel Apparatus for Determining the 
 Hydrogen Content. It is seen from the above descrip- 
 tion that no means are provided to ascertain whether 
 or not the hydrogen content of the fuel is being prop- 
 erly consumed. This determination can only be made 
 by the refined laboratory apparatus of the chemist. 
 The authors consider that such a test is beyond the 
 scope of this work, hence the description of the Hemp- 
 hel apparatus and its operation will not be .undertaken 
 in these pages. Standard works on this subject are, 
 however, available in all chemical engineering libra- 
 ries for those who desire to go into this subject. 
 Except for refined tests covering certain particular 
 problems in combustion the Orsat analysis of flue 
 gases is considered sufficiently accurate for power 
 
CHIMNEY GAS ANALYSIS 209 
 
 plant practice. Indeed, in most instances, as we shall 
 see, the determination of the carbon dioxide compo- 
 nent alone gives us sufficient information for ordinary 
 operating conditions. 
 
 Conclusion on the Orsat Analysis. By care and 
 a little patience, the experimenter will find that the 
 Orsat analysis as above set forth can be taken easily 
 and quite accurately, and thus a splendid lot of data 
 obtained wherewith steam boiler economy and opera- 
 tion can be checked. If wrong conditions of combus- 
 tion are found to prevail the proper adjustments can 
 then be made in the furnace and its accessories. 
 
 We shall, next proceed to formulate some equa- 
 tions whereby the data gained from the flue gas analy- 
 sis may be thrown into more useful analytical form. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 ANALYSIS BY WEIGHT, AND AIR THEO- 
 RETICALLY REQUIRED IN FUEL OIL 
 FURNACE 
 
 In the last discussion it was found that Orsat 
 analyses of chimney gases are always made volumet- 
 rically. In computing combustion data from these 
 analyses, however, it is often necessary to have the 
 
 THE ORSAT APPARATUS 
 
 The Orsat apparatus is a portable instrument contained in a 
 wooden case with removable sliding door front and back, as shown 
 in its simplest form in this illustration, taken from the report of 
 the Power Test Committee of the American Society of Mechanical 
 Engineers. It consists essentially of a measuring- tube or burette, 
 three absorbing- bottles or pipettes, and a leveling- bottle, together 
 with the connecting tubes and apparatus. The bottle and measur- 
 ing tube contain pure water; the first pipette, sodium or potassium 
 hydrate dissolved in three times its weight of water; the second, 
 pyrogallic acid dissolved in a like sodium hydrate solution in the 
 proportion of 5 grams of the acid to 100 cc. of the hydrate; and 
 the third, cuprous chloride. These chemicals are sold by most of 
 the large dealers. Details of how this apparatus is used to deter- 
 mine the chimney gas analysis were set forth in a previous dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 210 
 
AIR REQUIRED 211 
 
 proportions or percentages by weight instead of by 
 volume. The volumes of carbon dioxide, oxygen, 
 carbon monoxide, and nitrogen which constitute the 
 chimney gas analysis of a sample volume by means of 
 the Orsat apparatus will be represented by V\, V 2 , V 3 , 
 V 4 , respectively in this discussion. Let us now see 
 how we may transfer this relationship so that propor- 
 tions by weight of M 1? M 2 , M 3 and M 4 pounds may 
 respectively set forth the constituents of a flue gas 
 sample of weight M pounds. Since we are only in 
 search of proportions by weight that is a ratio of 
 M to M, M 2 to M etc., it is evidently not necessary 
 to actually know r the quantitative values of the weights 
 involved. 
 
 Fundamental Laws Involved. In a previous dis- 
 cussion we found (see page 50) that all perfect gases 
 follow the composite law namely, that at any partic- 
 ular state the product of its pressure p and volume V 
 is equal to the product of its weight M and absolute 
 temperature T multiplied by a constant R, or math- 
 ematically expressed 
 
 Hence, we may at once write the respective mathemat- 
 ical relationships for the carbon dioxide, oxygen, car- 
 bon monoxide, and nitrogen of the flue gas. 
 
 It is to be remembered that in the case under 
 consideration the pressure p and the temperature T 
 have the same value for each component in the flue 
 gas; consequently, we shall not put any individual 
 subscript for the pressure p and temperature T, so that 
 we may write these individual expressions as follows : 
 
 pV, 
 
 pV 1 = M 1 R 1 T or M 1 = - 
 
 pV 2 
 = M,R.,T or M,= 
 
 R 2 T 
 
212 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 pV 3 
 
 pV 3 =:M 3 R 3 T or M 3 = 
 
 pV 4 
 
 or M, = 
 
 R 4 T 
 and for the gas as a whole, we have 
 
 P v 
 
 or M = 
 
 RT 
 
 In our previous discussion on the elementary 
 laws of gases, it was also found mathematically that 
 the constant R for any perfect gas is obtained by 
 dividing 1544 by the molecular weight of the gas in 
 question (see page 49). 
 
 From any book on elementary chemistry we find 
 the molecular weight m of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is 44, 
 that of oxygen (O 2 ) is 32, that of carbon monoxide 
 (CO) is 28, and that of nitrogen (N 2 ) is 28. 
 
 Relationship of a Component Weight to the 
 Whole. Bearing this in mind, it is seen from the 
 
 1544 
 
 above mathematical relationships that, since R = , 
 
 m 
 we have 
 
 p 
 
 = Km 1 V 1 if K = - 
 1544T 1544T 
 
 R,T 1544T 
 
AIR REQUIRED 213 
 
 pV 4 ni 4 pV 4 
 
 M 4 = = Km 4 V 4 
 
 R 4 T 1544T 
 
 pV mpV 
 
 M = = = KmV 
 
 RT 1544T 
 
 M = Km V x + Km 2 V 2 + Km 3 V 3 + Km 4 V 4 = 
 K(m 1 V 1 + m 2 V 2 -\- m 3 V 3 -)- m 4 V 4 ) 
 
 Let C s = n^Vj. -\- m 2 V 2 + m 3 V 3 + m 4 V 4 
 
 .'. M = KC H 
 Also M = 
 
 Hence - - = (1) 
 
 M KC S C s 
 
 A Concrete Rule for Conversions. This last equa- 
 tion now gives us a simple and ready rule for deter- 
 mining proportions by weight if the proportions by 
 volume are given. In other words, this rule may be 
 stated as follows : 
 
 In any analysis by volume, the analysis by weight 
 is found by first summing the products formed by 
 multiplying each component volume by its particular 
 molecular weight. If now this summation C s is 
 divided into the product of a component volume and 
 its particular molecular weight, the proportion by 
 weight of that component is at once ascertained. 
 
 An Illustrative Example. Thus, a flue gas analy- 
 sis shows the following proportions by volume : carbon 
 dioxide (CO 2 ) .086; oxygen (O 2 ) .110; carbon monox- 
 ide .011 ; and nitrogen (N 2 ) .793%. Let us determine 
 the proportions by weight present in this particular 
 flue gas. 
 
 Since the molecular weights of carbon dioxide, 
 oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen are respec- 
 tively 44, 32, 28, and 28, we find that m^ is 3.782, 
 
214 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 m 2 V 2 is 3.520, m 3 V 3 is .308, and m 4 V 4 is 22.200. The 
 sum of these products C s is found to be 29.810. Hence 
 since m^V^ is 3.782, we now find that the carbon diox- 
 ide component obtained by dividing 3.782 by 29.810 
 is .1270. Similarly for the oxygen component the pro- 
 portion by weight is .1182; for the carbon monoxide 
 component it is .0103 ; and for the nitrogen component 
 we have .7453. As a check on our work we find that 
 the sum of these separate components is unity as it 
 should be. Or expressed in percentages, we would 
 have for a volumetric analysis consisting of 8.6 per 
 cent carbon dioxide, 11.0 per cent oxygen, 1.1 per cent 
 carbon monoxide, and 79.3 per cent nitrogen, that the 
 percentages by weight become 12.70 per cent carbon 
 dioxide, 11.82 per cent oxygen, 1.03 per cent carbon 
 monoxide, and 74.53 per cent nitrogen, which foot up 
 100 per cent in either case and thus check our work. 
 
 A Suggested Form of Tabulation. To expedite 
 computation the work set forth'in the above discussion 
 may be tabulated. Below we have a form of tabulation 
 which will prove useful for such transformations : 
 
 mV 
 
 Constituents Volume Mol. Wt. mV 
 
 C s 
 CO 2 .086 44 3.782 .1270 
 
 (X .110 32 3.520 .1182 
 
 CO" .011 28 .308 .0103 
 
 N, .793 28 22.200 .7453 
 
 1.000 C s = 29.810 1.0000 
 
 Weight of Air Theoretically Required for Perfect 
 Fuel Oil Combustion. For economic combustion in 
 the furnace a certain percentage of air over and above 
 that theoretically required for perfect combustion is 
 necessary. This is due to the fact that it is practically 
 impossible to bring all of the entering air into intimate 
 contact with the heated carbon, hydrogen, and other 
 combustible ingredients of the fuel ; consequently, 
 unless an excess of air is admitted some of these in- 
 
AIR REQUIRED 215 
 
 gradients will pass out of the chimney unconsumed. 
 Good practice dictates from 15 to 20% excess of air as 
 the proper ratio for economic fuel oil consumption in 
 the furnace. 
 
 In order then to know when this ratio is properly 
 established we must have some means of ascertaining 
 
 A PORTABLE PYROMETER OUTFIT 
 
 For the ready measurement of temperatures in and about the power 
 plant, a portable type of pyrometer is often convenient. In the 
 illustration shown temperatures may be read from 200F. to 2200F. 
 Such an instrument as the one indicated is convenient in ascer- 
 taining the flue gas temperatures when the Orsat analysis is being 
 taken. 
 
 the air theoretically required for perfect combustion 
 as well as that actually used in the furnace per pound 
 of fuel. 
 
 Correction for Oxygen Appearing in Fuel Analy- 
 sis. In the composition of fuels varying quantities of 
 oxygen (O) are found by analysis to be present. While 
 in a sense this is in a free state, still the hydrogen 
 content is reduced in heating value by an amount equal 
 to the combining weight of this oxygen (O) with the 
 hydrogen (H). Experimentally we find that 8 pounds 
 of oxygen combine with one pound of hydrogen. 
 Hence, so far as heating value is concerned and indeed 
 so far as outside oxygen may be required for combus- 
 tion of the hydrogen, the actual hydrogen content is 
 
 O 
 
 reduced in value to (H- ), where H represents the 
 
216 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 proportion by weight of hydrogen and O the propor- 
 tion by weight of oxygen present in the fuel. 
 
 Oxygen Theoretically Required for Fuel Combus- 
 tion. The oxygen theoretically required is computed 
 from a consideration of the fundamental chemical re- 
 actions that take place in the furnace. 
 
 Thus, from chemistry 'we learn that to completely 
 burn one pound of pure carbon 32/12ths of a pound 
 of oxygen are required. Again to burn one pound of 
 pure hydrogen 8 pounds of oxygen are required. And 
 in the third place to burn one pound of pure sulphur 
 one pound of oxygen is required. 
 
 If now one pound of fuel oil -is found by analysis 
 
 O 
 
 to contain C parts by weight of carbon', (H - ) 
 
 8 
 
 parts by weight of hydrogen, and S parts by weight 
 of sulphur, it is evident that the weight of oxygen re- 
 quired per pound of fuel oil for perfect combustion is 
 from the above discussion 
 
 32 O 
 
 C + 8(H )+S 
 
 12 8 
 
 Air Required per Pound of Fuel Burned. Since 
 air is composed of .2315 parts by weight of oxygen, 
 the theoretical weight of air M ta necessary to supply 
 the oxygen above required for perfect combustion is 
 
 32 1 O 1 1 
 M ta = 
 
 12 .2315 8 .2315 .2315 
 
 O 
 
 M ta = 11.52C + 34.56 (H ) + 4.32 S .... (2) 
 
 An Illustrative Example. Fuel analyses are 
 always given in proportions or percentages by weight. 
 In a certain boiler test a sample pound of the fuel 
 oil analyzed as follows: carbon 81.52%; hydrogen 
 11.01%; sulphur .55%; and oxygen 6.92%. Let us 
 
AIR REQUIRED 217 
 
 then compute the weight of air M ta theoretically re- 
 quired to burn a pound of this oil. 
 
 In applying the formula above deduced, it must 
 be remembered that the symbols there given for hy- 
 drogen, oxygen, and sulphur contents are in propor- 
 tions and not percentages. Bearing this in mind we 
 have by substitution 
 
 .0692 
 M ta = .11.52 X -8152 + 34.56 (.1101 - -) + 
 
 8 
 4.32 X -0055 = 12.92 Ib. 
 
 Having now learned how to convert the Orsat 
 analysis by volume into proportions by weight and 
 also to ascertain the air theoretically required per 
 pound of fuel, we shall in the next discussion deter- 
 mine actual combustion data by means of these step- 
 ping stones in computation. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 COMPUTATION OF COMBUSTION DATA 
 FROM THE ORSAT ANALYSIS 
 
 N the last chapter the read- 
 er was shown in detail 
 how to convert the Orsat 
 analysis by volume to an 
 analysis by weight. We 
 now assume that the vol- 
 umetric content of a sam- 
 ple of flue gas has been 
 taken and that V x , V 2 , V 3 
 and V 4 represent quanti- 
 tatively the carbon diox- 
 ide, oxygen, carbon mo- 
 noxide, and nitrogen con- 
 tents respectively. 
 
 If accurately ascertained 
 these components of the 
 flue gas enable the engi- 
 neer, as has been previous- 
 
 ly hinted, to compute im- 
 chimney portant economic COnclu- 
 
 sions on the combustion 
 
 phenomena that are taking place in the boiler furnace. 
 It is important to know, for instance, not only the air 
 that is theoretically required for perfect combustion, 
 but the actual weight of air that is being admitted to 
 the furnace per pound of fuel consumed. The weight 
 of the flue gases per pound of fuel burned is, too, of 
 importance, as well as many other details that may 
 now be ascertained. Several different methods of util- 
 izing the flue gas analysis have been proposed to ar- 
 rive at combustion data. Let us now proceed to their 
 consideration and discussion. 
 
 Boiler Front Oil fired; showing 
 gage for measuring- 
 
 218 
 
COMBUSTION DATA 219 
 
 Air Actually Supplied to Furnace per Pound of 
 Fuel Burned. There are three formulas that enable 
 us to compute the actual quantity of air entering the 
 furnace if we know the analysis of the chimney gases. 
 
 From volumetric experiments in chemistry we 
 learn that V^ units by volume of oxygen form V units 
 by volume of carbon dioxide, thereby burning V x units 
 by volume of carbon in the fuel. 
 
 On the other hand, volumetric experiments in 
 
 V 8 
 
 chemistry tell us that - units by volume of oxygen 
 
 2 
 
 form V 3 units by volume of carbon monoxide, thereby 
 burning V 3 units by volume of carbon in the fuel. 
 
 Again, V 2 units of oxygen appearing in the flue 
 gas have evidently necessitated the entrance of V 2 
 units of oxygen from the air without, but have re- 
 quired no carbon from the fuel. 
 
 V 3 
 
 Summing up, we find that (V x -|-- - + V 2 ) units 
 
 2 
 
 by volume of oxygen have required (V 1 +V 3 ) units by 
 volume of carbon in the fuel for the formation of the 
 particular analysis shown in the flue gas. 
 
 Therefore, one unit by volume of carbon in the 
 fuel would require 
 
 V 3 
 
 VH i-v, 
 
 v, + v, 
 
 units by volume of entering oxygen. 
 
 A unit volume of carbon, however, weighs 12 
 pounds, while a similar unit volume of oxygen weighs 
 32 pounds. Hence, for every unit weight of carbon 
 consumed in the furnace 
 
 32 2 
 
 X 
 
 12 V, + V 
 
220 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 units by weight of oxygen are required. Air has by 
 weight .2315 proportions of oxygen., Hence if C units 
 by weight of carbon are found in each pound of fuel. 
 the actual weight of air M c admitted to the furnace to 
 burn carbon per pound of fuel burned is 
 
 V 3 
 
 v x +- -+v 2 
 
 32 1 2 
 
 _ V v _ \s C 
 
 c /\~~~~/\~ ~~ /\ ^ 
 
 12 .2315 V V 
 
 V 3 
 
 - V 
 
 /. M.= 11.S2X- -XC ...... (1) 
 
 v> + v, 
 
 It is to be remembered that the derivation of this 
 formula thus far has not taken into account the hydro- 
 gen content of the fuel. Since the Orsat analysis con- 
 denses the water vapor formed by the burning of the 
 hydrogen with the entering oxygen of the air as the 
 sample enters the first tube of the apparatus, the ac- 
 tual Orsat analysis indicates volumetric proportions 
 for the dry flue gas only. We can, however, if we 
 know the hydrogen content present in the fuel, make 
 ^ correction or rather addition to the above formul?. 
 so that the relationship will correctly represent the to- 
 tal admission of air into the furnace under test. 
 
 In the previous chapter it was shown that if a fuel 
 analysis indicates H units of hydrogen by weight and 
 O units of free oxygen by weight that the actual 
 
 O 
 
 hydrogen available for combustion is (H ) units 
 by weight. 
 
 It has been seen too that one pound of hydrogen 
 requires for its burning eight pounds of oxygen, and 
 that air contains .2315 proportions by weight of 
 oxygen. Hence the weight of air necessary to burn 
 
COMBUSTION DATA 221 
 
 O 80 
 
 (H- ) pounds of hydrogen is - (H ) or 
 8 .2315 8 
 
 O 
 
 34.56 (H- -) pounds. 
 8 
 
 Therefore, the total air M a admitted to the fur- 
 nace per pound of fuel oil burned is 
 
 2 O 
 
 M a =11.52X- - XC+34.S6(H -- ) ..(2) 
 
 V, + V 3 8 
 
 An Illustrative Example. A certain California oil 
 by chemical analysis is found to contain 81.52% car- 
 bon; 11.01% hydrogen; .55% sulphur; and 6.92% 
 oxygen. The flue gas of a boiler under test using this 
 oil was found by Orsat anaylsis to contain 8.6% car- 
 bon dioxide; 9.0 % oxygen; 1.1% carbon monoxide; 
 and 81.3 per cent nitrogen. Let us by means of the 
 above formula compute the air actually admitted to 
 the furnace per pound of oil burned in the test. Before 
 substitution we must remember that the above for- 
 mula is expressed in proportions and not in percent- 
 ages. Substituting then, w r ith this in mind, we have 
 
 .086 + .0055 + .09 
 
 M a = 11.52 X - X -8152 
 .086 + .011 
 
 .0692 
 
 + 34.56 X (-1101- -)=21.11b. 
 8 
 
 A Second Formula for Ascertaining Air Actually 
 Admitted to the Furnace. Let us next deduce a for- 
 mula recommended by the American Society of Me- 
 chanical Engineers for the determination of the air 
 supplied to the furnace per pound of fuel consumed. 
 
 In the deduction of the last formula it was seen 
 that the entering oxygen combines with ( 
 
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 units by volume of carbon in the fuel. With this en- 
 tering oxygen, however, is associated V 4 units by 
 volume of nitrogen. Hence for each unit by volume 
 
 of carbon consumed in the furnace ( ) units by 
 
 V 1 +V 3 
 
 volume of nitrogen enter with the oxygen into the fur- 
 nace. Since one unit of carbon by volume weighs 
 12/28ths of the weight of one unit by volume of ni- 
 trogen, we have that for every pound of carbon burned 
 in the furnace 
 
 28 V 4 
 
 -x 
 
 12 V, -I- Vo 
 
 pounds of nitrogen enter from without. But air is 
 .7685 parts by weight nitrogen. Hence if fuel oil con- 
 tains C parts by weight of carbon, for every pound of 
 fuel oil burned in the furnace, the weight of air M a 
 diawn in from without is 
 
 28V 4 1 
 
 M a = C X 
 
 12 (VH-V.) 7685 
 
 V 4 
 
 .'. M a = 3.032(- -) C (3) 
 
 Vi + V. 
 
 An Illustrative Example. Taking as an example 
 the data set forth in illustrating the first formula de- 
 duced for ascertaining the air actually admitted to the 
 furnace, we have by substituting in this second for- 
 mula that 
 
 .813 
 
 M a = 3.032 (- ) .8152 = 20.7 Ibs. 
 .086 + .011 
 
 Weight of Dry Flue Gas per Pound of Fuel. 
 
 Since the entering air above computed combines with 
 one pound of fuel, we may ascertain the weight of flue 
 gas per pound of fuel oil consumed by simply adding 
 
COMBUSTION DATA 223 
 
 unity to the weight of air actually admitted to the 
 furnace. 
 
 Let us, however, deduce a formula directly for 
 this computation and check by numerical comparison 
 the results obtained by the former methods. 
 
 To convert an analysis by volume into an analysis 
 by weight it has been shown that if these components, 
 carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ), carbon monoxide 
 (CO), and nitrogen (N 2 ) are respectively V x , V 2 , V 3 
 and V 4 by volume, then by weight according to the for-. 
 mula derived in the last discussion, they will prove to 
 be 
 
 II^Y! m 2 V 2 m 3 V 3 m 4 V 4 
 
 _ _ __ o n H 
 
 , , , dllU. , 
 
 c s c s c s c, 
 
 wherein C s is obtained by summing up all products 
 formed by multiplying each component volume by its 
 molecular w T eight. For every pound of carbon dioxide 
 (CO 2 ) formed 12/44 Ib. of carbon are consumed in the 
 
 fuel oil. Hence to form - - Ib. of carbon dioxide it 
 
 C s 
 
 12 m.V, 
 
 is evident that ( - of - ) Ib. of carbon are con- 
 44 C s 
 
 sumed in the fuel oil. But m x for carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 
 
 12V, 
 is 44. Hence this quantity becomes 
 
 C s 
 
 Similarly, since each pound of carbon monoxide 
 (CO) in its formation requires 12/28 Ib. of carbon 
 
 m 3 V 3 
 
 from the fuel oil, for the formation of - - Ib. of car- 
 
 C s 
 
 12 m 3 V 3 
 
 bon monoxide (CO), we must burn ( of - ) Ib. 
 
 28 C s 
 
224 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 of carbon. But m 3 for carbon monoxide (CO) is 28. 
 
 12V, 
 
 Hence this quantity becomes 
 
 C s 
 
 The free oxygen and the free nitrogen in the flue 
 gas have of course required no carbon of the fuel. 
 Therefore, for M Ib. of chimney gas there will be re- 
 quired 
 
 12V, 12V 3 12 
 
 + - (V 1 + V 3 ) 
 
 c s c s c s 
 
 units of carbon ; or recipracally, one pound of car- 
 
 C s 
 
 bon will, of course, form - - units by weight 
 
 12(V 1 + V 3 ) 
 
 of flue gas and C parts of carbon by weight in the fuel 
 wi 1 ! form M g Ib. of flue gas which may be computed 
 from the formula 
 
 C s 
 
 M g = C 
 
 But the molecular weight for carbon dioxide is 
 44, for oxygen it is 32, for carbon monoxide it is 28, 
 and for nitrogen it is 28, therefore for C s we have 
 
 C s = 44V, + 32V 2 + 28V 3 + 28V 4 
 
 44V, + 32V, + 28V 3 + 28V 4 
 or M, = C 
 
 .'.M g = C - (4) 
 
 3(V + V 3 ) 
 
 An Illustrative Example. Let us now use the 
 same experimental data as in the previous examples 
 and compute the pounds of dry flue gas that were 
 formed, as indicated by the data from the Orsat an- 
 alysis. 
 
i:*s 
 s!*J 
 
 IH* 
 
 !i 
 
 1 1 
 
 D 
 
 c 
 
 g 
 
 h 
 
 3 
 
 h 
 
 0> 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 PPARA 
 
 instrum 
 
 c 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 3J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 T; 
 
 
 o 
 
 Q) 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 [5 
 
 rS 
 
 CC 
 
 z 
 
 0) 
 
 "x 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 DC 
 
 02 
 
 'C 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 LU 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 "3 
 
 S 
 
 - 
 
 rt 
 
 W 
 
 1 
 
 0) 
 
 ^ 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 
 Q. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 Tf 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 BJ 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 
 i. 
 
 +-J" 
 
 Ul 
 
 1 
 
 rt 
 
 'EJc 
 
 5 
 
 O 0) 
 ^ n "t\ 
 
 ""So 
 
 lollS 
 
 c ^ , 
 
 ^ *J 
 
COMBUSTION DATA 225 
 
 It is to be noted in passing that all of these com- 
 putations based simply upon the .Orsat analysis give 
 the weight of dry flue gas only. If the moisture pres- 
 ent in the flue gas is to be taken into consideration, a 
 correction should be made by noting the hydrogen 
 present in the fuel, the moisture in the entering air, 
 and the steam used in atomization. In ordinary prac- 
 tice these factors are not used, for, as we shall see in 
 the discussion of the heat balance in a later chapter, 
 the moisture content is properly cared for under sep- 
 arate headings. Returning to our example, then, we 
 find that the weight of dry flue gas M g per pound of 
 fuel burned is 
 
 11 X-086 + 8X-09 + 7X-OH + 7X-813 
 - 
 
 3 (.086 + .011) 
 = 20.8 
 
 Ratio of Air Drawn Into Furnace to that Theoret- 
 ically Required. We have already derived sufficient 
 relationships to compute the ratio of air drawn into 
 the furnace to that theroetically required. Let us, 
 however, proceed to the derivation of another formula 
 that is recommended for use by the American Society 
 of Mechanical Engineers in the testing of boilers. 
 
 Assuming that perfect combustion is taking place 
 and neglecting the hydrogen content of the fuel which 
 we know disappears in the Orsat apparatus before our 
 
 analysis really begins, we have that for - - Ib. of 
 
 -C s 
 
 m 4 V 4 1 
 
 nitrogen drawn into the furnace - - Ibs. of 
 
 C s 7685 
 
 air must have passed in. Similarly, if no carbon 
 
 monoxide is formed in the flue gas, for - - Ib. of 
 
 C s 
 
226 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEEHING 
 
 free oxygen appearing in the flue gas, then evidently 
 
 m 2 V 2 
 
 C s .2315 
 
 o f excess air must also have been 
 
 drawn into the furnace. Hence we have that the total 
 air M a drawn in is expressed by the formula 
 
 M a = -^-^ 
 
 C s .7685 
 While the air M ta theoretically required is 
 
 m 4 V 4 1 m 2 V 2 
 
 M ta = 
 
 C s .7685 C s .2315 
 
 Therefore, the ratio r a of the air actually supplied 
 to that theoretically required may be derived as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 M a C s .7685 
 
 M ta 
 
 C s .7685 C s .2315 
 
 1 
 m V 4 
 
 .7685 
 
 1 1 
 
 m 4 V 4 . - iruVo 
 
 .7685 .2315 
 
 Since m 4 = 28 and m 2 = 32, we have 
 
 V 4 V 4 
 
 r a = 
 
 32V 2 .7685 V 4 3.782 V : 
 V 4 - 
 
 28 .2315 
 
 ...(5) 
 
COMBUSTION DATA 227 
 
 An Illustrative Example. Using the same data 
 as employed in previous examples, we have 
 
 .813 
 
 r a = = 172 
 
 .813 3.782 X -09 
 
 The air theoretically required in this example was 
 computed on page 217 and found to be 12.92 Ib. 
 Hence for the three formulas derived we arrive at the 
 following values for r a : 
 
 From formula (2) M a was found to be 21.1. 
 
 21.1 
 
 .'. r a = = 1.63 
 
 12.92 
 
 From formula (3) M a was found to be 20.7. 
 
 20.7 
 
 .'. r a = = 1.60 
 
 12.92 
 
 And from formula (4) IVL was found to be 20.8. 
 Hence M a is 19.8 and 
 
 19.8 
 
 .'. r. = - -= 1.53 
 12.92 
 
 It is difficult to pick the most correct formula to 
 use in any given instance. If the analyses are ob- 
 tained with precision, undoubtedly results will be ob- 
 tained that will check quite closely indeed well with- 
 in the degree of precision of the other factors that 
 enter. 
 
 With the combustion data thus obtained, we are 
 now in position to proceed to the determination of the 
 heat balance which, as we shall see later, tells us in de- 
 tail just what disposition is being made of the vast 
 quantities of heat that are generated in the furnace 
 due to the burning of the fuel oil. 
 
 It is sometimes convenient to be able to determine 
 in advance the maximum amount of CO 2 that can be 
 expected in the flue gas when burning oil with a given 
 quantity of excess air. In the following table three 
 
228 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 different cases of the combustion of one pound of oil 
 are worked out, the excess air being taken at zero in 
 the first case, 50% in the second and 100% in the 
 third. In all three cases it is assumed that perfect 
 combustion is obtained, thus eliminating CO from the 
 ca'culations and that J/ pound steam per pound of oil 
 is used for atomization. It is also assumed that the 
 fuel oil contains 85% Carbon and 11% Hydrogen, the 
 Other ingredients being neglected. The calculations 
 do not require any explanation, as they can be easily 
 followed, the ingredients of the air and fuel being seg- 
 regated and combined in proper proportions according 
 to chemical formulae, and then converted from weight 
 to volume, and to per cent by volume as ordinarily ob- 
 tained in flue gas analysis. 
 
 Combustion of One Pound of Oil 
 
 Air supplied per Ib. oil Lbs. 
 
 Oxygen supplied per Ib. oil. . . .Lbs. 
 Nitrogen supplied per Ib. oil. .Lbs. 
 Oxygen used per Ib. oil Lbs. 
 
 Oxygen free Lbs. 
 
 CO2 produced Lbs. 
 
 H2O from combustion. . .Lbs. 
 H2O from atomizing 
 
 steam Lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen supplied Lbs. 
 
 Total weight of gases... Lbs. 
 
 Oxygen Vol. at 32 .. .Cu. ft. 
 
 CQ2 Vol. at 32 Cu. ft. 
 
 H2O Vol. at 32 Cu. ft. 
 
 Nitrogen Vol. at 32..Cu. ft. 
 Total Vol. at 32 Cu. ft. 
 
 No 
 Excess 
 Air 
 
 50% 
 Excess 
 Air 
 
 100% 
 Excess 
 Air 
 
 13.21 
 3.06 
 10.15 
 3.06 
 
 19.81 
 4.59 
 15.22 
 3.06 
 
 26.42 
 6.12 
 20.30 
 3.06 
 
 No 
 Excess 
 Air 
 
 50% 
 Excess 
 Air 
 
 100% 
 Excess 
 Air 
 
 0. 
 
 1.53 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 .99 
 
 .99 
 
 .99 
 
 .5 
 
 10.15 
 14.64 
 
 0. 
 24.3 
 
 .5 
 15.22 
 
 21.24 
 
 17.1 
 24.3 
 Negligible 
 129.2 194.1 
 
 153.5 235.5 
 
 .5 
 
 20.30 
 27.85 
 
 34.3 
 24.3 
 
 258.5 
 317.1 
 
 Oxygen Per cent, by volume 0. 7.26 10.81 
 
 CO2 Per cent, by volume... 15.8 10.32 7.66 
 
 Nitrogen Per cent by volume 84.2 82.42 81.53 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 WEIGHING THE WATER AND OIL IN 
 BOILER TESTS 
 
 HERE are various types 
 of commercial water 
 meters and water weigh- 
 ers on the market. Some 
 of these are quite accu- 
 rate for certain investiga- 
 tions. For boiler per- 
 formance, however, they 
 are not to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Volumetric Method of 
 Water Measurement. 
 
 Water may also be meas- 
 ured quantitatively by 
 taking its volumetric pro- 
 portions. Its weight is 
 then computed after as- 
 certaining its s p e c i f i c 
 density. The reverse of 
 this principle is used, for 
 instance, in measuring 
 the volumetric clearance of a steam engine, where- 
 in water is poured into the cylinder ports when the 
 p ; ston head is at its dead end and the water afterwards 
 drained out and weighed. From the weight of the 
 water so used the volume of the clearance is computed. 
 In rough measurements of engine and boiler perform- 
 ance the water is sometimes measured by filling a tank 
 or barrel of known volumetric proportions, and by 
 keeping account of the number of barrels so filled and 
 dumped into the sump, sufficient data is obtained to 
 compute the weight. 
 
 229 
 
 Tank in rear for weighing oil 
 
230 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Method of Standardized Platform Scales. 
 
 It is now universally recognized, however, that care- 
 fully weighing the water on carefully standardized 
 scales is the only safe and reliable method of ascertain- 
 
 s '. 
 
 An Excellent Design for a Measuring Tank 
 
 ing the water fed to a boiler under test. 
 
 Let us then see how the details are arranged for 
 the weighing of the water used in steam generation. 
 
WEIGHING WATER AND OIL 
 
 231 
 
 A large square metallic tank about 5 by 5 by 4 
 feet in dimensions is usually constructed. From the 
 bottom of this tank all feed water for steam generation 
 in the boiler under test is drawn. At the beginning 
 of the test the water level in this tank is accurately 
 measured by means of a hook gage situated within 
 the tank. At the end of each hourly period of the 
 test and at the conclusion of the test this exact level 
 is also maintained. 
 
 The control for the water supply is accomplished 
 by two or three vertical cylindrical tanks that have 
 
 A DESIGN FOR A WEIGHING TANK IN A BOILER TEST 
 
 In order to assure the rapid passage of water or oil from the tank 
 upon the platform scales into the container below, the employment 
 of steel tanks with conical shaped bottoms is most effective. The 
 outlet for the oil or water should be controlled by quick-opening 
 valves. 
 
 a conically shaped outlet at the bottom. These tanks 
 are located on standardized scales immediately above 
 the main supply tank that has just been described. 
 The complete installation is shown in the illustration. 
 At the beginning of the test the height of the water 
 in the boiler is noted on the gage glass in front of the 
 boiler and as near as is possible the feed pump is reg- 
 ulated in its operation so as to maintain this level. At 
 the instant of conclusion the water level is most care- 
 fully adjusted to meet the condition of boiler water 
 level prevailing at the beginning of the test. 
 
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 As the water is drawn from the feed tank beneath 
 the platform scales the operators fill the tanks on the 
 scales above and note the weight before and after 
 emptying their contents into the tank below. Thus 
 with ease the water surface in the tank below may 
 be kept at the constant hook gage reading desired, 
 and the net weight of water fed to the boiler ascer- 
 tained at any time during the test. 
 
 The improvised desk boards shown in the illustra- 
 tion assist materially in aiding the water weighing 
 operators to perform their task with ease and without 
 confusion. 
 
 In order to prevent wastes and leakages of water, 
 it is well to disconnect the outlets from the blowoff 
 pipes of the boiler during the period of the test. All 
 outlets from the water columns and gage glasses 
 should also be carefully watched. 
 
 The Weighing of the Oil. For the careful weigh- 
 ing of the oil fed to the furnace a similar device is con- 
 structed as in the case of the water determination. A 
 metallic tank is constructed from which the oil supply 
 is pumped to the furnace through the oil heater. The 
 oil pump is best fitted with a governor and an auto- 
 matic relief valve. By this means a constant pressure 
 may be maintained on the oil line to the burners. The 
 discharge from the relief valve is led back to the tank 
 from which the supply to the pump is taken. Within 
 the tank is situated a hook gage, the reading of which 
 is carefully ascertained at the instant of the begin- 
 ning of the test. This exact reading is maintained 
 throughout the hourly progress of the test, and indeed 
 at any other period if so desired. 
 
 This is accomplished by means of a tank situated 
 above the main supply tank. This tank is installed 
 on standardized scales. Previous to the discharge of 
 the oil into the tank below, the scales are read and 
 when the oil is brought to the proper hook gage read- 
 ing in the tank below, the scales are again read. By 
 subtracting these two readings, the net oil supply is 
 ascertained. 
 
WEIGHING WATER AND OIL 233 
 
 Sampling the Oil Supply. As the fuel is poured 
 into the tank upon the standardized scales, a dipperful 
 of the oil is set aside in a convenient receptacle. After 
 a sample has thus been obtained from each tank, as it 
 is weighed, the entire quantity is then thoroughly 
 mixed. Three parts of this mixture are then put into 
 separate cans and sealed. One part is analyzed by the 
 party or company for whom the test is being per- 
 formed, the second is analyzed by a disinterested party, 
 and the third is retained in case of disagreement. 
 
 General Sampling of Fuel Oil for Purchase. The 
 
 question of determining a proper sample for commer- 
 cial valuation of oil is one of patient care. The United 
 States Bureau of Mines has evolved careful instruc- 
 tions to accomplish this in their technical paper No. 3, 
 from which the following is largely an excerpt : 
 
 The accuracy of the sampling and, in turn, the 
 value of the analysis must necessarily depend on the 
 integrity, alertness and ability of the person who does 
 the sampling. No matter how honest the sampler may 
 be, if he lacks alertness and sampling ability, he may 
 easily make errors that will vitiate all subsequent work 
 and render the results of tests and analyses utterly 
 misleading. A sampler must be always on the alert 
 for sand, water and foreign matter. He should note 
 any circumstances that appear suspicious, and should 
 submit a critical report on them, together with sam- 
 ples of the questioned oil. 
 
 Sampling With a Dipper. Immediately after the 
 oil begins to flow from the wagon to the receiving 
 tank, a small dipper holding any definite quantity, say 
 0.5 liter (about 1 pint), is filled from the stream of 
 oil. Similar samples are taken at equal intervals of 
 time from the beginning to the end of the flow a 
 dozen or more dipperfuls in all. These samples are 
 poured into a clean drum and well shaken. If the oil 
 is heavy, the dipperfuls of oil may be poured into a 
 clean pail, and thoroughly stirred. For a complete 
 analysis the final sample should contain at least 4 
 liters (about 1 gallon). This sample should be poured 
 
234 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 into a clean can, soldered tight and forwarded to the 
 laboratory. 
 
 It is important that the dipper be filled with oil 
 at uniform intervals of time, and that the dipper be 
 always filled to the same level. The total quantity of 
 oil taken should represent a definite quantity of oil 
 delivered and the relation of the sample to the deliv- 
 
 
 
 /' ~N 
 
 , \ 
 
 
 ( *">" \ 
 
 
 Doon 
 
 
 
 
 OUTLET 
 
 AN EXCELLENT WAT C .R MEASURER 
 
 While the automatic water measurer is not as accurate as the 
 standardized scale method, still it finds many applications in the 
 testing- laboratory. 
 
 ery should be always stated, for instance: "1-gallon 
 sample representing 1 wagon-load of 20 barrels." 
 
 Continuous Sampling. Instead of taking samples 
 with a dipper, it may be more convenient to take a con- 
 tinuous sample. This may be taken by allowing the 
 
WEIGHING WATER AND OIL 235 
 
 oil to flow at a constant and uninterrupted rate from a 
 5^-inch cock on the underside of the delivery pipe dur- 
 ing the entire time of discharge. The continuous sam- 
 ple should be thoroughly mixed in a clean drum or 
 pail, and at least 4 liters (about 1 gallon) of it for- 
 warded for analysis. A careful examination should be 
 made for water, and if the first dipperful shows water 
 this dipperful should be thrown into the receiving 
 tank and not mixed with the sample for analysis. 
 
 Mixed Samples. The all-important point is that 
 the gross sample, whatever the manner of sampling, 
 shall be made up of equivalent portions of oil taken 
 at regular intervals of time, so that the sample finally 
 forwarded for analysis will truly represent the entire 
 shipment. 
 
 Water or earthy matter settles on standing. 
 Hence, before a large stationary tank or a reservoir is 
 sampled, the character of the contents at the bottom 
 should be ascertained by dredging with a long-handled 
 dipper, and the contents of the dipper should be ex- 
 amined critically. If a considerable quantity of sedi- 
 ment is brought up, it should be cause for rejecting 
 the oil. 
 
 THE VISCOSIMETER 
 
 The design of this viscosi- 
 meter is based upon a thor- 
 ough knowledge of lubricat- 
 ing oils and of the require- 
 ments of manufacture and 
 trade. It is made to meet all 
 demands as a measure of 
 viscosity, and is without the 
 many objections that may be 
 made to all other devices for 
 this purpose. The viscosity 
 of any oil is shown by the 
 number of seconds required 
 for a certain number of 
 cubic centimeters to run 
 through the open faucet. 
 This corresponds to the most 
 generally approved standard 
 now in use by the largest re- 
 finers. (See page 136) 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF STEAM USED IN 
 ATOMIZATION 
 
 As has been previously set forth, there are three 
 methods used in pulverizing or atomizing the fuel oil 
 in the industries for heat generating purposes, namely : 
 
 A Typical Steam Meter 
 
 by compressed air, by steam, and by some mechanical 
 operation. 
 
 In any one of these instances the actual expendi- 
 ture of energy necessary to accomplish this result 
 when converted into heat units' should be charged 
 as a loss in furnace operation, when the efficiency of 
 
 982 
 
STEAM IN ATOMIZATION 237 
 
 the boiler as a whole is being determined. And if this 
 energy is taken from the steam that is being generated 
 in the boiler, then the net steam energy should be 
 computed by subtracting from the gross production 
 such steam as may be used in atomization. 
 
 It then becomes the task of the steam engineer 
 to construct some accurate and convenient apparatus 
 whereby this may be easily and accurately accom- 
 plished. 
 
 There are steam meters on the market that may 
 be utilized for this p'urpose, and if a careful design 
 is picked, the measurement may be relied upon. Many 
 engineers, however, prefer the use of a standardized 
 orifice or the construction of an apparatus of their own 
 whereby this important data may be ascertained with 
 accuracy. 
 
 Mathematical Expression for Flow of Steam. 
 
 In the mathematical considerations involved in estab- 
 lishing a formula for steam flow through orifices, a 
 rather unique incident is encountered. When the 
 pressure of the lower medium into which the steam 
 empties itself is less than 58 per cent of the higher 
 pressure, a certain formula applies. And the rather re- 
 markable thing is that below this point the flow is 
 neither increased nor decreased by a reduction of the 
 external pressure, even to the extent of a perfect 
 vacuum. This was the basis upon which Napier's for- 
 mula was derived in the chapter on Steam Calorimetry, 
 wherein- a formula was given to compute the steam 
 titilized for operating the calorimeter. In this for- 
 mula is was seen that, if W is the weight of the steam 
 in pounds per second flowing into the atmosphere, p 
 the absolute pressure in pounds per square inch in the 
 steam main, and a the area of orifice in square inches, 
 w r e have 
 
 pa 
 
 W = - - (1) 
 
 70 
 
 For steam flowing through an orifice from a high- 
 er to a lower pressure where the lower pressure is 
 
238 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 greater than 58 per cent of the higher, we have the 
 formula 
 
 W = 1.9 AK [/ (P- d)d 
 
 (2) 
 
 wherein W is the weight of steam as discharged in 
 pounds per minute, A the area of orifice in square 
 inches, P the absolute initial pressure in pounds per 
 
 APPARATUS EMPLOYED IN MEASURING STEAM IN 
 ATOMIZATION 
 
 The flow of steam through an orifice wherein a slightly lower 
 pressure is maintained on the further side of the orifice, is found 
 experimentally to be proportional to the difference in mercury 
 heights indicated on the manometer shown on the right in the il- 
 lustration. By calibrating these readings prior to a test the steam 
 used in atomization may be conveniently and readily determined 
 during a test. 
 
 square inch, d the difference in pressure between the 
 two sides in pounds per square inch, and K is a con- 
 stant which has a value of .93 for a short pipe and .63 
 for a hole in a thin plate or a safety valve. 
 
 This latter formula is applicable in the measure- 
 ment of steam to burner utilized in the atomization 
 of fuel oil. In the following lines a method will be 
 outlined setting forth the necessary apparatus in- 
 volved in determining the variables in the formula. 
 Instead of actually substituting and solving numeri- 
 
STEAM IN ATOMIZATION 239 
 
 cally, however, it is far simpler to construct a chart 
 and pick from this the steam consumption for any 
 given steam pressure and pressure difference in an 
 orifice placed in the main. 
 
 CALIBRATION OF ORIFICE FOR MEASUREMENT OF STEAM 
 USED IN ATOMIZATION 
 
 Previous to a boiler test the manometer which registers the pres- 
 sure difference at the faces of the orifice is carefully calibrated by 
 condensing- the steam flow and weighing the hourly condensate. 
 These data when plotted on a curve as shown above enable the 
 engineer to quickly ascertain the steam used in atomization at any 
 time during a test. 
 
 Here then is presented a ready and accurate means 
 of steam measurement for atomization purposes. A 
 diaphragm with an orifice opening of .5 of a square 
 inch in area is inserted in the steam line. On both 
 sides of this diaphragm are drilled holes which are 
 tapped for a ^4-inch pipe. The pipes are then con- 
 nected to both legs of a manometer filled with mer- 
 cury. A manometer is nothing more nor less than a 
 U-tube filled with mercury. When these two ends are 
 connected with pipes of varying pressures, the mer- 
 cury in the U-tube will of course be raised to a higher 
 point in one leg of the U-tube than in the other. The 
 difference in this height represents in inches of mer- 
 
240 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 cury the difference in pressure between the two sides 
 of the diaphragm. If now a steam gauge be inserted 
 in the steam main on the boiler side of the diaphragm, 
 we are enabled by means of the atmospheric barometer 
 reading to express these pressures in absolute pres- 
 sure units as set forth in the chapter on pressures. On 
 the burner side of the steam main a thermometer is in- 
 serted as shown in order to measure the temperature 
 of the steam fed to the furnace, as this steam in many 
 instances is superheated and hence the pressure read- 
 ing does not indicate the temperature existing. 
 
 A manometer is accurately calibrated prior to the 
 test by allowing the steam to be discharged into a 
 barrel for a period of time under varying manometer 
 readings. A curve is then plotted similar to the one 
 shown in the illustration, which sets forth the pounds 
 of steam passing per minute for any particular mano- 
 meter reading in inches of mercury. If, then, read- 
 ings are taken every fifteen minutes during the test, 
 the testing engineer notes at such intervals the steam 
 that has passed during the preceding fifteen-minute 
 period. In such a manner the total quantity of steam 
 used in atomization is ascertained. 
 
 Thus in a test at the Fruitvale Station of the 
 Southern Pacific Company, the pressure of the steam 
 at the burner was found to be 168 pounds per square 
 inch. The temperature of the steam at the burner was 
 440 ' F., which indicated a superheated condition of 
 65 F. The total steam used by the burners for a ten- 
 hour test was found by the above means to be 7441 
 pounds, while the total weight of water fed to the 
 boilers proved to be 180,240 pounds. Hence the per- 
 centage of total water evaporated by the boilers used 
 in atomization is determined by dividing 7441 by 180,- 
 240, which is 4.16 per cent. 
 
 The total weight of oil fired was 14,093 pounds 
 during the test of ten hours. Hence, the pounds of 
 steam utilized for atomization per pound of oil fired 
 is obtained by dividing 7441 by 14,093, which proves 
 to be 0.528 pounds. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 THE TAKING OF BOILER TEST DATA 
 
 In previous chapters we have touched upon all the 
 important points involved in tests on boiler economy. 
 These, however, have been considered under separate 
 headings and of necessity in a somewhat disconnected 
 manner. In this and the succeeding chapters, we shall 
 endeavor to link these items into a connected unit. 
 
 THE DIFFERENTIAL DRAFT GAGE 
 
 In order to exaggerate the readings of the draft in inches of water, 
 the measuring tube rests on a slope of ten to one in this type of 
 instrument, and thus readings to another decimal point are ascer- 
 tained which would otherwise be impossible. 
 
 This chapter will be concerned with the gathering of 
 the data and the next with its computation. 
 
 The Object. ''What can you do?" applies equally 
 well to the rating of inanimate objects as well as to the 
 accomplishment of human endeavor. And so the ob- 
 ject of boiler testing is to try out the latent steaming 
 qualities of the boiler and test its strength both for 
 sudden calls and for endurance. The manner in which 
 the mechanical design of the boiler can withstand such 
 tests and especially the efficiency with which it can 
 perform- its function of transforming the heat energy 
 of the fuel into energy latent in the steam sent forth 
 from the boiler are as a rule the factors that either add 
 lustre to the name of the manufacturer or else relegate 
 the type of steam generator under test to the scrap 
 heap. 
 
 241 
 
242 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
BOILER TEST DATA 243 
 
 The Instructions for Boiler Tests. The minute 
 details that should be satisfied in order to secure accu- 
 rate data wherewith to rate the boiler and scientifically 
 set forth its commercial worth are elaborately set forth 
 in instructions issued by the American Society of Me- 
 chanical Engineers, compiled by their Committee on 
 Power Tests. In any case of actual test, the steam 
 engineer should be provided with a copy of these in- 
 structions, which he can secure from the secretary of 
 the society by the payment of a small fee. 
 
 Since these instructions require many pages 
 wherein to set forth the details of a test, it cannot, of 
 course, be expected that anything beyond a general 
 outline of procedure in boiler testing be set forth in 
 this article. Still it has been the experience of the 
 authors that if the steam engineer gets a thorough pic- 
 ture of the test details as a whole he is well equipped, 
 with the assistance of a nearby copy of the detailed in- 
 structions, to properly understand the procedure. 
 
 The Test for Efficiency Under Normal Rating. 
 
 It has been seen in the chapter on Rating of 
 Boilers that the manufacturer or builder rates the out- 
 put of the boiler on the basis of the boiler heating sur- 
 face presented to the furnace gases. For each ten 
 square feet of boiler surface so exposed to the furnace 
 gases, the boiler is said to have one boiler horsepower. 
 A test for boiler efficiency under this normal condi- 
 tion of operation is one of the most important to be 
 ascertained in boiler performance. In order to ac- 
 complish this result, the steam engineer usually com- 
 putes the total weight of water the boiler would ap- 
 proximately have to evaporate into steam per hour 
 under the conditions of entering feed-water tempera- 
 ture, boiler pressure, and quality of steam generated to 
 satisfy the builder's rating. Having made a careful 
 estimate of this quantity he then proceeds to operate 
 the boiler as nearly as possible to meet this condition. 
 
 Time of Duration of Test. The generation of 
 steam is maintained as uniformly as possible over a 
 period of from eight to ten hours. 
 
244 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Beginning and Stopping of a Test. At the 
 
 beginning of the test the level of water in the boiler 
 is noted on the water glass and at the completion the 
 water is brought to the same height. 
 
 In the testing of boilers fired by fuel oil, the boiler 
 is brought up to and continued at normal operating 
 conditions until the furnace wall and boiler room" tem- 
 peratures are at their normal reading. Then the test 
 is started by feeding weighed water and fuel oil. At 
 the end of the test, all conditions of pressure, tempera- 
 ture and rate of steam generation should be as nearly 
 as possible the same as at the beginning. 
 
 uac. 
 
 A Suggestion for a Steam Calorimeter Attachment (See page 100) 
 
 The Weighing of the Water. Several tanks are 
 placed upon carefully calibrated scales and all water 
 entering the boiler from the instant the test starts to 
 its closing point is carefully weighed. The details of 
 the methods involved in the weighing of water have 
 appeared in a previous chapter. 
 
 The Heat Represented in the Steam Generated. 
 
 The temperature of the entering water and the pres- 
 
BOILER TEST DATA 245 
 
 sure of the steam generated are noted at frequent in- 
 tervals. The quality of the steam as to whether it is 
 wet saturated, dry saturated, or superheated, is also 
 carefully determined quantitatively by methods out- 
 lined in previous chapters. 
 
 With these data at hand the steam engineer is en- 
 abled by deductions to be set forth in the chapter on 
 Heat Balance to compute the actual heat energy ab- 
 sorbed by the entering water in the production of 
 steam. 
 
 The Oil, Its Measurement and Analysis. At the 
 
 same time that the steam generating functions of the 
 boiler are being ascertained, it is of course necessary 
 to weigh the fuel oil admitted to the furnace for firing 
 purposes and to draw frequent samples for the com- 
 posite sample to be used in ascertaining the heat pro- 
 ducing value of one pound of fuel. The method of 
 weighing the oil and drawing the oil sample has been 
 set forth in a previous chapter. 
 
 Having determined the calorific value of one 
 pound of fuel by methods previously described the to- 
 tal heat put into the furnace by the fuel during the 
 test is computed. 
 
 In former chapters are to be found discussions 
 which fully set forth the methods utilized in determin- 
 ing from the oil sample its calorific value, its moisture 
 content, and its gravity under standard conditions 
 which are necessary to compute the total heat produc- 
 ing value of the oil used in firing the boiler under test. 
 
 The Steam Used in Atomization. In most central 
 station practice wherein fuel oil is consumed for heat 
 generation, the atomization of the fuel oil is accom- 
 plished by blowing into the furnace through the oil 
 burner a certain quantity of steam that is being gener- 
 ated in the boiler. To obtain the useful and economic 
 quantity of steam generated by the boiler we should 
 then subtract this steam used in atomization from the 
 total steam generated in the test. A practical method 
 of obtaining experimentally the steam used in atomi- 
 zation has been described in a previous chapter. 
 
246 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The Boiler Efficiency. Having thus obtained the 
 net heat absorbed by the boiler under test and also the 
 heat given out by the fuel oil sprayed into the furnace, 
 the ratio of the former to the latter gives us the effi- 
 ciency of the boiler as set forth in the chapter on Heat 
 Balance. 
 
 In central station practice on the Pacific Coast the 
 gross boiler efficiency in the best installations ranges 
 from 81 to 83 per cent under test conditions. The 
 atomization of the steam lowers this efficiency by 
 about 2 per cent, thus making the best net boiler effi- 
 ciencies range between 79 and 81 per cent. 
 
 The Overload Test. The sudden demands for 
 power during certain hours of the day make an elas- 
 ticity in boiler steaming qualities absolutely impera- 
 tive. Otherwise, a great additional expense would be 
 involved in the cost and installation of additional 
 steaming units. Hence the overload steaming 
 qualities of a boiler are of utmost importance, especial- 
 ly in central station or steam auxiliary practice. 
 
 As an instance of performance of a boiler under 
 overload conditions on the Pacific Coast, an authentic 
 case is on record where a boiler of 773 rated horse- 
 power developed an overload of 75.7 per cent for 5 
 hours and still maintained a gross efficiency of 80.62 
 per cent. 
 
 The Quick Steaming Test. In other instances 
 the ability of a boiler to hastily get into action is of 
 prime importance. This is especially true in cases 
 where boilers are held in readiness for pumping sta- 
 tion operation for fire protection. In San Francisco, 
 California, for instance, is located a high-pressure 
 water system whereby pumps stand eternally ready 
 to deliver 12,000 gallons of water per minute to a* 
 height of 700 feet should disaster by fire ever again 
 visit that municipality. The boilers that operate the 
 pumping station have by test demonstrated that full 
 boiler pressure and steaming conditions can be ac- 
 compl : shed in less than thirty minutes time. 
 
 Again, other features of test are under special 
 cases desirable to attain. But the two most important 
 
BOILER TEST DATA 247 
 
 tests are those of ascertaining the conversion ratio of 
 heat represented in the steam to the heat supplied by 
 the furnace under normal conditions of operation and 
 under certain definite overload guarantees in a word, 
 the ascertaining of boiler efficiency for normal rating 
 and for conditions of overload. 
 
 Observations Necessary. A complete tabulated 
 list for final test computation is set forth in the book 
 of instructions previously mentioned as approved or 
 advised by the American Society of Mechanical En- 
 gineers. Let us now look into some of the details 
 necessary to obtain this recorded data. 
 
 In the first place, one should note on a log sheet 
 the general observations such as date of test, duration 
 of test, type of oil burner, make of oil burner, number 
 of burners used, and with this information should be 
 compiled sufficient physical dimensions of the boiler 
 to enable one to compute the builder's rating both for 
 the boiler and for the superheater. An illustration of 
 this computation was set forth under the chapter on 
 Rating of Boilers. 
 
 During the test period, observations are usually 
 taken every fifteen minutes, simultaneously if possible. 
 
 Pressure Readings. The pressure of the atmos- 
 phere is read in inches of mercury and the steam gauge 
 readings of the boiler and superheater having been 
 duly calibrated or corrected for mechanical inaccur- 
 acies, are then reduced to absoluute pressure readings 
 as set forth in the chapter on pressures. 
 
 The pressure of the oil under which it is forced 
 into the furnace is also usually noted, although it has 
 no bearing on data computation. 
 
 The pressure of the draft at various parts of the 
 ash pit, furnace, breeching, and chimney are also noted 
 by means of a multiple cock arrangement which was 
 shown in the chapter on pressures. This arrangement 
 makes possible the quick ascertaining of various draft 
 readings by means of one instrument. 
 
 The pressure of the saturated steam and also that 
 of the superheated steam is ascertained by inserting 
 
248 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 carefully calibrated steam gages, the one in the satu- 
 rated steam compartment and the other in the super- 
 heater compartment. These pressures are then con- 
 verted into absolute pressure readings by correcting 
 for atmospheric pressure as set forth in the chapter on 
 pressures. 
 
 Temperature Readings. A thermometer is usu- 
 ally located in the atmosphere without to ascertain 
 general external temperature conditions of the day. 
 One is also placed in the boiler room to ascertain the 
 temperature of the entering air passing into the fur- 
 nace. 
 
 To ascertain the temperature of entering feed wa- 
 ter and fuel oil, thermometer w r ells with thermometers 
 are also installed at nearby points of entrance. 
 
 It is often desirable to ascertain the temperature 
 of the furnace gases at various points in their journey. 
 To accomplish this thermo-couples are installed at the 
 points desired previous to the firing of the boilers and 
 during the test an electrical pyrometer is advised, espe- 
 cialy if other high temperatures are to be taken in 
 various points of flue gas passage. 
 
 The Flue Gas Analysis. Simultaneously with the 
 taking of the temperatures, pressure and other read- 
 ings of the test, the flue gas anaylsis is ascertained at 
 frequent intervals. The detailed method of taking these 
 data has been fully set forth in previous chapters and 
 methods of computation of combustion data explained. 
 The Heat Balance will be set forth in full in a later 
 chapter. 
 
 The Test as a Whole. The reader has now be- 
 fore him the taking of the test as a whole. At this 
 point he should carefully review all the previous chap- 
 ters alluded to in this discussion so as to w r eld into a 
 solid chain the links that go to make up the boiler 
 test in fuel oil practice. 
 
 Having thus in mind a complete idea of the vari- 
 ous details involved in the taking of the boiler test 
 data, we are now in position to link together the com- 
 puted data involved in formulating the engineer's re- 
 port of the economic results of the test. 
 
CHAPTER XXX 
 
 PRELIMINARY TABULATION AND CALCU- 
 LATION OF TEST DATA 
 
 The systematic construction of a log sheet that 
 will show in the minutest detail every incident in the 
 progress of the boiler test is of prime importance. It 
 is far better to overdo than to underdo in the gather- 
 ing of detail data of this kind. The notation of re- 
 marks from time to time upon the log sheet concern- 
 ing relevant observations during the progress of the 
 test is of much service to the engineer when he final- 
 ly comes to decide fine points in economic boiler per- 
 formance. 
 
 No straight and narrow schedule or log sheet can 
 be set forth to meet all types of boiler test. Each par- 
 ticular test as a rule involves its own particular tabu- 
 lation. Let us, however, consider a series of tabula- 
 tation sheets for boiler tests in which oil is used as 
 a fuel. The suggestions that will be set forth illustrate 
 a carefully evolutionized scheme of tabulation for such 
 data that may be well followed in guiding one in the 
 construction of his own individual log form should oc- 
 casion arise. 
 
 The Log Sheet for Weighing the Water. In the 
 previous chapter w r e have seen that the water is 
 brought to a definite height in the supply tank the in- 
 stant of starting the test. Above this supply tank are 
 located standardized scales upon which the water is 
 weighed before emptying into the supply tank below. 
 As a rule, at the closing of each hourly period, water 
 readings are computed in order that the engineer may 
 get a preliminary idea of the progress of the test. 
 Blank sheets are given each water weigher, one to be 
 used for each hourly period. Each sheet sets forth 
 general information indicating the kind of boiler un- 
 
 249 
 
250 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 der test, the date of test, the name of the observer, and 
 the particular tank at which each is stationed. A col- 
 umn is devoted to the number of the scale reading, a 
 second to the gross weight of the water and tank be- 
 fore emptying into the tank below, the tare to be sub- 
 tracted from the gross weight, which is the weight 
 of the upper tank after the water is emptied into the 
 tank below, and a fourth column setting forth the net 
 weight or difference of the two preceding columns. 
 This sheet will have somewhat the following appear- 
 
 ance : 
 
 Log Sheet for later i*ed JC Boiler. 
 
 Kind 01 Dollar 
 
 Method of 'Starting Test 
 
 Date 
 
 Obs errors at Scales for Mater 
 
 Heading 
 
 Time 
 
 tiro 3 a 
 
 Tare 
 
 Uet 
 
 Temp. of 
 Waoer 
 
 Hemarka 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Y. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2otl 
 
 Signature: 
 
 By using the type of log sheet above indicated, 
 it is evident that the engineer has a check on his water 
 computation, for in the line marked "total" the footing 
 for the gross weight should exactly equal that for the 
 sum of the tare weight and the net weight. A place 
 is also given for a signature to be appended by the one 
 responsible for the weight notation. 
 
 Log Sheet for the Fuel Oil Fed to Furnace. 
 Simultaneously with the weighing of the water, a sim- 
 ilar log sheet is kept by another set of observers setting 
 forth the weight of fuel oil fed to the furnace. As the 
 weighing proceeds, a periodic sample is taken to make 
 
PRELIMINARY TABULATION 
 
 251 
 
 up a composite sample for the determination of the 
 calorific value of the oil as set forth in the preceding 
 chapter. The log sheet for the oil is quite similar to 
 that used for the water and should be footed up at the 
 end of each hourly period so that the engineer may 
 have some definite idea of preliminary economic re- 
 sults. A suggestion for this log sheet is as follows : 
 
 Log aneet for uil Pad TA_ ffurnaee. 
 
 f rype and .Location of Boiler 
 
 Type of Burner 
 
 Type of i'urnaoe 
 
 Date 
 
 Observers at Scales for Oil 
 
 loading 
 
 line 
 
 Gross 
 
 Tare 
 
 Het 
 
 Temp. of 
 Oil 
 
 .Remarks 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i'o-cal 
 
 
 
 Other Data to be Taken. The tabulation of data 
 to determine the steam used for atomization and the 
 analysis of the flue gases require special treatment, de- 
 pending upon the particular method decided upon by 
 the engineer to ascertain these factors. Previous 
 chapters have already set forth in detail suggestions 
 for the ascertaining of these quantities, and the reader 
 is now advised to re-read them in order to correlate 
 in his mind, as it were, all the data that must be taken 
 in order to ascertain the economic performance of the 
 modern boiler utilizing crude petroleum as a fuel. 
 
 The General Log Sheet. In addition to the two 
 log sheets just described, a general log sheet is neces- 
 sary upon which to note the temperatures, pressures, 
 flue gas analysis and other information desired. 
 
252 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 eaoa-o 
 
 880,19 
 
 3aTiaq.ua 
 
 ITO 
 
 jo'dnrai 
 
 '4.3: 9 
 
 3ui.iaq.u9 
 
 JO 
 
 j:o 90JOI 
 
 oregls 
 
 9UITJ, 
 
PRELIMINARY TABULATION 
 
 253 
 
 THE GRAPHIC LOG SHEET FOR FUEL OIL TESTS 
 During the progress of a test a graphic plot most conveniently 
 sets forth the behavior of the variables under observation. The 
 above shows a typical graphic log sheet and its method of construc- 
 tion for fuel oil tests. 
 
254 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Here is an illustration of a suggestion for such a 
 log sheet. At the completion of the test an average 
 is easily obtained for the various readings by footing 
 up the total and dividing by the number of readings 
 noted. The columns for the water fed to the boiler 
 and the oil fed to the furnace are footed and as in the 
 hourly sheets previously described, the totals from 
 these sheets which are noted on this general log sheet 
 should now check that is, the total gross should 
 equal the sum of the total tare and total net columns. 
 The reader is to bear in mind that the actual notations 
 to be made in any particular test are not all set down 
 in this general log sheet suggestion. For the infor- 
 mation desired and the purpose of the test must in 
 each given case determine these factors. The sheet 
 will, however, serve as a general guide for such mat- 
 ters. 
 
 The Plotting of Test Data As the test proceeds 
 hour by hour, it is very instructive and helpful to 
 keep a diagramatic log sheet also. By this means a 
 glance will often reveal certain irregularities that may 
 be righted at their incipiency. Such a log sheet is 
 shown in the illustration and by reference to it the 
 reader will observe how the history of a test may be 
 simply and clearly set forth. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 THE HEAT BALANCE AND BOILER 
 EFFICIENCY 
 
 The steaming qualities of a boiler are best set 
 forth by measuring its so-called efficiency. The effi- 
 ciency of a boiler is the relationship between the heat 
 absorbed per pound of fuel fired and the calorific value 
 of one pound of fuel. Thus although each pound of 
 fuel consumed in steam production is found to have a 
 calorific value of 19,450 B. t. u. in the numerical illus- 
 tration for this chapter, that portion alone of this heat 
 which is actually represented in the steam itself is of 
 economic value. 
 
 In the illustrative test which is made use of 
 throughout this chapter, it will be found that of this 
 19,450 B. t. u. represented in each pound of oil only 
 14,076.56 go toward power generation. It is then use- 
 ful and instructive to analyze the losses in a boiler and 
 see through what channels this heat has been dissi- 
 pated. The major portion of these losses may be easily 
 computed by means of data taken in the test. Those 
 which cannot be mathematically computed are thrown 
 under the column entitled "Stray Losses," and are 
 made to represent such an amount that the total losses 
 together with the useful heat generated in the boiler 
 represent the heat from one pound of fuel. 
 
 Let us then examine the various channels of heat 
 transfer going on in the boiler and see how the details 
 of the heat balance are set forth. In this discussion H 
 will represent the calorific value of one pound of fuel 
 oil under test. 
 
 (a) a. The total heat absorbed by the boiler. As 
 has been previously shown, the equivalent evaporation 
 of a boiler per pound of oil represents the number of 
 pounds of water which would be evaporated into steam 
 
 255 
 
256 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 per pound of oil if the water was at 212 F. and under 
 atmospheric pressure, and this water then converted 
 into dry saturated steam at the same temperature and 
 pressure. It is self-evident then that the total heat ab- 
 sorbed by the boiler for each pound of oil burned in the 
 furnace is equal to the equivalent evaporation multi- 
 plied by the heat necessary to convert one pound of 
 water into steam under conditions just mentioned. 
 This quantity of heat has been found by Marks and 
 Davis to be 970.4 B. t. u., as set forth in previous dis- 
 cussions. Representing this in a formula the total 
 heat H t absorbed by the boiler per pound of fuel is 
 
 H t = = M e X Lc (1) 
 
 in which H t is the total heat absorbed by the. boiler 
 per pound of dry fuel, .M e the equivalent evaporation 
 per pound of oil, and L e the latent heat of evaporation 
 at 212 F., which is 970.4 B. t. u. Hence, if the equiva- 
 lent evaporation of a boiler is found by test to be 28,- 
 225 pounds of water per hour, and if the measurement 
 of oil shows that 1872 pounds of oil have been con- 
 sumed 
 
 28225 
 
 M e =- 
 
 1872 
 
 28225 
 
 /. H t = - - X 970.4 = 14639 
 1872 
 
 b. Heat absorbed by boiler for atomizat ; on. 
 
 In ordinary practice of fuel oil consumption, there are 
 three methods of atomization employed. In the larger 
 power plants the use of steam for atomization pur- 
 poses, or in other words, the diverting of steam from 
 the boiler into the furnace in order to atomize the oils, 
 seems to have by far the preference. It is proposed 
 to alter the rules of the American Society of Mechani- 
 cal Engineers so that the heat represented by the 
 s'leam used in atomization must be subtracted from the 
 total heat absorbed by the boiler in order to compute 
 
HEAT BALANCE 257 
 
 the net evaporative power of the boiler. Hence to 
 make this computation we must know the number of 
 pounds of steam used in atomization per pound of oil 
 burned. Methods of arriving at this result have been 
 described in a previous chapter. 
 
 Calling M s the pounds of steam used in atomiza- 
 tion per pound of fuel burned, H s the total heat per 
 pound of steam so used, and h 1 the heat in the entering 
 feed water, and H a the heat absorbed by the boiler per 
 pound of fuel in atomizing the oil, it is evident that 
 
 H a ==M.(H. hO (2) 
 
 Thus it has been found in the test under descrip- 
 tion that .530 pounds of steam were utilized in atomi- 
 zation per pound of oil. Saturated steam at a temper- 
 ature of 381.9 was used. From the steam tables such 
 steam is found to have a total heat of 1198.08 B. t. u. 
 The entering feed water was at a temperature of 169.1 
 F. and has a heat of liquid amounting to 136.87 B. t. u. 
 We find by substitution that the heat absorbed in 
 atomizing the oil is computed as follows : 
 
 H a == .530 (1198.98 136.87) == 562.44 B. t. u. 
 
 c. Net heat absorbed by boiler for power gen- 
 eration. Since then the heat utilized in atomization 
 must be subtracted from the total heat abso-bed by the 
 boiler, to ascertain the net heat H n absorbed by the 
 boiler for power generation, we have the following for- 
 mula : 
 
 H n = H t H a .". (3) 
 
 .'.H n = 14639 562.44 =14076.56 B.t.u. 
 
 (b) Loss due to water in the fuel. 
 
 All fuels contain a certain amount of moisture. It 
 is evident that since it requires considerable heat to 
 convert this moisture into steam and then to send it 
 forth from the chimney in a superheated condition, a 
 definite loss is thereby sustained in boiler operation. 
 This moisture must first be raised to 212 F., then con- 
 verted into steam, and then heated to the temperature 
 of the outgoing chimney gases. If we let M w be the 
 proportion by weight of moisture in the one pound of 
 fuel, t the temperature of the oil entering the burner, 
 
258 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 t s the temperature of the escaping gases, and H m the 
 loss due to moisture in the fuel per pound of fuel 
 burned, we may write at once an equation represent- 
 ing this loss. 
 
 Thus 
 H m == M w [212 t + 970.4 + .47 (t g 212) ] .... (4) 
 
 The reasons for this formula are seen by inspec- 
 tion. To raise each pound of moisture from t to 212 
 F. would require as many B. t. u. as the raise in tern- 
 perature, in other words (212 1 ) B. t. u. Again, to 
 evaporate each pound would require 970.4 B. t. u., and 
 as .47 of a B.t.u. are required to superheat one pound of 
 steam one degree in temperature at atmospheric pres- 
 sure, each pound of steam superheated to the temper- 
 atur of the outgoing chimney gases would require .47 
 (tg 212) B. t. u. Therefore, the total heat required 
 for M w pounds would be as indicated in the formula 
 above by summing up these separate components. 
 
 Thus in the test under consideration, let us assume 
 that the fuel contains 1 per cent of moisture ; that its 
 entering temperature is 96 F., and that the tempera- 
 ture of the escaping gases is 400 F. Hence 
 H m = .01 [212 96 + 970.4 + .47 (400212) ] = 
 11.67 B. t. u. 
 
 (c) Loss due to water formed by burning hy- 
 drogen. 
 
 In the chapter on chimney gas analysis, it was seen 
 that the Orsat Apparatus is so constructed that the 
 vapor or superheated steam formed by the burning of 
 the hydrogen content in the fuel is condensed into wa- 
 ter upon entering the burette ; hence the Orsat an- 
 alysis indicates only dry flue gases and takes no ac- 
 count of the percentage of steam actually present in 
 these gases. It is seen then that the moisture formed 
 by the burning of hydrogen mu'st also create a loss as 
 it journeys upward through the boiler. Assuming H^ 
 to be the heat lost due to the moisture formed by the, 
 burning of hydrogen by following .identically similar 
 processes of reasoning just employed in the considera- 
 tions of the loss due to the moisture in the fuel, ,we. 
 
HEAT BALANCE 259 
 
 find that each pound of moisture formed by the burn- 
 'ing of hydrogen requires 
 
 [212 t + 970.4 + .47 (t g 212)] B. t. u. 
 
 From the principles of chemistry each pound of 
 hydrogen combines with 8 pounds of oxygen, there- 
 by forming 9 pounds of water or steam. This rela- 
 tionship gives us a ready means of computing the 
 weight of water vapor formed by the burning of hydro- 
 gen, although the Orsat analysis failed to do so. As- 
 suming Mh to be the proportion by weight of hydrogen 
 per pound of fuel oil burned, we have 
 
 H h = 9M h [212 t + 970.4 + .47 (t g 212) ] . . (5) 
 
 By referring to the test data, w 7 e find that the fuel 
 analysis show's .11 pounds of hydrogen per pound of 
 fuel, that the temperature of entering air is 84 and the 
 temperature of the escaping gases 400, therefore 
 
 H h = 9X-H [21284 + 970.4+ .47 (400212)] = 
 1166.97 B. t. u. 
 
 (d) Loss due to heat carried away by dry gases. 
 
 From the Orsat analysis, as w r as seen in Chapter 
 XXV on the Computation of Combustion Data, the 
 pounds of dry gas passing up the chimney per pound 
 of fuel burned may be easily computed by means of 
 .several ^different formulas. It is found by experiment 
 that it requires .24 B. t. u. to raise one pound of chim- 
 ney gas one degree in temperature. Hence if M g be 
 the pounds of dry chimney gas per pound of fuel, the 
 total heat wasted H s in raising the temperature of 
 these dry gases is seen to be 
 
 H g = .24 (t g t a ) M B (6) 
 
 In this particular instance, let us assume that by 
 the application of our formula we find that 19.83 
 pounds of dry chimney gas are formed per pound of 
 fuel burned ; that the temperature of the entering air 
 is 84.1, and that of the outgoing chimney gases 400. 
 Hence 
 
 H g = .24 (400 84) 19.83 = 1503.91 B. t. u. 
 
260 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 (e) Loss due to carbon monoxide. 
 
 In the burning of every pound of carbon to carbon 
 dioxide, 14,600 B. t. u. are liberated. When the car- 
 bon is not completely burned but passes up the chim- 
 ney in the form of carbon monoxide only 4450 B. t. u. 
 per pound of carbon so burned are liberated. Hence 
 whenever carbon monoxide appears in the gas analysis 
 it is evident that a definite loss is being sustained due 
 to this incomplete combustion of the carbon. 
 
 For every pound of carbon which passes up the 
 chimney as carbon monoxide, a net loss of 10,150 B. 
 t. u. are thus uselessly thrown away. Let us assume 
 that one pound of carbon volumetrically produces V t 
 units by volume of carbon dioxide and V 3 units by 
 volume of carbon monoxide. If this is true it is evi- 
 
 dent that in every pound of carbon so burned - 
 
 V. + V, 
 
 pounds are converted into carbon monoxide, which 
 represents a loss of 10,150 B. t. u. per pound. Hence if 
 there are C units of carbon by weight in each pound 
 of the fuel, the formula to be applied to ascertain the 
 loss due to incomplete combustion H c is 
 
 V 3 
 
 H c = C - X 10,150 ................. (T, 
 
 V t + V 3 
 
 In the particular case cited above the fuel has .86 
 proportions by weight of carbon and .01 proportions 
 by volume go out of the chimney in the form of car- 
 bon monoxide and .0979 proportions by volume in the 
 form of carbon dioxide. Then the total loss is evi- 
 dently 
 
 10150 X-01 
 H c = .86 - - = 801.82 B. t. u. 
 
 .0979 + .01 
 
 (f) a. Loss due to evaporating steam for atom- 
 ization. 
 
 By referring back to (a) b in this discussion, we 
 find that the loss due to evaporating steam used in 
 atomization is represented by the formula 
 
HEAT BALANCE 261 
 
 H a = M s (H s hj (8) 
 
 and in the particular instance in question it is 56.44 
 B. t. u. per pound of fuel burned. Where the steam 
 used in atomization is brought from an outside source, 
 it would, of course, be necessary to neglect the correc- 
 tion made under (a) b, although the quantity under 
 this heading must still be taken into account. 
 
 b. Loss due to superheating steam used for 
 atomization. 
 
 If the steam has been injected into the furnace in 
 atomization, it is clearly evident that for every pound 
 so injected, .47 of a B. t. u. are required in superheat- 
 ing it to the temperature of the outgoing chimney 
 gases. Hence the loss so sustained is seen at once to 
 be computed from the formula: 
 
 H sa = .47 M s (t g t B ) (9) 
 
 in which H sa is the loss due to superheating steam due 
 to atomization per pound of fuel burned ; M s is the pro- 
 portion by weight of steam used in atomization per 
 pound of oil; t g the temperature of escaping flue gas; 
 and t s the temperature of steam used in atomization. 
 
 Since we have found that .53 pound of steam were 
 used per pound of oil in atomization and the temper- 
 ature of the outgoing chimney gases was 400, and 
 that of the inlet temperature of the steam 381.9, we 
 see at once that 
 
 H sa = .47 X -53 (400381.9) = 4.51 B. t. u. per 
 pound of oil burned. 
 
 c. Total loss in atomization. If now the steam 
 supply in atomization is taken from the boiler under 
 test, or even brought from a separate supply, it is clear 
 that the total loss so sustained is the sum of H a and 
 H sa . Hence the total loss H ta in atomization is 
 
 H ta = H a +H sa (10) 
 
 In the case at issue then, 
 
 H ta = 562.44 + 4.51 = 566.95 B. t. u. 
 
262 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 (g) Loss due to moisture in entering air. 
 
 All air drawn into a furnace holds in suspension 
 a certain amount of moisture. In previous instances 
 of moisture entering the flue gas it is seen that a loss is 
 sustained in superheating this moisture content to the 
 temperature of the outgoing chimney gases. Let M a 
 be the pounds of air that enter the furnace per pound 
 of fuel burned, and let K be the proportion by weight 
 of moisture in this entering air, then the loss in heat 
 units H ma due to this moisture may be expressed at 
 once by the formula 
 
 H mB = .47 M a K (t g t.) (11) 
 
 In the illustration cited in this case it was found 
 that there were 22.82 pounds of chimney gas formed, 
 which means that 21.82 pounds of air were draw r n 
 into the furnace to burn one pound of fuel oil ; that the 
 entering moisture represented .75 per cent of the en- 
 tering air which found its \vay into the furnace at a 
 temperature of 84 and escaped from the chimney at 
 a temperature of 400. 
 
 Therefore 
 
 H ma == .47 (21.82) X -0075 (40084) = 23.18 B.t.u. 
 
 (h) Stray losses. 
 
 In order to make a perfect balance between all of 
 of the various factors entering a heat balance, the 
 residual heat of each pound of oil not otherwise ac- 
 counted for is thrown into a column headed "Stray 
 Losses." It is clearly evident that this loss is equal to 
 the calorific value of the fuel per pound less the sum of 
 all the heat accounted for in the various columns cited 
 above. Hence if H s represents the stray losses per 
 pound of fuel, and H the calorific value of one pound 
 of fuel oil under test, we may write the formula as 
 follows : 
 
 H 8 =H (H n +H m +H h +H s +H c +H ta +H ma ) ... (12) 
 
 and in the case at issue by summarizing the columns 
 we find this to be 18151.06 B. t. u. 
 
 /. H s == 19450 18151.06 = 1298.94 B. t. u. 
 
HEAT BALANCE 263 
 
 (i) Total Calorific Value or Summary. 
 
 We are now in a position to summarize the com- 
 plete heat balance. The various items just discussed 
 will be seen to be represented both in B. t. u. per pound 
 and in percentages, as follows : 
 
 Summary for Heat Balance 
 
 Heat 
 
 Losses Avail- 
 in B. t. u. % able 
 
 Total B. t. u. in 1 pound water free oil.. 19450 
 
 (a) a. In total heat absorbed by 
 
 boiler 14639.00 
 
 b. Heat absorbed for atomiza- 
 
 tion . 562.44 
 
 c. Net heat absorbed for power 14076.56 72.37 
 
 (b) Loss due to moisture in fuel 11.67 .06 
 
 (c) Loss due to moisture of burning- H 1166.97 6.00 
 
 (d) Loss due to heat carried away by gases 1503.91 7.73 
 
 (e) Loss due to incomplete combustion of C. 801.82 4.12 
 
 (f) a. Loss due to evaporation of 
 
 steam for atomization 562.44 
 
 b. Loss due to superheating of 
 
 steam by atomization 4.51 
 
 c. Total loss due to atomization 566.95 2.92 
 
 (g) Loss due to moisture of entering air.... 23.18 .12 
 
 (h) Stray losses 1298.94 6.68 
 
 19450.00 100.00 19450 
 
 The Net Boiler Efficiency. In fuel oil central sta- 
 tion practice, due to the fact that a portion of the 
 steam generated in the boiler is used for atomization, 
 we need further definition for true boiler efficiency 
 than the notation set forth in the Rules for Boiler Tests 
 advised by the Power Test Committee of the Ameri- 
 can Society of Mechanical Engineers. Further com- 
 ment on this point will be made in the next chapter. 
 Suffice it to say here, how r ever, that the net boiler ef- 
 ficiency B ne for the boiler w r ill be considered as that 
 resulting from taking the ratio of the heat H n repre- 
 sented in the useful steam evaporated by the boiler 
 per pound of oil fired to the total heat H given out 
 by each pound of oil burned. Thus 
 
 Hn 
 
 B ne ' = - (13) 
 
 H 
 
 In the data set forth in the heat balance just com- 
 puted we find then that 
 
264 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERED 
 
 14076.56 
 
 B ne = - - = 72.37% 
 
 19450 
 
 The Boiler Efficiency as a Steaming Mechan- 
 ism. In case, however, it is desired to ascertain the 
 boiler efficiency B e as a steaming mechanism, it would 
 then of course be proper to compute this boiler effi- 
 ciency B e by taking the ratio of the total heat H t ab- 
 sorbed by the steam for each pound of oil fired to the 
 total heat H actually given out by each pound of fuel 
 oil fired. Thus 
 
 H t 
 
 (14) 
 
 H 
 
 Under such a definition the boiler data set forth in 
 the heat balance would indicate a boiler efficiency, 
 thus 
 
 14639 
 
 B e = - - 75.27% 
 19450 
 
 The data from which the heat balance and boiler 
 efficiency illustration was computed in this chapter is 
 summarized as follows : 
 
 Summary of Data Used 
 Calorific value of dry fuel oil per pound ............ 19,450 B. t. u. 
 
 Equivalent evaporation of water per hour ............ 28,225 Ib. 
 
 Consumption of dry fuel oil per hour ................ 1 872 Ib. 
 
 Steam used in atomlzation per Ib. of dry fuel oil ..... 520 Ib. 
 
 Temp, of saturated steam used in atomization ...... 381.9 F. 
 
 Temp, of feed water ................................ 169.1 F. 
 
 Per cent of moisture in fuel oil ...................... 1.0% 
 
 Temp, of entering fuel oil ........................... 96 F. 
 
 Temp, of flue gases .................................. 400 F. 
 
 Hydrogen content of fuel ........................... 11.0% 
 
 Carbon content of fuel ................. . ............ . 86. % 
 
 Temp, of entering air ............................... 84 F. 
 
 Weight of dry chimney gases per Ib. of dry fuel ..... 19.83 Ib. 
 
 Weight of entering air per Ib. of dry fuel oil ........ 21.82 Ib. 
 
 Carbon dioxide in flue gas ........................... 9.79% 
 
 Carbon monoxide in flue gas ........................ 1.00% 
 
 Moisture of entering air from boiler room ............ .75% 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 SUMMARY OF SUGGESTIONS FOR FUEL 
 OIL TESTS AND THEIR TABULATION 
 
 The rules for conducting boiler performances, as 
 advised by the Power Test Committee of the Ameri- 
 can Society of Mechanical Engineers, covers in won- 
 derful detail the setting forth of apparatus and tabula- 
 tion of data for such performances, when coal is em- 
 ployed as a fuel. Only brief mention is, however, made 
 for alterations necessary when crude petroleum is used 
 as a fuel. Since a greater number of engineers would 
 probably be inconvenienced than those actually bene- 
 fited by attempting to make a set of rules broad enough 
 to cover both performances by coal and by oil as fuels, 
 an appendix should be drawn up to satisfy standard- 
 ized conditions of test for oil fired boilers. This lack 
 of standardized performance has caused considerable 
 confusion in those communities where oil is used as a 
 fuel. 
 
 The most glaring source of confusion is that relat- 
 ing to boiler efficiency. Sonie engineers maintain that 
 boiler efficiency is the ratio of heat actually transferred 
 from the fuel through the metallic parts of the boiler 
 to the total quantity of heat given out by the fuel. 
 When coal is used as a fuel this definition is perfectly 
 proper, but when oil is the fuel employed confusion is 
 at once introduced, due to the fact that as a rule a cer- 
 tain amount of the steam generated must be utilized 
 to atomize the oil in the furnace. In the last chapter it 
 was shown that the efficiency of an oil fired boiler 
 computed on one assumption in a specific instance is 
 75.27 per cent, and on another assumption it becomes 
 but 72.37 per cent. 
 
 Let us then discuss some of the points wherein 
 additional instructions are desirable to properly con- 
 duct boiler tests where oil is used as the fuel for heat 
 production. 
 
 265 
 
266 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Efficiency for Oil Fired Boilers Defined. Per- 
 haps the most important point is to come to some 
 definite decision relative to an exact manner of arriv- 
 ing at the efficiency of the boiler as above alluded to. 
 In. this work we shall consider that the true efficiency 
 of the boiler and furnace is to be found by taking the 
 ratio of the heat represented in the steam after deduct- 
 ing the heat used for atomization purposes to the total 
 quantity of heat given out by the fuel, as set forth 
 in the last chapter. On the other hand to compute the 
 efficiency of the boiler shell as a steam producing 
 agent, we shall take the ratio of the heat of all steam 
 generated in the boiler for a given consumption of 
 fuel to the total heat given out by the fuel. The effi- 
 ciency of a boiler and furnace is as a rule reduced from 
 2 to 5 per cent over the boiler efficiency as a steam 
 producing agent, as shown in the previous paragraph. 
 
 Upon invitation of the Power Test Committee of 
 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the 
 authors of this work have presented proposals to the 
 Society to meet this growing need in standardization. 
 
 In these tables the item numbers have been re- 
 tained as far as possible to correspond with the item 
 numbers in the code of 1915. The principal changes 
 consist in the following : The omission of reference to 
 grates and grate surface and substituting therefor the 
 number of oil burners and dimensions of furnace ; the 
 omission of reference to ash, combustible, firing data, 
 etc., but introducing instead items connected with the 
 steam used for atomizing the oil at the burner. The 
 term "net efficiency" is also introduced, by which is 
 meant the efficiency of the boiler as discussed on 
 page 263. 
 
 In addition to the tabulations submitted, the 
 writers have suggested that the appendix in the Code 
 Rules be amplified so as to include a description of 
 methods for obtaining gravity of oils, flash point, the 
 water content and the viscosity. These determina- 
 tions could be fully described and included in Appen- 
 dix Xo. 14, beginning with paragraph 287 under the 
 heading "Analysis of Liquid Fuels." 
 
TABULATION OF TEST DATA 267 
 
 TABULATION OF FUEL OIL TEST DATA 
 
 Table 1. Data and Results of Evaporative Test. 
 
 Adapted from Code of 1915 
 
 (1)* Test of boiler located at 
 
 to determine conducted by 
 
 (2) Number and kind of boilers 
 
 (3) Kind of furnace 
 
 (a) Type of burner 
 
 (b) Make of burner 
 
 (c) Number of burners 
 
 (4) Furnace dimensions width length height. . . . 
 
 (a) Approximate area of air opening's in furnace floor. .. .sq. in. 
 
 (b) Approximate area of air openings around burners. .. .sq. in. 
 
 (c) Total area of air openings sq. in. 
 
 (d) Total area of air openings per rated horsepower sq. ft. 
 
 (e) Volume of furnace cu. ft. 
 
 (f) Distance from furnace floor to nearest heating surface. . . .ft. 
 
 (5) "Water heating surface sq. ft. 
 
 (6) Superheating surface sq. ft. 
 
 (7) Total heating surface sq. ft. 
 
 Date, Duration, Etc. 
 
 (8) Date 
 
 (9) Duration hr. 
 
 (10) Kind of fuel oil 
 
 (a) Gravity of fuel oil at 60 deg. (specific gravity) 
 
 (b) Gravity of fuel oil at 60 deg. (Baume scale) 
 
 (c) Flash point of oil deg. 
 
 (d) Viscosity of oil at deg deg. Engler. 
 
 (e) Method of atomizing oil 
 
 Average Pressures, Temperatures, Etc. 
 
 (11) Steam pressure by gage in boiler Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 (a) Steam pressure at superheater outlet Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 (b) Steam pressure at oil burners Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 (c) Oil pressure at burner Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 (d) Barometric pressure ins. of mercury. 
 
 (12) Temperature of steam at superheater outlet deg. 
 
 (a) Normal temperature of saturated steam deg. 
 
 (b) Temperature of steam at oil burner deg. 
 
 (c) Temperature of oil at burner deg. 
 
 (13) Temperature of feed water entering boiler deg. 
 
 (a) Temperature of feed water entering economizer deg. 
 
 (b) Increase of temperature of water due to economizer. . . .deg. 
 
 (14) Temperature of gases leaving boilers deg. 
 
 (a) Temperature of gases leaving economizer deg. 
 
 (b) Decrease of temperature of gases due to economizer. . .deg. 
 
 (c) Temperature of furnace deg. 
 
 (15) Draft between damper and boiler ins. of water 
 
 (a) Draft in main flue near boilers ins. 
 
 (b) Draft in main flue between economizer and chimney. .. .ins. 
 
 (c) Draft in furnaces ins. 
 
 (d) Draft in ash pits ins. 
 
 (16) State of weather 
 
 (a) Temperature of external air deg. 
 
 (b) Temperature of air entering- ash pit deg. 
 
 (c) Relative humidity of air entering ash pit per cent. 
 
 Quality of Steam 
 
 (17) Percentage of moisture in steam or number of degrees 
 
 of superheating per cent, or deg. 
 
 (18) Factor of correction for quality of steam 
 
 Total Quantities 
 
 (19) Weight of fuel oil as flredt Ib. 
 
 (20) Percentage of water in fuel oil as fired per cent. 
 
 (21) Total weight of water free fuel oil consumed Ib. 
 
 (25) Total weight of water fed to boiler Ib. 
 
 (26) Total water evaporated corrected for quality of steam. . .Ib. 
 
 (a) Total weight of steam fed to burner Ib. 
 
 (b) Steam fed to burner in per cent, of total water 
 
 evaporated per cent. 
 
 *These numbers correspond in so far as possible with numbers 
 given in the A. S. M. E. Code of 1915. 
 
 fThe term "as fired" means actual conditions, including moisture. 
 
268 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 (27) Factor of evaporation, based on temperature of 
 
 water entering boilers 
 
 (28) Total equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg.f lb. 
 
 Hourly Quantities and Rates 
 
 (29) Oil free from water consumed per hour lb. 
 
 (30) Oil free from water per hour per burner lb. 
 
 (a) Oil free from water per cu. ft. of furnace volume 
 
 per hour lb. 
 
 (31) Water evaporated per hour, corrected for quality of 
 
 steam lb. 
 
 (a) Steam fed to burners per hour lb. 
 
 (b) Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. of 
 
 steam fed to burner per hour lb. 
 
 (32) Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 deg.f lb. 
 
 (33) Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 
 
 deg. per sq. ft. of water heating surface lb. 
 
 Capacity 
 
 (34) Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 
 
 deg. (same as line 32 ) lb. 
 
 (a) Boiler horsepower developed (line 32 -f- 34%) Bl. H. P. 
 
 (35) Rated capacity per hour, from and at 212 deg lb. 
 
 (a) Rated boiler horsepower Bl. H. P. 
 
 (36) Percentage of rated capacity developed per cent. 
 
 Economy 
 
 (37) Water fed per lb. of fuel oil as fired (item 25-^-iteml9) . . .lb. 
 
 (38) Water evaporated per lb. of water free fuel oil (item 
 
 26 -=- item 21) lb. 
 
 (39) Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per lb. 
 
 of fuel oil as fired (item 28 -=- item 19) lb. 
 
 (40) Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per lb. 
 
 of water free fuel oil (item 28 -f- item 21) lb. 
 
 (a) Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. of 
 
 steam fed to burner per lb. of fuel oil free from 
 
 water (item 26a X item 27 -=- item 21) lb. 
 
 (b) Net equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per 
 
 lb. of oil free from water (item 40 < item 40a) lb. 
 
 Calorific Value 
 
 (42) Calorific value of 1 lb. of fuel oil as received by 
 
 calorimeter B. t. u. 
 
 (a) Calorific value of 1 lb. of water free fuel oil B. t. u. 
 
 Efficiency 
 (44) Efficiency of boiler and furnace. 
 
 Item 40 X 970.4 
 
 100 X Per cent. 
 
 Item 42a 
 
 (a) Net .efficiency of boiler and furnace. 
 
 Item 40b X 970.4 
 
 100 X Per cent. 
 
 Item 42a 
 
 Cost of Evaporation 
 
 (46) Cost of fuel oil per bbl. of 42 gals, delivered in boiler 
 
 room dollars. 
 
 (47) Cost of fuel oil required for evaporating 1000 lb. of 
 
 water under observed conditions dollars. 
 
 (48) Cost of fuel oil required for evaporating 1000 lb. of 
 
 water from and at 212 deg dollars. 
 
 fThe symbol U. E., meaning Units of Evaporation, may be sub- 
 stituted for the expression "Equivalent Evaporation from and at 
 212 deg." 
 
TABULATION OF TEST DATA 269 
 
 Smoke Data 
 
 (49) Percentage of smoke as observed per cent. 
 
 (a) Weight of soot per hour obtained from smoke meter 
 
 (51) Analysis of Dry Gases by Volume. 
 
 (a) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) per cent. 
 
 (b) Oxygen (O) per cent. 
 
 (c) Carbon monoxide (CO) per cent. 
 
 (d) Hydrogen and hydrocarbons per cent. 
 
 (e) Nitrogen, by difference (N) per cent. 
 
 (53) Ultimate analysis of fuel oil. 
 
 (a) Carbon (C) per cent. 
 
 (b) Hydrogen (H) per cent. 
 
 (c) Oxygen (O) per cent. 
 
 (d) Nitrogen (N) per cent. 
 
 (e) Sulphur (S) per cent. 
 
 (f ) Ash per cent. 
 
 100 per cent. 
 
 (g) Water in sample of fuel oil as received per cent. 
 
 (55) Heat balance, based on fuel oil free from water: 
 
 Fuel Oil Free FromWater 
 B. t. u. Per Cent. 
 
 (a) a. Total heat absorbed by boiler. . 
 
 b. Heat absorbed for atomization 
 
 c. Net heat absorbed for power. . . 
 
 (b) Loss due to water in fuel oil 
 
 (c) Loss due to water from burning H 
 
 (d) Loss due to heat carried away by 
 
 dry gases For numerical 
 
 (e) Loss due to carbon monoxide..... example com- 
 
 (f) a. Loss due to evaporation of pletely solved, 
 
 steam for atomization see page 263. 
 
 b. Loss due to superheat of steam 
 
 used for atomization 
 
 c. Total loss due to atomization. . . 
 
 (g) Loss due to moisture in entering 
 
 air 
 
 (h) Stray losses 
 
 (i) Total calorific value of 1 Ib. of fuel 
 
 oil free from water (item 42a) 100 
 
 Table 2 
 Principal Data and Results of Boiler Test 
 
 (1) Oil Burners. No Type Make 
 
 (2) Total heating surface sq. ft. 
 
 (3) Date 
 
 (4) Duration hr. 
 
 (5) Kind and gravity of fuel oil 
 
 (6) Steam pressure by gage Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 (a) Oil pressure at burner Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 (7) Temperature of feed water entering boiler deg. 
 
 (a) Temperature of oil at burner deg. 
 
 (8) Percentage of moisture in steam or number of de- 
 
 grees of superheating per cent, or deg. 
 
 (9) Percentage of water in oil per cent. 
 
 (10) Oil free from water per hour Ib. 
 
 (11) Oil free from water per hour per burner Ib. 
 
 (12) Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 deg Ib. 
 
 (13) Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 deg. 
 
 per sq. ft. of heating surface Ib. 
 
 (14) Rated capacity per hour, from and at 212 deg Ib. 
 
 (15) Percentage of rated capacity developed per cent. 
 
 (16) Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per Ib. 
 
 oil free from water Ib. 
 
 (a) Per cent, of total steam used by burner percent. 
 
 (17) Net equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per 
 
 Ib. of oil free from water (deducting steam used 
 
 by burner) Ib. 
 
 (18) Calorific value of 1 Ib. of oil as received, by calorimeter. .B.t.u. 
 
 (19) Calorific value of 1 Ib. of oil free from water B.t.u. 
 
 (20) Efficiency of boiler and furnace per cent. 
 
 (21) Net efficiency (deducting steam used by burners). .. .per cent. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 THE USE OF EVAPORATIVE TESTS IN IN- 
 CREASING EFFICIENCY OF OIL 
 FIRED BOILERS 
 
 To the operating engineer it may seem that the 
 somewhat elaborate rules for conducting evaporative 
 tests of steam boilers are of little interest. It 
 is his province to run the boilers as economically as 
 he can, to keep them clean and in proper repair, and 
 above all to keep the plant in continuous operation. 
 There is one very important function of boiler tests, 
 however, which makes them invaluable to the broad- 
 gage operating engineer who is desirous of securing 
 the best possible results from his plant. This is the 
 use of the evaporative test as a guide in determining 
 what is the best furnace arrangement, the best style 
 of oil burner, and the best draft conditions for the par- 
 ticular boilers he is operating. Thus by making a care- 
 ful test under certain conditions and then making an- 
 other test, or sometimes a series of tests, under differ- 
 ent conditions, it is possible to determine from the rel- 
 ative efficiencies obtained just how the boiler should 
 be operated. It will not be out of place, therefore, to 
 discuss briefly the various changes that may be made 
 in the boiler operation, which when intelligently car- 
 ried out will lead to higher efficiencies. 
 
 Furnace Arrangement. Perhaps the most impor- 
 tant part of an oil fired boiler is its furnace arrange- 
 ment. In a previous chapter a number of different fur- 
 naces were described, but it was not stated which was 
 the most efficient. This must be determined by test- 
 ing the boiler under actual operating conditions, first 
 with one furnace arrangement, then with another, be- 
 ing guided in making changes by the results obtained 
 in the different tests. It is impossible to design a fur- 
 
 270 
 
INCREASING EFFICIENCY 271 
 
 nace that will be right for all conditions, as with dif- 
 ferent grades of fuel oil or different makes of boiler or 
 different draft conditions, different furnace arrange- 
 ments are required. Fortunately it is possible to make 
 minor changes in the furnace very easily, as these in- 
 volve usually only an alteration of the location of fire 
 brick on the furnace floor. It is thus possible to in- 
 crease or decrease the size of air openings, or to change 
 them in such a way as to allow more air to enter at 
 one part of the furnace, such as directly under the 
 flame, and less at another part where it is not needed. 
 It is also possible, without much difficulty, to alter a 
 furnace that has been designed for a front shot burner 
 and make it suitable for a back shot burner, and thus 
 it may be found by actual tests which of these two 
 types of furnace is best suited to the particular boiler. 
 
 In testing the different arrangements it is very 
 important to test the boiler for capacity as well as 
 economy, as it may sometimes happen that the fur- 
 nace that is most efficient at ordinary loads is not 
 capable of forcing the boiler enough to carry the heavy 
 loads sometimes required. In such a case it may be 
 necessary to adopt a less efficient furnace, as it is 
 usually of supreme importance for the boiler to be 
 capable of carrying an overload when required. 
 
 Oil Burners. Boiler tests are of great value in 
 determining what make and style of oil burner is the 
 best to use under the given conditions. In testing oil 
 burners it is of extreme importance to measure the 
 steam used by the burner and determine the net effi- 
 ciency of the boiler; for one kind of burner may pro- 
 duce better furnace efficiency than another, and yet 
 use so much steam for atomizing as to make it an un- 
 economical burner to use. After deciding on the type 
 of burner to use, tests should be made with varying 
 quantities of atomizing steam with the same burner, 
 the object being not to find out the least quantity of 
 steam that may be used for atomizing but to deter- 
 mine the quantity of steam that secures the best net 
 efficiencv of the boiler. 
 
UJ - 
 
 O e8 ft 
 
 o gc 
 
 Q g'aJ'S.c: 
 
 Q. "03* ^ 'S 2 
 
 - 3 .M^O- 
 
 ~ &D : O 0) O. 
 
 _J <p 03 M +J 
 
 o 5 
 
 " 
 
 Illltl 
 
 18 O -3 as ft a, 
 
 o> O S i> 3 -^ 
 
INCREASING EFFICIENCY 273 
 
 The temperature and pressure of the oil are inti- 
 mately connected with the quantity of atomizing 
 steam required. In the case of mechanical atomiza- 
 tion, such as is used in marine work, high pressure and 
 high temperatures are used and no steam is required. 
 In general it may be said that the hotter the oil and 
 the higher its pressure, the less atomizing steam is 
 needed. Different oils require different temperatures, 
 and the temperature should always be kept well below 
 the flash point of the oil. By testing the boiler with the 
 oil first at one temperature and then at another, and 
 varying the quantity of steam to suit, much informa- 
 tion can be obtained as to the most economical method 
 of operation. 
 
 Apart from the quantity of steam used, other 
 changes that may be made in the burner consist in 
 varying the size of the steam and oil slots, altering the 
 height of the burner in reference to the furnace floor, 
 and changing the angle of the flame in reference to 
 the grates. 
 
 Draft. The quantity of air entering the furnace 
 depends on the intensity of the draft, and the area of 
 openings for the admission of air to the furnace. The 
 quantity of air may be reduced by partially closing the 
 boiler damper or the ash pit doors, or it may be in- 
 creased by enlarging the openings in the furnace floor. 
 Thus it is possible to operate with large openings and 
 light draft, or with small openings and strong draft. 
 A careful test of the boiler will determine at once 
 which of these conditions gives the best results. If 
 the load on the plant is variable it is necessary to have 
 the air openings large enough to admit sufficient air 
 for the maximum load at full draft. Then for lighter 
 loads the damper or ash pit doors must be operated. 
 When making tests the readings of the draft gage at 
 various points in the setting should be carefully ob- 
 served, and loss of draft due to the gases passing 
 through the setting noted. Thus, if the draft in the 
 furnace is .2 in. and the draft in front of the damper is 
 .3 in., there is a loss of 1 in. between the damper and 
 the furnace. This loss of draft varies with the volume of 
 
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
INCREASING EFFICIENCY 275 
 
 gases just as the drop in pressure due to steam flowing 
 through an orifice varies with the quantity of steam 
 flowing. If the quantity of excess air increases, there- 
 fore, the loss of draft also increases. By connecting a 
 draft gage so as to measure the difference in the draft 
 at the two points, it will serve as an approximate indi- 
 cator of the amount of excess air. 
 
 Flue Gas Analysis for Maximum Efficiency. The 
 analysis of the flue gases serves as an accurate means 
 of determining how to set the dampers, and is the most 
 valuable guide in securing the best efficiency, both 
 during an evaporative test and in regular operation. 
 In general, it may be said that the best efficiency is ob- 
 tained when the greatest percentage of carbon di- 
 oxide (CO 2 ) occurs, without the presence of carbon 
 monoxide (CO). If CO begins to appear in the gas 
 analysis it is useless to increase the CO 2 further, as any 
 gain due to reducing the excess air is more than offset 
 by the loss due to incomplete combustion. The pres- 
 ence of CO is always more harmful than is indicated 
 by the calculated loss for unconsumed carbon, for if 
 carbon is only partially consumed it is certain that 
 some of the hydrogen is also passing off unconsumed 
 in the form of hydrocarbons, thus causing a far greater 
 loss. This loss due to unconsumed hydrogen does not 
 appear 'in the ordinary gas analysis, and it is in con- 
 nection with this item that the heat balance is of 
 special value. Item (h) of the heat balance, which is 
 found by subtracting the heat accounted for from the 
 heat supplied, includes the loss due to unconsumed hy- 
 drogen, and if accurate tests are made it will be found 
 that this item is always greater the more CO is found 
 in the gases. 
 
 If the furnace is properly designed it should be 
 possible to secure l3 l / 2 % to 14% CO 2 , with not over 
 3% oxygen, and without a trace of CO, using not over 
 15% or 20% excess air. These results must be se- 
 cured to give the best economical results, and if they 
 cannot be secured by changing the draft or the burn- 
 ers, it will then follow that there is something wrong 
 with the furnace arrangement. 
 
276 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 It will be found that there is a very intimate rela- 
 tion between the furnace, the burner, and the draft. 
 Thus the intensity of draft and amount of atomizing 
 steam that give best results with one furnace, may 
 give poor results with another; yet by readjusting the 
 dampers and burner valves to suit the new conditions, 
 better results than ever may be obtained. With too 
 much steam the flame may be carried too far beyond 
 the air openings, causing a poor mixture of air and 
 
 A TYPICAL AUTOMATIC SYSTEM OF CONTROL 
 
 Diagramatic View, showing Manner of Control for the Oil, the 
 Ashpit and the Damper: 
 
 A. Master Controller E. Single Bearings I. Damper Weights 
 
 B. Double Oil Strainer F. Damper Arms J. Interlocking Damper 
 
 C. Oil Gage G. devices K. Special Brackets 
 
 D. Regulator H. Damper Hubs 
 
 gases. This would result in a poor gas analysis, al- 
 though the total quantity of air may be correct. 
 
 There are so many variations that can be made, 
 that it is usually impractical to make a complete 
 evaporative test for each set of conditions. It is pos- 
 sible, however, to obtain comparative data in a single 
 test, by varying the conditions at the end of each hour, 
 or each two hours. By carefully observing the quan- 
 
INCREASING EFFICIENCY 
 
 277 
 
 tity of oil and water used each hour, a fairly accurate 
 comparison of efficiencies under different conditions 
 may be obtained. This, combined with the flue gas 
 analysis, makes a valuable guide for efficient opera- 
 tion. 
 
 BOILER OPERATION REPORT 
 PACIFIC GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE DEPT 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON BOILER No. IN STATION 
 
 DATE OBSERVATIONS BY 
 
 RATED H.P TUBES HIGH TUBES WIDE No. DRUMS 
 
 tttn 
 Ho 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tr&t 
 He 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 SureHitcATtD STEAM las 
 
 
 
 
 
 ZV 
 
 UMOIH GnATE /.' W\m 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 SATUHATfD STfAM 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 IH FvHMAVe 
 
 
 
 
 (A 3 
 
 STEAM AT BOXHM 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 Ar A 
 
 
 
 
 - 4 
 
 Oil IN LIME 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 ? * 
 
 OIL AT BuAjecn 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 i * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 J> 
 
 
 
 
 $ 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 36 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 u 3o/t*/ Hoon 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 37 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 Feco WATCP 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 38 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 StlPCXHlATCO STtAM 
 
 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 n. 
 
 $ATU*ATfD $TfA*1 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 I* BtttcmHO 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 *L Oft. Te &unHf*3 
 
 
 
 
 
 4* 
 
 i - Oun.tr 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 J, es Ar A 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 /* $TACJ< 
 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 > 7 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-f 
 
 
 
 
 
 * '8 
 
 - J> 
 
 
 
 
 
 44, 
 
 cot AT *C' Voi. IN H 
 
 
 
 
 S 11 
 
 ' E 
 
 
 
 
 ^ . 
 
 47 
 
 o . . . 
 
 
 
 
 * 20 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 }' 
 
 f* 
 
 CO ' ' 
 
 
 
 
 r 2 , 
 
 " -X O 
 
 
 
 
 
 *7 
 
 CO*. AT 'I' ' \ - 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 " H 
 
 
 
 
 iJ 
 
 SO 
 
 Of' , . , 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 SI 
 
 co 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 LfAVItfC 0>l.f* 
 
 
 
 
 
 4Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 2S 
 
 ENTEHiits eco*omur* 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 tt 
 
 ENTCIUHG 5 TACK 
 
 
 
 
 
 *4 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SS 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S(> 
 
 
 
 
 
 TYPICAL FORM FOR BOILER OPERATION REPORT 
 
 Here is how the Pacific Gas & Electric Company, a corporation 
 operating the largest system of oil-fired steam power plants in the 
 world, keeps its records on evaporative tests for bettering power 
 plant economy. 
 
 Regulation When an oil fired boiler is in opera- 
 tion there are three variables under control of the fire- 
 man, viz. : 
 
278 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 The quantity of oil burned. 
 
 The quantity of atomizing steam used, and 
 
 The quantity of air supplied. 
 
 The quantity of oil burned is determined by the 
 amount of steam required in the plant, and must be 
 varied accordingly. When there are several boilers in 
 battery the amount burned under each boiler may be 
 varied by operating the oil valves at the burners, or 
 the total amount in the plant may be changed by alter- 
 ing the oil pressure at the oil pump. Whenever the 
 quantity of oil burned is varied, there should be a cor- 
 responding variation in the quantity of atomizing 
 steam and the quantity of air. 
 
 There are now on the market devices which regu- 
 late all three variables automatically according to the 
 load on the plant. Illustrations of automatic firing 
 systems are shown on pages 12, 274, and 276. The es- 
 sential requisites for a device of this kind are that it 
 shall be reliable in operation, and that when it has once 
 been set to give proper CO 2 readings at certain loads, 
 it will always come back to the same position for the 
 same load. While it is possible under test conditions 
 to secure just as high efficiency w r ith hand regulation 
 as with the automatic, it will usually be found that 
 the automatic regulator produces better every-day 
 economy under operating conditions. 
 
 Records. Complete evaporative tests cannot be 
 made every day in an ordinary plant, but it is possible 
 to take sufficient observations to secure a daily rec- 
 ord of the important items entering into the operation 
 of a boiler. A form that is convenient for such a rec- 
 ord is illustrated in the accompanying cut. By care- 
 fully studying these records, together with the results 
 of evaporative tests, it is possible to maintain the 
 operation of a boiler plant at a very efficient point. 
 
 By operation at the most efficient point we save 
 and it is well to remember in these days of national 
 crisis, that "to save is to serve." 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 
 
 Problem No. 1 The mean effective pressure of a single- 
 acting oil engine cylinder under test is found from an indi- 
 cator card to be 43.9 Ib. per sq. in.; the cylinder has 47.5 
 working strokes per minute; the diameter of the cylinder is 
 30 in.; and the length of stroke is 30 in. 
 
 What is its horsepower? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 By reference to formula for horsepower computation, we 
 find for 
 
 30 
 
 P 43.9, L , A .7854 (30) 2 , and N = 47.5 that 
 12 
 
 PLAN 43.9 X 2.5 X 706.9 X 47.5 
 H. P. - - = 111.7 
 
 33000 33000 
 
 Problem No. 2 In a turbine test the atmr spheric 
 barometer reduced to the 32 F. standard of measurement, 
 read 29.93 in. 
 
 If the condenser vacuum reduced to the same standard 
 read 28.23 in. of vacuum, what was the absolute pressure in 
 the condenser? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Barometer for day 29.93 in. 
 
 Vacuum maintained 28.23 in. 
 
 Pressure in condenser in inches of mercury. . 1.70 in. 
 14.696 Ibs. per sq. in. = 29.92 in. of mercury. 
 
 14.696 29.92 
 
 X 1.70 
 
 14.696 
 
 X = - - X 1.70 = .835 Ibs. per sq. in. ab- 
 29.92 solute pressure in 
 
 condenser. 
 
 279 
 
280 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Problem No. 3 A 10,000 kw. turbine under test operated 
 with a gage reading of 171.5 Ib. per sq. in. The gage, how- 
 ever, read one pound too low. The computed absolute pressure 
 was found to be 187.2 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 What was the barometer reading for the day? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Absolute pressure = 187.2 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 Corrected gage pressure 
 
 (171.5 + 1) .= 172.5 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 14.696 29.92 
 
 14.7 X 
 
 29.96 
 
 X =: - - X 14.7 = 29.93 in. of mercury ba- 
 14.696 rometer reading 
 
 for the day. 
 
 Problem No. 4 A corrected atmospheric barometer read- 
 ing is found to be 29.942 in. of mercury on the 32 F. standard. 
 How many Ibs. per sq. in. does this represent? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 To convert to Ib. per sq. in. by formula in the chapter 
 on pressures: 
 
 I 29.921 
 
 P 14.696 
 or 29.942 = 2.046 P 
 
 .'. P = 14.670 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 Problem No. 5 A corrected barometer reading is 29.937 
 in. of mercury on the 30-inch vacuum standard. 
 What is the pressure in Ib. per sq. in.? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 To convert to Ibs. per sq. in. from formula in the 
 chapter on pressures : 
 
 In, 30 
 
 P 14.7 
 
 or 29.937 = 2.041 P 
 
 .'. P = 14.668 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 281 
 
 Problem No. 6 (a) At what temperature do the Fahren- 
 heit and Centigrade scales read the same? Fahrenheit and 
 Reamur? Centigrade and Reamur? 
 
 (b) Assuming the absolute zero of the Fahrenheit scale 
 to be 459.6 F. compute the absolute zero on the Centigrade 
 and Reamur scales. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 (a) Fahrenheit and Centigrade. 
 Relation is given by formula: 
 
 F 32 = 9/5C 
 When the scales have identical numerical readings, then 
 
 F r= C X 
 Substituting in formula 
 
 X 32 = 9/5X 
 
 4X = 160 or X = 40 
 
 .'. 40F = 40C. 
 
 Fahrenheit and Reamur. 
 Relation is given by formula: 
 
 F 32 = 9/4R 
 
 Let F = R = X, then X 32 = 9/4X 
 5X = 128, or X = 25.6 
 
 .'. 25.6F. = 25.6R. 
 
 Centigrade and Reamur. 
 Relation is given by formula: 
 
 C = 5/4R 
 Let C = R = X, then X = 5/4X 
 
 4X = 5X or X = 
 
 .'. 0C = 0R 
 
 (b) Absolute zero = 459.6 F. 
 
 Let us substitute this value of F in the general relation- 
 ship, and we have 
 
 F 32 9/5C 
 and we have 
 
 459.6 32 = 9/5C 
 
 9C = 2458 or C = 273.1 absolute zero on 
 
 Cent, scale. 
 Similarly for the relationship 
 
 F 32 = 9/4 R 
 we have 
 
 459.6 32 = 9/4R 
 
 9R = 1966.4 
 
 R = 218.049 = absolute zero on 
 Reamur scale. 
 
282 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Problem No. 7 The temperature of the steam entering 
 a turbine during a test was found to be 521.2 F.; the correc- 
 tion for stem exposure of the thermometer was 5.6 F.; the 
 corrected steam gage reading 172.5 Ib. gage; and the at- 
 mospheric barometer read 14.7 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 What was the superheat of the steam? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Thermometer reading on entering steam = 521.2 
 Correction for stem exposure ==+ 5.6 
 True temp, of steam entering turbine = 526.8 F. 
 Absolute pressure = 172.5 + 14.7 = 187.2 Ib. 
 From steam tables the temperature cor- 
 responding to this pressure of satu- 
 rated dry steam = 376.4 F. 
 .'. Degrees of superheat = 526.8 376.4 = 150.4 
 
 Problem No. 8 The temperature of the superheated 
 steam entering a turbine during a test was found to be 544.8 
 F. The pressure of the steam in the main was 182 Ibs. abs. 
 
 What was the superheat of the steam? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 By reference to Table 2 of the steam tables the temper- 
 ature of saturated steam corresponding to 182 Ibs. pressure 
 is found to be 374.0 F. Subtract this value from the temper- 
 ature of the steam entering the turbine and the result will 
 be the degrees of superheat, or 
 
 544.8 374.0 = 170.8 F. superheat 
 
 Problem No. 9 Regnault's classic formula for total heat 
 of saturated steam is: 
 
 H = 1091.7 + 0.305 (t 32) 
 
 Compute the total heat of saturated steam at the boiler 
 pressure corresponding to 382.3 F. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Substituting, we have 
 
 H = 1091.7 + 0.305 (382.332) 
 = 1091.7 + 106.84 
 = 1198.54 B. t. u. per Ib. 
 From tables H = 1198.2 
 
 1198.54 1198.2 .34 
 
 .'. Error ; 
 
 1198.2 1198. T 
 
 = .0284% 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 283 
 
 Problem No. 10 Compute the total heat of saturated 
 steam at 382.3 F. by the formula: 
 
 H = 1150.3 + 0.3745 (t 212) 0.000550 (t 212) 2 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Substituting the value of temperature, we have 
 H =: 1150.3 + 0.3745 (382.3212) 0.000550 (382.3 212) 2 
 
 = 1150.3 + 63.78 15.95 
 
 = 1198.13 B. t. u. per Ib. 
 
 From tables H 1198.2 
 
 1198.2 1198.13 .07 
 . ' . Error = = 
 
 1198.2 1198.2 
 
 = .00585% 
 
 Problem No. 11 The specific volume of saturated steam 
 is represented on page 104 of Marks and Davis Steam Tables 
 by the formula : 
 
 S = 28.424 0.01650 (t 320) 0.0000132 (t 320) 2 
 Find the specific volume of steam for t = 382.3. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Substituting, we have 
 
 8 = 28.424 0.01650 (382.3 320) 0.0000132 (382.3 320) 2 
 = 28.424 .862 .036 
 = 29.525 
 
 N. B. This formula evidently does not check up at all for 
 this temperature, since the specific volume for a temperature 
 of 382.3 F. is 2.279 from the steam tables. 
 
 Problem No. 12 The mean specific heat of steam is repre- 
 sented mathematically on page 92 of Marks & Davis Steam 
 Tables by the formula: 
 
 C m = 0.9983 0.0000288 (t 32) 0.0002133 (t 32) 2 
 What is the mean specific heat of steam for t = 382. 3F.? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Substituting, we have 
 
 C,,, = 0.9983 0.0000288 (382.3 32) +0.0002133 (382.3 32)- 
 = 0.9983 0.0000288 (350.3) +0.0002133 (350.3) 2 
 = 0.9983 0.0101 + 26.17 
 =i 27. 1582 Mean specific heat. 
 
 Evidently a mistake is made in translating the last term 
 of this formula from its original source, for it should be 
 .0000002133 (t 32) 2 . On this basis, we have that 
 
 C m = 0.9983 0.0101 + .02617 = 1.0346 
 In the steam tables the heat of liquid for 382 is 355.0 
 B. t. u. and for 383 is 356.1 B. t. u. Hence the mean specific 
 
284 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 heat Cm is approximately 1.1, which indicates tliat I ad the 
 decimal points been carried further the specific heat ap- 
 proaches that set forth in the above correction. 
 
 Problem No. 13 At a certain central station there are 
 four 773 boiler horsepower Parker boilers. These boilers were 
 used to give a 10,000 kw. load at the terminals of a turbine 
 which has an over-all efficiency of 21 per cent. What was 
 the percentage of overload on the boilers? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 10000 
 
 = 47,600 kw. actually taken from boilers 
 
 .21 (neglecting losses in steam mains) 
 
 Since 1 hp. = .746 kw. 
 
 47600 
 
 63,800 mechanical horsepower actually taken off 
 .746 boilers. 
 
 From discussion in text, we have 
 
 34.5 X 970.4 X 777.5 
 
 - = 13.14 = ratio of boiler horsepower to 
 60 X 33000 mechanical horsepower. 
 
 63,800 
 
 .'. - - = 4850 Bl. h. p. actually taken from boiler. 
 13.14 
 
 4 X 773 = 3092 Bl. h. p. rated capacity. 
 
 48503092 
 
 .-. - - X 100 = 56.8% overload. 
 
 3092 
 
 Problem No. 14 A Parker boiler under test operated 
 with the following conditions: Steam pressure 179.7 Ibs. 
 gage; temperature of feed water entering boiler was 
 123.4 F.; barometer for the day read 30.1 inches of mercury. 
 
 Find the factor of evaporation for: (a) steam super- 
 heated 182 F.; (b) dry superheated steain; and (c) 5% wet 
 steam. 
 
 Solution. 
 30.10 X 
 
 = - - or X = 14.78 Ib. per sq. in. atmosp! eric read- 
 
 29.92 14.696 ing of day. 
 
 Gage reading = 179.7 pounds 
 
 Atmospheric pressure = 14.78 pounds 
 
 .'. Abs. pressure of boiler = 194.48 pounds 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 285 
 
 From Steam Tables: 
 
 hj = heat of liquid at absolute boiler pressure.. r= 352.45 
 L! = latent heat of evaporation at absolute boiler 
 
 pressure = 845.2 
 
 H! =! total heat of steam at absolute pressure... = 1197.65 
 h 2 = heat of liquid at temperature of entering 
 
 feed water = 91.3 
 
 H s = total heat of superheated steam (194.48 Ib. 
 
 pressure and 182 superheat) = 1297.99 
 
 X = quality of steam = .95 
 
 Hs h 2 1297.99 91.3 1206.69 
 
 (a) F e = - = 1.243 
 
 970.4 970.4 970.4 
 
 Hj h 2 1197.65 91.3 1106.35 
 
 (b) Fe = - 1.141 
 
 970.4 970.4 970.4 
 
 ! h a 352.45+.95X845.2 91.3 
 (c) Fe = - 
 
 970.4 970.4 
 
 1065.25 
 
 = 1.097 
 
 970.4 
 
 Problem No. 15 In a boiler test, the temperature of 
 the feed water entering the boiler was 170.7 F., the steam 
 pressure was 144 pounds gage, and the barometer read 29.28 
 inches of mercury. 
 
 Find the factor of evaporation for: (a) dry saturated 
 steam; (b) 10 per cent wet steam; (c) steam superheated 
 125 F. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 29.28 X 29.28 
 
 - or X = X 14.696 = 14.38 Ibs. per sq. in 
 
 29.92 14.696 29.92 atmospheric 
 
 pressure. 
 Boiler gage reading =: 144. Ib. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure = 14.38 Ib. 
 
 .'. Abs. boiler pressure = 158.38 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 From Steam Tables: 
 
 hj = heat of liquid at absolute boiler pressure. . 334.7 
 L, = latent heat of evaporation at absolute boiler 
 
 pressure = 859.6 
 
286 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Hj = total heat of steam at absolute boiler 
 
 pressure ............................. = 1194.34 
 
 h,> = heat of liquid at temperature of entering 
 
 feed water ........................... = 138.57 
 
 H S = total heat of superheated steam (158.38 Ib. 
 
 pressure and 125 superheat) .......... = 1263.88 
 
 H, h, 1194.34138.57 1055.77 
 
 (a) P e = - 1.08S 
 
 970.4 970.4 970.4 
 
 , h 3 334.7+.90X859.6 138.57 969.13 
 
 (b) F, - 
 
 970.4 970.4 970.4 
 
 = .999 (where X = quality of steam) 
 
 Hs h, 1263.88138.57 1125.31 
 
 (c) F, = - 1.159 
 
 970.4 970.4 970.4 
 
 Problem No. 16 What is the equivalent evaporation in 
 Ib. of water per hr. from and at 212 F. if the water fed to a 
 boiler has a total weight of 64494 Ib. and the factor of evapo- 
 ration is 1.193 Ib.? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 By applying the fundamental formula developed in the 
 text, we have at once equivalent evaporation from and at 
 
 212 F. = 64494 X 1.193 = 76950 Ibs. " 
 
 Problem No. 17 Compute the factor of evaporation for 
 a boiler generating dry saturated steam under a pressure of 
 98.1 Ib. per sq. in. abs. and receiving its feed water at 
 58.8 F. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Total heat of saturated steam at 98.1 Ibs. abs. = 1186. 
 
 Heat of liquid at temperature 58.8 F. = 26.88 
 
 1186 26.88 
 
 .'. Fe = - - = 1.193 
 
 970.4 
 
 Problem No. 18 What is the weight of equivalent water 
 evaporated to dry steam from and at 212 F., if the total 
 weight of water actually evaporated is 53,688 Ibs. and the 
 factor of evaporation is 1.193? 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 287 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Weight of equivalent water evaporated to dry steam 
 
 from and at 212 F. = 53688 X 1.193 = 64,150 
 
 Problem No. 19 The equivalent evaporation of a boiler 
 under test is 5940 Ibs. of water per hour, and the total heating 
 surface of the boiler is found to be 2031 sq. ft. 
 
 What is the average equivalent evaporation per sq. ft. 
 of water heating surface per hour? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 The average equivalent evaporation per sq. ft. of water 
 heating surface per hour is evidently 
 
 5940 
 
 - = 2.93 
 2031 
 
 Problem No. 20 The equivalent evaporation of a boiler 
 under test is found to be 5940 Ib. of water per hour. 
 \Vhat is the boiler horsepower of the boiler? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 By definition 
 
 5940 
 
 Bl. H. P. - = 172.2 
 34.5 
 
 Problem No. 21 The rated horsepower of a boiler is 
 given by the builders as 210 Bl. h. p. Under test 172.2 Bl. h. p. 
 were actually developed. 
 
 What was the percentage of boiler capacity developed? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Capacity of boiler as developed in percentage is 
 
 172.2 
 
 X 100 82% 
 
 210 
 
 Problem No. 22 What is the equivalent evaporation per 
 Ib. of coal as fired in a boiler under test when the weight of 
 equivalent water evaporated to dry steam from and at 212 
 F. is 64150, and the total weight of fuel consumed as fired is 
 8012? 
 
 Solution. 
 Equivalent evaporation per Ib. of coal as fired = 
 
 64150 
 
 - = 8.00 
 8012 
 
288 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Problem No. 23 From a Parker boiler test covering a 
 period of 8 hrs., the following data were taken: 
 
 Steam pressure (gage) 185.3 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 Atmospheric barometer 30.2 in. 
 
 Temp, of water entering the boiler 169.1 F. 
 
 Temp, of steam leaving the superheater 
 
 drum 527. F. 
 
 Specific gravity of the oil at 60 F 9705 
 
 Percentage of water in the oil 7 of 1 % 
 
 Calorific value of oil per Ib 18,752 B. t. u. 
 
 Weight of oil as fired 15,084 Ib. 
 
 Total weight of water fed to boiler. 205,277 Ib. 
 
 What is the degree of superheat of the steam leaving the 
 superheater? 
 Solution. 
 
 30.2 
 
 Barometer reading = 30.2 in. or - = 14.83 Ib. per sq in. 
 
 2.036 
 
 Steam pressure abs. = 185.3 + 14.83 = 200.13 Ib. per sq. in. 
 From tables t x = 381.9 
 
 Temp, of steam leaving superheater drum = 527 F. 
 .'. 527 -- 381.9 = 145.1 superheat 
 
 Problem No. 24. What is the gravity of the oil in de- 
 grees Baume in Problem 23? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 For light liquids: 
 
 140 
 Sp. gr. = - 
 
 130 + Deg. Baume 
 
 140 
 .9705 =3 
 
 130 + Deg. Baume 
 .9705 (Deg. Baume) = HO 130 X .9705 
 
 140 130 X .9705 
 .'. Deg. Baume == : 
 
 .9705 
 13.84 
 
 14.26 
 
 .9705 
 
 Problem No. 25 What is the weight of the oil corrected 
 for moisture in Problem 23? 
 
MEASURING APPAR- 
 ATUS III 
 
 13 C 
 
 .C 
 
 M c 
 43 
 
 i* 
 
 II 
 
 If 
 
 o> j. 
 
 fc. 0) 
 
 3S 
 
 condenser need careful at- 
 ic economic operation of 
 power plant. On the left 
 the vacuum gage, barom - 
 
 ermometer installed be- 
 st and second pass of the 
 
 ie. Note the vacuum of 
 i the atmospheric barom- 
 
 of 30.1 ins. To the right 
 recording meters for inlet 
 
 emperatures of the circu- 
 e r, steam temperature, 
 
 steam pressure, and the 
 of the condensate. The 
 
 1| 
 
 03 "^ 
 
 *J 
 
 OJ S 
 0) Ctf 
 
 -^ c 
 
 .2 5 
 
 5^ 
 
 3 -> 
 3 cC 
 
 c 
 
 a. 
 
 'B 
 H 
 
 d 
 
 'c 
 t. 
 
 <2 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 L, 
 
 > 
 
 2 
 O 
 
 2 * 
 |1 
 
 4> 
 
 5 . 
 
 
 
 03 *J 
 
 5 a 
 
 43 
 
 P 
 
 be C 
 
 Q) >g 
 
 1 
 
 ed 3 
 
 C 'O 
 
 l 
 
 -C o 
 
 1- 
 
 C 
 
 I 
 
 >> 
 
 ECON 
 
 is 
 
 <D oj 
 
 A % 
 
 H 
 
 through 
 tention 
 
 la 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 5 .5 
 
 C 
 
 1! 
 
 -> oi 
 cr< <M 
 
 cC 
 
 
 S Oj 
 
 13 B 
 
 vacuum 
 tempera 
 
 Klaxon 
 board si 
 
 pressure 
 stallatio 
 
 ll 
 
 w C 
 
 o U 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 289 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Percentage of water in the oil .7 of 1% 
 
 Wt. of oil as fired = 15,084 Ib. 
 
 /. 15,084 X .007 = 105.6 Ib. = Wt. of water in oil 
 Weight of oil corrected for moisture = 
 
 15,084 105.6 = 14,978.4 Ib. 
 
 Problem No. 26 What is the factor of evaporation in 
 Problem 23? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Hs h 2 
 
 Factor of evaporation = - (for superheated steam) 
 
 970.4 
 
 From problem 23, P 1 = 200.13 Ib. per sq. in. and 145.1 super- 
 heat. 
 
 .'. From tables H s = 1280.1 B. t. u. 
 Also from problem 23 P 2 = 14.83 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 .'. From tables h, = 136.96 B. t. u. 
 
 1280.1 136.96 
 Factor of evaporation = 
 
 970.4 
 
 = 1.178 
 
 Problem No. 27 Determine the equivalent evaporation 
 from and at 212 F. from Problem 23. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Total wt. of water fed to boiler = 205,277 Ib. 
 
 Duration of test = 8 hrs. 
 
 Equivalent evaporation Water evaporation per hr. 
 
 X factor of evaporation = 
 
 205,277 
 
 - X 1.178 30227 Ib. 
 8 
 
 Problem No. 28 What is the boiler horsepower devel- 
 oped in A. S. M. E. rating in Problem 23? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 F. 
 H. P. - 
 
 34.5 
 
 30227 
 
 - = 876 
 34.5 
 
290 FUEL OIL .AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Problem No. 29 What is the equivalent evaporation 
 from and at 212 F. per Ib. of oil as fired in Problem 23? 
 
 Solution. 
 Wt. of oil as fired = 15,084 Ib. 
 
 15,084 
 
 Wt. of oil as fired per hr. - - 1,885.5 Ib. 
 
 8 
 
 Equivalent evaporation = 30,227 
 
 Equivalent evap. from and at 212 per Ib. of oil as fired 
 
 30,227 
 
 - 16.03 lb.- 
 
 1,885.5 
 
 Problem No. 30 What is the equivalent evaporation 
 from and at 212 F. per Ib. of oil corrected for moisture in 
 Problem 23? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Wt. of oil corrected for moisture = 14,978.4 Ib. 
 Wt. of oil corrected for moisture per hr. 
 
 14,978.4 
 
 _L,o<^.o ID. 
 
 Equiv. evap. from and at 212 per Ib. of oil corrected 
 for moisture =: 
 
 30,227 
 = 16.144 Ib. 
 
 1,872.3 
 
 Problem No. 31 What is the efficiency of the boiler in 
 Problem 23? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Ht. abs. by boiler per unit of time 
 Boiler eff. = 
 
 Ht. in fuel fed to furnace per unit of time 
 30,227 X 970.4 
 
 1872.3 X 18,752 
 
 = 83.29% 
 
 Problem No. 32 Assuming the steam was just saturated 
 and not superheated in the above, what would be the factor of 
 evaporation in Problem 23? 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 291 
 
 Solution. 
 
 H, h, 
 
 Factor of evaporation - (for saturated steam) 
 
 970.4 
 
 From Problem 23 P x = 200.13 Ib. per sq in. 
 
 P 2 = 14.83 Ib. per sq in. 
 
 From Tables H, = 1198.1 B. t. u. 
 
 h 2 136.96 B. t. u. 
 
 1198.1 136.96 
 .'. Factor of evaporation = - 
 
 970.4 
 
 1061.14 
 
 - 1.093 
 970.4 
 
 Problem No. 33 Assuming the steam to be 97% dry, 
 what would be the factor of evaporation in Problem 23? 
 
 Solution. 
 
 D! + XLj h 2 
 
 Factor of evap. = - - (wet steam) 
 
 970.4 
 
 From Prob. 23, P x = 200.13 Ib. per sq in. 
 P 2 = 14.83 Ib. per sq. in. 
 From tables h a heat of liquid at 200.13 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 = 354.9 B. t. u. 
 h 2 = heat of liquid of entering feed water 
 
 r= 136.96 B. t. u. 
 Lj latent heat of evap. at 200.13 Ib per sq. in. 
 
 =1 843.2 B. t. u. 
 X = % dry steam = .97 
 
 354.9 + .97 X 843.2 136.96 
 Factor of evap. = - 
 
 970.4 
 
 354.9 + 817.9 136.96 
 
 970.4 
 1035.84 
 
 970.4 
 
 = 1.068 
 
APPENDIX II 
 Conclusions and Recommendations on Petroleum 
 
 During recent months considerable investigation 
 has been made looking toward conservation of fuel. In 
 California, Governor W. D. Stephens appointed a 
 notable committee consisting of Max Thelen, who is 
 president of the California Railroad Commission, 
 
 as chairman, David Folsom, professor of mining at 
 Stanford University and Pacific Coast fuel adminis- 
 trator, and Eliot Blackwelder, professor of geology at 
 
 292 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 293 
 
 the University of Illinois, in order that a study might 
 be made of the conservation of fuel in the West. 
 During the latter part of 1917, this committee made 
 an exhaustive report and dealt with the situation in a 
 masterly manner. So important are its findings, that 
 the conclusions and recommendations of this commit- 
 tee are here reproduced in full : 
 
 I. CONCLUSIONS 
 1. Utilization. 
 
 Far beyond the borders of California, her petroleum and 
 its products play a vital part in commerce and industry. 
 
 California fuel oil operates the Panama Canal; the great- 
 er part of the steam railroads of Washington, Oregon, Califor- 
 nia, Nevada, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico; the steamship 
 lines along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to Alaska and across 
 the ocean to Hawaii; the artificial gas plants of California, 
 Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Arizona and Hawaii; the mines 
 and smelters of California, Nevada and Arizona; the cement 
 plants and sugar refineries of California; and a substantial 
 portion of the manufacturing, industrial and agricultural en- 
 terprises of the Pacific Coast States of the Union. 
 
 California fuel oil supplies the Pacific Coast fuel re- 
 quirements of the United States Navy and Army and of the 
 various state and municipal governments. 
 
 Radiating from California, north, west and south, Cali- 
 fornia fuel oil, to a considerable extent, operates the railroads 
 and industries of western Canada; the sugar refineries and 
 railroads of Hawaii; and the railroads, steamship companies, 
 mines and smelters of the west coast of Central and South 
 America. 
 
 The products of California petroleum, such as kerosene, 
 gasoline, distillates, lubricants and road oils, meet the require- 
 ments of Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, 
 Alaska and Hawaii. California kerosene is shipped in enor- 
 mous quantities to China, Japan, India and Australia, and to 
 the western coast of Central and South America. California 
 distillates and lubricants are sold in nearly every important 
 state of the United States, as well as in England, Canada and 
 Australia. 
 
 Important as is the part which California petroleum and 
 its products have heretofore played in the industrial life of 
 the nation during times of peace, much more important is the 
 part which the state should play and will play, if possible, in 
 
294 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 meeting the emergency in the simply of fuel oil, 
 lubricants, create.d by the war. 
 
 and 
 
 ,' 2. Production 
 
 California produces between one-fourth and one-fifth of 
 the world's supply of. petroleum. One-third of the entire sup- 
 ply of the United States is produced in California. 
 
 The year of California's greatest production was 1914, in 
 which year 103,620,000 barrels were produced. Production fell 
 in 1915, to 89,570,000 barrels, and increased slightly in 1916 to 
 91,820,000 barrels. 
 
 Graphical Display of Petroleum Production 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that a net average of 52 new 
 wells was added to the producing wells of California during 
 each month from January to May, 1917, inclusive, and the fact 
 .that drilling during these months was more active -thAn during 
 any other period in the last three or four years, the daily pro- 
 duetion was slightly less in May than in January. 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 295 
 
 Unless the measures hereinafter recommended ftir in- 
 creasing production are adopted, it is improbable that the pro- 
 duction in 1917 will exceed the 1916 production by more than 
 2,000,000 barrels, if at all. 
 
 From the data available to us, we are convinced that 
 the public can not hope for further substantial increases in 
 California's annual petroleum supply by the discovery of im- 
 portant new fields or of large extensions of existing fields. 
 
 3. Consumption 
 
 The consumption of California petroleum in 1916 was 
 104,930,000 barrels, being more than 13,100,000 barrels greater 
 than the production. The excess was taken from storage. 
 
 Consumption in 1916 outran production an average of 
 1;100,000 barrels per month and 35,650 barrels per day. 
 
 During the first five months of 1917, consumption outran 
 production 5,415,000 barrels, being 1,083,000 barrels per month 
 and 35,860 barrels per day. 
 
 Due to normal increase in consumption as well as the ad- 
 ditional extraordinary requirements of the war which are al- 
 ready being felt, it is doubtful whether consumption in 1917 
 can be reduced below the consumption of 1916, notwithstand- 
 ing the substitution of other fuel for power and the further 
 possibilities of conservation pointed out in this report. 
 
 Consumers of California petroleum will shortly face a 
 condition of decreasing production and increasing demand. 
 This condition points inevitably to the necessity of develop- 
 ing other sources of fuel or power. 
 
 4. Storage 
 
 Crude oil stocks in California have fallen from 57,147,000 
 barrels on December 31, 1915, to 44,036,000 barrels on Decem- 
 ber 31, 1916, a reduction during the year of 13,110,000 barrels,: 
 or 23 per cent. 
 
 Standard Oil Company reports that during the first five 
 months of 1917 the field and pipe line crude oil stocks of all 
 companies were further depleted as follows: 
 
 Storage Depletion 
 1917 in Barrels. 
 
 January 976,036 
 
 February 1,031,960 
 
 March . 854,333 , 
 
 April 1,197,475 ' 
 
 May 1,355,318 
 
 Total. 5,415,122 
 
 The total remaining storage on June 1, 1917, is reported 
 to have been slightly in excess of 38,000,000 barrels. 
 
296 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 A portion of the crude oil in storage can not be utilized 
 because it is located below the outlets of tanks and reservoirs 
 or Is being used for the operation of oil pipe lines or for other 
 reasons. Of the total stocks on June 1, 1917, not in excess 
 of 32,000,000 barrels were available for use. Of this amount, 
 12,000,000 barrels were refining oil and would yield approxi- 
 mately 7,000,000 barrels of residuum. On June 1, 1917, there 
 were available from crude oil stocks approximately 27,000,000 
 barrels for fuel. 
 
 If the present excess of consumption over production, 
 amounting to an average of 1,083,000 barrels per month, con- 
 tinues, the entire available storage of California fuel oil will 
 be exhausted by June 1, 1919. 
 
 If a margin of safety of 10,000,000 barrels of fuel oil is 
 maintained, and if the present relationship between produc- 
 tion and consumption continues, the margin of safety for fuel 
 oil will be reached by September 20, 1918. 
 
 If consumption is materially increased, as seems likely, 
 both because of normally increased requirements, as well as 
 the extraordinary requirements of the war, or if production 
 decreases, as seems likely unless the relief herein recom- 
 mended is given, both the margin of safety and the complete 
 depletion of all California stocks will be reached considerably 
 prior to the dates indicated. 
 
 The principal railroads of California, with the exception 
 of the Southern Pacific Company, have made the necessary 
 arrangements to meet their requirements for at least one 
 year. 
 
 At the present rate of production by Kern Trading and 
 Oil Company, the Southern Pacific Company's fuel oil bureau, 
 bearing in mind also the purchase of fuel oil by the Southern 
 Pacific Company, including 1,000,000 barrels bought from 
 Union Oil Company and not as yet drawn on, and bearing in 
 mind also the Southern Pacific Company's consumption of 
 fuel oil, the Kern Trading and Oil Company's storage of fuel 
 oil will be exhausted by December, 1917, unless the recently 
 augmented drilling operations of Kern Trading and Oil Com- 
 pany increases the Southern Pacific Company's production 
 and unless the Southern Pacific Company effects a substantial 
 saving of fuel oil by converting to coal those portions of its 
 system which are located in proximity to the coal fields of 
 Washington, the Rocky Mountain States and New Mexico. If 
 the receipts of fuel oil by the Southern Pacific Company de- 
 crease or its consumption increases, the depletion of its stocks 
 will occur before December 1, 1917. 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 
 
 297 
 
 If the Kern Trading and Oil Company's storage should 
 be exhausted, it would be necessary for Southern Pacific Com- 
 pany to enter the market to purchase oil from general 
 stocks in storage, which amounted on June 1, 1917, to slightly 
 over 38,000,000 barrels. These stocks are owned principally 
 by Standard Oil Company and Union Oil Company. If these 
 companies should be unwilling to sell to the railroads fuel oil 
 from their storage, we assume that the federal government 
 would have the right to commandeer the stocks and to compel 
 their delivery for the operation of the railroads as long as the 
 stocks hold out. Such action, if on a large scale, would neces- 
 sarily deprive other important industries of petroleum and its 
 products. 
 
 5. Conservation 
 
 Field losses of petroleum in the California fields have 
 been almost entirely eliminated and the amount of fuel oil 
 used in field drilling and pumping has been largely reduced 
 
 Diagramatic Representation of Refining the Product 
 
 by the substitution of natural gas and electric energy. The 
 operators are now generally taking steps to reduce the re- 
 maining use of approximately 8500 barrels of fuel oil daily by 
 the installation of jacks and electric motors. The use of fuel 
 oil in the fields for pumping and drilling can not be entirely 
 eliminated. 
 
 The principal petroleum refineries of California are 
 working on improved processes of refining. The amount of 
 
2.98 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 crude oil which is being refined is increasing and a propor- 
 tionally larger amount of gasoline and lubricants is also being 
 secured. The result has been a large surplus of kerosene 
 which it has been necessary to export to the Orient, Australia 
 and Central and South America. 
 
 Mexican petroleum was substituted early in 1917 for Cal- 
 ifornia petroleum amounting to approximately 2,750,000 bar- 
 rels annually, heretofore sold by Union Oil Company in Chili. 
 A considerable portion of the remaining 3,000,000 barrels of 
 California fuel oil sold in 1916 on the west coast of Central 
 and South America, including the Panama Canal, can like- 
 wise be saved by the substitution of Mexican petroleum from 
 the fields of Tampico and Tuxpam. By reason principally of 
 
 s , Comparison of Coal and Fuel Oil Production 
 
 transportation difficulties, Mexican petroleum will not be 
 available, during the war, as a further substitute for more 
 than 3 per cent of California petroleum. After the termina- 
 tion of the war and the resumption of normal transportation 
 conditions, we may assume that Mexican petroleum will play 
 an important part in the commerce and industry of a consid- 
 erable portion of the Pacific coasts of North, Central and 
 South America. 
 
 Coal can not be substituted for California fuel oil to any 
 substantial extent during the war because of present difficul- 
 ties in the production and transportation of coal. Approxi- 
 mately 1,000,000 barrels of California fuel oil will be saved 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 299 
 
 in the ensuing year in the Northwest by the substitution of 
 coal for California fuel oil by the Oregon Short Line and other 
 industries. The Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad Com- 
 pany and The Western Pacific Railroad ! Company are^ con- 
 verting a portion of their systems in Utah and Nevada from 
 California fuel oil to coal produced in the Rocky Mountain 
 States. The Southern Pacific Company and the Atchison, 
 Icpeka and Santa Fe Railway Company can also gradually 
 convert from fuel oil to ccal those portions of their systems 
 which are in proximity to the coal fields of the Northwest, the 
 Rocky Mountain States and New Mexico. Apart from what 
 has already been accomplished and the further possibilities 
 herein indicated, there is little possibility of further conver- 
 sion from California fuel oil to coal during the war, unless the 
 conditions surrounding the production and transportation of 
 coal materially change. 
 
 Powdered coal has been successfully used in cement 
 plants, stationary boilers or power plants , and metallurgical 
 furnaces. One cement plant in the Northwest has recently 
 converted its plant from California fuel oil to powdered coal, 
 resulting in a saving of 84,000 barrels of California fuel oil 
 annually. Apart from a possible slight additional saving in 
 the Northwest, it is not reasonable to expect that powdered 
 coal will be further substituted for California fuel oil -during 
 the war. 
 
 Hydro-electric energy has already been substituted to a 
 considerable extent for California fuel oil in industrial and 
 agricultural uses, but the difficulty in securing copper aiid 
 other material and the disturbance of existing conditions are 
 such that large additional savings of California fuel oil by 
 the substitution of hydro-electric energy can not be antici- 
 pated during the war. A small saving of California fuel oil 
 can be effected, during the war, by the further substitution of 
 electric motors for fuel oil in the California oil fields and by 
 such interconnection between the systems of various electric 
 companies as will eliminate or reduce the necessity of/ main- 
 taining steam electric plants. After the termination of the 
 war and the restoration of normal industrial conditions, we 
 may expect that hydro-electric energy will play an increas- 
 ingly important part as a substitute for fuel oil in all ; the 
 Pacific Coast States in which such energy is available. 
 
 Natural gas has already been substituted to almost the 
 entire extent of its supply, for fuel oil in the California 
 petroleum fields, and for fuel oil and artificial gas for higher 
 industrial and domestic uses. The maximum production of 
 
300 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 natural gas in the California petroleum fields has been reached 
 and it is not to be anticipated that natural gas will, to any 
 substantial extent, further replace other forms of fuel. 
 
 We conclude that during the war some further saving 
 of California fuel oil is possible by elimination of losses and 
 substitution of other forms of fuel or power, but that no 
 
 Comparative Uses of Crude Petroleum 
 
 large saving can be effected without very serious impairment 
 to the efficiency of the transportation systems and industries 
 of the Pacific Coast. 
 
 The great importance of gasoline and lubricants must be 
 recognized and steps should be taken as soon as reasonably 
 possible to the end that no more unrefined petroleum is 
 burned by any railroad company or other industry. No part of 
 California- petroleum should be thus burned except the 
 residuum left after refining. 
 
 If a sufficient amount of fuel oil can not be secured from 
 Mexico after the war, the railroads and other industries of 
 the Pacific Coast must gradually make arrangements to use 
 other forms of energy, such as hydro-electric energy or pow- 
 dered coal. 
 
 6. The Remedy 
 
 The remedy which imperatively presents itself in view 
 of the emergency created by the war is the prompt and sub- 
 stantial increase in the production of California petroleum. 
 
 While we do not desire to minimize the results which 
 can be accomplished and should be accomplished by the fur- 
 ther diminution of field losses, the higher use of petroleum 
 and its products and the substitution of other forms of fuel 
 or power, during the war as well as thereafter, the cardinal 
 fact remains that the only means which will be effective in 
 a large way to meet the present emergency is a prompt, sub- 
 stantial increase in production. 
 
 We estimate that this increased production should 
 amount to more than 30,000 barrels per day, and that such in- 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 301 
 
 creased production can not reasonably be expected before 
 June 1, 1918. 
 
 Each difficulty standing in the way of prompt and sub- 
 stantial increased production must be quickly solved, if the 
 increase is to forestall a serious industrial crisis. 
 
 7. Increased Production Material 
 
 The necessary increased production can not be secured 
 unless large additional amounts of oil well casing, drill stem 
 pipe and other oil well material are promptly brought into 
 California. 
 
 The oil well supply houses report that they can fill no 
 orders for complete drilling outfits in addition to those already 
 taken. 
 
 The larger oil companies have on hand or have hereto- 
 fore placed orders for enough material to complete their 1917 
 drilling operations as heretofore planned, but no material for 
 additional drilling beyond such plans. Many small operators 
 report that they would drill if they could secure the necessary 
 material, but that it has been impossible for them to secure 
 such material, even at the high prices now prevailing. 
 
 Receiver Payne reports that he is willing to drill, if 
 authorized by the federal court, but that he does not know 
 where he could secure the necessary material unless the fed- 
 eral government should take the necessary steps to assist the 
 California producers. 
 
 In our opinion, the only way to meet the situation, in 
 view of the existing conditions, is to have the federal gov- 
 ernment direct the manufacturers of oil well supplies to de- 
 vote sufficient capacity of their plants to supply the require- 
 ments of oil producers in California and other sections of 
 the United States, and to direct the railroads to transport such 
 supplies promptly. 
 
 8. Increased Production Labor 
 
 Over 80 per cent of the laborers who are employed in 
 the oil fields and refineries are skilled men, most of whom 
 it would be difficult to replace. If any considerable number of 
 these men are taken from their present employment it will be 
 impossible to increase the production of petroleum in Cali- 
 fornia, and difficult even to maintain the present production. 
 
 About 4 per cent of these men have already left their 
 employment and have volunteered for service in the various 
 branches of the Army and Navy. About 40 per cent of these 
 employees have registered for the draft. 
 
 We suggest the advisability of drawing this situation 
 to the attention of the federal government. 
 

 J-. 
 
 "III 
 
 be 
 
 T3 C K 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 303 
 
 9. Increased Production The Land 
 
 In order to secure an increase of 30,000 barrels per day 
 in the production of California petroleum, drilling must be 
 done on the land which will yield the largest production in 
 the shortest time by the expenditure of the smallest amount 
 of drilling material and labor. 
 
 In Chapter X of this report we have presented the 
 salient facts regarding the productivity of the petroleum lands 
 of the state, together with our conclusions as to where the 
 land most available for prompt increased production is lo- 
 cated. We conclude that such lands are located in order of 
 productivity, with due regard to time and economy of drilling 
 material, in (1) the Buena Vista Hills (Midway field), (2) the 
 Coyote Hills and La Merced fields (Whittier-Fullerton field) 
 (3) the Sunset field, and (4) the East Coalinga field. 
 
 Of the most desirable undrilled lands, approximately 70 
 per cent are involved in litigation with the federal govern- 
 ment. Nearly one-half of the best undrilled proved petroleum 
 lands of the state are claimed by Kern Trading and Oil Com- 
 pany, the fuel oil bureau of the Southern Pacific Company, 
 under patents heretofore issued to Southern Pacific Railroad 
 Company. Of the remaining lands in litigation, a part of the 
 most productive undrilled land is in the possession of Howard 
 M. Payne, federal receiver. 
 
 The most promising land in the Coyote Hills and La 
 Merced fields is owned by Standard Oil Company and partly 
 by Union Oil Company. This land is not involved in litiga- 
 tion. The wells in this district, however, are much deeper 
 than in the Midway field and the limits of the productive 
 territory have not as yet been thoroughly proved. 
 
 The desirable Buena Vista Hills lands are practically all 
 located in Naval Reserve No. 2. A considerable area, how- 
 ever, of presumably productive undrilled proved land, which 
 in our judgment should be promptly and intensively drilled, 
 is located in the Sunset field and in the east Coalinga field. 
 The larger portion of these lands is claimed by Kern Trading 
 and Oil Company. A portion of them, particularly in the Sun- 
 set field, is in the possession of the federal receiver. These 
 latter lands, in our judgment, should be promptly drilled, not 
 merely because of the large production which can presumably 
 be secured therefrom, but also because water is known to be 
 encroaching on them and probably will ruin them in large 
 measure unless they are promptly drilled. 
 
 The oil companies which own undisputed patented lands 
 of presumed heavy productivity are under a grave responsibil- 
 
304 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 ity to increase production in the present emergency. With 
 the possible exception of one of the large companies, we are 
 of the opinion that these oil companies are striving earnestly 
 to meet this responsibility. Some operators are drilling wells 
 which entail the expenditure of large amounts of material 
 and labor for a relatively small production. 
 
 A review of the situation shows that the present emer- 
 gency can not be met without the assistance of the federal 
 government. 
 
 We shall not undertake to pass judgment on the broad 
 questions of governmental policy which might be affected by 
 further intensive drilling in Naval Reserve No. 2. These ques- 
 tions must be left to the wisdom and the justice of the fed- 
 eral government when the government is in possession of all 
 the facts, among which facts should be included the past and 
 present drilling operations which have been and are now be- 
 ing carried on in this reserve, the effect of such drilling on 
 the amount and availability of the remaining oil content of 
 the reserve, the productivity and availability of the lands in 
 the reserve as compared with all other oil lands in .the state, 
 and the extent of the present emergency as contrasted with 
 Hhe possible future needs of the nation. 
 
 We desire, however, to direct attention emphatically to 
 the fact that a considerable portion of proved productive ter- 
 ritory, hitherto undrilled, is located outside of the naval re- 
 serves; that further development of most of this land has 
 been stopped by litigation with the federal government; that 
 the policy of the federal government which has resulted in 
 the creation of Naval Reserves Nos. 1 and 2 can have no 
 possible application to these lands which are not claimed or 
 needed for the Navy, and that with the help of the federal 
 government substantially increased production can be secured 
 from these lands. 
 
 We desire, further, to draw attention to the fact that 
 unless the federal government can bring about most radical 
 changes in the supply of drilling material, the transportation 
 of petroleum and the development of the land, the increased 
 production of over 30,000 barrels per day, which in our judg- 
 ment is necessary, can not be secured without some addi- 
 tional drilling in Naval Reserve No. 2. 
 
 After a careful review of the entire situation and con- 
 ferences with all interested parties, we have reached the 
 following conclusions with reference to production on the 
 lands now in litigation outside of the naval reserves: 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 305 
 
 (1) As to the lands not in the possession of the federal 
 receiver, being largely lands claimed by Kern Trading and 
 Oil Company (Southern Pacific Company), we conclude that 
 joint action should at once be taken by the federal govern- 
 ment and the claimants to such lands to petition the federal 
 court to permit the claimants to drill intensively under some 
 equitable arrangement by which both the federal government 
 and the claimants will be protected, the federal government 
 to be protected as to the value of the petroleum extracted in 
 case the government should win the litigation and the claim- 
 ants to be protected to the extent at least of their expendi- 
 tures incurred under such stipulations in case they should 
 lose the litigation. 
 
 (2) As to the lands in the possession of the federal 
 receiver, we conclude that the receiver should be promptly 
 permitted or directed by the federal court, of which he is an 
 officer, to drill additional wells in such territory as gives 
 promise of substantially increased production. If the author- 
 ity of the federal congress is necessary to authorize the re- 
 ceiver to use for this purpose funds now in his hands or here- 
 after acquired, we conclude that the necessary legislation 
 should be speedily enacted. 
 
 10. Increased Production Transportation 
 When the conversion of the Standard Oil Company's 
 six-inch pipe line from the Whittier-Fullerton field to the re- 
 finery at El Segundo to a ten-inch line has been completed, 
 the oil pipe lines of California, if properly administered and 
 correlated, will be sufficient to take care of the pipe line 
 transportation of such increased production as may reason- 
 ably be anticipated. 
 
 The legislature of California has declared that oil pipe 
 lines are common carriers and are subject to the jurisdiction 
 of the Railroad Commission. The question whether the oil 
 pipe line statutes are constitutional has been submitted to 
 the Supreme Court of the state of California. If the legisla- 
 tion is sustained, the Railroad Commission will have author- 
 ity to supervise the oil pipe lines so that they may be operated 
 to their greatest efficiency from the point of view of the 
 entire transportation situation. If the jurisdiction of the 
 Railroad Commission is not sustained, some other means must 
 be provided so that the oil pipe lines may be operated to full 
 efficiency in the present emergency. 
 
 A more efficient correlation of the use of oil pipe lines, 
 railroad tank cars and tank steamers would result in the re- 
 lease of a considerable number of railroad tank cars, which 
 
306 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 are badly needed to serve the industrial needs of California 
 and neighboring states. Standard Oil Company reports that 
 it is 3500 tank cars short at its refinery at El Segundo, and 
 that it is accordingly unable to fill urgent orde -s from the 
 copper mines of Arizona. 
 
 Increased transportation facilities may hereafter become 
 necessary if the oil fields of Southern California should be 
 called upon, from their surplus production, to help meet the 
 requirements of central and northern California and other 
 territory. 
 
 II. RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 We respectfully submit the following recommendations: 
 
 Recommendation No. 1 
 Increased Production 
 
 We recommend that every reasonable effort be made to 
 increase the production of California petroleum promptly and 
 that to this end additional drilling be undertaken, as quickly 
 as material and labor are available, on the lands on which the 
 largest additional production can be developed in the least 
 time and with the smallest expenditure of material and labor. 
 
 Recommendation No. 2 
 Decreased Consumption 
 
 We recommend that every reasonable effort be made, 
 consistent with the maintenance of the efficiency of our 
 transportation systems and industries, to conserve the supply 
 of California petroleum by the diminution of field losses, the 
 higher use of petroleum and its products, and the substitu- 
 tion of other forms of fuel or power. 
 
 Recommendation No. 3 
 
 Presentation of Facts to Federal Government 
 W T e recommend that the facts with reference to the 
 California petroleum situation, including specifically the im- 
 perative necessity for additional production and the relative 
 productivity of undrilled but proved lands, be presented to 
 the President of the United States and to tho appropriate de- 
 partments of the federal government and that the federal 
 government be respectfully urged to render every assistance 
 which the government can render consistent with the highest 
 public interest. 
 
 Recommendation No. 4 
 
 Oil Well Material 
 
 We recommend that the attention of the federal govern- 
 ment be respectfully drawn to the advisability of directing 
 the manufacturers of oil well supplies to set aside sufficient 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 
 
 307 
 
 capacity of their plants for the production of oil well casing, 
 drill stems, wire cables and other material to supply the 
 reasonable requirements of California and other sections of 
 the United States and of directing the railroads to transport 
 such supplies as expeditiously as is consistent with other 
 urgent requirements. 
 
 Recommendation No. 5 
 Labor 
 
 We recommend that the attention of the federal govern- 
 ment be respectfully drawn to the advisability of exempting 
 from service in the armed forces of the nation all skilled 
 workmen employed in the petroleum industry and of indicat- 
 ing to such workmen that their highest present duty is to 
 assist in the maintenance and development of t* e petroleum 
 industry. 
 
 Recommendation No. 6 
 Lands in Litigation With No Receiver 
 
 We recommend that the federal government be respect- 
 fully requested, in those instances in which California petro- 
 
 "A GEM OF THE OCEAN" U. S. S. MICHIGAN 
 Economic specifications for the purchase of fuel oil by the U. S. 
 Navy are set forth on page 138. These specifications are helpful in 
 steam generation on both land and sea. Careful study is being- 
 made in California as outlined on this page as to how the actual 
 production of petroleum may the best be most efficiently accom- 
 plished for use in the Navy and in the industries of the nation 
 
PETROLEUM REPORT 309 
 
 leum lands now in litigation with the federal government are 
 not in the hands of the federal receiver, to consent, through 
 the Department of Justice, to stipulations under which the 
 claimants will be permitted to drill such lands intensively 
 under an arrangement by which the federal government, if 
 it ultimately wins the suits, will be protected with reference 
 to the petroleum thus produced, and the operators will be pro- 
 tected, if they lose the suits, out of the proceeds of the petro- 
 leum thus produced to the extent of at least their expendi- 
 tures reasonably and fairly made under the stipulation. 
 
 Whether any additional drilling shall be dene on lands 
 in Naval Reserve No. 2, is a matter which must be left to 
 the wisdom and fairness of the federal government, when 
 the government has before it all the facts, including the 
 needs of the government, present and future, the extent and 
 the effect of the past and present production in this reserve, 
 the urgent necessity for increased production of California 
 petroleum, the relative productivity and availability of un- 
 drilled proved lands, and the fact that on any reasonable 
 assumption an additional production of more than 30,000 bar- 
 rels per day can not be secured unless some additional drill- 
 ing is done in Naval Reserve No. 2. 
 
 We earnestly recommend, however, that pending a de- 
 termination as to additional drilling in Naval Reserve No. 2, 
 all other California petroleum lands in litigation be at once 
 thrown open to production under the arrangements herein 
 suggested. 
 
 Recommendation No. 7 
 Lands in Litigation in Possession of Receiver 
 
 We recommend that the federal government be respect- 
 fully requested, in those instances in which California petro- 
 leum lands now in litigation with the federal government are 
 in possession of the federal receiver, to take appropriate 
 proceedings, through the Department of Justice, so that the 
 receiver may be authorized or directed to proceed at once 
 to drill intensively such lands as are presumptively pro- 
 ductive, and particularly the lands which are likely to suffer 
 from the infiltration of water unless drilled. 
 
 If the authority of congress is necessary, we recommend 
 that congress be respectfully requested to enact the necessary 
 legislation. 
 
 Recommendation No. 8 
 Legislation to Open Petroleum Lands 
 
 We recommend that the federal government be respect- 
 fully requested to enact promptly legislation by which such 
 
310 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 lands in the public domain as the federal government may 
 consider wise and consistent with public interest will be 
 opened to petroleum development on terms just and reason- 
 able both to the federal government and to such explorers and 
 operators as have heretofore proceeded or may hereafter pro- 
 ceed in good faith to the exploration and development of 
 petroleum lands. We suggest that the area of the lands in 
 each instance be sufficiently large to permit efficient opera- 
 tion. 
 
 We believe that the establishment of a definite construc- 
 tive policy in this matter will have a whclesome and stimu- 
 lating effect on the petroleum industry of California and other 
 states. 
 
 Recommendation No. 9 
 Transportation 
 
 We recommend that the railroad, steamship, oil pipe 
 line and oil companies of California be authorized and di- 
 rected to take steps immediately to so correlate their respec- 
 tive transportation facilities as to make most available and 
 efficient every agency employed in the transportation of 
 California petroleum and its products. 
 
 Recommendation No. 10 
 Ultimate Conservation 
 
 We recommend that as soon as reasonably possible, 
 bearing in mind the paramount necessity of the most effi- 
 cient operation of our transportation systems and other in- 
 dustries during the emergency created by the war, the further 
 burning of California petroleum, unless it has first been re- 
 fined, be prevented, the higher use of California petroleum 
 and its products insured, substitute forms of fuel or power 
 developed, and the supply of California petroleum by the 
 most efficient use thereof conserved. 
 
APPENDIX III 
 
 Helpful Factors in Fuel Oil Study and Conservation 
 
 The authors of this work would feel unmindful of their 
 duty in setting forth the elements of fuel oil and steam engi- 
 neering did they not at this time point out to the reader some 
 of the helpful factors that are aiding in fuel oil study and 
 conservation in these days of national emergency. 
 
 First and foremost must be mentioned the educative and 
 helpful influence of the universities and technical colleges of 
 the West such as the University of California and Leland 
 Stanford Junior University. These institutions are not only 
 prepared to train technical fuel oil specialists, but the eminent 
 scientists and engineers upon their teaching staffs are con- 
 tributing noteworthy research data for the upbuilding of 
 efficient mining and utilization of this important national 
 resource. Under the administration of Dr. Benjamin Ide 
 Wheeler, president of the University of California, a most 
 helpful department of instruction has been added, known as 
 the Extension Division. With Ira W. Howerth as Director, 
 the Extension Division is now serving over three hundred 
 thousand people in the state of California. Practically every 
 conceivable educative aid is available through this branch of 
 university instruction. All operators or engineers interested 
 in fuel oil, its uses and conservation, may for a small fee 
 enjoy this excellent service. The only other requirement on 
 the part of the applicant is that he be thoroughly in earnest 
 in undertaking such study. To get in touch with this excel- 
 lent service, a letter should be addressed to Director of Ex- 
 tension Division, University of California, Berkeley. 
 
 Another important branch of service in the conservation 
 of petroleum is that instituted by President Woodrow Wilson, 
 who has appointed Dr. H. A. Garfield as national fuel ad- 
 ministrator. Mr. Garfield in turn has appointed Mark L. 
 Requa as oil administrator. Mr. Requa is a mining engineer 
 of note and much is expected of him in helping to solve the 
 fuel situation. In the administration of his work the oil in- 
 dustry will be left in great measure to govern itself. Insist- 
 ence, however, will be made upon the oil industry that it main- 
 tain fair and reasonable prices and that it co-operate to the 
 fullest extent in supplying most efficiently the products of 
 petroleum needed to meet the requirements of our army, navy 
 
 311 
 
312 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 and allies. Mr. Requa has appointed an able corps of assist- 
 ants and much good is bound to result from his labors. 
 
 The California Railroad Commission, under the presi- 
 dency of Max Thelen, is doing excellent service in the 
 efficient handling of the petroleum situation. Authorized 
 under the law to regulate the public utilities as to rates and 
 other matters, this commission is now on its own initiative 
 working out a scheme of interconnection of power companies 
 in the state of California that will do much in conserving the 
 fuel oil in that industry. Mr. Thelen has also served as chair- 
 man of the Petroleum Commission of the State Council of 
 Defense. The helpful conclusions of this commission are set 
 forth in full in Appendix II of this work. 
 
 Especial attention is called to the research investigations 
 of the United States Bureau of Mines and the United States 
 Bureau of Standards. Much of the scientific data on fuel oil 
 specifications and steam generation contained in this work 
 have been gleaned from the various publications of the Bureau 
 of Mines, while the standardization of thermometers as 
 treated in addition to many other aids in scientific precision 
 described, must be accredited to the helpful work of the 
 Bureau of Standards. In discussions looking toward the pro- 
 duction of petroleum the publications of the United States 
 Geological Survey are timely, as are also the publications of 
 the California State Mining Bureau. 
 
 The Book on Steam of the Babcock & Wilcox Boiler 
 Works is perhaps the most helpful of its kind in existence in 
 setting forth the elementary laws of steam engineering in a 
 practical manner, and the authors are greatly indebted to it 
 for many helpful items in the present work. 
 
 In regard to current aids in the technical press, the 
 only paper in existence that devotes a regular department 
 to the technical discussion of fuel oil and steam engineering 
 is the Journal of Electricity, published in San Francisco. This 
 journal is now in its thirty-first year of publication and is the 
 recognized authority on this line of discussion. 
 
 The work of the Pacific Coast Section, N. E. L. A. along 
 lines of fuel oil economy in steam power generation has proven 
 most helpful. Through this means of expression the great 
 power companies of the West which use oil as a fuel are con- 
 tributing noteworthy aids to efficient uses of this product. 
 
 The American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the 
 American Institute of Electrical Engineers constitute the two 
 great national societies of professional status that are exceed- 
 ingly helpful in fuel oil study. 
 
60 'P 
 
 80 'pss/) aq jou ^snuj SJ/I/D/I 330,9 \ 
 o pjonA Jq a yo/ a u: p/3^ do , snw brijd ' > 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abel-Pensky tester 138 
 
 Absolute pressure gage 
 
 pressure 24 
 
 Absolute scale 47 
 
 Absorption solutions in chim- 
 ney analysis 207 
 
 Absorption, total heat of.... 116 
 
 Acceleration denned 16 
 
 Accessories, boiler 114, 117 
 
 Adjuster for steam gage....*29 
 Air- 
 actual and ideal supply. .. .225 
 ducts for furnace floor.... *107 
 
 quantity required Ill, 210 
 
 regulation of furnace. .163, 164 
 
 required, correction 215 
 
 spacings, furnace. *158,*160,*164 
 
 supplied to furnace 219 
 
 supply essential 110 
 
 weight for combustion 214 
 
 Alcohol thermometers 38 
 
 Alloys- 
 cup for melting *37 
 
 melting point of 37 
 
 Altitude and latitude, barom- 
 eter corrections 31 
 
 Analysis, chimney gas. . .203, 275 
 
 Ashpit, furnace *276 
 
 Asphalt base, petroleum 133 
 
 Atmospheres, pressure in. ... 64 
 
 Atmospheric baromenter *24 
 
 Atomization 
 
 apparatus for measuring- 
 steam *238 
 
 calibration of orifice *239 
 
 flow of steam 237 
 
 heat loss 256, 261 
 
 steam in 171, 236, 245 
 
 Atomizer (see Burner) 
 Atwater-Mahler bomb fuel 
 
 calorimeter *194 
 
 Automatic control boiler. .. .*242 
 
 B. t. u. defined. 45 
 
 Babcock & Wilcox boiler. *10, 126 
 
 back shot *173 
 
 front shot *172 
 
 marine type *124, ] 25 
 
 Back shot burners. 170, *173, *175 
 
 Badenhausen boiler 129 
 
 Barometer 
 
 atmospheric *24 
 
 condenser type *27 
 
 correction for altitude and 
 
 latitude 31 
 
 correction of brass scale... 29 
 correction, thermometer 
 
 suspension for *23 
 
 reading, reduction of 28 
 
 Barrel steam calorimeter. ... 89 
 
 Baume scale 134 
 
 hydrometers *176 
 
 in determining heat value. .192 
 readings and specific grav- 
 ity 178 
 
 Blow-off valve *118 
 
 Boiler -2, 6, *52 
 
 accessories 117 
 
 B. & W. . ..*10, *124, *125, 126 
 
 Badenhausen 129 
 
 caution 174 
 
 classification 122 
 
 Code Committee 140 
 
 cooling and cleaning 145 
 
 cylinder oil kept out 144 
 
 drum and tubes 123 
 
 Edgemoor 129 
 
 efficiency 109,246 
 
 (see also Heat balance) 
 
 Erie City 129 
 
 *149 
 .126 
 .146 
 
 . 78 
 .277 
 .277 
 .123 
 
 evaporation standard 80 
 
 fire and water tube 123 
 
 front, showing gage *218 
 
 Heine type 129 
 
 horizontal tubular *1.28 
 
 hp. (see Boiler hp.) 
 internally and externally 
 
 fired 123 
 
 Keeler 129 
 
 low water in 143 
 
 marine *124, *125, 129 
 
 men for operating. . . .*122, 174 
 
 operation 115 
 
 Parker *18, 127 
 
 plate (see Boiler shell) 
 
 pressure, internal 
 
 principles of construction 
 putting out of service. .. 
 
 rating, to compute 
 
 regulation tests 
 
 report of operation 
 
 return tubular 
 
 room H4, 140, 143 
 
 Rust 129 
 
 Scotch marine 125 
 
 sediment removed 144 
 
 shell (see Boiler shell) 
 
 Stirling 128 
 
 tea-kettle and 107 
 
 tests (see Boiler tests) 
 
 test pump, portable *143 
 
 Thornycroft 13 
 
 torpedo boat 130 
 
 units, connecting up 143 
 
 vertical and horizontal 125 
 
 water circulation 127 
 
 Boiler horsepower ... .72, 73, *74 
 
 computations 83 
 
 reduction to mechanical hp. 75 
 reduction to myriawatts ... 77 
 
 Boiler shell- 
 accessories H4 
 
 bursting pressure 152, 154 
 
 joints *151, *153, *155 
 
 resistance to compression. 151 
 
 resistance to shear 150 
 
 riveted section 151 
 
 safe pressure 154 
 
 strength of 147, 148, 149 
 
 Page numbers referring to illustrations are marked by an asterisk (*) 
 
 314 
 
INDEX 
 
 315 
 
 ..243 
 
 Boiler Tests 241,269 
 
 beginning and stopping. . . .244 
 
 boiler efficiency 246 
 
 chimney gas analysis 248 
 
 duration 
 
 efficiency under normal 
 
 rating 243 
 
 heat in steam generated... 
 
 instructions for 243 
 
 log sheet for fuel oil 
 
 feed 250, *251 
 
 log sheet for weighing 
 
 water 250 
 
 log sheet, general. 251, *252,*253 
 
 measurement of oil 245 
 
 object 242 
 
 observations necessary .... 247 
 
 overload 245 
 
 plotting of data 254, *253 
 
 pressure readings 247 
 
 quick steam 246 
 
 steam in atomization 245 
 
 tabulation 249 
 
 temperature readings 248 
 
 water and oil 229 
 
 weighing of water 244 
 
 Bomb fuel calorimeter 
 
 Atwater-Mahler *194 
 
 Boyle's law 43, 46 
 
 Brickwork in furnace. . *158, *164 
 British thermal unit, denned. 45 
 
 Builder's rating 77 
 
 Bureau of Mines, U. S. ..185, 233 
 
 Burner *2, 110 
 
 back shot 170, *173, *175 
 
 cautions 174 
 
 classification 166 
 
 efficiency, increasing 270 
 
 front shot 170, *172, 174 
 
 home-made type 169, *170 
 
 inside mixer type 166, *167 
 
 mechanical atomizer. .168, *169 
 men required for opera ting. 174 
 outside mixer type. . . .168, *168 
 
 Peabody *11 
 
 single service 165 
 
 Staples & Pfeifer *10 
 
 testing 271 
 
 Burning point of oil 136 
 
 Bursting pressure, boiler 
 
 plate 152 
 
 Bursting pressure, boiler 
 
 seam 154 
 
 Bush St. Station, G.W.P.Co.. 274 
 
 Calculations, boiler test data. 249 
 Calibration, thermometer .... 33 
 California Accident Commis- 
 sion 311 
 
 California oils 134 
 
 Calorific value (see Heating 
 
 value) 
 Calorimeter 
 
 fuel (see Fuel calorimeter) 
 steam (see Steam calorimeter) 
 Carbon dioxide in chimney 
 
 *203, 204 
 
 Carbon monoxide in chimney. 205 
 Centigrade and Fahrenheit. . 34 
 
 Centigrade and Reamur 35 
 
 Centrifuge, electric *184 
 
 Check valves *118, 119 
 
 Chemical properties of oil 133 
 
 Chemical steam calorimeter. 94 
 
 Chimney 113 
 
 Chimney draft pressure, 
 
 measuring *30 
 
 Chimney gas 
 
 analysis 112, 203, 248 
 
 absorption solutions 207 
 
 by weight 210,211,212 
 
 CO content 205 
 
 CC-2 content 204 
 
 CC-2 recorder 203 
 
 check on 205 
 
 combustion recorder *206 
 
 data from Orsat analysis. .218 
 
 hydrogen content 208 
 
 nitrogen content 205 
 
 Orsat apparatus *210 
 
 oxygen content 204 
 
 per pound of fuel 222 
 
 reading gage *205 
 
 tabulation suggested 214 
 
 taking samples 203 
 
 tests for efficiency 275 
 
 volume to weight 213 
 
 Circulating water cycle.... *2, 9 
 Circulating water pump. .*2, *48 
 Circulation of water in boiler. 127 
 
 Cleaning boiler 145 
 
 Coal, powdered 299 
 
 Coal production *298 
 
 Color of flame, temperature 
 
 by 36 
 
 Color of oils 133 
 
 Column of mercury 24 
 
 Combustion 
 
 air required for 214 
 
 air supplied to furnace 219 
 
 air supply, actual and ideal. 225 
 chimney gas per Ib. of fuel. 222 
 
 data 218 
 
 incomplete, heat loss 260 
 
 of pound of oil 228 
 
 operation, recorder for 206 
 
 oxygen required for 216 
 
 Commerce and Labor, Dept. 
 
 of 140 
 
 Commercial furnace 162 
 
 Composite law of gases 48 
 
 Compression of boiler plate.. 151 
 
 Condenser *2, 8 
 
 Condenser barometer *27 
 
 Condenser vacuum *24 
 
 Connecting up boiler units.. 143 
 
 Construction of furnace 109 
 
 Consumption of oil 131 
 
 Control of furnace, typical. *276 
 
 Controller, master *274 
 
 Conversion of pressures 27 
 
 Cooling boiler 145 
 
 Crude oil (see Fuel oil) 
 Cycle 
 
 circulating water 9 
 
 oil *2, 9 
 
 steam *2, 3 
 
 Cylinder oil, keep out of 
 
 boiler 144 
 
 Damper, furnace *276 
 
 Davy's experiments 43 
 
 Density of oils 134 
 
 Density, formula for gas 48 
 
 Page numbers referring to illustrations are marked by an asterisk (*) 
 
316 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Density of steam, specific. ... 66 
 
 Differential draft gage *241 
 
 Distillation, for moisture 
 
 determinations 186, 189 
 
 Draft 
 
 gage 112 
 
 gage, differential *241 
 
 pressure in chimney, meas- 
 uring *30 
 
 regulating devices 112 
 
 tests 273 
 
 Drum and tubes, boiler 123 
 
 Drum, mud 121 
 
 Dry saturated steam.58, 68, 81, 86 
 
 Dry vacuum pump *2, 9 
 
 Dulong's formula for heating 
 value 192 
 
 East India petroleum 133 
 
 Economizer *2, 6, 111 
 
 Edgemoor boiler 129 
 
 Efficiency of boiler 264 
 
 (see Heat balance) 
 
 Efficiency of burners 270 
 
 Efficiency, tests of chimney 
 
 gas for 275 
 
 Electric steam calorimeter. 97, 98 
 
 Electric thermometers 39 
 
 Electric centrifuge 184 
 
 Emerson fuel calorimeter. .*194 
 Energy, kinetic and potential.21 
 
 Engine, reciprocating 7 
 
 Entropy 
 
 of evaporation 71 
 
 of water 69 
 
 temperature diagram *69 
 
 total 71 
 
 Erie City boiler 129 
 
 Evaporation 79 
 
 entropy of 71 
 
 equivalent 79 
 
 latent heat of... 55, 67, 104, 105 
 
 standard for boilers 80 
 
 Evaporative tests 270 
 
 (see also Tests) 
 
 Expansion, provision for 120 
 
 Expansion pyrometer 39 
 
 External and internal work. . 68 
 Externally fired boilers 123 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 in steam tables 63 
 
 reduction to Centigrade. ... 34 
 
 reduction to Reamur 35 
 
 Feed-water heaters *2, 5 
 
 Feed water, injector for 117 
 
 Feed water, pump for. . *2, 5, 117 
 Fire tests, Saybolt equip- 
 ment *131 
 
 Fire-tube boiler 123 
 
 Flame color, temperature by. 36 
 
 Flash test for oil *131, 136 
 
 Flow of steam in atomiza- 
 
 tion 237 
 
 Flue gas (see Chimney gas) 
 
 Force, defined 16 
 
 Force, pound 17 
 
 Front shot burner. 170, *172, *174 
 Fruitvale Station, S. P. Co. . 77 
 
 Fuel Calorimeter 193 
 
 Atwater-Mahler bomb. . . . *194 
 
 Emerson *194 
 
 Mahler bomb 197 
 
 Parr *195, *196, 196 
 
 Fuel oil 
 
 advantages as fuel 132 
 
 calorific value 134 
 
 cycles *2, 9 
 
 density of various types... 134 
 determination of heating 
 
 value 191 
 
 effect of heat 134 
 
 feed, log sheet for. . . .250, *251 
 flash test and burning point. 136 
 
 gravity of 176 
 
 measurement and analysis. 245 
 moisture (see moisture content) 
 
 odor and color 133 
 
 physical and chemical 
 
 properties 133 
 
 sampling 233 
 
 specifications for pur- 
 chase 133, 137 
 
 study 310 
 
 sulphur and gas content. . .137 
 
 test data 267 
 
 viscosity 136 
 
 weighing 229, 232 
 
 (see also Petroleum) 
 
 Fuels defined 110 
 
 Furnace *2, 157 
 
 air spaces and grate bars.*160 
 
 arrangement *162, 270 
 
 brickwork and air spac- 
 
 ings *158 
 
 'commercial 162 
 
 construction, efficient 109 
 
 control of *276 
 
 floor, air ducts for *107 
 
 former type *61 
 
 gases, path of Ill 
 
 interior 157 
 
 marine, brick work *164 
 
 operation 107, 110, 157 
 
 regulation of air 163, 164 
 
 single burner 165 
 
 Fusion, latent heat of 54 
 
 Gage 
 
 draft 112, *218, *241 
 
 safety *119 
 
 pressure absolute pressure 24 
 recording COa in chimney. *205 
 
 steam 23, *23, *29 
 
 steam, tester *20 
 
 water and steam 119 
 
 Galvanometer for delicate 
 
 temperatures *42 
 
 Gas- 
 analysis, chimney 203 
 
 chimney, ingredients of. . . .112 
 
 composite law of 48 
 
 defined 52 
 
 density, formula for 48 
 
 furnace, path of Ill 
 
 heat loss due to 259 
 
 in oil 137 
 
 natural 299 
 
 to compute "R" 49 
 
 Page numbers referring to illustrations are marked by an asterisk (*) 
 
INDEX 
 
 317 
 
 Goetz attachment for water 
 determination *186 
 
 Graphic law for calorific 
 
 value *191 
 
 Grate bars furnace *160 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Baume readings and 178 
 
 by Westphal balance 179 
 
 commercial balance for...*180 
 
 computations 179, *181 
 
 liquids heavier than water. 177 
 liquids lighter than water. 177 
 
 of oils 176 
 
 range of 138 
 
 Gt. Western Power Station. 274 
 
 Heat- 
 absorbed by boiler. . . .255, *256 
 
 absorption, law of 116 
 
 effect on oil 134 
 
 in steam generation. . . .115, 245 
 
 latent of evaporation 67 
 
 mechanical equivalent for. . 44 
 of evaporation, formula. . .105 
 
 of liquid 66 
 
 of saturated steam, total.. 103 
 
 specific of steam *67 
 
 specific of water. . . '. *64 
 
 temperature diagrams *56 
 
 transfer, equivalent for. . . .116 
 
 transfer, rate of 117 
 
 unit (B. t. u.), denned 45 
 
 Heat balance 
 
 boiler efficiency 109, 255 
 
 loss by boiler absorption. . .255 
 
 loss due to gases 259 
 
 loss due to hydrogen 258 
 
 loss due to incomplete com- 
 bustion - 260 
 
 loss due to moisture 257 
 
 loss for atomization. . .256, 261 
 loss in evaporating steam. 260 
 
 summary of data 264 
 
 total heat absorbed 255 
 
 Heaters, feed-water *2, 5 
 
 Heating value 
 
 approximate method 192 
 
 Dulong's formula 192 
 
 graphic law for *191 
 
 higher and lower 201 
 
 of fuel oil 134 
 
 range of 138 
 
 Heine boiler 129 
 
 Hemphel apparatus for H in 
 
 chimney 208 
 
 Henning's formula 104 
 
 Home-made burner ....169, *170 
 
 Horizontal boilers 125, *128 
 
 Horsepower 
 
 boiler 72, 73, *74, 83 
 
 development of word 73 
 
 mechanical *74 
 
 types of *74 
 
 Hot-well *2, 5 
 
 Humidity, hygrometer for. . . . *38 
 Hydrogen, heat loss due to.. 258 
 
 Hydrometers, Baume *176 
 
 Hydrometer, limitations of.. 178 
 Hygrometer for humidity. .. .*38 
 
 Ice, formation of 53 
 
 Illustrative problems 279 
 
 Immersion, method of 37 
 
 Injector for feed water 117 
 
 Inside mixer 166, *167 
 
 Inspection, steamboat 140 
 
 Inspection tests 140 
 
 Inspectors, insurance 155 
 
 Inspector's outfit *141 
 
 Inspiration Copper Co.'s 
 
 plant *272 
 
 Interior of furnace *157 
 
 Internal and external work. . . 68 
 
 Internal boiler pressure *149 
 
 Internally fired boilers 123 
 
 Joint, double riveted butt...*155 
 Joint, double riveted lap.*153, 156 
 Joint, single riveted lap....*151 
 Joule's equivalent, defined. . 45 
 
 Keeler boiler 129 
 
 Kern River oil 134 
 
 Kier, discoverer of petroleum. 131 
 
 Kilowatt *74 
 
 Kinetic energy 21 
 
 Knoblauch specific heat of 
 steam *67 
 
 Laboratory equipment for 
 
 testing oil *135 
 
 Latent heat of evaporation. . 
 
 55, 67, 104 
 
 Latent heat of fusion 54 
 
 Latitude and altitude, barom- 
 eter corrections 31 
 
 Laws, fundamental 14 
 
 Laws of thermodynamics.... 43 
 
 Le Conte's law 192 
 
 Length, fundamental unit. ... 16 
 
 Liquid fuels classified ; 133 
 
 Liquid, heat of 66 
 
 Liquids, defined 52 
 
 Liquids heavier than water, 
 
 gravity scale 177 
 
 Liquids lighter than water, 
 
 gravity scale 177 
 
 Log sheet for boiler tests.... 
 
 251, *252, *253 
 
 Log sheet for fuel oil feed. . 
 
 250, *251 
 
 Log sheet for weighing water 
 
 249, *250 
 
 Long Beach Power Plant.. .3, *44 
 Low water in boiler 143 
 
 Mahler bomb fuel calori- 
 meter *197 
 
 Manholes 120 
 
 Marine boilers 125,129 
 
 Marine furnace, brickwork. . *164 
 
 Marine tankers *302 
 
 Marks & Davis method *64 
 
 Mass fundamental unit 16 
 
 Measurer of water *234 
 
 Measuring tank for water. *4,*230 
 
 Mechanical atomizer 168, 169 
 
 Mechanical equivalent of heat 44 
 
 Mechanical horsepower *74 
 
 Mechanical hp. to boiler hp.. 75 
 
 Melting alloys, cup for *37 
 
 Melting point of metals 37 
 
 Mercurial thermometers 38 
 
 Mercury, column of 24 
 
 Page numbers referring to illustrations are marked by an asterisk (*) 
 
318 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Metals, melting point of 37 
 
 Meter, steam *236 
 
 Mines, U. S. Bureau of 310 
 
 Mixer (see Burner) 
 
 Moisture content 137, 184 
 
 apparatus involved 188 
 
 approximate method 186 
 
 by distillation 186, 189 
 
 by Goetz attachment *186 
 
 methods of determining. . .184 
 numerical determination . . . 189 
 percentages by weight 
 
 error 90 
 
 still used in determination. *187 
 Moisture in saturated steam. 89 
 
 Moisture, rejection for 139 
 
 Moore, C. C., system 11 
 
 Motion, Newton's laws of. ... 15 
 
 Mud drum 121 
 
 Myriawatt *74, 76, 77 
 
 Napier's formula 237 
 
 Natural gas 299 
 
 Naval Fuel Oil Board, U. S. .166 
 
 Newton's laws of motion 15 
 
 Nipple, sampling, steam 
 
 calorimeter 100 
 
 Nitrogen in chimney gas 205 
 
 Non-return and check valves.119 
 Numerical determination of 
 
 moisture 189 
 
 Nussett's law 116 
 
 Oakland Station, P. G. &. E. .*47 
 
 Odor and color of oil 133 
 
 Oil (see Fuel oil) 
 
 Olefine base, petroleum 133 
 
 Operation, furnace 107 
 
 Operation of boiler, report on. 277 
 Orsat analysis (see Chimney 
 gas analysis) 
 
 Orsat apparatus *210 
 
 Outside mixer 168, *168 
 
 Overload test 245 
 
 Oxygen in chimney gas 204 
 
 Oxygen required for combus- 
 tion 216 
 
 Pacific Gas & Electric Co... 3 
 Paraffine base, petroleum. . . .133 
 
 Parker boiler *18, 127 
 
 Parr fuel calorimeter 
 
 *195, *196, 196 
 
 correction 200 
 
 operation 196 
 
 precautions 198 
 
 Peabody atomizer *11 
 
 Pensky-Martens tester 138 
 
 Pet cocks for water level. . . .*119 
 Petroleum 
 
 Appalachian Range 133 
 
 asphalt base 133 
 
 California 133 
 
 commission 292 
 
 comparative uses *300 
 
 comparison with coal *298 
 
 conservation of 297 
 
 consumption of 295 
 
 discovery of 131 
 
 hydro-electric substitution 
 
 'for *307 
 
 Middle West 133 
 
 oleflne base 133 
 
 paraff ine base 133 
 
 pipe lines *292 
 
 production of *294 
 
 recommendations 292 
 
 refining of *297 
 
 storage depletion 295 
 
 storage of 295 
 
 Texas 133 
 
 the remedy 301 
 
 utilization 293 
 
 (see also Fuel oil) 
 Physical properties Califor- 
 nia oils 134 
 
 Physical properties of oil. . . .133 
 Platform scales, water meas- 
 urement *93, 230 
 
 Pop safety valve *12l 
 
 Potential energy 21 
 
 Pound force 17 
 
 Pound of oil, combustion of. 228 
 
 Poundals 17 
 
 Powdered coal 299 
 
 Power plant, modern 1 
 
 Power, work and 19 
 
 Pressure 
 
 above atmosphere, meas- 
 urement of *24 
 
 absolute, gage 24 
 
 absolute notation, steam 
 
 tables 63 
 
 formula for conversion of . . 27 
 
 in atmospheres 64 
 
 in saturated steam 103 
 
 inches of water and 26 
 
 internal boiler *149 
 
 readings 247 
 
 safe working boiler 134 
 
 theory of 23 
 
 units, confusion in 26 
 
 units, relationship of 26 
 
 vacuum 25 
 
 Pump, supply *2 
 
 Power Test Committee, 
 
 A. S. M. E 243 
 
 Pressure, working, rules for. 140 
 
 Problems, illustrative 279 
 
 Pump 
 
 boiler test *143 
 
 circulating water *2, *48 
 
 dry vacuum *2, 9 
 
 for feed-water *2, 5, 117 
 
 for storage supply 4 
 
 oil feed *2 
 
 wet vacuum *2, 9 
 
 Purchase of oil, specifica- 
 tions for 131, 137 
 
 Purifying tank for water. . . . *4 
 
 Pyrometer *215 
 
 expansion 39 
 
 radiation 40 
 
 Quality of steam 85 
 
 Quick steaming test 246 
 
 Radiation pyrometer 40 
 
 Railroad Commission, Cali- 
 fornia 310 
 
 Rating boiler, to compute. ... 78 
 
 Rating, builder's 77 
 
 Rating its meaning 73 
 
 Reamur scale 35 
 
 Page numbers referring to illustrations are marked by an asterisk (*) 
 
INDEX 
 
 319 
 
 Reciprocating engine 7 
 
 Reciprocating units at Re- 
 
 dondo *14 
 
 Recorder for combustion. . . . *206 
 
 Redondo Power Plant 
 
 3, *4, *6, *14, *48 
 
 Regnault's formula 103 
 
 Regulator, steam to burner.. *12 
 
 Repairs, under pressure 144 
 
 Return tubular boiler 123 
 
 Riveted joint, boiler 151, *153 
 
 Riveted section, boiler shell.. 151 
 
 Russian petroleum 133 
 
 Rust boiler 139 
 
 Safety, factors of 154 
 
 Safety gage *119 
 
 Safety valve 22, 121, *121 
 
 Sampling 
 
 nipple, steam calorimeter. .100 
 
 of oil 233, 235 
 
 Saturated steam 
 
 81, 85, 86, 89, 103 
 
 Saybolt equipment for tests. *131 
 
 Scale, absolute 48 
 
 Scales, platform *83, 230 
 
 Scales, temperature 33, *34 
 
 Scotch marine boiler 125 
 
 Sediment in boiler, remove.. 144 
 
 Sellegries, process of 131 
 
 Separating calorimeter ..*95. 98 
 
 Separator *2, 7 
 
 Shear of boiler plate 150 
 
 Shredded Wheat Plant *242 
 
 Siphons for steam gage *120 
 
 Smoke-stack *2 
 
 Solids, denned 52 
 
 Southern California Edison 
 
 Company 3 
 
 Specific density of steam.... 66 
 Specific gravity (see Gravity) 
 Specific heat of superheated 
 
 steam *67 
 
 Specific heat of water *64 
 
 Specific volume for steam. 65, 105 
 Specifications for purchase 
 
 of oil 131, 137 
 
 Standard Oil Co.'s chart 158 
 
 Standardization of thermom- 
 eters 41 
 
 Standards, U. S. Bureau of. .310 
 Staples & Pfeifer atomizer. . . *10 
 States possible to all bodies. . 53 
 Station A, P. G. & E. Co.. .3, *122 
 
 Station C, P. G. & E. Co 3, *18 
 
 Steam- 
 boiler, principles 115 
 
 calorimeter (see Steam 
 calorimeter) 
 
 cycle *2, 3 
 
 dry saturated 68, 81, 86 
 
 ducts, Oakland station *47 
 
 engineering. .. .53, 102, 103, 163 
 
 formation of 55 
 
 formulas 102, 103, 163 
 
 gage (see Steam gage) 
 generation, laws of heat... 115 
 in atomization (see Steam 
 
 in atomization) 
 meter *236 
 
 quality of 85 
 
 quantity for atomizing oil.. 171 
 
 saturated 81, 85, 86, 89, 103 
 
 specific density of 66 
 
 specific heat of *67 
 
 specific volume of 65 
 
 superheated (see Superheated 
 
 steam) 
 tables (see Steam tables) 
 
 to burner regulator *12 
 
 total heat of 58 
 
 turbine 7, *16 
 
 turbine, condenser barom- 
 eter for *27 
 
 water and 52 
 
 wet saturated 81, 85 
 
 Steamboat inspection service. 140 
 
 Steam calorimeter 88, 93 
 
 attachment *244 
 
 barrel or tank 89 
 
 chemical 94 
 
 conclusions on 100 
 
 corrections for steam 99 
 
 electric 97 
 
 sampling nipple 100 
 
 separating *95, 98 
 
 surface condenser tank .... 91 
 
 Thomas electric 98 
 
 throttling* *93, 94, 96, *101 
 
 Steam Engineering 
 
 formulas 102, 103, 163 
 
 fundamental principle 53 
 
 Steam gage 23 
 
 siphon for *120 
 
 hand adjuster for *29 
 
 interior and exterior *25 
 
 tester *20 
 
 water gages and 119 
 
 Steam in atomization 236 
 
 calibration of orifice *239 
 
 measurement *238 
 
 tested 245 
 
 Steam tables 61, 62 
 
 analysis of 62 
 
 data deduced 57 
 
 Fahrenheit used 63 
 
 pressure absolute notations 63 
 
 typical page *63 
 
 Still, for water *187 
 
 Stirling boiler 128, !: =174, *175 
 
 Stop valves *118 
 
 Storage tank *2, 3 
 
 Storage supply, pumps for. . . 4 
 Strength of boiler shells. 147, 148 
 Sulphur and gas in oil. . .137, 139 
 Superheated steam. . . .82, *85, 86 
 
 determination of 89 
 
 specific volume for 105 
 
 tables for 71 
 
 temperature *88 
 
 total heat of 87 
 
 where temperatures taken. *79 
 
 Superheater *2, 7 
 
 Supply pump *2 
 
 Supply water source *2 
 
 Surface condenser tank, 
 steam calorimeter 91 
 
 Tables for steam 61 
 
 Tabulation of test data.. 249, 267 
 
 Page numbers referring to illustrations are marked by an asterisk (*) 
 
320 
 
 FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 Tank 
 
 for measuring water and 
 
 oil 230, *231 
 
 for water supply *4 
 
 for weighing oil *229 
 
 or barrel steam calorimeter. 89 
 steam calorimeter, surface 
 
 condenser 91 
 
 storage *2, 3 
 
 Tankers, marine *302 
 
 Tea-kettle and boiler 107,108 
 
 Temperature 
 
 by flame color 36 
 
 by galvanometer *42 
 
 entropy diagram *69 
 
 Fahrenheit in steam tables. 63 
 
 heat diagram *56 
 
 measurement 32, 36 
 
 measurement, pyrometer .*215 
 
 of saturated steam 103 
 
 readings 248 
 
 scales 33, *34 
 
 superheated steam *88 
 
 Test- 
 committee A.S.M.E., power.243 
 
 data for boilers 241 
 
 data, tabulation 267 
 
 evaporative 270 
 
 flash and fire, equipment. .131 
 
 inspection 140 
 
 of boiler regulation 277. 
 
 of burners 271 
 
 of furnace arrangement. . . .270 
 
 of furnace draft 273 
 
 of oil, equipment *136 
 
 outfit 141 
 
 pump, portable *143 
 
 records of 278 
 
 specimen, standard form..*147 
 
 thermometers 41 
 
 (see also Boiler tests) 
 
 Tester, Abel-Pensky 138 
 
 Tester, Pensky-Martens 138 
 
 Tester, steam gage *20 
 
 Thermo-couple ..*30, 32, *39, *40 
 Thermodynamics, laws of. ... 43 
 Thermodynamics, first law of 45 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 alcohol 38 
 
 barometer correction *23 
 
 calibration 33 
 
 electrical 39 
 
 for superheat *85 
 
 galvanometer for delicate 
 
 temperatures *42 
 
 mercurial 38 
 
 standardization and testing. 41 
 
 well for insertion *41 
 
 Thirty inch vacuum 26, 38 
 
 Thomas electric steam calori- 
 meter 98 
 
 Thornycrof t boiler 130 
 
 Throttling steam calorimeter 
 
 *93, 94, 96, *101 
 
 Time fundamental unit .... 16 
 Torpedo boat boiler 130 
 
 Total heat of steam.... 58, 68, 87 
 
 Tubes, boiler drum and 123 
 
 Turbine *2, 7, *16 
 
 Units, fundamental 16 
 
 Units of power, chart *74 
 
 University of California 309 
 
 Vacuum 
 
 condenser *24 
 
 pressure 25 
 
 pump, dry *2, 9 
 
 pump, wet *2, 9 
 
 thirty inch 26, 28 
 
 Valve 
 
 check or non-return 119 
 
 pet cock *119 
 
 pop safety *121 
 
 safety 22, 121 
 
 stop, check or blow-off. . . .*118 
 
 Velocity defined 16 
 
 Vertical boilers 125 
 
 Viscosimeter *235 
 
 Viscosity of oils 136 
 
 Volume of steam, specific. ... 65 
 Volume, specific for super- 
 heated steam 105 
 
 Volumetric method of water 
 measurement 229 
 
 Water 
 
 and oil, weighing 229 
 
 and steam 52 
 
 cycle, circulating *2, 9 
 
 determination (see Moisture 
 content) 
 
 entropy of 69 
 
 gage and steam gages 119 
 
 heat loss due to 257 
 
 in boiler, circulation of 127 
 
 inches of and pressure 26 
 
 measurement, platform 
 
 scales *83, 230 
 
 measurement, volumetric 
 
 method 229 
 
 measurer 234 
 
 pump, circulating *2 
 
 source, supply *2 
 
 specific heat of *64 
 
 supply, tank for *4 
 
 tube boiler 123 
 
 weighing of 244, 249., *250 
 
 Weighing 
 
 oil *229, 232 
 
 tank in boiler test *231 
 
 water and oil 229 
 
 water, log sheet for. . .249, *250 
 Well for thermometer inser- 
 tion *41 
 
 Westphal balance 179 
 
 Wet saturated steam 81, 85 
 
 West vacuum pump *2, ! 
 
 Work and power 19 
 
 Work, external and internal.. 68 
 Working pressure, rules for.. 140 
 
 Zero scale, absolute 47 
 
 Page numbers referring to illustrations are marked by an asterisk (*) 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OP 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 APH 
 
 LD 21-100m-8,'34 
 

 371050 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY