\ REESE LIBRARY OP THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Received.. Access io i No. / Shelf No. G> * MILITARY DICTIONARY:, COMPRISING TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS; INFORMATION ON EAISING AND KEEPING TEOOPS ; ACTUAL SERVICE,, INCLUDING MAKESHIFTS AND IMPKOYED MAT^EIEL; AND LAW, GOVERNMENT, REGULATION, AND ADMINISTRATION RELATING TO LAND FORCES. BY COLONEL H. L. INSPECTOR-GENERAL, U. S. A NEW YORK : D. YAK NOSTKAISTD, 192 BKOADWAY. LONDON: TRUBNER & CO. 1864. 'U'ti ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1861, by HENRY L. SCOTT, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. JOHN F. TROW, ElJJCTKOTYPEB. FEINTED BY C. A. ALVORD. NKW YORK. No. 60 Greene Street, New York. PREFACE. A MILITARY dictionary which, with technical definitions, com- prises information on actual service ; on law, government, regu- lation, and administration ; on raising and keeping troops, and on makeshifts and improved materiel, is much needed ; and the design of the present work is in some measure to occupy that gap in military literature. In legal articles, plain decisions from constitutional ex- ponents of law have been accepted as conclusive ; but when without such a guide, an endeavor has been made to set forth the true intent and meaning of laws in dispute, by simple, clear, and logical annotations. Much interesting law matter has been abridged from Prendergast's Law relating to officers of the army ; and in respect to courts-martial, actual service, improved materiel^ &c., &c., the author is indebted to many standard authorities, sometimes only designated by name in different ar- ticles ; but, in such cases, referred to fully by the titles of their works in the list of abbreviations which follows this preface. It is only deemed necessary to add, that the work was not prepared in view of existing disturbances, but was begun some years ago, and that the few additions made since it was put in the hands of the publisher in January last, refer only to im- provements in materiel. TITLES OF REFERRED TO BY ABBREVIATIONS IN THE TEXT, AND EXPLANATIONS OF OTHER ABBREVIATIONS USED. Act. Act of Congress of the United States. Reference embraces date of act. Aide Memoire to the military sciences framed from contributions of officers of different services, and edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers in Dublin. Aide Memoire d'Artillerie a 1'usage des Officiers d'Artillerie. Paris, 1855. Art. (Articles of War,) included in an act of Congress for establishing rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States, approved April 10, 1806. Reference embraces the number of the article. BARDIN. Dictionnaire de I'Arme'e de Terre, ou Recherches Historiques sur 1'Art et les Usages Militaires des Anciens et des Modernes. Par le General Bardin, &c. Ouvrage termine" sous la direction du General Oudinot de Reggio. 6,337 pp. Paris, 1851. BAUCHER. Method of Horsemanship. Philadelphia, 1851. BENTON. Ordnancfe and Gunnery. By Capt. J. G. Benton, U. S. Ordnance. BLACKSTONE. Commentaries, with Notes. 4 vols. London, 1844. BOUVIER. Law Dictionary adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United States. By John Bouvier. Philadelphia, 1839. BRANDS. Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art. BUGEAUD. Aperyus sur quelques Details de la Guerre. Par le Marshal Bugeaud. Ibid. Instructions Pratiques. Bugeaud. BURNS. Naval and Military English-and-French Technical Dictionary. By Lieut.- Colonel Burns, Royal Artillery. London, 1852. CAYALLI. Memoire sur divers Perfectionnements Militaires. Par J. Cavalli, Colonel d'Artillerie, &c., &c. Traduit de 1'Italien. Paris, 1856. COUTURIER. Dictionnaire Portatif et Raisonne. Par le General Le Couturier. Paris, 1825. DE HART. -Courts-martial. By Captain W. C. De Hart, 2d U. S. Artillery. 6 t ABBREVIATIONS, AND TITLES OF AUTHORITIES. DECKER. De la Tactique des Trois Armes : Infanterie, Cavalerie, Artillerie. Par C. Decker, Lieut. -Colonel, &c., &c. DOUGLAS. Naval Gunnery. By Gen. Sir Howard Douglas. DUFOUR. Cours de Tactique. Par le General Dufour. DUNLOP. Digest of Laws of the United States. Experiments, &c. By officers of the Ordnance in Small- Arras. 1856, (official.) FAVE Histoire et Tactique des Trois Armes, et plus Partieulierement de 1' Artillerie de Campagne. Par lid. Fave, Capitaine d' Artillerie. FONBLANQUE. The Administration and Organization of the British Army, with es- pecial reference to Supply and Finance. By Edward Barrington de Fonblanque, Asst. Commissary-General. London, 1858. GALTON. The Art of Travel. By Francis Galton. London, 1860. GIBBON. The Artillerist's Manual. By Capt. John Gibbon, 4th U. S. Artillery. GORDON. Digest of Laws of the United States. GUILLOT. Legislation et Administration Militaire, ou Programme Detaille dea Matieres Enseignees & 1'Ecole Imperiale de 1'Etat Major. Par M. Leon Guil- lot, &c. HAILLOT. Statistique Militaire, et Recherches sur 1'Organization des Armees Etran- geres. Par C. T. Haillot, Chef-d'Escadron d' Artillerie. HETZEL. Cross' and Hetzel's Military Laws of the United States. HOUGH. Military Law Authorities. By Lieut.-Colonel Hough, Deputy Judge-adro- cate General, &c. HYDE. Elementary Principles of Fortification. By John Hyde, Professor Mih'tary College, Addiscombe. JEBB. Practical Treatise on Attack and Defence. By Colonel Jebb, Royal Engineers. JOMINI. Tableau Analitique. KINGSBURY. Artillery and Infantry. By Captain Kingsbury, Ordnance Department. LE GRAND. Dictionnaire Militaire Portatif. Par Le Grand. MACOMB. Courts-martial. By Major-General Macorab. New York, 1841. MCCLELLAN. Military Commission in Europe. Report by Captain McClellan, U. S. Army. MAHAN. Field Fortifications. By Professor Mahan, U. S. Military Academy. MAYO and MOULTON. Army and Navy Pension Laws. Washington, 1852. Memorial des Officiers d'Infanterie et de Cavalerie. Paris, 1846. MORDECAI. Digest of Military Laws. By Major Mordecai, U. S. Army. NAPOLEON. Maxims of War. PETERS. Digest of Decisions of Federal Courts. PRENDERGAST. The Law relating to Officers in the Army. By Harris Prendergast of Lincoln's Inn, Esq., Barrister-at-Law. ROUVRE. Aide Memoire de POfficier d'Etat Major en Campagne. Par M. De Rouvre, Chef-d'Escadron d'Etat Major, Aide-de-camp de son Ex. le Marechal ABBREVIATIONS, AND TITLES OF AUTHORITIES. 7 RUFFIN. Manuel d' Administration et de Comptabilit6 a 1'usage des Officiers des Compagnies ou Escadron des Corps d'Infanterie et de Cavalerie. Par M. Ruffin. SCOTT. Orders and Correspondence of Gen. Winfield Scott, Congressional Docu- ments, &c. SKINNER. Youatt on the Horse. By Skinner. VATTEL. Law of Nations. Philadelphia, 1817. WHEATON. Elements of International Law. Philadelphia, 1846. YOUATT. Youatt on the Horse. By Skinner. / LIB It A II V UNJVKK8ITV OF I CALIFORNIA,^ MILITARY DICTIONARY. ABANDONING A POST, OR MISBEHAVIOR BEFORE AN ENEMY. Pun- ishable with death, or otherwise, as a court-martial shall direct ; (Art. 52.) ABATIS (French) are rows of felled trees deprived of their smaller branches, the remainder sharpened to a point, and employed for defence. Abatis should be placed so as not to be exposed to the fire of artillery. In redoubts or intrenchments, they are usually fixed FIG. 1. in an upright position against the counterscarp, or at the foot of the glacis, the plane of which is broken so as to conceal the abatis from the view of the enemy, and to guard against obstructing the musketry fire from the parapet in their rear. FIG. 2. Abatis are also an excellent means of blocking up a road, when 10 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Aus. trees grow ofl either side. If branches are properly placed, and inter- twined one within another, their disengagement is extremely difficult. An abatis will always be found a very useful and effective auxiliary to the defence of houses or isolated posts, if judiciously placed within range of musketry. When close in front of the windows on the ground floor, or used as a cover to the entrance door, it will be ex- tremely difficult for the enemy to force his way into the building. ABSENCE, WITH LEAVE. Every colonel or other officer com- manding a regiment, troop, or company, and actually quartered with it, may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers or soldiers in such numbers, and for so long a time, as he shall judge to be most consistent with the good of the service ; and a captain or other inferior officer, commanding a troop or company, or in any garrison, fort, or barrack of the United States, (his field-officer being absent,) may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers or soldiers for a time not exceeding twenty days in six months, but not more than two persons to be absent at the same time, excepting some extraordinary occasion should require it ; (Art. 12.) The law does not specify by whom leaves of absence may be given to commissioned officers, and the omission has been supplied by orders of the President. ABSENCE, WITHOUT LEAVE, FROM CAMP, PARADE, OR RENDEZVOUS. Punished, by sentence of a court-martial, according to the nature of the offence ; (Articles 41, 42, 43, and 44.) ABUSES AND DISORDERS. Every commanding officer shall keep good order, and, to the utmost of his power, redress all abuses and disorders which may be committed by any officer or soldier of his com- mand. If, upon complaint made to him of officers or soldiers beating, or otherwise ill-treating, any person, of disturbing fairs or markets, or of committing any kinds of riots, to the disquieting of the citizens of the United States, &c., the said commander shall refuse or omit to see justice done to the offender or offenders, and reparation made to the party or parties injured, as far as part of the offender's pay shall enable him or them, he shall, upon proof thereof, be cashiered, or otherwise punished, as a general court-martial shall direct ; (Art. 32.) ACADEMY. The Military Academy of the United States is located at West Point, N. Y. The students, called cadets, are subject to the rules and articles of war. They are appointed from each con- gressional district, upon the nomination of the representative of the district in Congress. Each district is allowed but one representative at the Military Academy ; but besides the number so appointed, the Ace.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. H President of the United States annually appoints ten cadets from at large. The Academy furnishes about forty graduates a year, who receive commissions of the lowest grade in- some one of the different corps of the army, provided vacancies exist. If there be no vacancies, the graduates are attached to different corps as supernumerary officers of the lowest grade, not exceeding one to each company. The Military Academy was founded by act of Congress in 1802. Its present high reputation is mainly due to Colonel Sylvanus Thayer, who did not be- come Superintendent until 1817. At the breaking out of the war of 1812, there were about seventy graduates of the Academy holding commissions, and but little knowledge of the military art arid of the science of war prevailed. At the breaking out of the Mexican war, the officers of our army were mostly graduates of the Academy. Every branch of the service was filled with men of talent and military information ; volunteer corps raised during the war sought and obtained as their commanders graduates of the Mili- tary Academy. General officers from' political life appointed staff offi- cers from the same class. In all positions which the graduates held during that brilliant war, the honor and glory of the United States were sustained, and the great usefulness of an institution, which annually costs little, if any more than the maintenance of one frigate afloat, was satis- factorily demonstrated to the people of the United States. (See SUPER- INTENDENT.) Military Academies, modelled upon that at West Point, have also been established within their respective limits by the States of Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Alabama, and perhaps others. ACCOUNTS. Officers accountable for public money or property render quarterly accounts to the Treasury Department, if resident in the United States ; and every six months, if resident in a foreign coun- try. Additional returns may be required by the Secretary of War, if the public interest requires it; (Act Jan. 31, 1823.) Every officer or agent offending against the foregoing provisions may be dismissed by the President of the United States; (Act Jan. 31, 1823.) The method of rendering accounts by Administrative Agents of the appli- cation of all public money and material passing through their hands, has been prescribed by regulations made pursuant to law. The object of a system of accountability should be, in respect to the army, to obtain plain statements of the operations and results of Military Ad- ministration. The system should be neither complex nor cumbrous, but should be adapted to a state of war ; and while carefully guarding against losses to the Government, should, at the same time, by prompt 12 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ace. settlements, through government agents, present with armies in the field, dispense with accumulations of papers, which manifestly subject administrative officers to great losses, even if they were not frequently obliged to wait years before obtaining a settlement of their accounts. By the present system of accountability it is prescribed : 1. That all accounts whatever in which the United States are concerned shall be settled and adjusted in the Treasury Department ; (Act March 3, 1817.) 2. It is made the duty of the second and third auditors of the Treasury, to receive and examine all military accounts ; to receive from the second comptroller the accounts which shall have been finally ad- justed; to preserve such accounts; to record all warrants drawn by the Secretary of War ; and make such reports on the business assigned to them as the Secretary of War may deem necessary, and require for the service of his Department; (Act March 3, 1817.) 3. It is the duty of the second comptroller to^ examine all accounts settled by the second and third auditors, and certify the balances arising thereon to the Sec- retary of War ; to countersign all legal warrants drawn by the Secretary of War ; to report to the Secretary of War the official forms to be issued in the different offices for disbursing the public money, and the manner and form of keeping and stating the accounts of the persons employed therein; and it shall also be the Comptroller's duty to superintend the preservation of the public accounts subject to his revision ; (Act March 3, 1817.) The great obstacles to the simplification and prompt settlement of army accounts interposed by law consist : 1. In the requirement that military accounts shall be adjusted and settled at the Treasury Depart- ment, instead of being settled by the War Department, and reported to the Treasury ; 2. In making the second and third auditors and second comptroller officers of the Treasury instead of officers of the War De- partment ; 3. In authorizing the second comptroller to establish forms for keeping and stating military accounts, instead of requiring him in those matters to conform to the directions of the Secretary of War ; and, 4. In withholding from the War Department the power of appointing agents to accompany armies in the field for the prompt settlement of accounts. With the changes of law here suggested, it would be easy for the War Department, through the various grades in the several adminis- trative staff departments, to establish a simple system of accountability with requisite means of control and supervision, which would operate advantageously to the government, and to individual agents. Under the present system there is, and must be, a remarkable similarity in the duties of all grades of the staff administrative departments. (Consult Ace.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 13 Cours d* Administration, par VAUCHELLE, Intendant Militaire ; Cours d* Eludes sur V Administration Militaire, par ODIER : Memorial des Officiers d' Infanterie et de Cavalerie, 1846.) ACCOUTREMENTS. Black leather belts, &c., furnished by the ordnance department. PARTS. Infantry. Artillery. o d | Cartridge box . lets. 1 10 10 69 10 56 25 $cts. $ cts. "io $ cts. 95 10 Cartridge box plate . Cartridge box belt .... Cartridge box belt plate Bayonet scabbard and frog 37 10 40 16 "62 10 37 60 Waist belt plate 10 40 16 i'os 60 1 00 10 40 1 35 60 Cap pouch and pick Sabre belt Sword belt Sword belt plate t Sword belt, non-commissioned officer's and musician's. . . Sword belt plate do. do. ... Waist belt do. do. Waist belt plate do. do. 62 10 37 60 .... "87 75 Pistol do. Holsters witb soft leather caps 2 63 95 88 30 "53 40 1 20 Carbine sling Sabre knot Bullet pouch Flask and pouch belt Powder flask Waist belt, sapper's, with frog for sword bayonet, $1. Infantry accoutrements for 100 men, including non-commissioned officers' shoulder-belts and plates, weigh 330 Ibs. ; rifle accoutrements for 100 men, including non-commissioned officers' shoulder-belts and plates, weigh 329 Ibs. ; 100 carbine slings and swivels, 110 Ibs. (See ARMS.) Mr. Dingee's directions for reblacking Belts. Brush them with a hard brush, to clean the surface ; if they are very greasy, use a wire scratch-brush. Then, with a soft brush or sponge, apply the following mixture, viz. : one gallon soft water, two pounds extract of logwood, half a pound of broken nutgalls, boiled until the logwood is dissolved. When cold, add half a pint of the pyrolignite of iron made by dis- solving iron filings in pyroligneous acid, as much as the acid will take up. The dye thus made should be well stirred, and then left to settle. When clear, bottle it free from sediment, and keep it well corked for use. Dye the belts in the shade ; then apply a little sperm or olive oil, and rub well with a hard brush. Should any bad spots appear, scratch 14 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ADD. up the surface with the wire brush, and wet two or three times with a simple decoction of gallnuts or sumach, and again apply the dye. Log- wood is not essential, and a solution of copperas may be used instead of the acetate of iron. ADDRESS. An address to a court-martial, by either party, must be in writing. (Consult Hough's Law Authorities.) ADJUTANT, (Latin adjutor, aid.) An officer selected by the colonel of the regiment from the subalterns. He communicates the orders of the colonel, and has duties in respect to his regiment assim- ilated to those of an adjutant-general with an army. ADJUTANT-GENERAL. The principal organ of the com- mander of an army in publishing orders. The same organ of the commander of a division, brigade, geographical division, or department, is styled Assistant Adjutant-general. The laws of the United States, however, provide for but one Adjutant-general with the rank of col- onel, (made by regulations chief of a bureau of the War Department, and charged with the recruiting service, records, returns, &c.,) one As- sistant Adjutant-general with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and twelve other assistants with the rank of major and captain. (See ARMY ORGANIZATION.) The bureau duties of Adjutants-general and assistants are : publishing orders in writing ; making up written instructions, and transmitting them ; reception of reports and returns ; disposing of them ; forming tables, showing the state and position of corps ; regulating details of service ; corresponding with the administrative departments relative to the wants of troops ; corresponding with the corps, detachments, or individual officers serving under the orders of the same commander ; and the methodical arrangement and care of the records and papers of his office. The active duties of Adjutants-general consist in establish- ing camps ; visiting guards and outposts ; mustering and inspecting troops ; inspecting guards and detachments ; forming parades and lines of battle ; the conduct and control of deserters and prisoners ; making reconnaissances ; and in general discharging such other active duties as may be assigned them. ADJUTANT-GENERAL o* A STATE. (See MILITIA.) ADJUTANT-GENERAL, DEPUTY, &o. An act making further provision for the army, and for other purposes : Approved July 6, 1812, provides: Sec. 2, That to any army of the United States, other than that in which the adjutant-general, inspector-general, quarter- master-general, and paymaster of the army, shall serve, it shall be lawful for the President to appoint one deputy adjutant-general, ADM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 15 one deputy inspector-general, one deputy quartermaster-general, and one deputy paymaster-general, who shall be taken from the line of the army, and who shall, each, in addition to his pay and other emol- uments, be entitled to fifty dollars per month, which shall be in full compensation for his extra services. And that there shall be, to each of the foregoing deputies, such number of assistant deputies (not exceeding three to each department) as the public service may require, who shall in like manner be taken from the line, and who shall each be entitled to thirty dollars per month, in addition to his pay and other emoluments, which shall be. in full compensation for his extra ser- vices, &c. ADMINISTRATION, ADMINISTRATIVE. These words are derived from ministrare, administrare, to serve. Administration is a branch of political economy ; it is the action of administrative agents in executing laws or regulations conformable to law. The aim of a system of ad- ministration is to secure the performance of public duties, either di- rectly, ministerially, or through the intervention of sub-agents. It is exercised over individuals or things, in civil matters, in courts of law, in political bodies, in the army and in the navy, and in general in all financial matters of government. Administration consists in estab- lishing the ways and means of public receipts and expenditures ; in watching over such employments ; in the collection, care, and distribu- tion of material and money ; and in rendering arid auditing accounts of such employments. Army Administration also embraces in war the means by which an army is supported in foreign countries by a general in campaign, when without regular supplies, without resorting to pillage. The wars of the French revolution brought into use REQUISITIONS, a moderate kind of marauding, weighing more heavily upon countries than upon individuals. Requisitions are, however, an uncertain and unequal means of supply, and only enable an army to live from hand to mouth, and although practicable in offensive wars, are only justifiable in rapid movements, where time does not admit the employment of more certain means of supply. The system is less odious than pillage. Bonaparte skilfully adopted another method, in harmony with the spirit of wars of invasion, and also more reliable as a means of sup- port. He substituted himself in place of the supreme authorities of the invaded country, and exacted pecuniary contributions, paying, or promising to pay, for all provisions and other supplies needed for his army. Some writers think that even this modified system can only succeed in gigantic operations, where an army upon a new soil succes- sively gives repose to that previously occupied. Such a system was, 16 MILITARY DICTIONARY. ADM.] however, well executed by Marshal Suchet in Spain, and a similar sys- tem was also matured and published in orders by General Scott while in Mexico. A treaty of peace, however, soon after was made, which put an end to military operations, and the system was therefore only partially executed. But with a sufficient army in a fertile country, the experience of the world has shown that if the inhabitants are protected from injuries, they will very generally sell to the best paymasters. It is therefore the interest of an invading army not to interfere with the ordinary avocations of citizens, and such is the modern usage. Bonaparte (according to Las Casas) thought that an entire revolu- tion in the habits and education of the soldier, and perhaps also in those of the officers, was essential to the formation of a veritable self-subsist- ing army. Such an army (he said) cannot exist with present ovens, magazines, administration, wagons, &c., &c. Such an army will exist when, in imitation of the Romans, the soldier shall receive his corn, shall personally carry his mill and cooking utensils, cook his own bread, &c., &c., and when the present frightful paper administration has been dispensed with. He added that he had meditated upon all those changes, but a period of profound peace was necessary to put them in practice. If he had been constrained to keep a large army in peace, he would have employed it upon the public works, and given it an organi- zation, a dress, and a mode of subsistence altogether special. If such a scheme be practicable, no approach to it yet exists. The French have made some progress in developing a system of administration suited to a large army, but hardly a step in the direction pointed out by Napoleon.. The French administrative service is a powerful means of moving armies in unforeseen emergencies. Its fore- sight provides resources, and the adversary soonest ready has the greatest chance of success. Not a century since, the French govern- ment required six months' preparation before an army could move ; now, in the language of Gen. Lamarque, " The cannon is loaded, and the blow may be given at the same moment as the manifesto, and, if necessary, the blow may precede it." Ordinary army administration consists in the organization and other means by which various adminis- trative duties are performed, necessary to provide for the wants of troops, and for all the foreseen demands of a state of war, including labor and the supplies for garrisons, sieges, &c. Such duties embrace subsistence magazines, daily rations, forage, dress, encampments, bar- racks, hospitals, transportation, &c., &c., the administrative duties of engineers, and of the ordnance department, estimates, accountability, payments, recruiting, and in general the receipt and proper application MILITARY DICTIONARY. 17 of money. The Secretary of War, under the orders of the President, is the head of military administration in the United States. The object of such administration is to provide, through the resources placed by law at his disposition, for the constant wants, regular or accidental, of all who compose the army. Good administration embraces a foreknowledge of wants, as well as the creation, operation, and watchfulness of the ways and means necessary to satisfy them ; the payment of expenses, and the settlement of accounts. Army administration is divided into several branches determined by law. These different branches constitute the administrative service of an army, the operations of which should be so regulated that the Secretary of War will be always informed of the condition of each, and be ablo to exercise, subordinate to law, a complete financial control over each. These different branches of administration are : 1. The recruitino- o service, and the custody of records and returns of personnel ; 2. The ad- ministrative service of engineers and topographical engineers ; 3. The ordnance department ; 4. The quartermaster's department ; 5. The sub- sistence department ; 6. The pay department ; 7. The administrative sei- vice of the medical department ; and, 8. The settlement of army accounts. Bureaux of the War Department charged with these different matters have been organized by the President and Secretary of War, under the joint authority given these functionaries by the act of Congress of 1813 (See REGULATION) to make regulations better defining the powers and duties of certain staff officers. The adjutant-general of the army and the heads of administrative corps have each been assigned a bureau in the War Department, under the direction of the Secretary of War, for the management of the administrative duties with which they have been respectively charged. Administration and Command are distinct. Ad- ministration is controlled by the head of an executive department of the government, under the orders of the President, by means of legally appointed administrative agents, with or without rank, while Com- mand, or the discipline, military control, and direction of military ser- vice of officers and soldiers, can be legally exercised only by the mili- tary hierarchy, at the head of which is the constitutional commander-in- chief of the army, navy, and militia, followed by the commander of the army, and other military grades created by Congress. (See ACCOUNTS ; ACCOUNTABILITY ; ADJUTANT-GENERAL ; ALLOWANCES ; AMBULANCES ; APPROPRIATIONS ; ARREARS OF PAY ; ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES ; ARMY REGULATIONS ; AUDITORS ; BAGGAGE ; BAKING ; BARRACKS ; BED ; BOOKS ; BONDS ; BOUNTY ; BRIDGE ; CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; CARPEN- TRY ; CASEMATE ; CLERKS ; CLOTHING ; COMMISSARY ; COMMISSION ; 2 IS MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ADM. COMPTROLLER ; CONGRESS ; CONSCRIPTION ; CONTRACTS ; COUNCILS OF ADMINISTRATION; DAMAGE; DECEASED; DEFAULTERS; DELINQUENTS; DEPARTMENT OF WAR ; DEPOT ; DISBURSING OFFICERS ; DISCHARGE ; EMBEZZLEMENT ; ENGINEER CORPS ; ENGINEERS, (TOPOGRAPHICAL ;) EN- LISTMENTS ; EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS ; EXECUTION OF LAWS ; EXEMPTS ; EXTRA EXPENSES ; EXTRA ALLOWANCES ; GRATUITY ; INDIAN ; INSURREC- TION ; LAWS (MILITARY) AND REFERENCES ; LOSSES ; LOGISTICS ; MAR- SHALS ; MEASURES ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MILEAGE ; MILITIA ; MUS- TER ; NITRE ; OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT ; ORD- NANCE SERGEANTS ; ORGANIZING ; OVEN ; PASSPORTS ; PAY ; PAY DEPART- MENT ; PAYMASTER-GENERAL ; PENSION ; PONTON ; POSSE COMITATUS ; PRESIDENT ; PURCHASING ; QUARTERS ; QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT ; QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL ; RAISE AND REFERENCES ; RATION ; RECRUIT- ING ; REENLISTING ; REGULATION ; REMEDY ; RETURNS ; ROADS ; SALE ; SANITARY PRECAUTIONS ; SAPPERS ; SAW-MILL ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SER- VICE ; STAFF ; STATE TROOPS ; STANDARDS ; STOREKEEPERS ; STOPPAGE OF PAY ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ; SUIT ; SUPERINTENDENT ; TELE- GRAPH ; TENT ; TOOLS ; TRADE ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING ALLOW- ANCES ; TREATY ; UNIFORM ; UTENSILS ; VALUE ; VETERAN ; VETERINARY ; VOLUNTEERS ; WAGON ; WAR ; WEIGHTS ; WILLS, (NUNCUPATIVE) ; WOUNDS. (Consult BARDIN, JDictionnaire de FArmee de Tcrre / Legisla- tion ef. Administration Militaire, par M. LEON GUILLOT ; Military Laws of the United States ; Gen. SCOTT'S orders in Mexico ; SUCHET'S Memoirs.) ADMISSIONS. The judge advocate is authorized, when he sees proper, to admit what a prisoner expects to prove by absent witnesses. ADOBES are unburnt brick made from earth of a loamy character containing about two-thirds fine sand mixed intimately with one-third or less of clayey dust or sand. Stiff clay will not answer, as the rays of the sun would crack it in pieces. The adobe, under the action of the sun, becomes a compact mass. Upon our Indian frontiers in New Mex- ico, in Mexico, and in Central America, adobe houses and adobe defences against the Indians are common structures. Four men usually work together in making adobe brick. One mixes the mass in a hole, and loads the barrow, two carry it on a common hand-barrow, and the fourth moulds the brick. The moulder has a double mould, or one which forms two adobes, each eighteen inches long, nine inches w r ide, and four inches thick. The partition between the two compartments should be of one and a half inch stuff, the other parts of inch board ; a cleat on either outer side, extending the length of the mould, permits the mould to be easily handled. It must be well morticed together ADO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 19 so as not to wabble. The moulder has no bottom, the adobe being depos- ited on the surface of the ground, made tolerably level, and without reversing, as in brick making. The mould is raised gradually and slowly away from the moulded masses. Before placing it on the ground to mould another couple, the inner sides of the mould are washed with water, kept at hand ; this is all that is required to preserve the mud from sticking and thus breaking the adobe. The mould is emptied a second time on the ground at about three inches from the first couple, and in refilling, the balance of the mud left over from the first moulding is cast in the compartments, and the two men with the barrow of mud throw their load directly upon the mould, and all that is over and above what is necessary to fill it is scraped off by the moulder's hands toward where his next couple is to be. The dumping of the mud from the barrow is facilitated by casting into the barrow a little finely powdered dry manure or dust. An adobe eighteen inches long, nine inches wide, and four inches thick, is the best average size for moulding and for buildfng. They are sometimes made sixteen inches long and twelve inches wide ; in such cases they are all laid as headers ; but with the eighteen inch adobe they afford the means of binding the wall strongly by alternating headers and stretchers, as in brick-laying. In the hot 'spring and sum- mer suns two or three days uninterrupted drying is sufficient at. the first ; the adobes are then carefully turned up on edge, so as to expose the under or still wet face to the southern and western sunshine. They should be left in this position from a week to fifteen days to dry thor- oughly, when, if not wanted for immediate use, they may be stacked on edge and covered from the weather. Houses in New Mexico are seldom built over one story high. This enables the builder to place on the roof-covering at once, if necessary. But in all cases, intervals in the work must be allowed, or the house will not only be unsafe, but, if immediately occupied, damp and disagreeable. The inside plastering with mud is most frequently done before the roof is covered in, so as to dry with the wall. If the wall must be left unfinished through the fall rains or the winter, the top of it is covered with a bushy weed called cachanilla, and this is covered with earth, to exclude water and protect it till the ensuing year. If door and window frames are at hand, the Mexicans prefer to put them in as they build; but oftener they leave gaps for doors and windows, unfilled with the frames, till the whole is finished. The adobes are laid with mud mortar made from the earth at the base of the wall ; the holes thus formed are readily filled again with the rubbish from the house when completed. When the wall is 20 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Aoy. ready to receive the roof-covering, heavy joists are laid, about two feet apart, on the top of the walls, strong enough to "bear near a foot of earth all over the roof; the joists, as they rest upon the wall, are sup- ported upon boards, or plates, as they are called, to distribute the weight of the roof, and prevent the joists from crushing into the walls. Across the joists, and over the whole roof, averaging about two inches in diameter, poles are now placed, the largest on the highest side of the roof to begin the slope, and on this is placed a close covering of the cachanilla, which is aromatic and keeps out bugs ; it is evergreen, and a plant of the most suitable length to fill the interstices in the poles. Small willow brush is often used in the absence of cachanilla. The earth-covering of the roof is now put on, extending all round the roof to the parapet above the joists, which is only one-half the width of the wall below ; this brings the dirt roof to cover over one-half the width or thickness of the wall, by which leaks in the room below are pre- vented. An adobe house, if well secured, is warmer in winter, and cooler in summer, than one of wood or brick. The brick is cold and damp, the adobe is dry and a much worse conductor of heat no fur- rowing nor lathing is necessary and the rough inside can be white- washed or slapped with plaster. The durability of adobe walls is ex- traordinary. The Pecos Church, not far from Santa Fe, is doubtless one hundred years old ; its mud walls (adobe) are as firm to this day as a rock, and they cannot be less than fifty feet high. ADVANCED. Any portion of an army which is in front of the rest. It is figuratively applied to the promotion of officers and soldiers. ADVANCED COVERED WAY is a terre plein, on the ex- terior of the advanced ditch, similar to the first covered way. ADVANCED DITCH is an excavation beyond the glacis of the enceinte, having its surface on the prolongation of that slope, that an enemy may find no shelter when in the ditch. ADVANCED GUARD. A detachment of troops which precedes the march of the main body. ADVANCED LUNETTES are works resembling bastions or ravelins, having faces and flanks. They are formed upon or beyond the glacis. ADVANCED WORKS are such as are constructed beyond the covered way and glacis, but within the range of the musketry of the main works. ADVANCES of public money may be authorized by the President of the United States to persons in the military or naval service employed on distant stations. Prohibited otherwise ; (Act Jan. 31, 1823.) ALL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 21 ADVISING TO DESERT. Punishable with death or otherwise, as a court-martial may direct ; (Art. 23, Articles of War.) AFFAIR. Any slight action or engagement. Affair of outpost ; affair of rear-guard, &c. AFFIDAVITS, being admissions upon oath, are evidence as such against the parties who made them, (Hough.) In the trial of cases not capital, the deposition of witnesses not of the staff or line of the army, taken before a Justice of the Peace in presence of the prosecutor and person accused, may be read in evidence; (Art 10.) AIDES-DE-CAMP are ex-officio assistants adjutant-general ; (Act March 2, 1821.) They are confidential officers selected by gen- eral officers to assist them in their military duties. A lieutenant- general appoints not exceeding four in time of war, and two in peace, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel ; a major-general two, and a briga- dier-general one. Attached to the person of the general, they receive orders only from him. Their functions are difficult and delicate. Often enjoying the full confidence of the general, they are employed in repre- senting him, in writing orders, in carrying them in person if necessary, in communicating them verbally upon battle-fields and other fields of manoeuvre. It is important that Aides-de-Camp should know well the positions of troops, routes, posts, quarters of generals, composition of columns, and orders of corps : facility in the use of the pen should be joined with exactness of expression ; upon fields of battle they watch the movements of the enemy ; not only grand manoeuvres but special tactics should be familiar to them. It is necessary that their knowl- edge should be sufficiently comprehensive to understand the object and purpose of all orders, and also to judge in the varying circumstances of a battle-field, whether it is not necessary to modify an order when carried in person, or if there be time to return for new instructions. AIM. (See FIRING ; TARGET.) ALARM-POST is the place appointed for every regiment or detachment to assemble, in case of a sudden alarm. ALARMS, FALSE. Any officer who shall occasion false alarms in camp, garrison, or quarters, shall suffer death or other punishment as a court-martial may direct; (Art. 49.) ALIBI. Elsewhere. An Alibi is the best of all defence if a man is innocent ; but if it turns out to be untrue, it is conclusive against those who resort to it; (Hough.) ALLOWANCES. The receipts of an officer consist of pay and allowances, sometimes called pay and emoluments. Allowances are regular and occasional ; they consist of money for servants, forage, 22 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [AMD. rations, and travelling expenses ; and of fuel and quarters, stationery, straw for bedding, transportation of baggage, and forage in kind under certain circumstances. An allowance for servants and forage is only given where the servants and horses allowed are actually kept in ser- vice by the officer. Double rations are given to the commander of the army, the commander of an army in the field, a geographical division, department, military post and arsenal ; and ten dollars per month is allowed to the actual commander of a company. Armies have always been paid by means of pay and allowances. It is the least expensive mode of supporting an army, and it is at the same time the most just method of graduating the pay according to circumstances. In the United States army, however, the allowances made are not sufficient, and not properly graduated. Several of the allowances given in Eu- ropean armies, are withheld from our own ; and of those withheld, some are charges which press very heavily upon officers in campaign, when all their energies are needed for the service of the country. Of the allowances given in European armies, but withheld from the United States army, the following are the most important : Allowance, as equipment money at the beginning of a campaign, marching allowance, indemnity for losses in the field, prize money, and barrack furniture allowance. (See INDEMNIFICATION.) AMBULANCES (French) are flying hospitals so organized that they can follow an army in all its movements, and are intended to succor the wounded as soon as possible. Other sick are also placed in Ambulance, but the Ambulances are emptied as soon as fixed hos- FIG. 3. AMBULANCE CART PROPOSED FOR THE XT. 8. SERVICE. pitals are at hand. In the French army, an Ambulance of infantry is composed of five wagons containing cases of instruments for amputating AMM.] 'MILITARY DICTIONARY. 23 and trepanning, bandages for divers fractures, utensils of all kinds, medicines, and 8,900 dressings. The Ambulance of cavalry is com- posed of three wagons, containing the articles above enumerated, with 4,900 dressings. The Ambulances are distributed as follows: Each division of infantry has one Ambulance of infantry, and each division of cavalry an Ambulance of cavalry. The headquarters of an army corps is allowed two Ambulances ; the grand park of artillery one Am- bulance of cavalry ; the reserve of the army at general headquarters FIG. 4. AMBULANCE CART PROPOSED FOE THE U. 8. SERVICE. six Ambulances; four of infantry, and two of cavalry. The number of Ambulance carts and wagons recently ordered for the United States ser- vice, in case of war, greatly exceeds the foregoing allowance, and would be doubtless required in operations of small detachments, or wherever, from any cause, it is impracticable to establish fixed hospitals, or leave wounded to the care of inhabitants. (See SURGERY ; WAGON.) AMBUSCADE. A body of men lying in wait to surprise an enemy. AMICUS CUEIJi]. Counsel, or at least Amici Curise, (friends of the court,) are allowed to prisoners in all cases, but no person is per- mitted to address the court, or interfere in any manner with its pro- ceedings, except the parties themselves. (Hough? s Law Authorities.) AMMUNITION is a term which comprehends gunpowder, and all the various projectiles and pyrotechnical compositions and stores used in the service. Any commissioned officer convicted at a general court-martial of having sold without a proper order, embezzled, misapplied or, through neglect, suffered provisions, forage, army clothing, am- 24 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [AMM. munition, or other military stores belonging to the United States to be spoiled or damaged, shall at his own expense make good the loss or damage, and shall forfeit his pay and be dismissed from the service ; (Art. 36.) Any non-commissioned officer or soldier who shall be con- victed at a regimental court-martial of having sold, or designedly, or through neglect, wasted ammunition delivered to him, shall be punished at the discretion of such court ; (Art 37.) The quantity of ammunition with troops is usually fixed at two hundred rounds for each piece of ordnance. These supplies are trans- ported in caissons, and an army should be followed, in all cases, by a second supply at least equal to the first. The ammunition which can- not be carried in the caissons attached to pieces will be kept in boxes in reserve. Additional supplies of ordnance stores are placed in convenient depots, according to circumstances. Ammunition for Small Arms. This supply consists of one hundred rounds to each man : forty rounds in cartridge box, and sixty in re- serve. Percussion caps should exceed by one-half the number of car- tridges. Cuts 5 and 6 represent the bullets of new arms. FIG. 5. BULLET FOR ALTERED MTJSKET. Weight of ball, 730 grains ; weight of powder, 70 grains. To use the new cartridge carrying the powder and elongated ball attached to each other, tear the fold and pour out the powder ; then seize the ball end firmly between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and strike the cylinder of the cartridge a smart blow across the muzzle of the piece ; this breaks the cartridge and exposes the bottom of the ball ; a slight pressure of the thumb and forefinger forces the ball into the bore clear of all cartridge paper. In striking the cartridge, the cylinder should be held square across, or at right angles to the muzzle ; otherwise, a blow given in an oblique direction would only bend the cartridge without rupturing it. AMM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. FIG. 6. 25 BTTLLETS FOR NEW EIFLE-MUSKET AND PISTOL-CARBINE. Weight of No. 1, 500 grains. Weight of No. 2, 450 grains. Weight of powder, 60 grains. Weight of powder, 40 grains. No. 1, section of musket bullet. No. 2, section of pistol-carbine ballet. Both bullets have the same exterior. Ammunition for a siege train of one hundred pieces, consisting of the following : ( 24-pounder about one-third the whole number 32 Guns < 18-pounder, one-tenth the whole number. ( 12-pounder, " " " Howitzers. 8-inch siege, one-eighth " " . Mortars j 10-inch siege, one-seventh 8-inch siege, one-fourteenth " " Stone Mortars, one-seventh " " Coehorn Mortars (in addition to the 100 pieces) 6 Wall Pieces, for the attack of one front 40 The 18 and 24-pounders should be furnished with one thousand rounds each, the 12-pounders with twelve hundred rounds, the 8-inch howitzers and mortars with six hundred rounds. In addition to the above, fifty rounds of spherical-case shot should be furnished to each gun. Powder magazines, containing from fifty to one hundred thousand pounds of powder, must be accessible. Cartridges for siege and garrison service are usually one-fourth the weight of the shot ; but the charge varies according to circumstances from one-third the weight of the shot (for a breaching battery) to one- sixth of that weight for firing double shot, or hot shot, and still less for ricochet firing. The charges for mortars and howitzers vary ac- cording to the required range. For columbiads and sea-coast howitzers, the cartridge should always occupy the whole length of the chamber ; for this purpose, in firing with reduced charges a cartridge block is placed in the bag over the powder. For mortars, cartridge bags may be made in the same manner as for gi^ns, but the charge is usually poured loose into the chamber. Charges vary for mortar shells from 11 Ibs. to 4 20 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [AMN. oz. according to the size of the mortar, and whether the intention be to fill the shell, to burst it, or simply to blow out the fuse. For hot shot, cartridge bags are made double by putting one bag free from holes within another. (For full details concerning ammunition, including its preparation, &c., consult ORDNANCE MANUAL, 1850 ; consult also Ex- periments with small arms by Ordnance Officers, 1856. See ARMS ; CANISTER ; CARTRIDGE ; FRICTION TUBES ; FUZE ; GRAPE SHOT ; GUN POWDER ; ORDNANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; SABOT ; SHELLS ; SOLID SHOT ; SPHERICAL-CASE.) AMNESTY. An act of oblivion, or forgiveness of past offences. ANGLE OF DEFENCE is that formed by the meeting of the flank and line of defence, or the face of the bastion produced. ANGLE OF THE POLYGON is that formed by the meeting of two of the sides of the polygon ; it is likewise called the polygon angle. APOLOGY when made and accepted, debars the officer who accepts from bringing forward the matter as a substantive accusation, (Hough.} APPEAL. Any officer or soldier who may think himself wronged by his colonel or the commanding officer of his regiment, and after due application to him, is refused redress, may appeal to the next higher commander, who is to examine into said complaint, and take proper measures for redressing the wrong complained of, and transmit, as soon as possible, to the Department of War, a true statement of such com- plaint, with the proceedings had thereon ; (Art 34.) If any inferior officer or soldier shall think himself wronged by his captain, or other officer, he is to complain thereof to the commanding officer of the regi- ment, who is required to summon a regimental court-martial for doing justice to the complainant ; from which regimental court-martial, either party may, if he thinks himself still aggrieved, appeal to a general court-martial. But if, upon a second hearing, the appeal shall appear vexatious and groundless, the person so appealing shall be punished at the discretion of the said court-martial ; (Art. 85.) (See REMEDY.) The wrongs here alluded to, have reference chiefly to matters of accounts between the captain, or commander of the company, and the soldier, rplating to clothing and other supplies, as well as to pay ; and the regimental court, in examining into such transactions, may be con- sidered more as a court of inquiry than a court-martial ; or, it may be viewed as an arbitration board, called on to adjust and settle differences arising in the settlements of accounts between the captain QjA his men. One reason why a power of appeal is declared to be a A PP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 27 matter of absolute right to inferior officers, or soldiers, complaining of being wronged by their officers, doubtless is, that a regimental or gar- rison court-martial has not the power of inflicting any punishment on commissioned officers. It can do no more than express its opinion that the complaint is just, or the contrary, and where it is practicable and proper, relieve the sufferer as to any existing grievance ; but, the injury complained of, however flagrant, must still have remained unredressed, as far as punishment is concerned, if an appeal to a general court-mar- tial had not been declared to be a matter of right to the party aggrieved. APPOINTING- POWER, &c. It has been contended by advo- cates of executive discretion, that army appointments are embraced in the power granted to the President in the 2d section of the Constitu- tion, to nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoint " all other officers of the United States, whose appoint- ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which may be estab- lished by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments." If due regard, how- ever, be paid to the words, " whose appointments are not herein other- wise provided for" the pretension set up in favor of Executive power, will receive no support from the terms of the Constitution. The powers granted to Congress to raise and support armies, and to make all rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces, are necessarily so comprehensive in character, as to embrace all means which Congress, according to circumstances, may deem proper and necessary in order to raise armies, or to govern them when raised. Rules of appointment to office, rules of promotion another form of appointment and all rules whatever in relation to the land and naval forces, save the appointment of the commander-in-chief of those united forces, who is designated by the Constitution, are hence within the com- petency of Congress. It is true, that this great power vested in Congress has been exer- cised by them, in most cases, by giving to the President a large dis- cretion in appointments and other matters connected with the army. But the principle itself that supreme command is vested in Congress has been often asserted in our military legislation. Contemporaneously with the foundation of the government laws have been passed, giving to general and other officers the right of appointment to certain offices ; in other cases, the President has been confined in his selection to classes designated by law ; again, rules have been made by Congress for the promotion of officers, and in 1846 an army of volunteers was raised 28 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [App. by Congress, the officers of which Congress directed should be ap- pointed, according to the laws of the States in which the troops were raised, excepting the general officers, who were to be appointed by the President and Senate a clear recognition that the troops thus raised were United States troops, and not militia. (See CONGRESS ; PRO- MOTION; VOLUNTEERS.) APPOINTMENT is Office, Rank, Employment, Equipment. APPROACHES are the first, second, and third parallels, trenches, saps, mines, &c., by which the besiegers approach a fortified place. APPROPRIATIONS for the support of armies, are limited by the Constitution to a term not to exceed two years. The President is authorized to transfer appropriations for subsistence, forage, the medical and quartermaster's department, from one branch of military expend- iture to any other of the above-mentioned branches; (Act May 1, 1820.) (See TRANSFERS.) APRON. A piece of sheet lead used to cover the vent of a cannon. APPUI, POINT D'. A term applied to any given point upon which a line of troops is formed. ARDENT SPIRITS. The introduction of ardent spirits into Indian Territory, under any pretence, prohibited ; (Act July 0, 1832.) The President of the United States may take such measures as he may deem expedient to prevent or restrain the vending or distributing of spirituous liquors among Indians. Goods of traders introducing it forfeited ; (Acts March 30, 1802, and May 6, 1832.) ARM. Infantry, artillery, and cavalry, are arms of the service. ARMISTICE, Armistitium, i. e. sistere ab armis. A temporary truce, or suspension of hostilities. ARMORER. The person who makes, cleans, or repairs arms. ARMORY. A manufactory or place of deposit for arms. (See ARSENAL ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.) ARMS, SMALL. Casting away arms and ammunition punishable with death or otherwise according to the sentence of a general court- martial ; (Art. 52.) Officers, non-commissioned officers, and soldiers should be instructed and practised in the nomenclature of the arms, the manner of dismounting and mounting them, and the precautions and care required for their preservation. Each soldier should have a screw- driver and a wiper, and each squad of ten a wire and a tumbler punch, and a spring vice. No other implements should be used in taking arms apart or in setting them up. In the inspection of arms, officers ABM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. should attend to the qualities essential to service, rather than a bright polish on the exterior of the arms. The arms should be inspected in the quarters at least once a month, with the barrel and lock separated from the stock. PEINCIPAL DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SMALL AEMS. Dimensions. Eifle muskets. Kifles. Pistol carbine. 1822. 1840. 1855. 1841. 1855. 1855. C Diameter of bore . Inches. .69 .015 .82 1.25 42. 16. 41.96 57.64 73.64 Inches. .69 .015 8.85 1.25 42. 18. 41.70 57.80 75.80 Inches. .58 .0025 .78 1.14 40. 18. 39.60 55.85 73.85 Inches. .58 .0025 .90 1.15 33. 21.7 33. 48.8 71.3 Inches. .58 .0025 .90 1.14 33. 21.7 33. 49.3 71.8 Inches. .58 .0025 .82 1. 12. Variation allowed, more Barrel < Diameter at muzzle I Diam'r at breech between flats. [ Length without breech screw. Bayonet Length of blade 12. 17.6 ( Length without bayonet Arm J Witb > Bayonet fi xe( j complete, j With butt-piece 28.2 3 4. .30 .005 .008 Lbs. 1.4 .6 "3.66" f Number .. 3 6. .36 .005 .015 Lbs. 4. *95 .73 9.06 9.82 3 6. .36 .005 .015 Lbs. 4.19 .95 .64 9.51 10.15 3 6. .SO .005 .015 Lbs. 4.28 .81 .72 9.18 9.90 3 6. .30 .005 .013 Lbs. 4.8 .55 3.05 9.68 12.72 3 6. .30 .005 .013 Lbs. 4.8 .81 3.05 9.93 12.98 Twist Grooves \ Width [_ Depth at breech. WEIGHTS. Barrel without breech screw Bayonet ( Without bayonet Arm J YYJtb. bayonet complete, j with bu tt-pi ec e 5.09 ' i HEIGHTS OF HAUSSE, ETC. Table of approximate heights for rear sights of new arms, measured from the line of metal of the barrel. Pieces fired from the shoulder and rest. New Eifle musket. Eifle musket (altered). Distance. Weight of ball, 500 grains. Weight of powder, 60 grains. Weight of ball, 730 grains. Weight of powder, 70 grains. Yards. Inches. Inches. 100 .40 .42 The top of the front 200 300 400 500 .54 .70 .88 1.10 . .62 .82 1.08 1.34 sight is seen "fine" through the notch of the rear sight. 600 1.35 1.65 700 1.63 1.96 800 1.94 2.28 900 2.28 2.61 1000 2.63 2.94 * Mayuard primer. 30 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ARM. PENETRATIONS. Table of penetrations in a target made of seasoned white pine plank one inch thick, and placed one and a half inches apart. Arm. Weight of ball. Weight of powder. Diameter of bullet. Planks penetrated. Distance. Grains. 500 Grains. 60 Inch. .5775 Number. 9| Yards. 200 730 70 .685 104 200 500 60 .5775 11 200 450 40 .5775 5| 200 500 60 .5775 5} 600 730 70 .685 6 600 500 60 .5775 6i 600 450 40 .5775 3 500 730 70 .685 8i 1000 500 Go .5775 3 1000 500 60 .5775 34- 1000 At 1,000 yards, a bullet from the new rifle-musket passed completely through the frame of the target, which was made of solid white pine, three inches thick. The elongated musket bullets do not cease to ricochet on level ground, at the distance of 1,000 yards. A strong wind blowing perpendicularly to the direction of the rifle-musket bullet, will deflect it from its course 12 feet in 1,000 yards, about 3 feet in 500 yards, and about \ foot in 200 yards. The effect of wind on the pistol-carbine bullets is somewhat greater, for the same distance. When two oblong bullets are fired from the new rifle-musket, or altered rifle, with the ordinary service charge of 60 grains, they separate from each other and from the plane of fire about 4 feet in a distance of 200 yards. If the piece be held firmly against the shoulder, no serious inconvenience will be felt in firing this increased charge ; the only precaution necessary to be observed in aim- ing, is to give the barrel greater elevation than for the single bullet, in the proportion of 6 feet for 200 yards. In cases of emergency, firing with two bullets might be effectively employed against masses of in- fantry and cavalry, if the distance does not exceed 300 yards. Muzzle- loading small arms can be discharged two or three times in a minute, and breech-loading arms about ten times. Rapidity of loading and discharging fire-arms is however of doubtful advantage in actual service, as soldiers are apt to discharge their pieces without proper aim, and thus waste ammunition. ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 1 c 13 bmiipfib* of % giflc MODEL OF 1855. Fig. Y. Bwrel, one-seventh size, a, breech ; 6, cone-seat ; <-, rear-sight ; d, front-sight and bayonet stud ; e, muzzle. FIG. 8. Fig. 8. Breech-screw, full size. , plug with threads ; 6, J tenon ; c, tang ; d, tang-screw hole ; e, face. FIG. 9. FIG. 9'. C Fig. 9. Cone, full size, a, nipple ; b, square ; c, shoulder ; d, screw-thread ; e, vent. Fig. 9'. Cone-seat screw, full size, a, stem ; 6, head ; c, slit ; d, thread. FIG. 10. c Fig. 10. Tang-screw, full size. 11. Ramrod, one-seventh size, a, stem; 6, swell; c, head; d, cup; e, screw. 32 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ARM. FIG. 13. FIG. 12. Fig. 12. Rear-sight, full size, side view, complete. 1, 2, 3, 4, grad- uation-marks on the base, a. Fig. 13. Section through a, a, full size. Fia. 14. Fig. 14. Section through 6, 6, full size. FIG. 15. T"T^ 15. ea/, full size, a, frame ; 6, slot; d, tongue; e, joint-pin hole; /, sight- notch ; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, graduation-markfl. FIG. 16. FIG. IT. i - I a 0* Fig. 16. Leaf-spring, full size, a, blade; 6, screw-hole; c, thickness. Fig. 17. Leaf-spring screw, full size, a, head ; 6, stem ; c, c, holes for screw-driver. FIG. 13. FIG. 10. CL v 05 O5 FIG. 20. Fig. 18. >S^ek, full size, a, back-piece; 6, 6, grooves; c, c, rivet-holes; fi 80 25 1 2 Corps of Topographical Engineers I 2 Two Regiments of Cavalry 1 2 - - - Regiment of Mounted Riflemen. 1 Four Regiments of Artillery 4 Ten Regiments of Infantry 10 Non-commissioned Staff unat- Grand aggregate 3 1 1 4 a a 812 1 2 2 4 a 28 1 i 2 a ! 8. 1 26 I SO 1 2 25 i 22 (a) One of the eight Assistant Adjutants-general (captains by brevet), four of the twenty-eight Assistant Quartermasters, and one of the eight Commissaries of Subsistence (captains), belonging also to regiments, and being included in their strength, are, to avoid counting them twice, excluded, as Staff officers, from the columns, "total commissioned," and "aggregate," of their respective Depart- ments. The Regimental and Staff commissions, held by these officers, are of unequal grades; and hence they are not affected by the provisions of the 7th section of the act of June 18, 1846. The like remark is applicable to thojudge-advocate of the army, who is, at the same time, a Captain in the Ordnance Department. * ARMY OF U. S.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 49 Lieutenant Colonels. I s q I a d. d ? Adjutants. Kegimental Quartermasters. First Lieutenants. Second Lieutenants. Brevet Second Lieutenants. Military Storekeepers. Sergeant Majors. Quartermaster Sergeants. Principal or Chief Musicians. bl Ordnance Sergeants. Hospital Stewards. Sergeants. 1 | O 2 tc p Musicians. Farriers and Blacksmiths. Artificers. Privates. Enlisted men of Ordnance. 1 1 Total enlisted. Aggregate. 4 4 c fS ... 13 13 2 40 11 2 40 11 175 28 146 89 454 7 2 1 1 4 4 4 107 28 68 18 6 17 & 17 12 10 12 11 3 1 e 8 e 3 6 3 10 10 2 78 46 39 100 15 400 54 400 2 4 20 ' 2 20 20 e 4 2 2 2 4 80 SO 40 20 1,000 74 1,280 1,304 2 4 20 I 2 20 20 e 4 2 2 2 4 80 80 40 20 1,000 74 1,230 1,304 1 2 10 1 1 10 10 e 1 1 1 1 2 40 40 20 ... 20 640 86 765 801 4 8 48 d 4 d 4 96 48 6 5 4 4 92 192 96 96 h 2,148 213 2,732 2,945. 10 20 100 10 d 10 00 100 t 4 ,0 20 400 400 200 4,200 344 5,240 5,584 f 3 73 73 23 50 b 245 c 5 d 19 19280 213 e 2'2 9 9 25 OJ73 ff s 02 802 100 298 GO 06 9,066 400 1,085 11,838 12,923 (&) By the act of March 3, 1S53, section 9, a Lieutenant of Engineers, Topographical Engineers, and Ordnance, having served "fourteen years' continuous service as Lieutenant," is entitled to pro- motion to the rank of Captain ; but such promotion is not to increase the whole number of Officers, in either of said corps, beyond the number previously fixed by law. () Thejire Aids-de-catnp. being taken from regiments, in the strength of which they are in- cluded, are, to avoid counting them ivticA, excluded, as Staff officers, from the columns, "total com- missioned,'' and "aggregate." (d) The Adjutants of Artillery and Infantry (14), and all the Eegimental Quartermasters (19), 4 50 MILITARY DICTIONARY. OF V. S. 1 ^ 1 t/C Total en- listed. Aggr igate. l d 8. a 1 I . A OEGANIZATION OF Bacuuorn AJTD COMPANIES. ant-colone Qtal Quart 00 eutenants. Lieutenan f master Sei il or Chiel 1 2 and Blacl >mmission f 1 Q I i in strengt m strengt "3 s s t IWPTS a cj c, - w c g a o S 3 3 s S 3 a i S "S, ^ o cj c g> < tl | E . " (3 D a 'j< 3 ^ 1 y P-! ^ 02 o- PH x: 3 O n a r rt 5 ^ 3 1 Eegiment of Dragoons and Cavalry 1 1 2 1 i 10 10 1 1 1 2 40 40 20 10 500 35 615 855 650 Company of Dragoons and Cavalry . . 1 1 1 4 ? 1 50 n 85 64 RS Regiment of Mounted 1 Eiflemen 1 1 9 1 1 10 1 ) 10 1 1 1 9 10 40 ^0 20 010 or- "/'"; S65 00 9' Company of Mounted | Eiflemen t 1 1 4 4 9 M a 7r 86 79 89 | Eegiment of Artillery. 1 1 2 1 i 12 24 12 1 1 4S 48 24 24 52G* :,*> 672 * 1,034 724 1,086 Company of Light Ar- 1 1 4 | 9 M 1 7G 86 80 90 Company of Artillery 1 9 1 4 4 9 9 49, ,1 M 86 CS 90 | Eegiment of Infantry. 1 1 2 1 i 10 10 10 1 1 2 40 40 . 20 420 34524 844 553 878 Company of Infantry. 1 1 1 J 4 4 2 " 42 S 52 84 55 87 The regiment being understood to consist of one Light and eleven Heavy companies. being taken from the Subalterns, and accounted for in their several regiments as belonging to Com- panies, are excluded, as regimental tajf officers, from the columns " total commissioned," and "ag- gregate." (e) Under the 4th section of the act of April 29, 1812, " making further provision for the Corps of Engi- neers," one Brevet Second Lieutenant is allowed to every "company." The number authorized is, con- sequently, one hundred and ninety-nine. The number, now attached to the Army, is twenty-seven. (f) By the act of April 5, 1882, section 2d, "providing for the organization of the Ordnance Depart- ment," the number of Ordnance Sergeants cannot exceed "one for each military post." The number,, actually in service, is seventy-three. (g) By the act of August 16, 1856, section 2d, "providing for a necessary increase and better organization of the Medical and Hospital Department of the Army," the number of Hospital Stewards cannot exceed "one for each military post." Tho number, actually in service, is sijcty-eight. (h) Two companies in the 1st and 2d, and one in each of the other regiments of artillery, being equipped as Light Artillery, are allowed, in consequence, "aixty-four" instead of "forty-two" privates See act "to increase the rank and file of the Army,'' 1S50, per company. Bee act "to increase tne rant ana mo or me .army," &c., approved June 17 section 1st. (i) By the act of June 17, 1850, " to increase the rank and file of the Army," &c., section 2d, the Presi- dent is authorized, whenever the exigencies of the service require it, to increase to seventy-four, the number of privates in any company, "serving at the several military posts on the Western frontier, and at remote and distant stations." In the table, the minimum, or fixed, organization is given, viz. : fifty privates to a compuny of Dragoons, sfcrty-four to a company of Light Artillery and Eiflemon, and forty-two to the Artillery and Infantry. If all the companies belonging to "regiments" (19S) were serving at distant sta- tions, the "total enlisted'' would be 17,502, and the "aggregate" 18,587. The organization by corps limits the number of orh'cers in the army, but not their rank ; the Presi- dent, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, being authorized by law to confer rank by brevet for gallant and meritorious services (xe.e BREVET). Four Surgeons and four Assistants have been added to the Medical Department, and one Signal Officer created, with the rank of Major, since the preparation of these tables. ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 51 The most glaring deficiency in the military legislation of the United States, is the want of a GENERAL LAW, regulating the organization of all troops that Congress may see fit to raise, so that, upon adding to, or diminishing, the public force in any emergency, it will be only necessary to prescribe what number of men are to be added or taken away. This general law should embrace general officers, staff corps, and departments, engineers, and regiments of cavalry, artillery, and infantry ; it should establish rules of promotion and appointment ; it should regulate the recruiting service ; it should provide for the re- pression of military crimes and disorders ; it should not fail to stimu- late the appetite for rewards ; it should make just rules concerning captures, which would recognize the rights of captors ; it should regu- late the indemnification for losses ; and it should provide for the organization of a suitable board, which would take advantage of all improvements in the military art and suggest, from time to time, such modifications of the general law as might appear just and proper. In respect to Army Organization, there are two acts of Congress of the general character here suggested. One, an act to regulate the medical establishment, approved March 2, 1799 ; and the second, an act for the better organizing of the troops of the United States, and for other pur- poses, approved March 3, 1799. Both of these acts were drawn by Alexander Hamilton, as he explained in a letter to the Secretary of War, " as permanent rules to attach to all provisions of law for the increase or diminution of the public force." Subsequent legislation has, however, without providing any other permanent rule regulating the organization in respect to general officers, staff corps, and depart- ments, &c., according to the increase or diminution of force, almost entirely superseded the provisions of the remarkable acts here referred to. (See ARTICLES OF WAR.) ARMY REGULATIONS a ^book so called, published in the name of the President of the United States " for the government of all concerned." The Constitution provides that " Congress shall have power to make rules for the government and regulation of the Land and Naval forces." The only acts of Congress in force, authorizing the President to make regulations, better defining the powers and duties of officers, are contained in the 5th section of the act of March 3, 1813, and the 9th section of the act approved April 26, 1816. The first of these acts is an act for the better organization of the general staff of the army, and the second relates (with the exception of the last section, concerning forage and private servants) to the same subject. By the 5th section of the act of 1813, it is provided, " That it shall be tho 52 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ARM. duty of the Secretary of the War Department, and he is hereby au- thorized, to prepare general regulations, better defining and prescribing the respective duties and powers of the several officers in the adjutant- general, inspector-general, quartermaster-general, and commissary of ordnance departments, of the topographical engineers, of the aides of generals, and generally of the general and regimental staff; which regu- lations, when approved by the President of the United States, shall be respected and obeyed, until altered or revoked by the same authority. And the said general regulations, thus prepared and approved, shall be laid before Congress at their next session." Remarking here, that the regulations to be prepared and approved refer only to the powers and duties of the officers of the several staff departments, enumerated in the act, it follows that no other regulations made by the President can derive any force whatever from this act. The 9th section of the act of 1816 therefore only continued this then existing power of the President in providing " That the several officers of the staff shall respectively receive the pay and emoluments, and re- tain all the privileges, secured to the staff of the Army, by the act of March 3, 1813, and not incompatible with the provisions of this act : and that the regulations in force before the reduction of the Army be recognized, as far as the same shall be found applicable to the service ; subject, however, to such alterations as the Secretary of War may adopt, with the approbation of the President." It would seem, there- fore, that whatever may be contained in the President's Army regula- tions of a legislative character concerning officers of the Army, not belonging to staff departments, must, if valid, be a legitimate deduc- tion from some positive law, or depend for its legality upon the exercise of authority delegated to the Constitutional commander-in-chief or other military commander, in the rules made by Congress for the govern- ment of the Army. Congress has delegated to the President, authority to prescribe the uniform cf the Army ; authority to establish the ra- tion ; and besides the authority given by law to other military com- manders, he also has been authorized to relieve, in special cases, an inefficient military commander from duty with any command ; to assign any senior to duty with mixed corps, so that the command may fall by law on such senior in rank ; to limit the discretion of command- ing officers in special cases, in regard to what is needful for the service ; and hence also he has been given authority to carve out special com- mands from general commands, in particular cases ; (62d Article of War.) These are all-important functions, but they do not authorize special cases to be made general rules, and it is much to be regretted ARR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 53 that the lines of separation between regulations and the orders of the commander-in-chief have not been kept distinct. (See COMMAND ; CON- GRESS ; OBEDIENCE; ORDERS. Consult opinions of Attorneys-general, particularly the opinion of Mr. Berrien, July 18, 1839.) ARREARS OF PAY. The troops shall be paid in such manner that the arrears shall, at no time, exceed two months, unless the cir- cumstances of the case shall render it unavoidable ; (Act March 16, 1802 ; Act March 3, 1813.) This provision of law has been strangely executed by never paying troops oftener than once in two months, and not unfrequently neglecting to pay them for a much longer time. ARREST IN ORDER TO TRIAL. Before an offiqer or sol- dier, or other person subject to military law, can be brought to trial, he must be charged with some crime or offence against the rules and articles of war, and placed in arrest. The articles of war direct that whenever any officer shall be charged with a crime, he shall be arrested and confined in his barracks, quarters, or tent, and deprived of his sword by the commanding officer. And that " non-commissioned offi- cers and soldiers, charged with crimes, shall be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority ; " (ARTS. 77, 78.) The arrest of an officer is generally executed through a staff-officer ; by an adjutant, if ordered by the commanding officer of a regiment ; or by an officer of the general staff, if ordered by a superior officer ; and sometimes by the officer with whom the arrest originates. On being placed in arrest, an officer resigns his sword. If this form be some- times omitted, the custom is invariably observed, jof an officer in arrest not wearing a sword. By the custom of the army, it is usual, except in capital cases, to allow an officer in arrest the limits of the garrison or even greater limits, at the- discretion of the bmmanding officer, who regu- lates his conduct by the dictates of propriety and humanity. A non- commissioned officer or soldier is confined in charge of a guard ; but, by the custom of the service, the non-commissioned staff and sergeants may be simply arrested. The articles of war declare, " that no officer or soldier, who shall be put in arrest or imprisonment, shall continue in his confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court- martial can be conveniently assembled; (ART. 79.) The latter part of this clause evidently allows a latitude, which is capable of being abused ; but, as in a free country there is no wrong without a remedy, an action might be brought against the offender in a civil court, (See INJURIES,) if the mode of redress for all officers and soldiers, who conceive them- selves injured by their commanding officer,. be not sufficient. (ARTS. 34, 35.) 54 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ARR. It is declared by the articles of war, that " no officer commanding a guard, or provost-marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any prisoner committed to his charge, by any officer belonging to the forces of the United States ; provided, the officer committing shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime with which the said prisoner is charged ; " and it is also declared, that " no officer commanding a guard, or provost-marshal, shall presume to release any prisoner committed to his charge, without proper authority for so doing, nor shall he suffer any person to escape, on the penalty of being punished for it by the sentence of a court-martial. Every officer or provost-marshal, to whose charge prisoners shall be committed, shall, within twenty-four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he shall be relieved from his guard, make report in writing, to the commanding officer, of their names, their crimes, and the names of the officers who committed them, on the penalty of being punished for disobedience, or neglect, at the discretion of a court-martial ; (ARTS. 80, 81, 82.) Thus the liberty of the citizen, under military law, so far as is consistent with the ends of justice, seems to be guarded with precautions little inferior to those which secure personal liberty under the civil laws of the state. The penalty of an officer's breaking his arrest, or leaving his confinement before he is set at liberty by his commanding officer, or by a superior officer, is declared to be cashiering by sentence of a general court-martial ; (ART. 77.) A court-martial has no control over the nature of the arrest of a prisoner, except as to his personal freedom in court; the court cannot, even to facilitate his defence, interfere to cause a close arrest to be enlarged. The officer in command is alone responsible for the prisoners under his charge. Individuals placed in arrest, may be released, without being brought before a court-martial ; by the authority ordering the arrest, or by superior authority. It is not obligatory on the commander to place an officer in arrest, on ap- plication to that effect from an officer under his command. He will exercise a sound discretion on the subject. But in all applications for redress of supposed grievances inflicted by a superior, it will be his duty, in case he shall not deem it proper to order an investigation, to give his reasons in writing, for declining to act ; these reasons, if not satisfactory, the complaining party may, should he think fit so to do, forward to the next common superior, together with a copy of his ap- plication for redress. An officer has no right to demand a court- martial, either on himself, or on others ; the general-in-chief or officer competent to order a court, being the judge of its necessity or pro- priety. Nor has any officer, who may have been placed in arrest, any ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 55 right to demand a trial, or to persist in considering himself under ar- rest, after he shall have been released by proper authority. An officer under arrest will not make a visit of etiquette to the commanding officer, or other superior officer, or call on him, unless sent for ; and in case of business, he will make known his object in writing. It is con- sidered indecorous in an officer in arrest to appear at public places. ARREST BY CIVIL AUTHORITY. By section 21, Act January 11, 1812, no non-commissioned officer, musician, or private, can be arrested on mesne process, or taken or charged in execution for any debt con- tracted before enlistment under twenty dollars, nor for any debt what- ever, contracted after enlistment. (See MESNE PROCESS.) ARSENAL. A place of deposit for ordnance and ordnance stores. There are also arsenals of construction and repairs. (See ORDNANCE.) ARTICLES OF WAR. There can be no doubt that the prerog- ative to command and regulate the whole military force of the king- dom, whether consisting of the feudal tenants, or of the militia, or of paid troops, resided in the Crown of England. Nevertheless the power of the sovereign was restricted by a provision, that he should exercise his military jurisdiction only " according to the laws and usages of the realm." In the reign of Edward VI., however, parliament as- serted authority over military matters by passing an act for the government of the army ; various offences, as losing, selling, or fraudu- lently exchanging horses or armor ; desertion ; detaining the pay of soldiers ; and taking rewards for granting them discharges, were put under the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate. It was also provided that the act should be read once a month by every field officer to the soldiers under his command, and once a quarter by the governor or captain of every garrison or fortress. At this period, however, there was no standing army, the feudal system was still in force, every man in the realm was more or less a soldier ; military law was accord- ingly restricted to such persons as were actually serving in the field, the process of civil judicature being obviously inapplicable to their case but directly the soldier ceased to belong to the force in actual campaign, the civil power stepped in and claimed cognizance of his offences. Until the Civil War in the reign of Charles I., it is probable that no regular permanent code of rules or articles for enforcing military disci- pline was in existence ; the ruling authority had promulgated its orders for the government and regulation of the army as occasion required. Each war, each expedition, had its own edict, which fell into disuse again upon the disbanding of the army, which inevitably followed the cessa- 56 MILITARY DICTIONARY. ART.] tion of hostilities. Several instances, indeed, of rules and ordinances for military government by the ancient kings are still extant ; one of Richard I., for the government of those going by sea to the Holy Land, is to be found in Rymer's Fredera. An elaborate code of " statutes, ordonnances, and customs to be observed in the army," made in the 9th year of Richard II., is to be found among the Cottonian MS. in the Brit- ish Museum and those of Henry V., Henry VII., and Henry VIII., have not been lost. The experience of ages and the precedents of former Avars, there- fore, enabled the authorities to frame a sufficiently comprehensive code in case of need ; accordingly, soon after the outbreak of the civil Avar, the necessities of the case compelled the parliament to enact ordinances or articles of war. The first complete " Lawes and Ordinances of Warre" (as he called them) were issued by Essex, the commander-in- chief of the parliamentary army in 1642. These articles are remark- able and interesting, as undoubtedly forming the groundwork of those now in use. Two years after the publication of Essex's ordinances, on the marching of the Scottish army into England, soon after the ratification of the solemn league and covenant, " Articles of War " were issued for its government. These articles, although very dis- similar to those of Essex, considering that both were in force in the same kingdom at the same time, and were applicable to armies fighting on the same side, nevertheless treat mainly of the same offences. The form of judicature established, consisted of two courts of justice, called "Councils of War," the one superior, and the other inferior. The superior court, also called the " Court of War," took cognizance of the more serious offences, and likewise heard appeals from the decision of the lower court, called the " Marshal Court." No trace of the constitution of these courts is now to be found except that "the judges were sworn to do justice." Within a few months of the pro- mulgation of the latter, (August, 1644,) the same parliament that was the author of the petition of right, passed an ordinance, establishing a system of martial law, applicable not only to soldiers, but to all per- sons alike. By this ordinance, the Earl of Essex, captain-general of the parliamentary forces, together with fifty-six others named therein, (among whom were peers, members of the House of Commons, gentry, and officers of the army.) were constituted " commissioners," and any twelve of them authorized to hear and determine all such causes as " belong to military cognizance," according to the articles mentioned in the ordinance, and to proceed to the trial, condemnation, and exe- cution, of all offenders against the said articles, and to inflict upon ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 57 them such punishment, either by death or otherwise, corporally, as the said commissioners, or the major part of them then present, should judge to appertain to justice, according to the measure of the offence. Under cover of this ordinance, which, after one refusal by the peers, was subsequently renewed, parliament proceeded to issue a vari- ety of orders for the conduct of the war, and the regulation of the army ; and many persons were tried by court-martial and executed. After the expiration of this last ordinance, the absolute executive power, in all mat- ters of military law, fell into the hands of Cromwell, .who claimed it as his right, in virtue of his office of general- in-chief. " The general," says Whitlocke, " sent his order to several garrisons, to hold courts-martial, for the punishment of soldiers offending against the articles of war ; pro- vided that if any be sentenced to lose life or limb, that then they transmit to the judge-advocate the examinations and proceedings of the court- martial, that the General's pleasure may be known thereon.*' On one occasion, deeming it necessary for the sake of discipline, to make an immediate example, Cromwell seized several officers with his own hand, called a court-martial on the field, condemned them to death, and shot one forthwith at the head of his regiment. It will thus be seen, that the administration of martial law was almost inva- riably in the hands of the most considerable power in the state it alternated between king and parliament, and between parliament and dictator, as each became uppermost in the realm. On the restoration of Charles II., the army, with the exception of about five thousand men* consisting of General Monk's regiment called " the Coldstream," the first regiment of foot, the royal regiment of Horse Guards, called " the Oxford Blues," and a few other regiments, was disbanded. The force kept on foot was the first permanent military force, or " standing army," known in England ; and from it the present army dates its origin. A statute passed in the reign of Charles II., intituled, " An act for ordering the forces in the several counties of this kingdom," recites that, " within all his majesty's realms and dominions, the sole and supreme power, government, command, and disposition of the militia, and of all forces by sea and land, and of all forts and places of strength is, and by the laws of England ever was, the undoubted right of his majesty, and his royal predecessors, kings and queens of Eng- land." With the exception of some slight encroachment on the part of the Crown, and protests on the part of the parliament, matters re- mained in very much the same state till the^ revolution, at which period military law assumed a permanent and definite form, as it now exists. The only allusions to the military power of the Crown, in the Bill of \ 58 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART. Eights, are, " that the raising and keeping of a standing army in time of peace, without consent of parliament, is contrary to law ; " and that "subjects, if Protestants, may have arms for their defence, suitable to their condition, and as allowed by law." In the first year, however, of the reign of William and Mary, British regiments, jealous of the sup- posed preference shown by William for his Dutch troops, mutinied at Ipswich. The king suppressed the mutiny with a strong hand, at the same time communicating the event to parliament. Parliament, anxious to devise means for the convenient application of a code of laws for the regulation and management of the army, and at the same time deter- mined to place a check upon the exercise of the military power of the king, passed, on the 3d April, 1689, for a period of six months only, the first mutiny act, the preamble of which is as follows : " Whereas, the raising or keeping a standing army within this kingdome, in time of peace, unlesse it be with the consent of Parlya- rnent, is against law ; and whereas it is judged necessary, by their majestyes and this present parlyament that, during this time of warr, severall of the forces which are now on foote should be continued and others raised, for the safety of the kingdome, for the common defence of the Protestant religion, and for the reducing of Ireland. And whereas no man can be prejudged of life or limb, or subjected to any kinde of punishment by martiall iftw, or in any other manner than by the judgment of his peeres, and according to the knowne and established lawes of this realme ; yet, nevertheless, it being requisite for retaining such forces as are or shall be raised during this exigence of affaires in their duty, that an exact discipline be observed ; and that soldiers who shall mutiny or stirr up sedition, or who shall desert their majestye's service, be brought to more exemplary and speedy punishment than the usual formes of law will allow." The act provides for the assembling and constitution of courts-mar- tial, for the oath of members, for ^ie punishment of desertion, mutiny, sedition, false musters, &c. ; for the regulation of billets ; and is or- dered to be read at the head of every regiment, troop, or company, at every muster, " that noe soldier may pretend ignorance." No power is, however, reserved to the sovereign to make articles of war. This act was renewed soon after its expiration ; and with the exception of about three years only, viz., from 10th April, 1698, to 20th February, 1701, has been annually re-enacted (with many alterations arid amend- ments) ever since. The first statutory recognition of articles of war, occurs in the 1st Anne, statute 2, c. 20, in a clause, which saves to her majesty the right of making articles of war, for the regulation of her ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 59 forces " beyond the seas in time of war." It is not until the 3d Geo. 1, c. 2, that we find the sovereign distinctly empowered by the mutiny act to make articles of war for the government of the troops at home. A clause in that act, after reciting that no effectual provision has been made for the government of his majesty's land forces, empowers the king to make and constitute, under his sign manual, articles for the better government of his majesty's forces, " as well within the king- doms of Great Britain and Ireland as beyond the seas." This privilege has been annually re-enacted, and annually exercised by the Crown to the present day. Under the Constitution of the United States, Congress only can make rules of government and regulation for the land forces, and those rules, commonly called Articles of War, were originally borrowed jointly from the English mutiny act annually passed by parliament, and their articles of war established by the king. The existing articles for the government of the army of the United States, en- acted April 10, 1806, are substantially the same as those originally borrowed July 30, 1775, and enlarged by the old Congress from the same sources, Sept. 20, 1776. The act consists of but three sections. The first declares : The following shall be the rules and articles by which the armies of the United States shall be governed ; " and gives one hundred and one articles, all noticed in these pages. Each article is confined, in express terms, to the persons composing the army. The second SECTION contains the only exception in the cases as follows : " In time of war, all persons, not citizens of, or owing allegiance to, the United States of America, who shall be found lurking, as spies, in or about the fortifications or encampments of the armies of the United States, or any of them, shall suffer death, according to the law and usage of nations, by sentence of a general court-martial." The third section merely repeals the previous act for governing the army. The Articles of War, therefore, are, and under th< Constitution of the United States can be, nothing more than a code for the government and regulation of the army. Or, in other words, within the United States, these articles are " a system of rule superadded to the common law, for regulating the citizen in his character of a soldier," and appli- cable to no other citizens. Beyond the United States another code is essential ; for, although armies take with them the Rules and Articles of War, and the custom of war in like cases in a foreign country, the soldier must be tried by some tribunal for offences which at home would be punishable by the ordinary courts of law. It is impossible to subject him to any foreign dominion, and hence, in the absence of 60 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART. rules made by Congress for the government of the army under such circumstances, the will of the commander of the troops, ex necessitate rei, takes the place of law, and the declaration of his will is called MARTIAL LAW. (See MARTIAL LAW.) The most casual reader of our Articles of War will be struck by the fact, that whereas the mutiny act of Great Britain is annually sub- jected to the supervision of parliament, and altered or modified accord- ing to circumstances, yet the Rules and Articles of War, passed in 1806, have remained upon our statute book from that day to the present without any general revision. Another fact equally important is, that while the king of Great Britain not only commands, but governs the British army, and therefore modifies the government of the army at his pleasure,the President of the United States is simply the com- mander of our army, under such rules for raising, supporting, gov- erning, and regulating it, as Congress may appoint. The necessity of attention to the military establishment on the part of Congress is therefore manifest, and it is most earnestly to be hoped that, in their wisdom they will, at some early day, fulfil their constitutional obliga- tions of raising, governing, and regulating armies : 1. By establishing a system of recruiting which will bring into the ranks, soldiers who will make good officers ; 2. By providing that all commissioned offi- cers shall be appointed from enlisted soldiers, or from military acad- emies, and making rules precisely regulating the manner in which such appointments shall be made ; 3. In making rules for a system of promotion partly by seniority, and partly by merit ; 4. In passing other remunerative laws, such as prize money, field allowances, indem- nification for losses, &c. ; 5. In accurately defining the powers, rights, and duties of all officers and soldiers ; 6. In providing remedies for wrongs, including appeals to federal civil courts, to determine the true exposition of military laws in dispute ; and 7. In revising the penal code, and better adapting it to a system of government which will pro- vide rewards for good conduct, and not simply punishments for bad. See ABANDONING A POST; ABSENCE WITHOUT LEAVE; ABSENCE WITH LEAVE ; ABUSES AND DISORDERS ; ALARMS ; AMMUNITION ; APPEAL ; ARMS, (CASTING AWAY ;) ARREST ; BREACH OF ARREST ; BREVET ; BRIBE AT MUSTER ; BOOTY ; CASTING AWAY ; CERTIFICATES OF MUSTER ; CERTIFICATES, (FALSE ;) CHALLENGES, (DIFFERENT KINDS ;) CHAPLAIN ; COMMAND ; CONDUCT UNBECOMING AN OFFICER AND A GENTLEMAN ; CON- FINEMENT ; CONNIVING ; CONTEMPT ; CORPORAL ; CORRESPONDENCE, (WITH AN ENEMY ;) COURTS-MARTIAL, AND REFERENCES UNDER THAT HEAD ; COURTS OF INQUIRY ; COWARDICE ; CRIMES ; CUSTOM OF WAR ; DEATH ; ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 61 DECEASED , DEPARTMENT ; DEPOSITION OF WITNESSES ; DETACHMENT ; DESERTION ; DISCHARGE ; DISMISSION ; DISOBEDIENCE ; DISORDERS ; DISRESPECT ; DRUNKENNESS ; DUELS ; EMBEZZLEMENT ; ENGINEERS ; ENLISTMENTS ; ENTICING ; EXACTIONS ; FALSE ; FRAUDS ; FRAYS ; FURLOUGHS ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GRIEVANCES ; HARBORING AN ENEMY ; HIRING OF DUTY ; INJURING PRIVATE PROPERTY ; JUDGE- ADVOCATE ; JURISDICTION ; LEAVE ; LINE ; LYING OUT OF CAMP OR QUARTER ; MENACING ; MILITIA ; MISBEHAVIOR ; MITIGATION ; MONEY ; MONTHLY RETURNS ; MUSTERS ; MUTINY ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OF- FENCES NOT SPECIFIED ; OFFICERS ; ORDERS ; PARDON ; PAROLE : PIL- LAGE ; POST ; PRESIDENT ; PRISONER ; PROCEEDINGS ; PROMULGATION ; PROVOST-MARSHAL ; QUARRELS ; RANK ; REDRESSING WRONGS ; RE- ENLISTING ; REFUSAL TO RECEIVE PRISONERS ; RELEASING PRISONERS ; RELIEVING AN ENEMY ; REPROACHFUL SPEECHES ; RETAINERS ; RE- TURNS ; SAFEGUARD ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SELLING ; SENTENCE ; SEN- TINEL ; SPIES ; STAFF j STATE TROOPS ; STORES ; STRIPES ; STANDING ARMY ; SUBSCRIBING ; SUSPENSION ; SUTLERS ; TRIALS ; UPBRAIDING ; VIOLENCE ; WASTE OR SPOIL ; WATCHWORD ; WITNESS ; WORSHIP ; WRONGS ; and references under the heading of Law, all military laws being rules for the government and regulation of the army, although they may also include other matters. (Consult PIPON'S MANUAL OF MILITARY LAW.) ARTIFICER. Military workman ; two allowed to each com- pany of artillery. ARTILLERY. The word is more ancient than the use of powder, and was applied to machines of war, and all projectiles that the masters of artillery had under their direction. In foreign armies the word Ar- tillery is still indifferently applied to an arm of the service, the ma- terial used, and branch of science. By Artillery in the U. S. army is usually, but not always, meant an arm of the service, designed to use mountain, field, and heavy ordnance, and the knowledge requisite for such use. There are four regiments of Artillery in our army, in each of which the law authorizes two companies to be equipped as harnessed batteries ; (See ARMY, for their organization.) The remaining companies are, from supposed necessities of service, usually employed as infantry, but their name, and liability at any time to become artillerists, must cause officers not to neglect such knowledge of their arm as may be derived from books, and the establishment of the school of practice at Fort Monroe cannot fail to have the happiest effects in making skilful artillerists. The instructions for field artillery, and heavy and mountain artillery, are contained in books published by the War Department, one called 62 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART. " Instruction for Field Artillery, Horse and Foot," and another " Heavy Artillery" being " a complete system of instruction for Siege, Garri- son, Sea coast and Mountain Artillery," and a third " Evolutions of Field Artillery," by Major Robert Anderson. Composition of a field battery on the war establishment. Four 12- pounders or four six-pounder guns, and two 24-pounders or 12-pounder howitzers. Six pieces mounted to each battery. Carriages including caissons, spare gun-carriages, forges, and battery wagons, accompany each battery, together with implements and equipments specified in the ordnance manual. Draught horses, six to each battery wagon, and 12-pounder gun-carriage, four to other carriages, and one twelfth spare. Harness corresponding to the number of horses to the carriage. Tactics. A battery going into line with other troops, is usually formed in column of sections, and deployed into line as the enemy is approached. Under ordinary circumstances the best formation is the column doubled on the centre section, as the deploy is then toward both wings at the same time, and more promptly performed. Unless in extreme cases, the cannoneers should never be mounted on the boxes when the battery is within range of the enemy, as the explosion of a caisson might destroy nearly every cannoneer belonging to a piece. When several batteries are united, they are formed by sections in one or several parallel columns, or in double columns on the centre, or still better, in two columns joined, and presenting a front of four pieces with the same intervals as in line. Sometimes they are formed in close column with a front of four or six pieces, and the batteries being spaced a distance apart equal to the interval between two pieces. When de- ployed, the distance between the batteries is double this. When horse- artillery and mounted batteries are placed together, the former are placed on the wings, and the distances and intervals of the whole con- form to those of horse-artillery ; as in manoeuvring no regard is paid to inversions, it frequently happens that the batteries change their relative positions, and it is then necessary that each space should be large enough to contain a horse-artillery battery. A close column of several batteries is deployed in the same manner as a column of cav- alry ; the leading battery moving off at an increased gait, and the others, obliquing to the right or left, gain their intervals and form in line or battery to th^ front as usual. The changes of front to fire to the right and left are made on the wings in the same manner as with a single battery ; but it is betj^er to make these changes on the centre buttery. But four of these changes are practicable, viz., two to fire to ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 63 the right by throwing the left wing to the front or rear, and two to fire to the left by throwing the right wing to the front or rear. In the other four changes of front, the pivot pieces would be masked by the rest of the carriages, and could not commence their fire soon enough. On this account the pivot carriages, in these changes, should be on the side towards which the fire is to be delivered. In defensive battles, the contour of the ground is of the first importance, and if properly taken advantage of, may be made to double the force and importance of artillery. Artillery, held in reserve, arriving in mass or deployed upon the field of battle, occupies positions determined by circumstances and localities. Heights and commanding positions should be secured, and those positions, also, from which an oblique fire may be obtained upon the enemy. In a defensive position, those points are sought from whence the enemy may be discovered at the greatest distance. Advantage should be taken of all local circumstances to render the artillery fire most effective, and at the same time shelter it from the fire of the enemy. The guns should be placed, if possible, under cover. This is easily effected upon heights, by keeping them so far back that the muzzles only are to be seen over them. Ravines, banks, ditches, &c., also offer facilities for the pur- pose. The perfection to which the materiel of field artillery has been brought, gives it comparatively great mobility of action ; but large quan- tities of ammunition must be consumed to attain any positive result from its employment in battle. The transportation of this ammunition with an army involves serious economical considerations, constituting no small impediment to armies, from the number of horses, wagons, caissons, &c., required for each battery. The improvements made in the mate- riel of artillery will not, therefore, in all probability, cause a more fre- quent employment of light batteries; but on the contrary, the long range which has been given to the rifle and musket, and the facility with which tho horses and gunners of field batteries may be picked off at 1,000 yards, will probably cause even the rifled field gun to become an arm of RESERVE, which brought up at a decisive moment may influence the result of a battle, defend entrenchments against attack, and be use- fully employed against isolated field works. Smooth-bore field pieces, fired at a distance of five or six hundred yards, will penetrate from one yard and a half to two yards in para- pets recently constructed, and will traverse walls of ordinary construc- tion ; but a 12-pounder is necessary to make a breach in walls of good masonry four feot in thickness, and in this case the position of the bat- tery must be favorable, and the operation is even then a slow one. 64 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART. Moderate charges are employed in firing upon gates, block-houses, pal- isades, and in general upon all wooden structures. The heaviest siege pieces, by their great force of penetration, are best adapted for forming a breach in the walls of permanent fortifications. Their superior accu- racy, and the mass of their projectiles, render them also very effective in ricochet firing. Balls of smaller calibre have not sufficient mass to destroy carriages offering such resistance as those employed in the de- fence of places. The force of penetration of balls in different substances increases with their calibre and velocity : at one hundred yards, a 24- pound ball fired with a cartridge of 12 pounds will be one yard in brick masonry, nearly two feet in rubble work, one yard and a half in oak wood, two yards in pine, two yards and a half in well rammed earth, and nearly five yards in a recent embankment. The ball of an 18- pounder, fired with a charge of nine pounds under the same circum- stances, will give penetrations nearly six-sevenths of those indicated above. Field guns, in general, may be employed to cannonade with force and perseverance ; to reinforce the weakest points of positions, whe.ther offensive or defensive ; to secure a retreat by the occupation of points established as the base of defence of particular ground, or of any im- portant object, as the defence of a village or defile, or the passage of a river, and to overthrow such obstacles as palisades, rampart walls, doors, &c., interposed by art ; to prepare the way for an assault, and aid, at a decisive moment, to secure the victory by a united fire. A field cannon ball has sufficient force to disable seven or eight men at a distance of 900 yards. It is stated that a single cannon ball, at the battle of Zorndorf, disabled 42 men. Rifle projectiles, having more momentum, are effective at greater distances. The following tables of Charges and Ranges for United States Field Guns, Howitzers, and Heavy Ordnance, are taken from Roberts' Hand- book of Artillery. CHARGES FOE A FLATTENED Eico- CHET FOR SIEGE-GUNS. CHARGES FOR A FLATTENED RICOCHET FOR SIEGE-HOWITZERS. DISTANCE. ELEVATION. CHARGE. DISTANCE. ELEVATION CHARGE. 6C.O yards. 2 45' Via wt. of ball. 550 yards. 1 45' 3 Ihs. 550 3 V " 440 " 2 15' 2 Ihs. 3 oz. 410 " 3 15' V*. " 330 " 2 15' 1 1!). 12 oz. 330 " 3 35' V.. " 220 " 2 45' 1 lh. 2 oz. ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 65 CHAEGES FOE A CUEVATED RICOCHET FOE SIEGE-HOWITZEES. DISTANCE. ELEVATION. CHAKGE. REMARKS. 550 yards. 440 7 30' u 1 lb. 4 oz. 1 lb. 1 oz. The height of the object above the level of the battery being 330 14 oz. supposed to be 20 feet. 220 " 10 oz. The charges vary with the elevation ; or, if the elevation be fixed at any particular angle, they must be determined by the range. CHAEGES FOE FIELD-GUNS AND FIELD-HOWITZEES. FOR GXJN8. FOB HOWITZERS. KIND. a f, (-' T3 f -5 -s 5 p A i j s B Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 2 5 1 25 For spherical case or canister 1.5 1. 2.5 1.75 0.75 0.5 ( small charge 2.5 2. 1. 0.5 *J large charge 3.25 2.50 1. 0.5 CHAEGES FOE HEAVY GUNS, COLUMBIADS, AND HOWITZEES. GUNS. COLUMBIADS. HOWITZERS. i 9 1 2 1 1 ob 1 10-inch. 8-inch. Siege 8-in. fi -i SEA-COAST. 10-in. 8-in. Ibs. 10.5 Ibs. 8. Ibs. 8. Ibs. 6. Ibs. 4. Ibs. 14. Ibs. 8. Ibs. 4. Ibs. 2. Ibs. 12. Ibs. 8. GEEATEST CHAEGES OF SEA-COAST, SIEGE, AND COEHOEN MOETAES. SEA- COAST. SIEGE. COEHOEN. STONE MORTAB. ,d 1i j Q J .3 | PHOI g ?2 O o 00 Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lb. 20. 10. 4. 2. 0.5 1.5 1 66 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART: RANGES OF FIELD GUNS AND HOWITZERS. KIND OF PIECE. Powder Ball. Eleva- tion. Range. Remarks. 6-Po under Field Gun. Ibs. 1.25 Shof. II (1 x 12. 100-lb Shell. 1 8JO ^ i\ > it 2 \Qt.2\ T Vr r --r^ u 3 llj4 -*^ J? S " TI u 4 1*43 *"" ' * Jt f) _ 5 1604 ("** \ 1 7" r > 18. II 448 ^^ -*-t \ / 1 jfYr < u 1 747 * k\ " 2 1100 M 3 1239 " 4 1611 " 5 1865 u 6 2209 u 8 2489 u 10 2848 u 15 3200 u 20 m u 25 ^ |4160 a 30 4651 II 35 4828 Time 35 seconds. 13-in. Sea-Coast Mortar. 20. 200-lb. Shell. 45 4325 Time 40 seconds. 10-in. Sea-Coast Mortar. 10. 98-lb. Shell. 45 4250 Time 3fi seconds. 10-inch Siege Mqrtar. 1. 90-lb. Shell. 45 300 Time 6.5 seconds. 1.5 u u 700 " 12. 2. ' 1000 " 14/ 2.5 " 1300 " 16. 3. u u 1600 " 18. 3.5 M (C 1800 " 19. 4. " " 2100 " 21. * Ibs. oz. 8-inch Siege Mortar. 8 i5-lb Shell. 45 209 Time 6.75 seeds. 1-2 u a 376 44 9. 1 * 650 ' 11.5 1 4 u i 943 44 14. 1 8 i 1318 4 ' 16.5 ' *1 12 ft * 1522 44 18.5 4 2 u * 1837 " 20.5 70 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ass. RANGES OF HEAVY ARTILLERY (Continued.') KIND OF PIECE. Powder. Ball. Eleva- tion. Range. Remarks. [ oz. yards. 24-Pounder Coehorn 0.5 17-lb. Shell. 45 25 Mortar. 1. 68 1.5 104 1.75 143 2. 165 2.75 260 4. 422 6. 900 8. 1200 Ibs. Stones. Stone Mortar. 1.5 120 Ibs. 60 ( 150 j to ( 250 1 j 15 6-pdr. 33 50 Fuze 15 seconds. \ shells. to 150 NOTE. Fire-balls, according to their size, are fired from mortars of corresponding calibres. "With a charge of ONE TWENTY-FIFTH its weight, the ball is thrown 600 to 700 yards. Howitzers are used to drive the enemy from positions when he can only be reached by shells ; against covered ground, and particularly forests and denies; against strong cavalry attacks ; to prepare the way for an attack of fortifications and posts, and to burn combustible ob- jects of great extent. (Consult Aide Memoire, par GASSENDI ; GIBBON ; ROBERTS ; BENTON ; KINGSBURY ; Histoire et Tactique des Trois Armes, par ILD.FAVE. See AMMUNITION ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.) ASSAULT. In any assault, it is necessary that the officer, com- manding and responsible for the whole operation, should be in immediate communication with the troops during the assault, and be present with the reserve or supporting party ; 2. The troops destined for this duty should be divided into two portions, each equal in strength to three- fourths of the garrison aj^fcked : one portion being the attacking party, and the other half, the reserve or supporting party ; 3. Each column of the attacking party will also be subdivided into advance, main body, and support, whatever may be the number of these columns ; 4. The disposition of the attacking party, as it reaches the point of attack, will be regulated by the engineer officer, under the orders of the officer commanding they having made the necessary reconnoissances ; the party must be furnished with tools, ladders, and proper implements, adapted to the circumstances of the moment, and accompanied by a detachment of sappers ; 5. The disposition of the reserve, equal, as before observed, to the whole attacking force, should be regulated by the officer intrusted with the execution of the assault ; and this re- serve should be accompanied or not, according to circumstances, by cavalry and field artillery. When these descriptions of force are Ass.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 71 i present, the former should be placed under cover or out of gun shot about 1,500 yards distant; the artillery should be kept in hand until the attacking party is engaged, when the guns should be spread out on the flanks, and open a vigorous fire upon the works ; the infantry, brought immediately in rear of the leading attack, should be placed under cover, if possible, from fire of grape and musketry, and halted until the issue of the first assault is seen ; 6. It is impossible to regu- late an assault by any minute suggestions for the advance, except to observe that it is usual for each column to attack the salient points of the works, and least defended portions ; to throw out skirmishers and firing parties under any cover available, and keep up a rapid and com- pact fire upon the defenders ; to follow with the sappers and grenadiers to force all obstructions ; and then to advance the main body, the sup- ports of each column being judiciously planted in the rear. Eventually, as success occurs and the whole move on, points of security should be taken up, such as the reverse, or the exterior slope of the works ; build- ings, walls, as well as gorges and flanks, which frequently give cover. Men should be planted under an officer, with instructions to take no notice of the pell-mell, but to keep up a heavy firing in front ; employ- ing the sappers in entrenching the position taken up by the supporting party, or in collecting wagons, carts, carriages, &c., capable of being made into a barricade ; 7. Either on the supposition that the success of the assault is doubtful, or that there is a check or repulse, the re- serve, in case of doubtful success, to render the attack doubly sure, should move forward under the officer commanding the whole assault- ing force, and relieve the assailants, who take their places as the reserve as soon as order can be restored ; the artillery brought into position in the openings, between the advancing columns, would be directed upon the retreating or resisting forces ; and if success is finally complete, the cavalry, in the event cf their being employed, will move forward, either through the openings cleared, or by a detour, if a fortified town, in pursuit. In the second case that of a check the reserve, on the reconnois- sance of the officer commanding, will either march forward in support of the attack, or to cover the retreat, if further perseverance in the assault is deemed impracticable the artillery and cavalry being warned as to the intention. In the event of the assault being repulsed, the reserve, which should be in echelon, having advanced guards in front, 'will allow the retreating party to move through the intervals, and the advanced guard will endeavor to check the pursuit ; if over- powered, they will fall back on the reserve, and the whole may in that 72 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ass. manner retreat until beyond gun shot, endeavoring to make a stand, repulse the garrison, and if possible convert failure into success, if the pursuit has been badly conducted and without due caution. As an important rule in all assaults, except in partial attacks, as an outwork, or any particular work in which a lodgement is to be made, the com- position of the forces should be by regiments and corps, and not by de- tachments ; and each non-commissioned officer should be provided with the means of spiking a gun, for which purpose even an old nail is suf- ficient. Assaults, if feasible, would seldom fail with these precautions, and there are few posts not open to assault, by taking the proper op- portunity, an officer intrusted with the defence of a place should there- fore exercise the most unremitting vigilance. (Consult DUFOUR, Tac- tique des Trois Armes ; Aide Memoire by British Officers.) ASSEMBLY. Drum beat to order troops to assemble ; assembly for skirmishers, a bugle sound. ASSIGNMENT. If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, differ- ent corps of the army shall happen to join, or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission, there on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise spe- cially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case ; (Anx. 62, Rules and Articles of War.) It has been contended that the last clause of this article enables the President to make rank in the army vary at his pleasure, by an order of assignment. But inasmuch as the authority given to the President by the last clause of Article 62 is equally applicable to all commissions in the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, it would follow, under such a construction, that the laws creating rank did not fix a range of subordination ; or, in other words, that Congress, after creating rank, or a range of subordination, and establishing rules of appointment and promotion, which require seniority or gallant and meritorious services, and the sanction of the Senate for the attainment of such promotion, have undone their whole work by giving to the President the power to deprive rank of the only quality which gives it consideration. The bare statement of this proposition is sufficient to show that such could never have been the meaning of the last clause of Article 62 of the Rules and Articles of War, and an attentive and candid examination of the article will, it is believed, convince all that its purpose was to de- clare that the officer highest in rank should command whenever different corps came together, " unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case" That is to AST.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 73 say, unless the President, in any special case, should deem the highest officer inefficient or incompetent ; then he might supersede him, by withdrawing him from the command. Or, in other cases, the Presi- dent might desire to carve out of the general command particular trusts, or limit the discretion of the commanding officer in regard to what is needful for the service. This plain interpretation of the dis* puted passage in no case permits the violation of the rights of any officer, by placing a junior over a senior ; but the authority which it gives the President is indispensable to a proper administration of his great office of commander-in-chief. And it may be here stated that, during the Mexican war, Mr. Polk's administration after much deliber- ation emphatically disavowed the possession of any legal authority to assign a junior major-general to command a senior. (See article RANK, for a statement of the case of Major-general Benton. See also BREVET; DETACHMENT ; LINE ; PRESIDENT.) ASSIGNMENT OF PAY. No assignment of pay made by a non-commissioned officer or soldier, is valid ; (Act of May 8, 1792.) ASTRAGAL Small convex moulding used in the ornamental work of ordnance, and usually connected with a, fillet or flat moulding. ASYLUM, (MILITARY.) The persons entitled to the benefits of the Asylum, or Soldier's Home, as it is now called, located in the District of Columbia, are : 1. All soldiers, and discharged soldiers of the army of the United States, who may have served honestly and faithfully for twenty years. 2. All soldiers, and discharged soldiers of the regular army, and of the volunteers, who served in the war. with Mexico, and were disabled by disease or wounds contracted in that service and in the line of their duty, and who are, by their disability, incapable of further military service. This class includes the portion of the marine corps that served with the army in Mexico. 3. Every soldier, and dis- charged soldier, who may have contributed to the funds of the Soldier's Home since the passage of the act to found the same, March 3, 1851, according to the restrictions and provisions thereof, and who may have been disabled by disease or wounds incurred in the service and in the line of his duty, rendering him incapable of military service. 4. Every pensioner on account of wounds or disability incurred in the military service though not a contributor to the funds of the Institution who shall transfer his pension to the Soldier's Home during the period ho voluntarily continues to receive its benefits. No provision is made for the wives and children of those admitted. No mutineer, deserter, or habitual drunkard, or person convicted of felony or other disgraceful crime of a civil nature, while in the army 74 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ATT. or after his discharge, is admitted into the asylum without satisfactory evidence being shown to the Commissioners of the Soldier's Home of subsequent service, good conduct, and reformation of character. The Commissioners are : the adjutant-general, the commissary-general of sub- sistence, and the surgeon-general. The Soldier's Home has its governor, secretary, and treasurer, appointed from the army ; (Act March 3, 1851.) ATTACK AND DEFENCE. (See REDOUBT.) A redoubt may be either armed with cannon, or only defended by infantry. In the former case, it may be necessary to silence cannon by cannon ; in the latter, we may march at once to the attack. Light infantry, principally rifle- men, envelop the work, and even, at a distance of 1,000 yards, direct their fire upon the interior of the work and crest of the parapet, so as to prevent the defenders from showing themselves, or at least to cause them to fire hurriedly. Gradually approaching and converging their fire, the riflemen groove the parapet, and assert the superiority of their arm. Arrived at a short distance from the ditch, they run and leap into it, unless prevented by obstacles such as palisades, abatis, and trous-de-loup. In that event, they get rid of the obstacles by means of their axes, or fill the trous-de-loup with fascines, with which they have previously provided themselves. The whole number, however, do not throw themselves into the ditch, a portion remain upon the counter- scarp, to fire upon any one daring to show himself behind the parapet. When the troops have taken breath at the bottom of the ditch, they assault, and to do this the soldiers aid each other in mounting upon the berme. From thence they mount together upon the parapet, leap into the redoubt, and force the defenders to ground their arms. If the redoubt is armed with cannon, and is of greater strength than has been supposed, it might be necessary at first to cannonade in such a manner as to break the palisades, dismount the pieces, and plough up the par- apet. Favorable positions for the cannon used in the attack will be sought : these positions should command the work, or be on the pro- longation of its faces, so as to give an enfilading fire. If the redoubt is pierced with embrasures, it is necessary to direct one or two pieces upon each embrasure so as to dismount the pieces, and to penetrate into the interior of the work, in order to demoralize the defenders. Some good riflemen will also approach towards the embrasures, shunning their direct range, and fire upon the artillerymen, who may attempt to re- load their pieces. It is only after the attacking artillery has produced its desired effect, that the light infantry envelop the work, and do what has been already indicated. When infantry of the line take part in the attack, it is ATT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 75 formed in as many columns as there are salients of attack. Each of these columns is preceded by men armed with axes and carrying lad- ders. It is a wise precaution to give to front rank men, fascines, which not only serve as bucklers, but are also useful in filling up part of the ditch. The light infantry open to allow the passage of the columns, but redouble their fire to sustain the attack at the moment that the assailants begin to climb the parapet. The essential thing in this de- cisive moment for the assailants is unity of effort, and to leap into the work from all sides at once. It is necessary, then, that the troops stop a moment upon the berme, and await the concerted signal to clamber up the exterior slope, in order to mount upon the parapet. If the redoubt be not aided by other troops, or strengthened by works upon its flanks, it will be difficult to resist an attack thus directed when valiantly ex- ecuted. Whatever may be the result, it is the first duty of the com- mandant of a post to sustain and invigorate the morale of his soldiers, by his own confident air, his valiant resolutions, and his activity in putting every thing in the best order. If the attack is not immediate, the commandant will surround the redoubt with abatis ; he will pro- vide heavy stones for the defence of the ditches ; he will endeavor to procure bags of earth, to make embrasures upon the parapet. Want- ing these he will supply himself with sods, making loopholes, through which the best marksmen will fire upon the enemy. A beam placed across these sods may, at the same time, serve as a protection to the marksmen, and a means of rolling down the assailants. Cannon be- gins the defence. As soon as the batteries of the enemy are discovered, the fire is opened. But when once the batteries have taken their po- sitions, when their pieces are partly covered by the ground, and their fire begins to produce an effect, the struggle is *no longer equal. It is then necessary to withdraw the cannon of the work into its interior, or to leave those pieces only which are covered by good traverses, throw- ing, however, from time to time, some canister among the light in- fantry, who may press too nearly. The artillery is at first only aided by a few good marksmen placed in the angles, behind trav- erses, or wherever the fire of the enemy is least felt. But when the work is so closely pressed that the artillery of the assailants cannot continue its fire without danger to their own men, the defenders mount upon the banquettes, the guns are brought back, and the warmest fire is directed upon the columns of attack, and upon the squads of light infantry, who seek to make a passage through the abatis to the coun- terscarp. This is the moment to explode such small mines as have been previously prepared under the glacis, or in the interior of the work. 76 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ATT. If, notwithstanding such efforts, the enemy reaches the ditch, and collects his force for the assault, all is not yet lost. The defenders roll upon him shells, trunks of trees, and heavy stones, and then mounting upon the parapet, stand ready to receive him at the point of the bay- onet, or to use the butt of the rnusket. History records the failure of more than one attack from such conduct on the part of the defenders ; and if we reflect upon the disorder of the assailants, and the physical advantage which those standing upon the parapet must possess, it is necessary, for the success of the attacking force, that they should have a great moral superiority. This does often exist, but the commander of a work may infuse-his own indomitable spirit into his men. Temporary works may be attacked by SURPRISE or by OPEN FORCE. In all cases, the first thing to be done is for the commander of the at- tack to obtain the fullest possible information that circumstances will admit, of the character of the work, garrison, ground around it, defences, and probable aid at hand, &c. If an intrenched village is to be attacked, it should be ascertained by what means the streets and roads leading into it have been closed, whether by stockades or breastworks ; how these obstacles are flanked ; what obstructions are placed in front of them, (fee., &c. If the post is an isolated building, such as a country house or church, attention should be directed to the mode in which the doors have been barricaded, or the windows blocked up ; how the loop- holes are arranged ; what sort of flank defence has been provided ; how it can best be approached ; what internal preparations have been made for prolonging the defence, &c. Part of this knowledge may be ob- tained from spies, and reconnoissance must do the rest. In the attack of military posts, infantry are frequently thrown upon their own re- sources. They have no^uns or howitzers for tearing up and destroy- ing stockades, abatis, palisading, chevaux-de-frize, &c. Their reliance must therefore be their own activity and fertility of invention. Abatis may sometimes be fired by lighted fagots, or else passed by cutting away a few of the smaller branches. Small ditches may be filled up with fagots or bundles of hay ; chevaux-de-frize may be displaced by main force with a rope, and a good pull together, or they may be cut up or blown to pieces by a box of powder. Stockade work or palisad- ing may be escaladed with ladders brought up in a line under the pro- tection of a firing party, and carried by two or four men according to their length ; or a stockade, barricaded doors, gates, and windows may be breached by a bag of powder, &c. By such measures, decisively and boldly used, troops would be a match for any of the ordinary ob- structions which might oppose their advance, whether the attack were BAG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 77 made by night or day, by surprise or by open force. (Consult Du- FOUR; Aide Memoir e, d*c.) ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF PERMANENT FORTIFICATIONS. (See SIEGE.) . ft k ATTENTION Cautionary command addressed to troops, pre- paratory to a particular exercise or manoauvre. ATTESTATION. A certificate, signed by the magistrate before whom a recruit is sworn in as a soldier. AUDIT OKS. (See ACCOUNTABILITY for their duties.) They may administer oaths ; (Act March 3, 1817.) AUTHORITY, (CiviL.) Any commissioned officer or soldier ac- cused of a capital crime, or of having used violence, or committed any offence, against the person or property of any citizen of any of the United States, such as is punishable by the known laws of the land, must be delivered over upon application of the civil authority ; and all officers and soldiers are required to use their utmost endeavors to de- liver over su^h accused persons, and likewise to be aiding and assisting the officers of justice in apprehending and securing the persons so ac- cused in order to bring them to trial. Any commanding officer or officers, wilfully neglecting or refusing upon application to deliver over such accused persons, or to be aiding and assisting the officers of justice in apprehending such persons, shall be cashiered ; ART. 33. (See COM- MAND ; EXECUTION OF LAWS.) AUXILIARY. Forces to aid. AWARD. The decision or sentence of a court-martial. B BAGGAGE OF AN ARMY Called by the Romans impedimenta, and by Bonaparte embarras. No question is more important in giving efficiency to an army, than the regulation of its baggage. Nothing so .seriously impairs the mobility of an army in the field as its baggage- train, but this baggage is necessary to its existence; and the important question therefore arises, How shall the army be sustained with least baggage ? Sufficient attention is not paid by Government to this sub- ject in time of peace, and in war the commander of the troops finds himself therefore obliged to use the unstudied means which his Govern- ment hastily furnishes. In respect to artillery and artillery equip- ments, the minutest details are regulated. It should be the same with other supplies. In the United States Army, the quartermaster's de- partment has charge of transports, and some steps have been taken to 41 78 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BAK. regulate the subject ; but legislation is required for the necessary mil- itary organization of conductors and drivers of wagons, and perhaps, also, unless our arsenals may be so used, for the establishment of de- pots, where a studied examination of field transportation may be made, which will recommend rules, regulating the kinds of wagons or carts be used in different circumstances ; prescribing the construction of wagon and its various parts in a uniform manner, so that the correspond- ing part of one wagon will answer for another, giving the greatest pos- sible mobility to these wagons consistent with strength ; prescribing the harness, equipment, valises of officers, blacksmith forges, tool chests, chests for uniforms, bales of clothing, packing of provisions, and, gen- erally, the proportion, form, substance, and dimensions of articles of supply ; what should be the maximum weight of packages ; the means to be taken for preventing damage to the articles ; the grade, duties and pay of the quartermasters, wagon masters, and drivers should be properly regulated ; rules for loading should be given ; and, finally, a complete system of marks, or modes of recognition should be systematized. With such rules, and the adoption of a kitchen cart, (See WAGON,) together with small cooking utensils for field service which may be carried by the men, an army would no longer always be tied to a baggage train, and great results might be accomplished by the disconnection. (See CONVOY ; WAGON.) BAKING-. Troops bake their own bread, and the saving of 33^ per cent, thus made in flour is carried to the credit of the Post Fund. (See OVENS.) BALKS are joist-shaped spars, which rest between the cleats upon the saddles of two pontoons, to support the chess or flooring. BALL. (See CHAIN BALL ; NAIL BALL ; SOLID SHOT.) BALLISTICS is that branch of gunnery which treats of the Mo- tion of Projectiles. The instruments used to determine the initial velocity of projectiles are the gun-pendulum, the ballistic pendulum, and the electro-ballistic machine. By the latter machine, the velocity of the projectile at any point of its trajectory is also determined. The initial velocity is determined by the gun pendulum, by suspending the piece itself as a pendulum, and measuring the recoil impressed on it by the discharge ; the expression for the velocity is deduced from the fact, that the quantity of motion communicated to the pendulum is equal to that given to the projectile, charge of powder, and the air. The second apparatus is a pendulum, the bob of which is made strong and heavy to receive the impact of the projectile ; and the expression for the velocity of the projectile is deduced from the fact, that the quantity of BAB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 79 motion of the projectile before impact, is equal to that of the pendulum and projectile after impact. These machines have been brought to great perfection in France and in the United States. By the electro- ballistic machines wires are supported on target frames, placed in the path of the trajectory, which communicate with a delicate time-keeper. The successive ruptures of the wires mark on the time-keeper the in- stant that the projectile passes each wire, and knowing the distances of the wires apart, the mean velocities, or velocities of the middle points can be obtained by the relation velocity s P aCM ^ time. The electro-ballistic machine of Capt. Navaez of the Belgian service, has been found too delicate and complicated for general service ; that devised by Capt. J. G. Benton, Ordnance Department, is used at the United States Military Academy. (For description, &c., consult BEN- TON'S Ordnance and Gunnery.) BAND. Musicians, as Regimental Band, Post Band, &c. They are enlisted soldiers, and form a band of musicians under the direction of the adjutant, but are not permanently detached from their com- panies, and are instructed in all the duties of a soldier. BANQUETTE is the step of earth within the parapet, sufficiently high to enable the defenders, when standing upon it, to fire over the crest of the parapet with ease. BARBETTE. Guns are said to be in barbette when they are elevated, by raising the earth behind the parapet, or by placing them on a high carriage, so that, instead of firing through embrasures, they can be fired over the crest of the parapet. In this position, the guns have a wide range, instead of being limited, as in firing through em- brasures. BARRACKS from the Spanish barraca, are buildings erected by Government for lodging troops. Where the ground is suffi- ciently spacious, they are made to enclose a large area, for the pur- pose of exercising and drilling. Barracks should be very commo- dious, comprising mess-rooms, cooking-houses, guard-houses, magazines, &c. United States troops are generally badly quartered, sometimes in casemates of fortifications, and often in cantonments constructed by themselves. Officers and soldiers' quarters should be properly fur- nished by the Government ; but in the United States, officers' quarters are bare of all conveniences when assigned to them for occupancy. The quarters of soldiers are provided with bunks, tables, &c. (Con- sult, for detailed information upon the proper construction of Barracks, 80 MILITARY DICTIONARY. and their necessary furniture, &c., BARDIN'S Dictionnaire de TArmee de Terre ; Spectateur Militaire, <&c. ; British Regulations.) BARRICADES. The following series of Barricades afford means of closing openings in various ways, most of them practicable under all circumstances : 1. Palisading; movable or fixed. ) Loopholed; the bottom of the 2. Stockade of trees. . f loophole not less than 8 feet 9 3. Stockade of squared baulk. ) above ground outside. 4. Abatis ; with or without parapet of earth and ditch behind. (See PALISADES ; STOCKADE ; AND ABATIS.) Fig. 64 represents a barricade in a street, with its means of com- munication. FIG. 65. Fig. 65. Barricade made in haste with tierces, boxes, wagon bodies, &c., and filled with earth or dung, avoiding parapets of paving stones. Fig. 66. Barricades made with bales of merchandise, barrels of BAS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 81 sugar, with the approaches also obstructed. Sand-bag parapets may also be used as barricades. (See REVETMENT.) BARRIER. Carpentry obstructions in fortifications. The pur- pose regulates the construction. If the barrier is to be permanently defensible, it should be musket-proof, and then becomes a Stockade. If occasionally defensible, palisading will suffice, with a sand-bag or other temporary parapet when required, behind and near enough to fire between the palisades. The gates in both the above should, if pos- sible, be of palisading, as the heavy stockade gate is unwieldy. Barrier gates should never be left unprotected. BASE OF OPERATIONS. That secure line of frontier or for tresses occupied by troops, from which forward movements are made, supplies furnished, and upon which troops may retreat, if necessary. BASTION. A work consisting of two faces and two flanks, all the angles being salient. Two bastions are connected by means: of a CUB- TAIN, which is screened by the angle made by the prolongation of the corresponding faces of two bastions, and flanked by the line of defence. Bastions contain, sheltered by their parapets, marksmen, artillery, platforms, guards. They are protected by galleries of mines, and by demi-lunes and lunettes outside the ditch, and by palisades, if the ditch is inundated. Bastions should be large, and contain five or six hundred infantry, with the necessary artillery. The boyaux of the besiegers are directed towards the CAPITAL of the Bastion. The FACES of the BAS- TION are the parts exposed to being enfiladed by ricochet batteries, and also to being battered in breech. (See FORTIFICATION ; SIEGES.) Bastion (Demi) is that which has only one face and one flank, cut off by the capital like the extremities of horn and crown works. Bastion (Empty). When the mass of rampart and parapet follows 6 82 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BAT. the windings of the faces and flanks, leaving an interior space in tho centre of the bastion, on the level of the ground, it is called a hollow or empty bastion. In standing in a bastion, and looking towards the country, the face and flank on the right hand are called the right face and flank ; and on the left hand, the left face and flank. Bastion (Flat). When the demi-gorges and gorge are in the same line, and the former is half of the latter, the work is called a flat bastion. Bastion (Forts') are the most perfect of closed field works, with reference to flanking defences, as each side or front consists of two faces, two flanks, and a curtain. Bastion (Full]. \Vhcn the interior space is filled up to the level of the terre plcin of the rampart, the construction is called a full bastion. BAT, BAT MEN, BAT HORSE, BAT AND FORAGE ALLOWANCE. Men who take charge of the baggage of officers and companies. Allowance given at the beginning of a campaign in the English army is called Bat and Forage allowance. BATARDEAU is a strong wall of masonry built across a ditch, to sustain the pressure of the water, when one part is dry and the other wet. To prevent this wall being used as a passage across the ditch, it is built up to an angle at top, and armed with iron spikes ; and to render the attempt to cross still more difficult, a tower of masonry is built on it. In the batardeau is the sluice-gate, by the opening or closing of which the manoeuvres of the water can be regu- lated. (See DITCH.) BATTALION. An aggregation of from two to ten companies in the United States Service. Their instruction is regulated by Infantry and Light Infantry tactics. BATTERY. A battery consists of two or more pieces of artillery in the field. The term Battery also implies the emplacement of ord- nance destined to act offensively or defensively. It also refers to the company charged with a certain number of pieces of ordnance. The ord- nance constitutes the Battery. Men serve the Battery. Horses drag it, and epaulments may shelter it. A battery may be with or without embrasures. In the latter case it is en barbette, and the height of the genouillere varies according to the description of the gun carriage used. The* ordnance constituting the battery requires substantial bearings either of solid ground for field-pieces, or of timber, plank, or masonry platforms, for heavy artillery. Batteries are sometimes designated as follows : Barbette battery, one without embrasures, in which the guns BAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 83 are raised to fire over the parapet; Ambulant battery, heavy guns mounted on travelling carriages, and moved as occasion may require, cither to positions on a coast, or in besieged places ; Covered battery, intended for a vertical fire, and concealed from the enemy ; Breaching battery; Joint batteries, uniting their fire against any object ; Counter battery, one battery opposed against another ; Coast battery ; Direct battery ; Cross batteries, forming a cross fire on an object ; Oblique bat- tery forms an angle of 20 or more, with the object against which it is directed, contradistinguished from direct battery ; Raised battery, one whose terre plein is elevated considerably above the ground ; Sunken battery, where the sole of the embrasures is on a level with the ground, and the platforms are consequently sunk below it ; Enfilading battery r , when the shot or shell sweeps the whole length of a line of troops or part of a work ; Horizontal battery, when the terre plein is that of the natural level of the ground, consequently the parapet alone is raised and the ditch sunk ; Open battery, without epaulment, or other covering wholly exposed ; Indented battery, or battery a cremaillere, battery con- structed with salient and re-entering angles for obtaining an oblique, as well as a direct fire, and to afford shelter from the enfilade fire of the enemy ; Reverse battery, that which fires upon the rear of a work or line of troops ; Ricochet battery, whose projectiles, being fired at low angles, graze and bound without being buried ; Masked battery, arti- ficially concealed until required to open upon the enemy. Field Batteries, in sieges, are usually of two kinds, viz., Elevated Batteries and Sunken Batteries, and they are placed either in front of the parallel, in the parallel itself, or in rear of it. In an elevated ^battery, the platforms for the guns or mortars to stand upon, are laid on the natural level of the ground, and the whole of the covering mass, or parapet, is raised above that level, the earth for forming it being ob- FIG. 67. tained from a ditch in front ; (Fia. 67.) In a sunken battery, the whole interior of the battery is excavated about three feet deep, and the platforms laid on the bottom, the earth is thrown to the front, and the parapet is 84 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BAT; formed out of it ; (Fio. 68.) An inspection of these figures will show the difference ; and it will be obvious that the whole of the parapet in the elevated battery has to be raised, and that in a sunken battery part of the cover is obtained by taking advantages of the excavation FIG. 68. made for forming the mass. This construction is frequently used in turning the portion of a parallel into a battery, by increasing the width of the interior excavation of the trench so as to make room for the platforms of the guns. Great care must be taken that no rise in the ground before the battery obscures the view from the soles of the em- brasures ; for this purpose, the officer laying out the battery should lie down and look along the ground, in order to be sure that his guns can range freely from their embrasures, before he fixes his details for con- struction. When guns are fired with an elevation when the soil is sandy or gravelly when the weather is dry or the ground elevated, this construction is approved. The depth of the excavation for the in- terior must depend on the height of the carriages upon which the guns are mounted : it should be deeper in rear than in front, that it may be drained. The interior slopes of these batteries, and the cheeks of the embrasures, must be supported by field revetments of gabions, fascines, sand-bags, casks, or sods. In batteries exposed to a heavy fire, especially of shells, it is necessary to provide as much cover as possible for the men serving in them ; for this purpose, traverses are usually placed between every two guns ; and as these masses serve to protect the men from the splinters of the bursting shells, they are generally called splinter-proof traverse. There is nearly twice as much work in the elevated as in the sunken battery. (JEBB'S Attack and Defence ; see EMBRASURE.) BATTERY WAGON. A battery wagon accompanies each field- battery. (See FORGE.) BATTLE. Battles are either parallel or oblique, and they are strategic when, in consequence of a plan of campaign, they are fought upon a given and objective point, as the battles of Marengo or Austerlitz. The following preparations for battle are usually made by great commanders : All disposable troops are held in hand ; the readiness of the troops is ascertained by inspection of arms ; proper nourishment is given to them before going into battle ; the projects of the day are BAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. communicated from grade to grade ; the points for the arfi^i^ances / i . and caissons are indicated ; the rendezvous for rallying or retreatin|^e> made known; measures are taken to secure the rear and communicaXV/ tions, in order to retain the mastery of the base of operations ; the " army is ranged ordinarily in two lines, and the position of reserves ^ given in the order of battle ; the three arms are disposed according to the nature of the ground ; decisive points are occupied ; open or flank- ing batteries are established on proper elevations ; the front and flanks of the army are furnished with artillery, in number, kind, and calibre according to circumstances. These are preparations for battle ; the action commences ordinarily as follows : Marksmen are thrown for- ward, sometimes acting in conjunction with artillery. Either the enemy shows an equal disposition to attack, or else one party insults the other to bring on a combat. When the advanced guards have /eft each other, the army disposed to make battle begins or increases its cannonade, to constrain the adversary to deploy his MASSES, show his different arms, and thus make known the composition, number, im- portance, and the direction to be given to the adverse forces. The re- serves remain stationary, while the cavalry, properly sheltered from fire, watch their opponents, and throw themselves upon weakened or staggered lines of infantry. When the affair has begun, and the po- sition and dispositions of the enemy are known, and the proper effect has been produced by firing, the infantry may march to the charge, with the arms at a carry or on the right shoulder, leaving to the in- stinct of the soldier the determination of the proper moment of bring- ing the musket to the position of charge bayonet. These details, however, constitute the mechanical parts of a battle. The art and science of battles consist, according to Professors of STRATEGY, in the subordination of tactical movements to the rule of attacking only with such FORCES, as can overthrow those of the enemy, either by numbers, position, or vigor ; in creating alarm upon many points to induce your adversary to take false steps ; in surprising him in the midst of his bold movements, and punishing him in his irresolute ones ; in penetrating his designs to neutralize their effects, or taking advantage of his faults ; in occupying commanding positions ; in avoid- ing masks or curtains, and in acting always, if possible, on the OFFEN- SIVE. When the, action has seriously begun, the important business of the general is to follow it up to advantage. If he is skilful and valiant, he will preserve the ALLIGNMENT and intervals of his battalions, by standing firm, or by marching ; he will strengthen his flanks by en- terprises against those of the enemy ; by employing his fire so as not 86 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BAY. to stop the fire, at the same time, of all arms ; by filling up, at the expense of the cavalry or second line, the holes made in the first line ; by reinforcing or reanimating all corps which give way or falter ; by leaving none in unfavorable positions ; by sheltering the reserves from cannon shot ; by bringing up, at opportune moments, fresh troops ; by preserving the rear lines from being broken, while opening a free pas- sage to repulsed troops ; by exposing, when needed, his own\ person, securing united efforts in attacks, vigor in charges, and promptitude in rallying. Such is the theory of battles ; but GENIUS and experience are necessary to apply the theory, and victory will be in vain sought from the mechanical application of any dogma whatever. Battles upon the same ground rarely occur, and never with soldiers of the same morale, the same arms, the same numbers, and the same relative proportions. It is by study of the campaigns of great commanders, by his own experience, and his own genius, that battles are properly initiated and won by a skilful general. (See MANCEUVRES IN COMBAT.) BAYONET. At the battle of Spires, in 1703, charges of infantry were first made with fixed bayonet. From that time, however, until the wars of the French Kevolution, the bayonet was more threatening than murderous. Since then it has changed, throughout, the whole system of the military art ; cavalry has ceased to be the terror of foot ; and the fire of lines of battle, even with new arms effective in range at 1,000 yards, does not impair the usefulness of the bayonet ; and although Su- warof s maxim that " La balle est folle " cannot be admitted, yet it is true that " la bayonnette est sage." (Consult Manual of Bayonet Exer- cise, by CAPT. G. B. MCCLELLAN.) BED. Straw and bedsacks are allowed to soldiers for bedding. The introduction of single iron bedsteads will make it necessary to in- crease the allowance of bed furniture. In Prussia and other countries, hammocks are used in place of bedsteads. Bed has also other applica- tions, as mortar bed ; camp bed ; bed of a gun lock ; bed of sand ; bed of a river ; to separate the beds of stone in a quarry, &c. BELT. (See ACCOUTREMENTS.) BERME. Narrow path round fortifications, between the parapet and the ditch, to prevent the earth from falling in. BESIEGE. (See SIEGE.) BILLET. No soldier shall, in time of peace be f quartered in any house without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in the manner to be prescribed by law ; (ART. 3, Amendments to the Consti- tution.) The manner of quartering soldiers in time of war is usually by Billets, but no manner has been prescribed by law in the United States. BLA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 87 .The constables and other persons duly authorized in England are re- quired to billet the officers and soldiers of the army, arid also the horses belonging to the cavalry, staff, and field-officers, in victualling and- other houses specified in the mutiny act ; and they must be received by the occupiers of these houses, and provided with proper accom- modations. They are to be supplied with diet and small beer, and with stables, hay, and straw, for the horses ; paying for the same the several rates prescribed by law. Troops, whether cavalry or in- fantry, are in no case to be billeted above one mile from the place mentioned in the route. Where cavalry are billeted, the men and their horses must be billeted in the same house, except in case of necessity. One man must always be billeted where there are one or two horses ; and less than two men cannot be billeted where there are four horses ; and so in proportion for a greater num- ber. No more billets are at any time to be ordered than there are effective soldiers and horses present ; and all billets are to be delivered into the hands of the commanding officjr. Commanding officers may, for the benefit of the service, exchange any men or horses billeted in the same town, provided the number of men and horses so exchanged does not exceed the number at the time billeted on each house ; and the constables are obliged to billet those men and horses accordingly. Any justice may, at the request of the officer or non-commissioned officer commanding any soldiers requiring billets, extend the routes or enlarge the district within which billets shall be required, in such man- ner as may be most convenient to the troops. In Scotland, officers and soldiers are billeted according to the provisions of the laws in force in that country at the time of its union with England ; and no officer is obliged to pay for his lodging, where he shall be regularly billeted, except in the suburbs of Edinburgh. BILL HOOK. An instrument for cutting twigs. BIVOUAC. (See CAMP.) BLACKING. (For SHOES.) Take three ounces of molasses, three ounces of ivory black, one ounce muriatic acid, one ounce sulphuric acid, and a spoonful of olive oil. Mix the ivory black and molasses, then add the muriatic acid, and subsequently the oil ; when the paste is well formed, incorporate with it the sulphuric acid. BLACKING, LIQUID. (For SHOES, &c.) Three parts of white wax, seven and a half parts essence of turpentine ; one and a half parts of ivory black. The wax is cut into small pieces and put into a glazed ves- sel. Spread the turpentine over it, and leave it for 24 hours. Then mix it by degrees with ivory black. To use it, spread it with a rag in a thin layer on the leather, and afterwards rub with a soft brush. 88 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BLA. BLACKING. (For HARNESS.) Yellow wax, four parts in weight, six parts essence of turpentine, one part of mutton suet, and one part 'of ivory black. Cut the wax into small pieces, and leave it to soak twenty- four hours in the essence of turpentine ; grind in separately the ivory black and suet until there is a perfect mixture of the whole mass. When the leather has lost its color, it may be restored by the mud of ink, or by sulphate of iron in a thick solution, spread upon the edges. BLACKSMITH AND FARRIER Allowed to cavalry regiments. (See FORGE; ARMY ORGANIZATION.) BLINDAGE. A siege work contrived, when defilement is im- possible, as a shelter against a cross or ricochet fire of artillery. It is also used to guard against the effects of shells. The powder magazines, the hospitals, the cisterns, certain doors and windows are thus blinded by means of carpentry work, or shelters loaded with earth, dung, &c. Blindage of the trenches is also necessary, particularly when the be- siegers begin the crowning of the covered way by means of the sap. Blindages are thus used to guard against stones or hand grenades thrown by the besieged. This blindage is entirely exposed to sorties, and also to the danger of being burned by the besieged. BLOCK AND TACKLE. The power is equal to the weight di- vided by the number of ropes attached to the lower block, or by twice the number of raising pulleys. BLOCK-HOUSE (Redoubt of wood.) A common defence against Indians at two diagonal angles of a picket work. Fi-s. GO and 70, FIG. 69. FIG. 70. BOM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. gg with dimensions in metres, show the construction used by the French in Algiers; or it may be built of logs 18 inches square on tne ground floor, and 12 inches square in the upper story. Height of each story fen feet ; loopholed ; the upper story projecting all round, beyond the ground story, as machicoulis. Hatches should be made in the roof for the escape of smoke, and be grated. BOARDS. A board composed of ordnance officers, designated by the Secretary of War, as the Ordnance Board, decides, with the ap- proval of the secretary, on the models and patterns of all ordnance and ordnance stores for the land service of the United States. Boards of Examination are instituted to determine upon appoint- ments in regiments, composed of army officers, and for appointments and promotion in the medical staff. Boards of Survey are to examine injured stores, &c., and to take an inventory of the public property in charge of a deceased officer. Boards of Inspectors determine upon the fitness of recruits for service. BOAT. A boat has been invented by Colonel R. C. BuchanaTi, of the army, which has been used in several expeditions in Oregon and in Washington Territory, and has been highly commended by several ex- perienced officers, who have had the opportunity of giving its merits a practical service test. It consists of -an exceedingly light framework of thin and narrow boards, in lengths suitable for packing, connected by hinges, the different sections folding into so small a compass as to be conveniently carried upon mules. The frame is covered with a sheet of stout cotton canvas, or duck, secured to the gunwales with a cord running diagonally back and forth through eyelet-holes in the upper edge. When first placed in the water the boat leaks a little, but the canvas soon swells so as to make it sufficiently tight for all practical purposes. The great advantage to be derived from the use of this boat is, that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted to the requirements of campaigning in a country where the streams are liable to rise above a fording stage, and where the allowance of trans- portation is small. It may be put together or taken apart and packed in a very few minutes, and one mule suffices to transport a boat with all its appurtenances, capable of sustaining ten men. Should the can- vas become torn, it is easily repaired by putting on a patch, and it does not rot or crack like india-rubber or gutta-percha ; moreover, it is not affected by changes of climate or temperature. MARCY'S Prairie Traveller. (See BRIDGE ; PONTON.) BOMB. The shell thrown by a mortar is called a bomb-shell ; and the shelters made for magazines, &c., should be 90 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BOM. BOMBARDMENT. A shower of shells and other incendiary projectiles. Properly employed against fortifications, but not against open commercial cities. BOOKS. Regimental books to be kept, are: 1. General order book ; 2. Regimental order book ; 3. Letter book ; 4. Index of Letters ; 5. Size or descriptive book ; 6. Monthly returns. Company books re- quired are : 1. Descriptive book ; 2. Clothing book ; and 3. Order book. The following rules for keeping books at the head-quarters of the army and in the adjutant-general's office may, with modifications that will readily occur, be used with armies in the field, at the head-quar- ters of divisions, departments, regiments, &c. : 1. LETTERS RECEIVED. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.) 1. All official communications received will be entered in this book, excepting only such letters of mere transmittal of orders, returns, cer- tificates of disability, requisitions, &c., as need not be preserved. The orders, returns, certificates, requisitions, &c., themselves, will be appro- priafely entered in other books specially provided for the purpose. 2. Preliminary to being entered every letter will be folded and en- dorsed. Letter paper will be folded in three equal folds Cap paper in four. The endorsement will give the place and date of letter, name, and rank of writer, and a summary of its contents, and if other papers accompany the letter, the number transmitted will also be noted on the back, in red ink. Each enclosure will be numbered and bear the same office marks as the letter transmitting it. Figures A, b, c, exemplify the manner of endorsing. 3. Every letter required to be preserved will be entered alphabeti- cally and numbered the series of numbers beginning and terminating with the year, and including all letters dated (whether received or not) within the year. Only one number will be given to each letter re- ceived with its enclosures, so that the sum of the numbers under each alphabetical entry in the book of " Letters Received," during any year, will show the number of letters received in that year. 4. As a general rule, every letter will be entered in the name of its writer ; but there are cases where it is preferable, for convenience of ref- erence, to enter it in the name of the person who forms the subject of the letter and not in that of the writer. Applications from citizens for the discharge of soldiers, &c., are of this nature. Usually, a single entry of each letter and its enclosures will suffice, but it may sometimes be necessary, in addition, to make entries in the names of one or more of the individuals to whom it relates. Such entries, however, will not be numbered, but merely contain the date of receipt, name of individual, Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 91 Fig. A. Jiff- b. fig. c. G. 1 FOET ADAMS, E. I., i May 8, 1849. j Col. , 3d Artillery, Com'd'g. Relative 'to unhealthi- ness of quarters at the Post, and enclosing Sur- on the subject, dated Apr. 30, 1849 ; forwards also a copy of a report, dated Aug. 16, 1840, of 1. 2. a Board of Officers as- G. 1. (Hd. Qrs.) G. 1. (Hd. Qrs.) sembled to examine into the condition of the May 11, 1849. May 11, 1849. quarters. [Two enclosures.] Rec'd (Hd. Qrs.) May 11, 1849. place and date of the letter concerning him, with a reference, in red ink, to the number of that letter. Fig. E is an illustration of an entry of this kind. 5. The book of " Letters Received " will contain a side index ex- tending throughout, and will be divided among the several letters of the alphabet according to the probable space required for entries under each letter. The book will be paged, and each page divided into three columns, headed " When received," " Name," " Date and purport of letter," respectively, as shown by figure Z>, which also exhibits the entry in the book of the letter represented by figure A. MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. S. 1849. Fig. E. LETTERS RECEIVED. When received. Name. Date and purport of letter. May llth. [Surgeon -.] Fort Adams, R. I, May 8, 1849. See No. 1, Letter G. Fig. D. LETTERS RECEIVED. 1849. When received. Name. Date and purport of letter. May llth. 1 Col. , 3d Artillery, command'g. FORT ADAMS, R. I., May 8, 1849. Relative to unbealthiness of quar- ters at the Post, and enclosing Surgeon 's report on the subject, dated April 30, 1849 ; for- wards also copy of a report, dated Aug. 16, 1840, of a Board of Officers assembled to examine into the condition of the quarters. Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 93 6. Each entry will be separated from the one preceding it by a red ink line ; and where two or more letters relate to the same subject they will be either filed together, or made to refer to each other by their numbers, and the filing or reference be noted in the book as well as on the letters themselves. 7. Letters from the Executive and Staff Departments and other public offices in Washington, will be entered alphabetically in the names of the departments or offices themselves, but the entry will al- ways exhibit the writers' names likewise ; thus, communications from the War Department would be entered in the letter W, as follows : " War, Secretary of, (Hon. - ,) &c." 8. Communications from the President will be entered in the letter P from State Department, in S Treasury, T War, W Navy, and its bureaux, N Post Office and its bureaux, P Interior, / Attorney- general, A Adjutant-general's office, A Quartermaster-general, Q Subsistence, S Surgeon-general, S Paymaster-general, P En- gineer Department, E Topographical Engineers, E Ordnance, Recruiting service, Superintendent of, R Pension Office, P Comp- trollers, (1st and 2d,) C The several Auditors, A Treasurer U. S., T Commissioner Indian Affairs, / General Land Office, L Solicitor's Office, S and Patent Office, P. 9. Communications from Governors of States will Be entered in the names of the States, the entry showing likewise the Governors' names ; thus a letter from the Governor of New York would be entered in the letter N", as follows : " New York, Governor of, (His Excellency 10. Letters from Staff Officers, written by direction of their gen- erals, will be entered in the names of the Generals themselves ; thus a communication from General K - 's Staff Officer would be entered in the letter K, as follows : " Bvt. Major Gen'l -- , comd'g West'n Div'n," " (by Assist. Adjt. Gen'l ' - .)" 11. Communications addressed to the War Department or Adju- tant-general's office, and thence referred, without an accompanying letter, to head-quarters for report, or to be disposed of, will be entered, in the ordinary way, in the names of their writers, a note (in red ink) being simply made in the second column of the book, to show the fact of reference, thus " (from A. G. 0.)" 12. Where letters are referred from the office for report, &c., a note of the fact must be made (in red ink) in this book with a citation of the page, (or number of the letter,) in the " Endorsement " or " Letter 94 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo- Book " where the reference is recorded, thus Ref 'd for report to Comd'g Offi'r Fort T., May 11 see Book of "Endorsements," p. 3, (or, " see Letter No. 7, vol. 1st.") When the communication is returned, a memorandum to this effect will be made in the book " Re- turned with report, May 25th." 13. Should the portion of this book appropriated to any particular letter of the alphabet prove insufficient for entries under that letter, they will be transferred to a few of the last leaves allotted to some other letter of the alphabet, where there is more space than will probably be required. The fact of transfer will be noted in large characters, (in red ink,) at the bottom of the page from which transferred, and at the top of the page to which carried, as follows : " TRANSFERRED TO PAGE 250," and " BROUGHT FROM PAGE 60." II. LETTER BOOK. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.} 1. Every letter recorded in this book is numbered, (in red ink,) the numbers commencing and terminating with the year, and each letter is separated from the one which follows it by a red line. 2. The address of all letters should be at the top, the surname being written conspicuously in the margin, followed by the official title (if any) and Christian name, thus : Bvt. Maj. Gen'l . Comd'g, &c., &c., &c., or Esq. Samuel H. 3. Each letter should be signed in the record book by its writer. 4. Whenever copies of letters are furnished, the names of the per- sons to whom they are sent should be noted in red ink in the margin with the date, when the last differs from the date of the letter itself. In like manner, when a letter is addressed to one officer, under cover to his commander, &c., this fact should also be noted in red ink in the margin. 5. The name of every person to whom a letter is addressed is in- dexed alphabetically, in black ink, and the names of the individuals whom it principally concerns are indexed in red ink. A red ink line is drawn in the body of the letter under the names so indexed, to facil- itate a reference to them. In the margin, immediately under the name of the person to whom a letter is addressed, there are two references, above and below a short red line, the one above (in red) indicates the last preceding letter to the same individual, and the one below (in black) the next following. A detached index is used until the record book is full, when the names are arranged under each letter as in City Directories, and thus classified they are transferred to the permanent index attached to the record book. Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 95 III. GENERAL ORDERS. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.) 1. Every order recorded in this book should be signed by the staff officer whose signature was attached to the originals sent from the office, and each order should be separated from the one following by a red line. 2. The mode of numbering, distribution, and general form of orders are prescribed by the Regulations (see paragraphs 904, 905, and 908, edition of 1847;) but the distribution in each particular case should be noted in red ink in the margin to show that the Regulations have been complied with; and where orders are sent to one officer, under cover to his commander, (which course ought always to be pursued,) or fur- nished at a date subsequent to that of their issue these facts should likewise be added : where the order has been printed, it will be suffi- cient to write the word "printed" in red ink in the margin, to indicate that the widest circulation has been given to it. 3. There are two indexes attached to the book one of names, the other of subjects every order will be indexed in the latter immediately after being copied. For names, a detached index will first be used until the record book is full, when they will be arranged under each letter as in City Directo- ries, and thus classified, transferred to the permanent alphabetical index attached to the record book. Every proper name will be indexed and a red line drawn in the body of the order under it, to facilitate a refer- ence to it. IV. SPECIAL ORDERS. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.) 1. Every order recorded in this book should be signed by the staff officer whose signature was attached to the originals sent from the office, and each order should be separated from the one following by 9, red line. 2. The mode of numbering, distribution, and general form of orders are prescribed by the Regulations (see paragraphs 904, 905, and 908, edition of 1847 ;) but the distribution in each particular case should be noted in red ink in the margin, to show that the Regulations have been complied with ; and where orders are sent to one officer, under cover to his commander, (which course ought always to be pursued,) or fur- nished at a date subsequent to that of their issue these facts should likewise be added. 3. There are two indexes attached to the book one of names, the other of subjects every order will be indexed in the latter immediately after being copied. For names, a detached index will first be used until the record book 96 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. is full, when they will be arranged under each letter as in City Directo- ries, and thus classified, transferred to the permanent alphabetical index attached to the record book. Every proper name will be indexed and a red line drawn in the body of the order under it, to facilitate a refer- ence to it. V. ENDORSEMENTS AND MEMORANDA. (5 quires, Cap Russia, with spring back.} 1. Every endorsement made on letters or other communi- cations sent from the office will be copied in this book, and be signed by the staff officer whose signature was attached to the endorsement itself. A brief description of the communication sent out (the name of its writer, date, subject, and office marks) should precede the record of the en- dorsement, to render the latter intelligible ; and where such communica- tion has been entered in the book of " letters received," the disposition made of it should also be noted in that book, with a citation of the page where the endorsement is recorded. Should the communication be returned to head- quarters, a memorandum will be made to that effect, with the date when received back, in all the books where the fact of the reference from the office may have been noted. 2. In the case of such papers as proceedings of general courts-mar- tial, certificates of disability for the discharge of soldiers, requisitions for ordnance, &c., which are not filed at head-quarters, but forwarded thence for deposit in other offices, it will generally suffice to make a brief memorandum of the general-in-chief's action upon them, in- stead of copying the endorsements. Where the endorsement, however, settles any rule or principle, it ought, of course, to bo copied in full. 3. The name arid address of every officer to whom a communication is referred will be written in the margin, and all proper names, no matter in what connection employed, must be indexed. 4.' The name of the person to whom a communication is sent will be indexed in black ink, and the names mentioned in the description prefixed to the endorsement on the communication, as well as in the endorsement itself, will be indexed in red ink. To facilitate a refer- ence to these last names, a red line will be drawn under them. In the margin, immediately under the name of the person to whom a communication is addressed, there are two references, above and below a short red line ; the one above (in red) indicates the last preceding reference to the same individual, and the one below (in black) the next following. VI. BOOK OF RETURNS. Besides the foregoing blank books of appropriate sizo according to circumstances, the following books of reference are necessary : HETZEL'S Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 97 Military Laws ; Army Regulations ; Ordnance Manual ; Artillery Manual ; Prescribed Tactics for Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry ; Me- CLELLAND'S Bayonet Exercise ; Aide Memoire du Genie ; Aide Memoire d'Etat Major ; WHEATON'S International Law ; KENT'S or STORY'S Com- mentaries ; MAIIAN'S Field Fortifications ; Military Dictionary. BOOM is a chain of masts, or a large cable, or other obstacles stretched over a river for the protection of a military bridge which has been thrown across, or under the fire of fortifications to bar access within a harbor. BOOTY. (SAXON, lot, bote, lawful profit, gain, advantage, distin- guished from plunder or pillage.) Despoiling a people or city is barbar- ous and not tolerated in civilized warfare, but legitimate subjects of booty are well described in an act of the British Parliament (2 William IV., c. 53) : as arms, ammunition, -stores of war, goods, merchandise, and treasure belonging to the state or any public trading company of the enemy, and found in any of the fortresses or possessions, and all ships * and vessels in any road, river, haven, or creek belonging to any such for- tress or possession. It should be the duty of commanding generajs to cause an exact account of such captures to be kept, in order that the captors may be remunerated by the government for such stores as are reserved for the public service, and in order that all such prizes of war may be legally and equitably divided amongst the captors. Such is the practice in England. There land prizes are divided according to an established rule of division. In the Piedmontese army the administra- tion of booty is intrusted to a special staff corps ; the French laws (says Bardin, Dictionnaire de 1'Armee de Terre) are silent on this subject, or else those which are in force announce nothing positive ; and in their silence, there is inhumanity, hypocrisy, and mental reserve. In a memorial presented by the Duke of Wellington he claimed of his government for the English army, more than a million sterling which had been used in the king's service from captures made by the British army in Spain and France, and the English budget of 1823 shows that the amount so claimed was given to the army. The 58th article for the government of the armies of the United States provides, that " All public stores taken in the enemy's camp, towns, forts, or magazines, whether of artillery, ammunition, clothing, forage, or provisions, shall be secured for the service of the United States ; for the neglect of which the commanding officer is to be answerable." This article of war is borrowed from a corresponding British article, which directs that the same stores shall be secured for the king's service. But by proclamation in Great Britain the money value of all captures is invariably divided 7 98 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. amongst the captors. No practice can be more wise and just, for al- though it is necessary to proscribe marauding or pillage, it is impos- sible to extirpate the desire of gain from the human heart, and it is therefore necessary that the law should frankly provide for an equit- able distribution of captures amongst the army. The absence of a law of division tends to introduce into an army the greatest evils : sol- diers disband themselves in search of pillage, and their cupidity leads to the greatest horrors. These great evils are avoided by a legal divi- sion of booty, when all soldiers, animated by the hope of sharing the fruits of victory, are careful not to abandon to the greedy, the cowardly, and the wicked amongst themselves advantages properly belonging to the gallant victors. In the hope that Congress may yet do justice to our army in respect to captures made in the war with Mexico, the rules established in Great Britain are annexed in a series of prize procla- mations taken from Prendergast's Law Relating to Officers of the Army : 1. Prize Warrants. I 1. SCINDE BOOTY. VICTORIA R. Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, To all to whom these pres- ents shall come, Greeting: Whereas the- Commissioners of our Treas- ury have represented unto us, that certain hostilities were carried on in the year 1843 against the Ameers of Scinde by our land forces and the land forces raised and paid by the East India Company, in which a por- tion of the Indus Flotilla co-operated : and that during the said hostili- ties certain battles were fought, and^a quantity of booty and plunder captured or taken possession of, consisting of gold and silver bars and coins, of ornaments, jewels, and ornamented arms, and of guns, cattle, and other property, of which the following schedule or account has been rendered to our said commissioners, (that is to say,) RUPEES. Paid in to the Public Treasury in Scinde ) ^oq AQQ on account of the articles sold, about f Realized at Kurrachie ...... 17,743 Value of Silver 2,564,337 Gold sold 1,713,537 Gold remaining unsold, estimated at . . . 123,273 Lead, valued at 15,000 to which are to be added the sum due from the Government for articles Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 99 transferred to public departments, the sum due from individuals for articles sold in Scinde, and the sum which may be produced by the sale of the jewels, &c., which are at present in deposit at Bombay, but have been ordered to be sold ; And whereas it has been further represented unto us that the said booty and plunder do of right belong to us in virtue of our Royal pre- rogative, and that the said booty and plunder should be given and granted in such manner as to us may seem meet and just ; And whereas our said commissioners, under all the circumstances of this case, have recommended unto us to give and grant the said cap- tured booty and plunder, or the produce or value thereof, as before stated, according to the following scheme, (that is to say :) Such articles of personal use and ornament to be reserved for the Ameers as may be selected for that purpose by the Governor-general of India in council, with the approbation of the Commii^oners of our Treasury ; The remaining property to be divided into sixths : One-sixth to be given to all such of the troops stationed at, or be- tween Shikarpoor, Seikkur, and Kurrachie, and all such of the Indus Flotilla stationed between Seikkur and Kurrachie on any day between the 17th of February and 24th of March, 1843, both included, as shall not be otherwise entitled to share in the booty ; The Major-general commanding in Scinde, and the officers of the general staff of the forces serving under*his orders in the above-men- tioned operations, to share in this portion as well as in the other por- tions hereinafter specified. The remaining five-sixths (subject to the deductions hereinafter speci- fied) to be divided in two equal parts, one moiety to be given to the troops who fought at Meanee, and the other to those who fought at Hyderabad j the troops who were in both battles receiving a share of each moiety ; and from the share or shares accruing to each individual under the distribution to be made of this portion of the booty there should be deducted and repaid into the Company's Treasury the amount of the Donation of Batta, which the individual entitled to the said share or shares has received under the general order of the Government of In- dia, dated 28th of February, 1844, as having been present at the battles of Meanee or. Hyderabad; And our said Commissioners likewise recommend that the troops under Lieutenant-colonel Outram, who were detached previously to the battle of Meanee, and directed to fire the Shikargah on upon the right flank of the army, as well as the detachment which so gallantly defend- 100 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. ed the British Eesidency on the 15th of February, and also such portion of the Indus Flotilla as was engaged in that defence, or co-operated with the detachment under Colonel Outram, or was in any other way in im- mediate connection with the army that achieved the victory of Meanee> should share as if they had all been actually present at the battle of Meanee ; and in like manner the garrison of Hyderabad should be entitled to share in the sum alloted to those engaged in the second battle ; . Now know ye that We, taking the premises into our Royal consider- ation, are graciously pleased to approve the said scheme, and do, with the advice and recommendation of our said Commissioners, by this our Royal Warrant, under our Royal sign-manual, give and grant the said captured booty and plunder, or the produce or value thereof as before stated, unto the Directors of the East India Company, or to such person or persons as they shall appoint to receive the same, upon the trust following, (that is to say,) upon trust, after making the reservations and deductions above stated, to distribute the remainder among our land forces, and the land forces of the said Company, and the officers and crews of the Indus Flotilla, engaged in the aforesaid hostilities in ac- cordance with the scheme hereinbefore mentioned and set forth, and with the usage of the army of India ; And we are graciously pleased to order and direct that, in case any doubt shall arise respecting the claims to share in the distribution afore- said, or respecting any deman^ upon the said captured booty or plunder, the same shall be determined by the Directors of the East India Com- pany, or by such person or persons to whom they shall refer the same, which determination thereupon made shall, with all convenient speed, be notified in writing to the Commissioners of our Treasury, and the same shall be final and conclusive to all intents and purposes, unless, within three months after the receipt thereof at the office of the Com- missioners of our Treasury, We shall be graciously pleased otherwise to order, hereby reserving to ourselves to make such orckr therein as to us shall seem meet. Given at our Court at Windsor Castle, this llth day of November, in the 9th year of our reign, and in the year of our Lord 1845. By Her Majesty's Command, (Signed) HENRY GOULBURN, J. MILNES GASKELL, WILLIAM CRIPPS. Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 101 2. TARRAGONA BOOTY. {Conjunct Expedition of British Land and Sea forces.) GEORGE R. Whereas ordnance arms, stores, magazines, and other booty have been captured from the enemy during the year 1813, at Tarragona, by that part of the British army under Field-marshal the Duke of Welling- ton, in Spain, which was under the immediate orders of Lieutenant- general Lord William Bentinck, and by PI. M.S. Malta, Fame, Invin- cible, Merope, Buzzard and Volcano, forming part of the fleet under Ad- miral Lord Exmouth,. then under the immediate orders of Admiral Sir Benjamin Hallowell, and appropriated to the public service ; And whereas an Act passed in the 54th year of the reign of our late Royal Father, entitled an Act for regulating the payment of Army prize- money, and to provide for the payment of unclaimed and forfeited shares to Chelsea Hospital ; And whereas application hath been made to us by the said* F.M. the Duke of Wellington and Admiral Lord Ex- mouth to grant the sum of 31,531 IBs. (being the estimated value of such ordnance and stores) in trust, to be distributed as booty to the of- ficers, non-commissioned officers, and privates serving in that part of the British army under his command in Spain, which was under the immediate orders of Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck, and to the officers, non-commissioned officers, seamen, and marines, on board H.M.S. Malta, Fame, Invincible, Merope, Buzzard and Volcano, placed by Admiral Lord Exmouth under the immediate orders of Admiral Sir Benjamin Hallowell, at Tarragona ; And whereas the said Field-marshal the Duke of Wellington, having expressed his wish not to participate in the dis- tribution of the booty as Commander-in-chief of the British army serv- ing in Spain ; We, taking the same into our Royal consideration, are graciously pleased to give and grant, and do hereby give and grant, to the said Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck and Admiral Lord Viscount Exmouth the said sum of 31,531 IBs. ; and that the said sum be issued and paid without any fee or other deduction whatsoever, in trust, for the benefit of the said Lord William Bentinck and the officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates serving under him, and of Ad- miral Lord Viscount Exmouth, and the officers, non-commissioned officers, seamen, and marines actually on board of our before-mentioned ships employed in that service, as booty and prize, or bounty money in the nature of prize-money, under the provisions of the -said Act passed in the 54th year of the reign of our late Royal Father, to be distributed under the provisions of the said Act of Parliament, and 102 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. agreeably to our Proclamation for the distribution of prize, in force at the time of the said expedition, and this our Royal grant, in manner and in the several proportions following, (that is to say,) such sums being divided into eight equal parts : To the said Lieut. -general Lord Wm. Bentinck, Admiral, Lord Viscount Exmouth, and such General Officers and Admirals under their com- mand, who were actually present at the capture of the said booty, so that the said Lieut.-gen. Lord Wm. Bentinck and Admiral Lord Vis- count Exmouth shall take one moiety, and the other General Officers and Admirals who were actually present at the capture of the said booty, the other moiety in equal proportions One-eighth. To the Colonels, Lieut.-colonels, and Majors in the army, and Captains and Commanders in the navy, who were actually present at the capture of the said booty, to be equally distributed among them, and the persons entitled by the usage of our army to share with them Two-eigh ths. To the Captains in the army and Lieutenants in the navy, and other description of persons entitled by the usage of our army and navy respectively to share with them One-eighth. To the Lieutenants, Cornets, Ensigns, and Quartermasters in the army, and Warrant and other Officers in the navy, and other description of persons entitled by the usage of our army and navy to share with them One-eighth. To the Sergeants in the army and Petty Officers in the navy, and other description of persons entitled by the usage of our army and navy respectively to share with them One-eighth. To the Trumpeters and Soldiers, Seamen, and Marines, and other descrip- tion of persons entitled by the usage of our army and navy respect- ively to share with them. Two-eighths And we are further pleased to direct that all such respective sums of money shall be distributed as prize or bounty money, or money in the nature of prize-money, according to the provisions of the said Act of Parliament of the 54th year of the reign of our Royal Father, and the several Acts relating to the distribution of prize-money in our navy, and our said Proclamation, and this our grant, and the rules and cus- toms heretofore used and observed in our army and navy respectively in that behalf, and the agents intrusted with the distribution thereof by f the said Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck and Admiral Lord Viscount Exmouth shall give all such notices, and make such notifica- tions of such distribution, as are required by the said Act of Parliament and the several Acts of Parliament in force relating to the distribution Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 103 of prize-money in our army, and our said Proclamation, and pay over all unclaimed shares to Chelsea and Greenwich Hospitals respectively, to be hereafter paid to the persons entitled thereto, or remain for the benefit of the said respective Hospitals according to the provisions and regulations of the said Act of Parliament and the several Bills in force relating to the distribution of prize-money in our navy ; And We are further graciously pleased to order and direct that in case any doubt shall arise respecting the said distribution, or with respect to any other matter or thing relating thereto, the same shall be determined by the said commanders of the said land and sea forces, Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck and Admiral Lord Viscount Exmouth, or by such person or persons to whom the said commanders of the said land and sea forces shall refer the same ; and such determination shall be final and conclusive upon all persons concerned, and as to all matters and things relating to the said distribution. Given at our Court, at Carlton House, this 7th day of June, 1820, in the first year of our reign. By his Majesty's command, (Signed) BATHURST. 3. GENOA BOOTY. (Conjunct Expedition of British and Allied Forces.} In the name and on behalf of His Majesty, GEORGE P. R. Whereas it has been represented to us that, at the capture of the Terri- tory and City of Genoa and its dependencies, on the 18th of April, 1814, a quantity of ordnance, military and naval' stores, ships and vessels, and other booty, being public property belonging to the enemies of the Crown of Great Britain, was seized and taken possession of by our sea and land forces, under the command of Vice-admiral Sir Edward Pel- lew, Bart, (now Lord Exmouth,) and Lieutenant-general Lord William Cavendish Bentinck, Knight of the Bath, commanding our naval and military forces in and upon the coasts of the Mediterranean, assisted by certain Sicilian and Italian troops, and troops in British pay, and has been condemned to us as good and lawful prize taken in the said conjunct expedition ; And whereas no instructions were given by us for the divi- sion or distribution of the booty to be captured on the said conjunct expedition ; And whereas application hath been made to us that we would be graciously pleased to order and direct that the same ordnance, military and naval stores, ships, vessels and other booty may be dis- tributed between the officers and crews of our ships, and those of our 104 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. Ally the King of the Two Sicilies, and the officers and men of our land forces, and those of our Ally the King of the Two Sicilies, according to any plan of distribution We shall be graciously pleased to approve : We, taking the premises into our Royal consideration, are graciously pleased to give and grant, and do hereby give and grant, to the said Vice-admiral Sir Edward Pellew (now Lord Exmouth), Commander- in-chief of our fleet and vessels employed on the said expedition, and Lieutenant-general Lord William Cavendish Bentinck, Knight of the Bath, Commander-in-chief of our land forces employed on the said ex- pedition, the said ordnance, military and naval stores, ships, vessels, and other booty, so as aforesaid taken and condemned to us, in trust, to distribute the same amongst the commanders-in-chief, general and flag officers, and all other officers serving on the said expedition in the fol- lowing manner, (that is to say), that the division of the booty between the arrny and navy and the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops serving in the said expedition, shall be made according to the following scheme or schemes : the whole being first divided into equal parts : 1 To the Commanders-in-chief and to the Flag and General Officers serving in the said expedition, one-eighth, to be distributed amongst them, so that each Commander-in-chief shall take double that share which each General and Flag Officer (not being Commander-in- chief) shall take ; but if the number of Flag and General Officers, exclusive of the two Commanders-in-chief, shall exceed four, in that case a moiety of the said one-eighth shall be divided between the two Commanders-in-chief, and the other moiety amongst the other Flag and General Officers One-eighth. 2 To the Colonels, Lieutenant-colonels, and Majors in the army, and Post Captains, and Masters and Commanders in the navy, and to the persons of like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops, to be equally distributed amongst them One-eighth. 3 To the Captains of Marines and land forces, and the sea Lieutenants, and other description of persons entitled by our Proclamation for the distribution of prize of the llth November, 1807, or by the usage of our army, to share w r ith them, and to the persons in like rank be- longing to the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops One-eighth. 4 To the Lieutenants and Quartermasters of marines, and Lieutenants, Ensigns, and Quartermasters of land forces, and the Boatswains, Gunners, Pursers in' the navy, and other description of persons en- titled by our said Proclamation or by the usage of our army, to share with them, and to the persons in like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops One-eighth. Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 105 5 To the Midshipmen, Captains' Clerks, Sergeants of marines and land forces, and the other description of persons entitled by our said Proclamation or by the usage of our army, to share with them, and to the persons in like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops One-eighth. 6 To the Trumpeters, Quarter-gunners, Seamen, Marines, arid Soldiers, and the other description of persons entitled by our said Proclama- tion, or by the usage of our army, to share with them, and to the persons in like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops One-eighth. And that the portion of the said booty, so belonging to our said land forces employed on the said expedition, and the persons belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian troops, shall be distributed between the Com- manders-in-chief, officers, and privates composing the same, according to the rule heretofore used and observed by the army, under the above scheme or schedule ; And that the portion of the said booty so as aforesaid belonging to our naval forces employed in the said expedition, and the persons belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships, be distributed amongst the Commander-in-chief, flag and other officers, and men belonging to our navy employed on the said expedition, and the persons belonging to * the said Sicilian and Italian ships, agreeably to our Proclamation for the distribution of prize in force at the time of the said expedition. And we are graciously pleased to order and direct that, in case any doubt shall arise respecting the said distribution, or respecting any charge or demand upon the said captured property, the same shall be determined by the Commanders-in-chief, and flag and general officers, or such of them as can conveniently be assembled, or by such person or persons to whom they, or a majority of them, shall agree to refer the same ; which determination so thereupon made, shall, with all convenient speed, be notified in writing to the Clerks of our Council, and the same shall be final and conclusive to all intents and purposes, unless within three months after the receipt thereof at our Council Office, we shall be pleased otherwise to order ; hereby reserving to ourself to make such orders therein as to us shall seem fit. Given at our Court at Carlton House, this second day of August, 1815, in the 55th year of our reign. By command of H.R.H. the Prince Regent, in the name, and on the behalf of, His Majesty. (Signed) BATHURST. II. India Prize-Money. The following is the present standing scale of distribution of prize- 106 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. money in India, to European commissioned and non-commissioned officers, privates, &c. SHARES. Commander-in-chief ..... -J of the whole. General Officers 1,500 Colonels 600 Lieut.-colonels, Adjutant-gen, and Quartermaster- general of Her Majesty's and the Hon. Company's troops, Commissary -general, Members of the Medical Board, Inspector of Hospitals of Her Majesty's Troops 360 Majors, Deputy Adjutant-general, and Deputy Quar- termaster-general of Her Majesty's and the Hon. Company's Troops, Deputy Commissary-general, and Superintending Surgeons .... 240 Captains, Surgeons, Assistant Adjt.-general, and As- sistant Quartermaster -general of Her Majesty's and the Hon. Company's Troops, Assistant Com- missary-general, Deputy Assistant Adjutant-gen- eral, Quartermaster-general and Commissary-gen., Paymaster, Surgeon to His Excellency the Com- mander-in-chiaf, Brigade-majors, Aides-de-camp to His Excellency the Commander-yi-chief and Gen- eral Officers, and Commissaries of Ordnance . . 120 Lieutenants, Assistant-surgeons, Cornets, Ensigns, Adjutants and Quartermasters of Her Majesty's Dragoons and Infantry, Veterinary Surgeons, Dep- uty Commissaries, and Deputy Assistant Commis- saries of Ordnance ...... 60 Conductors, Riding Masters, Apothecaries, Stewards, Sub-assistant and Veterinary Surgeons and Provost Martial 15 Sub-conductors, Assistant-apothecaries, Assistant- stewards, Regimental Sergeant-majors, Staff-brigade and Farrier-sergeants of Horse Artillery, Park Ser- geant, Armorer, and Sergeants of Artillery . 3 Trumpet-majors, Paymaster-sergeants, Saddler-ser- geants, Schoolmaster-sergeants, Hospital-sergeants, Drill-sergeants, Color-sergeants, Armorer-ser- geants, Drum-majors, Brigade and Staff-sergeants of Foot Artillery, Magazine-sergeants, Laboratory- sergeants, and Sergeants ..... 2 Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 107 SHARES. Fife-majors, Corporals, Bombardiers, Trumpeters, Farriers, Rough Riders, Gunners, Drummers, and Privates ........ 1 Volunteers ........ 1 The following scale of distribution of prize-money, for the several classes and ranks of native troops, has been adopted at all the Presi- dencies of India. SHARES. Subedar, Syrang .......) /> Woordee, Major, Russaldar . Jemedar, Tindal Naib Russaldar .... Havildar, Native Doctor . Naik, Drummer . Trumpeter, Gun Lascar . Private, Puckallie . , . Native Farrier, Duffadar , Nishan Burder, Nuggurchee . Vakell and Hirkarrah Gun-driver, Bheestie Nakeeb For the Royal Army there is no standing scale of distribution, though, by the foregoing Prize Warrants, it will be seen that a uniform practice is generally observed. III. Prize Proclamation for the Russian War 0/1854. VICTORIA R. Whereas by our Royal Proclamation, bearing date the Twenty-ninth day of March, One thousand eight hundred and fifty-four, We have ordered and directed that the net proceeds of all prizes taken during the present War with Russia, by any of our ships or vessels of war, after the same shall have been to us finally adjudged lawful prize, shall be for the entire benefit of the officers and crews of such ships and vessels of war (save as therein excepted), in which Proclamation We have directed in what proportion the land forces, doing duty as Marines } shall be entitled to share : And whereas in the said Proclamation We have reserved to ourselves the division and distribution of all prize and booty taken on any conjunct expedition of our ships and vessels of war with our army ; and it is desirable that We should provide for the division and distribution of all prize and booty taken on such conjunct 108 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo. expedition, as also by our army alone : We therefore hereby order and direct, that in such cases the net proceeds of the share which shall be assigned by us to our army, under our Royal Sign Manual, shall be divided and distributed in the following manner and proportions, viz. : i One-fourth of One- Commander of the Forces . < tenth part of the ( net proceeds. General Officers : 1st Class. General Officers command- ing Divisions, and other Officers, &c., holding equivalent Staff Appoin ments ...... 2d Class. Other G^eral Officers, and all other Officers, &c., holding equiva- lent Staff Appointments . Field Officers : 1st Class. Colonels, Lieutenant-colonels, and Brevet Lieutenant-colonels, and other Of- ficers holding Staff Appointments equivalent thereto ....... 2d Class. Brevet Lieutenant-colonels not holding an Appointment qualifying them to share in the preceding Class of Field Officers, and all Majors, Regimental or Brevet, and all other Officers holding Appointments equivalent thereto , The remaining Three fourths of One- tenth part of the net proceeds; the same to be so divid- ed that a General Officer, dec., of the 1st Class shall re- ceive One-half more in amount than a General Officer, &c. , of the 2d Class. One-eighth of the re- mainder of the net proceeds; the same to be so divid- ed that a Field Of- ficer, d-c., of the 1st Class shall re- ceive One-half more in amount than a Field Officer, &c.> of the 2d Class. The remainder of the net proceeds shall be distributed in the follow- ing Classes, so that every Officer, Non-commissioned Officer, &c., shall receive shares or a share according to his Class, as set forth in the fol- lowing scale : 1st Class. Captains, and all other Officers entitled according to the usage of our army to share in that rank 2d Class. Subalterns, and all other Of- ficers entitled according to the usage of our army to share in that rank Thirty-jive Shares each. Twenty Shares each. BRE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 109 3d Class. Sergeant majors, Quartermas- ter Sergeants, and all other Staff Ser- geants, and others holding equivalent | rank ...... 4th Class. Sergeants, and others holding ' equivalent rank ,... Shares eack. 5th Class. Corporals .... Four Shares each. 6th Class. Private Soldiers, Trumpeters, ) Drummers, &c ..... [ Three Shares each. And in the event of any difficulty arising with respect to the Class in which any Officer, &c., shall be entitled to share, our will arid pleasure is, that the same shall be determined and adjusted by the Commander- in-chief of our land forces for the time being. Given at our Court at Buckingham Palace, this Eleventh day of August, in the year of our Lord One thousand eight hundred and fifty' four, and in the eighteenth year of our reign. GOD SAVE THE QUEEN, B OUNT Y. " Every able-bodied musician or soldier, re-enlisting m his company or regiment within two months before, or one month after the expiration of his term of service, shall receive two months' extra pay, besides the pay and allowances due him on account of the unex- pired period of his enlistment ; " (Act March 2, 1833.) Bounty lands have also been given by Congress for military service. The principal characteristic of those acts has been to reward alike all grades, and to make no distinction of service, except by granting forty acres for the minimum degree of service, and one hundred and sixty acres for the maximum of service. A very marked and utterly indefensible departure from the principle upon which such rewards of merit and services were made by the several States immediately after the Revolutionary War. BOYAU is a small trench, or a branch of a trench, leading to a magazine, or to any particular point. They are generally called boyaus of communication. BREACH. Rupture made in a fortification to facilitate the as- sault. The best mode of doing this is by dividing the wall up into detached parts by making one horizontal 'and several vertical cuts, and battering each part down. The easiest way to make the cut is to direct the shots upon the same line, and form a series of holes a little greater than a diameter apart, and then fire at the intervals until the desired cut is made. The horizontal cut is finished first. The vertical cuts are then commenced at the horizontal cut, and raised until the 110 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [But wall sinks, overturns, and breaks into pieces. The effective breach- ing power of rifle cannon has been shown by recent successful experi- ments in England, against a martello tower 30 feet high and 48 feet diameter, the walls being of good solid brick masonry, from 7 to 10 feet thick. Armstrong guns with 40 and 80-pounder solid shot, and 100-pounder percussion shells were used at a distance of 1,032 yards, more than twenty times the usual breaching distance. The 80-pounder shot passed completely through the masonry, (7 feet 3 inches,) and the 40-pounder shot and 100-pounder percussion shells lodged in the brick- work, at a depth of five feet. After firing 170 projectiles, a small por- tion of which were loaded shells, the entire land side of the tower was thrown down, and the interior space was filled with the debris of the vaulted roof, forming a pile which alone saved the opposite sideWfrom destruction. The superior breaching power of rifle projectiles depends not only on penetration, but on accuracy of flight and consequent con- centration on any desired point ; (BENTON.) BREACH OF ARREST. Any arrested officer who shall leave his confinement, before he shall be set at liberty by his commanding officer, or by a superior officer, shall be cashiered ; (ART. 77, Rules and Articles of War.) BREAK GROUND is to commence the siege of a place by open- ing trenches, &c. BREASTWORK is a hastily constructed parapet, not high enough to require a banquette, or at least generally without one ; (See FIELD WORKS.) BREECH. The mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore of a gun extending to the rear of the base ring. The base of (he breech is a frustum of a cone or spherical segment in rear of the breech. Breech of a musket ; Breech screw ; Breech pin. (For breech-load- ing arms, See CARBINES ; PISTOL.) BREVET. (French.) It is derived from Latmjreve, brevia, which signify a brief ; a parchment containing an annotation or notification ; (BARDIN, Dictionnaire de TArmeede Terre.) So also, according to Ains- worth, To issue out a writ, Mandatum, vel BREVE emittere. This Latin word breve, brevia, is also still preserved in English law, as signifying a writ, or mandatory precept issued by the authority, and in the name of the sovereign or state.' See Breve, a writ, Breve de Recto, a writ of right, Brevia Formata, the register of writs ; (BOUVIER'S Law Dictionary.) So also in Scots Law, Breve Testatum (Lat.) an acknowledgment in writ- ing, which, by the ancient practice, was made out on the land at the time of giving possession to the vassal, and signed by the superior ; (OGILVIE.) BKI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. HI The word brevet in French signifies, when applied to officers in the army or navy, commission ; (SPIERS and SURENNE.) Brevet was taken by the English from the French with this meaning. As used in the United States army, brevet was borrowed with our Articles of War from England, and in the British service it means a commission in the army at large, distinctive of a commission in a particular regiment or corps. But, as both in the British service and our own, payments are made for the authorized number of officers of the various grades in the several corps composing an army, ordinary English lexicographers have set down the meaning of brevet as a commission which gives an officer title and rank in the army above his pay ; (WEBSTER, WORCESTER, and OGILVIE.) This would be the true meaning of brevet, if there was no legislation on the subject of rank by brevet other than that authorizing such rank to be conferred. But as rank by brevet is given in the army of the United States, by and with. the advice and consent of the Senate, for " gallant actions or meritorious services," the laws have justly provided that, whenever an officer is on duty, and exercises a command according to his brevet, he shall be entitled to the pay of such grade ; (Acts of 1812 and 1818.) Brevets, however, being commissions in the army at large, it would also follow, if there was no further legislation, that such commissions would be exercised in the particular regiment in which an officer was mustered. To avoid this, and also to give efficacy to com- missions in particular corps where different corps come together, the 61st and 62d Articles of War have regulated the whole subject. The 61st Article provides that within a regiment or corps officers shall take rank and do duty according to the commissions by which they are mustered in their regiments or corps, but brevets or former commis- sions may take effect in detachments and courts-martial composed of different regiments or corps. As rank, however, means a range of sub- ordination in the body in which it is held, it is manifest that rank in any particular body, as a regiment, corps, or the army at large, would not of itself give the right to command out of that particular body, without being enabled by further legislation. Hence the necessity of the 62d Article of War, which provides that, when different corps come together, the officer highest in rank of 1^ line of the army, marine corps, or mili- tia, by commission there on duty or in quarters shall command the whole, and give orders for what is needful for the service, unless other- wise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case ; (See COMMAND ; DETACHMENT ; LINE ; PRESIDENT ; RANK.) BRIBE AT MUSTER. Art. 16 of the Rules and Articles of 112 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui. War provides that any officer convicted of taking any bribe on mus- tering, or on signing muster rolls, shall be displaced from his office, and be utterly disabled from ever after holding any office or employment in the service of the United States. BRIG OLE. Men's harness for dragging guns, length 18 feet used for harnessing men to guns when horses cannot be used. BRIDGE. If you are at the side of a narrow but deep and rapid river, on the banks of which trees grow long enough to reach across, one or more should be felled, confining the trunk to its own bank, and letting the current force the head round to the opposite side ; but if " the river be too wide to be spanned by one tree and if two or three men can in any manner be got across let a large tree be felled into the water on each side, and placed close to the banks opposite to each other, with their heads lying up-streamwards. Fasten a rope to the head of each tree, confine the trunks, shove the heads off to receive the force of the current, and ease off the ropes, so that the branches may meet in the middle of the river, at an angle pointing upwards. The branches of the trees will be jammed together by the force of the current, and so be sufficiently united as to form a tolerable communication, espe- cially when a few of the upper branches have been cleared away. If in- sufficient, towards the middle of the river, to bear the weight of men cross- ing, a few stakes, with forks left near their heads, may be thrust down through the branches of the trees to support them ; " (SiR II. DOUGLAS.) When a river, which cannot be forded, must be crossed by animals and carriages, a bridge becomes necessary ; and in all cases it is better, if possible, to cross by a bridge than by a ford, unless the latter be ex- ceedingly shallow. Military bridges may bo of three kinds : 1st. Fixed structures of timber. 2d. Floating-bridges. 3d. Flying-bridges. Timber bridges may be either supported on piles or on trestles. Pile-bridges are the most secure, and where bridges are required to remain in use for a considerable period, as those which may be constructed on the lines of communication of an army, with its base of operations, this form of bridge will generally be adopted. To construct a good pile-bridge over a considerable river, much skilled labor is necessary, and an ample supply of materials essential. When the botto^of the channel is firm, and the river not subject to floods, a pile-bridge may be constructed with- out dfficulty, and will be very durable. The piles must be driven by an engine, which may be constructed of an 8-inch or 10-inch shell run full of lead, suspended by a rope over a pulley. This may be* worked by hand, and will drive piles to a depth sufficient to allow of the passage of the heaviest artillery over the bridge. The pulley of the BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 113 pile engine should be supported on a framework, some 16 feet high, which may be made to act as a guide to the shell during its fall, and also for the pile while it is being driven. This framework should be erected upon a large flat-bottomed boat. If such a boat is not to be procured, a raft must be made to answer the purpose. When timber of a considerable length can be procured for the joists of the bridge, it will be advisable to make the intervals between the piers or rows of piles, as great as the length of the joists will allow, so that the current of the river may be impeded as little as possible, and its action on the bridge be reduced to a minimum. By this arrangement, too, as much space as possible is given for the passage of floating bodies, and the danger of their damaging the bridge is proportionately diminished. When all the piles have been driven as far as the power of the engine can accomplish, they must be sawn off to the same level, and the super- structure of timber be strongly and carefully fitted. With bays of 20 feet, and a roadway 14 feet wide, there must be at least five or six beams not less than 7 inches by 8. With wider bays, timbers of larger dimensions will be necessary. The planking should not be less than 2 inches thick laid transversely. Bridges on piles, for the passage of infantry over shallow rivers only, may be expeditiously constructed, as the piles may be slight, 6 inches in diameter would suffice, and they can be driven by hand by heavy mauls, or by two menusing a beetle. See diagram, Fig. 71. FIG. 71. Here the pile is set and kept in its place by means of two spars of planks resting their extremities upon a stool placed on the bank. A plank is then laid across, on which one or two men may stand to drive the pile. The weight of the men may be increased, if necessary, 114 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BRi. by stones placed on the platform assisting to force the piles into the ground. When one row of piles is placed, and the floor laid to a cross beam fixed upon them, another row may be set and driven in the same manner, fixing the stool on that part of the floor which will thus have been completed. Piles driven in this way may be safely depended upon to bear infantry with a front of two or three files in open ranks, not keeping step. Bridges on Trestles. When rivers are shallow, and not liable to sudden floods, and when their channels are firm and even, very useful bridges may be constructed on trestles. Trestles for this purpose should each consist of a stout transom or ridge piece some 8 inches square and 16 feet long ; to this should be fitted four legs adapted to the depth of the river slanting outwards from the vertical, and strengthened by diagonal bracing, (Fig. 72.) For large bridges it will be found advantageous to add an additional pair of legs to each trestle. These, from the difficulty of fitting six legs to the uneven surface of the bot- tom of the river, should not be attached until the trestle is placed in position ; they should then be driven into the bed of the river, and their upper extremities should be firmly nailed to the ridge piece. When the different parts of the trestles are all prepared beforehand, they can be speedily put together and the bridge completed with great expedition. Fascines may be used for flooring, where plank cannot be obtained. When the intervals or bays are ten feet, the dimensions of the trestle and beams may be as follows : FIG. 72. Length. Breadth. Thickness. ( 1 Head beam Ifi g 3 Trestles, -j 4 Legs * 4-1 44- ( 6 Braces Balks 12 44- 44 Planks for floor 12 1 2 If there bo a strong current, a cable should be stretched across the river on each side of the bridge, and the trestles be firmly lashed to them. It may, moreover, sometimes be necessary to load the trestles BEL] MILITARY DICTIONARY. H5 with shot or stones, to keep them in their position until the flooring is laid upon them. Floating-Bridges are those generally adopted for the passage of troops over rivers. They may be very expeditiously constructed, and can be made strong enough to carry the heaviest artillery. During the last century boats were generally used for this purpose ; and, although on navigable rivers, boats are readily found, it was frequently a work of time and difficulty to collect a sufficient number, particularly if the enemy had had the opportunity of removing or destroying them pre- viously. The inconveniences and delays resulting from this cause, al- ways hazardous and often fatal to the success of an expedition, led to the introduction of regular bridge equipages or pontoon trains, duly organized to accompany the march of armies. An efficient pontoon train renders an army independent of the rivers which may intersect its route. By its aid rivers of very considerable magnitude* may be bridged in a few hours, and a march of a given distance may thus be with certainty completed in a given time a matter often of momentous importance to the success of military operations. Bridges of Boats. Boats of almost any kind will make a serviceable bridge. For wide rivers the boats should be large. The boats of which a bridge is constructed should, if possible, be nearly of the same size, unless they are all very large, and then variations in dimensions will be of little consequence. Should some be large and. some small, the passage of large bodies of troops, of heavy guns and ammunition wagons will depress them unequally, causing the flooring of the bridge to assume an irregular line, straining and injuring, and in some cases fracturing, the timber and destroying the bridge. When boats, all of the same size, cannot be obtained, the larger boats should be placed at wider intervals, so that they may sustain a heavier weight, proportioned to their greater capacity, during the passage of troops, and be depressed to an equal distance with the smaller. The superstructure will consist of balks of timber laid across the gunwales of the boats, and securely fastened, and the flooring of planks laid transversely over. A certain rigidity results from this arrangement, by which, if the boats were subject to much motion, the bridge would be speedily destroyed. In tidal rivers, where a considerable swell must generally be encountered, this manner of securing the timbers will not answer. In this case, it will be found advantageous to erect a trestle or support in the centre of each boat, over which the timbers may be bolted to each other : thus each boat will be allowed independent motion, and this will not en- danger the fracture of the bridge. 116 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui. The boats should be moored head and stern, and should be kept at their relative distances by timbers fixed at the head and at the stern, Fro. 73. stretching across the bays, so as to remove unnecessary strain from the timbers of the bridge. The timbers should be as nearly as possible square, and of dimensions proportioned to the space of the intervals. With good timbers, 8 inches by 6, twenty feet may be allowed from trestle to trestle. The width of the bridge should also be proportioned to the dimensions of the timbers. With five balks of 7 inches by 8, the bridge should not exceed 14 feet in width. If too wide there will be danger of the beams being broken by the overcrowding of troops on the bridge. When there is no regular pontoon train, and boats cannot be pro- cured, rafts may be used in place of boats. These rafts may be made of casks, which, if properly arranged and securely lashed, will answer all the purposes of pontoons. Eight or ten casks, all of the same size, should be placed side by side on a level piece of ground, touching each other, bung-holes uppermost. Two stout balks, 4J inches square, and about 2 feet longer than the sum of the diameters of the casks which are to form the pier, must then be prepared and laid along the upper surface of the casks, parallel to each other, and each about a foot distant from the line of the bung-holes. A piece of 3-inch rope should then be attached to one end of each of these balks, passed under all the casks, and secured to the other end of the same balk. These ropes are then drawn up towards the balks and tightly lashed by small ropes between every pair of casks, and the smaller ropes of the one side are again lashed across to those of the other side (Fig. 74.) The whole pier thus becomes so compact that it may be rolled BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 117 and launched and rowed with as little danger of breaking up as though it were a single pontoon. Piers of casks constructed in this way may be used exactly like pontoons, and will form a most efficient bridge. FIG. 74. Pontoons are vessels of various forms and dimensions, and are made of various materials. They are generally boat-shaped, of wood, of copper, or of tin, sometimes with decks, and sometimes without. Each boat, or pontoon, is carried on a suitable wagon, which also conveys the portion of superstructure necessary for one bay or interval. Fly ing -Bridges. A flying-bridge is an arrangement by which a stream with a good current may be crossed, when, from a want of time or a deficiency of materials, it may not be possible to form a bridge. It consists of a large boat or raft firmly attached by a long cable to a mooring in the centre of the stream, if the channel be straight, or on the bank if the channel be curved. By hauling the boat or raft into proper positions, it will be driven across the stream in either direction as may be desired. The bridge is made usually of two, (Fig. 75,) three, and sometimes six boats, connected together, and very solidly floored over, the beams being fastened to the gunwales of the boats with iron bolts or bands, and the flooring planks nailed down upon them. The floor is sometimes surrounded with a guard-rail. The most suitable boats are long, narrow, and deep, with their sides nearly vertical, in order to offer greater resistance to the action of the current. At the end of the rope is fixed an anchor X, which is moored in the channel, if this is in the middle of the stream. If the channel is not in the middle, the anchor is placed a little on one side of it toward the most distant shore. By means of the rudder, the bridge is turned in such a direction that it is struck obliquely by the current, and the force resulting from the de- composition of the action of the current makes it describe an arc of a 118 MILITARY DICTIONARY. FIG. 76. circle around the anchor as a centre, and this force acquires its max. imum effect when the sides of the boats make an angle of about 55 with the direction of the current. Suppose M N (Fig. 76) to represent the side of the boat, and A B the resultant of the forces of the current against it. The force A B will be decomposed into two forces ; the one, A C, will act in the direction M N as friction, and may be neglected, and the other, A D, will act per- pendicularly to the side of the boat. Were the boat free to move, and headed in the same direction, it would descend the river, at the same time crossing it. A D is then decomposed into two other forces, the one A E, in the direction of the cur- rent, causing the boat to drift, the other A F, perpendicular to this, which pushes the boat across. If the boat is now attached to a fixed point by the rope A X, the force A E will be neutralized, and all the effort of the current will be reduced to the force A F, which makes the boat revolve around the point X. The length of rope used should be once and a half or twice the width of the river. With a shorter rope the arc described by the bridge is too great, and it performs the ascending branch with difficulty ; with a longer one, the rope becomes too heavy, sinks in the water, and fetters the movement. Generally, the arc described by the bridge should not be more than 90. To prevent the rope from dragging over the deck, which would interfere with the load, it is held up by an arrangement such as is indicated in Fig. 76, and buoyed out of the water nearly to the anchor by skiffs, empty casks, or other floating bodies. When the stream to be crossed is not very wide, a flying-bridge may be made with two ropes, one fastened on each shore, the ropes being used al- ternately. If the stream, on the contrary, is very wide, several boats are fastened together, floored over, and anchored in the middle, and communication kept up with each shore by a flying-bridge, like the one already described. In about one hour 36 men can construct a flying bridge composed of 6 bridge-boats, and capable of carrying 250 in- fantry, or 2 pieces of artillery and 12 horses. At least one spare anchor should always be carried on the bridge, to anchor it in case the rope should break or become detached ; and oars, a small boat, and a long rope, should also be provided. A flying-bridge may, in case of emergency, be made of any kind of boats with the means of fixing rud- BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 110 FIG. 77. ders to them. For want of an anchor, a large stone, mill-stone, or a bag or box of sand may be made use of. A flying-bridge may be made of a raft, the best form being lozenge-shaped, with the front angle about 55. It is attached to a rope stretched across the stream by three others with pulleys, which slide along the first rope, this being tightly stretched across and not allowed to hang in the water. Buttresses con- structed on boats or trestles, according to the means at hand, are formed on both sides of the river, at the points where the flying-bridge lands. Wagons impermeable to water may, by means of a rope at- tached to the wagon body, be used to pass a company with its baggage. Where large bodies are to be crossed, a common contrivance is the RAFT of logs, but it is the last expedient to be adopted from its want of buoyancy and general manage- ability, and is inapplicable when the passage of a river is likely to be con- tested with animation. Its merits are that, at the expense of time, it can be constructed with less ex- perienced workmen ; it saves car- riage, as it can only be made of ma- terials near the spot. It is, however, an indifferent substitute for boats, pontoons, or casks. An independent raft will require two rows of trees, at least, to float as many men as can stand upon it, and the logs are best bound together by withes, or ropes, and stiffened with cross and diagonal traces. Timber Bridges. The rudest form of arch is very strong, easy of con- struction, and of frequent occurrence ; the timbers being roughly notched into each other as in log-houses, and gradually jutting over FIG. 78. 120 MILITARY DICTIONARY. the pier or abutment near each other. A few of the upper courses may be trenailed down. Figure 79 shows the manner of construction with hewn or rough timber. FIG. 79, The wagon bodies now made for the United States army are gal- vanized or zincked iron ; the lower and upper rails are of oakwood, cov- ered with sheet iron ; wooden supporters are framed into the lower rails like the usual wagon body, the tail piece is hung upon hinges. An important application of these iron wagon bodies, (suggested by Lieuten- ant-colonel Grossman, United States army,) would be their employment as boats in bridging rivers. If they are so perfected as to render them water-tight, they might be readily converted into a system of pontoons, each one carrying a portion of the string pieces and planks necessary to construct a bridge, without materially interfering with the usual load. Arranged and lashed together in double rows, they would afford a sufficient breadth of roadway for the passage of both cavalry and artillery with facility. Large trees may be felled to enable infantry to cross narrow streams, placing them so that their butts may rest upon the banks with the top directed obliquely up the stream ; if one is not long enough, others may be floated down so as to extend across, being guided and secured by ropes : a footway may be formed by laying planks, fascines, or hurdles over them, and their branches should be chopped off nearly to the level of the water and intertwined below ; poles also may be driven into the bed of the river, to aid in supporting the trees by at- taching the boughs to them. Wheel carriages used to form a foot BRL] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 121 bridge may be connected by beams ; or a single pair of wheels with an axle-tree to admit two strong posts may be attached and placed in the centre of the stream if it is not too wide. Poles reaching from each bank may be secured to the posts, and the wheels would .act as a trestle. With a flooring over the poles, a slight bridge could be FIG. 80. rapidly constructed for an advanced guard. Hide boats are made of four buffalo hides strongly sewed together with buffalo sinew, and stretched over a basket work of willow 8 feet long and 5 feet broad, with a rounded bow, the seams then being covered with ashes and tallow. Exposed to the sun for some hours, the skins contract and tighten the whole work. Such a boat with four men in it draws only four inches of water. Inflated skins have been used since the earliest times for crossing, and if four or more are secured together by a frame, they form a very buoyant raft. Canvas (rendered water-proof by a com- position of pitch 8 Ibs., beeswax 1 lb., and tallow 1 lb., boiled together and laid on quite hot) will serve as a raft or pontoon, if placed over framework or wicker work ; (Consult Memorial des Ojficiers tflnfanterie et Cavalerie ; Aide Memoire of the Military Sciences ; DOUGLAS'S Prin- ciples and Construction of Military Bridges ; HYDE'S Fortifications ; GIBBON'S Manual; HAILLOT, Instruction sur le Passage des JRivieres et la Construction des Ponts Militaires.) BRIDGE-HEAD (la tete du pont) is a work consisting of one or more redans or bastions, constructed on the bank of a river, to cover a bridge, to protect a retiring army in crossing the river, and to check an enemy when pressing upon it. (See REDAN.) BRIDOON. The snaffle and rein of a military bridle, which acts independently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider. BRIGADE. Two regiments of infantry or cavalry constitute a brigade. (Act March 3, 1799.) BRIGADIER-GENERAL. Rank next below major-general. The commander of a brigade. Entitled to one aide-de-camp. BRIGADE-INSPECTOR. (See MILITIA.) 122 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui. BRIGADE-MAJOR. An officer appointed to assist the general commanding a brigade in all his duties. (See MILITIA.) BUILDING. (See BRIDGES ; CARPENTRY.) BUILDINGS, DEFENCE OF. The objects now under consideration are churches, country-houses, factories, prisons, or other substantial buildings ; and as there is but little difference in the mode to be pur- sued for placing any of them in a state of defence, an explanation of the details applied to a single house will perhaps be sufficient to convey an idea on the subject. A building proper for defensive purposes, should possess some or all of the following requisites : 1. It should COMMAND all that surrounds it. 2. Should be SUBSTANTIAL, and of a nature to furnish materials useful for placing it in a state of defence. 3. Should be of an EXTENT PROPORTIONED TO THE NUMBER OF DEFENDERS, and only require the TIME AND MEANS which can be devoted to completing it. 4. Should have walls and projectings that mutually FLANK each other. 5. Should be DIFFICULT OF ACCESS on the side exposed to attack, and yet have a SAFE RETREAT for the defenders. 6. And bo in a situation proper for fulfilling the object for which the detachment is to be posted. A church will be found usually to unite all these good properties more than any other building. It may be remarked that though good strong walls are an advantage, yet their thickness should be limited to 2 or 3 feet, from the difficulty there would be in piercing loopholes ; unless when they are likely to be battered by artillery, in which case the mus- ketry must be confined to the windows, and the more solid the walls are, the better. It should also be remembered that brick houses and walls are preferable, on several accounts, to those built of stone ; for when exposed to artillery, a round shot merely makes a small hole in the former, but stone is broken up in large masses, and dangerous splinters fly from it in all directions. It is much easier also to make loopholes through brickwork than through masonry. Wooden houses, or those made of plaster, are to be avoided, from the facility with which an enemy can set fire to them, and they are frequently not even musket- proof. Thatched houses are equally objectionable, on account of fire, unless there is time to unroof them ; and after all it must not be for- gotten, that earthen works, when exposed to artillery, are to be pre- ferred to houses, as far as affording security to the defenders is con- cerned. In seeking this security, however, it should be borne in mind that they are not so defensible for troops cannot be run into a house ; but they are not exempt from such an intrusion in an earthen work of the nature under discussion. The two together can be made to form a more respectable post than either can be made into singly, for the JJui.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 123 merits of both will be enhanced, and the defects be modified, by the union. A building is therefore at all times a capital base to go to work upon. The walls may be partially protected from cannon shot by throwing up earthen parapets round it, and the house may " recip- rocate " by acting the part of a keep, and afford the garrison a place of refuge, in which they may either defend themselves with advantage, or if it " suits their book," resume the offensive and drive the assailants out again. An officer will be able to make his selection at first sight, with ref- erence to most of these points, but it requires a little more considera- tion to determine whether a building and its appliances are convertible into a post, of a size proportioned to the force under his command. The average number of men, however, proper for the defence of a house, may be roughly estimated on some such data as the following : That in a lower story it might generally be proper to tell off one man for every 4 feet that the walls measured round the interior. In the second story one man for every 6 feet, and in an attic or roof one man for every 8 feet. For example, if a house of three stories high were found, on pacing it, to measure 140 feet round the interior walls, the number of men for its defence on the above data would be deter- mined thus : Feet. 140 Would give 35 ; which would be the number of men for the lower 4 story. _ Would be about 23 men for the second floor. 6 Would be 18 men for the attic. 8 making a total of 76 men for the three stories ; to which about one- sixth of the whole, say 14 men, should be added as a reserve, making altogether a garrison of 90 men. If there were out-buildings or walls in addition, the number of men required for their defence, would be determined in a similar manner, by assuming certain data adapted to the circumstances as a guide in the calculation. These numbers are not to be considered definitive, but merely to convey an idea on the subject ; for if a detachment were much weaker in proportion to the extent, a vigorous defence might still be made. The force might be concentrated where most required, as it is not a matter of course that a place will be attacked on all sides at once ; or if a building were found so large that the disposable force would be too much disseminated, or if there were a want of materials and time for putting the whole of it in a state 124 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui. of defence, a part of it only might be occupied. Should there exist any doubt about having sufficient time to complete all that might be wished, it would become matter for consideration what were the points which it would be of the greatest importance to secure first, so as to be in a condition to repel an immediate attack, because such points would nat- urally claim attention to the exclusion of all others. In such a case, it might be well to employ as many men as could work without hindering each other by being too crowded. 1. To collect materials and barri- cade the doors and windows on the ground floor, to make loopholes in them, and level any obstruction outside that would give cover to the enemy, or materially facilitate the attack. 2. To sink ditches oppo- site the doors on the outside, and arrange loopholes in the windows of the upper story. 3. To make loopholes through the walls generally, attending first to the most exposed parts, and to break communications through all the party-walls and partitions. 4. To place abatis or any feasible obstructions on the outside, and to improve the defence of the post by the construction of tambours, &c. 5. To place out-build- ings and garden walls in a state of defence, and establish communica- tions between them. To make arrangements in the lower story espe- cially, for defending one room or portion after another, so that partial possession only could be obtained on a sudden rush being made. These different works to be undertaken in the order of their relative impor- tance, according to circumstances ; and after securing the immediate ob- ject for which they were designed, they might remain to be improved upon if opportunity offered. An endeavor will now be made to explain the mode of executing these works in the order in w r hich they are men- tioned. Collecting Materials. The materials that will be found most useful in barricading the passages, doors, and windows, are boxes, casks, cart bodies, bricks, stones, cinders, dung, &c., and timber of any sort that comes to hand; if they cannot be found elsewhere on the premises, the roof and floors must be stripped to furnish what is required. Barricading Doors. In the application of these materials, the boxes and casks filled with cinders or dung, and placed against the doors to a height of 6 feet, will prevent their being forced open, and loopholes may be made through the upper portions, which can be rendered mus- ket-proof to protect the men's heads ; short lengths of timber piled one upon another to the same height, leaving a space between any two of them in a convenient situation for firing through, and their ends being secured in the side walls of a passage, or propped with upright pieces on the inside, will effect the same object ; or a door may be loosely Bui.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 125 bricked up, leaving loopholes, &c. If it is probable that artillery will be brought up for knocking away these barricades, and so forcing an entrance, a passage may be partially filled with dung or rubbish to the thickness of 8 or 10 feet, or thick beams of timber may be reared up on the outside of a door, and the interval filled with the same, or with earth if more convenient. A hole, about 3 feet square, may be left through an ordinary barricade for keeping up a communication with the exterior ; but for effecting a retreat, or making sorties, it will be necessary to make a door musket-proof, by nailing on several additional thicknesses of plank, and arrange it so as to open as usual, or contrive something on the spot which shall equally protect the men when firing through the loopholes, and yet be removable at pleasure. Barricading Windows. Windows do not require to be barricaded so strongly as doors, unless from their situation an entrance may easily be effected, or an escalade be attempted. The principal object is to screen and protect the defenders whilst giving their fire ; any thing, therefore, that will fill up the window to a height of 6 feet from the floor, and that is musket-proof, will answer the purpose. Thus jtwo or three rows of filled sand-bags, laid in the sill of a window,/^ ig. 81, or short lengths of timber would do ; or a carpet, a mattrass, or blankets rolled up, would be ready expedients. Loopholes would, in all cases, be arranged whatever materials were used. If time presses, and win- dows could not be blocked up, one means of obtaining concealment, which is the next best thing to security, would be to hang a great coat or blanket across the lower part of them as a screen, and make the men fire beneath it, kneeling on the floor. The glass should be removed from windows before an attack commences, as it is liable to injure the defenders, when broken by musketry. Levelling Obstructions outside. Any shrubberies, fences, or out- buildings, within musket-shot, which would favor an attack by affording 126 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui. cover to an enemy, and allowing him to approach unperceived, should be got rid of as soon as possible. The trees should be felled, leaving the stumps of different heights, so as to encumber the ground, and the materials of walls, &c., should be spread about with the same view ; but whatever is convertible for barricades should be carried to the house. The thatch from roofs, and any combustibles, should also be removed or destroyed. Ditches in Front of the Doors, &c. As a means of preventing a door being forced, a ditch may be dug in front of it, about 7 feet wide and 5 feet deep ; such a ditch is also necessary in front of the lower windows, if the loopholes cannot be conveniently made high enough from the out- side to prevent an enemy reaching them. These partial ditches may afterwards be converted into a continued ditch all round a house if opportunity offers, as it would contribute to the defence of the post. The floors may also be taken up on the inside, opposite the doors or windows open to attack. Loopholes. If the walls are not too thick, they may be pierced for loopholes, at every 3 feet, in the spaces between the windows, &c. (Fig. 82.) FIG. 82. , Two tiers of these loopholes may be made if opportunity offers, and a temporary scaffolding of furniture, benches, casks, or ladders, &c., erected for firing from the upper ones : on the lower story a row of loopholes may be made close to the ground. The floor must, in this case, be partly removed, and a small excavation made between the beams for the convenience of making use of them. Just under the eaves of a roof there is generally a place where loopholes can be made Bui.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 127 with great facility, and a tile or slate knocked out here and there with a musket, will give other openings, from which an assailant may be well plied as he comes up. Communications. A clear communication must be made round the 4jrhole interior of the building, by breaking through all partitions that interfere with it : and for the same purpose, if houses stand in a row or street, the party walls must be opened, so as to have free access from one end to the other. Means should likewise be at hand for closing these openings against an enemy, who may have obtained any partial possession. Holes may also be made in the upper floors to fire on the assailants, if they force the lower ones, and arrangements made for blocking up the staircases, with some such expedient as a tree, pre- pared in the same manner as for an abatis, or by having a rough pali- sade gate placed across. Balconies may be covered or filled up in front with timber or sand-bags and made use of to fire from downwards. (Fig. 83.) FIG. 83. Abatis. The partial levelling of any object on the outside, that would give concealment to an enemy, and favor an attack, is supposed to have been already attended to : but if time admits, after loopholes, &c. are completed, this system must be extended and perfected, and the formation of a more regular abatis should be commenced, and any other obstruction added that opportunity permits. The best distance for such obstructions, if they are continuous and cannot be turned, is within 20 or 30 yards of a work, or even less, so that every shot may tell 128 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bur. whilst the assailants are detained in forcing a passage through them ; within such a distance also of defenders securely posted, it would not be pleasant for a hostile force in confusion, to " Fall in" or " Re-form Column" If hand-grenades are to play their part in the defence of a post, the obstruction, whatever it may be, should be placed within their influence. A man will easily throw them 20 yards, but a trial on the spot will best determine the distance at which they can be used with effect. Tambours. If the building that has been selected has no porches, wings, or projecting portions from which flank defence can be obtained, it will be advisable to construct something of a temporary nature to afford it. Stockade work offers a ready means of effecting this object ; it may be disposed in the form of a triangle, projecting 8 or 10 feet in front of a door or window, planted as described in Article STOCKADE, and with the precautions of having the loopholes high enough. A small hole should be left in the barricade of the door or window to communicate with the interior. Three or four loopholes on each fac< . of the projection cut between the timbers will be found very useful in the defence. These contrivances are usually termed tarrbours, and il constructed at the angle of a building, will flank two sides of it. (Fig. 84.) FIG. 84. Out-buildings and Walls. When the defences of the main building are in a state of forwardness, any out-buildings or walls which have been found too solid to be levelled at the moment, or which have been preserved for the chance of having time to fortify them, and thus to increase the strength of the post, must be looked to. They may be placed in a state of defence by the means already described, and sep-' arate communications should be established between them and the BUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 129 principal building by a trench, or a line of stockade work, and by breaking through the walls when necessary. In this way a post may be enlarged in any required proportion, by turning all objects that present themselves, such as out-buildings, sheds, walls, hedges, ponds, &c., to the best account ; first taking the precaution to secure what is absolutely necessary for immediate protection, and for placing it in a state to be defended on the shortest notice. An exterior wall or fence, tolerably close to a house and parallel to it, may be retained for the purposes of defence, with- out the danger of afford- ing cover, and thus facili- tating an attack, by throwing up a slope of earth on the outside of it, or planting an abatis in the same situation ; (Fig. 85.) An enemy would thus remain completely exposed, and it would be worse than useless to him. If a post of the description under consideration were composed of two or more buildings, and it were to be left to itself, and were open to attack on all sides, the stockades or trenches, forming the communications between them, would obviously require to be so ar- ranged as to afford cover, and the means of resistance on both sides. This would be effected by merely making them double, as shown in Fig. 82 ; but for greater security, the exterior of such communications should be laid under fire from the buildings at their extremities. If cover cannot from circumstances be obtained, screens should be con- trived that will conceal the movements that may be necessary. In arranging the defences of such posts, it is an essential point to make each portion of them so far independent of the others, that if any one part, such as a building for instance, be taken, it shall not compromise the safety of the remainder, nor materially impair the defence they will make by themselves ; so that whilst free communications are essential in most cases to a vigorous defence, the means must be at hand for in- stantly cutting them off by some such expedients as would be afforded by a loopholed, musket-proof door, or rough gates, or by letting fall a tree, prepared as for an abatis, and which till wanted might be reared on its end in the situation required, the means of bringing a close fire upon it having been previously secured ; (JEEB'S Attack and Defence.) BULLET. (See AMMUNITION ; ARMS ; PERCUSSION BULLET ; PRO- JECTILES; RIFLED ORDNANCE.) BUNK. A word used in the army, a place for bedding. 9 130 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bus, BUREAU of the War Department. During the absence of the quartermaster-general, or the chief of any military bureau of the War Department, his duties in the bureau, prescribed by law or regulations, devolve on the officer of his department empowered by the President to perform them in his absence; (Act July 4, 1836.) BURIAL. The funeral honors paid to deceased officers and sol- diers are prescribed by orders from the President contained in the Army Regulations. The coffin is furnished by the quartermaster's department. BUSHING A GUN is drilling a hole into the piece where the vent is usually placed, about one inch in diameter, and screwing therein a piece of metal which had previously a vent ; the metal used in bushing is pure copper for brass pieces. c CADET. A warrant officer ; students at the West Point Military Academy are cadets of the Engineer Corps. The number of cadets by appointments hereafter to be made shall be limited to the number of representatives and delegates in Congress and one for the District of Columbia ; and each Congressional District, Territory, and District of Columbia shall be entitled to have one cadet at said Academy ; nothing in this section shall prevent the appointment of an additional number of cadets, not exceeding ten, to be appointed at large, without being confined to a selection by Congressional Districts ; (Act March 1, 1843, Sec. 2). Pay $30 per month. (See ACADEMY.) CAISSON. The number of rounds of ammunition carried by each caisson and its limber are for 6-pounder guns 150 rounds ; 12 pounder guns, 96 rounds; 12-pounder howitzers, 117 rounds; 24-pounder howitzer 69 rounds, and 32-pounder howitzers 45 rounds. The num- ber of caissons with field-batteries are: with a battery of 12-pounders, 8 caissons for guns, and 4 for howitzers ; and with a battery of 6- pounders, 4 for guns, and 2 for howitzers. CALIBRE. The calibre of bullets is determined by the number required to weigh a pound. The calibre of guns is designated by the weight of the shot ; siege and sea-coast howitzers, columbiads, mortars by the number of inches of their respective diameters. (Consult ORDNANCE MANUAL.) CALLING FORTH MILITIA. Congress shall have power to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; (Constitution, Art. 1, Sec. 8, Clause 15.) By Act of Congress, Feb. 28, 1795, the President is CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 131 authorized to call forth the militia whenever : 1. " the United States shall be invaded or be in his judgment in imminent danger of invasion) .(from any foreign nation or Indian tribe ;) and to issue his orders for that purpose to such officer or officers of militia as he may think proper. 2. In case of an insurrection in any State against the government thereof, on application of the Legislature of such State, or of the Execu- tive, (when the Legislature cannot be convened.) 3. Whenever the laws of the United States shall be opposed, or the execution thereof obstructed in any State, by combinations too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or by the powers vested in the marshals; but whenever it may be necessary, in the judgment of the President, to use the military force hereby directed to be called forth in case of insurrection or obstruction to the laws, the President shall forthwith, by proclamation, command such insurgents to disperse, and retire peaceably to their respective abodes within a limited time ;" (Act Feb. 28, 1795.) In cases where it is lawful for the President to call forth the militia, it shall be lawful for him to employ for the same purposes, such part of the land or naval forces of the United States as shall be judged necessary, having first observed all the pre-requisites of the law in that respect ; (Act March 3, 1807.) (See INVASION ; MARSHAL ; OBSTRUCTION ; EXECUTION OF LAWS ; INSURRECTION.) CAMEL. The camel is used in the East as a beast of burthen from 3 to about 16 years of age, and in hot sandy plains, where water and food are scarce, is invaluable. With an army, however, generally speaking, it is not so valuable as the mule or horse. The camel under a burthen is very slow-going, about half the pace of a mule, or from 1|- to 2 miles per hour ; he can, however, travel 22 out of the 24 hours, and only requires food once a day. His load varies exceedingly in dif- ferent countries. In Egypt it is as high as 10 cwt. ; and for the short distance from Cairo to Boulac, even 15 cwt. is, it is said, sometimes carried. But in Syria it rarely exceeds 500 Ibs., and the heaviest load in the engineer equipment for the British army of the Indus is stated to be 4 cwt. 48 Ibs., independent of the pack-saddle. About 400 Ibs. is a sufficient load on the march. The pack-saddle or pad is secured in its place by the hump on the back, a hole being made in the pad to let it come through, also by a breast-plate and breeching ; no dependence is placed on the girth, which is not kept tight. From the great size of the camel, averaging about 7 feet to the top of the hump, and 8 feet from his nose to his tail, when standing in a natural position, he is capable of carrying light field artillery, and the 12-poundcr mountain howitzer, which, with its side arms, weighs from 330 to 350 Ibs. The bed or car- 132 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM. riage is carried by a second, and the ammunition by a third camel. In rocky or slippery ground the camel is apt to slip, and his fore feet then are frequently spread out right and left : when this is the case, he split* up inside the arms, and dies, or becomes useless. Though patient and obedient to his keeper, at whose command he lies down to be loaded, he is frequently very savage with strangers, and his bite is very severe. The camels introduced into the service of the United States on our Western frontiers, carry from 300 to 600 Ibs. on continuous journeys, depending on the kind of camel employed. These weights they will carry from 18 to 30 miles a day, according to the character of the country. With lighter loads they travel a little faster. The saddle dromedary will travel 50 miles in 8 or 10 hours ; and on an emergency they make 70 or 90 miles a day, but only for a day or two, on a level road. Their use in the United States is still an experiment. CAMOUFLET is a small mine, of about 10 Ibs. of powder, suf- ficient to compress the earth all around it, without disturbing the sur- face of the ground. It is sometimes formed in the wall or side of an enemy's gallery, in order to blow in the earth, and to cut off the retreat of the miner. CAMP is the temporary place of repose for troops, whether for one night or a longer time, and whether in tents, in bivouac, or with any such shelter as they may hastily construct, as sheds, bowers, &c. .Troops are cantoned when distributed at any time among villages, or when placed in huts at the end of campaign. Barracks are permanent military quarters. Tents (says Napoleon) are not wholesome. It is better for the soldier to bivouac, because he can sleep with his feet towards the fire, and he may shelter himself from the wind by means of sheds, bowers, &c. In woods there is great facility in making warm encampments, even in the most bitter weather. A young tree, when felled, yields poles to support branches as shields against weather, and flooring above the snow or damp. A common arrangement is as fol- lows : A cross-bar is support- ed by two uprights ; against this cross bar a number of poles are made to lean ; on the back of the poles abun- dance of fir branches are laid horizontally ; and, lastly, on the back of the fir branches are another set of leaning poles, in order to make ajl secure by their weight. A cloth of any kind is made to give shelter by an arrangement of this '' CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 133 kind. The corners of the cloth should be secured by a simple hitch in the rope and not by a knot. The former is sufficient for all purposes of security, but the latter will jam, and you may have to injure both cloth and string to get it loose again. It is convenient P iG g7 to pin a skewer in the mid- dle of the sides of the cloth, round the ropes. Good water within a con- venient distance is essential in the selection of a camp, as is also the proximity of woods for firewood, ma- terial for shelter, &c. Good roads, canals, or navigable streams are important to furnish the troops with the necessaries of life if troops are encamped for long periods. The ground should not be near swamps or stagnant water. This requirement is essential to health. The ground, to be suitable for defence, must admit the manoeuvres of troops. The front of the camp of each battalion of infantry or squadron of cavalry must, therefore, be equal to the front of the battalion or squadron. And as far as possible camps for cavalry and infantry should be established on a single line the cavalry upon the wings, the infantry in the centre. The shelters or huts are alligned, as well as the nature of the ground admits, from one extremity of the camp to the other, and arranged by companies in streets, perpendicular to the front. The general thus has the whole extent of his camp in view, and order can be better preserved. When the army is formed upon two lines, there are two camps one in front of the other. The reserve has also its particular camp. Artillery usually encamps behind the in- fantry, and thus forms a little separate camp or camps of its own. In establishing a camp, however, no universal rule can bo laid down ; but it is necessary (says Napoleon) that the genius of the commander should, according to circumstances, decide whether an army ought to be confined to one single encampment or to form as many as it has corps or divisions ; where the vanguard and flanks should be posted ; where the cavalry, artillery, and wagons should be placed, and whether the army should occupy one or more lines ; what should be the distance between the lines ; and whether the cavalry should be in reserve behind the infantry, or should be placed on the wings. Baron Larrey suggests the following sanitary considerations in relation to camps: A camp, especially if permanent, should be selected so as to be 134 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAU accessible to the troops by easy marches ; it should occupy a spacious plain, in a province exempt from both epidemical and endemical diseases; the soil should be dry, but not too hard, so that it may quickly imbibe the rain ; because it then becomes fit for military operations a few hours after the most violent shower. This prompt absorption, moreover, pre- serves the troops from the baneful influence of dampness without ex- posing them to the inconveniences of want of water, since in such a soil wells may be easily dug and water found at an inconsiderable depth, as is the case at Chalons. A good camp should not be intersected by streams or ditches, nor enclosed by 'large forests. The tents should not be too closely packed, in order to insure good ventilation throughout, and diminish the probability of epidemics. When a river is too near a camp, and its banks are somewhat marshy, the breaking out of inter- mittent fever should be prevented by deepening the bed of the river, cleansing it as much as possible of all putrefying vegetable and animal substances, raising the banks and giving them at the same time a greater inclination, making channels for carrying off the water, and establishing tents and barracks at a sufficient distance, and as much as possible on rising ground. When the supply of water to a camp is derived from a river, the latter ought to be divided into three sections : the first and upper one to be exclusively used for drink by the men, the second to be reserved for the horses, and the third and lowermost for washing the linen of the troops. These demarcations should be strictly guarded by sentinels stationed at the proper places. To drive off dampness, bivouac-fires ought to be lighted in the evening ; each tent, moreover, should be surrounded with a gutter communicating with a main ditch to carry off rain-water ; the space occupied by certain corps should also be sanded over, to facilitate the absorption of humidity by the soil. In pitching tents care should be taken to maintain between them a distance of at least two metres ; those of the general officers should be situated in the healthiest quarter. Tents made of white stuff are prejudicial to the eyesight in summer, and should be therefore discarded. A tent being liable to infection like a room, it ought not to be hermetically closed, as is the custom with soldiers, but, on the contrary, well aired ; and the ground ought not only to be scraped and swept, but should also be well rammed. The men ought not to sleep in the tents with their heads near the centre and their feet towards the circumference, but in the contrary position, else they breathe a vitiated instead of a pure air. A tent, generally calculated for 16 men, ought never to contain more than 12 or 13 infantry, and 8. or 10 cavalry. 'Of the different kinds of tents the conical Turkish tent is the best ; for ambulances the marquee is pref- CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 135 erable. The tente-tfabri, which is made by joining two camp-sacks to- gether by means of a wooden pole, and keeping them stretched by small stakes stuck into the ground, is a most precious invention. Four men can find shelter under it, and the weight it adds to their kit is trifling, but it can only be used in provisional encampments. The tents of the cavalry ought to be freed from the encumbrance of saddles and accoutrements, which vitiate the air, and should be placed under small sheds in front of the tents, or, better still, in the stable-barracks. The men should be encouraged to cultivate little patches of ground around their tents as gardens ; it is both an amusement and a means of purifying the air, only they must not be allowed to manure the soil. As regards sleeping, each soldier should fill a camp-sack with straw and lie down on it as on a mattress, with his blanket to cover him ; or, better still, he should get into the sack filled with straw a much better plan than al- lowing the men to sleep together in couples on two sacks spread out or. the straw, and with the same blanket to cover them. The ground on which the men sleep ought to be swept daily and sanded over, for it easily gets infected ; in which case it becomes necessary to shift the tents a measure which is often sufficient to stop an epidemic at its outbreak. A reserve of planks and trestles ought to be kept in store for extem- pore bedsteads when the ground has become too damp ; or water-proof canvas may be spread over to protect the straw from humidity. In autumn a single blanket is not sufficient, each man should be provided with two. The guards of camps are : 1. The Camp-guard, which serves to keep good order and discipline, prevent desertions and give the alarm ; 2. Detachments of infantry and cavalry, denominated pickets, in front and on the flanks, which intercept reconnoitring parties of the enemy, and give timely notice of the approach of an enemy ; and 3. Grand- guards, or out-posts, which are large detachments posted in surrounding villages, farm-houses or small field-works, from which they can watch the movements of the enemy. They should not be so far from the camp as to be beyond succor in case of attack, and not so near as to prevent timely notice being given to the main body of the army on the approach of an enemy. If the camp is to present the same front as the troops in order of battle, 400 military paces will be necessary per regiment of 500 files front. Immediately after arriving on the ground, the number of men to be furnished for guards and pickets are detailed ; the posts to be occupied by them are designated ; the places of distribution of pro- visions are mentioned, and, in general, all arrangements made con- cerning the interior and exterior police and service of the camp. 136 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM. The tente-cTabri has been introduced in the French service since 1837, when first used at the camp of Compiegne. These tents con- sist of a tissue of cotton cloth impregnated with caoutchouc, and thus made water-proof. Every man carries a square of this cloth, with buttons and button-holes around it, by which it is attached to the squares carried by his comrades, and an excellent shelter for six soldiers is made as follows : Three tent-sticks are fixed into the ground, whose tops are notched ; a light cord is then passed round their tops, and fastened into the ground with a peg at each end ; (Fig. 88.) Two sheets, A and B, are buttoned together and thrown over the cord, and then two other sheets, C and D ; and C is buttoned to A, and D to B. Lastly, another sheet is thrown over each of the slanting cords, the one buttoned to A and B, and the other to C and D ; (Fig. 89.) The sides of the tent are of course pegged to the ground. FIG. 88. FIG. 89. There are many modifications in the way of pitching these tents. For want of sticks, muskets can be used. Preparations for a Storm. Before a storm, dig a ditch as deep as you can, round the outside of the tent, to turn aside the rain-water, and to drain the ground on which the tent is standing even a furrow scratched with a tent-peg is better than nothing at all. Fasten guy- ropes to the spike of the tent-pole ; and be careful that the tent is not too much on the strain, else the further shrinking of the materials, under the influence of the rain, will certainly tear up the pegs. Earth, banked up round the bottom of the tent, will prevent gusts of wind from find- ing their way beneath. The accompanying sketch shows a tent pitched CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 137 for a lengthened habitation. It has a deep drain, a seat and -table dug FIG. 90. out, and a fireplace. (Fig. 90.) Tent Furniture. A portable bedstead, with musquito-curtains, is a very great luxury, raising the sleeper above the damp soil, and the attacks of most creatures that creep on it ; where a few lux- uries can be carried, it is a very proper article of baggage. It is essential where white ants are nu- merous. Hammocks and cots have but few advo- cates, as it is rare to find places adapted for swinging them ; they are quite out of place in a small tent. Chairs and Tables. It is advisable to take very low strong and roomy camp-stools, with tables to correspond in height, as a chamber is much less choked up when the seats are low, or when people sit, as in the East, on the ground. The , seats should not be more than 1 foot high, though as wide and deep as an ordinary footstool ; but without a scat, a man can never write, draw, nor calculate as well as if he has one. The stool represented in Fig. 91 is a good one; it has a full- sized seat made of leather or canvas, or else of strips of dressed hide. For want of a chair, it is convenient to dig a hole or a trench in the ground, and to sit on one side of it, with the feet resting on its bottom ; the opposite side of the trench serves as a table, for putting things on, within easy reach. FIG. 91. FIG. 92. To tie clothes, or any thing, up to a smooth tent-pole, a strap with hooks in it, to buckle round the pole, is very convenient. The method shown in Fig. 92 suffices, if the pole is notched, or jointed, or in any 138 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM. way slightly uneven. Bags, &c., are hung upon the bit of wood that is secured to the loose end. The luxuries and elegancies practicable in tent life are only limited by the means of transport. The articles that make the most show are handsome rugs, and skins, and pillows ; can- teens of dinner and coffee services, &c. ; and candles, with screens of glass, or other arrangements to prevent them from flickering. The art of luxurious tenting is better understood in Persia than in any other country, even than in India. Losing things. Small things are constantly mislaid and trampled in the sand : to search for them, the ground should be disturbed as little as possible it is a usual plan to score its surface in parallel lines with a thin wand. It would be well worth while to make and use a small light rake for this purpose. Huts. In making a depot, it is usual to build a house ; often the men have to pass weeks in inactivity, and they may as well spend them in making their quarters comfortable, as in idleness. Whatever huts the natives live in are sure, if made with extra care, to be sufficient for travellers. Walls.The materials whence the walls of huts may be constructed, are very numerous, and there is hardly any place which does not fur- nish one or other of them. Those principally in use are as follows : Skins, canvas, felt, tarpauling, bark, reed mats, reed walls, straw walls, wattle-and-dab, log-huts, fascines or fagots, boards, &c., fastened by Malay-hitch, brick, sunburnt or baked, turf, stones, gabions, bags or mats filled with sand or shingle, snow huts, underground huts, tents over holes in earth. Roofs. Many of the above list would be perfectly suitable for roofs : in addition may be mentioned slating with flat stones, thatch, sea-weed, and wood shingles. Floors. Cowdung and ashes make a hard, dry, and clean floor, such as is used for a threshing-floor. Ox-blood and fine clay, kneaded to- gether, are excellent ; both these compositions are used in all hot, dry countries. Tarpaulings, made in the sailors' way, are much superior to others in softness and durability. As soon as the canvas is sewn together, it is thoroughly wetted with sea-water ; and, while still wet, is done over on one side with tar and grease boiled together about two parts tar and one of grease. Being hung up till dry, it is turned ; and the other side, being a second time well wetted, is at once painted over with the tar and grease just as the first side had been done before. The sailors say that " the tar dries in as the water dries out." CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 139 Bark. It is an art to strip it quickly the Australians understand it well. Two rings are cut round the tree ; the one as high as can be reached, the other low down. A vertical slit is then made, and the whole piece forced off with axes, &c. In spring the bark comes off readiest from the sunny side of the tree. A large sheet of bark is ex- ceedingly heavy. It is flattened, as it lies on the ground, by weighting it with large stones, and allowing it to dry, partially at least, in that position. Straw Walls of the following kind are very effective, and they have the advantage of requiring a minimum of string (or substitute for string) in their manufacture. The straw, or herbage of almost any description, is simply nipped between two pair of long sticks, which are respectively tied together at the two ends, and at a sufficient number of intermediate places. The whole is neatly squared and trimmed ; (Fig. 93.) A few of these would help in finishing the roof or walls of a house. They can be made movable, so as to suit the wind, shade, and aspect. Even the hut door can be made on this principle. Log-huts. In building log-huts, four poles are planted in the ground to correspond to the four corners : against these, logs are piled one above another, as in Fig. 94 ; they are so deeply notched where they Fio. 94. FIG. 93. cross one another, that the adjacent sides are firmly dovetailed. together. When the walls are entirely completed, the doors and windows are chopped out, and the spaces between the logs must be well caulked with moss, &c., or the log-cabin will be little better than a log-cage. It of course requires a great many trees to make a log-hut ; for, sup- posing the walls to be 8 feet high, and the trees to average 8 inches in diameter, it would require 12 trees to build up one side, or 48 to make all four walls. Malay hitch. I know no better name for the following wonderfully simple way of attaching together wisps of straw, rods, laths, reeds, planks, poles, or any thing of the kind, into a secure and flexible mat ; 140 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM. FIG. 95. the sails used in the far East are made in this way, and the movable decks are made of bamboos joined together with a similar but rather more complicated stitch ; (Fig. 95.) Soldiers might be trained to a great deal of hutting practice in a very inexpeh- sive way if they were drilled at put- ting together huts whose roofs and walls were made of planks lashed together by this simple hitch, and whose supports were short scaffold- irig-poles planted in deep holes dug without spades or any thing but the hand and a small .stick. The poles, planks, and cords might be used over and over again for an in- definite time. Further, bedsteads could be made in a similar way by short cross planks lashed together, and resting on a framework of horizontal poles lashed to uprights planted in the ground. The sol- dier's bedding would not be injured by being used on these bedsteads, in the way it would be if laid on the bare gound. Many kinds of designs and experiments in hutting could be practised without expense in this simple way. Snow-houses. Few travellers have habitually made snow-houses, except Sir J. Franklin's party, and that of Dr. Rae. Great praises are bestowed on the comfort of them by all travellers, but skill and prac- tice are required in building them. The mode of erection of these dome-shaped buildings is as follows : It is to be understood that the hard, compact, underlying snow is necessary for the bottom of the hut ; and that the looser textured, upper layer of snow is used to build the house. First, select and mark out the circular plot on which the hut is to be raised. Then, cut out with knives deep slices of snow, six inches wide, three feet long, and of a depth equal to that of the layer of loose snow, say one or two feet. These slices are curved, so as to form a circular ring when placed on their edges, and of a size to make the first row of snow-bricks for the house. Other slices are cut for the succeeding rows ; and, when the roof has to be made, the snow-bricks are cut with the necessary double curvature. A conical plug fills up the centre. Loose snow is then heaped over the house, to fill up crevices. Lastly, a doorway is cut out with knives ; also a window, which is glazed with a sheet of the purest ice at hand. For the inside accommodation, there is a pillar or two, to support lamps. Underground Huts are used in all quarters of the globe. The ex- CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 141 FIG. 96. Of course the earth is re- perience of the British troops encamped before Sebastopol tells strongly in their favor, as habitations during an inclement season. The timely adoption of them was the salvation of the British army. They are, essentially, nothing else than holes in the ground, roofed over. The shape and size of the hole correspond to that of the roof it may be possible to procure for it ; its depth is no greater than requisite. If the roof have a pitch of 2 feet in the middle, the depth of the. hole need not exceed 4 feet. In the Crimea, the holes were rectangular, and roofed like huts ; (Fig. 96.) Where there is a steep hill side, a, a, an underground hut, 5, is easily contrived ; because branch- es laid over its top have sufficient pitch to throw off the rain, with- out having recourse to any uprights, &c. moved from d, at the doorway. tynts pitched over excavations. A hole may be dug deeply beneath the tent floor, partly as a store-room, and partly as a living-room when the weather is very inclement. This, also, was done before Sebastopol in the manner shown in the engraving. Thatching. After the framework of the roof has been made, the thatcher begins at the bottom, and ties a row of bundles of straw, side by side, on to the framework. Then he begins a second row, allowing the ends of the bundles composing it to overlap the heads of those in the first row. Wood Shingles are tile-shaped slices of wood, easily cut from, fir- trees, and used for roofing on the same principle as tiles or slates. Fix hooked sticks, and cow or goat horns, round the walls, as pegs to hang things on; and if you went a luxurious bed, make a framework of wood, with strips of raw hide lashed across it from end to end, and from side to side ; (Fig. 97.) If you collect bed feathers, recollect that if FIG. 97. cleanly plucked they require no dressing of any kind, save drying and beating. Concrete for floors is made of 80 parts large pebbles, 40 river sand, 10 lime ; lime is made by burning limestone, chalk, shells, 142 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM. or coral, in a simple furnace, and whitewash is lime and water. Bark makes a good roof. The substitutes for glass are waxed or oiled paper or cloth, bladder, fish-membranes, talc, and horn. Glass cannot be cut with any certainty without a diamond ; but it may be shaped and reduced to any size by gradually chipping, or rather biting, away at its edges with a key, if the slit between its wards be just large enough to admit the pane of glass easily. A window, or rather a hole in the wall, may be rudely shuttered by a stick run through loops made out of wisps of grass. In hot weather the windows of the hut may be loosely filled with grass, which, when well-watered, makes the hut much cooler. A mosquito-curtain may be taken and suspended over the bed, or place where you sit. It is very pleasant, in hot, mos- quito-plagued countries, to take the glass sash entirely out of the win- dow frame, and replace it with one of gauze. Broad network, if of fluffy thread, keeps wasps out. The darker a house is kept, the less willing are flies, &c., to flock in. If sheep and other cattle be near the house, the nuisance of flies, &c., becomes almost intolerable ; (GALTON'S Art of Travel.) Major II. IT. Sibley, 2d Dragoons, has invented a tent in which a fire can be made in its centre, and all soldiers sleep with their feet to the fire. Major Sibley's tent is conical, light, easily pitched, erected FIG. 98. on a tripod holding a single pole, and will com- fortably accommodate twelve soldiers with their accoutrements. Where means of transportation admit of tents being used, Major Sibley's will prob- ably supersede all others. (Fig. 98.) A commander of troops usually sends in advance to prepare the camp. The camping party of a regi- ment may be the regi- mental quartermaster, and quartermaster-ser- geant, and a corporal and two men per company. The camp of a larger detachment is prepared by the chief quartermaster or some officer of the general's staff, designated CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 143 by the commander of the troops assisted by the company camping par- ties of regiments. With camp colors the direction of the front line of the camp is marked, and the extent of the front of each corps, the intervals between corps, and the beginning, breadth, and direction of streets desig- nated. When the encampment is on two lines, let there be 450 paces between their respective fronts. Behind intrenchments there ought to be about 300 paces between the entrenchments and the front of the camp. The posts of the police guard will be designated, and the neces- sary works to secure communication between the parts of the camp will also be determined. Fig. 99 gives details for the camp of a regi- ment of infantry. FIG. 99. WAKCfU ( 44- 3 um mm a a mm mm mm mm am EI a a a mm mm mm mm mm mm EH mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm Jfoti-Cou? STAFF. fouce GUARD. XXH a SUTLER. | Q*M? ITCoL. Coi. ^DJT E'_J EJ MAJ. LJ D sa B Su* K ^J . iS 4-00 FACES Camp of Cavalry. In the cavalry, each company has one file of tents the tents opening on the street facing the left of the camp. The horses of each company are placed in a single file, facing the opening of the tents, and are fastened to pickets planted firmly in the ground, from 3 to 6 paces from the tents of the troops. The interval between the file of tents should be such that, the regiment being broken into columns of companies, each company should be on the extension of the line on 144 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM. which the horses are to be picketed. The streets separating the squadrons are wider than those between the companies by the interval separating squadrons in line ; these intervals are kept free from any obstruction throughout the camp. The horses of the rear rank are placed on the left of those of their file-leaders. The horses of the lieu- tenants are placed on the right of their platoons ; those of the captains on the right of the company. Each horse occupies a space of about 2 paces. The number of horses in the company fixes the depth of the camp, and the distance between the files of tents ; the forage is placed between the tents. The kitchens are 20 paces in front of each file of tents. The non-commissioned officers are in the tents of the front rank. Camp-followers, teamsters, &c., are in the rear rank. The police guard in the rear rank, near the centre of the regiment. The tents of the lieutenants are 30 paces in rear of the file of their company ; the tents of the captains 30 paces in rear of the lieutenants. The colonel's tent 30 paces in rear of the captains', near the centre of the regiment ; the lieutenant-colonel on his right ; the adjutant on his left ; the majors on the same line, opposite the 2d company on the right and left ; the sur. geon on the left of the adjutant. The field and staff have their horses on the left of their tents, on the same line with the company horses ; sick horses are placed in one line on the right or left of the camp. The men who attend them have a separate file of tents ; the forges and wagons in rear of this file. The horses of the train and of camp-follow- ers are in one or more files extending to the rear, behind the right or left squadron. The advanced post of the police guard is 200 paces in front, opposite the centre of the regiment ; the horses in one or two files. The sinks for the men are 150 paces in front those for officers 100 paces in rear of the camp. Camp of Artillery. The artillery is encamped near the troops to which it is attached, so as to be protected from attack, and to contribute to the defence of the camp. Sentinels for the park are furnished by the artillery, and when necessary, by the other troops. For a battery of six pieces the tents are in three files one for each section ; distance between the ranks of tents 15 paces ; tents opening to the front. The horses of each section are picketed in one file, 10 paces to the left of the file of tents. In the horse artillery, or if the number of horses make it necessary, the horses are in two files on the right and left of the file of tents. The kitchens are 25 paces in front of the front rank of tents. The tents of the officers are in the outside files of company tents, 25 paces in rear of the rear rank the captain on the right, the lieutenants on the left. The park is opposite the centre of the camp, 40 paces in CAP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 145 rear of the officers' tents. The carriages in files 4 paces apart ; dis- tance between ranks of carriages sufficient for the horses when harnessed to them ; the park guard is 25 paces in rear of the park. The sinks for the men 150 paces in front ; for the officers 100 paces in rear. The harness is in the tents of the men. (Consult BARDIN; Me- morial des Offiders d* Infanterie et de Cavalerie; GALTON'S Art of Travel.) CAMP AND GARRISON EQUIPAGE. (See CAMP ; CLOTHING ; TOOLS ; UTENSILS ; QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT.) CAMPAIGN. The period of a year that an army keeps the field from the opening of a campaign until the return to quarters or canton- ments at the end of the campaign. A series of continuous field opera- tions. An ordinary campaign, in respect to recompense for length of service, is counted as two years of effective service in the French army. In all services excepting our own, additional allowances in campaign are made to troops beyond those given at other periods. (See ALLOWANCES.) CANISTER for field service, consists of a tin cylinder attached to a sabot, and filled with cast-iron shot. For siege and garrison guns the bottom is of cast iron, and the cover of sheet iron with a handle made of iron wire. (See SABOT.) CANNON. (See CALIBRE ; ORDNANCE.) CANTEEN. A small tin caoutchouc or circular wooden vessel, used by soldiers on active service to carry liquor, &c. A small trunk or chest, containing culinary and other utensils for the use of officers. A kind of suttling house, kept in garrisons, &c., for the convenience of the troops. CANTONMENTS. Troops are said to be in cantonments when detached and quartered in the different towns and villages, lying as near as possible to each other. (See CAMP.) CAPITAL. The line drawn bisecting the salient angle of a work. CAPITULATION. Articles of agreement, by which besieged troops surrender at discretion, or with the honors of war. The terms granted depend upon circumstances of time, place, &c. Any surrender in the open field without fighting was stigmatized by Napoleon as dishonorable, as was also the surrender of a besieged place without the advice of a majority of a council of defence, before the enemy had been forced to resort to successive siege-works, and had been once re- pulsed from an assault through a practicable breach in the body of the place, and the besieged were without means to sustain a second assault ; or else the besieged were without provisions or munitions of war. CAPONNIERE. Passage from the place to an outwork; it is either single or double, sometimes bomb-proof and loopholed. (See FORTIFICATION.) 10 146 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAP. CAPS. Percussion caps for small arms are formed by a machine which cuts a star or blank from the sheet of copper, and transfers it to a die in which the cap is shaped by means of a punch. The powder with which caps are charged consists of fulminate of mercury, mixed with half its weight of saltpetre. CAPTAIN. Rank in the army between major and 1st lieutenant, charged with the arms, accoutrements, ammunition, clothing, or other Vvarlike stores belonging to the troops or company under his command ; (ART. 40.) CAPTURE. (See PRIZE ; BOOTY.) CARBINE. A cavalry weapon intermediate in weight and length between rifle and pistol, and usually breech-loading. (For PISTOL-CAR- BINE, see ARMS.) Carbines for the United States' service have been obtained from the following manufactories : Samuel Colt's, Hartford, Conn. Colt's Revolving Pistols, Rifles, and Carbines ; Sharpe's Arms- Manufacturing Company, Hartford, Conn., for Sharpe's Carbines and Rifles ; Charles Jackson, Providence, R. I., for Burnside's Carbines ; and Maynard's Arms Company, Washington, D. C., for Maynard's Rifles and Carbines. The breech-loading arms of the foregoing manu- factories have been tried more or less in service, and favorably reported upon by boards of officers. They are considered good cavalry arms, but neither have yet been pronounced the best by the ordnance depart- ment. (See ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.) The distinguishing feature of a breech-loading arm is the method of closing the breech. One of the most serious defects of these arms was the escape of gas through the joint. This defect has been removed by closing the joint at the moment of discharge by the action of the gas itself. This operation, called packing the joint, is accomplished : 1st. By the use of cartridge cases of sheet brass, India rubber, or other ma- terial ; or, 2d. By the use of a thin, elastic ring of steel, which overlies the joint. By the first method the case is permanently distended, (but may be safely used for several fires,) and some arrangement is required to remove it from the chamber. In the second method, the ring or gas check is a part of the arm ; and its elasticity causes it to return to its original form after the discharge. Burnside's Carbine is an example of the first method ; it has a mov- able chamber which opens by turning on a hinge. A brass cartridge case is used which packs the joint and cuts off the escape of the gas. The advantages of this arm are : its strength, water-proof cartridges, perfectly tight joint, and working machinery. Its disadvantages are the cost, and difficulty of getting the cartridges. CAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 147 Sharpens Carbine has a fixed chamber, and the breech is closed by a slide which moves nearly at right angles to the axis of the barrel. By boring a recess into the face of the slide, opposite to the chamber, and inserting a tightly -fitting ring into it, so that the inner rim is pressed against the end of the barrel at the instant of discharge, the escape of gas is prevented. Maynard's Carbine has a fixed chambered piece, with the joint closed by a metallic cartridge case. ( Consult BENTON.) CARCASS. Combustible composition enclosed in globes, formed with iron hoops, canvas, and cord, generally of an oblong shape, and thrown from mortars or stone mortars ; it is used in bombardments, firing shipping, &c. CARPENTRY. An assemblage of pieces of timber connected by framing or letting them into each other, as are the pieces of a roof, floor, centre of a bridge, &c. It is distinguished from joiners' work, by be- ing put together without using other tools than the axe, adze, saw, and chisel. Troops frequently are obliged to hut themselves, make bridges, &c., and some knowledge of rough carpentry is essential in roofing and centring. The obvious mode of covering a building is to place two sloping rafters upon two walls, meeting in the apex, where we will suppose them connected. (Fig. 100.) It is plain that the weight of this rafter will tend to thrust the walls from its vertical line. This is prevented by tying together the feet of the rafters, by means of another beam called a tie beam. Beyond certain lengths or spans, however, it is apparent that the tie beam will itself have a tendency to bend or sag in the middle, and accordingly it becomes necessary to resort to another contrivance called a king post, but more properly a king piece, as it performs the office of tying up the tie beam to prevent it from bending. If the rafters be so long as to be liable to bend, two pieces called struts are introduced, which have their footing against the sides of the king post, and act as posts to strut up the rafters FlG> m at their weakest point. This piece of framing thus contrived is called a truss. It is obvious that, by means of the upper joints of the struts, we can obtain more points of sup- port or rather suspension. It is not, however, necessary to truss 148 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAR. all, but only the principal rafters of a building. These principal rafters must never be more than ten feet apart, and by the inter vention of a pur line they are made to bear the smaller rafters, the latter being notched down on the purline. These common rafters are received by or pitch upon a plate called a pole plate, and the principal rafters which pitch upon the tie beam, are ultimately borne by a wall plate. When beams in either roofs or floors are so long that they can- not be procured in one piece, two pieces to form the required length are scarfed together, by indenting them at their joints, and bolting them together thus : (Fig. 101.) The following simple manner of putting up balloon frames, that is, frames without tenons or mortises, is given in the language of a build- er in our western country : The best size for a small house is 16 by 32 feet, divided into three rooms and only one story high, unless roofing is very expensive. For such a building six pieces of scantling are required, cut 2 by 8, or 2i by 10 inches, 16 feet long for sills, and seventeen pieces for sleepers, with seventeen pieces of same size, 18 feet long, for upper floor joists. The studs must be 2 by 4, or 2| by 5 inches, and 8, 9 or 10 feet long, as you wish the height of your ceiling. The end studs may be longer, so as to run up to the rafters ; but this is not important, since studs may be spliced anywhere by simply butting the ends together and nailing strips of boards upon each side, or the timbers may lap by each other and be held in place by a few nails till the siding is nailed on. But to begin at the foundation : Lay down two of the sixteen feet timbers flatwise upon blocks or stones, if you can get them, and make them level all around. Nail on strips where the ends of the sills butt together, and halve on the end sills and nail them together at the corners, and put on the sleepers, with a stout nail toed-in upon each side to hold them in place. Cut all your side studs of an exact length and square at each end, and set up one at each corner exactly plumb and fasten them with stay-laths on the inside. Now measure off for your doors and windows on the sides of the house, and set up. studs for them. You are now ready to put on the plates, which are nothing but strips of inch board, just the width of your studs, spliced in length just as directed for splicing studs. The next step is to put up the rest of the studs, nailing CAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 140 through the plate into their tops, and toeing nails through the bot- toms into the sills. Hands may now commence at once to nail the sheathing-boards upon the sides, while others are putting up the joists, which should be 18 feet long and either 2 by 8 or 2 by 10 inches, according to the strength of the timber. Pine and poplar should always be of the larger dimensions. Cut notches one inch deep in the lower .edge of the joists, so that they will lock on to the plate, and project over the sides one foot at each end. Nail up through the plate into the joists with stout nails, having just as many joists as pairs of rafters, the feet of which are to stand on and be nailed to the joists, which project the eaves a foot beyond the sides. This, however, may be dispensed with, if short eaves are preferred, or if tim- ber cannot be got long enough. The end studs will be nailed both to the sill and end sleeper and to the end joists, and to the rafter if long enough to reach up, and if not splice them as before directed. Finish sheathing the sides and ends before you put on the roof. The siding may be afterward put on at your leisure. Boards three-fourths of an inch thick make good sheathing ; and the best plan is to put them on without any regard to fitting the edges, and batten all the cracks on the inside with waste pieces of boards or shingles. When shingles are inexpensive tliey make a better siding and cheaper than sawed clap- boards. You will find it a great saving of labor to lay the upper floor before you put on the roof. If you wish to make your house one and a half or two stories high, the following is the way the chamber floor joists are supported : Take a strip of board one inch thick and five inches wide, and let it into the face of the studs on the inside and nail it fast and set your joists on this and nail them to the studs, and also notch your floor boards in between all the studs and nail fast ; and you will find, when done, that no old-fashioned frame with its heavy oak timbers and months of mortising, with all its braces, was ever stiffer than your " balloon," which two men can frame and raise, and cover and lay the floors, and get ready to move into in one week's time. There is no difficulty in making a balloon frame-house of any other size desired, by putting in the partitions before you put on the upper joists, so as to rest them upon the caps in the same way as upon the sides. For a house, say thirty-two feet wide, the upper joists would be the same length as for a house sixteeen feet, the inner ends resting upon the cap of a centre partition, where they would be strongly spliced, as we have directed, by nailing strips upon each side. The rafters of such a wide roof should be stayed in the middle by strips nailed upon the sides of rafters and joists, to prevent sagging ; as it is always to be borne in mind that all 150 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAR. the timbers of such a building are to be as light as possible ; the strength being obtained by nailing all fast together. CARRIAGES. A gun carriage is designed to support its pieco when fired, and also to transport cannon from one point to another. Field, mountain, and siege artillery have also limbers, which form when united with the carriage a four-wheeled vehicle. Sea-coast carriages are divided into barbette, casemate, and flank defence carriages, depending upon the part of the work in which they are mounted. They are now made of wrought iron and found to possess lightness, great strength, and stiffness. The sea-coast carriages are made in a similar manner, and one carriage can be altered to fit another piece by changing the trunnion- plates and transom straps. The carriage consists of two cheeks of thick sheet-iron, each one of which is strengthened by three flanged iron-plates bolted to the cheeks. Along the bottom of each cheek, an iron shoe is fixed with the end bent upwards. In front, this bent end is bolted to the flange of the front strengthening plate. In rear the bent portion is longer, and terminated at top by another bend, which serves as a point of appli- cation for a lever on a wheel, when running to and from battery. The trunnion-plates fit over the top ends of the strengthening plates, which meet around the bed, and are fastened to the flanges of the latter by movable bolts and nuts. The cheeks are joined together by transoms made of bar-iron. The front of the carriage is mounted on an axle-tree, with truck wheels similar to the wooden casemate carriages. The ele- vating screws are of two kinds : one for low angles of elevation, and the second for columbiads where great angles of elevation are required. The elevating arc is made of brass and attached to the upper edge of the right cheek, and may be folded down. It is employed to measure the elevation of the piece. ROBERTS & BENTON. (See CHASSIS ; Co- LUMBIAD.) CARTE BLANCHE. A blank paper sent to a person, to fill up with such conditions as he may think proper to insert. In the general acceptation of the term, it implies an authority to act at dis- cretion. CARTEL. An agreement between two hostile powers for a mu- tual exchange of prisoners. (See WAR.) CARTRIDGE. Bullets for small arms are made by pressure,. To prepare the lead for the press, it is cast into cylinders or drawn out into wires somewhat less in diameter than the bullet. One press can make 3,000 bullets in an hour. Bullets may also be cast in moulds and afterwards swayed in a die to proper size and shape. CAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 151 Table of dimensions for formers for making cartridges with elongated expanding bullets. {The dimensions are referred to the plate by means of the letters placed opposite to them.} Altered musket. New rifle musket. Pistol carbine. Inches. Inches. Inches. ' a 3.5 3.5 3.5 \ d 2.5 2.25 2.25 > Outer wrapper. c 5.25 4.25 4.25 ) a e 1.1 2.75 1. 2. .8 2. ( Cylinder case. / i 1.5 2.75 3.75 1.3 2.2 3. 1.1 2.2 3. V Cylinder wrapper. The diameters of the round sticks on which the powder cases are formed should be .69 inch for the old, and .58 inch for the new calibre. This will make the exterior diameter of the case somewhat larger than the bullet, and will prevent the outer wrapping from binding around its base when the cartridge is broken. The outer wrapper should not be made of too strong paper : that prescribed in the Ordnance Manual for blank cartridges, and designated as No. 3, will answer a better pur- pose for these cartridges than that designated as No. 1. The cylinder case should be made of stiff rocket paper, No. 4 ; and its wrapper may be made of paper No. 1, 2, or 3. Before enveloping the bullets in the cartridges, their cylindrical parts should be covered with a melted com- position of one part beeswax and three parts tallow. It should be ap- plied hot, in which case the superfluous part would run off; care should be taken to remove all of the grease from the bottom of the bullet, lest by coming in contact with the bottom of the case it penetrate the paper and injure the powder. The bullets being thus prepared, and the grease allowed to cool, the cartridges are made up as follows, viz. : place the rectangular piece of rocket paper, called the cylinder case, on the trape- zoidal piece, called the cylinder wrapper, as shown by the broken lines of Fig. 102, and roll them tightly round the former stick, allowing a portion of the wrapper to project beyond both case and stick. Close the end of the case by folding in this projecting part of the wrapper. To prevent the powder from sifting through the bottom, paste the folds, and press them on to the end of the stick, which is made slightly con- cave to give the bottom a form of greater strength and stiffness. After the paste is allowed to dry, the former stick is inserted in the case, and laid upon the outer wrapper, (the oblique edge from the operative, the longer vertical edge towards his left hand,) and snugly rolled up. 152 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAR. The bullet is then inserted in the open end of the cartridge, the base resting on the cylinder case, the paper neatly choked around the point FlG 103 of the bullet, and fastened by two half hitches of car- tridge thread. The former stick is then withdrawn, the powder is poured into the case, and the mouth of the cartridge is "pinched "or fold- ed in the usual way. To use this cartridge, tear the fold and pour out the powder ; then seize the bullet end firmly between the thumb and fore fin- ger of the right hand and strike the cylinder a smart blow across the muzzle of the piece ; this breaks the cartridge and- exposes the bottom of the bullet ; a slight pressure of the thumb and forefingers forces the bullet into the bore clear of all cartridge paper. In striking the cartridge the cylinder should be held square across, or at right angles to the muzzle ; otherwise, a blow given in an oblique direction would only bend the cartridge without rup- turing it. Cartridges constructed on these princi- ples present a neat and convenient form for carrying the powder and bullet attached to each other, and they obviate two important defects of the elongated bullet cartridges in common use, viz. : the reversed position of the bullet in the cartridge, and the use of the paper wrapper as a patch. (Fig. 103.) Cartridge-bags for field-pieces should be made of wild-bore, merino or bombazette, composed entirely of wool, free from any mixture of thread or cotton, which would be apt to retain fire in the piece. The texture and sewing should be close enough to pre- -h- Fio. 103. CAS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 153 vent the powder sifting through. Untwilled stuff is to be preferred. Flannel may be used when other materials cannot be obtained. The bag is of two rectangular pieces, which forms the cylinder, and a circular piece for the bottom. As the stuff does not stretch in the direction of its length, the long side of the rectangle should be taken in that direc- tion, otherwise the cartridge might become too large for convenient use. Blank-cartridge Bags, or those intended for immediate use, may be made of two rectangular pieces with semicircular ends sewed together. The pieces are marked out with stamps made of one-inch board with a handle in the middle of one side, and on the other two projecting rims of copper or tin, parallel to each other and half an inch apart. Siege and Garrison Cartridges consist of the charge of powder in a bag, and the projectile always separate from the cartridge. The Cartridge-bags are usually made of woollen stuff. They are made of two pieces, in the form of a rectangle with semicircular end, which are marked out with stamps and sewed together as described for making blank-cartridge bags for the field service, and are filled, pre- served, and packed in the same way. Paper Bags. Bags for heavy ordnance may be made entirely of paper. The bottom is circular, and one end of the cylindrical part is cut into slips about one inch long, which are pasted over the paper bot- tom on a cylindrical former. When a paper bag is filled, the open end is folded down about three-fourths of an inch wide, and this fold is rolled on itself down to the powder, and the part which projects beyond the cylinder is turned in on the top of it. The bags are apt to leave paper burning in the gun, for which reason those made of woollen stuff are preferable. Bags are sometimes made of both paper and woollen stuff, by forming the cylindrical part of paper, and sewing to it a bot- tom of woollen stuff made of two semicircular pieces. CARTS AND KITCHEN CART. A system of army transporta- tion proposed by Colonel Cavalli. (See AMBULANCE ; WAGON.) CASC ABLE is the part of the gun in rear of the base ring ; it is composed generally of the following parts : the knob, the neck,thQJillet, and the base of the breech. CASEMATE. Vaulted chamber with embrasures for guns. It is necessary that they should be bomb-proof and distributed along the faces and flanks of the bastion, to serve as quarters and hospital to the gar- rison in war ; but such subterranean barracks are always unwholesome. CASE SHOT are small balls enclosed in a case or envelope, which, when broken by the shock of the discharge in the piece, or by a charge of powder within the case, exploding during the flight of the case, 154 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAS scatters the balls. The kinds of case shot in use are GRAPE, CANISTER, and SPHERICAL CASE. CASHIERED. When an officer is sentenced by a court-martial, to be dismissed the service, he is said to be cashiered. CASTING AWAY Arms and Ammunition. Punishable with death or other punishment, according to the nature of the offence, by the sentence of a general court-martial ; (ART. 52.) CASTRAMETATION. The art of encampment. (See CAMP.) CASUALTIES. A word comprehending all men who die, desert, or are discharged. CAVALIER is a term applied to a work of more than ordinary height. It is sometimes constructed upon the terre-plein of the bastion, with faces and flanks parallel to those of the bastion which it commands. Cavaliers are not confined to bastions, but are placed wherever a great command of fire is required, and are sometimes traced straight, on other occasions curved. CAVALRY. There are two regiments of dragoons, one of mount- ed riflemen, and two styled cavalry in our army. It has been recom- mended that these regiments should all be called regiments of cavalry. (See ARMY for their organization.) Cavalry is usually divided into heavy and light cavalry. Heavy cavalry acts in heavy masses. Its essential condition is united ranks. It finds its true type in the mailed chivalry of the middle ages, but it is believed that the general introduc- tion into service of rifled muskets will render heavy cavalry entirely useless in war. Formerly cavalry could move against infantry in columns of squadrons first at a trot, then at a gallop, and finally at full speed from a position taken up within 400 yards of infantry. But now that the cavalry comes within range of the rifle at 1,000 yards, the in- fantry must be greatly demoralized before cavalry can have the least chance of success in a charge. Accordingly at the camp of Chalons, where all arms of the service were supposed to be represented, heavy cavalry were not seen. Light cavalry on the contrary is intended rather to envelop an enemy. Quickness and agility are its primary conditions. Indefatigable and careless of repose it ought to occupy an enemy during entire hours, harass and fatigue him. If he lays himself open pierce him with the quickness of lightning, and cut him to pieces with the sabre. The cavalry soldier must consider his horse as part of himself, and the perfect management of the horse cannot be learned either in schools, or in a few weeks of practice. If daily exercises are dispensed with, both horse and man return to their natural state, and such mounted men cease to be efficient. The main body in all campaigns CAV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 155 against Indians should be infantry. But a small mounted force, kept in high condition, would add much to the efficiency of such a main body. The horses should be well fed ; and upon long marches in uninhabited districts this is impossible. The idea of employing such a force as a main body, in order to make rapid marches, is also untenable ; for upon long marches of many days, infantry will improve every day, accom- plish a greater distance in many successive days, and have at the oppor- tune moment greater vigor than a large cavalry force, necessarily with broken-down horses from want of food ; whereas a small cavalry force might be held in hand and maintained in the highest state of efficiency. Cavalry is indispensable in time of war. It will always take a leading part in pursuing a retreating enemy ; it is the proper arm in ordinary reconnoissances ; it will always serve as eclaireurs, and as escorts, and should, in the present state of the art of war, carry carbines and be pre- pared for service on foot. It is weakened and destroyed when in a country without forage. Its first cost, its constant maintenance, the defects of its employment, and the system of providing horses make it expensive ; but it ought nevertheless to be maintained in a complete state, for its art can only be exercised by men and horses that are properly instructed. Cavalry Tactics. The individual instruction of men and horses should be regarded as the most important point of the whole system, and should be as simple as possible ; the man should be taught to man- age his horse with ease and address over all kinds of ground and at all gaits, to swim rivers, to go through certain gymnastic exercises such as vaulting, cutting heads, to fence, to fire very frequently at a mark, and to handle his weapon with accuracy and effect at all gaits, and in all situ- ations. Individual instruction has been recently made a supplementary instruction in France. Every thing in reference to heavy cavalry, lan- cers, "hussars, &c., should be omitted. Insist upon the sabre being kept sharp in the field, provide the men with means of doing so, and lay it down as a rule that the strength of cavalry is in the " spurs and sabre." The in- struction on foot should be carried no further than its true object requires that is, to bring the men under discipline, improve their carriage, and enable them to comprehend the movements they are to execute mounted. The formation for review, parade, inspection, &c., to bo : the companies deployed in one line, with intervals of 12 paces, or else in a line of col- umns of companies by platoons, according to the ground. It should be laid down as a fixed rule that no cavalry force should ever charge with- out leaving a reserve behind it, and that against civilized antagonists the compact charge in line should be used in preference to that as foragers. 15G MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CEN. Columns to be formed with wheeling distance, and closed in mass ; when closed in mass, the file-closers close up to 1 pace from the rank, and the distance between the subdivisions to be just enough to permit each company to wheel by fours. Marching columns to be by file, twos, fours, or platoons ; by fours and platoons in preference when the ground permits. Columns of manoeuvre to be by fours, platoons, companies, or in double column ; the latter always a regimental column, and to be formed on the two central companies, or platoons, without closing the interval between them. Deployments to be made habitually at a gal- lop, and the individual oblique to be used as much as possible. The instruction in two lines to be provided for. The Russian tactics give a good basis for the system of skirmishers, and charging as foragers. For the use of the mounted rifles, and cavalry acting as such, a thorough system for dismounting rapidly, and fighting on foot, has already been submitted by Captain Maury, and adopted. ( Consult MCCLELLAN.) CENTRE OF THE BASTION is the intersection made by the two demi-gorges. CERTIFICATE. (See MUSTER.) CHAIN-BALL. It has been proposed to attach a light body by means of a chain to the rear of an oblong projectile, when thrown under high angles with a moderate velocity, so as to cause it to move with its point foremost. CHAIN-SHOT consist of two hemispheres, or two spheres con- nected together by a chain. The motion of rotation of these projectiles in flight would render them useful in cutting the masts and riggings of vessels, if their flight was not so inaccurate. When the mode of connec- tion is a bar of iron instead of a chain, they are called Bar-shot. CHALLENGE. No officer or soldier shall send a challenge to another officer or soldier to fight a duel, or accept a challenge if sent, upon pain if a commissioned officer of being cashiered ; if a non-com- missioned officer or soldier, of suffering corporeal punishment at the discretion of a court-martial ; (ART. 25.) If any commissioned or non-commissioned officer commanding a guard shall knowingly or wil- lingly suffer any person whatsoever to go forth to fight a duel, he shall be punished as a challenger ; and all seconds, promoters, and carriers of challenges, in order to duels, shall be deemed principals, and be pun- ished accordingly. And it shall be the duty of every officer command- ing an army, regiment, company, post or detachment, who is knowing to a challenge being given, or accepted, by any officer, non-commissioned officer or soldier under his command, or has reason to believe the same to be the case, immediately to arrest and bring to trial such offenders ; CHA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 157 (ART. 26.) Any officer or soldier who shall upbraid another for refus- ing a challenge shall himself be punished as a challenger ; and all officers and soldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace, or opinion of dis- advantage, which might arise from their having refused to accept chal- lenges, as they will only have acted in obedience to the laws, and done their duty as good soldiers, who subject themselves to discipline ; (ART. 28.) CHALLENGE OF MEMBERS OF COURT-MARTIAL. When a member shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy or validity, and decide accordingly ; and no challenge to more than one mernbcr at a time shall be received by the court; (ART. 71.) Chal- lenges of members are made in writing. The member withdraws and the court is cleared for deliberation. If the challenge is disallowed the member resumes his seat. Blackstone says : A principal challenge is where the cause assigned carries prima facie evidence of malice or favor ; as that a juror is of kin to either party within the 9th degree ; that he has been arbitrator on either side ; that he has formerly been a juror in the same cause ; that he is the party's master, servant, &c. These grounds of challenge, if true, cannot be overruled. Challenges to the favor are, where the party hath no principal challenge, but objects only on probable circumstances of suspicion, as acquaintance and the like ; the validity of which is left to the triers ; (HOUGH.) CHALLENGE OF A SENTINEL. Who goes there 1 CHAMADE is a signal made for parley by beat of drum. CHAMBER OF A MINE is a cell of a cubical form, made to re- ceive the powder. CHAMBER of howitzers, columbiads, and rnortars, is the smallest part of the bore, and contains the charge of powder. In the howitzers and columbiads the chamber is cylindrical, and is united with a large cylinder of the bore by a conical surface ; the angles of intersection of this conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber, are rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch siege howitzer, the chamber is united w r ith the cylinder of the bore by a spherical surface, in order that the shell may, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot. CHAPLAIN. Punished by a court-martial for undue absence; (ART. 4.) One allowed to Military Academy who shall be professor of geography, history, and ethics with pay of professor of mathematics. Chaplains allowed to military posts, not exceeding twenty, are selected by the council of administration of the post, and are also to be school- masters, with $70 per month, 4 rations per day, and quarters and fuel ; (Acts July 5, 1838 ; and Feb. 21, 1857.) 158 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CiiA. CHARACTER. Where a witness is introduced by a prisoner to prove character, the court may ask how long he has known the prisoner, and whether he has known him from that time to the present without interruption, and whether he speaks from his own knowledge or from general report. Cross-examination by the prosecutor, of witnesses in- troduced by the prisoner to prove character, is not allowed. (Consult PHILLIPS' Law of Evidence?) CHARGE. Cavalry charges have been sometimes made silently. Those of Frederick the Great always began the HURRAH at fifty paces from the enemy. If at the moment of the shock the infantry is not disturbed, but their bayonets and fire have on the contrary saved them from the impulsive force of the charge, the fall of the front ranks of the cavalry will have interposed a rampart behind which infantry cannot fail to be victorious. But if the cavalry has practised the stratagem of beginning operations by drawing the fire of infantry upon skirmishers, and the commander of the cavalry ready for the charge has pushed for- ward curtains of light cavalry in a single rank, who succeed, by means of clouds of dust, in making an unskilful infantry believe that to be an attack which in reality is only a feint, the infantry may fire its balls at random the thinness of the curtain of light cavalry will render the in- fantry's fire of little effect the infantry will be eager to reload, and this may be done in agitation and disorder. The proper moment is then at hand, and the heavy cavalry in mass, concealed by the dust of their skirmishers, may charge, break, and sabre the infantry. The light caval- ry 'finish the fugitives. The passage of defiles in retreat ought to be se- cured by a charge of cavalry. Coolness, silence, immobility, contempt of hurrahs, and a reserved fire until within suitable range, are the principal means of resisting a charge of cavalry. The file-closers must prevent firing, not ordered ; watch the execution of the fire by ranks ; see that it does not commence at too great a distance, then enjoin upon the soldiers to aim at the breast ; to act only upon signals of the drum, or at the command of officers on horseback, who occupy the centre of the square, and who from that height alone can judge whether the charge of cavalry is a mere feint or a real attack. This necessary impassi- bility of infantry is obtained by discipline and experience, and is only perfected upon battle-fields. Without sang froid, and also promptness in manoeuvring upon any ground, infantry will not be able to exhibit the whole strength of its arm against the best cavalry. Charges by in- fantry are made in order of battle, in column of attack, and in close columns in mass. Charges in order of battle are executed as follows : If the combat is between infantry and infantry, the troops receiving the CHA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 159 charge, fire at the moment at which it is almost joined with the enemy. The troops making the charge, fire at one hundred or one hundred and twenty paces from the enemy ; without waiting to reload, they march forward at the quick step ; at two-thirds the distance take charging step, and if the ground permits they subsequently take a running step, keep- ing up the touch of the elbow, and throw themselves upon the enemy with HURRAHS. Frederick the Great says that it is " better for a line to falter in a charge than to lose the touch of the elbow," so necessary is it that the charge should be en muraille. In modern wars the charge in column has been used but not exclu- sively, and sometimes with fatal results. But whatever may be the form of the charge, success must not make the victor at once pursue his enemy. He must, on the contrary, halt, rally his men, form line if the charge was made in column, reload, fire upon the fugitives, and continue thus to gain ground, by a regulated fire, until at last the cav- alry which seconds him comes to his aid. It must be considered that there may be a second line of the enemy, fresh troops, masked bat- teries, flank fires, or squadrons of cavalry ready to oppose an unfore- seen resistance. It may be, that the attacking party has experienced some disadvantage, not far from the point where the infantry has just triumphed in the charge. Such circumstances may cause the infantry to pay dearly for its temporary success, a temporary success sometimes owing to stratagem on the part of the enemy. These precepts are given by the best writers on charges of infantry. ( Consult DECKER ; BARDIN, &c., &c.) CHARGER. The horse rode by an officer in the field or in action. CHARGES AND SPECIFICATIONS. The form of indict- ments tried by courts-martial. (See COURT-MARTIAL ; EVIDENCE.) As to the perspicuity and precision of charges : If the description of the offence is sufficiently clear to inform the accused of the military offence for which he is to be tried, and to enable him to prepare his defence, it is sufficient; (Opinions of Attorney-general, p. 189.) A copy of charges, as well as a list of witnesses for the prosecution, should be given to the prisoner in all cases as soon as possible. Ante- cedent to arraignment, charges may be framed and altered by the party who brings forward the prosecution, or by the officer ordering the court, both in regard to substance and in other respects ; but the court, where the deviation was material, would probably deem it sufficient cause for delaying proceedings upon application of the prisoner. As the wit- 160 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CHA. nesses of an officer may be at a distance, the sooner a copy is given the better ; (HOUGH'S Law Authorities.} CHASE. The conical part of a piece of ordnance in front of the reinforce. CHASSIS. A traversing carriage. The barbette and casemate carriages consist of gun carriages and chassis. The \vrought-iron chassis now made consists of two rails of wrought iron, the cross-section of each being in form of a T, the flat surface on top being for the recep- tion of the shoe-rail of the gun carriage. The rails are parallel to each other, and connected by iron transoms and braces. The chassis is sup- ported on traverse wheels. A prop is placed under the middle transom of the chassis to provide against sagging. The pintle is the fixed centre around which the chassis traverses. In the ordinary barbette, the pintle is placed under the centre of the front transom ; but in the columbiad car- riage, it is placed under the centre of the middle transom. (See COLUMBIAD.) CHEMIN DES RONDES is a berme from four to twelve feet broad, at the foot of the exterior slope of the parapet. It is sometimes protected by a quickset hedge, but in more modern works by a low wall, built on the top of the revetment, over which the defenders can fire, and throw hand grenades into the ditch. CHESSES are the platforms which form the flooring of military bridges. They consist of two or more planks, ledged together at the edges, by dowels or pegs. CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE. The principal uses of chevaux-de-frise are to obstruct a passage, stop a breach, or form an impediment to cavalry. Those of the modern pattern are made of iron, whose barrel is six feet in length, and four inches in diameter, each carrying twelve spears, five feet nine inchts long, the whole weighing sixty-five pounds. (See OBSTACLES.) CHOLERA. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.) CIRCUMVALLATION. Works made by besiegers around a besieged place facing outwards, to protect their camp from enterprises of the enemy. CITADEL. A citadel is a small strong fort, constructed either within the place, or on the most inaccessible part of its general outline, or very near to it ; it is intended as a refuge for the garrison, in which to prolong the defence, after the place has fallen. CIVIL AUTHORITY. (See AUTHORITY; CONTRACTS; EXECU- TION OF LAWS ; INJURIES ; REMEDY.) CLERKS. Whenever suitable non-commissioned officers or pri- vates cannot be procured from the line of the army, paymasters, with CLO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. the approbation of the Secretary of War, may employ citizens to per- form the duties of clerks at $700 per year; (Acts July 5, 1838; and Aug. 12, 1848.) One ration per day allowed when on duty at their station; (Act Aug. 31, 1852.) CLOTHING. The President of the United States is authorized to prescribe the kind and quality of clothing to be issued annually to the troops of the United States. The manner of issuing and accounting for clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War De- partment. But whenever more than the authorized quantity is re- quired, the value of the extra articles shall be deducted from the sol- diers' pay ; and, in like manner, the soldiers shall receive pay according to the annual estimated value for such authorized articles of uniform as shall not have been issued to them in each year. And when a soldier is discharged, it is the duty of the paymaster-general to pay him for clothing not drawn ; (Act April 24, 1816.) The quartermaster's department distributes to the army the clothing, camp and garrison equipage required for the use of the troops. Every commander of a company, detachment, or recruiting station, or other officer receiving clothing, &c., renders quarterly returns of clothing according to pre- scribed forms to the quartermaster-general. All officers charged with the issue of clothing to make good any loss or damage, unless they can show to the satisfaction of the Secretary of War, by one or more depo- sitions, that the deficiency was occasioned by unavoidable accident, or was lost in actual service, without any fault on their part ; or, in case of damage, that it did not result from neglect; (Act May 18, 1826.) Purchasing clothing from a soldier prohibited under penalty of three hundred dollars, and imprisonment not exceeding one year ; (Act March 16, 1802, and Jan. 11, 1812.) The French system of making up clothing is as follows : Officers com- manding regiments make their requisitions for the regulated quantities of cloth and other materials necessary for the clothing of the number of men under their command. The intendant having checked this de- mand gives an order for the issue, and the materials are made up by soldiers in the regimental workshops under the direction of the clothing captain, an officer holding an appointment in some respects analogous to that of our quartermasters ; a fixed rate being paid for each article. Organized as the European armies are, those troops have always a large proportion of skilled workmen undergoing their term of military ser- vice ; but it is not so with us. Still there are many points in the European system of clothing the troops which might, with advantage to the soldier and with economy to the public, be adapted to the wants of our service. 11 .62 MILITARY DICTIONARY. STATEMENT of the cost of Clothing, Camp and Garrison Equipage for tlie Army of the United States, furnished by the Quartermaster's Department, during the year com- mencing July 1, 1859, with the allowance of clothing to each soldier during his enlist- ment, and his proportion for each year respectively. CLOTHING. '& $ C. 2 35 11 13 3 14 || $ c. 235 11 13 3 *J If OoQ 2 85 t P $ c. 2 35 11 13 3 1 O $ c. 2 35 11 13 8 to,* i Mounted cow~g 1 Riflemen. ~! $ c. 2 35 11 13 3 5 Infantry. Proportion for each year. 1 Allowance du- ring enlistm't. II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 & i i Uniform Hat * $ c. 2 35 11 13 3 $ c. 2 85 11 13 3 $ c. 2 85 11 13 8 " Feather " Cord and tassels " Ea^le. " Castle " Shell and flame 4 4 " Crossed sabres 4 4 4 8 3 44 Bugle 3 44 Letter 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 13 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 i 5 7 " Plate 4 f> Forage Cap 57 6 89 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 6 89 6 56 57 6 89 6 56 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i i 1 i i i i 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Uniform Coats Musicians " Privates 656 656 6 56 6 56 5 52 5 17 1 24 87 25 19 5 52 5 17 1 24 37 25 19 5 52 5 17 1 24 37 25 19 5 52 5 17 "37 25 19 1 ?4 1 24 37 25 19 1 24 87 25 19 1st Sergeants, pairs of. . Sergeants " 87 .... 19 Caducous 95 Shoulder Scales, brass, pr of N. C. S. Do. do. Sergeants. Do. do. Privates.. Do. bronze, N. C. 8... Do. do. Sergeants. Do. do. Privates.. "80 50 95 95 .... 1)5 SO 50 95 80 50 95 80 50 95 80 50 1 i if> 80 50 " .... 50 90 " fio Trowsers, Sergeants 3 00 o 87 3 00 3 00 4 05 3 !:; 3 87 3 00 2 10 2 56 90 71 2 20 3 60 24 7 63 t 05 4 05 4 05 3 9:3 3 'J:; :; s-> 2 82 210 Sash 3 00 2 10 2 56 90 71 2 20 3 00 2 10 3 00 2 10 Blue flannel Sack Coats 8 4 ! 2 3 '2 4 1 4 2 3 '2 4 1 4 2 8 2 4 1 4 2 8 2 4 1 4 i 20 5 20 1 i! 2 Do. do. lined, for Recruits. Flannel Shirts 90 71 2 20 90 71 2 20 90 71 2 20 "24 6 40 21 244 17 2 78 39 82 14 71 Drawers *Bootees, pairs * Boots, pairs 24 640 24 2 44 17 2 78 39 32 14 71 24 640 24 2 44 17 2 78 89 82 14 71 24 640 24 2 44 17 278 39 82 14 71 24 24 6 4o 6 40 24 24 2 442 44 17 17 2 78 2 78 89 39 32 32 14 14 Great Coats " " straps, sets Blankets 2 41 17 2 T> 89 32 14 2 44 17 2 7S 39 32 14 2 44 17 2 7S 39 32 14 2 44 17 2 7S 39 32 14 i i 1 1 Leather Stocks Knapsacks and straps Havresacks ... Canteens Canteen Strap Fatigue Overalls i 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 Stable Frock ' 62 62 62 ^ on 62 Talma i i * Mounted men may, at their option, receive one pair of "boots" and two pairs of "bootees," instead of four pairs of Bootei s. NOTE. Metallic Eagles, Castles, Shell and flame, Crossed Sabres, Trumpets, Crossed Cannon, Bugles, Letters, Numbers, Tulips, Plates, Shoulder Scales, Kings, the Cap cord and tassels, and the hair Plume of the Light Artillery, the Sashes, Knapsacks and Straps, Havresacks, Canteens, Straps of all kinds, and the Talmas, will not be issued to the soldiers, but will be borne on the Return as company property while n't for service. They will be charged on the Muster Rolls against the person in whose use they were when lost or destroyed by his fault. CLO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 163 CAMP AND GAEEISON EQUIPAGE. Bedsack, single $1 02 '* double 1 13 Mosquito bars 113 Axe 85 " helve 10 " sling 70 Hatchet 29 " helve 03 " sling 40 Spade 58 Pickaxe 56 " helve 10 Camp kettle 50 Mess pan 18 Iron pot 1 23 Garrison flag 36 66 " " halliard. 3 00 Storm flag 12 35 Eecruiting flag 8 77 " " halliard 20 Guidon 5 28 Camp color 1 2 National color, Artillery 35 48 " " Infantry 35 48 Eegimental color, Artillery 42 60 " " Infantry 47 60 Standard for Mounted Eegiments 20 87 Trumpet 3 88 Bugle, with extra mouth-piece 3 12 Cord and tassels for Trumpets and Bugles 75 Fife, B 47 " C 41 Drum, complete, Artillery or Infantry. 5 90 Drum head batter : 60 " " snare 19 " sling 45 " sticks, pairs 23 " " carnage 64 " cord 20 " snares, sets 17 Drum case Wall tent $17 86 * ' fly 5 04 " " poles, fets 118 " " pins, sets 72 Sibley tent $32 80 " " poles and tripod 4 72 " " sets 48 $20 24 80 " " stove Hospital tent $64 13 " fly 23 50 " " poles, sets 5 60 " pins, sets 1 28 Servant's tent $6 62 " " poles, sets 110 " pins, sets 28 Tent pin, large size, hospital " wall " small size, common Eegimental book, order $2 25 " general order. . 2 25 " " letter 350 " " index 1 75 " descriptive.... 225 Post book, morning report $2 00 " " guard 2 00 " " order 1 15 " " letter 1 15 37 50 4 00 9451 12 00 Company book, clothing $2 50 " " descriptive 1 80 " order 1 70 " morning report. . 2 00 Eecord book, for target practice 6 30 8 00 60 The tunic of the French infantry soldier lasts three years and a half, the shell jacket two years, the great coat three years, and the trowsers one year. In the Sardinian and Belgian armies the great coat is intended to last eight years. Those governments credit every man on his enlistment with about eight dollars as outfit money, which is about the annual cost of the clothing of each soldier, and a daily allow- ance of 10 centimes is given for repairs. Regimental master-tailors are required to make all repairs at a fixed annual contribution from the soldiers' pay. This does not often exceed 80 centimes ; and the surplus, after the soldier has paid the cost of his clothing, is handed to him at the end of the year. By this means the soldier is taught economy, but if at any time an article of dress is found to be unfit for use, cap- tains of companies may order it to be renewed at the cost of the sol- dier. The great durability of the clothing of European armies is attributable to the precautions taken to insure good materials from the manufacturers by whom the cloth is supplied. Not only is every yard of cloth, when delivered into store, subjected to several distinct and minute examinations by boards of officers assisted by experts, who weigh it, shrink it, and view it inch by inch against a strong light, so that the 164 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cos. slightest flaw may be detected ; but they likewise apply chemical tests to detect the quality of the dye, and the manufactories are at all times open to inspectors, who watch the fabrication at every stage. When clothing has once been manufactured, it is hardly possible with any degree of accuracy to ascertain the quality of the material. COEHORN MORTAR. Brass 24-pdr. mortar, weighing 164 Ibs. COLONEL. Rank in the army between brigadier-general and lieutenant-colonel. COLORS. Each regiment of artillery and infantry has two silken colors, but only one is borne or displayed at the same time, and on actual service that is usually the regimental one. COLUMJBIAD. An American cannon invented by Colonel Bom- ford, of very large calibre, used for throwing solid shot or shells, which, when mounted in barbette, has a vertical field of fire from 5 depres- sion to 39 elevation, and a horizontal field of fire of 860. Those of the old pattern were chambered, but they are now cast without, and otherwise greatly improved. The 10-inch weighs 15,400 Ibs., and is 126 inches long. The 8-inch columbiad is 124 inches long and weighs 9,240 Ibs. Rodman's 15-inch columbiad, represented in Fig. 104, was cast at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by Knapp, Rudd & Co., under the directions of Captain T. J. Rodman, of the Ordnance Corps, who con- ceived the design, which he has happily executed, of casting guns of large size hollow, and by means of a current of water introduced into the core, which forms the mould of the bore, cooling it from the in- terior, and thus making the metal about the bore the hardest and densest, and giving the whole thickness of metal subjected to internal strain its maximum strength. The gun has the following dimensions : Total length 190 inches. Length of calibre of bore, . . . . 156 " Length of ellipsoidal chamber, 9 " Total length of bore, . . . . 1G5 " Maximum exterior diameter, . . . 48 " ' Distance between rimbases, ... 48 " Diameter at muzzle, . . . . 25 i{ Thickness of metal behind the chamber, . 25 " Thickness at junction of bore with chamber, . 1G " Thickness at muzzle, .... 5 " Diameter of shell, 14.9 " Weight of gun, 49,100 Ibs. Weight of shell, 320 " Bursting charge, 17 " COL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 165 The gun is mounted upon the new iron centre pintle carriage, (Fig. 104,) which with requisite lightness has great strength and stiffness ; and to facilitate the pointing from 5 depression to 39 elevation, a slot is cut in the knob of the cascable, and a ratchet is formed on the base of the breech to receive a " pawl " at- tached to the elevating screw. If the distance be greater than the length of a single notch of the ratchet, the piece is rap- idly moved by a lever which passes through an opening in the pawl. If the distance is less, then the elevating screw is used. The piece was fired and manoeuvred during the trials at Fort Monroe, with great facility, being manned by 1 sergeant and 6 negroes ; the times of loading were 1' 15" and 1' 3". Time in traversing 90 2' 20", and in turning back 45 1'. Time of loading, including depres- sion and elevation, 4' and 3' 18". The mean ranges at 6 ele- vation, of ten shots, was 1,936 yards, and the mean lateral deviation 2.2 yards ; 35 Ibs. of .6-inch grain powder being the charge and 7" the time of flight. At 10 elevation and 40 Ibs. of powder, large grain, the range was 2,700 yards, and time of flight 11 ".48. At 28 35' elevation the range was 5,730 yards ; time of flight 27", and the lateral deviation, as observed with a telescope attached to one of the trunnions, very slight. (See ARTILLERY ; GUNPOWDER ; ORD- NANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES ; RANGES.) COLUMN of attack; in route; close column; column of divi- sions ; column at half distance ; open column. (See MANOEUVRES IN BATTLE ; TACTICS.) 16G MILITARY DICTIONARY. [COM. COMMAND. An officer may be said to command at a separate post, when he is out of the reach of the orders of the commander-in- chief, or of a superior officer, in command in the neighborhood. He must then issue the necessary orders to the troops under his command, it being impossible to receive them from a superior officer ; (PETER'S Digest of Decisions of Federal Courts, vol. 1. p. 179.) Officers having brevets or commissions of a prior date to those of the regiment in which they serve, may take place in courts-martial and on detachments, when composed of different corps, according to the ranks given them in their brevets, or dates of their former commis- sions ; but in the regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers belong, they shall do duty and take rank, both in courts-martial and on detachments, which shall be composed only of their own corps, ac- cording to the commissions by which they are mustered in said corps ; (ART. 61.) If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join and do duty together, the officer high- est in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by com- mission there, on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case ; (ART. 62.) The great principle that rank, when an officer is on duty, and military command, are ideas only to be separated by positive law, has always been recognized in legislation. The 61st Article of War, for instance, forbids the exercise of brevet rank with- in the regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers belong. The 63d forbids engineers to assume, and declares they are not sub- ject to be ordered on any duty beyond the line of their immediate pro- fession, except by the special order of the President of the United States. The acts of Congress giving rank to officers of the medical and pay departments of the army, provide that they shall not, in virtue of such rank, be entitled to command in the line or other staff* depart- ments of the army ; and so, if any other legal restrictions on rank exist, they must be found in some positive statute. This necessity is made plain by the consideration that military rank means a range of military subordination. Higher rank therefore, created by law, cannot be made subordinate to lower rank, except by positive law ; or, in other words, a junior cannot command a senior, unless the law shall otherwise de- cree. The 61st Article of War declares that officers holding commis- sions of a prior date to the regiment in which they serve, shall never- theless take rank " both in courts-martial and on detachments composed only of their own corps, according to the commissions by which they COM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 16T are mustered in said corps." The 98th Article declares that militia officers, when serving in conjunction with the regular forces, shall take rank next after all officers of the like grade in said regular forces, not- withstanding the commissions of such militia officers may be older than the commissions of the officers of the regular forces of the United States. The 27th Article declares that all officers have power to part and quell all quarrels, &c., and to order officers into arrest, and whosoever shall refuse to obey such officer (though of inferior rank) shall be punished, &c. Here are cases in which Congress has decreed that seniors in com- mission may be commanded by juniors ; and if any other cases exist, they likewise must be found in some positive statute. The 62d Article of War is ambiguous, from the use of the words " line of the army ; " our legislation having applied those words to contradistinguish regular troops from militia, and also, in many cases, the same words are cor- relative and contradistinctive of staff of the army. " But," says Presi- dent Fillrnore, after a careful examination on his part, to determine this question, " I find but one act of Congress in which the words ' line of the army ' have been employed to designate the regular army in con- tradistinction to the militia, and none in which they have manifestly been used as contradistinctive of brevet." Whatever ambiguity, there- fore, may exist under the 62d Article, in respect to the right of com- mand on the part of officers of staff corps and departments, the article does not decree any restriction on brevet rank ; and hence the great principle that rank on duty confers military command has its full force in respect to commissions by brevet, and all other commissions not restricted by law. The President, as commander-in-chief under the 62d Article of War, may relieve any officer from duty with a particular command, or he may assign some officer of superior rank to duty with a command ; but the laws have not authorized him to place a junior in command of a senior, and that power which creates rank, viz., Congress, is alone authorized to place restrictions on its meaning. (See ASSIGN- MENT ; BREVET ; LINE ; RANK.) The word command, when applied to ground, is synonymous with overlook ; and any place thus commanded by heights within range of cannon is difficult to defend, if the enemy have been able to seize the heights. (See BREVET ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; RANK.) COMMAND OF FIRE. When a work has a sufficient elevation over the work before it, to enable the defensive weapons to act in both works at the same time upon an advancing enemy, even to the foot of the glacis, then the inner work is said to have a command of fire over the other. 168 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Con. COMMAND OF OBSERVATION. When the interior work has only sufficient elevation to look into or even over the work before it, but not sufficient to fire clear of it, then it is said to have only a command of observation. COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. The President shall be commander- in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the"several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; (See CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS AND THE PRESIDENT TO THE LAND FORCES.) COMMANDER OF THE ARMY.' That whenever the Presi- dent shall deem it expedient, he is hereby empowered to appoint, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, a commander of the army which may be raised by virtue of this act, and who, being com- missioned as lieutenant-general, may be authorized to command the armies of the United States ; (Sec. 5, Act May 28, 1798.) COMMISSARY OF SUBSISTENCE. An officer of the sub- sistence department. (See SUBSISTENCE.) COMMISSION. The President shall commission all officers of the United States; (Sec. 3 Constitution.) Officers of the United States army may hold their commissions through rules of appointment pre- scribed by Congress under its authority to raise armies and make rules for their government and regulation, but their commissions must be signed by the President. The words introduced into every officer's parchment : " this commission to continue in force during the pleasure of the President of the United States for the time being " have been inserted without authority of law. There has been no legislation on the subject of the form of an officer's commission. The form adopted was borrowed originally from British commissions, and was " probably the pen work of some clerk, or at the most, the hasty direction of the Secretary of War, without reflecting that the chief magistrate in a republic is not the fountain of all honor and power," and that Congress alone has the power to raise armies, and to make rules for their gov- ernment and regulation. COMPANY. Companies are commanded by captains having under their orders lieutenants, sergeants, corporals, musicians, and pri- vates. (See ARMY ORGANIZATION.) COMPTROLLER. (See ACCOUNTABILITY.) CONDUCT UNBECOMING AN OFFICER AND A GENTLEMAN punished with dismission by sentence of general court-martial. What consti- tutes the offence is not denned, but it is left Jo the moral sense of the court-martial to determine. CONFINEMENT. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers charged CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 169 with crimes shall be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority ; (ART. 78.) No officer, or soldier who shall be put in arrest, shall continue in confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court-martial can be assembled ; (ART. 79.) (See ARREST.) CONGRESS. (See CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS.) CONNIVING AT HIRING OF DUTY. If a non-commissioned officer, shall be reduced. If a commissioned officer, punished by the judgment of a general court-martial ; (ART. 48.) CONSCRIPTION. The only means of raising a NATIONAL Army. The system of voluntary enlistments will always divide an army into two castes officers and soldiers, and the latter will hardly ever be found qualified for promotion. The system of conscription is, too, the only means of raising large armies. This was made plain during the last war with England. Even with the largest bounties in lancf and money, soldiers could not be procured, and the President and Secretary of War (Messrs. Madison and Monroe) recommended in strong terms a system of conscription. Tho legislature of New York passed an act at the same time, for raising 12,000 troops by conscription. (See DEFENCE, NATIONAL; RAISE.) CONSTITUTION. The following provisions of the constitution relate to the land and naval forces : Preamble We, the people of the United States, in order to * * provide for the common defence * * do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America. ART. I. SEC. 1. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vest- ed in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. ART. I. SEC. 8. The Congress shall have power : Clause 1. * * To pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; * * Clause 9. * * To define and punish offences against* the law of nations ; * * Clause 10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; Clause 11. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use, shall be for a longer term than two years ; Clause 12. To provide and maintain a navy ; Clause 13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; Clause 14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 170 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CoN. Clause 15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States, respectively, the ap- pointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia ac- cording to the discipline prescribed by Congress. Clause 16. To exercise exclusive legislation * * over all places purchased, by consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings and Clause 17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SEC. 9. Clause 2. * * The privilege of the writ of habeas shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. * * SEC. 10. Clause 2. * * No State shall, without the consent of Congress * * keep troops or ships of war in time of peace * * or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ART. II. SEC. 1. Clause 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. * * SEC. 2. Clause 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States. * * SEC. 3. Clause 1. * * He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall commission all officers of the United States. 4 ART. III. SEC. 3. Clause 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason,' unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ART. IV. SEC. 4. Clause 1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government ; and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on the application of the legislature, or of the executive, (when the legislature cannot be con- vened,) against domestic violence. CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 171 Amendments to the Constitution : 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercisi thereof; abridging the freedom of speech, of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assembly, and to petition the Government for redress of grievances. ART. II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ART. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ART. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment by a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war, or public danger ; nor shall any per- son be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in anj$ criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS AND THE PRESIDENT TO THE LAND AND NAVAL FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES. The power of making rules for the government and regulation of armies, as well as the power of raising armies, having in express terms been conferred on Congress, it is manifest that the President as commander-in-chief is limited by the constitution to the simple com- mand of such armies as Congress may raise, under such rules for their government and regulation as Congress may appoint : " The authorities, (says Alexander Hamilton, Federalist, No. 23,) essential to the care of the common defence are these : To raise armies ; to build and equip fleets ; to prescribe rules for the government of both ; to direct their operations ; to provide for their support. These powers ought to exist without limitation ; because it is impossible to foresee or to define the extent and variety of national exigencies, and the correspondent extent and variety of the means which may be necessary to satisfy them." . . " Defective as the present (old) Confederation has been proved to be, this principle appears to have been fully recognized by the framers of it ; although they have not made proper or adequate pro- vision for its exercise. Congress have an unlimited discretion to make requisitions of men and money ; to govern the army and navy ; to di- rect their operations." " The government of the military is that branch 172 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CON. of the code, (says BARDIN, Dictionnaire de FArmee de Terre,) which em braces the military Hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of inferior authority." From this principle proceeds the localization of troops, their discipline, remuneration for important services, the repression of all infractions of the laws, and every thing in fine which the legislature may judge necessary either by rules of appointment or promotion, penalties or rewards, to maintain an efficient and well-disciplined army. But, as if to avoid all misconstruction on this point, the constitution not only declares that Congress shall make rules for the government, but also for the regulation ol the army ; and regulation signifies precise determination of functions ; method, forms 'and restrictions, not to be departed from. It is evident, therefore, that the design of the framers of the constitution, was not to invest the President with powers over the army in any degree parallel with powers possessed by the king of Great Britain over the British army, whose prerogative embraces the command and government ot all forces raised and maintained by him with the consent of parliament, (BLACKSTONE ;) but their purpose, on tho contrary, was to guard in all possible ways against executive usurpation by leaving with Congress the control ot the Federal forces which it possessed under the articles of the Confederation, and at the same time to strengthen the powers of Congress by giving that body an unre- stricted right to raise armies, provided appropriations for their support should not extend beyond two years. The command ot the army and navy and militia called jnto service, subject to such rules for their gov- ernment and regulation as Congress may make, was given by the con- stitution to the President ; but the power of making rules of govern- ment and regulation is in reality that of SUPREME COMMAND, and hence the President, to use the language of the Federalist, in his relation to the army and navy, is nothing more than the "first General and Ad- miral of the Confederacy ; " or the first officer of the military hierarchy with functions assigned by Congress. A curious example of this con- temporaneous construction of the constitution is found in a letter from Sedgwick to Hamilton (vol. 6, Hamilton's Works, p. 394.) Congress, in raising a provisional army in 1798, created the office of commander of the army with the title of Lieutenant-general. A year subse- quently a provision was made by law for changing this title to that of General. This last provision gave great offence to Mr. Adams, then President, who considered it as an evidence of the desire of Congress to make " a general over the President" So strangely was he possessed with this idea that he never commissioned Washington as General, but the latter died in his office of Lieutenan ^-general ; the President evi- CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 173 dently thinking that the title of General conveyed a significancy which belonged to the President alone, although the commander of the army might in his opinion very properly take the title of Lieutenant- general, and thus have his subordination to the Commander-in-chief of the army and navy and militia clearly indicated. It is plain therefore no less from the appointment by the constitution of the President as commander-in-chief, than from all contemporaneous construction, that his functions in respect to the army are those of First General of the U. S., and in no degree derived from his powers as first civil magis- trate of the Union. The advocates of executive discretion over the army must therefore seek for the President's authority in his military capacity, restrained as that is by the pow r ers granted to Congress, which embrace the raising, support, government, and regulation of armies ; or, to use the language of the Federalist, No. 23, " there can be no limita- tion of that authority, which is to provide for the defence and protection of the community, in any matter essential to its efficacy ; that is, in any matter essential to the formation, direction, or support of the NATIONAL FORCES." After the foregoing investigation of the unrestricted power of Congress in respect to the army, save only in the appointment of the head of all the national forces, naval and military, it will be plain that the 2d Section of the constitution, in giving to the President the nomi- nation and appointment, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, of all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, excludes officers of the army and navy. The power of raising armies and making rules for their government and regulation, necessarily involves the power of making rules of appoint, ment, promotion, reward, and punishment, and is therefore a provision in the constitution otherwise providing for the appointment of officers of the land and naval forces. So true is this that the principle has been acted on from the foundation of the Government. Laws have been passed giving to general and other officers the appointment of certain inferior officers. In other cases the President has been confined by Congress, in his selection for certain offices in the army, to particular classes. Again, rules have been made by Congress for the promotion of officers, another form of appointment ; and in 1846, an army of volun- teers was raised by Congress, the officers of which the acts of Congress directed should be appointed according to the laws of the States in which the troops were raised, excepting the general officers for those troops, who were to be appointed by the President and Senate (Act June 2G, 1846) a clear recognition that the troops thus raised by Congress were United States troops, and not militia. It is certainly 174 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CON. true that the military -legislation of the country has for long years vested a large discretion in the President in respect to appointments and other matters concerning the army ; but it may well be asked whether fixed rules of appointments and promotion which would pre- vent the exercise of favoritism by the executive might not, with the greatest advantage to the army and the country, be adopted by Con- gress ? " Military prejudices (says Gen. Hamilton) are not only in- separable from, but they are essential to the military profession. The government which desires to have a satisfied and useful army must consult them. They cannot be moulded at its pleasure ; it is vain to ajm at it." These are maxims which should lead Congress to the adop- tion of rules of appointment and promotion in the army which would prevent all outrages to the just pride of officers of the army. The organization of every new regiment, where the appointment of the officers has been left to executive discretion, shows that, if the desire has been felt in that quarter to cherish or cultivate pride of profession among the officers of the army, the feeling has been repressed by other considera- tions. All pride of rank has been so far crushed by this system of executive discretion that it is apparent, if Congress cannot provide a better rule for the government and regulation of the army, a generous rivalry in distinguished services must be superseded by political activity. Rules of appointment and promotion limiting the discre- tion of the President, and at the same time giving effect to opinions in the army, might easily be devised ; or borrowed from existing rules in the French army, which, without ignoring the important principle of seniority, would at the same time afford scope and verge for rewards for distinguished services. (See PROMOTION.) No army can be kept in war in the highest vigor and efficiency without rewards for distinguished activity, and the appointment of Totleben at the siege of Sevastopol shows how far almost superhuman efforts may be prompted by invest- ing a commander in the field with the power of selecting his immediate assistants. Colonels of regiments with us now exercise this authority in selecting regimental adjutants and quartermasters. Why should not the same trust be reposed in commanding generals of departments, brigades, divisions, and armies ? And why should not all necessary restrictions (such as those in operation in the French armies) be put upon the President in making promotions for distinguished services, and also in original appointments, in order to secure justice to the army, and thereby promote the best interests of the country 1 ( Consult Federal- ist ; HAMILTON'S Works; MADISON'S Works; Acts of Congress; Report of Committee of the Senate, April 25, 1822. See PRESIDENT ; RAISE ; VICE-PRESIDENT ; PROMOTION.) CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 175 CONTEMPT. Any officer or soldier who shall use contemptuous or disrespectful words against the President of the United States, the Vice-President, against the Congress of the United States, or against the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States in which he may be quartered, shall be punished as a court-rnartial shall direct. Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or dis- respect towards his commanding officer, shall be punished by the judg- ment of a court-martial; (ARTS. 5 and 6.) No person whatsoever shall use any menacing words, signs, or ges- tures, in presence of a court-martial, or shall cause any riot or disorder, or disturb their proceedings, on the penalty of being punished at the discretion of the said court-martial ; (ART. 76.) Contempts thus ren- dered summarily punishable by courts-martial are of public and self- evident kind, not depending on any interpretation of law admitting explanation, or requiring further investigation. Courts-martial some- times act on this power. At other times individuals so offending are placed in arrest, and charges are preferred for trial. A regimental court-martial may punish summarily, but are not competent to award punishment to commissioned officers. A regimental court-martial in such cases would impose arrest. Citizens, not soldiers, would be re- moved from court ; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.) CONTRACTS. Supplies for the army, unless in particular and urgent cases the Secretary of War should otherwise direct, shall be purchased by contract, to be made by the commissary-general on pub- lic notice, to be delivered on inspection in bulk, and at such places as shall be stipulated ; which contract shall be made under such regula- tions as the Secretary of War may direct ; (Act April 14, 1818, Sec. 7.) No contract shall hereafter be made by the Secretary of State, or of the Treasury, or of the Department of War, or of the Navy, except under a law authorizing the same, or under an appropriation adequate to its fulfilment ; and excepting also contracts for the subsistence and clothing of the army and navy, and contracts by the quartermaster's department which may be made by the secretaries of those depart- ments ; (Act May 1, 1820.) Members of Congress cannot be interest- ed in any contract, and a special provision must be inserted in every contract that no member of Congress is interested in it. Penalty forfeiture of three thousand dollars for making contracts with members of Congress ; (Act April 21, 1808.) Liability of Contracts. By analogy to the rule which protects an officer from the treatment of a trespasser or malefactor, in regard to acts done by him in the execution of the orders of his own government, 176 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CON. a similar immunity is extended to him ift respect to contracts which he enters into for public purposes within the sphere of his authority. No private means or resources would otherwise be adequate to the responsibilities which, under any other rule, would effectually deter the best citizens of a state from rendering their services to the government. On high grounds, therefore, of public policy, it has long been established, that no action will lie against any government officer upon contracts made by him in his official character for public purposes, and within the legitimate scope of his duties. " Great inconveniences (says Mr. Justice Ashurst) would result from considering a governor or commander as personally responsible in such cases. For no man would accept of any office of trust under government upon such conditions. And indeed it has been frequently determined that no individual is answerable for any engagements which he enters into on their behalf." "In any case (says Mr. Jus- tice Duller) where a man acts as agent for the public, and treats in that capacity, there is no pretence to say that he is personally liable." This doctrine applies in full force to military officers in the exercise of their professional duties. One of the earliest cases of this nature was Macheath v. Haldimand, in which it appeared that General Haldimand, being commander-in-chief and governor of Quebec, had, in those capaci- ties, appointed Captain Sinclair to the command of a fort upon Lake Huron, with instructions to employ one Macheath in furnishing sup- plies for the service of the Crown. In pursuance of these orders, Mac- heath had furnished various articles for the use of the fort ; and Captain Sinclair, according to his instructions from General Haldimand, drew bills upon him for the amount. Macheath also remitted his accounts to General Haldimand at Quebec, with the following words prefixed : " Government debtor to George Macheath for sundries paid by order of Lieutenant-governor Sinclair." General Haldimand objected to several of the charges, and refused payment of the amount ; but ulti- mately made a partial payment on account, without prejudice to Mac- heath's right to the remainder, to recover which he brought the present action. At the trial it appeared so clearly that Macheath had dealt with General Haldimand solely in the character of commander-in-chief, and as an agent of government, that Mr. Justice Bullcr told the jury they were bound to find for the defendant in point of law. The jury gave their verdict accordingly ; and upon the express ground of General Hald imand's freedom from personal liability in such a case, the Court of King's Bench were unanimous in refusing a new trial. In a case w^ich was tried before Lord Mansfield, one Savage brought CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 177 an action against Lord North, as First Lord of the Treasury, for the expenses which he (Savage) had incurred in raising a regiment for the service of government ; and Lord Mansfield held that the action did not lie. So in another case of Lutterlop v. Halsey, an action was brought against a commissary for the price of forage, supplied to the army by the plaintiff, at the request of the defendant, in his official character ; and the commissary was held not to be liable. On another occasion, a suit was instituted in chancery against General Burgoyne, for a spe- cific performance of a contract for the supply of artillery carriages in America. But Lord Chancellor Thurlow said there was no color for the demand as against General Burgoyne, who acted only as an agent for government ; and his lordship dismissed the suit with costs. In 1818 an action was brought against Hall, the late purser of H. M. S. La Belle Poule, by the purser's steward of the same ship, to recover the amount of pay due to the latter for his services on board. It ap- peared that the purser's steward could not be appointed without the consent of the commander, and that lie was entitled to the pay of an able seaman, but usually received pay under a private contract with the purser. The chief justice, Lord Ellenborough, at first felt some difficulty in the case ; but considering how very extensive the operation of the principle might be, if such an action could be supported, and if a person, receiving a specific salary from the Crown in respect of his situation, could recover remuneration for his services from the officer under whose immediate authority he acted, and that the purser had no fund allowed him out of which such services were to be paid, his lord- ship was of opinion that the plaintiff had no right of action against the purser. It is quite immaterial also, whether the officer gives the orders in person, or through a subordinate agent appointed by himself. The creditor cannot, in the latter case, charge 'the officer with a personal liability. In Myrtle v. Beaver, the plaintiff, a butcher at Brighton, brought an action against Major Beaver, the captain of a troop in the Hampshire Feneible Cavalry, for the price of meat supplied to the troop when quartered at Brighton, in January and February, 1800. One Bedford, a sergeant in the troop, had been employed by Major Beaver, according to his duty as captain, to provide for the subsistence of the men ; and so long as Major Beaver remained with the troop, he regularly settled the butcher's bill monthly, up to the 24th January, 1800. At that date Major Beaver was detached with a small party to command at Arundel, the greater part of the regiment remaining at Brighton under the command of the colonel j and the command of 12 178 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CoN. Major Beaver's troop, with the duties of providing lor its subsistence, devolved on Lieutenant Hunt, who continued to employ Sergeant Bed- ford in providing supplies for the men, and gave him money for that purpose. The plaintiff furnished meat as before, under Sergeant Bed- ford's orders, but it did not appear that he had been apprised of the change of the authority, under which the sergeant gave those orders. On the 20th February, and before the usual monthly period of settling the butcher's bill, Lieutenant Hunt, who w r as also paymaster of the regiment, absconded with the regimental moneys, and left the plaintiff's demand and the regimental accounts unsettled. As Sergeant Bedford had, in the first instance, been accredited by Major Beaver, as his agent for ordering the supplies, the plaintiff Myrtle contended that until he had been informed of the discontinuance of that authority, he had a right to presume its continuance, and to look to Major Beaver for pay- ment as before. But the Court of King's Bench held, that although the sergeant acted by Major Beaver's orders, he was not to be considered as the agent of a private individual, as it was plain that he acted as agent for whatever officer happened to have the command of the troop. There was, therefore, no ground for fixing Major Beaver with any per- sonal liability in the matter. An agent of government may, however, render himself personally liable upon contracts made by himself in the execution of his office. On this principle an action was brought against General Burgoyne, to recover a sum of money due to the plaintiff as provost-marshal of the British army in America ; the general having promised that the plain- tiff should be paid at the same rate as the provost-marshal under Gen- eral Howe had been. At the trial, an objection was taken to the legality of the action ; but Lord Mansfield refused to stop the case, and the plaintiff thereupon went into his evidence. It appeared, however, in the course of the inquiry, that the plaintiff's demand had been satis- fied ; and, therefore, the verdict was in favor of General Burgoyne. But it is evident from Lord Mansfield's suffering the trial to go on, that his lordship thought a commanding officer might so act as to make him- self personally liable in such a case ; and the question, whether he had so acted or not, was for the determination of a jury. In the next case it was accordingly sought to fix a naval officer with a personal liability for supplies furnished to his crew, on the ground of the language used by him on the occasion of ordering the supplies. Lieutenant Temple was first lieutenant of H. M. S. Hoyne, and on her arrival at Ports- mouth from the West Indies, he inquired for a slop-seller to supply the crew with new clothes, saying, " He will run no risk ; I will see him CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 179 paid." One Keate being accordingly recommended for this purpose, Lieutenant Temple called upon him and used these words, " I will see you paid at the pay-table ; are you satisfied ? " Keate answered, " Per- fectly so." The clothes were delivered on the quarter-deck of the Boyne, though the case states that slops are usually sold on the main-deck. Lieutenant Temple produced samples to ascertain whether his direc- tions were followed. Some of the men said that they were not in want of any clothes, but were told by the lieutenant that if they did not take them he would punish them ; and others, who stated that they were only in want of part of a suit, were obliged to take a whole one, with anchor buttons to the jacket, such as were then worn by petty officers only. The former clothing of the crew was very light, and adapted tc the climate of the West Indies, where the Boyne had been last stationed. Soon after the delivery of the slops, the Boyne was destroyed by fire, and the crew dispersed into different ships. On that occasion Keate, the slop-seller, expressed some apprehension for himself, but was thus answered by Lieutenant Temple :" Captain Grey (Obtain of the Boyne) and I will see you paid ; you need not make yourself uneasy." After this the commissioner came on board the Commerce de Marseilles to pay the crew of the Boyne, at which time Lieutenant Temple stood at the pay -table, and took some money out of the hat of the first man who was paid, and gave it to the slop-seller. The next man, however, refused to part with his pay, and was immediately put in irons. Lieu- tenant Temple then asked the commissioner to stop the pay of the crew, but he answered that it could not be done. It was in evidence that though the crew were pretty well clothed, yet from the lightness of their clothing they were not properly equipped for the service in which they were engaged ; and the compulsory purchases were not improperly ordered by the officer. Under these circumstances, Keate, the slop- seller, being unable to obtain the payment to which he was entitled, brought his action against Lieutenant Temple for the price of the cloth- ing ; and Mr. Justice Lawrence told the jury that if they were satisfied that the goods were advanced on the credit of the lieutenant as imme- diately responsible, Keate was entitled to recover the amount ; but if they believed that Keate, on supplying the goods, relied merely on the lieutenant's assistance to get the money from the crew, the verdict ought to be in favor of the lieutenant. The jury found a verdict against Lieutenant Temple, but the Court of Common Pleas set it aside. Eyre, C. J. : " The sum recovered is 576. 7s. 8d., and this against a lieuten- ant in the navy, a sum so large that it goes a great way towards satis- fying my mind that it never could have been in contemplation of the 180 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cos. defendant to make himself liable, or of the slop-seller to furnish the goods on his credit. I can hardly think that had the Boyne not been burnt, and the plaintiff been asked whether he would have the lieutenant or the crew for his paymaster, but that he would have given preference to the latter. . . . From the nature of the case it is apparent, that the men were to pay in the first instance ; the defendant's words were, ' I will see you paid at the pay-table ; are you satisfied ? ' and the answer was, * Perfectly so ; ' the meaning of which was, that however unwilling the men might be to pay of themselves, the officer would take care that they should pay. ... I think this a proper case to be sent to a new trial." The verdict found against Lieutenant Temple was accordingly set aside. But where an officer, acting in his private capacity and for his own private purposes, enters into any contract with another officer or a private individual, the ordinary rules and principles of law apply to such cases in the same manner as between civilians. (Consult PREN- DERGAST.) CONVOYS have for their object the transportation of munitions of war, money, subsistence, clothing, arms, sick, &c. If convoys to an army do not come from the rear, through a country which has been mastered, and consequently far from the principal forces of the enemy, they will be undoubtedly attacked and broken up, if not carried off. There is no more difficult operation than to defend a large convoy against a serious attack. Ordinarily, convoys are only exposed to the attacks of partisan corps or light troops which, in consequence of their insignificant size, have thrown themselves in rear of the army. It is to guard against such attacks, that escorts are usually given to convoys. These escorts are principally infantry, because infantry fights in all varieties of ground, and in case of need may be placed in the intervals be- tween the wagons, or even inside the wagons, when too warmly pressed. Cavalry is, however, also necessary to spy out an enemy at great dis- tances, and give prompt information of his movements, as well as to participate in the defence of the convoy against cavalry. An enemy's cavalry being able rapidly to pass from the front to the rear of the train, would easily find some part of it without defence, if the escort were composed only of infantry. To give an idea of the facility of such attacks, it may be stated that a wagon drawn by four horses occupies ten yards. Two hundred wagons marching in single file and closed as much as possible form a train more than 2,000 yards in extent. In a long line of wagons, therefore, it would be impossible for infantry to meet the feints of cavalry and repulse real attacks. The escort should then be composed of an advance guard entirely CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 181 of cavalry preceding the train, some two or three miles, searching the route on the right and on the left ; but as it may happen that the enemy, eluding the vigilance of the advance guard, have made ambuscades be- tween the advance and the head of the column, it is necessary to place another body immediately in front of the train, with a small party in advance and flankers on the right and left. The longer the train the greater the danger of surprise, and consequently the greater the pre- cautions to be used. A convoy is almost as much exposed to attack in rear as in front ; it is therefore necessary to have, with a rear guard, some horsemen, who may be despatched to give information of what passes in rear. When the troops constituting the body of the escort are prin- cipally composed of infantry, they are divided into three bodies r Work- men will march with the advanced party, and the wagons loaded with tools of all kinds, rope, small beams, thick plank and every thing neces- sary for the repair of bridges and roads, will lead the convoy. The second detachment will be placed in the middle of the column of wagons, and the third in rear. Care is taken not to disseminate the troops along the whole extent of the train. A few men only are detached from the three bodies mentioned, to march abreast of the wagons, and to force the drivers to keep in their prescribed order, without opening the dis- tance between the wagons. If a wagon breaks down on the route its load is promptly distributed among other wagons. A signal is made if it is necessary for the column to halt, but for slight repairs the train is not halted. The wagon leaves the column, is repaired on one side of the road, and afterwards takes its place in rear. Soldiers should never be permitted to place their knapsacks in the wagons, for a sol- dier should never be separated from knapsack or haversack, and the wagons would also become too much loaded. Whenever the breadth of the road permits, the wagons should be doubled and march in two files. The column is thus shortened one half, and if circumstances require it, the defensive park is more promptly formed. This is done by wheeling the wagons round to the right and left so as to bring the opposite horses' heads ^together and facing each other turning towards the exterior the hind wagon wheels. This movement requires ground and time. It ought not to be ordered then except when absolutely necessary. It is much better to hold the enemy in check, by manoeuvres of the escort when that can be done, and let the convoy move on. When the park has been formed, however, it constitutes an excellent means of defence, under shelter of which infantry can fight with advantage even when they have been compelled to take such refuge. A convoy usually halts for the night near a village, but it should always pass beyond it, because 182 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CON. on commencing its march in the morning it is better to have the defile behind than before it, in order to avoid ambuscades of the enemy. Places for parking the wagons are sought where there are hedges or walls, as those obstructions offer greater security than any others. The troops, with the exception of the park guard, bivouac at a short distance from the park, in some position which offers the best military advan- tages. An advance guard and a sufficient number of sentinels for the safety and police of the park and bivouac are then posted. The park is ordinarily a hollow square, but locality will dictate its form. It should furnish an enclosed space for the horses and drivers, and at the same time be an intrenchment in case of attack. The wagons are ranged either lengthwise or side by side the rule being that the poles are turned in the same direction and towards the place of destination. The wagons laid lengthwise may be doubled, so that the intervals of ranks may be closed by pushing forward the wagon of another rank. When the space for the park is small and the number of wagons great, the wagons are placed upon many lines, and streets sufficiently broad to receive the horses, &c., are made parallel to each other. The important principle in defending convoys on the march is, that the escort should not con- sider itself tied to wagons, but should repulse the enemy by marching to meet him. It is only after the escort has been repulsed, that it should fall back on the wagons and use them as an intrenchment. Even then a very long resistance may be ill judged if the enemy be greatly superior. It is better to abandon a part of the convoy to save the rest, or else try to destroy it, by cutting the traces, breaking the wheels, overthrowing the wagons, and even setting fire to the most in- flammable parts. An attack upon a flank is most dangerous because the convoy then presents a larger mark. The three detachments in this case should be united on the side attacked and pushed*forward sufficiently to compel the enemy to describe a great circle, in order to put himself out of reach when he wishes to attack the front or rear of the convoy. The best position to take is that o*f three echelons, the centre in advance. The convoy, which has doubled its wagons, continues to move forward, regulating its march by the position of the troops which cover it. If the attack be in front, as soon as the enemy has been announced by the first advance guard, which falls back at a gallop for the purpose, the wagons are closed or formed in two files if the road permits ; the centre detach- ment joins the first, either in echelon or according to locality, to pre- vent a movement upon the 'flank of the convoy. The third detachment should be held in reserve immediately at the head of the wagons. If however this position be too near that taken by the first and second de- Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 183 tachments united, the reserve must then take some position on the flank of the convoy. The defence against an attack upon the rear will be conducted on the same principles. It may be concluded that the attack of a convoy is an operation in which little is to be lost and much gained ; for if the enemy be deficient in numbers or skill, a part of his convoy is easily destroyed or brought off. If the attack fail, nothing is to be feared upon retiring. The corps which attacks should be half cavalry and Ij^lf infantry. It is clear, that if the attacking party has been con- cealed behind a wood, a height, a corn field, &c., and has been able to sur prise the front or rear of the convoy, and enveloped it before aid arrives, full success will be obtained. But this negligence will not often occur on the part of the commander of the escort. If his troops then be in good order and united at the moment of the attack, it is necessary to divide his attention by directing against him many little columns and. skirmishers, who seek to open a way to the wagons by killing the horses, and thus encumbering the road. The cavalry making a circuit throw themselves rapidly upon parts badly protected. If they reach some of the wagons they content themselves with driving off the conductors and cutting the traces of the wagons because all the wagons in rear are thus stopped. If we are at liberty to choose the time and place of attack, it is clear that the best time i w r hen the convoy is passing a defile and we can envelop the front or the rear. Success is then cer- tain ; the inevitable encumbrance of the defile preventing one part of the troops from coming to the aid of another part. When the whole or part of a convoy has been seized, the prize must 'be brought to a safe place, before the enemy is in sufficient force to make us abandon it. But sooner than do this, the most precious articles should be placed on horses, the wagons should be destroyed, and the horses put to their speed. The attacking force should avoid further combat, for its object has been accomplished. {Consult DUFOUR j BARDIN ; Ordonnance sur le Service des Armees en Campagne). COOKING-. Bread and soup are the great items of a soldier's diet : to make them well is, therefore, an essential part of his instruc- tion. Scurfy and diarrhoea more frequently result from bad cooking than any other cause whatever. Camp ovens may be made in twenty- fbur hours. One hundred and ninety-six pounds when in dough hold about 1 1 gallons or 90 pounds of water, 2 gallons yeast, and 3 pounds salt, making a mass of 305 pounds, which evaporates in kneading, bak- ing, and cooling about 40 pounds, leaving in bread weighed when stale about 265 pounds. Bread ought not to be burnt, but baked to an equal brown color. The troops ought not to be allowed to eat soft bread 184 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo. fresh from the oven without first toasting it. Fresh meat ought not to be cooked before it has had time to bleed and to cool ; and meats wiyi generally be boiled, with a view to soup ; and sometimes roasted or baked. Meat may be kept in hot weather by half boiling it ; or by ex- posing it for a few minutes to a thick smoke. To make soup, put into the vessel at the rate of five pints of water to a pound of fresh meat ; apply a quick heat, to make it boil promptly ; skim off the foam, and then moderate the fire ; put in salt according to palate. Add thevcgc- tables of the season one or two hours, and sliced bread some minutes before the simmering is ended. When the broth is sensibly reduced in quantity, that is, after five or six hours' cooking, the process will be com- plete. If a part of the meat be withdrawn before the soup is fully made, the quantity of water must be proportionally less. Hard or dry vegetables, as the bean ration, will be put in the camp kettle much ear- lier than fresh vegetables. The following receipts for army cooking are taken from Soyer's Culinary Campaign : SOYER'S HOSPITAL DIETS. THE IMPORTANCE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN THE ACCOMPANYING RECEIPTS * 19 FULLY RECOGNIZED ; IT IS THEREFORE NECESSARY THAT TROOPS SHOULD BE SUPPLIED WITH SCALES, AND WITH MEASURES FOR LIQUIDS. No. .1. SEMI-STEWED MUTTON AND BARLEY. SOUP FOR 100 MEN. Put in a convenient-sized caldron 130 pints of cold water, 70 Ibs. of meat, or about that quantity, 12 Ibs. of plain mixed vegetables, (the best that can be obtained,) 9 Ibs. 6 oz. of barley, 1 lb. 7 oz. of salt, 1 Ib. 4 oz. of flour, 1 lb. 4 oz. of sugar, 1 oz. of pepper. Put all the in- gredients into the pan at once, except the flour ; set it on the fire, and when beginning to boil, diminish the heat, and simmer gently for two hours and a half; take the joints of meat out, and keep them warm in the orderly's pan ; add to the soup your flour, which you have mixed with enough water to form a light batter ; stir well together with a large spoon ; boil another half-hour, skim off the fat, arid serve the soup and meat separate. The meat may be put back into the spup for a few minutes to warm again prior to serving. The soup should be stirred now and then while making, to prevent burning or sticking to the bot- tom of the caldron. The joints are cooked whole, and afterwards cut up in different messes ; being cooked this way, in a rather thick stock, the meat becomes more nutritious. Note. The word " about " is applied to the half and full diet, which varies the weight of the meat ; but lb. of mutton will always make Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 135 a pint of good soup : 3 Ibs. of mixed preserved vegetables must be used when fresh are not to be obtained, and put in one hour and a half prior to serving, instead of at first ; they will then show better in the soup, and still be well done. All the following receipts may be in- creased to large quantities, but by all means closely follow the weight and measure. No. 2. BEEF SOUP. Proceed the same as for mutton, only leave the meat in till serving, as it will take longer than mutton. The pieces are not to be above 4 or 5 Ibs. weight ; and for a change, half rice may be introduced ; the addition of 2 Ibs more will make it thicker and more nutritive ; ^ Ib. of curry powder will make an excellent change also. To vary the same, half a pint of burnt sugar water may be added it will give the soup a very rich brown color. No. 3 BEEF TEA. RECEIPT FOR six PINTS. Cut 3 Ibs. of beef into pieces the size of walnuts, and chop up the bones, if any ; put it into a convenient-sized kettle, with Ib. of mixed vegetables, such as onions, leeks, celery, turnips, carrots, (or one or two of these, if all are not to be obtained,) 1 oz. of salt, a little pepper, 1 teaspoonful of sugar, 2 oz. of butter, half a pint of water. Set it on a sharp fire for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, stirring now and then with a spoon, till it forms a rather thick gravy at bottom, but not brown : then add 7 pints of hot or cold water, but hot is preferable ; when boiling, let it simmer gently for an hour ; skim off all the fat, strain it through a sieve, and serve. No. 3A. ESSENCE OF BEEF TEA. For camp hospitals. " Quarter pound tin case of essence." If in winter set it near the fire to melt; pour the contents in a stewpan and twelve times the case full of water over it, hot or cold ; add to it two or three slices of onion, a sprig or two of parsley, a leaf or two of celery, if handy, two teaspoon fuls of salt, one of sugar ; pass through a colander and serve. If required stronger, eight cases of water will suffice, decreasing the seasoning in proportion. In case you have no vegetables, sugar, or pepper, salt alone will do, but the broth will not be so succulent. No. 4. THICK BEEF TEA. Dissolve a good teaspoonful of arrow- root in a gill of water, and pour it into the beef tea twenty minutes before passing through the sieve it is then ready. No. 5. STRENGTHENING BEEF TEA WITH CALVES-FOOT JELLY, OR ISINGLASS. Add 1 oz. calves-foot gelatine to the above quantity of beef tea previous to serving, when cooking. No. 6. MUTTON AND VEAL TEA. Mutton and veal will make good tea by proceeding precisely the same as above. The addition of a little 186 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo. aromatic herbs is always desirable. If no fresh vegetables are at hand, use 2 oz. of mixed preserved vegetables to any of the above receipts. No. 7. CHICKEN BROTH. Put in a stewpan a fowl, 3 pints of water, 2 teaspoonfuls of rice, 1 teaspoonful of salt, a middle-sized onion, or 2 oz. of mixed vegetables ; boil the whole gently for three-quarters of an hour : if an old fowl, simmer from one hour and a half to two hours, adding 1 pint more water ; skim off the fat and serve. A, small' fowl will do. Note. A light mutton broth may be made precisely the same, by using a pound and a half of scrag of mutton instead of fowl. For thick mutton broth proceed as for thick beef tea, omitting the rice ; a table- spoonful of burnt sugar water will give a rich color to the broth. No. 8. PLAIN BOILED RICE. Put two quarts of water in a stew- pan, with a teaspoonful of salt ; when boiling, add to it ^ Ib. of rice, well washed ; boil for ten minutes, or till each grain becomes rather soft; drain it into a colander, slightly grease the pot with butter, and put the rice back into it ; let it swell slowly for about twenty minutes near the fire, or in a slow oven ; each grain will then swell up, and bo well separated ; it is then ready for use. No. 9. SWEET RICE. Add to the plain boiled rice 1 oz. of butter, 2 tablespoonfuls of sugar, a little cinnamon, a quarter of a pint of milk ; stir it with a fork, and serve ; a little currant jelly or jam may be added to the rice. No. 10. RICE WITH GRAVY. Add to the rice 4 tablespoonfuls of the essence of beef, a little butter, if fresh, half a teaspoonful of salt ; stir together with a fork, and serve. A teaspoonful of Soyer's Sultana Sauce, or relish, will make it very wholesome and palatable, as well as invigorating to a fatigued stomach. No. 11. PLAIN OATMEAL. Put in a pan \ Ib. of oatmeal, 1J oz. of sugar, half a teaspoonful of salt, and 3 pints of water ; boil slowly for twenty minutes, " stirring continually," and serve. A quarter of a pint of boiled milk, an ounce of butter, and a little pounded cinnamon or spice added previous to serving is a good variation. This receipt has been found most useful at the commencement of dysentery by the medical authorities. No. 12. CALVES-FOOT JELLY. Put in a proper-sized stewpan 2 oz. of calves-foot gelatine, 4 oz. of white sugar, 4 whites of eggs and shells, the peel of a lemon, the juice of three middle-sized lemons, half a pint of Marsala wine ; beat all well together with the egg-beater for a few minutes, then add 4 pints of cold water ; set it on a slow fire, and keep whipping it till boiling. Set it on the corner of the stove, Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 187 partly covered with the lid, upon which you place a few pieces of burn- ing charcoal ; let it simmer gently for ten minutes, and strain it through a jelly-bag. It is then ready to put in the ice or some cool place. Sherry will do if Marsala is not at hand. For orange jelly use only 1 lemon and 2 oranges. Any delicate flavor may be introduced. JELLY STOCK, made from calves' feet, requires to be made the day previous to being used, requiring to be very hard to extract the fat. Take two calf's feet, cut them up, and boil in three quarts of water ; as soon as it boils remove it to the corner of the fire, and simmer for five hours, keeping it skimmed, pass through a hair sieve into a basin, and let it remain until quite hard, then remove the oil and fat, and wipe the top dry. Place in a stewpan half a pint of water, one of sherry, half a pound of lump sugar, the juice of four lemons, the rinds of two, and the whites and shells of five eggs ; whisk until the sugar is melted, then add the jelly, place it on the fire, and whisk until boiling, pass it through a jelly-bag, pouring that back again which comes through first until quite clear ; it is then ready for use, by putting it in moulds or glasses. Vary the flavor according to fancy. No. 13. SA'GO JELLY. Put into a pan 3 oz. of sago, 1? oz. of sugar, half a lemon-peel cut very thin, | teaspoonful of ground cinna^ mon, or a small stick of the same ; put to it 3 pints of water and a little salt ; boil ten minutes, or rather longer, stirring continually, until rather thick, then add a little port, sherry, or Marsala wine ; mix well, and serve hot or cold. No. 14. ARROWROOT MILK. Put into a pan 4 oz. of arrowroot, 3 oz. of sugar, the peel of half a lemon, | teaspoonful of salt, 2J pints of milk ; set it on the fire, stir round gently, boil for ten minutes, and serve. If no lemons at hand, a little essence of any kind will do. When short of milk, use half water ; half an ounce of fresh butter is an improvement before serving. If required thicker, put a little milk. No. 15. THICK ARROWROOT PANADA. Put in a pan 5 oz. of arrow- root, 2-J oz. of white sugar, the peel of half a lemon, a quarter of a tea- spoonful of salt, 4 pints of water ; mix all well, set on the fire, boil for ten minutes ; it is then ready. The juice of a lemon is an improve- ment ; a gill of wine may also be introduced, and ^ oz. of calves-foot gelatine previously dissolved in water will be strengthening. Milk, however, is preferable, if at hand. No. 16. ARROWROOT WATER. Put into a pan 3 oz. of arrowroot, 2 oz. of white sugar, the peel of a lemon, teaspoonful of salt, 4 pints of water ; mix well, set on the fire, boil for ten minutes. It is then ready to serve either hot or cold. 188 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo. No. 17. RICE WATER. Put 7 pints of water to boil, add to it 2 ounces of rice washed, 2 oz. of sugar, the peel of two-thirds of a lemon ; boil gently for three-quarters of an hour ; it will reduce to 5 pints ; strain through a colander ; it is then ready. The rice may be left in the beverage or made into a pudding, or by the addition of a little sugar or jam, will be found very good for either children or invalids. No. 18. BARLEY WATER. Put in a saucepan 7 pints of water, 2 oz. of barley, which stir now and then while boiling ; add 2 oz. of white sugar, the rind of half a lemon, thinly peeled ; let it boil gently for about two hours, without covering it ; pass it through a sieve or col- ander ; it is then ready. The barley and lemon may be left in it. No. 19. SOYER'S PLAIN LEMONADE. Thinly peel the third part of a lemon, which put into a basin with 2 tablespoonfuls of sugar ; roll the lemon with your hand upon the table to soften it; cut it into two, lengthwise, squeeze the juice over the peel, &c., stir round for a minute with a spoon to form a sort of syrup ; pour over a pint of water, mix well, and remove the pips ; it is then ready for use. If a very large lemon, and full of juice, and very fresh, you may make a pint and a half to a quart, adding sugar and peel in proportion to the increase of water. The juice only of the lemon and sugar will make lemonade, but will then be deprived of the aroma which the rind contains, the said rind being generally thrown away. No. 20. SEMI-CITRIC LEMONADE. RECEIPT FOR 50 PINTS. Put 1 oz. of citric acid to dissolve in a pint of water, peef 20 lemons thinly, and put the peel in a large vessel, with 3 Ibs. 2 oz. of white sugar well broken ; roll each lemon on the table to soften it, which will facilitate the extraction of the juice; cut them into two, and press out the juice into a colander or sieve, over the peel and sugar, then pour half a pint of water through the colander, so as to leave no juice remaining ; triturate the sugar, juice, and peel together for a minute or two with a spoon, so as to form a sort of syrup, and extract the aroma from the peel and the dissolved citric acid ; mix all well together, pour on 50 pints of cold water, stir well together ; it is then ready. A little ice in summer is a great addition. No. 21. SOYER'S CHEAP CRIMEAN LEMONADE. Put into a basin 2 tablespoonfuls of white or brown sugar, ^ a tablespoonful of lirne juice, mix well together for one minute, add 1 pint of water, and the bever- age is ready. A drop of rum will make a good variation, as lime juice and rum are daily issued to the soldiers. No. 22. TARTARIC LEMONADE. Dissolve 1 oz. of crystallized tar- taric acid in a pint of cold water, which put in a large vessel ; when Cob.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 189 dissolved, add 1 Ib. 9 oz. of white or brown sugar the former is pref- erable ; mix well to form a thick syrup ; add to it 24 pints of cold water, slowly mixing well ; it is then ready. It may be strained through either a colander or a jelly-bag ; if required very light, add 5 pints more water, and sugar in proportion ; if citric acid be used, put only 20 pints of water to each ounce. No. 23. CHEAP PLAIN RICE PUDDING, FOR CAMPAIGNING, in which no eggs or milk are required : important in the field. Put on the fire, in a moderate-sized saucepan, 12 pints of water ; when boiling, add to it 1 Ib. of rice or 16 tablespoonfuls, 4 oz. of brown sugar or 4 tablespoonfuls, 1 large teaspoonful of salt, and the rind of a lemon thinly peeled ; boil gently for half an hour, then strain all the water from the rice, keeping it as dry as possible. The rice water is then ready for drinking, either warm or cold. The juice of a lemon may be introduced, which will make it more palatable and refreshing. THE PUDDING. Add to the rice 3 oz. of sugar, 4 tablespoonfuls of flour, half a teaspoonful of pounded cinnamon ; stir it on the fire care- fully for five or ten minutes ; put it in a tin or pie-dish, and bake. By boiling the rice a quarter of an hour longer, it will be very good to eat without baking. Cinnamon may be omitted. No. 23 A. BATTER PUDDING. Break two fresh eggs in a basin, beat them well, add one tablespoonful and a half of flour, which beat up with your eggs with a fork until no lumps remain ; add a gill of milk, a teaspoonful of salt, butter a teacup or a basin, pour in your mixture, put some water in a stewpan, enough to immerge half way up the cup or basin in water ; when boiling, put in your cup or basin and boil twenty minutes, or till your pudding is well set ; pass a knife to loosen it, turn out on a plate, pour pounded sugar and a pat of fresh butter over, and serve. A little lemon, cinnamon, or a drop of any essence may be introduced. A little light melted butter, sherry, and sugar may be poured over. If required more delicate, add a little less flour. It may be served plain No. 24. BREAD AND BUTTER PUDDING. Butter a tart-dish well, and sprinkle some currants all round it, then lay in a few slices of bread and butter ; boil one pint of milk, pour it on two eggs well whipped, and then on the bread and butter ; bake it in a hot oven for half an hour. Currants may be omitted. No. 25. BREAD PUDDING. Boil one pint of milk, with a piece of cinnamon and lemon-peel ; pour it on two ounces of bread crumbs ; then add two eggs, half an ounce of currants, and a little sugar : steam it in a buttered mould for one hour. 190 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo. No. 26. CUSTARD PUDDING. Boil one pint of milk, with a small piece of lemon-peel and half a bay-leaf, for three minutes ; then pour these on to three eggs, mix it with one ounce of sugar well together, and pour it into a buttered ^inould : steam it twenty-five minutes in a stewpan with some water, turn out on a plate and serve. No. 27. RICH RICE PUDDING. Put in -J Ib. of rice in a stewpan, washed, 3 pints of milk, 1 pint of water, 3 oz. of sugar, 1 lemon peel, 1 oz. of fresh butter ; boil gently half an hour, or until the rice is ten- der ; add 4 eggs, well beaten, mix well, and bake quickly for half an hour, and serve : it may be steamed if preferred. No. 28. STEWED MACARONI. Put in a stewpan 2 quarts of water, half a tablespoonful of salt, 2 oz. of butter ; set on the fire ; when boil- ing, add 1 Ib. of macaroni, broken up rather small ; when boiled very soft, throw off* the water ; mix well into the macaroni a tablespoonful of flour, add enough milk to make it of the consistency of thin melted butter ; boil gently twenty minutes ; add in a tablespoonful of either brown or white sugar, or honey, and serve. A little cinnamon, nut- meg, lemon-peel, or orange-flower water may be introduced to impart a flavor ; stir quick. A gill ot milk or cream may now be thrown in three minutes before serving. Nothing can be more light and nutri- tious than macaroni done this way. If no milk, use water. No. 29. MACARONI PUDDING. Put 2 pints of water to boil, add to it 2 oz. of macaroni, broken in small pieces ; boil till tender, drain off the water and add half a tablespoonful of flour, 2 oz. of white sugar, a quarter of a pint of milk, and boil together for ten minutes ; beat an egg up, pour it to the other ingredients, a nut of butter ; mix well and bake, or steam. It can be served plain, and may be flavored with either cinnamon, lemon, or other essences, as orange-flower water, vanilla, &c. No. 30. SAGO PUDDING. Put in a pan 4 oz. of sago, 2 oz. of sugar, half a lemon-peel or a little cinnamon, a small pat of fresh but- ter, if handy, half a pint of milk ; boil for a few minutes, or until rather thick, stirring all the while ; beat up 2 eggs and mix quickly with the same ; it is then ready for either baking or steaming, or may be served plain. No. 31. TAPIOCA PUDDING. Put in a pan 2 oz. of tapioca, 1 pint of milk, 1 oz. of white or brown sugar, a little salt, set on the fire, boil gently for fifteen minutes, or until the tapioca is tender, stirring now and then to prevent its sticking to the bottom, or burning ; then add two eggs well beaten ; steam or bake, and serve. It will take about twenty minutes steaming, or a quarter of an hour baking slightly. Flavor with either lemon, cinnamon, or any other essence. Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 19\ No. 32. BOILED RICE SEMI-CURRIED, FOR THE PREMONITORY SYMP- TOMS OF DIARRHCEA. Put 1 quart of water in a pot or saucepan ; when boiling, wash a Ib. of rice and throw it into the water ; boil fast for ten minutes ; drain your rice in a colander, put it back in the saucepan, which you have slightly greased with butter ; let it swell slowly near the fire, or in a slow oven till tender ; each grain will then be light and well separated. Add to the above a small tablespoonful of aromatic sauce, called " Soyer's Relish or Sultana Sauce," with a quarter of a teaspoonful of curry powder ; mix together with a fork lightly, and serve. This quantity w r ill be sufficient for two or three people, accord- ing to the prescriptions of the attending physician. No. 33. FIGS AND APPLE BEVERAGE. Have 2 quarts of water boiling, into which throw 6 dry figs previously opened, and 2 apples, cut into six or eight slices each ; let the whole boil together twenty minutes ; then pour them into a basin to cool ; pass through a sieve ; drain the figs, which will be good to eat with a little sugar or jam. No. 34. STEWED FRENCH PLUMS. Put 12 large or 18 small-size French plums, soak them for half an hour, put in a stewpan with a spoonful of brown sugar, a gill of water, a little cinnamon, and some thin rind of lemon ; let them stew gently twenty minutes, then put them in a basin till cold with a little of the juice. A small glass of either port, sherry, or claret is a very good addition. The syrup is excellent. No. 35. FRENCH HERB BROTH. This is a very favorite beverage in France, as well with people in health as with invalids, especially in spring, when the herbs are young and green. Put a quart of water to boil, having previously prepared about 40 leaves of sorrel, a cabbage lettuce, and 10 sprigs of chervil, the \vhole well washed ; when the w T ater is boiling, throw in the herbs, with the addition of a teaspoonful of salt, and oz. of fresh butter ; cover the saucepan close, and let simmer a few minutes, then strain it through a sieve or colander. This is to be drunk cold, especially in the spring of the year, after the change from winter. I generally drink about a quart per day for a week at that time ; but if for sick people, it must be made less strong of herbs, and taken a little warm. To prove that it is wholesome, we have only to refer to the instinct which teaches dogs to eat grass at that season of the year. I do not pretend to say that it would suit persons in every malady, because the doctors are to decide upon the food and beverage of their patients, and study its changes as well as change their medi- cines ; but I repeat that this is most useful and refreshing for the blood. No. 36. BROWNING FOR SOUPS, &c. Put Ib. of moist sugar 192 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo. into an iron pan and melt it over a moderate fire till quite black, stir- ring it continually, which will take about twenty-five minutes : it must color by degrees, as too sudden a heat will make it bitter ; then add 2 quarts of water, and in ten minutes the sugar will be dissolved. You may then bottle it for use. It will keep good for a month, and will always be found very useful. No. 37. TOAST-AND-WATER. Cut a piece of crusty bread, about a I Ib. in weight, place it upon a toasting-fork, and hold it about six inches from the fire ; turn it often, and keep moving it gently until of a light-yellow color, then place it nearer the fire, and when of a good brown chocolate color, put it in a jug and pour over 3 pints of boiling water; cover the jug until cold, then strain it into a clean jug, and it is ready for use. Never leave the toast in it, for in summer it would cause fermentation in a short time. Buked Apple Toast-and- Water. A piece of apple, slowly toasted till it gets quite black and added to the above, makes a very nice an 7th. The ground over which an enemy must pass to the attack should, if possible, be seen both in front and flank. (Consult HYDE'S Fortifications ; JEBB'S Attack and Defence ; Traite Theorique et Pratique de Fortification Passagere, <&c., par M. ERNEST DE NEUCHEZE, Capitaine, &c. ; MAHAN'S Field For- tifications ; Aid Memoir to the Military Sciences, Edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers.) FILE generally means two soldiers, a front and rear rank man. Each man occupies in line about 21 inches ; 10 files require a space of 7 paces ; 100 files, 70 paces. The French designate men ranged in four ranks, as follows : the front rank men as chefs defile ; the second rank, serres demi files ; the third chefs demi file ; and the rear rank serres files. 300 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FiN. FINDING. Before a court-martial deliberates upon the judgment, the judge-advocate reads over the whole proceedings of the court ; he then collects the votes of each member, beginning with the youngest. The best mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The Articles of War require a majority in all cases, and in case of sentence of death, two- thirds^. It is not necessary to find a general verdict of guilt or acquittal upon the whole of every charge. The court may find a prisoner guilty of part of a charge, and acquit him of the remainder, and render sen- tence according to their finding. This is a special verdict ; ( HOUGH'S Military Laiu Authorities.) FIRE, (VARIETIES OF.) Direct fire is when the battery of guns is ranged parallel to the face of the work, or the line of troops to be fired at, so that the shot strike it perpendicularly. FIG. 129. A B represents a line of parapet, or of troops. C is the position of a battery, or line of infantry for direct fire on A B. D for enfilade. E for slant F ... ... ... ... ... for reverse. ENFILADE. Enfilade fire is when the battery is ranged perpendicu- larly to the prolongation of the crest of a parapet, or to a line of troops, so that the shot flies in the same direction, or parallel to the line or parapet, sweeping along from one end to the other. OBLIQUE. Oblique fire is when the battery of guns is ranged so as to form an angle with the front of the object to be struck. PLUNGING. Plunging fire is when the shot is fired from a position considerably higher than the object fired at. FIR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 301 RICOCHET. Ricochet fire is firing with a slight elevation, and with small charges, in a direction enfilading the face of the work, so that the shot are pitched over the parapet, and bound along the rampart from end to end, with destructive effect on the guns and gunners. REVERSE. Reverse fire is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the parapet at an angle greater than 30. SLANT. Slant fire is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the parapet, forming with it a horizontal angle, not greater than 30. VERTICAL. Vertical fire is that in which the shot or shell describes a lofty curve through the air before it falls ; such is the fire from mortars. FIRE BALL. Made like a light-ball, except that, being intended to light the works of an enemy, it is also loaded with a shell. FIRING-. In the discharge of fire-arms, it is necessary to know the position and relations existing between the three following lines (Fig. 130) : 1st, the line of sight, which is the prolongation of the visual FIG. 130. ray passing through the highest points of the breech and the muzzle ; 2d, the line of jire, which is the prolonged axis of the piece ; and 3d, the trajectory described by the projectile. The point-blank range is the second intersection of the trajectory with the line of sight. The causes of deviation in firms are : (1.) From the construc- tion of the arm. (2.) From the powder. charge Causes which can be corrected. "Which cannot corrected. be "Wrong position of the sight. Calibre not exact. Barrel imperfect. Too hard on the trigger. . Windage. {The recoil. Vibrations of the barrel, (spring of barrel.) Not exact measure. Form of grain and variable quality of powder. Its deterioration from dampness in transportation, &c. More or less ramming. Sticking along the bore, from becoming foul and damp. . Getting foul or dirty. 302 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FIR. C Not being of the exact weight and calibre, j More or less deformed in loading, or on leaving the (3.) From the ball. I barrel. iNot having the centre of gravity in the centre of the figure, (spherical ball.) The effect of wind. The temperature ; moisture in, and density of the air. (4.) From the atmos- The position of the sun. Difference of level between the target and gun. For the same kind of arm, the dimensions, charges, weights, projectile, &c., being constant, the point-blank may be considered as constant, and serves as a point of reference in firing at different distances. With a piece having a point-blank, that is, any piece having an angle in front, made by the line of sight and the line of fire, it is necessary, in firing at a point-blank object, to aim directly at the object. If the object be situated within the point-blank range, it will be necessary to aim below. If the object be situated beyond the point-blank, we must aim above the object. As the end of the gun obstructs the view of the object, in aiming above the point to be reached, and, moreover, as it is difficult to determine at a certain distance the elevation that ought to be given to the line of sight, a hausse or tangent scale is placed upon the breech of the cannon, which, by enlarging its diameter, increases the angle of sight and consequently the point-blank range. The tangent scale is now generally used with guns and howitzers, and the hausse, or rear sight, has also been attached to small arms of 1855. In addition to the tangent or hausse some sim- ple instrument may be used for determining distances. (See STADIA.) Fired under angles of 4 15', 4 30', and 4 50', the new rifle mus- ket, altered rifle, and altered rnusket have, respectively, a range of 1,000 yards. (See HAUSSE.) The elongated musket balls do not cease to ricochet on level ground at a distance of 1,000 yards. A strong wind, blowing perpendicularly to the direction of the rifle-musket ball, will deflect it from its course 12 feet in 1,000 yards ; about 3 feet in 500 yards, and 1^ feet in 200 yards. The effect of wind on the pistol-car- bine balls is somewhat greater for the same distance. When two oblong balls are fired from the new rifle musket or al- tered rifle, with the ordinary service charge of 60 grains, they separate from each other and from the plane of fire about 4 feet in a distance of 200 yards. If the piece be held firmly against the shoulder, no serious inconvenience will be felt ; but for the two balls it is necessary, in aim- FLA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 303 ing, to give the barrel greater elevation in the proportion of 6 feet for 200 yards. In cases of emergency, two balls might be employed against masses of infantry or cavalry, at distances not exceeding 300 yards. The angle of maximum range for the mortar is nearly 42. The angle of fall is the angle made by the last element of the trajectory with the ground, and when this angle is small, the projectile rebounds upon the earth and performs a series of ricochets, increasing in number as the angle of incidence diminishes, or as the ground is firm and elastic. The point-blank ranges of siege and garrison guns, with ordinary charges, are respectively eight hundred yards for the 24-pounder, seven hundred and seventy-five yards for the 18-pounder, and seven hundred yards for the 12-pounder. For field-artillery, the point-blank ranges are seven hundred and fifty yards for the 12-pounder, and six hundred and seventy-five yards for the 6-pounder. The point-blank is increased or diminished by the hausse or tangent .scale, ancl is then called the artificial point-blank. The practical rule in aiming field-guns by means of the tangent is : give one-twelfth of an inch on the instrument for each twenty-five yards beyond point-blank. The direct fire is employed in breaching parapets or walls, against troops in column, and in most cases where the object of attack is pos- sessed of considerable depth or thickness. The enfilade fire, with heavy ordnance, full charges and solid shot, is especially effective in those circumstances which admit of its adoption ; a single shot having been known to disable several guns, or to strike down a whole rank of men. Enfilade fire a ricochet is generally employed to dismount guns on parapets, protected by traverses, at ranges varying from 400 to 600 yards. The ricochet and vertical fires, being intended to act upon a surface, and not an isolated point, may be executed during the night, as well as by daylight. (See TARGET. Consult THIROUX ; KINGSBURY'S Ar- tillery and Infantry ; Reports of Experiments by Ordnance Depart- ment, U. S. A., 1856 ; HYDE'S Fortification.') FLAG-. The flag of the United States shall be thirteen horizontal stripes, alternate red and white. The Union shall be a number of white stars in a blue field, corresponding with the number of States in the Union. Upon the admission of a State to the Union, another star is added to the flag on the 4th of July next succeeding her admission ; (Act April 4, 1818.) All flags captured from an enemy to be displayed in such public place as the President may deem proper ; (Act April 8, 1814.) 304 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FLA. FLAGS OF TRUCE are frequently sent by an enemy with the design of gaining information. To prevent this, it is usual for outposts to halt the flag of truce, and if he is merely the bearer of a letter, re- ceipt for it, and order the party to depart, preventing all conversation with sentries. It may sometimes, however, be necessary to send the bearer of the flag to head-quarters, in this case, his eyes are bandaged, and he is forwarded with an escort. Flags of truce are used when an enemy is in position, on a march or in action. The flag ought always to be preceded by a trumpeter 25 paces in advance, and when within range of the guns of the sentinels or videttes, he halts, returns his sword to ils scabbard, and at the same moment raises and flourishes a white flag or handkerchief. If he is not signalled to retire, he continues to advance step by step until ordered to halt. If he remarks that it is sought to draw him into a snare, he retires at a gallop with his trumpet as soon as he is certain of the bad intention. When consent is given to receive him, he submits to all measures that may be exacted of him for the fulfilment of his mission. If it is during an action that a flag proceeds from the ranks of the enemy, the ranks that he leaves halt and cease their fire. He proceeds towards the chief of the adverse force, and at a suitable distance returns his sabre to its scabbard, and raises his flag. If he is not signalled to retire, and if the fire ceases in his front, he continues to advance and executes his orders. Some serious motive is indispensable for sending a flag during an action, for the enemy is apt to believe that it is a strat- agem, and therefore fires upon the flag, and follows up his aim more vigorously, while the opposite party have lost time. FLANK. The right or left side of a body of men, or place. Flank presupposes a formation more or less deep. A flank march is upon the prolongation of the line to which a body faces. Thus, when we say the enemy, by a flank march, outflanked our right wing, it is understood that the enemy, by marching parallel to our line of battle, put himself in position upon our extreme right. To disturb the flanks of a column or army is to throw an opposing force upon either side of the route that it follows. By this manoeuvre the march of the column is retarded, or it is forced to halt ; its baggage is sometimes seized, and terror and disorder fall upon the masses. Flank (To) is to cover and defend the flanks. We flank a camp by posts placed on the right and left ; a corps d'armee is flanked by de- tachments which take roads parallel to the routes followed by the larger body ; smaller columns are flanked by flankers on the right and left, who keep in view the columns, warn them of the approach of an enemy, FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 305 discover ambuscades, skirmish with them, and fall back when needed upon the mass of the troops. FLANK OF A BASTION is that side which connects the face and curtain. It is one of the principal defences of the place, as it pro- tects the curtain, the face, and flank of the opposite bastion, and the pas- sage of the ditch, FL&CHE is a simple species of field-work. It consists of two faces forming a salient angle. One simple rule for their construction is to select a spot for the salient and throw up a breastwork on either side, forming an angle of not less than 60, and allowing one yard for each file. FOOT in a military sense, implies infantry soldiers. FORAGE. The hay, corn, fodder, and oats required for the sub- sistence of the horses of an army. Generals, field-officers, cavalry- officers, and staff-officers receive a commutation in lieu of forage for each horse allowed by law, owned, and kept in service. (See PAY.) The maximum ration of forage is fourteen pounds of hay or fodder and twelve pounds of oats, corn, or barley. The established forage ration is furnished by the quartermaster's department. The food of horses however, like that of men, must be modified according to circum- stances, by changing established proportions or by substituting one article of food for another. A knowledge of the different descriptions of food capable of maintaining a horse in working condition is essential. Forage in garrison or established quarters is ordinarily obtained under contract ; but in the field the resources of the country occupied must be made immediately available. War deranges the proportions commonly maintained between demand and supply, and cripples agricultural indus- try. It is for the military administrator to counteract as far as possible this tendency, and not alone to seize upon all the resources of supply, but to render them continuously productive. Under the very best arrangements, however, few countries when they become the theatre of contending armies can long support the drain upon them, and afford sufficient sustenance for the immense number of animals which accom- pany an army, and a partial supply must under the most favorable circumstances be drawn from without. While the army is acting in the immediate vicinity of the sea-board there is little difficulty in main- taining this supply, but when it advances inland, and the means of water transport fail, it becomes a matter of extreme difficulty to provide the requisite transport for so bulky an article as forage. The artillery can render some assistance in this respect, and should be required to carry in their wagons at least three days' supply, but the cavalry soldier 20 306 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FOR. cannot always encumber himself with his forage ration, and at best can only be expected to carry three days' allowance of oats or barley, relying upon the supply department for his hay. Although hay has been packed by hydraulic pressure, the necessity of a further reduction of bulk, both as a question of economy and of convenience, has always been apparent. This consideration, and representations of the waste in- curred at the seat of war in the unloading of grain, and its transport to the front, led Mr. Julyan, asst.-com.-gen., B.A., to apply his inventive mind to the manufacture of what is now known as the " Amalgamated Field-forage." This consisted of a preparation of chopped hay, bruised oats, bran, &c., in the proportions usually issued to cavalry horses, thoroughly mixed together, subjected to a chemical process for the ex- pulsion of fixed air, and compressed by hydraulic power into thick cakes of great solidity. It was cut up into rations of 22 Ibs. each, and four of such pieces were packed in one canvas cover, which was convertible into a nose-bag. From these bags the horses w r ere to have been fed, the forage being restored to its original bulk and condition by moderate friction and a few minutes' exposure to the air. This preparation thus combined the advantages of extreme portability, full nutritious proper- ty, cheapness, and (from its being almost impervious to air and fire, as well as from its peculiar form) exemption from the accidents, deteri- oration, and losses to which forage in its ordinary state is subject. FORAGE MASTER. (See WAGON MASTER.) FORAGING is properly the collection of forage or other sup- plies systematically in towns or villages, or going with an escort to cut nourishment for horses in the fields. Such operations frequently lead to engagements with the enemy. Foraging parties are furnished with reaping hooks and cords. The men promptly dismount, make bundles with which they load their horses, and are prepared for any thing that may follow. The word foraging is sometimes inaccurately used for marauding. When foraging is effected in villages, it is best not to take the party into the village, but to send for the chief persons and stipu- late with them that the inhabitants shall bring the required forage and other stores out to the troops. If the inhabitants do not promptly corn- ply with this moderate command, it is necessary to take the troops into the village. In this event, all possible means must be taken to prevent disorder, as for instance : 1. A certain number of houses are assigned to each company, so that the commander of the detachment may hold each company respon- sible for the disorders committed within its limits. FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 307 2. Guards are posted and patrols sent out, who arrest any foragers guilty of disorder. 3. If the form of the village permits, a part of the detachment re- mains at the centre to pack the horses and load the wagons as fast as the other men bring the forage from the houses. In places where an attack may be expected, the foraging is conduct- ed as follows : Either fatigue parties are sent with wagons, or parties of cavalry with their own horses ; in both cases a special escort is added for the protection of the foragers. In all cases, the strength of the escort depends upon the degree of danger, the space over which the foraging is to extend, and the distance from the enemy. During the march of foragers to and from the foraging ground, if they consist of a fatigue party with wagons, an escort is added, which acts in conformity with the rules for escorting convoys. If the foragers consist only of cavalry with their own horses, then on the outward march they move in one body, observing the precautions prescribed for movements near the enemy ; on the return march, if the horses of the foragers are packed and led, the detachment acting as escort should not pack more than 40 pounds on their horses, so that the load may not prevent them from acting against the enemy. One hundred and twelve pounds may be packed on a horse, and the horse must be led ; 56 pounds are packed in two trusses. Sometimes the escort, or a part of it, may be sent out early to the foraging ground, to take measures for the security of the foragers before they arrive. For the safety of the foragers when at their work, the escort is divided into two or three parts, according to circumstances; one part places a chain of outposts and sends out patrols, to guard the whole ground ; another furnishes the supports of the outposts, and if there are infantry or mounted rifles with it they occupy the points which cover the approaches ; the third part is placed in reserve near the centre of the ground, that it may easily reach any point attacked. If the enemy attacks while the foraging is going on, the escort should go to meet him or defend itself in position, endeavor- ing to stop him until the foragers have finished their work, and are drawn out on the road for their return march ; then the escort com- mences its retreat, acting as a rear guard, and endeavoring to keep the enemy as far from the foragers as possible. If it is impossible to hold the enemy in check long enough to finish the work, they should at least send forward and protect all the foragers who have packed their horses or loaded their wagons ; the rest join the escort. If there is a prob- ability of driving off the enemy by uniting all the foragers to the escort, it is best to abandon the forage already packed, and to begin foraging 308 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fern. anew after having repulsed the enemy. It is permitted to abandon the forage entirely only in extreme urgency, when there is absolutely no other way of saving the foragers. If the enemy is repulsed, we must not be induced to pursue him except far enough to prevent a re- newal of the attack, but must endeavor to complete the foraging. The foraging must not be extended over any ground not guarded by the escort. If the escort is too weak to cover the whole space designated for foraging, the ground is divided into parts, and the foraging effected in the different portions successively. If the foraging ground is at a considerable distance from the camp, it will be a proper precaution to post a special detachment in support half way. Foraging in places occupied by the enemy is undertaken only upon the entire exhaustion of the ground occupied by our own troops. Such for- aging is covered by offensive operations, so that, having driven in the enemy's advanced troops or other parties, we may rapidly seize all the supplies to be found in the vicinity. This is called forced foraging. The strength and composition of a detachment for forced foraging must be such that it can overwhelm the enemy's troops, and remain long enough in position to enable the accompanying detach- ment of foragers to complete their work and retreat out of danger. The main conditions of success in such an enterprise are suddenness, rapidity, and determination in the attack, promptness in the work of the foragers, and tenacity in holding the position taken from the enemy as long as necessary. Success will be greatly facilitated by partial attacks made upon different points of the enemy's position while the foraging is going on. Attacks upon foragers should be sudden and rapid, in order, by not giving the escort time to defend the points attacked, to produce confusion among the foragers and thus prevent them from working. The approach of the attacking party should be concealed, rapid, and compact ; that is, it should not send out parties to any great distance in front or on the flanks, and, as a general rule, should not divide its force prematurely, but only the moment before the attack. The force of a detachment sent to attack foragers depends chiefly upon the object of the attack that is, whether it is designed to capture the foragers, or only to prevent them from foraging by alarming them, or to prevent them from carrying off forage already packed. It is in all cases advantageous to begin with several simultaneous false attacks by small parties, to perplex the enemy and oblige him to divide the escort ; then to direct the main party of the detachment upon the principal point of the enemy's arrangements, overthrow his weakened escort, and pene- trate to the road of retreat, so as either to cut off and destroy a part of FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 309 the escort and foragers, or to force them to abandon their work and fly, by threatening to cut them off. If from the disproportion of force it is impossible to prevent the foraging entirely, the attacking party confines itself to delaying the work ; its operations, therefore, should consist in partial attacks upon several points, in order to alarm and disperse the foragers by breaking through the outposts at several points. Upon meeting a considerable force of the enemy these attacking parties should at once retreat, and renew the attack in a different place. In such operations a portion of the attacking detachment should be kept together and held in reserve, as a support and rallying point for the small par- ties. If they do not succeed in preventing the foraging, they may try to attack the foragers on the return march ; observing in this case the rules laid down for attacks upon convoys ; (McCiELLAN's Military Com- mission to Europe?) FORCE. Any body of troops. FORDS. In examining and reporting upon a ford s the main points to be considered are : the firmness and regularity of the bottom, its length, width, and direction ; the depth, (and its increase by tides or floods,) the rapidity of the current, the facilities of access, security from attack, and the means of rendering it impassable : a ford should always be tried personally before making a report on its capabilities. The depth of fords for cavalry should not be more than 4 feet 4 inches, and for infantry 3 feet 3 inches ; but if the stream is not very rapid, and the direction of the crossing is down-stream, the latter may pass by holding on to the horses, even if the depth is four feet. Should the stream be very rapid, however, depths much less than these could not be con- sidered fordable, particularly if the bottom is uneven. Carriages with wheels 5 feet in diameter may cross a ford 4 feet deep ; but if it is necessary to keep their contents dry, the depth should not be more than 2, or at most 2 feet. Fords are generally to be found above or below a bend, and often lie in lines diagonally across the river ; small gravel forms the best bottom ; and rock, on the contrary, the most dangerous, unless perfectly regular and not slippery. They may be sounded by means of a boat having a pole attached. B;it cavalry or good swimmers may effect it with lances or poles, carefully feeling their way before advancing. Parts which may be too deep, or even the whole width, if the river is narrow, may be rendered fordable by throwing in fascines parallel to the direction of the current, and loading them with stones, which must afterwards be covered with smaller material to render the surface level. The approaches should also be levelled, and where the soil is soft, rendered firm by covering them with fascines, &c., 310 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FOB. so that the troops may advance with a broad front, and rapidly mount the further bank. The extent and direction of the ford should be clearly- marked out by means of poles firmly fixed, and these may be notched, so that a dangerous rise in the river may be observed. If the current is rapid, a number of these placed along the upper edge of the ford, and connected by ropes, will also be useful to prevent men on foot being swept away ; and boats and horsemen should also be in readiness to rescue them. The force of the current may be broken by the cavalry crossing a little above them ; but if the bottom is sandy, the cavalry should cross after the infantry and artillery, as the passage of the former deepens a ford sometimes very materially. The opening and shutting of the mill-sluices will sometimes alter the depth of fords, and floods may even entirely destroy them ; they can be rendered impracticable by means of large stones, harrows, planks with spikes, sharp stakes driven in so as to be concealed by the water, abatis, &c., or by cutting trenches across ; (Aide Memoir e.) FORGE. One travelling forge and one battery wagon accompany each field-battery. They are furnished with the tools and materials re- quired for shoeing horses and for the ordinary repair and preservation of carriages and harness. The total weight of the forge when loaded is 3,383 Ibs., that of the battery wagon loaded is 3,574 Ibs. FORLORN HOPE. Officers and soldiers who generally volun- teer for enterprises of great danger, such as leading the attack when storming a fortress. FORT is an inclosed work of the higher class of field-works. The word, however, is loosely applied to other military works. FORTIFICATION. A fortification in its most simple form con- sists of a mound of earth, termed the rampart, which encloses the space fortified ; a parapet, surmounting the rampart and covering the men and guns from the enemy's projectiles ; a scarp wall, which sustains the pressure of the earth of the rampart and parapet, and presents an ob- stacle to an assault by storm ; a wide and deep ditch, which prevents the enemy from approaching near the body of the place ; a counterscarp wall, which sustains the earth on the exterior of the ditch ; a covered way, which occupies the space between the counterscarp and a mound of earth, called a glacis, thrown up a few yards in front of the ditch for the purpose of covering the scarp of the main work. The work by which the space fortified is immediately enveloped is called the enceinte, or body of the place. Other works are usually added to the enceinte to strengthen the weak points of the fortification, or to lengthen the siege by forcing the enemy to gain possession of them before he can FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 311 breach the body of the place. These are termed outworks, when en- veloped by the covered way, and advanced works, when placed exterior to the covered way, but in some manner connected with the main work ; but if entirely beyond the glacis and not within supporting distance of the fortress, they are called detached works. In a bastioned front the principal outwork is the demi-lune, which is placed in front of the cur- tain ; it serves to cover the main entrance to the work, and to place the adjacent bastions in strong re-enterings. The tenaille is a small low work placed in the ditch, to cover the scarp wall of the curtain and flanks from the fire of the besiegers' batteries erected along the crest of the glacis. The places of arms are points where troops are assembled in order to act on the exterior of the work. The re-entering places of arms, are small redans arranged at the points of juncture of the covered ways of the bastion and demi-lune. The salient places of arms, are the parts of the covered way in front of the salients of the bastion and demi-lune. Small permanent works, termed redoubts, are placed within the demi- lune and re-entering places of arms for strengthening those works. Works of this character constructed within the bastion, are termed in- terior retrenchments ; when sufficiently elevated to command the ex- terior ground, they are called cavaliers. Caponnieres are works constructed to cover the passage of the ditch from the tenaille to the gorge of the demi-lune, and also from the demi- lune to the covered way, by which communication may be maintained between the enceinte and outworks. Posterns are underground com- munications made through the body of the place or some of the out- works. Sortie passages are narrow openings made through the crest of the glacis, which usually rise in the' form of a ramp from the covered way, by means of which communication may be kept up with the ex- terior. These passages are so arranged that they cannot be swept by the fire of the enemy. The other communications above ground are called ramps, stairs, &c. Traverses are small works erected on the covered way to intercept the fire of the besiegers' batteries. Scarp and counterscarp galleries are sometimes constructed for the defence of the ditch. They are arranged with loopholes, through which the troops of the garrison fire on the besiegers when they have entered the ditch, without being themselves exposed to the batteries of the enemy. In seacoast defences, and sometimes in a land front for the defence of the ditch, embrasures are made in the scarp wall for the fire of ar- tillery ; the whole being protected from shells by a bomb-proof cov- ering overhead ; this arrangement is termed a casemate. Sometimes 312 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FOR. double ramparts and parapets are formed, so that the interior one shall fire over the more advanced : the latter in this case is called a fausse Iraie. If the inner work be separated from the other, it is called a retrenchment ; and if it has a commanding fire, a cavalier. The capital of a bastion is a line bisecting its salient angle. All works compre- hended between t he capitals of two adjacent bastions, are called a front. In the Prussian system of fortification, the defence of the ditch being provided for by casemated caponnieres, the necessity for breaking up the outline of the enceinte into a succession of salient and re-entering angles, as in the bastion tracings, is altogether removed. The enceinte may, therefore, have that outline which in the particular case is most advantageous for defence, and best adapted to the natural features of the position. This will generally be a polygon, more or less regular, ac- cording to the regularity or irregularity of the site. The caponnieres for the defence of the main ditch may either be on the centre of the front, or at the alternate salient angles ; the latter, as being more secure from an enemy's distant fire, appears the better position. The length of the exterior side may be of almost any magnitude, though GOO yards are, perhaps, as great as under any ordinary circumstances would be re- quisite. The enceinte is a massive rampart and parapet, fronted by a revetment, from 24 to 30 feet in height, which is sometimes wholly or partially loopholed for musketry. The centre of the ditch is occupied by the casemated caponniere, a massive work of masonry, capable of containing two stages of five guns each, one on either face ; so that the ditch on either side of the caponniere is swept by the fire of ten guns. The advocates for the Prussian system claim for it the following ad- vantages : 1st. When the range of musketry is given up as the standard length of a line of defence, and that of artillery substituted for it, the exterior sides of the polygons of fortification may evidently be much extended. 2d. The Prussian engineers prefer the construction of case- mated flanks for the defence of ditches, as being more secure than the ordinary flanks of the bastion system ; that is, the guns are protected from enfilade and vertical fire from a distance, and cannot be counter- battered by direct fire, until the assailant crowns the glacis. They use ca- ponnieres for the defence of the main ditch, and for the ditches of the ravelin. 3d. The ravelins can be made as salient as the detached ravelins of Chasseloup and Bousmard ; while the caponnieres or casemated pro- jections by which their ditches are defended, protect the body of the place from the breaching batteries of the enemy on the counterscarp, at the sa- lient angles of the ravelins. These ravelins are more under the fire of the FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 313 enceinte, than detached ravelins ; they contain a greater interior space ; there is a saving of masonry at the gorge : and fewer troops secure the work from assault. 4th. In the attack of these fronts, the ap- proaches are opposed on the capital of the ravelin, by three mortars in casemates under the parapet, cutting off the salient of the ravelin, and by guns on the terre-plein above. The glacis is protected on each side, by the fire of 90 yards of the enceinte, and from 80 yards of the faces of the ravelin, which (being covered by the advanced portions of greater elevation) is very difficult to enfilade. 5th. The establishment of bat- teries on the counterscarp of the salient angle of the ravelin, is rendered very difficult by countermines, and by a double tier of fire along the whole width of the ditch, viz., from the caponniere and from the en- ceinte behind it ; even supposing this caponniere to be silenced, its massive ruins would prevent a serious breach being made in the en- ceinte. 6th. The attempts of an enemy to lodge himself on the ad- vanced part of the ravelin 'are opposed by countermines, prepared in the work during its construction, and by the retrenchment behind : moreover, any endeavor to establish a battery in the narrow part of the angle, would be opposed by the fire of the whole enceinte behind the ravelin ; by that of the casemated keep ; and by sorties having their flanks fully protected. 7th. The permanent possession of the ravelin can only be obtained after the destruction of the keep, (which com- mands every part of the interior, and is not seen from the exterior ;) and until this is accomplished the enemy cannot make his approaches on the glacis, for the purpose of constructing his breaching batteries against the enceinte ; or he would be taken "both in flank and in reverse. 8th. The great caponniere flanking the ditch of the enceinte is indepen- dent of the keep of the ravelin, (which, after being taken, would be open to the fire of the enceinte and its detached escarp ;) \vhile its double tier of guns, sweeping the whole width of the ditch, can only be opposed by batteries directly in front. The establishment of these batteries, and of others for breaching the escarp at the salient, would, of course, require the capture of two ravelins, between which the approaches would be sheltered from the collateral works ; but the ground would be dimin- ished in extent on advancing near the place, and consequently expose the troops (concentrated in larger numbers) to a more destructive fire. 9th. From the great projection of the ravelin, and the obtuseness of the angles of the polygon, the effects of ricochet on the enceinte are pre- vented in an octagon, as the prolongations of the sides of the polygon, or the enceinte, are intercepted by the ravelins ; which ravelins might (in cases where the ground is favorable) be made to project still further, 314 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fou. so as to cover the ditch from enfilade by distant batteries, and thus secure the great caponnieres from annoyance. 10th. The salient angles of the enceinte may also be retrenched by a detached loopholed wall, which would bring a great extent of fire on the breach, llth. The Prussians consider that, by these arrangements, they obtain much su- periority over the ordinary bastion systems, including those of Bous- mard and Chasseloup de Laubat. That greater means of resistance are obtained at a comparatively small expense, which means might be in- creased when required, by cavaliers, by interior retrenchments, and by a covered way, with redoubts. 12th. The armament required would be comparatively small, as in the flanks or caponnieres, which com- pletely enfilade the main ditches at a short range, a few pieces only would be necessary to prevent a coup-de-main, while a full supply to resist a serious attack might be brought by easy and secure communi- cations. A few guns placed on the salients of the ravelins would be sufficient to keep off an enemy until he had broken ground ; while the whole disposable guns of the place might easily be brought upon the enceinte on that side, and the second part of the collateral ravelins. 13th. The fatigue attending the usual arrangements would also be greatly diminished by the easiness and security of the communications. The garrison need not be numerous, as they are not required to expose themselves in outworks beyond the main ditch ; they are protected by casemates in the flank defences, which are sufficiently strong to allow of their concentrating nearly the whole force on the points of impor- tance, and which, being concealed from the enemy, do not give known points to his vertical fire. Fort Alexander, which crowns a height commanding the town of Coblentz, (Fig. 131,) is a beautiful specimen of the German system. The position around Coblentz occupies the four opposite angles, made by the Moselle and the Lahn, which rivers empty themselves into the Rhine, nearly opposite to each other ; for the Lahn runs into the Rhine about a league above Coblentz. The general form of the ground is very favorable for the offensive or defensive operations of an army in pos- session of it, and its fortresses ; and many of the high roads from the most important towns in Germany pass in this direction ; whilst the country is so difficult of access, that it is next to impossible to avoid the main road. Coblentz is situated in the angle formed by the junc- tion of the Moselle with the Rhine. It extends about three-fourths of a mile in each direction. The enceinte of the town is secure against a coup-de-main. Its rampart forms a succession of salient and re-enter- ing angles, which being obtuse are little liable to enfilade ; while the FOE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 315 ditches are flanked by good casemated batteries, having three guns in each flank. The gateways are strong casemated barracks, containing batteries to flank the ditches and approaches. These casemates are separated from the ramparts on each side, and form a kind of citadel : the profile of the rampart is nearly similar to Carnot's : the wall is well covered. Should the neighboring works on the heights be reduced, the town would be commanded and exposed to an enemy's fire. It is, however, no easy matter for an enemy to get possession of these commanding sites. The two most important of .these are, Ehren- breitstein on the right bank, and Fort Alexander on the left bank, of the Ehine. Ehrenbreitstein occupies a commanding rocky site, 400 feet above the river, inaccessible on three sides, and on the approachable side from the north, it is defended by strong double works ; having abundant casemates for its garrison, stores, and artillery. It is the key of the whole position, commanding all tho surrounding works within its range, and having smaller works detached from it, for looking into hollows, that cannot be seen from the main works. It has a fine well, 300 feet deep. The faces of the works defending the only approachable side, can mount forty-three pieces of ordnance in casemates ; the ditches are well defended by casemated batteries ; and the escarps are about 35 feet in height. It is altogether a most formidable work. The piers that sep- 316 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FOR. arate the casemates and support the arches are made to project right through to the front of the revetment, which is 10 feet thick : and the courses, instead of being horizontal, are laid in successive arches, the joints forming rays from a centre. The whole is built of rough stone, and grouted in, so as to settle in time into a solid mass. Fort Alexander with its dependencies, commands all the approaches to Coblentz between the rivers. The principal front of this work has its exterior side about 650 yards, and its interior side about 500 yards in length. The ravelins and the counterguards have their faces directed so, that their prolongations do not fall upon the plateau in front, but upon the hollows and ravines, &c., from which they cannot be enfiladed. The flanking caponniere is very strong, being a case- mated work for two tiers of guns ; each flank has five guns in the lower tier for flanking the ditch, and five in the upper tier for flanking the terre-pleins of the counterguards. The casemates in the faces or angu- lar parts are loopholed for musketry. Each caponniere serves as a good barrack for 160 men, besides stores. This work is completely covered in front by the counterguard or ravelin, which is only two feet lower than the body of the place. Each flank of the enceinte contains six casemates for guns to flank the ditches before them. The faces and ditches of the ravelins are flanked by solid casemated caponnieres, which cover the body of the place from any batteries that might be established at the rounding of the counterscarp of the ravelin. The ditches of the counterguards are flanked by casemated batteries, placed in the faces of the ravelins. The body of the work is an oblique parallelogram, about 5 from a right*angle : the side fronts are about 420 yards, and the rear front 500 yards in length, in order to suit the ground. There is a strong casemated tower at the gorge connected with a communica- tion from Fort Coristantine. There is no covered way ; the counter- guards answer the purpose. Good ramps and other arrangements are made in the countersloping glacis and its salients, favorable for sorties. It is calculated that 5,000 men would be sufficient to man all these works on both sides of the river ; while it is evident that a vast army might be securely cantoned within the circuit of the works. A great number of trees have been planted all around Fort Alexander ; the roots of which, left in the ground, would defy the ordinary work of sappers and miners ; and would therefore prove formidable obstacles in the process of a regular attack, while the timber would be invaluable in a siege ; (HYDE'S Fortification.) FORTIFICATION (FRONT OF) consists of all the works con- structed upon any one side of a regular polygon, whether placed within Fou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 317 or without the exterior side ; or, according to St. Paul, all the works contained between any two of the oblique radii. Some authors give a more limited sense to the term " front of fortification," by confining it to two half bastions joined by a curtain. If the polygon be regular, that is, if all the sides be of equal length, and the fronts of the same description, it is called a regular work ; but if they differ, it is called an irregular work. FORTIFICATION (IRREGULAR) is that, in which, from the nature of the ground or other causes, the several works have not their due proportion according to rule ; irregularity, however, does not neces- sarily imply weakness. FORTIFICATION (NATURAL) consists of such objects formed by nature, as are capable of impeding the advance of an enemy ; and a station is said to be naturally fortified, when it is situated on the top of a steep hill, or surrounded by impassable rivers, marshes, &c. FORTIFICATION (REGULAR) is that in which the works are constructed on a regular polygon, and which has its corresponding parts equal to each other. FORTRESS. A fortress is a fortified city or town, or any piece of ground so strongly fortified as to be capable of resisting an attack carried on against it, according to rule. FOUGASS. Charges of gunpowder are frequently placed at the bottom of a pit or shaft dug in the ground over which an enemy must pass to the attack. In these cases they take the name of fougasses. The chief difficulty attending the use of fougasses is to explode them at the instant when the enemy is passing over, as any variation in the time of explosion from this instant renders them altogether useless. It is, therefore, recommended to place an obstacle over them, as an abatis or chevaux-de-frize, so that the fougasses may be ex- ploded while the enemy is occu- pied in forcing his way over. Sometimes a fougass is made of several loaded shells placed in a box, with a charge of pow- der under. The box should be pitched, to keep the charge dry. (Fig. 132.) A stone fougass (Fig. 133) is made by excavating a shaft 6 feet deep, inclined to the horizon at Fio 132 Fio. 123 318 MILITARY DICTIONARY. FIG. 134. an angle of about 45. At the bottom place a charge of 55 Ibs. (a cubic foot) of powder, then a strong shield of wood at least 6 inches thick, in front of the charge, and over the shield throw in three or four cubic yards of pebbles, of not less than half a pound weight each. A sufficient body of earth must be placed vertically, above the charge, and retained over the upper part of the shaft, near the edge, by a revetment of sods, to insure the effect taking place in the right direction. Fougasses are usually fired by means of an augot, or casing tube, containing a hose or saucisson, &c., led up the side of the pit or shaft, and then parallel to the surface of the ground, at a depth of two or three feet ; or they may be fired, at the proper moment, by means of a loaded musket with its muzzle in the powder, and a wire or string fastened to the trigger. Analogous to fougasses were the Russian powder-boxes used at Sebastopol, Fig. 134. Each consisted of a double deal box, of a capacity sufficient to contain 35 Ibs. of pow- der, water-tight, and ef- fectually secured from the penetration of damp ; into the top of each box was in- serted a vertical tin tube, connected with a horizontal tin tube at the surface of the ground. Within the latter was a glass tube, filled with sulphuric acid, and coated with a composition of chlorate of potassa, sugar, sulphur, and gum water, which immediately takes fire on coming in contact with the acid. The space between the interior of the tin tube and the exterior of the glass tube, as well as the vertical tin tube, is filled with gun- powder. A little earth spread lightly over the whole completes the arrangement. A person walking over the ground, and treading on the tin tube, crushes it, and the glass tube contained in it, causing the escape of the sulphuric acid, and the explosion of the gunpowder. FRAISES are palisades placed horizontally or obliquely, at the edge of a ditch on either side, or projecting from the exterior slope of a parapet. If the slope be very long, there are sometimes two rows of fraises used. Fez.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 319 FRAUD. Association of any officer with another officer convicted by a court-martial of fraud or cowardice shall be deemed scandalous ; (ART. 85.) (See COWARDICE.) Fraud consists in unlawfully, designedly, and knowingly appro- priating the property of another with a criminal intent. It is any trick or artifice employed by one person to induce another to fall into an error or detain him in. it, so that he make an agreement in contracts contrary to his interest. The fraud may consist in the misrepresen- tation or in the concealment of a material fact ; (BOUVIER'S Law Dic- tionary.) FRAYS. (See QUARRELS.) FRICTION PRIMER FOR CANNON consists of a tube charged with gunpowder, to the top of which is fastened a cup containing fric- tion powder, composed of two parts of chlorate of potassa, and one of sul. of antimony, which is exploded by means of a slider pulled out with a lanyard. The tube, cup, and slider are made of sheet brass. The lanyard, for pulling off the primer, is a piece of strong cod line (about .2 in. thick) 12 feet long ; to one end is attached a small iron hook, with an eye for the line, and to the other end a wooden toggel, .75 in. diam- eter, and 4 in. long. If injured by moisture, the primers become ser- viceable again when dried, and they have the great advantage of portability and certainty of fire. FRONTIER. (See DEFENCE, NATIONAL.) FUMIGATION. To correct and purify an infectious or confined atmosphere, such as is often found in transports, fumigations are neces- sary. The materials recommended for the purpose are brimstone with sawdust ; or nitre with vitriolic acid ; or common salt with the same acid. One fluid ounce of sulphuric acid mixed with two fluid ounces of water, and then poured over four ounces of common salt, and one ounce of oxide of manganese in powder, these latter ingredients being previously placed in hot sand, are also recommended. Burning char- coal is also a good disinfectant. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.) FUNERALS. Army Regulations prescribe the honors to be paid at funerals. FURLOUGHS. The term is usually applied to the absence with leave of non-commissioned officers and soldiers. (See ABSENCE WITH LEAVE.) FUZE is the means used to ignite the bursting charge of shells. They are classified as Time, Concussion, and Percussion Fuzes. The time fuze is composed of a case of paper, wood, or metal, inclosing a burning composition. It is cut or bored to a length proportioned to 320 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GAB. the intended range of the shell, so that it shall burn down and explode the bursting charge, just as the shell strikes the ground, or earlier if desirable, instead of driving the fuze composition into a wooden tube as formerly, and requiring a saw to give the fuze its proper length ac- cording to range, the shell is now supplied with a plug of hard wood or metal, having a hole reaped out exactly the size of a paper case con- taining the composition. By varying this composition, the same length suffices for all the ranges or times of burning required. And these having the different compositions in paper cases of as many different colors, the cannoneer at a field-piece may, in an instant, insert into the plug the colored fuze required for the desired range. Similar fuzes have been adopted for the columbiads, the plugs being of bronze instead of wood. Three kinds of time fuzes arc employed in the United States Service, viz., the Mortar Fuze, the Borman Fuze, and the sea-coast fuze. The best and simplest form of the percussion fuze is the ordinary percussion cap placed on a cone affixed to the point of the projectile. The arrangement should be protected by a safety cap to prevent the percussion cap taking fire by the discharge of the piece. " Bick ford's fuze" is a small tube of gunpowder, sewed round with tarred twine, and then pitched over. It is not injured by damp, and when well made, will burn under water, and is used for firing the charges of mines, &c. The Gomez Patent Electric Safety train or fuze is made in the form of a tape, inclosing a chemical compound that burns at the rate of one mile in four seconds ; it may be used like the Bick- ford fuze. (See RIFLED ORDNANCE.) G GABIONNADE. A work constructed with gabions. GABIONS are cylindrical baskets of various dimensions, open at both ends, used to revet the interior slopes of batteries, the cheeks of embrasures, and to form the parapet of trenches. (See REVETMENT for the construction of gabions.) GALLERY. In permanent fortification, a passage or communi- cation to that part of a mine where the powder is lodged. The princi- pal gallery, from which others originate, is constructed under the ban- quette of the covered way, and follows that portion of the works throughout its whole extent. Another gallery is formed in a direction parallel to the first at 50 or 60 yards' distance, and communicates with the first by means of other galleries perpendicular to it. Galleries are lined with masonry. When finished they are about six feet high and four and a half feet wide. I GKO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 321 GARRISON designates the troops employed in a strong place for its security, and it is also applied to the place itself when occupied by troops. The President may employ such troops of the United States as he may judge necessary as garrisons of fortifications ; (Act March 20, 1794.) GENERAL. Rank above lieutenant-general. There is no such grade in the United States army. GENERAL OFFICERS. All officers above the rank of colonel. Any sentence of a court-martial affecting a general officer must be ap- proved by the President. (See COURT-MARTIAL.) GENOUILLERE. From the French genou, knee. It is that part of the parapet of a battery which remains above the platform and under the gun, after the opening of the embrasure. GEOMETRY. The science which teaches the dimensions of lines, surfaces, and solids. It is a necessary introduction to fortification and mechanics. It enables us to ascertain the distances of inaccessible objects, the dimensions of a given surface, the contents of a given solid ; to compute the distances arid motions of the planets ; to predict celes- tial phenomena ; and to navigate a ship from any given point to another on the surface of the globe. Geometry, besides other divisions, is divided into ancient and mod- ern : ancient geometry being that form of demonstration and investi- gation which was employed by the Greeks, and of which Euclid's Elements form a well-known example ; modern geometry is that in which algebra, or the differential and integral calculus, is employed. We also speak of pure geometry, practical geometry, and applied ge- ometry. Descriptive geometry was first employed by Monge, and sub- sequently by other French geometers, to express that part of science which consists in the application of geometrical rules to the representa- tion of the figures, and the various relations of the forms of bodies, ac- cording to certain conventional methods. It differs from ordinary per- spective, inasmuch as the design or representation is made in such a manner that the exact distance between the different points of the body represented can always be found, and consequently all the mathematical relations resulting from the form and position of the body may be deduced from the representation. In descriptive geometry, the situation of points in space is rep- resented by their projections on two planes, at right .angles to each other, called the planes of projection. It is usual to suppose one of the planes of projection to be horizontal, in which case the other is ver- tical ; and the projections are called horizontal or vertical, according as 21 I 322 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GEO. they are on the one or the other'of these planes. According to this system, any point whatever in space is represented by drawing a per- pendicular from it to each of the planes of projection : the point on which the perpendicular falls is the projection of the proposed point. As contiguous points in space form a line, so the projections of those points, which are also contiguous, form a line in the same manner, which is the projection of the given line. Hence as two projections only are required for the determination of a point in space, they are also sufficient for the determination of any curve whatever, whether of single or double curvature. The same nro'de of representation cannot be employed with regard to surfaces ; for, as the projections of the contiguous points of a surface cover a continuous area on both planes of projection, there is nothing to indicate that any particular point on one of the planes of projection corresponds to one point more than another on the second plane, and consequently that it belongs to one point more than another in space. But if we conceive the surface which is to be represented to be covered with a system of lines succeeding one another according to a determin- ate law, then, by projecting these lines on each of the two planes, and marking the correspondence of the one projection with the other, the projections of all the different points of the surface will have an evident dependence on each other, and the surface will be rigorously and com- pletely determined. Some elementary surfaces may, however, be represented in a much more simple way. The plane, for example, is completely defined by the straight lines in which it intersects the two planes of projection. These lines are denominated the traces of the plane. A sphere is also completely defined by the two projections of its centre, and the great circle which limits the projections of its points. A cylinder is defined by its intersection (or trace) with one of the planes of projection, and by the two projections of one of its ends. A cone is represented by its intersection with one of the planes of projection and the two pro- jections of its summit. The most immediate application of descriptive geometry is the representation of bodies, of which the forms are susceptible of rigorous geometrical definition. Sculpture, architecture, painting, and all the mechanical arts, the object of which is to give to matter certain deter- minate forms, borrow from descriptive geometry their graphical pro- cedures, by the aid of which all the parts of an object are faithfully rep- resented in relief before the object itself is executed. But it was chiefly in consequence of its application to civil and military engineering, and GOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 323 to fortification, that this branch of geometry received a distinctive ap- pellation, and is considered of much importance in the Polytechnic school of France, and our own Military Academy. (Consult DAVIES' Descriptive Geometry.) GIN. The derrick, sheers, and gin have one common object, viz. : to find a fulcrum in space, to which the pulley, in the shape of block and tackle, is to be applied. In the derrick and sheers this is effected on one and two legs, and stability is given by guys. The gin usually consists of three long legs, two of which are joined together by cross bars, and the third, called the pry pole, elevates the gin. A pulley is supported at the top, round which a roftp is passed for elevating the weight. Fig. 135 shows the manner of working the gin. There are three kinds of gins used in service : the field and siege, the garrison, and the casemate. The last two differ front each other only in height ; the first differs 'from the others in construction and size. Either of them may be used as derrick or sheers. The garrison and casemate gins differ from the siege gin in having two braces of iron instead of three wooden cross-bars or braces, and in having the pry pole inserted between the legs, which are kept together by the clevis bolt. The upper pulley (generally treble) is hooked to the clevis. (For description, setting up, and mechanical manoeuvres with gins, consult Instruction in Heavy Artillery.) GIRDER. In building, the principal beam of a floor for support- ing the binding or other joists, to lessen their bearing or length. GLACIS. The superior slope of the parapet of the covered way, extended in a gentle declivity to the surrounding country. It is seldom used in field-works. (See FORTIFICATION.) GLANDERS. A virulent and dangerous disease among horses, principally shown in a mucous discharge from the nostrils. To prevent this infectious disorder from spreading, it is necessary at once to re- move the horse from his stall, and thoroughly wash with soap and water the rack, manger, and every part of the stall from which the horse has been removed. When the parts are thus made clean, they must also be covered with a quick-lime wash immediately after it is mixed, and afterwards three coats of oil colors given to it. The same precautions are taken in FARCY. (See VETERINARY.) GORGE. The gorge of a fortification or gorge of a work is the opening on that side of the work corresponding to the body of the place, 324 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GoR, or the side whence comes the defence. In isolated works, the gorge is sometimes intrenched. The gorges of works not attached to a for- tress, but which are its dependencies, are in general open, or without parapets, in order that the enemy may not cover himself from the fire of the place if he should seize such detached works. If the works are liable to surprise, and their gorges cannot be shut, a row of palisades are planted there, and mines are prepared so as to overthrow the enemy if he should seize the work, and attempt to construct a lodge- ment there. The gorge of a bastion is usually an open space between the extremities of the flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is, the better is the ^fence ; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall by siege into the hands of the enemy, the defenders can construct defensive works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned bastion. Such resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity of battering in breach the curtain. GORGE OP MOUNTAINS is the passage, more or less compressed, between two mountains which are used as a passage-way into valleys. Gorges are important military points. If they lead to an intrenched camp, it is necessary to fortify them, and post there grand guards ; these positions are the principal theatres for affairs of posts. A gorge should never be entered without previous examination. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make rules for the government and regulation of armies. By government is understood not only the body of fundamen- tal laws of a State, but also the body of persons charged with the man- agement of the executive power of a country, direction, power or author- ity which rules a community, administration, rule, management ; (WORCESTER'S Dictionary.} Government of the military (says BARDIN, Dictionnaire de VArmee de Terre) is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and regulation of the military hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of infe- rior authority. The power of making rules of government is that of SUPREME COMMAND, and from this^Iiving principle proceeds the localiza- tion of troops, their organization and distribution ; rules for rewards and punishments ; and generally all rules of government and regulation whatsoever, which the legislature may judge necessary, to maintain an efficient and well-disciplined army. \ All authority over the land forces of the United States must there- fore be derived from Congress. For, although the President is the commander-in-chief, yet his functions, as such, must be regulated by Congress, under the 17th clause of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well GRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 305 as under the general authority of Congress to make rules for the gov- ernment and regulation of the land forces. The President cannot be divested of power which Congress may assign to any inferior military commander, because the authority of the greater includes that of the less. But all authority over the land and naval forces save the appoint- ment of the commander-in-chief rests with Congress, and no authority can be exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as may be fairly deduced from powers given for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office. (See ADMINISTRATION, and references under that head ; ADJUTANT ; ADJUTANT-GENERAL ; AID-DE-CAMP ; AP- POINTING POWER ; ARMY ; ARMY, (Regular ;) ARMY REGULATIONS ; AR- TICLES OF WAR, and references under that head ; ARTILLERY ; ASSIGN- MENT ; BOOTY ; BOUNTY ; BREVET ; BRIGADE ; BRIGADIER-GENERAL ; BRIGADE-INSPECTOR ; CADET ; CAPTAIN ; CAVALRY ; COLONEL ; COM- MAND ; COMMANDER OF THE ARMY ; COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF ; COMMISSARY OF SUBSISTENCE ; COMMISSION ; CONGRESS ; CONSTITUTION ; CORPORAL ; CORPS ; COURT-MARTIAL and references under that head ; COURT OF IN- QUIRY ; DEFENCE, (National;) DEPARTMENT; DETACHMENT; DISCI- PLINE ; DIVISION ; ENGINEERS CORPS ; ENGINEERS, ( Topographical ;) ESPRIT* DU CORPS ; FIELD OFFICERS ; FLAGS ; FORAGE MASTER ; GARRI- SON ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GRATUITY ; GRENADIERS ; HIERARCHY ; IN- DEMNIFICATION ; INDIAN ; INFANTRY ; JUDGE-ADVOCATE ; LAW, and ref- erences under that head ; LAW, (Martial ;) LIEUTENANT ; LIEUTENANT- COLONEL ; LIEUTENANT-GENERAL ; LINE ; LOSSES ; MAJOR ; MAJOR-GEN- ERAL ; MARINE CORPS ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MILITIA ; NON-COM- MISSIONED OFFICERS ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICERS ; ORDERS ; ORD- NANCE DEPARTMENT ; ORDNANCE SERGEANTS ; ORGANIZING ; PARDON ; PAY ; PAY DEPARTMENT ; PAYMASTER-GENERAL ; PENSION ; PLATOON ; POST ; PRESIDENT ; PROMOTION ; PUNISHMENT ; QUARTERMASTER'S DE- PARTMENT ; QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL ; RAISE, and its references ; RANK ; REGIMENT ; REGULATION, and its refereifces ; REMEDY ; RE- PRIEVE ; RETAINERS ; RIFLEMEN ; SAPPERS ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SE- NIOR ; SERGEANT ; SERVICE, and its references ; SOLDIER ; STAFF ; STATE TROOPS ; STANDARDS ; STORE-KEEPERS ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ; SUPERIOR ; SUPERINTENDENT ; SUPERNUMERARY ; SURGEON ; SURGERY, (Military ;) SUTLERS ; TRADE ; TRAIN ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING AL- LOWANCES ; TREATY ; UNIFORM ; VETERAN ; VICE-PRESIDENT ; VOLUN- TEERS ; WAR ; WARRANT.) GRAND DIVISION. A division composed of two companies in battalion manoeuvres. GRAPE-SHOT. A certain number of cast-iron balls put together 326 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GBA. by means of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Canis- ter has superseded the use of grape in field-guns. Grape-shot are used with the 8-in. howitzers and the columbiad of that calibre, by adopting the sabot of the sea-coast x^^^^sX howitzer, which serves for both pieces. The grape { f* r-i \\ for these 8-in. pieces is made of 6-pd. shot. GRAPPLING-IRONS consist of from four to six branches bent and pointed, with a ring at the root. A rope being fastened through this ring, any object at which the grappling-irons are thrown, may be dragged nearer. GRATUITY. In the French service whenever a non-commissioned officer is promoted, he is given a gratuity, called Gratification de Premiere Mise cCOfficier, in order to provide his equipment as officer. In the same manner, at the beginning of a campaign, a sum of money is given to all officers of the French army, according to grade, as an equipment fund ; it is called Gratification d> entree en Campagne, ou Indemnite d 1 entree en Campagne. GRAVITY, GRAVITATION. These terms are used to express the mutual tendency which all bodies have to approach each other if not opposed by other resistance. Force of Gravity Motion of falling bodies : Let t be the time of descent in seconds, of a body falling freely, in vacuo ; h, the space de- scribed in the time t ; v, the velocity acquired at the end of that time, and g the velocity acquired at the end of one second of time ; then : h = $ g ** ; v = g t = -\/2 g h The velocity #, which is the measure of the force of gravity, varies with the latitude of the place, and with its altitude above the level of the sea. The force*of gravity at the latitude of 45 = 32.1803 feet ; at any other latitude L ; g 32.1803 feet 0.0821 cos. 2 L. If g' represents the force of gravity at the height h above the sea, and r the radius of the earth, the force of gravity at the level of the sea will be 5 A. ), In the latitude of London, at the level of the sea, g = 32.191 feet, do. Washington, do. do. g = 32.155 feet. GRENADE. A shell thrown by hand or in baskets from stone mortars. A hand-grenade is a small shell about 2 inches in diameter, which, being set on fire by means of a short fuze and cast among the GUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 337 enemy's troops, causes great damage by its explosion. They may be thrown 26 yards. Rampart-grenades are larger, and are used to roll down ramparts, &c. GRENADIERS. The right flank company of a regiment. GRIEVANCES. (See WRONGS.) GROOVES. Spiral grooves or "rifles" cut into the surface of the bore of fire-arms, have the effect of communicating a rotary motion to a projectile around an axis coincident with its flight. This motion increases the range of the projectile, and also corrects one of the causes of deviation by distributing it uniformly around the line of flight. For expanding projectiles, experiment shows that broad and shallow grooves with a moderate twist give range, endurance, accuracy of fire, and facility in loading and cleaning the bores. The United States have therefore adopted for arms three grooves, each in width equal to the lands, or J- of the circumference of the bore ; and uniformly decreasing in depth from the breech where it is .015 in., to the muzzle, where it is .005 inch ; with a uniform twist, one turn in six feet for long barrels or the musket, and one turn in four feet for short barrels or the car- bine. The proper twist to be given to the grooves, depends on the length, diameter and initial velocity of the projectile used ; but the most suitable twist can only be determined by experiment. GUARDS are used for security and police by troops in the field, in camps, garrisons, and quarters. Guards are designated as advance or van, and rear guards ; outposts and picket guards ; quarter, camp, and garrison guards ; and general officers' guards. The tour of service of guards is usually twenty-four hours. Sometimes a guard is detached from a single corps, and sometimes from several corps. In either case during the tour of service, the guard receives orders from the command- ing officer and officers of the guard. It is for the time detached from its corps. (The description and duties of guards are given in Army Regulations.) GUERILLA. (See PARTISAN.) GUIDES. Men employed to give intelligence respecting a country and the various roads intersecting it. All armies employed in an enemy's country find it to their advantage to use guides. GUIDES, (TACTICAL.) The duties of guides are given in the Tactics. GUIDONS. Each company of cavalry has a silken guidon pre- scribed in Army Regulations. GUN-COTTON is common cotton, steeped in a mixture of sul- phuric acid and nitric acid, and when properly soaked, is well washed 328 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GUN. ir. running water, and then dried. The explosive force of three parts of gun-cotton equals that of eight parts of gunpowder. Major Mor- decai's experiments at Washington in the years 1845, 1847, and 1848, to determine the fitness of gun-cotton as a substitute for gunpowder in the military service, show : 1. Explosive cotton burns at 380 Fahr., there- fore it will not set fire to gunpowder when burnt in a loose state over it. 2. The projectile force of explosive cotton, with moderate charges, in a musket or cannon, is equal to that of about twice its weight of the best gunpowder. 3. When compressed by hard ramming, as in filling a fuze, it burns slowly. 4. By the absorption of moisture its force is rapidly diminished, but the force is restored by drying. 5. Its burst- ing effect is much greater than that of gunpowder, on which account it is well adapted for mining operations. 6. The principal residua of its combustion are water and nitrous acid ; therefore the barrel of a gun would be soon corroded if not cleaned after firing. 7. In consequence of the quickness and intensity of its action when ignited, it cannot be used with safety in the present fire-arms. 8. An accident on service, such as the insertion of two charges before firing, would cause the bursting of the barrel ; and it is probable that the like effect would take place with the regular service-charges if several times repeated. GUNNERS. For the service of field and heavy ordnance, there is with each piece one man called a gunner, who gives all the executive commands in action. lie is answerable that the men at the piece per- form their duties correctly. (Consult Instruction for Field and Heavy Artillery.) GUNNER'S CALIPERS. Made of sheet brass, with steel points. The graduations show diameters of guns, shot, &c. GUNNER'S PERPENDICULAR. This is made of sheet brass ; the lower part is cut in the form of a crescent, the points of which are made of steel ; a small spirit level is fastened to one side of the plate, parallel to the line joining the points of the crescent, and a slide is fastened to the same side of the plate, perpendicular to the axis of the level. The instrument is useful in marking the points of sight on siege guns and mortars, when the platform is not level. GUNNER'S PINCERS. Iron with steel jaws, which have on the end of one a claw for drawing nails, &c. GUNNER'S QUADRANT, (wood.) A graduated quadrant of six inches radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches long, (Fig. 137.) It has a plumb-line and bob, which are carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of the rule covered by a brass plate. The quadrant is ap- plied either by its longer branch to the face of the piece, or this branch GUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 329 is run into the bore parallel with the axis, and the elevating scre\V turned or the quoin adjusted until the required degree Fio 137 is indicated. GUNNERY. Laws regulating the resistance of the air are Complicated and undetermined. The at- tempts also made to determine the volume and tension of the gases produced by the combustion of powder have given variable and unsatisfactory results. It ac- cordingly follows, and it is now admitted, that it is impossible to solve the problem of the trajectory described by projectiles by purely theo- retical means. Multiplied experiments are therefore resorted to, in order to form tables of fire, and such tables are the true guides in prac- tical gunnery. The maximum range of the largest cannon fired under an angle of 45 does not exceed 8,000 yards : siege guns fired under smaller an- gles give ranges varying from 3,000 to 4,500 yards. The range of field- pieces in their ordinary fire is from 1,790 to 2,200 yards. Tables of ranges are given in Ordnance and Artillery Manuals, for the moun- tain howitzers, field-guns and howitzers, heavy ordnance, and Hale's war rockets. These tables give ranges at different elevations, the charges of powder, the weight of the shot, spherical case shot or shell in each case. They show the time of flight of the shell, and consequently the length of fuze required ; and also at what angles of elevation, in the 8 or 10-in. columbiads, shot cease to ricochet upon the water. (See, for such tables, articles : ARTILLERY ; BALLISTICS ; FIRING ; INITIAL VE- LOCITY ; ORDNANCE ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; ROCKETS.) GUNPOWDER. In the United States, the proportion of ingre- dients for the military service are : 76 or 75 of saltpetre, 14 or 15 charcoal, and 10 of sulphur ; for sporting, 78 or 77 saltpetre, 12 or 13 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. The powder is coarse or fine grained. In the United States, to every 10 grains troy weight of powder, there are 150 grains of cannon powder, 1,100 musket powder, 6,000 rifle, and 73,000 sporting. The size of the grain is tested by sieves. Mus- ket power is now recommended for all small arms. A new powder, invented by Capt. Rodman, Ordnance Dept., shows great ingenuity, and has given most important results. An ordinary grain of powder burns from the surface to the centre, and the largest portion of the gas is evolved in the T | 7 part of a second. The force of the charge is therefore expended upon the projectile before it is sensibly moved, and there is a corresponding strain upon the gun. Capt. Rodman thought, if powder could be made to burn on an increas- 330 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GUN. ing instead of a decreasing surface, so that the gas should be evolved completely but not so rapidly before the projectile left the piece, the same velocity would be communicated, and the strain would be dis- tributed uniformly over the whole piece. To accomplish this, he formed the " dust " into a cake, and inserted into it numerous small wires, which, being pulled out, left corresponding avenues for the pas- sage of flame and ignition of the mass ; thus making the interior sur- face of combustion increasing instead of decreasing. The enormous pressures from large charges of powder have thus been entirely obvi- ated by the introduction into service of Rodman's hollow caked powder, or its substitute, the large-grained powder, each grain being six-tenths of an inch. This discovery, with the idea of Capt. Rodman of cooling cast-iron cannon from the interior by means of a current of cold water flowing through a hollow core, has enabled him to cast a 15-in. colum- biad which, after three hundred rounds, with a charge of 40 Ibs. of pow- der, showed no appreciable enlargement of either bore or vent, and causes Capt. Rodman to believe that the piece will bear 1,000 rounds without material injury ; (BENTON ; Experiments on Gunpowder by MAJ. MORDECAI, Ordnance Dept.) GUNS are long cannon without chambers, having their calibres determined by the weight of their balls. (See CALIBRE ; ORDNANCE.) GUNTER'S CHAIN is the chain commonly used for measuring land. It is 66 feet or 4 poles in length, and is divided into 100 links, each of which is joined to the adjacent one by three rings ; and the length of each link, including the connecting rings, is 7.02 inches. The advantage of this measure consists in the facility which it affords for numerical calculations. The English acre contains 4,840 square yards ; and Gunter's chain being 22 yards in length, the square of which is 484, it follows that a square chain is exactly the tenth part of an acre. A square chain, again, contains 10,000 square links, so that 100,000 square links are equal to an acre; consequently, the contents of a field being cast up in square links, it is only necessary to divide by 100,000, or to cut off the last five figures, to obtain the contents expressed, in acres ; (BRANDE'S Encyclopedia.) GUY. A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any heavy body, and prevent it from swinging while being hoisted or lowered. H ^ HAIL. A sentinel hails any one approaching his post, with " Who goes there ? " HAU.] . MILITARY DICTIONARY. 331 HALT. A rest during a march, and a word of command in tac- tical manoeuvres. HAND. A measure four inches in length. The height of a horse is computed by so many hands and inches. HANDSPIKES. The trail handspike for field carriages is 53 inches in length ; the manoeuvring handspike for garrison and sea-coast carriages and for gins is 66 inches ; for siege and other heavy work it is made 84 inches long and 12 Ibs. weight ; the shod handspike is par- ticularly useful in the service of mortars and of casemate and barbette carriages ; the truck handspike for casemate carriages, (wrought iron ;) the roller handspike, for casemate carriages. It is made of iron, 1 inch round, the point conical, whole length 34 inches. HAKBORING AN ENEMY. Punishable with death or other- wise, according to sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 56.) HAUSSE OR BREECH SIGHT is a graduated piece attached to the barrel near the breech, which has a sliding piece retained in its place by a thumb screw, or by the spring of the slider itself. This slider should have an opening through which the gun can be conveniently aimed ; and is raised to such a height as we think will give the neces- sary elevation for the distance. The term coarse sight means a large portion of the front sight, as seen above the bottom of the rear-sight notch ; and a fine sight is when but a small portion is seen. The effect of a coarse sight is to increase the range of the projectile. Graduation of rear-sights. If the form of the trajectory be known, the rear-sight of a fire-arm can be graduated by calculation ; the more accurate and reliable method, however, is by trial. Suppose it be re- quired to mark the graduation for 100 yards : the slider is placed as near the position of the required mark as the judgment of the experi- menter may indicate ; and, with this elevation, the piece is carefully aimed, and fired, say ten times, at a target placed on level ground at a distance of 100 yards. If the assumed position of the slider be correct, the centre of impact of the ten shot-holes will coincide with the point aimed at ; if it be incorrect, or the centre of impact be found below the FIG. 133. point aimed at, then the position of the slider is too low on the scale. Let P be the point aimed at, and P 1 the centre of impact of the cluster 332 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [HAV. of shot-holes, we have, from close similarity of the triangles, A'F ': FP :: A' A" : PP' ; from which we can determine A' A" the quantity that must be added to A A', to give the correct position of the graduation mark for 100 yards. If the centre of impact had been above P, the trial mark would have been too high. Lay off the distance A A" above A", on the scale, and we obtain an approximate graduation for 200 yards, which should be corrected in the same way as the preceding, and so on. The distance P P' is found by taking the algebraic sum of the distances of all the shots from the point P, and dividing it by the num- ber of shots. It will be readily seen that an approximate form of the trajectory may be obtained by drawing a series of lines through the different graduation marks of the rear-sight, and the top of the front- sight, and laying off from the front-sight, on each line, the correspond- ing range ; (BENTON.) HAVERSACK. Bag issued to soldiers for carrying rations. HAY. The forage ration is fourteen pounds of hay, and twelve pounds of oats, corn, or barley. Cattle will eat many sorts of herbage when cut small, but refuse it if uncut. They will eat reeds, seaweed, leaves, &c. FIG. 139. To cut Chaff, (Fig. 139.) Tie a sickle against a tree, with its blade projecting ; then, standing in front of the blade, hold a handful of reeds across it with both hands, one hand on either side of the blade ; pull it towards you, and the reeds will be cut through ; drop the cut end, seize the bundle afresh, and repeat the pro- cess. In this way, after a little practice, chaff is cut with great ease and quick- ness. A broken sickle does as well as a whole one, and a knife may be used, but the curve of its edge is ill adapted for the work. (See FORAGE.) HEIGHT. Elevation, as to occupy or to crown a height ; the height of a soldier, &c. (See DISTANCES ; SURVEYING.) HON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 333 HELMET. Defensive armor or covering for the head used by heavy cavalry. HIERARCHY, (MILITARY.) The essential element for the gov- ernment and service of an army is a military hierarchy, or the creation of different grades of rank, to which different functions and powers are assigned, the lower in regular subordination to the next higher in the ascending scale. It should be founded on the principle that every one acts in an army under the orders of a superior, who exercises his au- thority only within limits established by law. This authority of the superior should be greater or less according to rank and position, and be proportioned to his responsibilities. Orders should be executed with- out hesitation ; but responsibilities should be confined to him who gives orders in virtue of the superior authority with which he is invested ; to him who takes the initiative in an order ; to him who does not exe- cute an order that he has received ; and to him who usurps a command or continues illegally to exercise its functions. The grades of the military hierarchy are : 1. The President of the United States ; 2. The Lieut.-general ; 3. Major-generals ; 4. Brig- adier-generals ; 5. Colonels ; 6. Lieutenant-colonels ; 7. Majors ; 8 Captains; 9. Lieutenants; 10. Cadets; 11. Sergeants; 12. Corpo- rals; 13. Privates. The military hierarchy is determined and con- secrated within its sphere of action by : 1. Grades of rank created by military laws ; 2. By other laws regulating the exercise of rank ; 3. By military insignia ; 4. By military honors ; and 5. By the mil- itary oath. (See PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, AND OTHER GRADES OF THE HIERARCHY ; BREVET ; COMMISSION ; COMMAND ; GOVERNMENT ; LINE ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICER ; ORDERS ; RANK ; REGULATION.) HIRING OF DUTY. Punishable at the discretion of a regi- mental court-martial ; (ART. 47.) HOLSTERS. Cases attached to the pommel of the saddle, to hold a horseman's pistols. HONORS, (MILITARY) have been prescribed by the orders of the President, and are paid by troops to the President and other public functionaries, to military officers according to grade, to the colors of a regiment and when two regiments meet. (Consult Army Regulations.) HONORS OF WAR. This expression is used in capitulations ; and the chief of a post, when compelled to surrender, always demands the honors of war in testimony of the vigor of his defence. As these terms depend on the disposition of the victorious general, their limits vary ; but in some instances garrisons have been allowed to march out, with colors flying, drums beating, some field-pieces, caissons loaded, * 334 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [IIoo. and baggage. In other cases the garrison marches out to a certain dis* tance, and piles its arms, and is either released as prisoners upon pa- role, or then becomes prisoners in fact. HOOF. (See HORSE.) HORN WORK is a work composed of two half bastions and a curtain or a front of fortification, with two long sides called branches or wings, directed upon the faces of the bastions or ravelins, so as to be defended by them. This work is placed before a bastion or ravelin, and serves to inclose any space of ground or building, which could not be brought within the enceinte. HORSE. In selecting a horse choose one from 5 to 7 years old, (the latter age preferable,) and from 15 to 1G hands high. The saddle horse should be free in his movements ; have good sight ; a full, firm chest ; be surefooted ; have a good disposition, with boldness and courage; more bottom than spirit, and not be too showy. The draft horse should stand erect on his legs, be strongly built, but free in his movements ; his shoulders should be large enough to give support to the collar, but not too heavy ; his body full, bu-t not too long ; the sides well rounded ; the limbs solid, with rather strong shanks, and feet in good condition. To these qualities he should unite, as much as possible, the qualities of the saddle horse ; should trot and gallop easily ; have even gaits, and not be skittish. The most suitable horse for the pack-saddle is the one most nearly approaching the mule in his formation. He should be very strong-backed, and from 14 to 15 hands high. Horses with very long legs, or long pasterns, should be rejected, as well as those which are poor, lank, stubborn, or vicious. The mule is preferable to the horse in a very rough country, where its surefootedness is an important quality. There are two kinds : the mule proper, or product of the jackass and mare, which is preferable to the product of the horse and ass. The former brays; the latter neighs. The mule may be usefully employed from its fourth year to beyond its- twenty-fifth. It is usually from 131 to 15 hands high ; is hardy, seldom sick, fears heat but little ; is easy to keep ; is very surefooted, and especially adapted for draught or packing. Before choosing horses, their attitudes and habits should be ex- amined in the stable. Leaving the stable, they should be stopped at the door in order to examine their eyes, the pupils of which should contract when struck by the light. Out of the stable, they should neither be allowed to remain quiet, nor to be worried. Care should be taken against being deceived by the effects of the whip, cries, &c. The HOR.]J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 335 positions of a horse, his limbs, age, and height, should bo examined at different times. He should be walked about with a long rein, observ- ing the action of his rear extremities when he moves off, of his fore ones when approaching, and of both when moving with his flank towards you. The examination should be repeated at a trot, observing in what manner the horse gathers himself; whether he interferes, rocks in his motions, or traverses his shoulders or haunches. Rein him backwards, make one of the men get on him, and see if he is difficult to mount, and whether or not he bears too hard on the bit. Make him gallop a little, to judge of his wind, and see whether his flanks heave. Have his feet washed and examined carefully. Strike upon the shoe to determine whether he is easily shod or not. AGE. The age of a horse is determined by the appearance of his teeth. When he is 5 years old, his mouth is nearly perfect with a full set (40) of teeth, 20 in each jaw ; six of these are in front, and called nippers, or cutting teeth ; a tush on each side of these, and on each side of the back part of the jaws six molars, or grinding teeth. At the birth of the colt, the 1st and 2d grinders have appeared, and in the course of seven or eight days after, the two central nippers force their way through the gums. In the course of the first month, the 3d grinder appears above and below, and shortly after another of the inci- sors on each side of the first two. At the end of two months, the central nippers reach their full height, and before another month the secoffd pair will overtake them. They then begin to wear away a little, and the outer edge, which was at first somewhat raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner one. So the mouth continues until some time between the 6th and 9th month, when two other nippers begin to appear, making 12 in all, and completing the colt's mouth. After this, the only observable difference, until between the 2d and 3d year, is the wear of these teeth. These teeth are covered with a polished and very hard enamel, which spreads over that portion above the gum. From the constant habit of nipping grass, and gathering up the animal's food, a portion of the enamel is worn away, while in the centre of the upper surface of the teeth, it sinks into the body of the tooth, forming a little pit. The in- side and bottom of this pit, being blackened by the food, constitute the mark of the teeth, by the gradual disappearance of which, from the wearing down of the edge, we are enabled, for several years, to judge of the age of the animal. The teeth, at first presenting a cutting surface, with the outer edge rising in a slanting direction above the inner, soon begin to wear down, 336 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Hon. until both surfaces are level ; and the mark, originally long and narrow, becomes shorter, wider, and fainter. Fig. 140 represents the appearance of the animal's mouth at 12 months. The four middle teeth are almost level, and the corner ones becoming so. The mark in the two middle teeth is wide and faint ; in the two next, darker, longer, and narrower ; and ift the extreme ones it is darkest, longest, and narrowest.' This ap- pearance of the nippers, together with the coming of four new grinders, enables the age of the colt to be pretty nearly calculated. Six months after, the mark in the central nippers will be much shorter and fainter ; that in the two other pairs will have undergone an evident change, and all the nippers will be flat. At two years old, this change will be still more manifest, and the lower jaw of the colt will present the appearance represented in Fig. 141. About this period, too, a new grinder appears, making 20 in all, FIG. 140. FIG. 141. and a still more important change takes place. This consists in the formation of the permanent teeth which gradually come up from be- neath, absorb, and take the place of the temporary, or milk teeth, as they we called, and finally push the top parts of these latter out of their places. These permanent teeth are much larger and stronger than the first ones. The teeth are replaced in the same order that they originally ap- peared, and consequently, at the end of the second year, the first grind- ers are replaced by permanent and larger ones ; then the central nip- pers, and so on. At the end of the third year, the colt's mouth will present the appearance shown in Fig. 142. The central teeth are larger than the others, with two grooves in the outer convex surface, and the mark is long, narrow, deep, and black. Not having yet attained their full growth, they are rather lower than the others. The mark in the two next nippers is nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in the ex- treme ones. Hon.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 337 A horse at three years old ought to have the central permanent nip- pers growing ; the other two pairs wasting ; six grinders in each jaw, above and below the first and fifth level with the other, and the sixth protruding. The sharp edge of the new incisors will be very evident when compared with the neighboring teeth. As the permanent nippers wear, and continue to grow, a narrower portion of the cone-shaped tooth is exposed to attrition, and they look as if they had been compressed. The mark, of course, gradually disap- pears as the pit is worn away. At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair of nippers will be changed. The central nippers will have attained nearly their full growth. A vacuity will be left where the second stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth, worn down, and the mark becoming small and faint. At this period, too, the second pair of grinders will be shed. At four years, the central nippers will be fully developed ; the FIG. 142. FIG. 14 S sharp edge somewhat worn off, and the mark shorter, wider, and fainter. The next pair will be up, but they will be small, with the mark deep, and extending quite across them. The corner nippers will be larger than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, flat, and the mark nearly effaced. The sixth grinder will have risen to a level with the others, and the tushes will begin to appear. See Fig. 143. The small size of the corner nippers, the want of wear in the others, the little growth of the tush, the smallness of the second grinder, the low fore- hand, the legginess of the colt, and the thickness and little depth of the mouth, will prevent the horse from being passed off as over four years old. The tushes are much nearer the nippers than the grinders, but this distance increases with the age of the animal. The time of their ap- 22 338 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [HOE. pearance is uncertain, and it may vary from the fourth year to foul years and six months. At four years and a half the last important change takes place in the mouth. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent ones be- giikto appear. The central nippers are considerably worn, and the next pair are commencing to show signs of usage. The tush has now protruded, and is generally a full half-inch in height. After the rising of the corner nippers the animal changes its name the colt becomes a horse, and the filly a mare. At five years the corner nippers are quite up, with the long deep mark irregular on the inside, and the other nippers bearing evidence of increased wear. The tush is much grown, the grooves have nearly dis- appeared, and the outer surface is regularly convex, though the inner is still concave, with the edge nearly as sharp as it was six months before. The sixth molar is quite up, and the third wanting, which last circum- stance will be of great assistance in preventing deception. The three last grinders and the tushes are never shed. Fig. 144 represents the mouth of a 5-year old horse. At six years the mark on the central nippers is worn out, though a difference of color still remains in the centre of the tooth, and although a slight depression may exist, the deep hole with the blackened surface jmd elevated edge of enamel will have disappeared. In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter ; and in the corner teeth the edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently worn. The tush has attained its full growth of nearly an inch in length ; convex outwards, concave within, tending to a point, and the extremity somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up, and all the grinders are level. At seven years, the mark is worn out in the four central nippers, Fro. 144. FIG. 145. HOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. and fast wearing away in the corner ones. The tush is- becoming rounded at the point and edges ; still round outside, and beginning to get so inside. (Fig. 145.) At eight years old, the tush is rounded in every way ; the mark is gone from all the bottom nippers, and nothing remains in them that can afterwards clearly show the age of the horse. An operation is sometimes performed on the teeth of horses, to de- ceive purchasers in regard to age. This, called bishoping, after the in- ventor, consists in throwing a horse, 8 or 9 years old, and with an en- graver's tool digging a hole in the almost plane surface of the corner teeth, of the same shape and depth of those seen in a 7-year old horse. The holes are then burned with a heated iron, leaving a permanent black stain. The next pair of nippers are also sometimes lightly touched. An inexperienced person might be deceived by the process ; but a careful examination will disclose the irregular appearance of the cavity the diffusion of the black stain around the tushes, the sharpened edges and concave inner surface of which can never be given again and the marks on the upper nippers. After the horse is 8 years old, horse- men are accustomed to judge of his age from the nippers in the upper jaw, where the mark remains longer than in the lower jaw teeth ; so that at 9 years of age it disappears from the central nippers ; at 10 from the next pair, and from all the upper nippers at 11. During this time, too, the tushes are changing, becoming blunter, shorter, and rounder ; but the means for determining accurately the age of a horse, after he has passed 8 years, are very uncertain. The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are deepening of the hollows over the eyes, and about the muzzle ; thinness and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the withers ; sinking of the back ; lengthening of the quarters ; and the disappearance of windgalls, spavins, and tumors of every kind. The perpendicularity with which a horse habitually stands, deter- ' mines his good qualities and endurance. Viewed in profile, his front legs should be comprised between two verticals : the one, A, (Fig. 146.) let fall from the point of his shoulder, and terminating at his- toe ; the other, B, from the top of the withers, and passing through the el- bow. A line, C, passing through the fetlock -joint, should divide the limb into two equal parts. The hind legs should be comprised between two verticals, A' falling from the hip, and B' falling from the point of the buttock ; the foot at very nearly equal distances from these two lines. A line, C', let fall from the hip-joint, should be equally distant from these two lines A', B'. 340 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Eon. Viewed in front, a vertical let fall from the point of the shoulder, should divide the leg along its central line. In rear, a vertical from the point of the buttock, should - y > It is a rule of English law, in unison with the law of na*t*6tis, ty & * which all civilized states are governed, that no officer engaged in fmU- tary operations in his country's cause, by the order or with the sanction* */ of the constituted authorities, shall incur any individual or private re- "^/ sponsibility for acts done by virtue of his commission or official instruc- tions. Such transactions being of a public nature, redress or satisfac- tion j|r injuries to which they give birth, is to be sought by public means alone, from the sovereign power of the belligerent or offending state, accord ing 'to the principles of international law, and the general usages of civilization, which never suffer such matters to be litigated before ordinary tribunals. If, in time of peace, the citizens of a friendly foreign state sustain a private injury at the hands of a naval or military officer serving under the orders of the British government, but unauthorized by his commis- sion or instructions to do the act complained of, the ordinary tribunals of England afford the same redress against him as in the case of a Brit- ish subject similarly aggrieved; and this rule applies even in those cases where the violated rights of the foreigner are such as the law of England denies or prohibits to its own subjects. But if the British government have expressly instructed the officer to commit the act which constitutes or gives occasion to the grievance, the matter becomes an affair of state which is not cognizable by the courts of law, and must be adjusted by diplomatic arrangement be- tween the two governments concerned. In such cases also it is quita sufficient, if the officer's proceedings, though not originally directed or authorized by the terms of his instructions, are afterward sanctioned and adopted by the government ; for this renders them public acts, over which courts of law have no jurisdiction. (Consult PREXDERGAST'S Law relating to Officers of the Army.) INJURING PRIVATE PROPERTY. (See WASTE or SpJL) INLYING PICKET. A body of infantry or cavalry in cam- paign, detailed to march, if called upon, and held ready for that purpose In camp or quarters. INSPECTORS-GENERAL. There are two inspectors-general of the army with the rank of colonel. Assistant adjutants-general are ex- officio assistant inspectors-general. The duties of inspectors-general are prescribed by Army Regulations. In the French army, a certain num- ber of general officers are annually designated to make inspections, and such inspections embrace every thing relative to organization, recruit- ing, discharges, administration, accountability for money and property instruction, police, and discipline of the several corps of the army. At 24 370 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Iss. these inspections all wrongs are redressed, and each inspection is con- tinued from eight to ten days. The inspector examines and studies the condition of the corps under arms, as well as off parade ; he receives all applications for discharge, and for the retired list. He notes those who merit promotion, rewards, or reprimands. He assembles the council of administration, and verifies their accounts ; visits the store- houses, quarters, hospitals, prisons ; inspects the clothing, arm^ &c., &c., and, in fine, scrutinizes every thing which it is desirable should be known. He gives his orders to the regiment for the ensuing year, and makes a detailed report of what he has seen and done. INSURRECTION. (See CALLING FORTH MILITIA.) It will be ob- served that whenever the President of the United States is authorized by law to use the military force in cases of insurrection or obstruction to the laws, he must first, by proclamation, have commanded the in- surgents to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective abodes with- in a limited time ; (Act Feb. 28, 1795. See OBSTRUCTIONS TO THE LAWS.) INTERIOR FLANKING ANGLE is formed by the line of de- fence and the curtain. INTERIOR SIDE is the line drawn from the centre of one bas- tion to that of the next, or the line of the curtain produced, to the two oblique radii of the front. INTRENCHED CAMP. A position is so called when occupied by troops, and fortified for their protection during the operations of a campaign. INTRENCHMENT. A ditch or trench with a parapet; field- works. In permanent fortification, intrenchments are made in various parts of the works to prolong the defence, as a breast-work and ditch at the gorge of the bastion, &c. INUNDATION. An inundation or collection of water is produced by forming across a stream one or more dams. INVASION. (See CONSTITUTION ; CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; NA- TIONAL DEFENCE.) INVERSION. In case a column, marching right in front, shall be under the necessity of forming into line faced to the reverse flank by the promptest means, the command is given : Halt ! By inversion right into line wheel, battalion guide right. This movement will give an or- der of battle with the left company occupying the right of the battalion, and the right the left. Inversions are very important in the field, and they oner such great advantages, that Bonaparte strongly advised their employment in many circumstances. Our tactics admit the employment of inversions in the IRQ.] *> MILITARY DICTIONARY. 371 formations to the right and left in line of battle, and also in the successive formations, except in that of faced to the rear into line of battle. When used, the first command always begins, By inversion. (See INFANTRY.) INVEST. To take the initiatory measures to besiege a town, by se- curing every road and avenue leading to it, to prevent ingress or egress. IRON PLATES. In the experiments made against the "Un- daunted," at Portsmouth, the following results were obtained : Six wrought-iron 68-lb. shot were fired with a charge of 16 Ibs. at 200 yards, the iron plates being 4|- in. thick ; four of these shot broke the plates, but did not penetrate the timber ; two passed entirely through both plates and timber. Forty-three cast-iron 68-lb. shot were fired against other plates of similar thickness. Of these, four passed through the plates but not the timber. Nine passed through both ; but there was only one case of a shot taking good effect after striking an uninjured plate. Thus of the four shots that passed through the plates without penetrating the timber, only one went through a plate that had not been previously weakened. The shot that penetrated entirely through the plates and the timber had all passed through plates previously weakened. No penetration was effected by red-hot 68-lb. shot, with a charge of 10 Ibs. The 3 and 2-in. plates were all penetrated by 68-lb. shot and shells. The following conclusions have been drawn from experiments : 1st. That thin plates of wrought iron are proof against any shells; for, though the shells may pass through the plates, they will be in a broken state. 2d. That being proof against shells will avail little, unless vessels are likewise proof against solid shot ; for shells would, of course, not be fired against ships proof against them, whereas the destructive effects produced by fragments of shot and of plates, and the great damage done to the scantling of the ship by solid shot, appear more like the result of a shell than of a shot. 3d. That rifled projectiles produce greater effect than spherical pro- jectiles of the same weight at long than at short ranges, on account of the rifled elongated projectiles the resistance to which is a minimum retaining more of their initial velocity than spherical projectiles at the same distance. 4th. That the thickness of plates required to resist shot fired from the heaviest nature of guns, must not be less than 4 in. 5th. That, to secure the resistance of the plates and the impenetrabil- ity of the sides of a ship, it is indispensable that the plates be strongly backed by masses of the strongest and most resisting timber, as, in alJ 372 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [JOL the cases to which reference has just been made, it appears that the plates are easily broken when the support is removed from behind them, by the crushing, fracturing, and damaging effects of the impacts of the shot ; # (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS.) With the knowledge of these data, an iron-clad ship, " Le Gloire," has been built in France, carrying 38 rifled 50-pounders, and Trance, it is said, will soon have 300 rifled guns in such vessels. In England, the iron-clad " Warrior," 420 feet long and over 6,000 tons' burden, has been built. The new principle introduced in England, of inclining the iron-clad sides inwardly, so as to make an angle with the horizontal of from 35 to 40, will cause the shot to glance off, with little injury to the sides. In addition to this, it is proposed to suppress the port-holes, and place the guns in rotating iron cupolas, from which, by a rotatory of 180, they fire over the bulwarks on either broadside the gunners being perfectly sheltered under these shot-proof covers ; (BARNARD'S Sea-coast Defence.) The great objection to such an ar- rangement is its unwieldiness, and the opinion of distinguished officers that iron plates are only practicable for floating batteries, gunboats, and other vessels of small draft of water, for special purposes, may prove the better opinion, notwithstanding the great outlay made by the French and English governments. JOISTS. The timbers of a floor, whereto boards or lathing for ceiling are nailed. They either rest on the wall or on girders, or some- times on both. (See CARPENTRY.) JOURNAL, OR ITINERARY. Directions for keeping the journal of a march west of the Mississippi. The journal should be kept in a pocket note-book ; or, if one cannot be obtained, in a book made of sheets of paper folded to half the letter size. The record is to run from the bottom to the top of each page. The horizontal divisions in the column headed " Route" represent portions of a day's march. The distance, in miles, between each of the horizontal divisions, will be noted in the column headed " Distance" which will be summed up at the top of each column, and the sum carried to the bottom of the next column. The notes within each horizontal division are to show the general directions of the march, and every object of interest observed in passing over the distance represented thereby ; and all remarkable features, such as hills, streams with their names, fords, springs, houses, villages, forests, marshes, &c., and the places of encampment, will be sketched in their relative positions. The " Remarks " corresponding to each division Jou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 373 will be upon the soil, productions, quantity and quality of timber, grass, water, fords, nature of the roads, &c., and important incidents. They should show where provisions, forage, fuel, and water can be obtained ; whether the streams to be crossed are ford able, miry, have quicksands or steep banks, 'and whether they overflow their banks in wet seasons ; also the quality of the water ; and, in brief, every thing of practical im- portance. When a detachment leaves the main column, the point on the " Route " will be noted, and the reason given in the Remarks. The commander of the detachment will be furnished with a copy of the journal up to that point, and will continue it over his new line of march. JOURNAL of the march of [here insert the names of the regiments or companies composing the column,} commanded by , from [here insert the point of departure] to [the stopping place,} pursuant to [here give the No. and date of order for the march.} 1 Date. Hour. Weather. Distance. Eoute. REMARKS. 1860. Total, 19 mm Road rocky; but little grass ; good water. Plenty of timber on summit of July 8. 0. A. M. hills, extending 3 miles ; road to right of hills. 1 P.M. j* 8 ^'"liX- #** timbered Peak > ff-^ A Camp No. 1. Good shelter for camp at foot of peak ; fuel plen- ty. Springs of sweet wa- g F3 Springs. ter, with good grass near. Road to this point rather T more sandy. 10. w 3 . Road runs through a d canon i mile long, to right h of a small stream ; marsh o on left of stream ; water S sweet ; grass excellent. S Halted to graze two hours. ,&* : No Indian signs. i 2 . 6.30. o 1 Ht.P Companies F, G, and I, 3d , detached at Mt. T3 X Det. P , under command of s v , (see par. 3,Gen- ' x\ . eral Orders, No. ,) to 5 ^**\^ A small creek, easily forded. 6. o 5 4 1 / ^ Road turns short to right at top of hill after crossing river; crossing good, but t ^* CQ a little boggy on right bank. This bottom shows signs of recent overflow, when it must have been V\ impassable ; banks low ; water sweet ; no wood July 7. 4.30. x near crossing ; road hard and good up to river. 374 MILITARY DICTIONARY. JOURNAL, (Continued.') Date. Hour. Weather. Distance. Koute BEMARK3. 1860. Total, 47 d 3 5 _v At the point where the road forks, turn to the right. The left-hand road July 9. 4.30 A. M. rH ***** leads to a deep ravine, which cannot be crossed. 4.30 P. M. 3 A CWjt> No. 2. After the road strikes the ravine, it runs one s^jpC mile along its bank before coming to the crossing s ^ ** place. The camping ground is at springs, halt a mile beyond the ravine. 5 Old Indian signs at the -, 5 tf| Road still rocky ; good springs, where casks t> ^R should be filled. No more '///'ii> water for twenty miles 00 Springs after leaving springs. Jf y Occasional hills to left of ' road ; no wood or grass. ^ erf 05 July 8. 6.30 A. M. 11 19 JUDGE-ADVOCATE. There is one judge-advocate selected from the captains of the army with the brevet rank and pay of a major of cavalry. The judge-advocate, or some person deputed by him, or by the general, or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garri- son, shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but shall so far consider himself as counsel for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any of the witnesses, or any question to the prisoner, the answer to which might tend to criminate himself. The judge-advocate administers the pre- scribed oaths to the court and witnesses ; (ART. 69.) JUD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 375 The appropriate functions of the judge-advocate, as an essential officer in all general courts-martial, are various in their nature ; and as the Articles of War do not describe them with much precision, it is proper to resort to the less positive, though equally binding authority, of estab- lished usage and practice. The Articles of War are silent on the subject of the judge-advocate's assisting the court with his counsels and advice as to any matters of form or law ; it nevertheless is his duty, by custom, to explain any doubts which may arise in the course of its deliberations, and to pre- vent any irregularities or deviations from the regular form of proceed- ings. The duty assigned the judge-advocate by ART. 69, is more espe- cially incumbent on him in cases where the prisoner has not the aid of professional counsel to direct him, which generally happens in the trials of private soldiers, who, having had few advantages of education, or opportunities for mental improvement, stand greatly in need of advice under circumstances often sufficient to overwhelm the acutest intellect, and embarrass or suspend the powers of the most culti- vated understanding. It is certainly not to be understood that, in discharging this office, which is prescribed solely by humanity, the judge-advocate should, in the strictest sense, consider himself as bound to the duty of counsel, by exerting his ingenuity to defend the prisoner, at all hazards, against those charges which, in his capacity of prosecutor, he is, on the other hand, bound to urge, and sustain by proof; for, un- derstood to this extent, the one duty is utterly inconsistent with the other. All that is required is, that in the same manner as in civil courts of criminal jurisdiction, the judges are understood to be counsel for the person accused, the judge-advocate, in courts martial, shall do justice to the cause of the prisoner, by giving full weight to every cir- cumstance or argument in his favor ; shall bring the same fairly and completely into the view of the court; shall suggest the supplying of all omissions in exculpatory evidence ; shall engross in the written proceedings all matters which, either directly or by presumption, tend to the prisoner's defence ; and finally, shall not avail himself of any advantage which superior knowledge or ability, or his influence with the court may give him, in enforcing the conviction, rather than the acquittal, of the person accused. When a court-martial is summoned by the proper authority, for the trial of any military offender, the judge-advocate, being required to attend to his duty, and furnished with articles of charge or accusation, on which he is to prosecute, must, from the information of the accuser, instruct himself in all the circumstances of the case, and by what evi- 376 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Jun. dence the whole particulars are to "he proved against the prisoner. Of these, it is proper that he should prepare, in writing, a short analysis, or plan, for his own regulation in the conduct of the trial, and examin- ation of the witnesses. He ought then, if it has not been done by some other functionary, to give information to the prisoner of the time and place appointed for his trial, and furnish him, at the same time, with a copy of the charges that are to be exhibited against him, and likewise a correct detail of the members of the court. The judge-advocate ought then to hand in to the adjutant-general, or staff-officer charged with the details, a list of witnesses for the prosecution, in order that they may be summoned to give their attendance at the time and place appointed. It is proper, likewise, that he should desire the prisoner to make a similar application, to insure the attendance of the witnesses necessary for his defence. These measures ought to be taken as early as possible, that there may be sufficient time for the arrival of witnesses who may be at a distance. When the court is met for trial, and the members are regularly sworn, the judge-advocate, after opening the prosecution by a recital of the charges, together with such detail of circumstances as he may deem necessary, proceeds to examine his witnesses in support of the charges, while at the same time he acts as the recorder or clerk of the court, in taking down the evidence in writing at full length, and as nearly as possible in the words of the witnesses. At the close of the business of each day, and in the interval before the next meeting of the court, it is the duty of the judge-advocate to make a fair copy of the pro- ceedings ; which he continues thus regularly to engross till the conclu- sion of the trial, when the whole is read over by him to the court, before the members proceed to deliberate and form their opinions. The sentence of the court must be fairly engrossed and subjoined to the record copy of the proceedings ; and the whole must be authenticated by the signature of the president of the court, and that of the judge-advocate. It is required by the Articles of War, (ART. 90,) that " every judge- advocate, or person officiating as such, at any general court-martial, shall transmit, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and distance of place can admit, the original proceedings and sentence of such court-martial, to the Secretary of War ; which said original pro- ceedings and sentence shall be carefully kept and preserved in the office of the said secretary, to the end that the persons entitled thereto, may be enabled, upon application to the said office, to obtain copies thereof." The judge-advocate sends the proceedings to the Secretary of War through the adjutant-general. JUR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 377 The judge-advocate (jonnot be challenged. He may be relieved al any time. He should, in complicated cases, arrange and methodize the evidence, applying it distinctly to the facts of the charge. Besides ap- plying the evidence fairly to each side of the question, he should inform the court as to the legal bearing of the evidence, for there may have been admitted evidence which ought to be rejected from their minds as illegal ; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.) JURISDICTION. All officers, conductors, gunners, matrosses, drivers, or other persons whatsoever, receiving pay, or hire, in the serl vice of the artillery, or corps of engineers of the United States, shall be governed by the aforesaid rules and articles, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers of the other troops in the service of the United States ; (ART. 96.) The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or others, being mustered and in pay of the United States, shall at all times and in all places, when joined or acting in conjunction with the regular forces of the United States, be governed by these Rules and Articles of War, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers in the regular forces, save only that such courts- martial shall be composed entirely of militia officers ; (ART. 97.) No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for any offence which shall appear to have been com- mitted more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period ; (ART. 88.) JURISDICTION, (CONCURRENT.) Can courts-martial and civil courts have concurrent jurisdiction over offences committed by soldiers? Or, in other words, if a soldier is guilty of an offence which renders him amenable for trial before the civil courts of the land, can he also be tried for that offence (if its specification should establish a violation of the Rules and Articles of War) by a court-martial ? By the Constitution of the United States Congess is authorized " to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; " and Congress, pursuant to this authority, has established rules and articles .for the government of the armies of the United States. These rules are an additional code, to which every citizen who becomes a soldier subjects himself for the preservation of good order and mil- itary discipline. The soldier, however, is still a citizen of tho United States. He has not, by assuming the military character, become, as in many European countries, a member of a privileged body who may 378 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Jen. claim trial for all offences by courts martial. *ITe is still amenable to the ordinary common law courts for any offences against the persons or property of any citizen of any of the United States, such as is punish- able by the known laws of the land ; (ART. 33.) An examination of the Rules and Articles of War will show that the offences therein de- scribed, and against which punishment is denounced, are purely mili- tary. They are crimes which impair the efficiency of the military body, and even in cases, in which they would be recognized as offences by the Ordinary common law courts, they could not be considered the same offences. Take, for instance, Article 9, which inflicts the punishment of death or other punishment, according to the nature of his offence, upon any officer or soldier who shall strike his superior officer. Here is an offence punishable under the known laws of the land as an assault and battery, and, as such, it could be tried by the common law courts. But such trial would not prevent a court-martial from afterwards taking cognizance of it under Article 9 ; for the offence before the common law court would be striking an equal, while before the military court it would have essentially changed its character. Again, suppose an officer had been guilty of stealing, he might be prosecuted before the common law court for the felony, and afterwards charged with conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, and dis- missed the service. It can hardly be contended that the offences in either of the cases cited would be the same before the different courts ; and if not, Article 87, which forbids a trial a second time for the same offence, could not be pleaded in bar of trial. Recognizing, then, the principle that tne soldier, as citizen, is subject to the common law courts for offences committed against the well-being of the State, it must also be recollected that ho is subject to trial by a court-martial for any violation of the Rules and Articles of War. In the case of " Eels, plaintiff in error, v. the People of the State of Illinois," it was urged that the act of the State of Illinois under which Eels was tried was void, as it would subject the delinquent to a double punishment for the same offence, the crime with which he was charged being actionable under a law of the United States. The Supreme Court decided that, admitting the plaintiff in error to be liable to an action under the act of Congress, it did not follow he would be twice punished for the same offence, and gave the following definition of that term : " An offence in its legal signification means the transgression of a law. A man may be compelled to make reparation in damages to the injured party, and be liable also to punishment for a breach of the pub- KNO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 379 lie peace in consequence of the same act, and may be said, in common parlance, to be twice punished for the same offence. Every citizen of the United States is also a citizen of a State or Territory. He may be said to owe allegiance to two sovereigns and may be liable to pun- ishment for an infraction of the laws of either. The same act may be an offence or transgression of the laws of both. Thus an assault upon the marshal of the United States and hindering him in the execution of legal process is a high offence against the United States, for which the perpetrator is liable to punishment ; and the same act may also be a gross breach of the pe'ace of the State, a riot, assault, or a murder, and subject the same person to a punishment under the State laws for a misdemeanor or felony. That either or both may, if they see fit, pun. ish such an offender cannot be doubted. Yet it cannot be truly averred that the offender has been twice punished for the same offence, but only that by one act he has committed two offences, for each of which he is justly punishable. He could not plead the punishment by one in bar to a conviction by the other ; consequently, this court has decided, in the case of Fox v. the State of Ohio, (5 Howard, 432,) that a State may punish the offence of altering or passing false coin as a cheat or fraud practised on its citizens ; and, in the case of the United States v. Mari- gold, (9 Howard, 560,) that Congress, in the proper exercise of its au- thority, may punish the same act as an offence against the United States. K KEEP. To keep troops is to maintain organized forces. KIT. A cant word among soldiers to express the necessary arti- cles provided for them, and which they are obliged to keep in order. KITCHEN. For proposed kitchen-cart for field service see WAGON. KNAPSACK. A square frame covered with canvas carried on an infantry soldier's back, containing his clothing and other necessaries, but not his rations. KNOTS. The three elementary knots, which every one should know, are here represented (Fig. 147) viz., the Timber-hitch, the Bow- line, and the Clove-hitch. The virtues of the timber-hitch are, that, so long as the strain upon it is kept up, it will never give ; when the strain is taken off, it is cast loose immediately. The bowline makes a knot difficult to undo ; with it the ends*of two strings are tied together, or a loop made at the end of a single piece of string, as in the drawing. For slip-nooses, nse the bowline to make the draw-loop. The clove- hitch binds with excessive force, and by it, and it alone, can a weight 380 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LAD. "be hung to a smooth polo, as to a tent-pole. A kind of double clove, hitch is generally used, but the simple one suffices, and is more easily recollected. FIG. 147. The following additional remarks deserve attention : A timber- hitch had better have the loose end twisted more than once ; it is liable to slip, if not. To tie a bowline, or any other knot for temporary pur- poses, insert a stick into the knot before pulling tight. The stick will enable you, at will, to untie the knot to break its back, as the sailors say with little difficulty. A bowline is firmer, if doubled ; that is, if the lower loose end in the figure be made to wrap round a second time. A double clove-hitch is firmer than a single one ; that is, the rope should make two turns, instead of one turn, round the pole beneath the lowest loose end in the figure. To make a large knot at the end of a piece of string, to prevent it from pulling through a hole, turn the end of the string back upon itself, so as to- make it double, and then tie a common knot. The string may be quadrupled instead of doubled, if required. A toggle and strap is a tourniquet. A single or a double band is made to inclose the two pieces of wood it is desired to lash to- gether. Then a stick is pushed into the band and forcibly twisted round. The band should be of soft material, such as the strands of a rope that has been picked to pieces on purpose. The strands must, each of them, be untwisted and well rubbed with a stick to take the kink out of them, and finally twisted in a direction opposite to their original one ; (GALTON'S Art of Travel.) L LADDER BRIDGE may be formed by running a cart or gun limber into the stream and securing it there, with the shafts in a verti- cal position, by ropes from both sides of the river ; one end of a ladder LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 381 from each bank resting upon it, and covering the steps or rungs with planks. LADDERS. (See ESCALADE.) LANCE. The lance is composed of a sharp steel blade, from 8 to 10 inches long, grooved like a common bayonet with a socket at its base and two iron straps for attaching it to the handle. The handle is of strong light wood, with a tip of iron at its lower end and a leathern loop at its centre of gravity to support and guide the lance. It is usually from 8J to 11 feet long, and weighs about 4J Ibs. This weapon is not used in the United States service. The Russians have their regular and irregular Cossacks armed with the lance. The Austrians, also, have lancers ; but the Polish cavalry use the lance better than any other people. The lance, when not in use, rests in a leather boot attached to the stirrup, the right arm being passed through the leather loop of the lance ; or by putting the lower end in the boot and strapping the handle to the pommel of the saddle. Lancers are more formidable than other cavalry because they are able to reach further. Skill in combating a lancer, consists in keeping to his left, in order to shun his lance. Pressed too nearly, the lancer must have recourse to his sabre and let his lance rest upon his arm. The moment in which he attempts to seize his sabre is dangerous to him. The Mexican cavalry are gen- erally lancers. LANDING-. (See DISEMBARKATION and EMBARKATION.) LASHES. A general court-martial may sentence a soldier to receive fifty lashes for desertion. No other crime is punishable with lashes. LAW is a rule of action prescribed by a superior power. Natural law is the rule of human action prescribed by the Creator, discoverable by the light of reason. Divine law is the law of nature revealed by God himself. The law of nations is that which regulates the conduct and mutual intercourse of independent nations with each other, according to reason and natural justice. (See WAR.) Municipal or civil law is the rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power in a State, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong. The parts of a law are : 1. The declaratory ; which defines what is right and wrong. 2. The directory ; which consists in commending the observation of right, or prohibiting the commission of wrong. 3. The remedial ; or method of recovering private rights, and redressing pri- vate wrongs. 4. The vindicatory sanction of punishments for public wrongs ; wherein consists the most forcible obligation of human laws. 382 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LAW. To interpret a law, we must inquire after the will of the maker ; which may be collected either from the words, the context, the subject matter, the effects and consequence, or the spirit and reason of the law. From the latter method of interpretation arises equity, or the cor- rection of that wherein the law (by reason of its universality) is defi- cient ; (BLACKSTONE'S Commentaries.) LAW, (MARTIAL.) By martial law is understood, not laws passed for raising, supporting, governing, and regulating troops, but " it is in truth and reality no law, but something indulged, rather than allowed as law ; " (HALE and BLACKSTONE.) The Constitution of the United States has guarded against the effects of any declaration of martial law within the United States, by providing : " No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation," (ART. 5, Amendments;) and further, " In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the wit- nesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence ; " (ART. 6, Amendments.) Within the United States, therefore, the effect of a declaration of martial law would not be to subject citizens to trial by courts-martial, but it would involve simply a suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, under the authority given in the 2d clause of Sec. 9 of the Constitution, viz. : " The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may re- quire it." The universal practice of all nations has been to give supremacy to the military commander in all sieges. "Inter arma silent leges" is then a maxim universally admitted. The public safety in that case im- periously requires that the orders of the commander of the troops should be obeyed, and a commander in the United States is then only justified, ex necessitate rei, in suspending the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 383 The suspension of this privilege would enable a commander to in- carcerate all dangerous citizens ; but when brought to trial, the citizen would necessarily come before the ordinary civil courts of the land. Beyond the United States, troops take with them the Rules and Articles of War, but not the municipal law, to which they are also subject at home. It is necessary, therefore, for a commander, in the absence of laws made by Congress, to declare his own will, command, ing what is right, and prohibiting and punishing what is wrong, in the new relation established between his army and the citizens of the for- eign country. The following order was the declaration of martial law by Gen. Scott in Mexico : HEAD-QUARTERS OF THE ARMY, ) National Palace of Mexico, Sept. 17, 1847. \ GENERAL ORDERS No. 287.- The General-in-Chief republishes, with important additions, his General Orders, No. 20, of February 19, 1847, (declaring MARTIAL LAW,) to govern all who maybe concerned. 1. It is still to be apprehended that many grave offences not pfe- vided for in the act of Congress " establishing rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States," approved April 10, 1806, may be again committed by, or upon, individuals of those ar- mies, in Mexico, pending the existing war between the two republics. Allusion is here made to offences, any one of which, if committed with- in the United States or their organized territories, would, of course, be tried and severely punished by the ordinary or civil courts of the land. 2. Assassination, murder, poisoning, rape, or the attempt to commit either ; malicious stabbing or maiming ; malicious assault and battery ; robbery ; theft ; the wanton desecration of churches, cemeteries, or other religious edifices and fixtures ; the interruption of religious cere- monies ; and the destruction, except by order of a superior officer, of public or private property, are such offences. 3. The good of the service, the honor of the United States, and the interests of humanity, imperiously demand that every crime enumer- ated above should be severely punished. 4. But the written code, as above, commonly called the Rules and Articles of War, does not provide for the punishment of one of those crimes, even when committed by individuals of the army upon the per- sons or property of other individuals of the same, except in the very- restricted case in the 9th of those articles ; nor for like outrages, com- mitted by the same class of individuals, upon the persons or property of a hostile country, except very partially, in the 51st, 52d, and 55th Articles ; and the same code is absolutely silent as to all injuries which 384 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LAW. may be inflicted upon individuals of the army, or their property, against the laws of war, by individuals of a hostile country. 5. It is evident that the 99th Article, independent of any restriction in the 87th, is wholly nugatory in reaching any one of those high crimes. G. For all the offences, therefore, enumerated in the second para- graph .above, which may be committed abroad in, by, or upon the army, a supplemental code is absolutely needed. 7. That unwritten code is Martial Law, as an addition to the written military code, prescribed by Congress in the Rules and Articles of War, and which unwritten code all armies, in hostile countries, are forced to adopt, net only for their own safety, but for the protection of the un- offending inhabitants and their property, about the theatres of military operations, against injuries on the part of the army, contrary to the laws of war. 8. From the same supreme necessity martial law is hereby declared as a supplemental code, in and about all cities, towns, camps, posts, hospitals, and other places, which may be occupied by any part of the forces of the United States in Mexico, and in and about all columns, escorts, convoys, guards, and detachments of the said forces, while en- gaged in prosecuting the existing war in and against the said republic, and while remaining within the same. 9. Accordingly every crime enumerated in paragraph No. 2 above, whether committed: 1. By any inhabitant of Mexico, sojourner or traveller therein, upon the person or property of any individual of the United States' forces, retainer, or follower ot the same ; 2. By any in- dividual of the said forces, retainer or follower of the same, upon the person or property of any inhabitant of Mexico, sojourner or traveller therein ; or 3. By any individual of the said forces, retainer or follower of the same, upon the person or property of any other individual of the said forces, retainer or follower of the same, shall be duly tried and punished under the said supplemental code. 10. For this purpose it is ordered that all offenders in the matters aforesaid shall be promptly seized, confined, and reported for trial, be- fore Military Commissions, to be duly appointed, as follows : 11. Every military commission, under this order, will be appointed, governed, and limited, as nearly as practicable, as prescribed by the 65th, 66th,. 67th, and 97th of the said Rules and Articles of War, and the proceedings of such commissions will be duly recorded in writing, reviewed, revised, disapproved or approved, and the sentences executed ; all, as near as may be, as in the cases of the proceedings and sentences LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 385 of courts-martial, provided, that no military commission shall try any case clearly cognizable by any courts-martial, and provided, also, that no sentence of a military commission shall be put in execution against any individual belonging to this army, which may not be, according to the nature and degree of the offence, as established by evidence, in con- formity with known punishments, in like cases, in some one of tho States of the United States of America. 12. The sale, waste, or loss of ammunition, horses, arms, clothing, or accoutrements, by soldiers, is punishable under the 37th and 38th Articles of War. Any Mexican, or resident, or traveller in Mexico, who shall purchase of an American soldier either horse, horse-equipments, arms, ammunition, accoutrements, or clothing, shall be tried and se- verely punished by a military commission, as above. 13. The administration of justice, both in civil and criminal matters, through the ordinary courts of the country, shall nowhere, and in no degree, be interrupted by any officer or soldielr of the American forces, except, 1. In cases to which an officer, soldier, agent, servant, or fol- lower of the American army may be a party ; and 2. In political cases, that is, prosecutions against other individuals on the allegations that they have given friendly information, aid, or assistance, to the Ameri- can forces. 14. For the ease and safety of both parties in all cities and towns occupied by the American army, a Mexican police shall be established and duly harmonized with the military police of the said forces. 15. This splendid capital its churches and religious worship ; its convents and monasteries ; its inhabitants and property, are, moreover, placed under the special safeguard of the faith and honor of the Ameri- can army. 16. In consideration of the foregoing protection, a contribution of $150,000 is imposed on this capital, to be paid in four weekly instal- ments of thirty-seven thousand five hundred dollars ($37,500) each, be- ginning on Monday next, the 20th instant, and terminating on Monday the llth of October. 17. The Ayuntamiento, or corporate authority of the city, is specially charged with the collection and payment of the several instalments. 18. Of the whole contribution to be paid over to this army, twenty thousand dollars shall be appropriated to the purchase of extra comforts for the wounded and sick in hospital ; ninety thousand dollars ($90,000) to the purchase of blankets and shoes for gratuitous distribution among the rank and file of the army, and forty thousand dollars ($40,000) re- served for other necessary military purposes. 25 386 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LAW. 19. This order will be read at the head of every company of the United States' forces serving in Mexico, and translated into Spanish for the information of Mexicans. LAW, (MILITARY.) Under the Constitution of the United States, Con- gress is intrusted with the creation, government, regulation, and support of armies ; and all laws passed by Congress for those purposes are mili- tary laws. Congress, being also invested with power " to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof," is supreme in all military matters. The office of commander- in-chief, intrusted by the constitution to the President, must have its functions first defined by Congress. Such military powers only as Congress confers upon him can be exercised. Excepting that, bf ing the commander-in-chief under the constitution, he of course exercises all authority that Congress may delegate to any military commander whatever, by reason of the axiom that the power of the greater includes that of the less. Many of the functions, thus devolved by the constitution on Con- gress, in most governments belong to the executive. The king of Great Britain makes rules and articles for the government of armies raised by him with the consent of parliament. Congress, \vith us, both raises and governs armies. An army raised in Great Britain is the king's army ; with us it is the army of the United States. These most essential distinctions should cause Congress to give more of its atten- tion to the army. It should be borne in mind that our rules for the government of the army have been borrowed almost entirely from Great Britain ; that the relation of the army to the people is in the two countries entirely distinct ; therefore, that rules adapted to an aristo- cratic government may not be entirely suited to democratic forms. (See ACADEMY, (Military ;) ACCOUNTS ; ACCOUNTABILITY, (System of;) ADMINISTRATION, and references ; ALLOWANCES ; APPOINTING POWER ; APPROPRIATIONS ; ARDENT SPIRITS ; ARREARS OF PAY ; ARMORIES AND ARSENALS ; ARMY ; ARMY, (Regular ;) ARMY REGULATIONS ; ARTICLES OF WAR, and references under that head ; ASYLUM, (Military ;) AUDI- TORS ; AUTHORITY, ( Civil ;) BILLET ; BOOTY ; BONDS ; BOUNTY ; BRE- VET ; BRIGADE ; CADET ; CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; CAPTAIN ; CLERKS ; CLOTHING ; COLONEL ; COMMISSION ; CONGRESS ; CONSTITUTION ; CON- SCRIPTION ; CONTRACTS ; CORPOREAL PUNISHMENT ; CORPS ; COUNCIL OF ADMINISTRATION ; COURT-MARTIAL, and references under that head ; COURTS OF INQUIRY ; CUSTOM OF WAR ; DAMAGE ; DEBT ; DEFAULTERS ; LEV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY: 337 r DEFENCE, (National;) DEPARTMENT ; DEPARTMENT OF WAR ; DEPOT ; DETACHMENT ; DISBURSING OFFICERS ; DISCHARGE ; DISCIPLINE ; DIS- MISSION ; DIVISION ; DRAGOONS ; EMOLUMENTS ; ENGINEER CORPS ; EN- GINEERS, (Topographical;) ENLISTMENTS; EVIDENCE; EXECUTION OF LAWS ; EXEMPTS FROM MILITIA DUTY ; EXTRA EXPENSES ; EXTRA ALLOWANCES ; FATIGUE DUTY ; FIELD OFFICERS ; FLAG ; FORAGE MASTER ; GARRISON ; GENERAL ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GOVERNMENT, and references under that head ; INDEMNIFICATION ; INDIAN ; INSURRECTION ; JURISDICTION ; LAW ; LAW, (Martial ;) LINE ; LOSSES ; MARINE CORPS ; MARSHALS ; MAY ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MESS ; MILEAGE ; MILI- TIA ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICER ; ORDERS ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT ; ORDNANCE SERGEANT ; PAY ; PAY DEPARTMENT ; PAYMASTER-GENERAL ; PENSION ; PONTOON ; POST ; POSSE COMITATUS ; PRESIDENT ; PRIZE MONEY ; PROMOTION ; PURCHASING ; QUARTERS ; QUARTERMASTER'S DE- PARTMENT ; RAISE, and references under that head ; RANK ; RATION ; RECRUITING ; REDRESSING WRONGS ; REGIMENT ; REGULATIONS, and references under that head ; REPRIEVE ; RETAINERS ; RETURNS ; RE- VISION ; SALE ; SAPPERS ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SERVANTS ; SERVICE, and references under that head ; STAFF ; STANDARDS ; STORES ; STORE- KEEPERS ; STRIPES ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ; SUIT ; SUPERINTENDENT ; SUPERNUMERARIES ; SUTLERS ; TRADE ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING AL- LOWANCES ; UNIFORM ; VICTUALS ; VICE-PRESIDENT ; VOLUNTEERS ; WAGON-MASTERS ; WAR ; WARRANT ; WASTE OR SPOIL ; WHIPPING ; WILLS, (Nuncupative;) WITNESS; WIDOWS AND ORPHANS; WOMEN; WORSHIP ; WOUNDS ; WRONGS.) LEAD BALLS are now generally made by compression, by means of machinery, either at arsenals or at private establishments. LEAVE. (See ABSENCE.) LEGION. A variable number of men in the Roman army, from four to six thousand, but which always retained its distinctive charac- teristic of combining all the elements of a separate army. (Consult BARDIN, Dictionnaire de VArmee de Terre, and ARNOLD'S Rome for a full account of the Roman legion.) LEVER. The effective arm of a lever is the perpendicular distance from the fulcrum to the line of direction of the power or weight. The power is to the weight inversely as the effective arms of the lever : P D = wd The pressure on the fulcrum is the resultant of tho power and weight. The common balance is a simple lever, the arms of which are equal. If the balance is not accurate, the true weight of a body may be found 388 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LiE. by placing the body in one scale and counterpoising it by any weights in the opposite scale ; then remove the body and replace it by known weights until the equilibrium is again restored. The sum of the latter weights will be the weight of the body ; (Ordnance Manual.) LIEUTENANT. Rank next below captain. LIEUTENANT-COLONEL. Rank next below colonel, and above major. LIEUTENANT-GENERAL. Rank above major-general. Cre- ated by Act May 28, 1798. Revived by brevet by Act Feb. 15, 1855. To expire with present incumbent. Appoints in time of peace not ex ceeding two aides and one secretary with rank, pay, and emoluments of lieutenant-colonel. In war, entitled to four aides and two secretaries. LIFTING- JACK. A geared screw-jack, for lifting heavy weights, used in mechanical manoeuvres of heavy artillery. (Consult Instruction for Heavy Artillery.) LIGHT BALL. A projectile of an oval shape formed of sacks of canvas filled with a combustible composition, which emits a bright flame. Used to light up our own works. LIGHT INFANTRY. (See INFANTRY.) LIMBER. The forepart of a travelling gun carriage to which the horses are attached. The same limber is used for all field-carriages. It has two wheels and carries the same ammunition chest as the caisson. LINCHPINS prevent the wheel from sliding off the axle-tree. LINE. President Fillmore in general orders, No. 51 of 1851, has given the following satisfactory exposition of the use of the word line in our statute book : The 62d Article of War provides that " If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall hap- pen to join, or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for what is need- ful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case." The inter- pretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words " line of the army," which, neither in the English service, (from which most of our military terms are borrowed,) nor in our own, have a well- defined and invariable meaning. By some they are understood to des- ignate the regular army as distinguished from the militia : by others, as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions and those by brevet ; and, finally, by others, to designate all officers not be- longing to the staff. The question is certainly not without difficulty, LIN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 3SC and it is surprising that Congress should not long since have settled, by some explanatory law, a question which has been so fruitful a source of controversy and embarrassment in the service. The President has maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to differ from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that, although these words may sometimes be used in a different sense, (to be determined by the context and subject-matter,) in the 62d Article of War, they are used to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who do, and that the article intended, in the case contemplated by it, to con- fer the command exclusively on the former. The reasons which have brought him to this conclusion are briefly these : 1st. It is a well- settled rule of interpretation that in the construction of statutes, words of doubtful or ambiguous meaning are to be understood in their usual acceptation. Now it must be admitted that, in common parlance, both in and out of the army, the words " line " and " staff" are generally used as correlative terms. 2d. Another rule of construction is, that the same word ought not to be understood, when it can be avoided, in two different senses in different laws, on the same subject, and, especially, in different parts of the same law. Now in another article (74) of this same law, the words " line and staff of the army " are clearly used as correlative and contradistinctive terms. The same remark applies to almost every case in which the words " line " and " staff" occur in acts of Congress. See Act of 1813, sec. 4, Cross' Military Laws, p. 165 ; 1813, 9, " 166; 1814, 19, " 174; " 1816, 10, " 190; 1838, " 7, " 263; 1838, " 8, " 263; 1838, " 15, 264; 1838, pars. 7 & 9, 268; 146, sec. 2, " 283; 1846, " 7, 286. There are many other instances in which the words are so employed, but 1 have selected these as the most striking. On the other hand, I find but one act of Congress in which the words " line of the army " have been employed to designate the regular army in contradistinction to the militia, and none in which they have been manifestly used as con- tradistinctive of brevet. 3d. If Congress had meant by these words to discriminate between officers of the regular army and those of the mill- 390 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Lin, tia, or between officers by brevet and by ordinary commission, it is to be presumed that they would have employed those terms, respectively, which are unequivocal, and are usually employed to express those ideas. 4th. If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import of the terms : on the contrary, we may suppose strong reasons why it may have been deemed proper, in the case referred to by the article, to exclude officers of the staff from command. In the first place the command of troops might frequently interfere with their appropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not qualified by their habits and education for the command of troops, and alhough others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that, (by laws passed long subsequently to the article in question) the officers of the corps to which they belong, are required to be appointed from the line of the army. Lastly, officers of the staff corps seldom have troops of their own corps serving under their command, and if the words " officers of the line " are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be to give them command over the officers and men of all the other corps, when not a man of their own was present an anomaly always to be avoided where it is possible to do so. 5th. It is worthy of observation that Article 25, of the first " rules and articles," enacted by Congress for the government of the army, corresponds with Article 62 of the present rules and articles, except that the words " of the line of the army " are not contained in it. It is evident, therefore, that these words were in- serted intentionally with a view to a change in the law, and it is prob- able that some inconvenience had arisen from conferring command in- discriminately on officers of the line or the staff, and had suggested the necessity of this change. It is contended, however, that sec. 10, of the act of 1795, enumerates the major-general and brigadier-general as among the staff officers, and that this construction of the article would exclude them from command, which would be an absurdity. No such consequence would, however, follow. The article in question was ob- viously designed to meet the case (of not unfrequent occurrence) where officers of different corps of the army meet together with no officer among them who does not belong exclusively to a corps. In such a case, there being no common superior, in the absence of some express provision conferring the power, no officer, merely of a corps, would have the right to command any corps but his own : to obviate this difficulty, the article in effect provides that, in such an event, the officer of the line, highest in rank, shall command the rest. But if there be a major- LIT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 391 general or brigadier-general present, the case contemplated by tha article does not exist. No question can arise as to the right of com- mand, because the general officer, not belonging to any particular corps, takes the command by virtue of the general rule which assigns the com- mand to the officer highest in rank. (See RANK ; COMMAND ; BHEVET.) LINE OF DEFENCE is the line which extends from the angle of the polygon or extremity of the exterior side, through the inner end of the perpendicular, to the flank, of the bastion. LINE OF LEAST RESISTANCE (THE) is that which is sup- posed to extend, from the centre of the charge of a mine, to the nearest surface of the ground. LINES. A connected series of field-works, whether continuous or at intervals. LINES AT INTERYALS are lines composed of separate field- works, so arranged as to flank and defend one another. LINES CREMAILLERE are composed of alternate short and long faces, at right angles to each other. LINES OF BASTION as the name indicates, are formed of a succession of bastion-shaped parapets, each consisting of two faces and two flanks, connected together by a curtain. LINES OF TENAILLES consist of parapets, forming a series of salient and re-entering angles. LINSTOCK. A pointed forked staff used for lighting fort fires ; the lower end pointed and shod with iron. LITTER. If a man be wounded or sick, and has to be carried alons ' O upon the shoulders of the others, make a litter for him in the Indian fashion, (Fig. 148 ;) that is to say, cut two stout poles, each 8 feet long, FIG. 148. 392 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LOA. to make its two sides, and three other cross-bars of 2^ feet each, to be lashed to them. Then, supporting this ladder-shaped framework over the sick man as he lies in his blanket, knot the blanket well up to it ; and so carry him off. One cross-bar will be just behind his head, another in front of his feet ; the middle one will cross his stomach, and keep him from falling out ; and there will remain two short handles for the carriers to lay hold on. The American Indians carry their wounded companions by this contrivance after a fight, and in a hurried retreat, for wonderful distances. LOAD. Command in infantry and artillery instruction. (Consult Tactics of those arms.) In loading small arms the powder should be well shaken out of the paper, to prevent the formation of gas, which, forcing the paper against the sides of the bore, prevents it from leaving with the charge, and endangers the explosion of the next charge when loading, from the lighted paper. There is no danger of heating the piece by rapid firing so as to cause premature explosions, since long before it reaches 600, the temperature at which gunpowder inflames, it is entirely too hot to handle. In loading cannon the vent should always be kept carefully closed, while the loading is going on, especially when spong- ing, to prevent the current of air from passing out and collecting there pieces of thread, paper, &c., from the cartridge-bag, which would retain fire in the gun, and cause premature explosion the next time the gun was loaded. This precaution is the more necessary, when the sponge fits the bore tight, and acts as a piston. The sponge should be well pressed down against the bottom of the bore, and turned, so as to leave no remnant of the cartridge-bag. In mortars, where a sponge is seldom used, or when it does not fit tightly, the stopping of the vent is not necessary ; but it should always be cleared out with the priming wire before the powder is placed in. Mortar-shells should be let down gently so as not to be forced into the chamber, or crush suddenly any powder they may meet. The use of sabots is avoided when firing over the heads of our own men. It may sometimes become necessary to fire a shell from a mortar too large for it ; in which case it is wedged in on different sides with pieces of soft wood, and the space between it and the bore filled in with earth. LOCK. (See ARMS.) LODGEMENT. In a siege lodgement signifies the occupation of a position and the hasty formation of an entrenchment thereon to main- tain it against recapture. Thus it is said the besiegers, having carried the dcmi-lune or bastion, effected a lodgement, or the besieged destroyed the lodgements of the enemy. (See SIEGE.) LOG.] . MILITARY DICTIONARY. 393 LOGARITHM. The logarithm of a number is the exponent of the power to which another given invariable number must be raised in order to produce the first number. Thus in the common system of logarithms in which the invariable number is 10, the logarithm of 1,000 is 3, because 10 raised to the third power is 1,000. In general, if a x y in which equation a is a given invariable number, then x is the logarithm of y. All absolute numbers positive or negative, whole or fractional, may be produced by raising an invariabe number to suitable powers. This invariable number is called the base of the system of logarithms : it may be any number whatever greater or less than unity ; but having been once chosen, it must remain the same for the formation of all numbers in the same system. Whatever number may be selected for the base, the logarithm of the base is 1 , and the logarithm of 1 is 0. In fact if, in the equation a*=y, we make # = 1 we shall have a l =a, whence by definition log. a I ; and if we make #=0 we shall have a=l, whence log. 1=0. The chief properties of logarithms are : that the log- arithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of its factor ; the logarithm of a quotient is equal to the difference between the log- arithm of the dividend and the logarithm of the divisor ; and the log- arithm of the power of a number is equal to the product of the log- arithm of the number by the exponent of the power ; and the logarithm of any root of a number is equal to the logarithm of the number di- vided by the index of the root. These properties of logarithms great- ly facilitate arithmetical operations. For if multiplication is to be effected, it is only necessary to take from the logarithmic tables the logarithms of the factors, and then add them into one sum, which gives the logarithm of the required product ; and on finding in the table the number corresponding to this new logarithm, the product itself is ob- tained. Multiplication is thus performed by simple addition. In like manner division is performed by simple subtraction, and by means of a table of logarithms numbers may be raised to any power by simple multiplication, and the roots of numbers extracted by simple division. (Consult BABBAGE, Logarithms of Numbers ; FARLEY'S Tables of Six- figure Logarithms.} LOGISTICS. Bardin considers the application of this word by some writers as more ambitious than accurate. It is derived from Latin LOGISTA, the administrator or intendant of the Eoman armies. It is properly that branch of the military art embracing all details for mov- ing and supplying armies. It includes the operations of the ordnance, quartermaster's, subsistence, medical, and pay departments. It also em- braces the preparation and regulation of magazines, for opening a cam- 394 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Loa paign, and all orders of march and other orders from the general-in- chief relative to moving and supplying armies. Some writers have, however, extended its signification to embrace STRATEGY. LOOP HOLED GALLERIES are vaulted passages or case- mates, usually placed behind the counterscarp revetment, and behind the gorges of detached works, having holes pierced through the walls, to enable the defenders to bring a musketry fire from unseen positions, upon the assailants in the ditch. Loopholes, however, are not confined to galleries. In modern fortifications, the revetments, both scarp and counterscarp, are very generally pierced for a musketry fire. LOOPHOLES are apertures formed in a wall or stockade, that through them a fire of musketry may be directed on the exterior ground. LOSSES. In the British army there is a regular provision made for indemnification for losses by fire ; by shipwreck ; in action with the enemy ; by capture at sea ; by destruction or capture of a public store- house ; by the destruction of articles or horses, to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy, or to prevent the spreading of an infec- tious disorder. In the United States it would seem just that Congress should establish some general rules regulating such matters. The prin- ciple of settling all such claims by special legisla- tion cannot but bear hardly on a number of indi- viduals, and also probably in the end imposes greater burdens upon the treasury. LUNETTES are redans having flanks paral- lel to their capitals, as in Fig. 149. The faces and flanks may have any moderate extent, according to the purpose for which they are intended ; 50 yards for the face, and 25 yards for the flanks, would be a convenient size for many positions. LYING- OUT OF CAMP OR QUARTERS. Punishable, accord- ing to the nature of the offence, by a court-martial ; (ART. 42.) M MACHICOULIS. A projecting wooden gallery'lrom the second story of a house to enable the assailed to fire down on their opponents. MAGAZINE COYER of Rifle Musket, 1855. (See ARMS, Small.) MAGAZINES. Powder magazines ought to secure an unob- structed circulation of air under the flooring as well as above. The magazine should be opened and aired in clear dry weather ; the ven- tilators should be kept free ; and no shrubbery or trees should be al- lowed to grow so near as to protect the building from the sun. HAL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 395 All batteries of attack require magazines capable of holding ammu- nition for daily consumption. Fig. 150 is a section of two strong splin- ter-proof timbers, say 8 to 9 feet long, and 9 to 12 inches in breadth and thickness, resting on sleepers, and giving an interior space of about the dimensions seen in the figure, covered with one or two tiers of fascines, and over them 3 or 4 feet of dung or stiff earth ; this simple construc- tion would answer in many cases. By some persons it is considered better to have two small magazines in a battery, made of very stout mining cases, and constructed in the epaulements. Sir John Jones, in his work on " Sieges," says : " Splinter-proof timbers for magazines were cut 12 feet in length, and from 8 to 10 inches in breadth and thickness, and were placed against an epaulement, or parapet, at an angle making the base equal to half the height. They were then covered with a tarpaulin, extending well over the top of the epaulement upon which were laid one or two rows of filled sand-bags, so as to prevent the possibility of the tarpaulin being cut by splinters of shells. A second tarpaulin was usually thrown over the exterior in rainy weather. On this construction, the magazines were found to be perfectly dry, and sufficiently spacious, and of the strength no doubt can remain, as the sand-bag covering was fre- quently knocked off by large shells, and in no instance were the splinter- proofs broken. The best situations for magazines are on the flanks of the batteries. Nothing can be worse than to place them in rear of the centre of a battery, as then every cartridge has to be carried along the most exposed and dangerous part of the battery, and the number of accidents and casualties which arise therefrom is very great indeed. The artillery always preferred having two magazines formed, rather than to have one exceeding 10 or 12 feet in length ; when two were made, they were placed one on either flank, a situation which was found to answer extremely well." (Consult HYDE'S Fortification ; Ordnance Manual.) MAGISTRAL LINE in a plan, is that which regulates the form of the works. It is that which is first laid down, and from which the other parts of the works are traced. (See CORDON.) MAJOR. Rank between captain and lieutenant-colonel. MAJOR-GENERAL. Rank between brigadier-general and lieu- tenant-general. MALARIA. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.) MALINGERER. A soldier who feigns illness in order to avoid MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAN. his duty. Any soldier, in the English army, convicted of malingering, feigning or producing disease or infirmity, or of being detained in hos- pital in consequence of materially injuring his health by his own vice or intemperance, and thereby rendering himself unfit for the service ; or of absenting himself from an hospital whilst under medical treat- ment ; or of being guilty of a gross violation of the rules of the hospi- tal ; or of intentionally protracting his cure ; or of wilfully aggravating his disease, is liable to be tried by a court-martial for " disgraceful conduct," and to suffer the punishments attached to that crime. MANOEUVRE. For prescribed manoeuvres consult Cavalry Tac- tics ; Infantry Tactics; Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics; Instruction for Field Artillery, horse and foot ; and Instruction for Heavy Artil- lery, embracing Mechanical Manoeuvres. The word manoeuvre signifies also movements of entire corps in war executed with general views ; and by some writers it is confined to that signification, and the word evolution is made to designate the particular means, or the elements of manoeuvres ; (JABRO.) Manoeu- vres, according to Bardin, are operations in war whether really before an enemy, or simulated on a field of exercise. Their precision and aptness depend upon the skill of the general ; the intelligence of his aides-de-camp ; upon the chiefs of battalions and their adjutants, and the general guides. Evolutions and manoeuvres are, however, often ap- plied in the same sense, and indeed it may well be questioned whether there be any propriety in retaining in books of instruction evolutions which are not used as manoeuvres against an enemy. Manoeuvres of Infantry in battle. The vicious idea that tactical evolutions are not used in war is by no means uncommon, and has fre- quently caused the loss of battles. It is true that the number of ma- noeuvres used in combats is limited, and that those which are needed can only be judiciously applied by keeping in view moral and physical re- quirements. The judicious tactician will, therefore, in war eschew : de- ployments, which cause the soldier to turn his back towards an enemy ; countermarches ; forming a battalion on the right or left by file into line, and some other movements suited only to parades. One of the most hazardous manoeuvres is the formation of columns of great depth and deploying those columns when too near the enemy. Without giv- ing names or places, (says Marshal Bugeaud.) I affirm that I have seen an entire division in column of regiments, which began its deployment within range of the enemy's guns, routed before it finished its ma- noeuvre. The column is an order of march and manoeuvre, rarely an order of MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 397 battle. When beyond the range of cannon, and at a distance from the line of battle to be occupied, if the enemy approach and time permits, it is necessary to close in mass, in order to hold the troops in hand for all possible dispositions. So, in marches near the enemy the columns should march at half distance, when roads permit, in order that they may be less elon- gated, and all the troops be ready to act promptly. If. surprised in this order by the necessity of forming immediately forward into line of battle, or, if without being under this pressing necessity, there is be- tween us and the enemy ground admitting an easy march in line of battle, the column ought to execute forward into line, according to the principles of the tactics. This movement is more prompt and greatly better than closing column in mass, in order to deploy afterwards. In the first case troops only pass over one side of the triangle, whilst by mass- ing the column to deploy afterwards, they must pass over two sides by a complicated manoeuvre, which is dangerous from the beginning. In general, it is necessary to shun as much as possible the deployment of great massed columns, for this movement is badly executed even in exercises. It can only be performed far from the enemy, and it is even there inconvenient. It should be renounced in all formations whose object is to take the enemy in flank or reverse, if he be sufficiently neai to take measures to prevent success. In that case, the formation of the' close columns in mass upon the right or left into line of battle is a necessary manoeuvre. This movement, as Marshal Bugeaud suggests, is most important in war ; (Fig. 151.) It would have an influence upon battles by the simplicity and rapidity of its execution, and accidents of ground would often be found to conceal the movement from the enemy. It admits of an attack in echelons of battalions against an enemy being commenced as soon as one battalion or the half of a battalion has formed on the right or on the left of the line of the enemy. It also offers the advantage of giving to the line, with the greatest facility, every form that may be wished, and protecting the suc- cessive formations by a mass that may be disposed of at pleasure, whether at the extremity of the line to form square against cavalry, or to occupy in advance upon the right or left a commanding position, pro* tecting the flanks of our line. When circumstances, then, compel a march in heavy mass, it is better to present to the enemy a flank of columns, in order to deploy them by formations on the right or on the left into line of battle. When a line has to pass over a great distance, it is commonly formed into columns of attack. The formation by company in column, in rear of 398 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAN. the grenadiers of each battalion, is preferred by Marshal Bugeaud, because it is thus easier to make good dispositions against cavalry. The gren- adiers of each battalion make a half wheel, and each battalion, after FIG. 151. MANEUVRE OF A COLUMN IN MASS TO TAKE THE ENEMY IN FLANK. - tfa. RESERVE OF THE ENEMY 0*1 ~ C i IN EOF THE ENJJEMY;. being closed in mass, forms square. But neither the column by com- panies or divisions ought to be used within range of cannon, whenever there is a possibility of marching in line of battle. It is time that the fact should be admitted, that although the moral effect of the column may be considerable, yet this may be paralyzed by a little manoeu- vring on the part of the enemy's line, which would necessarily obtain great advantage from the superiority of its fire. Small columns, at distances of three battalions from each other marching under cover of the line, may render great services. They would be ready promptly to fill the holes made in the line of battle, and the best means of doing this would be to take the enemy in flank who had pierced them, when- ever they could. It is desirable that these columns should each not exceed a half battalion, and be commanded by energetic officers. The depth of the column adds nothing to the strength of the first battalion composing it, and diminishes that of the mass. It is, then, vicious to employ more than one battalion, except in the small number MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. of cases where it is necessary to fight in mass, as in carrying a bridge, a defile, an entrenchment, a breach, &c. The other battalions ought to follow at such a distance that they may sustain the attacking battalion without sharing in its disaster or rout, if such should take place. With an interval the chiefs of battalions have time to prepare their troops, and make necessary dispositions ; with a single mass the disorder at the head of the column is communicated to the rear almost as readily as an electric spark. . Flank marches, in presence of the enemy, ought always to be made in open column. In this order we are always ready to fight by a sim- ple wheel of each subdivision of the column. Nothing is deranged in the order of battle, whatever may be the strength and number of the lines. Without derangement an excellent disposition may also be made against cavalry. The column will be halted, and each battalion will be closed in mass upon its grenadiers, who make a half wheel. The field-officers, staff, and the officers of grenadiers will be previously warned. Each battalion will form then Marshal Bugeaud's square. The first order will be resumed by taking distances by the head of each battal- ion ; the grenadiers retaking their direction at once. If deep columns are condemned as an order of attack, those barba- rous columns employed in some of the last battles of Napoleon, and particularly at Waterloo, ought to be condemned still more. That column, which appeared to announce the decline of art, consisted in em- ploying all the battalions of a division one behind the other, and thus marching towards the enemy. Every column has for its object to pass rapidly, and without con- fusion, into the order of battle, to pass over lightly a given space, and to make prompt dispositions against cavalry. The column against which these remarks are made does nothing of that kind, and if it be attacked upon its flanks, whether by cavalry or infantry, it cannot fail to be destroyed. Order of battle, march in line of battle, and changes of front. The line of battle is the true order of battle. It is also the best order of march when in range of cannon, and not exposed to cavalry. It is only in this order that infantry can make use of its fire. If battalions con- sist of 800 men they will, in a formation of two ranks, be too much extended for most chiefs of battalions. Two companies of each battal- ion ought then to be formed as columns of reserve. The order in two ranks is beyond question best suited, in oblique attacks, for that part of the line not to be engaged ; and with rifle muskets now used the two- rank formation will be found better for that part of the line which is to 400 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAN. strike also. Even with old muskets the two-rank formation was used by the British very successfully at Waterloo in squares against cavalry. The fire in two-rank formation is made with more order, more easily, and is better aimed. The march in line of battle ought to be employed whenever the ground permits it, within 1,000 yards of the enemy. Wo lose then fewer men by cannon, and even if it be desirable to approach the enemy in column, (which is very rare, and should even then be in columns of single battalions,) the march ought still to be in line of battle until within two hundred yards, and then the column of attack ought to be formed while marching. Troops cannot be too much ex- ercised in marching in line of battle. This march is no more difficult than the march of many heads of columns upon the same line, perhaps even less so, for it is difficult to maintain between the columns the in- tervals necessary for deployments. Changes of front very near the enemy are rarely perpendicular. The new front nearly always forms with the line of battle an acute angle. In this case, it is necessary to guard against breaking the bat- talions into column. It is better to use the changes of direction for the line of battle prescribed by the tactics. The two pivot battalions may be thrown upon the new line by companies half faced to the right or left. The other battalions ought to be directed upon the new line by changes of direction which would least expose them to artillery. If, however, we have to guard against cavalry during the execution of the movement, it will be better to break into column the battalions of the leading wing. They will thus form the stem of the battery, and would rapidly make good dispositions against cavalry, as they would only be obliged to close in mass upon the grenadiers and form square. Changes of front forward are possible under fire, but changes of front to the rear are not so. I believe, (says Marshal Bugeaud,) that the loss of one of our battles in Spain may, in great part, be attributed to a change of front in rear of the left wing, which was attempted at a mo- ment when warmly engaged. The movement rapidly degenerated into a rout; and it could not be otherwise. There are no troops with sufficient sang-froid and self-possession to make that movement under the fire of ball and grape. To make the movement, it is necessary first to stop the enemy, and the means of doing that vary with circum- stances, and the resources within our command. Charges of cavalry above all if they threaten the flanks of the enemy's line, would cover the change of front to the rear. If cavalry be not at hand, there is no better means than to advance the second line to the position that it is desired that the front should occupy after its change of front, and with- MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 401 draw the first line at a run, directing it to form the second line, passing through the intervals of the battalions, now become the first line. If a line is about coming up with the enemy at the moment of re- ceiving the order to change front, it would be better to finish the charge, by putting the first line of the enemy in rout before executing tho movement to the rear. This last principle is applicable to retreats generally : it is often necessary to overthrow an enemy who is too nigh before retiring. Running movements may, in many cases, save us from destruction. It is necessary, then, to exercise troops in such movements, and make them run in disorder, and re-form at some given point. Echelons. The order in echelons is the manoeuvre of oblique at- tacks. By that means we approximate those troops only who are to fight. The remainder are at once threatening and defensive. They hold in check one or many parts of the order of battle of the enemy, and present the best possible protection to the attacking portion. Some echelons to the right and left of that which attacks, are greatly better than any other support. They render, if not impossible, at least very difficult, an attack upon the flank of the attacking portion, as that cannot be assailed without the enemy in turn being taken in flank by echelons. And the latter cannot be turned, except by strong movements, which must weaken the army executing them, and also afford necessary time to guard against them. Instead of placing flank brigades in advance of the front of the col- umns or lines that they protect, it is better to place them in rear. Be- sides the physical advantages of this disposition, there are moral advan- tages, inasmuch as the latter position enables the echelons to assail, whereas, if they were immediately on the flank of the attack, they might be assailed. In theory, echelons are placed at regular distances. In practice, the distance is determined by circumstances, and, above all, by the formation of the ground. The regularity of echelons can, therefore, only exist in broad plains. The greater or less distance between eche- lons depends upon the number of troops, the distances between those of the enemy, and the ulterior views of the general-in-chief ; but in gen- eral they ought to be within mutual succor, and if cavalry is to be re- pulsed, they ought to cross fire at about 150 paces after having formed square. The different movements of echelons, the changes of front in each echelon, with the same angle, are very useful in war ; it is neces- sary, therefore, that troops should be exercised in such movements. (See BATTLE ; CHARGE ; CONVOY ; DEFILE ; INFANTRY ; SQUARES. Con- 26 402 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAN. suit Apergus sur quelques Details de la Guerre, par MARSHAL BUGEAUD ; Tactique des Trois Armes, par DECKER.) MANTLET is a musket-proof shield, which is sometimes used for the protection of sappers or riflemen during the attack of a fortress. (See PENETRATION.) MANUAL. Exercise of arms ; books of reference, as Ordnance Manual, &c. MARAUDING. (See PLUNDER and PILLAGE.) MARCH. Recruits are taught to march by explaining the princi- ples of the cadcnced step in common, quick, and double-quick time. The march in line of battle is the most difficult and most important of the tactical marches. A regiment which can pass over two hundred paces in line of battle without losing its allignment, is well instructed. Marches may be divided into : marches in time of war ; marches in route, in time of peace ; and tactical marches. Those in time of war are either movements to pass over ground, or else manoeuvres to ob- tain an advantageous position. When an army moves forward to meet an enemy who is still very distant, it will .be sufficient to have advanced and rear guards, some flankers, and march in parallel columns over the best routes, each column having its squadrons of cavalry, batteries of ar- tillery, and wagon trains. If the enemy is, however, in the neighbor- hood, if we march along the front of his camp, or his line of posts, every precaution must be redoubled to gain information of his movements and guard against surprise. When the march is only a manoeuvre, it is often made across fields ; through by-roads ; then it is necessary to reconnoitre in advance, clear away obstacles, and sometimes even construct little bridges ; guides are taken, and information gained from them as well as by reconnaissances. Armies are collected together by routes of march, the troops usually marching about 17 miles a day. In general, the marches are made by battalions echeloned at intervals one day's distance from each other. Cavalry ordinarily marches alone and follows the least direct roads, but it is difficult to subsist a numerous cavalry without retarding military operations. Artillery follows the cavalry, or if it has a large convoy, it marches by another route alone. The troops begin to concentrate on the base of operations. Still advancing, the echelons converge, and the troops are cantoned together by lines one day's march from each other. The nearer we approach the enemy, the more columns are used ; if the country offers parallel debouches, it is always advantageous to march an army corps on many routes, if they are within distance for deploy- ments ; but if there is only one means of communication, the different MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 403 arms are kept 200 yards distant from each other, and the cavalry marches in rear of the column. On these marches, when a defile is to be passed, the successive pas- sage of each echelon is commanded in advance ; and it is a general rule never to crowd troops, so as to paralyze their action, or even render movements difficult ; but care must be taken always to keep troops within easy supporting distance of each other. Sometimes an army is collected very near the enemy. It is neces- sary then nicely to calculate distances, &c., in order to combine marches for a simultaneous convergence of columns on the offensive point.* To bring troops suddenly together, forced marches are made by some of the troops ; relays and railways are also used. By forced marches the ordinary day's march is doubled, but under extraordinary circumstances 62 miles have been made in 26 hours. Relays are the use of wagons, &c., obtained by requisition. 250 wagons may carry from 2,000 to 2,300 men. Sometimes the march is made entirely in wagons, and each echelon passes over three days' march in 8 hours. This is done by the troops taking new wagons twice, the old returning empty for other troops. It is but seldom that any one arm is exclusively employed when near the enemy ; it is usual to operate with a combined force of cavalry, infantry, and artillery, so that it may be always possible to employ one or the other arm, according to circumstances and locality. If the main body of the army is composed of the different arms, then the advanced guard is similarly constituted, that it may be able to act in all localities. The composition of such an advanced guard depends 1st. Upon the object and nature of its intended operations. During marches in pursuit, it is reinforced by cavalry ; but if it is to make an obstinate resistance, it is strengthened with much infantry and artillery. In general, light cavalry are the best for advanced guards, wherever the nature of the ground permits them to operate, but infantry are neces- sary to support them. Mounted rifles and mounted engineer troops are of great service in advanced guards. * To calculate exactly the time T necessary for the execution of a march : A column of in- fantry will generally pass over about five miles in two hours, halts included. A column of cavalry at a walk and trot alternately makes about six miles per hour. Let D then be the distance to be accomplished, d the distance that the men comprising the column pass over in an hour, halts in- cluded ; I the length of the column ; o the delay caused by obstacles ; then t - will be the d time that passes until the left arrives at its destination, and the formula T = t + o + D will give the time Bought. One of the elements of o is the lengthening I' of a column in a defile; it ig 9 considered by introducing into the formula; o is also the delay caused by marching across fields. These elements may all be estimated and introduced into the formula. 404 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAR. 2d. The composition of the advanced guard depends also upon the locality ; if the ground is broken, much infantry is required ; if it is open, much cavalry ; and, in general, light troops. The order of march of an advanced guard depends principally upon its composition, the order of march of the main body, the locality, &c. The main rule is, that it should never be too much divided, so that there may always be a considerable force in hand to seek the enemy more boldly, and detain him longer. Therefore, even when the main body moves in several columns, the principal part of the advanced guard marches on the main road, sending only small parties on the others to watch the enemy and detach patrols as far as possible in all directions. In an open, level country, the cavalry marches at the head ; in a broken country, there is only a small detachment of cavalry at the head, to furnish advanced detachments and patrols. An advanced de- tachment of cavalry, which sends out patrols in front and on its flanks, moves at the distance of a few miles in front of the advanced guard. Small detachments of cavalry move in a line with it on the other roads ; also others on the flanks of the main advanced guard, to secure it against being turned. All the front and flank detachments maintain constant mutual communication by means of patrols, and thus guard the whole space in front of the main body over a great extent. But if the flank columns of the main body march at a great distance from the main road, followed by the advanced guard, then, in addition to this last, each flank column detaches a small advanced guard for its own security. If the advanced guard is composed of different arms, its distance from the main body depends not only upon its strength, but also on the following circumstances : 1. On its composition. Cavalry may advance much further than infantry. 2. Upon the locality. The more fully the nature of the country secures the advanced guard against being turned, the further may it move from the main body. 3. Upon the object in view. Prior to defensive combats in position, it is advantageous to have the advanced guard as far from the main body as possible, in or- der to secure time for making the necessary arrangements ; but if the main body is already concentrated for a decisive attack upon the enemy, it is sometimes well to be entirely without an advanced guard ; during a pursuit, the main body should follow the advanced guard as closely as possible. 4. Upon the order of march of the main body. The longer the time needed by the main body to form in order of battle, on account of the intervals between the columns, the nature of the ground between them, the length of the columns, &c., so much further forward MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 405 should the advanced guard be pushed. In general, the distance of the advanced guard from the head of the main body should be a little greater than the interval between the outside columns of the main body. Fig. 152 gives an example of the arrangement of an advanced guard composed of one brigade of light cavalry, 8 battalions of infantry, one battalion of sappers, 6 pieces of horse artillery, and 12 pieces of foot artillery ; the main body following in 3 columns. Whatever slight changes may be made necessary by the nature of the country, can easily be made with the aid of a map and the special information obtained in other ways. If the country is partially broken and obstructed, it is advantageous to have four or five companies of infantry just behind the leading de- tachment of cavalry to examine places that are difficult or dangerous for the latter. Upon the plains, the patrols are of cavalry ; in a mountainous re- gion, of infantry. In the latter case, not only the advanced detachments and patrols are of infantry, but also the head and rear of every column ; the cavalry and artillery march in the middle, under the protection of the infantry. In passing through a village, the infantry enter it first, if there are any with the advanced guard ; the cavalry either ride rapidly around it^ or, according to circumstances, halt a little before reaching the vil- lage, and wait until the infantry have passed through. The passage of important bridges, ravines, and defiles, should be effected in the same manner, the infantry examining them. As soon as the infantry have crossed and formed on the other side, the cavalry send out patrols to a great distance to examine the ground in front be- fore the main body of the advanced guard begins to cross. The advanced guard having crossed rapidly, forms in front of tlje passage, to cover the debouche of the main body. The distance of such a position from the passage should be such that, in the event of being attacked, the advanced guard may not be too quickly forced back upon the main body while debouching, and that the latter may have ample time to form without disorder. Since attacks should be most expected when passing through defiles, or when issuing from them, they should be traversed rapidly, and with the most extended front possible, to prevent the column from stretching out. An advanced guard possessing a certain degree of independence, without neglecting any of the precautions here laid down, should not be 406 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAR. FIG. 152. HARCH OP AN ADVANCED GTTARD COMPOSED OF 1 BRIGADE OF CAVALRY, (20 COMPANIES,) 2 DIVISIONS OF INFANTRY, (8 BATTALIONS,) 1 BATTALION OF SAPPERS, 6 PIECES OF HORSE AND 12 OF FOOT ARTILLERY. ,2 Companies 2d Reg't from 2 to 4 milei Platoon 1/3 mile 3 1 ft Companies Id Reft about 2/ 3 mile E?2 Companies 2d Rtg'l from 2 to 4 milet From 1% to 2 milet 6 Guns *+ \ 8 Companies 1st Reg' t M I Lifht read of main body 2d Infantry D \tt Infantry Division Sapper Battalion IX miles !} Comp's 1st Seg't Vs mile .> Platoon 1st Reg't Bead of main body Hrad of main body MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 4(/J too apprehensive, and, in examining the country, ought not to be de- tained by objects which cannot conceal the enemy in sufficient force to make him dangerous to the advanced guard. In very mountainous regions, it is necessary to rely upon the infan- try alone ; the cavalry and train remaining in rear, and not entering the defiles until they have been occupied. Here 'the infantry patrols are sent out as far as possible, and occupy the heights from which the direc- tion of the columns may be seen, until relieved by the patrols of the rear guard, which is also of infantry. In this manner the cavalry, which the enemy would attack in such places in preference, is protected. Not a gorge or defile should be left unexamind, for in the mountains an at- tack may be expected at any moment. In a wooded country, the commander of the advanced guard takes nearly the same precautions as in the mountains. If the forest is deep but not broad, detachments of cavalry ride along the skirts, which are occupied by infantry skirmishers as supports ; if the forest is dense, but not deep, the infantry lead. The infantry place themselves along the skirts of the wood on both sides of the road ; the cavalry then passes through at a fast trot, forms on the plain beyond, and there awaits the rest of the column. When the road passes through a country but little obstructed by defiles, villages, or other obstacles to the movements of cavalry, and there is 'no infantry with the advanced guard, mounted rifles are very useful ; finally, the enemy, in retreating through such a country, leaves infantry at these obstacles to arrest the pursuit of the cavalry, and de- lay until the arrival of the infantry ; in such cases, mounted rifles or dismounted dragoons will produce sure results by acting against the enemy's infantry. The main body. It remains to be said, in reference to this, that the nature of the country must determine its order of march, whether cav- alry or infantry are to lead. If the country is broken, particularly if it is wooded, there is great danger in placing the cavalry at the head ; for it may not only be unable to act, but, if forced to retreat, may carry disorder into the infantry following. The artillery should march in the midst of the other troops, but a few pieces may move with the head of the column, to protect it in case of meeting the enemy suddenly. Infantry, in traversing extensive forests, in which parties of the enemy may easily conceal themselves, replace the flank detachments and patrols of cavalry. (Consult Aide Memoire tfEtat Major ; McCLEL- LAN'S Military Companion.) 408 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAR. MARINE CORPS when serving with the army, to be supplied by the several officers of the staff of the army ; (Act Dec. 15, 1814.) The officers of the marine corps may be associated with the officers of the land forces for the purpose of holding courts-martial and trying offenders belonging to either ; and in such cases the orders of the senior officer of cither corps, who may be present and duly authorized, shall be received and obeyed ; (ART. 68.) The marine corps shall at any time be liable to do duty in the forts and garrisons of the United States on the sea-coast, or any other duty on shore, as the President, at his dis- cretion, shall direct; (Act July 11, 1798.) The officers, nori-commis- sioned officers, privates, and musicians shall take the same oath and shall be governed by the same rules and articles as are prescribed for the military establishment of the United States and by the rules for the regulation of the navy heretofore, or which shall be established by law, according to the nature of the service in which they shall be employed, and shall be entitled to the same allowance in case of wounds or dis- abilities, according to their respective ranks, as are granted by the act to fix the military establishment of the United States ; (Act July 11, 1798.) MARKER,. Soldier who marks the direction of an alignment or pivot points. MARKSMAN. Good shot; sharp-shooter. (See RIFLEMEN; TARGET.) MARSH POISONS. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.) MARSHALS. The marshals of the several districts and their dep- uties shall have the same powers in executing the laws of the United States, as sheriffs and their deputies, in the several States, have by law, in executing the laws of the respective States ; (Act Feb. 28, 1795.) (See OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS ; POSSE COMITATUS.) MARTELLO TOWERS are buildings of masonry, generally circular, and of various dimensions. They are chiefly placed on the sea- coast, having a gun on their summit, mounted on a traversing platform, by which it can fire in any direction. MARTIAL LAW. (See LAW, Martial.) MASKED BATTERY is when the battery is so concealed or disguised, as not to be seen and recognized by the enemy, until it opens its fire. MATCH. Slow match is made of hemp, flax, or cotton rope, with three strands slightly twisted. Cotton rope well twisted forms a good match without any preparation, and burns 4^ inches an hour. Quick match is made of cotton yarn such as is used in candle-wick, MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 409 which, after preparation described in the Ordnance Manual, is dredged with meal powder. One yard burns in the open air 13 seconds. Quick match inclosed in tubes burns more rapidly than in the open air, and more so in proportion as the tubes are smaller. MATTOCK. A pioneer tool, resembling a pick-axe, but having two broad sharp edges instead of points. MAY. To be permitted ; to be at liberty ; to have the power. Whenever a statute directs the doing of a thing for the sake of justice or the public good, the word may is the same as shall. For example, the 23 II. 6 says, the sheriff may take bail that is construed he shall, for heiscompellabletodoso; (Carth.,293. Salk., 609. &m.,370.) The words shall and may, in general acts of the legislature or in private con- stitutions, are to be construed imperatively, (3 Alk., 166 ;) but the con- struction of these words in a deed depends on circumstances ; (3 Alk., 282, sec. 1 ; Vern. 152, Case 142; 9 Porter, R. S90.) MEASURES. (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.) MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its organization.) No person can receive the appointment of assistant-surgeon until he has been examined and approved by an army medical board of not less than three surgeons or assistant-surgeons ; and no person can receive the appointment of surgeon unless he shall have served five years as asst.-surgeon, and also have been examined by an army medical board constituted as above ; (Act June 30, 1834.) (See AMBULANCE ; LIT- TER ; SURGERY.) MEDICINE, RECIPES, &c., &c. An officer, unless he be a pro- fessed physician, need not take a large assortment of drugs. He wants a few powders, ready prepared ; which any physician will pre- scribe for him, such as : 1. Emetic, mild ; 2. ditto, very powerful for poison, (sulphate of zinc.) 3. Aperient, mild ; 4. ditto, powerful. 5. Cordial for diarrhoea. 6. Quinine for ague. 7. Sudorific, (Dover's pow- der.) It will save trouble if these be so prepared, that one measureful of each shall be a full average dose for an adult ; and if the measure to which they are adapted be cylindrical, and of such a size as just to admit a common lead-pencil, and three-quarters of an inch long, it can at any time be replaced by twisting up a paper-cartridge. In addition to the at)ove powders take cold cream ; heart-burn lozenges ; lint ; a small roll of diachylon ; lunar-caustic, in a proper holder, to touch old sores with, and for snake bites ; a scalpel and a blunt-pointed bistoury, to open ab- scesses with, (the blades of these should be waxed, to keep them from rust;) a good pair of forceps, to pull out thorns ; a couple of needles, to sew up gashes ; waxed thread. A mild effervescing aperient is very convenient. 410 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MED. Seidlitz-powders are perhaps a little too strong for frequent use in a tropical climate. The medicines should be kept in zinc pill-boxes, ail of the same diameter, with a few letters punched both on their tops and bottoms, to indicate what they contain, as Emet., Astr., &c. ; and the pill-boxes should slip one above another into a long zinc box lined with flannel, and lie there like sovereigns in a rouleau. The sulphate of zinc may be invaluable as an eyewash ; for ophthalmia is a scourge in many countries. The taste, which should be strongly astringent, is the best guide to the strength of its solution. For emetics, drink a charge of gunpowder in a tumblerful of warm water or soap-suds, or even tickle the throat. Vapor-baths are used in many countries, and the Russian plan of making them is often the most convenient. They heat stones in the fire, and put them on the ground in the middle of their cabin or tent ; on these they pour a little water and clouds of vapor are given off. Elsewhere, branches are spread on hot wood-embers, and the patient placed on these, wrapped in a large cloth ; water is then sprinkled on the embers, which soon covers the patient with a cloud of vapor. The traveller who is chilled or over-worked, and has a quiet day before him, would do well to practise this simple and pleasant remedy. Ointment. Simple cerate is equal parts of oil and wax ; lard and wax will do. Seidlitz-powders are made as follows : 1 oz. Carbonate of Soda ) 3 oz. Tartarized Soda | For the blue papers. 7 drachms Tartaric Acid For the white papers. These quantities make 12 sets. DISEASES. Fevers of all kinds, diarrhoea, and rheumatism, are the plagues that most afflict soldiers ; ophthalmia often threatens them. Change of air, from the flat country up into the hills, as soon as possible after the first violence of the illness is past, works wonders in hastening and perfecting a cure. With a bad diarrhoea, take nothing but broth, and it may be rice, in very small quantities at a meal, until quite re- stored. The least piece of bread or meat causes an immediate relapse. REMEDIES. A great discovery of modern days is the power of qui- nine to keep off fever while travelling across a fever district. It is a widely-corroborated fact, that a residence on the banks of the river, or in low land, is often less affected by malaria than the low hills that over- look it. There are certain precautions which should be borne in mind in unhealthy seasons as, never to encamp to the leeward of a marsh ; to sleep close in between large fires, with a handkerchief gathered round MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 411 your face, (natural instinct will teach this ;) not to start off too early in. the morning ; to avoid unnecessary hunger, hardship, and exposure. Drowning. A half-drowned man must be put to bed in dry, heated clothes ; hot stones, &c., to his feet ; his head must be raised moder- ately. Human warmth is excellent, such as that of two strapping men made to lie close up against him, one on each side. All rough treat- ment is hurtful. For Snake-bites, tie a string tight above the part, suck the wound, and apply caustic as soon as you can. Or, for want of caustic, cut away with a knife, and afterwards burn out with the end of your iron-ramrod, heated as near a white heat as you can readily get it. The arteries lie deep, and as much flesh may, without much danger, be cut or burnt into, as the fingers can pinch up. The next step is to use the utmost energy, and even cruelty, to prevent the patient's giving way to that lethargy and drowsiness which is the usual effect of snake- poison, and too often ends in death. Broken Bones. It is extremely improbable that a man should die, in consequence of a broken leg or arm, if the skin be uninjured but, if the broken end forces its way through the flesh, the injury is a very serious one. Abscesses form, the parts mortify, and the severest conse- quences often follow. Hence, when a man breaks a bone, do not con- vert a simple injury into a severe one, by carrying him carelessly. If possible, move the encampment to the injured man, and not vice versa. " When a man has broken his leg, lay him on the other side, put the broken limb exactly on the sound one, with a little straw between, and tie the two legs together with handkerchiefs. Thus, the two legs will move as one, and the broken bone will not hurt the flesh so much, nor yet come through the skin ; " (DRUITT.) Excessive Bleeding. When the blood does not pour or trickle in a steady stream from a deep wound, but in pulses, and is of a bright-red color, all the bandages in the world will not stop it. It is an artery that is wounded ; and, unless there be some one accessible who knows how to take it up and tie it, burn deeply into the part, as you would for a snake-bite ; or else pour boiling grease into the wound. It is, of course, a barbarous treatment, and far from being sure of success, as the cauterized artery may break out afresh ; still, life is in question, and it is the only hope of saving it. After the cautery, the wounded man's limb should be kept perfectly still, and well raised, and cool, until the wound is nearly healed. A tourniquet, which will stop the blood for a time, is made by tying a strong thong, string, or handkerchief, firmly above the part, putting a stick through and screwing it tight. 412 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MED. If you know whereabouts the artery lies which it is the object to com- press, put a stone over the place and under the handkerchief. The main arteries follow pretty much the direction of the inner seams of the coat sleeves and trousers. To cure blistered Feet. u Rub the feet at going to bed with spirits mixed with tallow dropped from a candle into the palm of the hand ; on the following morning no blister will exist. The spirits seem to possess the healing power, the tallow serving only to keep the skin soft and pliant. This is Captain Cochrane's advice, and the remedy was used by him in his pedestrian tour ; " (MURRAY'S Handbook of Switzer- land.) The receipt is excellent ; all pedestrians and all teachers of gymnastics endorse it, and it cannot be too widely known. To prevent the feet from blistering, it is a good plan to soap the inside of the stocking before setting out, making a good lather all over it ; and a raw egg broken into a boot, before putting it on, greatly softens the leather. After some hours' walking, when the feet are beginning to be chafed, take off the shoes, and change the stockings ; putting what was the right stocking on the left foot, and the left stocking on the right foot. Or, if one foot only hurts, take off the boot, and turn the stocking inside out. Rarefied Air. On high plateaux or mountains, travellers must suffer somewhat. The symptoms are described by many South Ameri- can travellers, where it is called the puna. The disorder is sometimes fatal to stout plethoric people ; oddly enough, cats are unable to endure it. At villages 13,000 feet above the sea, Dr. Tscudi says that they can- not live. Numerous trials have been made, but the creatures die in fright- ful convulsions. The symptoms of the puna are giddiness, dimness of sight and hearing, headache, fainting-fits, blood from mouth, eyes, nose, lips, and a feeling like sea-sickness. Nothing but time cures it. It begins to be felt at from 12,000 to 13,000 feet above the sea. M. Hermann Schlagintweit whose large mountain experience in the Alps and in the Himalaya, up to the height of 20,000 feet or more, is only paralleled by that of his brother says that he found the headache, &c., to come on when there was a breeze, far more than at any other time. His whole party would awake at the same moment, and begin to com- plain of the symptoms, immediately on the commencement of a breeze. The symptoms of overwork are not wholly unlike those of the puna, and many young travellers who have felt the first, have ascribed them to the second. Snow-blindness. In civilized life blue spectacles are, as is well known, an indispensable accompaniment to snow-mountain expeditions. The Esquimaux adopt the following equivalent : They cut a piece of soft MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 413 wood to the curvature of the face. It is about two inches thick, and ex- tends horizontally quite across both eyes, and rests on the nose, where a notch is cut to act in the same way as the bridge of a pair of spectacles. This is tied behind the ears. Next a long narrow slit, of the thickness of a thin saw-cut, is made along its middle almost from end to end. Through this slit the wearer can see very fairly. It is narrower than the diameter of the pupil of his eye, and, consequently, the light that reaches his retina is much diminished in quantity. Scurvy. Any vegetable diet cures it : lime-juice, treacle, raw pota- toes, and acid fruits are especially efficacious. Dr. Kane insists on the value of meat, eaten entirely raw, as a certain anti-scorbutic. It is gen- erally used by the Esquimaux. Teeth. Tough diet tries the teeth so severely that a man about to undergo it had much better pay a visit to a dentist before he leaves. Suffering from Thirst. Pour water over the clothes of the man, and keep them constantly wet ; restrain his drinking, after the first few minutes, as strictly as you can summon heart to do it. In less severe cases, drink water with a tea-spoon ; it will satisfy a parched palate as much as if you gulped it down in tumblerfuls, and will disorder the digestion much less. Suffering from Hunger. Two or three mouth fuls every quarter of an hour is, to a man in the last extremity, the best thing ; and strong broth the best food. Wasp and Scorpion-stings. The oil scraped out of a tobacco-pipe is good ; should the scorpion be large, his sting must be treated like a snake-bite. Poisoning. The first thing is to give a powerful emetic, to throw up whatever poison may still remain unabsorbed in the stomach. Use soap-suds or gunpowder, if proper emetics are not at hand. If there be violent pains and griping, or retchings, give plenty of water to make the vomitings more easy. Nothing now remains to be done but to re- sist the symptoms that are caused by the poison which was absorbed before the emetic acted. Thus if the man's feet are cold and numbed, put hot stones against them and wrap him up warmly. If he be drow- sy, heavy, and stupid, give brandy, and try to rouse him. There is nothing more to be done, save to avoid doing mischief. Fleas. " Italian flea-powder," sold in the East, is really efficacious. It is made from the " Pire oti," (or flea-bean,) mentioned in CURZON'S Armenia, as growing in that country. It is powdered and sold as a specific. Vermin on the Person. " "We had now been travelling for nearly 414 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MEM. six weeks, and still wore the same clothing we had assumed on our departure. The incessant pricklings with which we were harassed, sufficiently indicated that our attire was peopled with the filthy vermin to which the Chinese and Tartars are familiarly accustomed, but which, with Europeans, are objects of horror and disgust. Before quitting Tchagan-Kouren, we had bought in a chemist's shop a few sapeks'-worth of mercury. We now made with it a prompt and specific remedy against the lice. We had formerly got the receipt from some Chinese ; and, as it may be useful to others, we think it right to describe it here. You take half an ounce of mercury, which you mix with old tea-leaves previously reduced to paste by mastication. To render this softer you generally add saliva ; water could not have the same effect. You must afterwards bruise and stir it awhile, so that the mercury may be divided into little balls as fine as dust. (I presume that blue pill is a pretty exact equivalent to this preparation.) You infuse this composition into a string of cotton, loosely twisted, which you hang round the neck ; the lice are sure to bite at the bait, and they thereupon as surely swell, become red, and die forthwith. In China and in Tartary you have to re- new this salutary necklace once a month ; " (Hue's Travels in Tarta- ry.} GALTON'S Art of Travel. MEMBERS. (See COURT-MARTIAL.) MEMBERS, (SUPERNUMERARY.) In case supernumerary mem- bers are detailed for a court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that they should sit and be present at all deliberations even when the court is cleared, in order to be prepared to take the place of any absent mem- ber. Until then they have no voice ; ( HOUGH.) MENACING WORDS. (See CONTEMPT.) MENSURATION. MATHEMATICAL FORMULA AND DATA. Lines. CIRCLE. Ratio of circumference to diameter, TT = 3.1415926536 = f f f nearl 7- Length of an arc = ; r being the radius of the circle, and a the number of degrees in the arc ; or, nearly = - ; c being the o chord of the arc, and c' the chord of half the arc, which is = >/ 4 a "H versine*. Length of 1 degree 0.0174533 ; radius being 1. Length of 1 minute = 0.0002909. Length of 1 second = 0.0000048. / ^ V .X > *<' 415 ^^r ELLIPSE. Circumference = -iff IT c being the cord and v the versed sine. Ellipse. .7854 a b ; a and 6 being the axes. Parabola, f a 6 ; a being the abscissa, and 6 the double ordinate. Right prism or cylinder. Curved surface = height X perimeter of base. Right pyramid or cone. Half the slant height X perimeter of base. Frustum of a right prism or cylinder. The perimeter of the base multiplied by the distance from the centre of gravity of the upper sec- tion to the base. If the prism or cylinder is oblique, multiply this product by the sine of the angle of inclination. Frustum of a right pyramid or cone. The slant height X half the sum of the perimeters of the two ends. Sphere. 4 TT r 2 ; or, diam. X circum. ; or, diam. 2 X 3.1416. 416 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MEN. Spherical zone or segment. 2 TT r h ; or, the height of the zone or segment multiplied by the circumference of the sphere. Circular spindle. 2 TT (r c a v / r' | c*) ; a being the length of the arc, and c its chord, or the length of the spindle. Spherical triangle. TT r* - ; s being the sum of the three , loU angles. Any surface of revolution. 2 TT r I ; or, the length of the generating element multiplied by the circumference described by its centre of gravity. TABLE OF REGULAR POLYGONS. No. of sides. Name. Area. Eadius of circum- scribing circio. Side of inscribed polygon. 3 Triangle. 0.4330127 0.5773503 1.732051 4 Square. I.OUGOOOO 0.7071068 1.414214 5 Pentagon. 1.7204774 0.8506508 1.175570 6 Hexagon. 2.5980762 1.0000000 1.000000 7 Heptagon. 3.6339124 1.1523824 0.867767 8 Octagon. 4.8284271 1.3065628 0.765367 9 Nonagon. 6.1818.242 1.4619022 0.684040 10 Decagon. 7.6942088 1.6180340 0.618034 11 Undecagon. 9.3656399 1.7747324 0.563465 12 Dodecagon. 11.19615-24 1.9318517 0.517638 The column of areas, in the foregoing table, gives the number by which the square of the side is to be multiplied, to find the area of the polygon. The next column gives the multiplier for the side of a polygon, to find the radius of the circumscribing circle. The last column gives the multiplier for the radius of a circle, to find the side of the inscribed polygon. Solids. Prism or cylinder. Area of base multiplied by the height. Pyramid or cone. Area of base multiplied by one-third of the height. Frustum of a pyramid or cone. \ h (B -{- b -\- +J B b) ; h being the height ; B and b the areas of. the two ends. Or, for a conic frustum : J h X .7854 X f ^ A ; D and d being the diameters of the two ends. Frustum of a right triangular prism. The base X ^ ( H -f- H' + H"). Frustum of any right prism. The base multiplied by its distance from the centre of gravity of the section. MEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 417 Cylindrical segment, contained between the base and an oblique plane passing through a diameter of the base : two-thirds of the height multiplied by the great triangular section ; or, i r 1? ; r being the radius of the base, and h the area of the height. 4 TT r 3 Sphere. - ; or, .5236 d 3 ; r being the radius and d the di- o ameter. Spherical segment. i7r/i a (3r h) = ^- ; (36 1 -f A 2 ) ; b being the radius of the base, A the height of the segment, and r the radius of the sphere: ~=0.5236. o Spherical zone. ^ (3 a -f 3 b 9 -f A s ) ; B, b being the radii of the bases. Spherical sector, i r X the surface of the segment or zone ; or, f- Trr'A. Ellipsoid. - ; a being the revolving diameter and b the axis of revolution. Paraboloid. Half the area of the base multiplied by the height. Circular spindle. TT Q- c 3 2 s +J r* c 3 ) ; s being the area of the revolving segment and c its chord. Any solid of revolution. 2 TT r s ; or, the area of the generating surface multiplied by the circumference described by its centre o gravity. Any irregular solid, bounded by a curved surface. Use the rule for finding the area of an irregular plane figure, suostituting sections for ordinates. Cask gauging. 1. By the preceding rule : The content of a cask = I (c? a -f D 9 -f 4 M* ) ; I being the length, d y Z>, the head and bung diameters, and M, a diameter midway between them, all measured in the clear, inside ; = 0.1309. The same formula may be thus stated : \ I (A -f B -f C) ; I being the length ; A and JB, the areas of the head and bung sections ; and (7, that of the section midway between them. 2. Contents of a cask, nearly, = - I (2 D* + d 3 ) ; or, I X the area . of a circle whose diameter is 27 418 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MER. CENTRES OF GRAVITY. Lines. Circular arc. At a distance from the centre = ; r being the radius, c the chord, and I the length of the arc. Areas. Triangle. On a line drawn from any angle to the middle of the op- posite side, at two-thirds of the distance from the angle to the side. Trapezoid. On a line a joining the middle points of the two par- allel sides, .Z?, b ; distance from B ^-^-^ ) o \ B -f b I 4 r Semicircle. Distance from the centre = - 3 TT C 3 Circular segment. Distance from the centre = - ; c being the \ A chord of the segment, and A its area. 2 r c Circular sector. Distance from the centre = ; c being the 06' chord, and I the length of the arc. Pkrabolic segment. Distance from the vertex = three-fifths of the abscissa. Surface of a right cylinder, cone, or frustum of a cone. The centre of gravity is at the same distance from the base as that of the parallel- ogram, triangle or trapezoid, which is a right section of the same. Surface of a spherical zone or segment. At the middle of the height. MERLON. ITie space of the parapet between two embrasures. MESNE PROCESS. Any writ issued in the course of a suit be- tween the original process and execution. By this term is also meant the writ of proceedings in an action to summon or bring the defendant into court, or compel him to appear or put in bail, and then to hear and answer the plaintiff's claim. (See ARREST BY CIVIL AUTHORITY.) MESS. The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Ex- ecutive regulations have been made on the subject, but without law it is impossible to put messes on a proper footing. In England, an allow- ance is granted by the king in aid of the expense of officers' messes ; and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month's pay to the mess fund. All the officers of the corps mess together. In France, the several grades mess separately ; lieutenants and sub-lieu- tenants forming two tables; captains another, and field officers of different grades generally eating separately also. Colonels and general officers of MIL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 419 the French service receive an allowance for table expenses, not sufficient to keep open house, but enough to enable them to entertain guests. MIASM, MIASMATA. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.) MILEAGE. Travelling allowance or transportation of baggage. (See TRAVELLING.) MILITARY ACADEMY. (See ACADEMY.) MILITARY LAWS. (See GOVERNMENT, LAW (MILITARY); REGU- LATIONS.) MILITIA. GENERAL ABSTRACT OP THE MILITIA FORCE OP THE TJNITED STATES, ACCORDING TO THE LATEST RETURNS RECEIVED AT THE OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL. STATES AND TERRITORIES. For what year. General officers. 2 8 5S o 1 1 1 1 r/r 1 o 2 E Company officers. Total commissioned officers. Non-commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates. Aggregate. Maine 1854 1854 1856 1843 1854 1856 ISoS 1852 1854 1S27 1838 1854 1845 1856 1850 1845 1851 1856 1838 1840 1852 1.845 1854 1832 1855 1854 10 11 10 12 3 b 97 56 202 46 51 89 10 305 13 119 131 224 24 59 1,460 193 895 521 801 49 182 5,402 272 1,227 708 1,088 115 254 7,264 ' 2,345 82,311 154,323 22,827 1,036 51,560 326,094 2,617 88,636 155,031 23,915 1,151 51,814 338,358 81,984 106,957 9,229 46,864 125,531 79,448 86,07-2 78.699 12,122 76,662 90,732 86,084 71,252 88,979 176,455 97,094 53,913 257,420 49,261 New Hampshire Massachusetts . . . Rhode Island Connecticut .... New York New Jersey Pennsylvania 4 22 32 28 20 39 3 32 16 15 25 43 91 80 81 8 68 76 133 135 91 14 142 129 70 79 145 217 323 110 71 544 153 657 535 624 95 775 542 392 859 1,165 462 147 566 364 1,763 614 8,449 1,909 4,296 508 1,883 2,084 848 2,644 3,517 1,281 2,358 2,154 447 2,397 875 4,267 2,599 5,050 620 2,832 2,771 825 3,607 4,870 2,051 2,858 2,861 8,782 44,467 124,656 75,181 33,473 73,649 11,502 78,830 87,961 85,259 67,645 84,109 174,404 94,236 51,052 Marylau'l Virginia.. North Carolina South Carolina Georgia . Florida Alabama Louisiana Mississippi Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin 15 88 125 914 1,142 48,119 Iowa Missouri 1853 1854 1847 1854 1851 "'do' 15 12 2 17 89 45 11 4 128 248 67 955 940 100 88 1,132 1,248 123 7 117,959 84,922 18,518 208,522 1,996 118,047 86,054 19,766 208,645 2,003 Arkansas Texas California Minnesota Territory Oregon Terri tory Nebraska Territory Kansas Terri tory Territory of Utah 1S53 2 48 235 285 2,536 2,821 Territory of New Mexico District of Columbia 1?52 3 too 10 28 1S5 226 7,975 8,201 Grand aggregate _',W4 10,198 40,611 54,1092,071,249 2,571,719 420 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MIL. Notwithstanding the feudal military service introduced into Eng- land by William the Conqueror, ancient Anglo-Saxon laws, making it the duty of every freeman to arm himself and serve for the defence of his country against invasion, remained in full vigor. The force authorized to be raised under these conditions has from the ear- liest times been called the militia, and was under the command of the alderman or earl, who was at that time the governor of the county. By the 27th Henry II. (1154) this force was regulated and organized, every subject, according to his rank and means, being compelled to furnish himself with arms for the maintenance of the king's peace. A century afterwards this act was confirmed, and a fresh " Assize of arms " ordered by the statute of Wynton, by which it was enacted that every man between the ages of fifteen and sixty should be assessed, and sworn to keep armor according to the value of his lands and goods. For 15 and upwards in rent, or 40 marks in goods, a hauberk, an iron breastplate, a sword, a knife, and a horse ; property of less value en- tailing the possession of arms of a proportionately less expensive char- acter. Constables were also appointed to view the armor twice a year, which constables, the act says, " shall present before justices assigned such defaults as they shall see in the country about armor ; and the jus- tices assigned shall present at every parliament unto the king such de- faults as they shall find, and the Icing shall provide the remedy therein. The system organized by these statutes was evidently, from the con- text, intended in the first place for the preservation of internal peace, by the suppression of tumults, and keeping in check the bands of rob- bers that infested the public ways ; the sheriff, as the conservator of the public peace, had always possessed the power of calling out the posse comitatus, or assembly of liegemen of the county, to assist him on such occasions ; and it is supposed that it was the object of Edward III. to confirm and extend this authority, and at the same time to organize a force readily capable of being made applicable to resist invasion. In the United States each and every free, able-bodied, white male citizen of the respective States resident therein, who is of the age of 18 years and under 45 years, (except EXEMPTS, which see,) shall be enrolled in the militia by the captain or commanding officer of the company within whose bounds such citizen shall reside. The militia of the respective States shall be arranged into divisions, brigades, regiments, battalions and companies, as the legislature of each State shall direct. If the same be convenient, each brigade shall consist of four regiments ; each regiment of two battalions ; each battalion of five companies, and each company of sixty-four privates. The said militia shall be officered by the respec- MIL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 421 tive States as follows : to each division, one major-general and two aides-de-camp with the rank of major, one division-inspector with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and one division-quartermaster, with the rank of major ; to each brigade, one brigadier-general, one aide-de-camp with the rank of captain, one quartermaster, with the rank of captain, with one brigade-inspector, to serve also as brigade-major, with the rank of major ; to each regiment consisting of two battalions one colonel, one lieutenant-colonel, and one major ; where there shall be only one battalion, it shall be commanded by a major ; to each regi- ment one chaplain ; to each company one captain, one lieutenant, one ensign, four sergeants, four corporals, one drummer, and one fifer or bugler. There shall be a regimental staff, to consist of one adjutant and one quartermaster, to rank as lieutenants ; one paymaster, one surgeon, and one surgeon's mate ; one sergeant-major, one drum-major, and one fife-major ; to the militia of each State one quartermaster-gen- eral ; (Ads May 8, 1792, March 2, 1803, April 18, 1814, April 20, 1816.) Out of the enrolled militia, there shall be formed for each battalion one company of grenadiers, light infantry or riflemen ; and to each di- vision there shall be at least one company of artillery and one troop of horse ; there shall be to each company of artillery, one captain, two lieutenants, four sergeants, four corporals, six gunners, six bombardiers, one drummer, and one fifer. There shall be to each troop of horse, one captain, two lieutenants, one cornet, four sergeants, four corporals, one saddler, one farrier, and one trumpeter. Each troop of horse and company of artillery to be formed of volunteers of the brigade to which they belong ; (Act May 8, 1792.) It shall be the duty of the brigade-inspector to attend the regimental and battalion meetings of the militia, inspect their arms, ammunition, &c., superintend their exercise and manoeuvres, and introduce the sys- tem of military discipline throughout the brigade agreeably to law and such orders as they shall, from time to time, receive from the com- mander-in-chief of the State ; to make returns to the adjutant-general of the State at least once. in every year, reporting the actual condition of the arms, accoutrements, and ammunition of the several corps, and every other thing which, in his judgment, may relate to their govern- ment and the general advancement of good order and military disci- pline; (^May 8, 1792.) Volunteer corps shall retain their accustomed privileges, subject nevertheless to all other duties required by this act, in like manner with the other militia ; (Act May 8, 1792.) 422 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MIL. There shall be an adjutant-general appointed in each State, whose duty it shall be to distribute all orders of the commander-in-chief of the State to the several corps ; to attend all public revie\\te when the com- mander-in-chief shall review the militia ; to obey all orders from him, relative to carrying into execution and perfecting the system of military discipline established by this act ; to furnish blank forms of different returns that may be required, and to .explain the principles on which they should be made ; to receive from the several officers of the differ- ent corps throughout the State, returns of the militia under their com- mand, reporting the actual condition of their arms, and every thing which relates to the advancement of good order and discipline ; all which the several officers of the divisions, brigades, regiments, and bat- talions are required to make, so that the adjutant-general may be duly furnished therewith ; from all of which returns he shall make abstracts and lay the same annually before the commander-in-chief of the State ; and he shall also make an annual return of the militia of the State, with their arms and accoutrements, &c., to the President of the United States ; and the Secretary of War shall, from time to time, give direc- tions to the adjutant-generals of States to produce uniformity in such returns ; (Acts May 8, 1792 ; March 2, 1803, and May 12, 1820.) Whenever militia shall be called into actual service of the United States, their pay shall commence from the day of their appearance at the places of battalion, regimental, or brigade rendezvous ; allowing to each non-commissioned officer and soldier a day's pay and rations for every fifteen miles from his home to such place of rendezvous, and the same allowances for travelling home from the place of discharge ; (Act Jan. 2, 1795.) The militia or other State troops, being mustered and in pay of the United States, shall be subject to the same Rules and Articles of War as the troops of the United States, save only that courts-martial for the trial of militia or other State troops shall be composed entirely of mili- tia officers ; (ART. 97.) All officers, serving by commission from the authority of any particular States, shall, on all detachments, courts-mar- tial, or other duty wherein they may be employed in conjunction with the regular forces of the United States, take rank next after all officers of like grade in said regular forces, notwithstanding the commissions *f such militia or State officers may be older than the commissions of the officers of the regular forces of the United States ; (ART. 98.) By the act for calling forth the militia, approved Feb. 28, 1795, mi- litia not to serve more than three months after arrival at the place of rendezvous. Every officer, non-commissioned officer, or private of mi- MIL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. f 423 litia that shall fail to obey tne orders of the President of the United States, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding one year's pay, and not less than one month's pay, to be determined and adjudged by a court-mar- tial ; and such officer shall, moreover, be liable to be cashiered by sen- tence of a court-martial and be incapacitated from holding a commission in the militia for a term not exceeding twelve months, at the discretion of the said court ; and such non-commissioned officers and privates shall be liable to be imprisoned by a like sentence, on failure of the payment of fines adjudged against them, for one calendar month for every five dollars of such fine. Courts-martial for the trial of militia, shall be composed of militia officers only. That all fines to be assessed, as aforesaid, shall be certified by the presiding officer of the court-martial before whom the same shall be as- sessed, to the marshal of the district in which the delinquent shall re- side, or to one of his deputies, and also to the supervisor of the revenue of the same district, who shall record the said certificate in a book to be kept for that purpose. The said marshal, or his deputy, shall forth- with proceed to levy the said fines, with costs, by distress and sale of the goods and chattels of the delinquent ; which costs, and the manner of proceeding with respect to the sale of the goods distrained, shall be agreeable to the laws of the State in which the same shall be, in other cases of distress. And where any non-commissioned officer or private shall be adjudged to suffer imprisonment, there being no goods or chat- tels to be found whereof to levy the said fines, the marshal of the dis- trict, or his deputy, may commit such delinquent to gaol, during the term for which he shall be so adjudged to imprisonment, or until the fine shall be paid, in the same manner as other persons condemned to fine and imprisonment at the suit of the United States may be com- mitted. That the marshals and their deputies shall pay all such fines by them levied, to the supervisor of the revenue in the district in which they are collected, within two months after they shall have received the same, deducting therefrom five per centum as a compensation for their trouble ; and in case of failure, the same shall be recoverable by action of debt or information in any court of the United States of the district in which such fines shall be levied, having cognizance thereof, to be sued for, prosecuted, and recovered, in the name of the supervisor of the dis- trict, with interest and costs. That the marshals of the several districts, and their deputies, shall have the same powers, in executing the laws of the United States, as 424 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Mm. sheriffs, and their deputies in the several States, have by law in execut- ing the laws of the respective States. And by a supplementary act approved in Feb. 1813, That, in every case in which a court-martial shall have adjudged and determined a fine against any officer, non- commissioned officer, musician, or private, of the militia, for any of the causes specified in the act to which this act is a supplement, or in the fourth section of an act, entitled " An act to authorize a detachment from the militia of the United States," all such fines, so assessed, shall be certified to the comptroller of the treasury of the United States, in the same manner as the act to which this act is a supplement directed the same to be certified to the supervisor of the revenue. That the marshals shall pay all fines which have been levied and collected by them, or their respective deputies, under the authority of the acts herein referred to, into the treasury of the United States, within two months after they shall have received the same, deducting five per centum for their own trouble ; and, in case of failure, it shall be the duty of the comptroller of the treasury to give notice to the district at- torney of the United States, who shall proceed against the said marshal in the district court, by attachment, for the recovery of the same. (See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; DEFENCE, National.) MINE. Powder placed in subterranean cavities, by exploding which every thing above it is overthrown. Mines are offensive when they are prepared by besiegers, and defensive when used by the besieged. The place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber of the mine, and it is generally made of a cubical form large enough to contain the wooden box which holds the powder necessary for the charge. The fire is communicated to the mine by means of a pipe or hose made of coarse cloth filled with powder, laid in a wooden case about an inch square, ex- tending from the centre of the chamber to the extremity of the gallery, where a match is fixed so that the miner who applies the fire to it, may have time to retire before the flame reaches the chamber. (See Fou- GASSE ; GALLEEY.) MINORS. The Secretary of War, on demand, is required to grant the discharge from the army of any minor enlisted without the consent of parent or guardian. MINUTE GUNS. Guns, fired at intervals of a minute, are signals of distress. MISBEHAVIOR BEFORE THE ENEMY. Punishable with death or otherwise, according to the sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 52.) MISNOMER. If a prisoner plead a misnomer, the court may ask MOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 425 the prisoner what is his real name, and call upon him to plead to the amended charge ; ( HOUGH.) MITIGATION. (See PARDON.) MONEY. The embezzlement or misapplication of public money intrusted to an officer for the payment of men under his command, or for enlisting men into the service, or for other purposes, punishable with cashiering and being compelled to refund the money. In case of a non- commissioned officer, reduction to the ranks and being put under stop- pages until the money is- refunded, and such corporeal punishment as a court-martial shall direct ; (ART. 39.) MONTHLY RETURNS. (See RETURNS.) MORTAR. The following mortars are used in the United States service : The heavy 13-inch mortar, weighing 11,500 Ibs., whole length 53 inches, length of chamber 13 inches, and superior diameter of cham- Fia 158. $ 3 -4* ~ 8IEGE MORTAR. 1. Cheeks. 5. Cap square. 2. Manoeuvring bolt. 6. Cap straps, 3. Deck plank. 7. Bolster. 4. Sleeper. 8. Quoin. 9. Eye bolts. ber 9.5 inches ; the heavy 10-inch mortar, weighing 5,775 Ibs., whole length 46 inches, length of chamber 10 inches ; the light 10-inch mor- tar, weighing 1,852 Ibs., whole length of mortar 28 inches, length of chamber 5 inches ; the light 8-inch mortar, weighing 930 Ibs., whole length of mortar 22.5 inches, length of chamber 4 inches ; brass stone mortar, weighing 1,500 Ibs., diameter of bore 16 inches, whole length of mortar 31.55 inches, length of chamber 6.75 inches; brass coehorn 24-pounder, diameter of the bore 5.82 inches, weight 164 Ibs., whole length 16.32 inches, length of chamber 4.25 inches ; iron eprouvette, diameter of the bore 5.655 inches, weight 220 Ibs., length of bore ex- clusive of chamber, 11.5 inches, length of chamber 1.35 inch. Mortars 426 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Mou. are mounted on beds, and when used, siege mortars are placed on a platform of wood made of 6 sleepers; 18 deck planks ; and 72 dowels ; fastened with 12 iron eye-bolts. (Consult Ordnance Manual and Instruc- tion in Heavy Artillery for Mechanical Manoeuvres. See ARTILLERY ; ORDNANCE.) MOUNTAIN" ARTILLERY. The mountain howitzer, weight 220 Ibs., whole length 37.21 inches, diameter of bore 4.62 inches ; length of chamber 2.75 inches, diameter of chamber 3.34 ; natural angle of sight, 37' ; RANGE 500 yards, at an elevation of 2 30', with a charge of -J Ib. powder and shell ; time of flight, 2 seconds ; w r ith same charge and eleva- tion, the range of spherical-case is 450 yards. At an elevation of from 4 to 5 the range with canister is 250 yards. According to elevation the range varies from 150 to 1,000 yards ; at the same ele- vation the range with shell being greater than spherical-case. A battery of six mountain howitzers requires 33 pack- saddles and harness, and 33 horses or mules. A mountain howitzer ammu- nition chest will carry about 700 musket ball-cartridges, besides eight rounds for the howitzer. MOUNTED RIFLEMEN. There is one regiment of mounted riflemen in the United States army. (See ARMY for their organization.) The skirmish drill for mounted troops prepared by Capt. D. II. Maury, U. S. A., and used by mounted riflemen, differs from the system of cavalry exercise : 1st. In prescribing the formation in one rank instead of in two ranks. Be- sides extending the line of front, this change develops individual instruction, and enables the officer to bring his men from column into line, and the reverse, almost as quickly as in infantry. By it a mounted company may be brought Mus.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 427 | from the full gallop into fighting order on foot, the true order for rifle- men, within six seconds after the command has been given. 2d. In giving no heed to inversions. The effect of this change is to bring men from marching into fighting order in the simplest and most rapid manner. 3d. The grouping together of men in sets of fours. This, besides being convenient for the purposes of police and guards in garrison and camp, teaches the men, when in action, to rely upon each other as near comrades. (See CAVALRY.) MOUNTING. The parade of marching on guard is called guard- mounting. MUSKET. (See ARMS.) MUSTER. At every muster, the commanding officer of each regi- ment, troop, or company there present, shall give certificates, signed by himself, signifying how long officers who do not appear at muster have been absent, and the reason of their absence. In like manner, the com- manding officer of every troop or company shall give certificates, signi- fying the reasons of the absence of the non-commissioned officers and private soldiers, which reasons and time of absence shall be inserted in the muster-rolls, opposite the names of the respective absent officers and soldiers. The certificates shall, together with the muster-rolls, be remitted by the commissary of musters or other officer mustering, to the Department of War, as speedily as the distance of the place will admit ; (ART. 13.) Every officer, who shall be convicted of having signed a false certificate, relating to the absence of either officer or sol- dier, or relative to his or their pay, shall be cashiered ; (ART. f4.) Every officer, who shall knowingly make a false muster of man or horse, and every officer or commissary of musters, who shall willingly sign, direct, or allow, the signing of muster-rolls wherein such false muster is contained, shall, upon proof made thereof by two witnesses before a general court-martial, be cashiered, and shall be thereby utterly disabled to have or hold any office or employment in the service of the United States ; (ART. 15.) Any commissary of muster or other officer, who shall be convicted of having taken money or other things by way of gratification, on mustering any regiment, troop, or company, or on signing muster-rolls, shall be displaced from office and shall be thereby utterly disabled to have or hold any office or employment in the service of the United States; (ART. 16.) Any officer, who shall presume to muster a person as a soldier who is not a soldier, shall be deemed guilty of having made a false muster, and shall suffer accordingly ; (ART. 17.) Troops are mustered every two months. (See ARREARS OF PAY ; CERTIFICATE ; FALSE ; PAY.) 428 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MUT. MUTINY. Any officer or soldier, who shall begin, excite, cause, or join in any mutiny or sedition in any troop or company in the ser- vice of the United States , or in any party, post, detachment, or guard, shall suffer death, or such other puunishment as by a court-martial shall be inflicted ; (ART. 7.) Any officer, non-commissioned officer, or sol- dier who, being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his ut- most endeavor to suppress the same, or coming to the knowledge of any intended mutiny, does not, without delay, give information thereof to his commanding officer, shall be punished by the sentence of a court- martial with death, or otherwise, according to the nature of his offence ; (ART. 8.) " Mutiny is a combined or simultaneous resistance, active or passive, to lawful military authority." The best authorities admit that a single person, without previous combination or concert with others, cannot commit mutiny. An overt act by one person, in pursu- ance of a combined plan or conspiracy, is, however, mutiny ; and con- spiracy or intended mutiny is, under the 8th article, punishable in the same degree as an overt act. Where an overt act, therefore, has not been committed, it is proper to base the charge on the 8th article. But all who have conspired in intended mutiny are alike guilty of mutiny, consisting in overt acts on the part of one or more of the conspirators. N NAIL BALL is a round projectile with an iron pin projecting from it, to prevent its turning in the bore of the piece. NATIONAL ANNIVERSARY. The 4th of July. Regulations prescribe the honors to be paid by troops to the National Anniversary. NATIONAL DEFENCE. (See DEFENCE, National.) NEW MATTER. It is not proper that the prosecutor should be allowed to introduce new matter, neither should it be admitted on the defence. There is a great difference between new matter of accusation and facts proved by evidence to mitigate the sentence. The latter are not new matter in its strict sense ; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.) NITRE. Saltpetre, or nitrate of potassa ; 54 nitric acid, 48 potassa. It is spontaneously generated in the soil, and is a necessary ingredient of powder. It has occasionally been produced artificially in nitre beds, formed of a mixture of calcareous soil with animal matter ; in these, nitrate of lime is slowly formed, which is extracted by lixiviation, and carbonate of potash added to the solution, which gives rise to the for- mation of nitrate of potassa and carbonate of lime ; the latter is precipi- tated ; the former remains in solution and is obtained in crystals by evaporation. Its great use is in the manufacture of gunpowder, and in OBE.] MILITARY EftCTIONARY. 429 the production of nitric acid. It is also employed in the curing or preservation of meat. NOMENCLATURE. Technical designation. (See ARMS ; ORD- NANCE.) NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER. Grades between private and warrant officer, as corporal, sergeant, ordnance-sergeant, sergeant- major, and quartermaster-sergeant. NOTES. Members of courts-martial sometimes take notes. They are frequently necessary to enable a member to bring the whole body of evidence into a connected view, where the case is complex. o OATH. " Every officer, non-commissioned officer, musician, and private, shall take and subscribe the following oath or affirmation, to wit : I, A. B, do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the United States of America, and that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against their enemies or opposers whomsoever ; and that I will observe and obey the orders of the President of the United States, and the orders of the officers ap- pointed over me, according to the Rules and Articles of War ; (Act March 16, 1802.) OATH, (COURT OF INQUIRY.) The form of the oath to be taken upon courts of inquiry by members and judge-advocate or recorder, is prescribed in ART. 93. Witnesses before courts of inquiry take the same oath as before courts-martial. OATH, (PROFANE.) Any non-commissioned officer or soldier, who shall use any profane oath or execration, incurs the same penalties as for irreverence at divine worship. (See WORSHIP.) A commissioned officer shall forfeit and pay for each and every such offence one dollar, to be applied as forfeitures for irreverence at worship. OATH OF WITNESSES. (See WITNESS.) OATHS OF MEMBERS OF COURTS-MARTIAL The 69th Article of War prescribes the oath or affirmation to be taken upon courts-martial, by members, and the judge-advocate. (See TRIAL.) OATS. (See FORAGE ; WEIGHTS.) OBEDIENCE to "any lawful command of his superior officer " is exacted from all officers and soldiers under penalty of death, or such other punishment as may be inflicted by a court-martial ; (ART. 9.) Two questions, therefore, arise under this article : Who is to judge of the legality of the command ? and, What constitutes a superior officer in the sense of the article 1 430 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [QBE. It is evident that if all officers and soldiers are to judge when an or- der is lawful and when not, the captious and the mutinous would never be at a loss for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, therefore, an established principle, that, unless an order is so manifestly against law that the question does not admit of dispute, the order must first be obeyed by the inferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress against his superior as the laws allow. If the inferior disputes the le- gality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in mitiga- tion of the offence. The redress now afforded by the laws to inferiors is not, however, sufficient ; for doubtful questions of the construction of statutes, instead of being referred to the Federal courts of law for their true exposition, have received variable expositions from the executive, and left the army in an unfortunate state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of certain laws, and this uncertainty has been most unfavorable to discipline. Again, while the punishment of death is meted to officers and sol- diers for disobedience of lawful commands, the law does not protect offi- cers and soldiers for obeying unlawful commands. Instances have oc- curred in our country, where officers and soldiers have been subjected to vexatious prosecutions, simply for obeying orders, according to their oath of office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring offi- cers and soldiers thus nicely to steer between Scylla and Charybdis, should hold the superior who gives an illegal order, alone responsible for its execution 1 By superior officer in Article 9, and every other Article of War, is meant an officer who has the right to command his inferiors in the mil- itary hierarchy. The word superior, therefore, embraces, within their appropriate circle of command, commanding generals, superior regi- mental and company officers, superior officers of corps or departments, and the commanding officer on guards, marches, or in quarters of what- ever corps of the line of the army, marine corps or militia authorized to command the whole by the 62d Article of War, whenever different corps come together. This construction of the w r ords " officers ap- pointed over me, according to the Rules and Articles of War," is mani- fest by an attentive examination of those articles : See, for example, ART. 27, which gives authority to " all officers of what condition soever to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and disor- ders, though the persons concerned should belong to another regiment, troop, or company." Here it is seen that the ordinary subordination, by grades, is found only in the same " regiment, troop, or company." The power to part and quell quarrels, is, however, made an exceptional OBS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 431 case, in favoi not only of officers of different regiments, but the power is even extended to those of an " inferior rank." In a company, regi- ment, or corps, subordination by grades is established by the terms of the commission held in such regiment or corps. So also, where officers hold commissions in the army at large, their right to command when on duty is co-extensive with their commissions, except that the 61st Article of War makes such higher commissions inoperative within the regiment in which an officer is mustered. Within regiments and corps the muster-roll, then, at once determines the question of superiority of officers on duty. But when mixed corps come together, as commissions below r the rank of general, excepting commissions for gallant or merito- rious services, are only given in regiments and corps, and as such regi- mental commissions would not otherwise entitle their holders to com- mand beyond their particular regiments, or the holders of commissions in the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, beyond the body in which they hold commissions^, the 62d Article of War has provided that the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or mi- lithi, shall command the whole, and he likewise is thus consecrated the superior officer for the time being. (See BREVET ; LINE ; RANK.) OBLIQUE. In tactics, oblique indicates a direction which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a command of warning in the tactics. It is used to indicate oblique alignments, attacks, orders of battle, squares against cavalry, changes of front, fires, &c. OBSERVATION. Army of observation ; detached party of ob- servation, &c. OBSTACLES. The obstacles used in field^fortification are of sev- eral kinds. Their object is to render access to works more difficult. Common harrows, picketed to the ground, with the spikes uppermost, form excellent temporary obstacles. Crows'-feet, (Fig. 155,) consisting of four iron spikes arranged at equal angles with each other, so that in any position one spike must be pointing vertically upwards, may be scattered about in front of salients or other weak points, and will render approach difficult, and for cavalry impracticable. Roads or breaches, and sometimes even the restricted front of a po- sition, my be barred by chevaux-de-frize, two forms of which are exhib- ited in the annexed diagrams, (Figs. 156 and 157.) Chevaux-de-frize may be formed of stout square or hexagonal beams, with iron spikes or sword blades, or even stout pointed stakes let into and standing perpen- 432 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ons. dicularly from the faces ; or, like Fig. 157, of stout palisades, pointed, and furnished with legs to support them, with the points towards the enemy. FIG. 156. FIG. 157. FIG. 158. XMXDKIXI X1XXX XIXIXIXIX! When used to close a space of any extent indeed, where more than one length is necessary, they should be secured to each other by cftains, to prevent their removal by an enemy. Trous-de-loup, or trap-holes, (Fig. 158,) are rows of pits in the form of inverted cones or pyramids, with a strong palisade or stake in the centre of each. They should be either too deep or too shallow to be used by riflemen, and they are, there- fore, generally 8 or 2 feet deep. Trap-holes, whether round or square, should always be arranged checker wise, to prevent an enemy passing them easily. The earth from them should be formed into a glacis in front, rather than heaped up between them ; as, in the latter case, they might be easily filled up again. Trous- de-loup of even two or three feet deep may be usefully employed in rendering impassable shallow, wet ditches, inundations, and fords ; and, like abatis, they may be advantageously placed on the salients of works, on the weak points of lines, or in their intervals. They may thus compel the enemy to attack the strong- est parts. The ardor of infantry may be much checked by unexpected obstacles within point-blank musket shot of the place attacked. (See ABATIS; PALISADES.) OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS. In ordinary cases of obstruction to the laws of the United States, the powers vested in marshals are to be exercised to secure their due execution. It is only when such obstruc- tions are too formidable to be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial procedure or by the powers vested in the marshals, that the President of the United States is authorized to use military force. And XXXXDK ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 433 whenever such force is employed by him, he must first, by proclama- tion, command insurgents to disperse, and retire peaceably to their respective abodes within a limited time ; (Acts of Feb. 28, 1795, and Act March 3, 1807. See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; MARSHAL ; POSSE COMITATUS.) OCCUPY. To take or hold possession of a post or district. OFFENCES. (See CRIMES ; DISORDERS ; NEGLECTS ; ARTICLES OF WAR ; JURISDICTION.) OFFICERS. Whenever the word officer is used in the Articles of War, commissioned officer is understood. OPERATIONS. Field operations ; offensive and defensive opera- tions ; under-ground operations ; siege operations, &c. ORDER. This term, considered in its relation to the army, em- braces divers subjects. It gives an idea of harmony in the accomplishment of DUTIES ; a classification of corps or men ; injunctions emanating from AUTHORITY ; measures which regulate service, and many tactical details. In tactics, the natural order is when troops coming upon ordinary ground are ranged in line of battle by the prescribed tactical means, and when they are formed in column right in front. The oblique order is contradistinguished from the parallel, and in general means every tactical combination the aim of which is to pro- duce an effect upon two points of an enemy's line by bringing a supe- rior force to bear down on those two points. Such combinations con- stitute the oblique order, whatever manoeuvres may be used to accom- plish the object. The parallel order operates on the contrary against the whole front of the enemy. Turenne and Conde fought habitually in parallel order, although they sometimes made a skilful use of oblique attacks. Giu- bert well says that a contiguous and regular parallel order can be of no use in war. ORDERLIES. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers appointed to wait upon generals and other officers, to communicate orders, and carry messages. ORDERLY SERGEANTS. The first sergeant of a company is so called. On hearing the drum beat for orders, orderly sergeants repair to the adjutant's office, and, having taken down the orders in writing, they are immediately to show them to the officers of their company, and to warn the men for duty. ORDERLY BOOK. A book for the sergeants to insert the gen- eral and regimental orders, which are issued from time to time, is some- times called an orderly book. 28 434 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ORD. ORDERS. The principle upon which orders are to be issued is established by the 62d Article of War, which gives to the immediate commander of the troops " by commission there on duty, or in quar- ters," authority to "give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, ac- cording to the nature of the case." The President of the United States and commanding officers are, however, limited to issuing such orders as may be " according to the Rules and Articles of War ; " (Act March 16, 1802.) The determina- tion of what orders are, and what are not, contrary to the Rules and Articles of War established by Congress, is a very nice question, and it is much to be regretted that Congress has not long since accurately de- fined the functions, rights, and duties of all officers and soldiers, and also given them some means of obtaining redress against unsound exposi- tions of law made by the executive and military authorities. (See AR- MY ; REMEDY.) In article INJURIES it has been shown how officers become answerable at law for their own acts or defaults occurring in the course of profes- sional duty ; but commanding 9 officers are not legally liable for the acts of subordinates in the execution of the services confided to them. By the general law, masters and employers of every kind are an- swerable for the acts or neglects of their servants or subordinate agents ; but the principle of this rule is, that private individuals have the power of appointing and selecting such agents or servants as they may think proper, and are consequently bound to employ only those who are of competent skill, diligence, and ability. But this principle has no appli- cation as between superior and subordinate officers in the army, for the obvious reason that the former do not choose the latter. The rule as to military officers therefore is, that the wrong-doer alone is personally liable for the damages or injury resulting from his conduct, and the wrong-doer is he who issued the order, or otherwise gave direct occasion to the act or omission which led to the mischief. When an officer, therefore, is employed upon a particular service, the execution of which is left to his own skill and uncontrolled judg- ment, the superior officer from whom he receives his orders incurs no legal responsibility for injuries occasioned to the persons or property of third parties by the conduct of the junior in executing the duty con- fided to him. For the senior officer has no power of appointing his subordinate officers ; he is not even himself to be deemed a volunteer in that particular station merely by having voluntarily entered the army, and has no choice whether or not he will serve with the junior ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 435 officers placed under his orders, but is bound to take such as he finds there, and make the best of them. He is a servant of the State, doing duty with others appointed and stationed in like manner, and by the same authority. But the case is altered when the senior officer not only orders an- other to perform a particular service, but likewise prescribes the speci- fic mode of execution. For the subordinate officer is then deprived of all exercise of his own judgment and discretion ; his acts are the direct acts of his senior officer ; and the latter becomes as thoroughly respon- sible, in a legal point of view, as if he had been personally present and assisting in the performance of the duty in question. It frequently happens in suits at law respecting private wrongs, that the officer against whom the action is brought is the only person ac- quainted with some of the material facts which it may be necessary to prove against him : and though, in cases of mere debt or contract, a de- fendant is compellable to make a disclosure, on oath, of such facts as lie within his own knowledge, that rule does not apply to actions respect- ing private wrongs or injuries. An attempt, however, was made in Sir William Houston's case, by means of proceedings in the Court of Chancery, to compel that officer to produce certain military and other orders, reports, books, letters, and documents, from which the truth of the charge against him would appear. But the Master of the Rolls re- fused to make any order for the production ; (PRENDERGAST.) ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT. The Ordnance Department con- sists of one colonel, one lieut.-colonel, four majors, twelve captains, twelve first lieutenants, and six second lieutenants ; master carriage- makers, master blacksmiths, master armorers, &c., &c., limited only by the judgment of the colonel of Ordnance and Secretary of War. It shall be the duty of the colonel of the Ordnance Department to direct the inspection and proving of all pieces of ordnance, cannon-balls, shot, shells, small-arms, and side-arms and equipments, procured for the use of the armies of the United States ; and to direct the construc- tion of all cannon and carriages, and every implement and apparatus for ordnance, and all ammunition-wagons, travelling-forges, and artifi- cers' wagons ; the inspection and proving of powder, and the prepara- tion of all kinds of ammunition and ordnance stores. And it shall also be the duty of the colonel or senior officer of the Ordnance Department to furnish estimates, and, under the direction of the Secretary for the Department of War, to make contracts and purchases for procuring the necessary supplies of arms, equipments, ordnance, and ordnance stores ; (Act Feb. 8, 1815.) 436 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ORD. The colonel of the Ordnance Department shall organize and attach to regiments, corps, or garrisons, such number of artificers, with proper tools, carriages, and apparatus, under such regulations and restrictions relative to their government and number as, in his judgment, with the approbation of the Secretary for the Department of War, may be considered necessary ; (Act Feb. 8, 1815.) The colonel of the Ordnance Department, or the senior officer of that department of any district, shall execute all orders of the Secretary for the Department of War, and, in time of war, the orders of any general, or field-officer, commanding any army, garrison, or detach- ment, for the supply of all arms, ordnance, ammunition, carriages, forges and apparatus, for garrison, field, or siege service ; (Act Feb. 8, 1815.) The costs of repairs and damages done to arms, equipments, or im- plements in the use of the armies of the United States, shall be deducted from the pay of any officer or soldier in whose care or use the said arms, equipments, or implements were, when the said damages occurred ; provided, the said damages were occasioned by the abuse or negligence of the said officer or soldier. And it is hereby made the duty of every officer commanding the regiments, corps, garrisons, or detachments, to make, once every two months, or oftener if so directed, a \vritten report to the colonel of the Ordnance Department, stating all damages to arms, equipments, and implements belonging to his command, noting those occasioned by negligence or abuse, and naming the officer or soldier by whose negligence or abuse the said damages were occasioned ; (Act Feb. 8, 1815.) The colonel of the Ordnance Department, under the direction of the Secretary of War, is hereby authorized to draw up a system of regula- tions for the government of the Ordnance Department ; forms of returns and reports ; and for the uniformity of manufacture of all arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, implements, and apparatus, and for the repairing and better preservation of the same ; (Act Feb. 8, 1815.) Regulations for the government of the Ordnance Department, &c., have been drawn up in conformity with the authority conferred by the act of 1815. (Consult Ordnance Regulations, 1852.) Officers and en- listed men of the Ordnance Department subject to the Rules and Arti- cles of War ; (Act April 5, 1832.) ORDNANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES comprehend all cannon, howitzers, mortars, cannon-balls, shot, and shells, for land ser- vice ; all gun-carriages, mortar beds, caissons, and travelling forges, ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 437 with their equipments ; and all other apparatus and machines required for the service and manoeuvres of artillery, in garrisons, at sieges, or in the field ; together with the materials for their construction, preserva- tion, and repair. Also, all small-arms, side-arms, and accoutrements, for the artillery, cavalry, infantry, and riflemen ; all ammunition for ordnance and small-arms ; and all stores of expenditure for the service of the various arms ; materials for the construction and repair of ord- nance buildings ; utensils and stores for laboratories, including standard weights, gauges, and measures ; and all other tools and utensils required for the performance of ordnance duty. The ordinary articles of camp equipage and pioneers' tools, such as axes, spades, shovels, mattocks, &c., are not embraced as ordnance supplies. Wagons, &c., for the transport service of the army, and horse equipments, are also furnished by the Ordnance Department when practicable. Ordnance supplies are provided by open purchase, fabrication, or by contract. The following are the kinds and calibres of cannon used in the land service of the United States : * KIND < )P ORDNANCE. CALIBRE. MATERIAL. WEIGHT. f Field..., ... -S 6-pounder... > Bronze Ibs. 884 1 ( 12-pounder... 12-pounder... 1,757 3,590 GUNS ^ Siege and garrison ] 18-pounder... 4 913 24-pounder Iron 5 790 ( 32-pounder... 7 200 Sea-coast j ::::::::::::::: 8 465 12-pounder... i 20 HOWITZERS....- Field j 12-pounder... 24-pounder... 32-pounder... 8-inch V Bronze 788 1,318 1,920 2 614 Siege and garrison 24-pounder 1 476 8-inch 5,740 9 500 COLUMBIADS .... 8-inch Iron 9,240 10-inch 8-inch 15,400 930 Light -j 10-inch . .. 1 852 TTnntr-rr \ 10-inch 5,775 MORTARS -\ ] 1 Stone mortar Coehorn 13-inch 16-inch J ( Bronze 11,500 1,500 164 Eprouvette 24-pounder Iron 220 438 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ORD. A 12-inch columbiad, of cast iron, has also been made for trial ; and recently Captain Rodman's 15-inch gun, now at Fort Monroe, was cast at Pittsburg, Pa. It weighs 49,100 Ibs. (See COLUMBIAD.) For sev- eral pieces of ordnance see articles COLUMBIAD ; MORTAR ; MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY ; RIFLED ORDNANCE. The Caisson, Travelling Forge, Sea- coast Carriage, and 24-pdr. Siege Carriage, are shown in Figs. 159, 160, 161, and 162. Cannon made of bronze are commonly called brass cannon. The cascable is the part of the gun in rear of the base-ring ; it is composed generally of the following parts : the knob, the neck, the fillet, and the base of the breech. FIG. 159. The Caisson h composed of a body and a limber. 1. Two side rails of body. 8. Axle-tree of limber. 2. Stock of body. 9. A pole. 8. Axle-tree. 10. The prop. 4, 5. Two Ammunition chests. 11. A fork. 6. Spare wheel. 12. Pintle-hook. 7. Spare pole. 13. Ammunition chest The base of the breech is a frustum of a cone, or a spherical segment, in rear of the breech. The base-ring is a projecting band of metal adjoining the base of the breech, and connected with the body of the gun by a concave moulding. Fio. 160. TRAVELLING FOBOB. The body is composed of 1. Two rails ; 2. A stock ; 8. An axle-tree; 4. Thc> bellows-room : 5. The inner room of bellows-house; 6. The coal box ; 7. The fireplace ; 8. Air-pipe ; 9. The vice ; 10. The prop. The breech is the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore, extending to the rear of the base-ring. ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 439 The reinforce is the thickest part of the body of the gun, in front of the base- ring; if there is more than one reinforce, that which is next to the base-ring is called the first reinforce ; the other, the second rein- force. In some howitzers, instead of a reinforce, there is a recess in the metal around the chamber next to the base-ring. The reinforce band is at the junction of the first and second reinforces in the heavy howitzers and columbiads. The chase is the conical part of the gun in front of the reinforce. FIG. 161. SEA-COAST CARRIAGE. N 1. Gun-carriage, composed of two iron cheeks. 5. Elevating screw. 2. Chassis. 6, 6. Traverse wheels. 8. Iron transom straps. 7, 7. Hurters. 4. Manoeuvring wheels. 8. Elevating arc. I. Pintle or fixed centre. The astragal and fillets in field-guns, and the chase-ring in other pieces, are the mouldings at the front end of the chase. The neck is the smallest part of the piece in front of the astragal or the chase-ring. The swell of the muzzle is the largest part of the gun in front of the neck. It is terminated by the muzzle mouldings, which in field and siege guns consist of the lip and the fillet. In the sea-coast guns and heavy howitzers and columbiads there is no fillet. In field and siege howitzers and in mortars a muzzle band takes the place of the swell of the muzzle. The face of the piece is the terminating plane perpendicular to the axis of the bore. The trunnions are cylinders, the axes of which are in a line perpen- dicular to the axis of the bore, and in the same plane with that axis. The rimbases are short cylinders, uniting the trunnions with the body of the gun. The ends of the rimbases, or the shoulders of the trunnions, are planes perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions. The bore of the piece includes all the part bored out, viz. : the cylin- der, the chamber, (if there is one,) and the conical or spherical surface connecting them. The chamber, in howitzers, columbiads, and mortars, is the smaller 440 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ORD. part of the bore, which contains the charge of powder. In howitzers and columbiads the chamber is cylindrical ; it is united with the large cylinder of the bore by a conical surface ; the angles of intersection of this conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber are rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch siege howitzer, the chamber is united with the cyl- inder of the bore by a spher- ical surface, in order that the shell may, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot. A conical chamber which is join- ed to the cylinder of the bore by a portion of a spherical sur- face, (as in the 8-inch and 10- inch light mortars,) is called a Cromer chamber. The bottom of the bore is a plane perpendicular to the axis, united with the sides (in profile) by an arc of a circle, the radius of which is one-fourth of the diameter of the bore at the bottom. In the columbiads, the heavy sea-coast mortars, the stone mortar, and the eprouvette, the bottom of the kore is hemispherical. Th e muzzle, or mouth of the bore, is chamfered to a depth of 0.15 inch to 0.5 inch, (varying with the size of the bore,) in order to prevent abra- sion, and to facilitate loading. The true windage is the difference between the true di- ameters of the bore and of the ball. The axis of the vent is in a plane passing through the axis of the bore, perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions. In guns, and in howitzers having cylindrical cham- bers, the vent is placed at an angle of 80 with the axis of the bore, and ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 441 it enters the bore at a distance from the bottom equal to one-fourth the diameter of the bore. The diameter of the vent is two-tenths of an inch, in, all pieces except the eprouvette, in which it is one-tenth. The vents of brass guns are bored in vent pieces, of wrought copper, which are screwed into the gun. The lock piece is a block of metal at the outer opening of the vent, in some pieces of ordnance, to facilitate attaching a lock to the cannon. The natural line of sight is a line drawn in a vertical plane through the axis of the piece, from the highest point of the base-ring to the high- est point in the swell of the muzzle, or to the top of the sight, if there is one. The natural angle of sight is the angle which the natural line of sight makes with the axis of the piece. The dispart is the difference of the semi-diameters of the base-ring and the swell of the muzzle, or the muzzle band. It is therefore the tangent of the natural angle of sight, to a radius equal to the distance from the rear of the base-ring to the highest point of the swell of the muzzle, the sight, or the front of the muzzle band, as the case may be. The preponderance of the breech of the gun is the excess of weight of the part in rear of the trunnions over that in front : it is measured by the weight which it is necessary to apply in the plane of the muzzle to balance the gun when suspended freely on the axis of the trunnions. The handles of the gun are placed with their centres over the centre of gravity of the piece. The 6-pounder gun and the 12-pounder howit- zer have no handles. The handle of a heavy mortar consists of a clevis, which is attached by a bolt to the ear of the mortar. The eprouvette mortar is cast with a sole, which fits into a cast-iron bed-plate, bolted to the platform. To designate a piece of ordnance. State the kind, the calibre, (in inches if it be foreign ordnance,) the material, the weight, the inspector's initials, the number, the country in which it was made, the date, the place of fabrication, the founder's name, the name inscribed on it, its condition for service, the kind of chamber, if any ; whether it has a vent piece, a lock piece, handles ; the ornaments, and any particular marks which may serve to identify it. There are two national armories : the Springfield Armory, Spring- field, Mass., and the Harper's Ferry Armory, Harper's Ferry, Va. Their principal business is the manufacture of the rifle musket and rifle ; making components, and altering other arms. The armory of James J. Ames, Chickopee, Mass., furnishes swords, sabres, and field-artillery ; that of Samuel Colt, Hartford, Conn., Colt's revolving pistols, rifles, and 442 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Orj>. carbines ; Sharp's Manufacturing Company, Hartford, Conn., Sharp's carbines and rifles ; Charles Jackson, Providence, R. I., Burnsidds car- bines ; and Maynard's Arms Company, Washington, D. C., Maynard's rifles and carbines. The arms of the foregoing manufactories have been tried more or less in service and by boards, and are considered good cavalry arms. The best arms for infantry, however, are the United States rifle musket and rifle. The foundries for cannon are the South Boston, C. Alger & Co., Boston, Mass. ; the West Point, R. P. Parrott, Cold Spring, N. Y. ; the Tredegar, J. R. Anderson & Co., Richmond, Va. ; the Bellona, J. L. Archer, Black Heath, Va., and the Pennsylvania, Knap, Rudd & Co., Pittsburg, Pa. The following are the arsenals for construction of carriages, &c., or repair : Kennebec Arsenal, Augusta, Maine ; Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass. ; Champlain Arsenal, Vergennes, Vt. ; Watervliet Arsenal, West Troy, N. Y. ; New York Arsenal, New York ; Alleghany Arsenal, Pittsburg, Pa. ; Frankford Arsenal, Bridesburg, Pa. ; Pikesville Arsenal, Pikesville, Md. ; Washington Arsenal, Washington, D. C. ; Fort Monroe Arsenal, Old Point Comfort, Va. ; N. C. Arsenal, Fayetteville, N. C. ; Charleston Arsenal, Charleston, S. C. ; Augusta Arsenal, Augusta, Ga. ; Mount Vernon Arsenal, Mount Vernon, Ala. ; Appalachicola Arsenal, Chatta- hooche, Florida ; Baton Rouge Arsenal, Baton Rouge, La. ; Little Rock Arsenal, Little Rock, Ark. ; St. Louis Arsenal, St. Louis, Mo. ; De- troit Arsenal, Dearbornville, Mich. ; Benicia Arsenal, Benicia, Cal. ; Texas Arsenal, San Antonio, Texas. The principal articles furnished by the Ordnance Department by fabrication at armories and arsenals and by purchase from foundries, and manufacturing establishments, are in inventories classed as follows : PART I. ARTILLERY, SMALL-ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND OTHER ORDNANCE STORES. CLASS 1. Cannon. The mean weight of each kind of ordnance, as well as the number of pieces, should be entered in the inventory. CLASS 2. Artillery Carriages include mortar beds, different gun- carriages, battery wagons, forges, &c. " The field-carriage complete" in- cludes the limber and ammunition chest, but no implements. The " case- mate, or barbette carriage complete" includes the upper or gun-carriage, and the chassis, with all the wheels, but no implements. It is better, however, to enter the gun-carriages and the chassis separately, as above. CLASS 3. Artillery Implements and Equipments include all im- plements and equipments used by artillerists. A set of harness for two horses includes every thing required for them except whips and nose- bags, which are reported separately. OBD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. t 443 CLASS 4. Artillery Projectiles and their Appendages unprepared for Service. CLASS 5. Artillery Projectiles with their Appendages prepared for Service. A round of fixed ammunition is used to indicate the projectile with its cartridge prepared for use, although in some cases they are not actually connected together. A shot strapped, or a canister, stand of grape, s oo 194 00 19! 00 457 00 181 00 41 00 314 50 23 00 2:9 oo 20.') 00 181 00 134 50 205 00 22900 314 50 22900 205 00 181 00 134 50 229 00 205 00 181 00 134 50 2000 228 33 20. r > 00 181 00 228 33 217 00 181 00 170 50 134 50 117 83 22900 205 00 181 00 134 50 117 83 117 83 117 83 2'29 00 205 00 181 00 134 50 125 83 125 83 125 83 10 00 212 00 188 00 169 00 115 50 105 50 100 50 100 50 18 00 124 16 86 66 4 . , J * Secretary Major-general Senior Aid-de-camp to General-in-chief Aid-de-camp, in addition to pay, &c., of Lieut Aid-de-camp, in addition to pay, &c., of Lieut ADJUTANT-GENERAL s DEPARTMENT. Assistant < ju o J Assistant A ljutant gene p INSPECTOR-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT. QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT. Quartermaster-general Brigadier-general Deputy Quartermaster-general Lieut.-colonel A " f On rt Tiii'iHTr Paotain SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT. Commissary general of Subsistence Colonel Ass't Commissary-general of Subsistence Lieut.-col... . Commissary of Subsistence Major Commissary of Subsistence Captain Assistant Commissary of Subsistence, in addition to > PAY DEPARTMENT. 95 80 5 4 45 36 72 36 72 36 36 54 45 36 36 36 36 36 54 45 36 36 36 36 36 3 3 3 8 3 2 2 2 2 24 24 14 24 8 8 8 24 24 24 8 8 8 8 24 24 24 16 16 16 16 2 2 2 2 1 I 41 00 41 00 ii 66 41 00 20 50 20 50 20 50 41 00 41 00 41 00 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 41 00 41 00 41 00 20 50 20 50 20 50 20 50 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. Surgeon-general, $2,740 per annum Surgeons of ten years' service Surgeons of less than ten years' service 80 80 70 70 53 33 110 95 80 70 53 33 53 33 53 33 110 95 80 70 53 33 53 33 53 33 1000 95 80 70 60 50 45 45 10 8 4 8 4 4 6 5 4 4 4 4 4 6 5 4 4 4 4 4 Assistant Surgeons of five years' service Assistant Surgeons of less than five years' service OFFICERS OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS, CORPS OF TOPOG. ENG., AND ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT. Major OFFICERS OF MOUNTED DRAGOONS, CAYALRY, RIFLEMEN, AND LIGHT ARTILLERY. Lieutenant-colonel Major Captain , First Lieutenant . . Adjutant and Regimental Quartermaster, in addition > OFFICERS OF ARTILLERY AND INFANTRY. Colonel 6 5 4 4 4 4 4 54 45 36 36 36 36 36 3 3 3 1 24 24 24 8 2 2 3900 39 00 39 00 19 50 19 50 19 50 19 50 Lieutenant-colonel Major First Lieutenant Brevet Second Lieutenant Adjutant and Regimental Quartermaster, in addition > MILITARY STOREKEEPERS. Attached to the Quartermaster's Department, at ar-"\ mories, and at arsenals of construction; the store- 1 keeper at Watertown Arsenal, and storekeepers of V ordnance serving in Oregon, California, and New .. At all other arsenals, $1,040 per annum MILITARY DICTIONARY. 455 DATES OF THE ACTS OF CONGRESS ESTABLISHING THE PRESENT GATES or PAY, ETC. Act of May 23, 1793, Sec. 5 Feb. 15, 1355 Feb. 21, 1857 March 3, 1859. " Jan. 11, 1812, Sec. 6 Mar. 30, 1814, Sec. 9 April 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12 Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " Sept. 26, 1850, Sec. 2 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " Jan. 11, 1812, S c. 6 April 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb 21 1857 Sec. 1. , April 12, 1808, Sec. 4 Mar. 30, 1814, Sec. 9 Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9& 12 Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. 6 April 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12 March 3, 184.5, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. Act of March 3, 1813, Sec. 3 March 30, 1814, Sec. 9 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. 1347, Sec. 2 March 3, 1845, Bee. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " " 1813, Sec. 3 April 24, 1316, Sec. 9 & 12 March 3, 1345, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. 41 July 5, 1838, Sec. 7 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " Mar. 2, 1849, Sec. 4 Mar. 3, 1813, Sec. 3 Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12 Mar. 3, 1815, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. Act of April 14, 1318, Sec. 5 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. Act of Mar. 28, 1812, Sec. 2 Mar. 30, 1841, Sec. 9 Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12 Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21. 1857, Sec. 1. " July 5, 1838, Sec. 9 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. March 2, 1851, Sec. 7 " July 5, 1333, Sec. 9 Act of April 14, 1313, Sec. 6 July 5, 1833, Sec. 13- March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " July 5, 1838, sec. 11 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " March 2, 1829, Sec. 2- " " July 5, 1838, Sec. 11 " March 2, 1821, Sec. 8 " " " " " " Act of April 24, 1816, Pec. 3 Feb. 21, 1357, Sec. 1. " March 3, 1847, Sec. 13 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " April 24, 1816, Sec. 3 July 5, 1838, Sec. 24 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Seo. 1. Act of April 14, 1818, Sec. 2 Feb. 21, 1857. Sec. 1. || June 30, 1834, Sec. 2 & 3-July 5, 1838, Sec. 24 March 3, 1345, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1357, Sec. 1. " 2 & 3 " " " " " " " Act of July 5, 1838, Sec. 2, 5 & 13-March 3, 1845, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Seo. 1. April 29, 1812, Sec. 4 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. Act of April 12, 1803, Sec. 4 March 30, 1814, Sec. 9-March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 94 12- ' ' irch 2, 1827, Sec. 1 March 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1S57, Sec. 1. Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " April 29, 1812, Sec. 4 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. ( " April 12. 1808, Sec. 4. I May 30, 1796, Sec. 12-Feb. 11, 1847, Sec. 4-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. Act of Mar. 16, 1802, Sec. 4, 5-Mar. 30, 1814, Sec. 9 Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9, 12-Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. April 24, 1816, Sec. 9, 12 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. || March 2, 1827, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. " April 29, 1812, Sec. 4-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. C " March 16, 1802, Sec. 4 April 24, 1816, Sec. 9. 12 March 3, 1345. Sec. 1. I " May 30, 1796, bee. 12-Feb. 11, 1847, Sec. 4-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. Act of August 23, 1842, Sec. 2 March 3, 1849, Sec. 2-March 3, 1853, Seo. 1 Feb. 21, 1857, Seo. 1. Act of August 23, 1842, Sec. 2 Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1. 456 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [PAY. 1. The officer in command of a company is allowed $10 per month for the responsibility of clothing, arms, and accoutrements ; (Act March 2, 1827 ; Sec. 2.) 2. Subaltern officers, employed on the General Staff, and receiving increased pay therefor, are not entitled to the additional or fourth ra* tion provided by the Act of March 2, 1827 ; Sec. 2. 3. Additional rations allowed to officers while commanding separate armies, divisions, departments, posts, armories, and arsenals ; (Act March 3, 1797, Sec. 4; Act March 1G, 1802, Sec. 5 ; Act August 23, 1842, Sec. 6 ; Act March 3, 1849, Sec. 1.) 4. Every commissioned officer of the line or staff, exclusive of general officers, receives an additional ration per diem for every five years' service ; (Acts July 5, 1838 ; July 7, 1838.) 5. The allowances for forage and servants are contingent. 6. The following is the monthly pay of non-commissioned officers and soldiers : Each ordnance-sergeant, twenty-two dollars, and each sergeant- major, quarter-master sergeant, and chief musician, twenty-one dollars ; to each first sergeant of a company, twenty dollars ; to all other sergeants, seventeen dollars ; to each artificer, fifteen dollars ; to each corporal, thir- teen dollars ; to each musician and private of artillery or infantry, eleven dollars one dollar per month of each private's pay being retained to the expiration of his term of service; (Acts July 7 and 8, 1838, and Act Aug. 4, 1854.) SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That every soldier, who, having been honorably discharged from the service of the United States, shall, within one month thereafter, re-enlist, shall be entitled to two dollars per month in addition to the ordinary pay of his grade, for the first pe riod of five years after the expiration of his previous enlistment, and a further sum of one dftllar per month for each successive period of five years, so long as he shall remain continuously in the army ; and that soldiers now in the army, who have served one or more enlistments, and been honorably discharged, shall be entitled to the benefits herein provided for a second enlistment. SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That soldiers who served in the war with Mexico, and received a certificate of merit for distinguished services, as well those now in the army as those that may hereafter en- list, shall receive the two dollars per month to which that certificate would have entitled them, had they remained continuously in the service. SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That non-commmissioned officers, who, under the authority of the seventeenth section of the act approved March third, eighteen hundred and forty-seven, were recommended for PAY.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 457 promotion by brevet to the lowest grade of commissioned officer, but did not receive the benefit of that provision, shall be entitled, under the condi- tion recited in the foregoing section, to the additional pay authorized to be given to such privates as received certificates of merit ; (Act Aug. 4, 1854.) Non-commissioned officers, musicians, and privates are also allowed one ration per day, and an allowance of clothing, both to be prescribed by the President of the United States ; (Act April 24, 1816, and Act April 14, 1818.) Troops shall be paid in such manner that the arrears shall, at no time, exceed two months, unless the circumstances of the case shall ren- der it unavoidable ; (Act March 16, 1802, and March 3, 1815.) No assignment of pay made by a non-commissioned officer or pri- vate shall be valid ; (Act May 8, 1792.) Brevet officers shall be entitled to, and receive, pay aud emoluments according to their brevet rank " when on duty, and having a command ac- cording to their brevet rank, and at no other time ; " (Act April 1 6, 1818.) No money shall be paid to any person for his compensation, who is in arrears to the United States, until such person shall have accounted for, and paid into the treasury, all sums for which he may be liable. Provided, however, that the officers of the treasury shall, upon demand of the party, forthwith report the balance due, and it shall be the duty of the solicitor of the treasury within sixty days thereafter to order suit to be commenced against such delinquent; (Acts Jan. 15, 1828, and May 29, 1830.) PAY DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its organization.) It k the duty of paymasters to pay all the regular and other troops in the service of the United States ; and, to insure punctuality and responsibility, correct reports shall be made to the paymaster-general once in two months, showing the disposition of the funds previously transmitted, with accurate estimates for the next payment of such regi- ment, garrison, or department, as may be assigned to each ; and when- ever any paymaster shall fail to transmit such estimate, or neglect to render his vouchers to the paymaster-general for settlement of his ac- counts, more than six months after receiving funds, he shall be recalled and another appointed in his place ; (Acts April 24, 1816, and July 14, 1832.) (See ACCOUNTABILITY ; DISBURSING OFFICERS.) When volunteers or militia are called into service, so that the pay- masters authorized by law shall not be deemed sufficient to enable them to pay the troops with proper punctuality, the President may assign to any officer of the army the duty of paymaster, who shall perform the same duty, give the same bond, and receive the same pay and 458 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [PAY. emoluments as are provided for the paymasters of the army ; but' the number of officers so assigned shall not exceed one for every two regi- ments of militia or volunteers ; (Act July 4, 1836.) PAYMASTER-GENERAL. Under the direction of the Secre- tary of War, the paymaster-general assigns paymasters to districts ; (Act April 24, 1816.) He receives " from the treasurer all the moneys which shall be intrusted to him for the purpose of paying the pay, the arrears of pay, subsistence, or forage due to the troops of the United States ; he shall receive the pay abstracts of the paymasters of the several regiments or corps, and compare the same with the returns or muster-rolls, which shall accompany the said pay abstracts. He shall certify accurately to the commanding officer the sunis due to the respec- tive corps, which shall have been examined as aforesaid, who shall thereupon issue his warrant on the said deputy paymaster for the pay- ment accordingly ; (Act May 8, 1792.) The paymaster-general may, in his discretion, allow to any pay- master's clerk, in lieu of the pay now allowed by law, an annual salary of $700. The paymaster-general shall have the rank of colonel ; the deputy paymaster-general the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in addi- tion to paying troops, shall superintend the payment of armies in- the field. Paymasters have the rank of major ; but it is provided that paymasters, in virtue of such rank, shall not be entitled to command in the line or other staff departments of the army ; (Act March 3, 1847.) PENDULUM. The times of vibration of pendulums are propor- tional to the square roots of their lengths. T=7T V 9 Therefore, if / be the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds, and V the length of any other simple pendulum, or the distance from the point of suspension to the centre of oscillation of a compound pendulum, vi- brating in the time t at the same place, then : I' / f The length of a pendulum vibrating seconds is in a constant ratio to the force of gravity : -j- = 9.8696044. Length of a pendulum vibrating^ seconds at the level of the sea, in various latitudes. At the Equator . A . . . . 39.0152 inches. " Washington, Lat. 38 53' 23" . . . 39.0958 " New York, Lat. 40 42' 40" . . . 39.1017 " London, Lat. 51 31' ... 39.1393 " Lat. 45 39.1270 " Lat. L. 39.1270 in. 0.09982 cos. 2 L PEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. PENDULUM HAUSSE is a tangent-scale, the graduations of which are the tangents of each quarter of a degree of elevation, to a radius equal to the distance between the muzzle-sight of the piece, and the axis of vibration of the hausse, which is one inch in rear of the base- ring. At the lower end of the scale is a brass bulb filled with lead. The slider which marks the divisions on the scale is of thin brass, and is clamped at any desired division on the scale by means of a screw. The scale passes through a slit in a piece of steel, with which it is con- nected by a screw, forming a pivot on which the scale can vibrate lat-- erally. This piece of steel terminates in pivots, by means of which the pendulum is supported on the seat attached to the gun, and is at liberty to vibrate in the direction of the axis of the piece. The seat is of metal, and is fastened to the base of the breech by screws, so that the centres of the steel pivots of vibration shall be at a distance from the axis of the piece equal to the radius of the base-ring. A MUZZLE-SIGHT of iron is screwed into the swell of the muzzle of guns, or into the middle of the muzzle-ring of howitzers. The height of this sight is equal to the dispart of the piece, so that a line joining the muzzle-sight and the pivot of the tangent-scale is parallel to the axis of the piece. PENETRATION. The penetration of a solid shot, other circum- stances being the same, varies with its diameter, and with the distance and material of the substance penetrated. In the subjoined table are given the penetrations of a 24-pounder shot, whence a tolerably accurate estimate may be formed of the pen- etrations of shot of other calibres. RANGE. Substance penetrated. 100 yards. 400 yards. 1,200 yards. 2 ft. li ft. f ft. 5 Oak 4 " 3 " H" \i Firm Earth 64- " 5 " 94- " 4 Fresh dug Earth 12 " 9 " 4-J- " a m Sand, sandy earth mixed with gravel, small stones, chalk and tufa resist shot better than the productive earths. Shells may be consid- ered as round shot of a. lower specific gravity, and their penetrations are therefore proportionately less. A bank of earth, to afford a secure cover from heavy guns, will require a thickness from 18 to 24 feet. In guns below 18-pounders, if the number of the feet in thickness of the bank be made equal to the number of Ibs. in the weight of the shot by 460 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [PEN. which it is to be assailed, the requisite protection will be obtained. Earth possesses advantages over every other material. It is easily obtained, regains its position after displacement, and the injury done to an earthen battery by day can be readily repaired at night. Where masonry is liable to be breached, it should be covered with earth. Wrought-iron plates 4k inches in thickness will withstand the effects of 32-pound shots, and of all inferior calibres at short ranges as 400 yards. Plates of this thickness, however, are soon destroyed by 68- pound shots, and afford little protection from the elongated shots of the new rifled ordnance. (See IRON PLATES.) To resist successfully the fall of heavy shells, buildings must be covered with arches of good masonry, not less than 3 feet thick, having bearings not greater than 25 feet, and these must be again protected by a covering of several feet of earth. Iron plates half an inch thick, oak planks 4 inches thick, or a nine-inch brick wall, are proof against mus- ketry or canister at a range of 100 yards. Iron plates 1 inch thick, oak from 8 to 10 inches thick, a good wall a foot thick, or a firm bank of earth 4 feet thick, will afford secure cover from grape shot, from any but the largest guns at short ranges. The common musket will drive its bullet about a foot and a half into well-rammed earth, or it will penetrate from 6 to 10 half-inch elm boards placed at intervals of an inch. The penetration of the rifled musket is about twice that of the common musket. A rope matting or mantlet 3 inches thick is found to resist small-arm projectiles at all distances ; it may therefore be employed as a screen against riflemen. Experiments were made in 1848 at Portsmouth against the " Le- viathan," to ascertain whether a round shot fired at a depression into the water close to a ship would continue its course, and passing through the water, can maintain force sufficient to penetrate into the ship con- siderably below the water-line ; for this a 32-pounder gun of 56 cwt., with a charge of 10 Ibs., was fired at a depression of 7 degrees from a dockyard " lump," 16 yards distant from the " Leviathan." The shot struck the water 4 feet from the ship's side, rose immediately, passed through the orlop, and was found on the lower deck. Another shot, fired under the same circumstances, only indented the wood 18 inches below the water line. But elongated rifle-shot fired into the water have the faculty of entering and passing through the fluid in the direction of their axes, and, after passing through many feet of water, retain force sufficient to penetrate any ship's side below the water-line. This was proved by firing Whitworth's hexagonal shot under circumstances nearly similar to the preceding experiments against the " Leviathan," PEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 461 when a flat-headed hexagonal shot fired from a 24-pounder passed through 33 feet of water, and then penetrated into the ship through 12 or 14 inches of oak and planking ; (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS ; HYDE and BEX TON.) (See RIFLED ORDNANCE.) PENSION. No person in the army, navy, or marine corps, shall be allowed to draw both a pension as an invalid and the pay of his rank or station in the service, unless the alleged disability for which the pension was granted, be such as to have occasioned his employment in a lower grade, or in some civil branch of the service ; (Act April 30, 1844.) Any officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier of the army, including militia rangers, sea-fencibles and volunteers, disabled by wounds or otherwise, while in the line of his duty in public ser- vice, shall be placed on the list of invalids of the United States, at the following rates of pay : No officer shall receive more than the half pay of a lieutenant-colonel ; half the monthly pay of inferior grades ; or, for a first lieutenant, seventeen dollars ; a second lieutenant, fifteen dollars, a third lieutenant fourteen dollars, an ensign thirteen dollars ; and a non-commissioned officer, musician, or private, eight dollars per month for the highest disability, and for less disabilities a sum propor- tionably less ; (Act March 16, 1802, and April 24, 1816.) The widow of an officer dying of wounds received in military ser- vice, or if the officer have no widow, any child or children left by the officer, is entitled to his half pay for five years ; provided that the pension to the widow shall cease upon her death or intermarriage, and shall also cease upon the death of such child or children ; (Act March 16, 1802.) In an elaborate opinion given by Mr. Attorney-general Gushing, published by the War Department in General Orders, No. 11 of 1855, he draws the conclusion that " the phrase ' line of duty ' is an apt one, to denote that an act of duty performed must have relation of causation, mediate or immediate, to the wound, the casualty, the injury, or the disease producing disability or death." " Every person " (says Mr. Gushing) who enters the military service of the country officer, sol- dier, sailor, or marine takes upon himself certain moral and legal en- gagements of duty, which constitute his official or professional obliga- tions. While in the performance of those things which the law requires of him as military duty, he is in the line of his duty But at the same time, though a soldier or sailor, he is not the less a man and a citizen, with private rights to exercise and duties to perform ; and while at- tending to these things he is not in the line of his public duty. In addition to this, a soldier or sailor, like any other man, has the physical faculty of doing many things which are in violation of duties either 462 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [PER. general or special ; and in doing these things he is not acting in the line of his duty. Around all those acts of the soldier or sailor which are official in their nature the pension laws draw a legislative line, and then they say to the soldier or sailor : If, while performing acts which are within that line, you thereby incur disability or death, you or your widow or children, as the case may be, shall receive pension or allow- ance ; but not if the disability or death arise from acts performed out- side of that line ; that is, absolutely disconnected from, and wholly in- . dependent of, the performance of duty. Was the cause of disability or death a cause within the line of duty or outside of it ? Was that cause appertaining to, dependent upon, or otherwise necessarily and essentially connected with, duty within the line ; or was it unappertinent, inde- pendent, and not of necessary and essential connection 1 That, in my judgment, is the true test-criterion of the class of pension cases under consideration." PERCUSSION. Twelve percussion caps are issued to ten car- tridges. (See ARMS and ACCOUTREMENTS.) PERCUSSION BULLETS are made oy placing a small quan- tity of percussion powder, inclosed in a copper envelope, in the point of an ordinary rifle musket bullet. The impact of the bullet against a substance no harder than wood is found to ignite the percussion charge, and produce an effective explosion. These projectiles can be used to blow up caissons and boxes containing ammunition at very long dis- tances ; (BENTON.) PETARD. An engine made of gun-metal, fixed upon a board, and containing about nine pounds of powder. Sometimes attached to gates, &c., to burst them open. In an attack upon a fortification, leathern bags containing fifty pounds of powder have been found more useful. PICKER. A small pointed brass wire, which is supplied to every infantry soldier for the purpose of cleaning the vent of his musket. PICKET. Sharp stakes used for securing the fascines of a bat- tery. To picket horses in carnp. STOCKADES, which see, are also some- times called picket works. Also a detachment composed of cavalry or infantry, whose principal duty is to guard an army from surprise, and oppose such small parties as the enemy may push forward for the purpose of re- connoitring. (See OUTPOSTS,) PIECE designates any gun, large or small. PIERRIER was a term originally applied to an engine for cast- ing stones ; then to a small kind of cannon ; now to a mortar for dis- "harging stones, &c. PLA.] | MILITARY DICTIONARY. 403 PIERS. The columns upon which a bridge is erected. PIKE. A military weapon formerly used as a bayonet. The pike had a shaft from ten to fourteen feet long, with a flat pointed steel head called the spear. PILE. A beam of wood driven into the ground to form a solid foundation for building. Also a heap, as a pile of balls. To pile arms, is to stack arms in the prescribed manner, that they may remain steady on the ground. Balls are piled according to kind and calibre, under cover if practicable, in a place where there is a free circulation, of air, to facilitate which the piles should be made narrow if the locality permits ; the width of the bottom tier may be from 12 to 14 balls, ac- cording to the calibre. Prepare the ground for the base of the pile by raising it above the surrounding ground so as to throw off the water; level it, ram it well, and cover it with a layer of screened sand. Make the bottom of the pile with a tier of unserviceable balls buried about two-thirds of their diameter in the sand ; this base may be made permanent : clean the base well and form the pile, putting the fuze holes of shells downwards, in the intervals, and not resting on the shells below. Each pile is marked with the number of serviceable balls it con- tains. The base may be made of bricks, concrete, stone, or with bor- ders and braces of iron. Grape and canister shot should be oiled or lackered, put in piles, or in strong boxes, on the ground floor, or in dry cellars ; each parcel marked with its kind, calibre, and number. PILLAGE. (See PLUNDER.) PIONEERS. Soldiers sometimes detailed from the different com- panies of a regiment and formed under a non-commissioned officer, furnished with saws, felling axes, spades, mattocks^ pickaxes, and bill- hooks. Their services are very important, and no regiment is well fitted for service without pioneers completely equipped. PISTOL. Horsemen have one or two pistols furnished them. General, field and staff officers also carry pistols in their holsters. Colt's pistol is a revolver composed of a cylinder containing six charges, a rifled barrel, and a handle or stock. The length of bore (navy) 9 in. ; weight 2.40 Ibs. ; weight of projectile 125 grs. ; weight of powder 14 grs. ; initial velocity 760 feet. (See ARMS for Pistol-Carbine.) PIVOT. That officer or soldier upon whom the company wheels. The pivot flank in a column is that which, when wheeled up, preserves the proper front of divisions of the line in their natural order. The opposite flank of the column is called the reverse flank. PLACE. Town or city is but little used in military parlance. A strong place is a fortified citv. 464 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Pn. PLACES OF ARMS are enlargements in the covered-way, at the re-entering and salient angles of the counterscarp ; hence the terms re entering places of arms, and salient places of arms ; the latter spaco is formed simply by rounding the counterscarp ; and the former by setting off demi-gorg'es of thirty yards, (more or less,) and making the faces form angles of 100 with the adjoining branches of the covered-way. PLAN. A plan of campaign (says Napoleon) should anticipate all that an enemy may do, and combine within itself the means necessary to baffle him. Plans of campaign are modified by circumstances, the genius of the chief, the nature of the troops, and topography. There are good and bad plans of campaign, but sometimes the good fail from misfortune or mismanagement, while the bad succeed by caprices of fortune. PLAN OF A WORK. A plan shows the tracing ; also the hor- izontal lengths and breadths of the works ; the thickness of the ram- parts and parapets ; the width of the ditches, &c. : it exhibits the extent, division, and distribution of the works ; but the depth of the ditches and the height of the works are not represented in a plan. PLANE OF COMPARISON is a plan of a fortress, and of the surrounding country, on which are expressed the distances of the prin- cipal points from a horizontal plane, imagined to pass through the high- est or lowest points of ground, in the survey This imaginary plane is called a plane of comparison. PLANE OF DEFILADE is a plane supposed to pass through the summit or crest of a work, and parallel to the 'plane of site. PLANE OF SITE. The general level of the ground, or ground line, upon which the works are constructed, is called the plane of site, whether that plane be horizontal or oblique to the horizon. PLATFORM. There are six sleepers, 18 deck planks, 72 dowels, and 12 iron eye-bolts, used for the platform of siege mortars. The weight of the platform made of yellow pine is 837 Ibs. PLATOON. The half of a company. PLONGEE. The dip or declension of the superior slope of the parapet, is called the plongee. The amount of it is regulated by the distance of the nearest spot, to which the fire - of musketry is to be directed ; that %, generally, the exterior edge of the ditch in front of it. PLUMMET. A leaden or iron weight suspended by a string, used by artificers to sound the depth of water, or to regulate the perpen- dicular direction of any building. Pendulums, called also plummets, which vibrate the required times of march in a minute, are of great POL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 465 utility ; they must be in the possession of, and be constantly referred to by, each instructor of a squad. (See PENDULUM.) PLUNDER. Every officer or soldier, who shall quit his post or colors to plunder and pillage, shall suffer death or such other punish- ment as may be ordered by a general court-martial ; (ART. 52.) POINT-BLANK. The point-blank is the second point at which the line of sight intersects the trajectory of the projectile. The natural point-blank is when the natural line of sight is horizontal. The point- blank made by the use of the hausse, is called an artificial point-blank. In the British service, the point-blank distance is the distance at which the projectile strikes the level ground on which the carriage stands, the axis of the piece being horizontal. This definition conveys a better idea of the power of the piece than the French and American definition. For the same piece, the point-blank distance increases with the charge of powder ; for the same initial velocity, a large projectile has a greater point-blank distance than a small one ; a solid shot than a hollow one ; and an oblong projectile than a round one. (See FIRING.) POINTING-. To point a gun is to give it such direction, and ele- vation or depression, that the shot may strike the object. The general rule is, first give the direction, and then the elevation or depression. In pointing mortars, the elevation is first given and then the direction. The direction of a gun or howitzer is given by directing the line of metal upon the object. The elevation or depression depends upon the charge, the distance and the position of the object above or below the battery, and it is ascertained by reference to tables of fire, or by ex- periment ; and the proper angle is given by means of instruments the gunner's quadrant or tangent-scales. In the absence of tangent-scales or quadrant, the gunner may point his gun by placing one or more fingers of the left hand upon the base-ring perpendicularly to the axis, and using them as a breech-sight. In pointing a mortar, the elevation is given by applying the quad- rant to the face of the piece, and adjusting the quoin until the required number of degrees is indicated. The directiotl is given by determining practically two fixed points which shall be in a line with the piece and object, and sufficiently near to be readily distinguished by the eye. These points being covered by the plummet, determine a vertical plane which, when including the line of metal, becomes the plane of fire. Various methods are given for the accomplishment of this object in Roberts's Handbook of Artillery. (Consult Instructions for Field and Heavy Artillery, published by the War Department.) POLYGON OF FORTIFICATION. Every piece of ground to 30 466 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [POK. be fortified, is surrounded by a polygon, either square, pentagonal, hexagonal, &c., according to the number of its sides, which are called exterior sides ; upon these the fronts of fortifications are constructed. PONTONIERS. (See SAPPERS.) PONTOON. Vulcanized India rubber pontoons, consisting of three cylinders connected together, have been made in the United States. The three cylinders weigh 260 Ibs., and with their flooring of three chesses can be packed in a box 5 feet X 3 feet X 1 foot. The India rubber pontoons are made of India rubber cloth, and consist each of three tangent cylinders, peaked at Both extremities like the ends of a canoe ; the ends are firmly united together by two strong India rubber liga- ments which extend along their lines of contact and widen into a con- necting web towards the ends in proportion as these diminish, the three thus forming a single boat 20 feet long by 3 feet broad, of great buoyancy and stability, and from its form and lightness presenting but trifling resistance to the water. Each cylinder, including its peaked extremi- ties, is 20 inches in diameter, and is divided into three distinct air-tight compartments, each of which has its own inflating nozzle. The middle compartment occupies the whole width of the roadway of the bridge. The inflating nozzles are made of brass, with stopple and tube, the former screwing into the latter to open or close the nozzle. The frame lies on the top of the pontoon to which it is lashed, and serves as a means of attaching the baulks to the pontoon and preventing their chafing it: the baulks are of white pine or spruce 19 feet long; the chesses are also of white pine or spruce 13 feet 9 inches long. The equipment and management of these pontoons are nearly similar to the means employed for bridges of a different kind. The floating portion constitutes the essential difference, and this, being light and compact when folded up, may be easily transported. (Consult Papers published by United States Engineers in 1849.) The chief engineer, with the approbation of the Secretary of War, regulates and determines the number, quality, forms, dimensions, &c., of the necessary vehicles*, pontoons, tools, implements, and other sup- plies for the use of the company of sappers, miners, and pontoniers ; (Act May 15, 1846.) PORT-FIRE. A composition of nitre, sulphur, and mealed pow- der driven into a case of strong paper used to fire guns previous to the introduction of the friction primer. POSSE COMITATUS. A sheriff Or marshal, for the purpose of keeping the peace and pursuing felons, may command all the people of his county above 15 years old to attend him, which is called the posse comitatus, or power of the county ; (BLACKSTONE.) PRK.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 467 Can United States troops stationed in any county be employed as a posse comitatus? Their service does not give them residence where they arc employed, and moreover the Acts of Congress of 1795, and March 3, 1807, restrict the employment of the United States military forces in civil commotions to clearly defined cases, and then authorize the President of the United States alone to use such force after he shall have by proclamation commanded the insurgents to disperse and retire peaceably to their homes within a reasonable time. (See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; OBSTRUCTION OF LAW.) These enactments of Congress would Seem to make inapplicable to United States troops the doctrine of English judges, that the soldier, being still a citizen, acts only in preservation of the public peace as another citizen is bound to do. See EXECUTION OF LAWS, for the learning on the subject of using troops in civil commotions where the common law is not changed by legislation. POST. It is synonymous with position. Thus a post is said to be good or not tenable. Post is also the walk or position of a sentinel. Any officer or soldier, who shall shamefully abandon any fort, post, or guard which he may be commanded to defend, or speak words inducing others to do the like, shall suffer death or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct ; (ART. 52.) Any sentinel, who shall be found sleeping upon his post, or shall leave it before he shall be regularly relieved, shall suffer death or such other punishment as shall be inflicted by a court-martial ; (ART. 66.) (See PAY.) POSTERN OR SALLY-PORT is a passage usually vaulted, and constructed under the rampart, to afford a communication from the interior into the ditch. The passages from the covered way into the country, are likewise called sally-ports ; as they afford free egress and ingress to troops, engaged in making a sally or sortie. POWDER. (See GUNPOWDER.) PRESIDENT. The President of the United States is commander- in-chief of the army, navy, and militia, called into service. His func- tions as such are assigned by Congress, but embrace of course whatever authority may be assigned to any military commander, on the principle that the authority of the greater includes that of the less. For the com- mand, government, and regulation of the army, however, (Congress has created a military hierarchy or range of subordination in the army with rights and duties regulated by Congress, and the commander-in-chief cannot make use of any other agents in exercising his command ; and all orders issued by him must be according to the rules and articles made by Congress for the government of the army. In his capacity of chief- magistrate of the Union, Congress has also invested the President with 468 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [P RE . many administrative functions relating to military affairs; and for the performance of the latter duties the Secretary of the Department of War has been made his minister, upon matters connected with materiel, accounts, returns, the support of troops, and the raising of troops. (See ARMY REGULATIONS ; CONGRESS ; DEPARTMENT OF WAR ; ORDERS ; REGULATIONS ; SECRETARY OF WAR.) PRESIDENT, (COURT-MARTIAL.) The President of a court-martial is the senior member. He preserves order in court ; administers the oath taken by the judge-advocate, and the proceedings of the court are authenticated by his signature and that of the judge-advocate. PRINTING-. The following explanation of the marks which are in general use by printers for correcting proofs, with the annexed speci- men, will enable an officer, who has to superintend a work through the press, to correct the proof sheets in a way that will be clearly under- stood by the printer, and thus promote its accuracy. If it is desired to change any word to capitals, small capitals, Roman text, (the ordinary letter,) or italics, draw a line beneath it, and write in the margin, Caps., S. cop.s., Rom., or Ital., as the case may be. See corrections 1, 2, 14, and 8, on the proof-sheet. When it is necessary to expunge a letter or word, draw a line through it, and place in the margin a character resembling a d of current hand, which stands for the Latin word dele (erase) ; as in No. 3. When a wrong letter or word occurs in the proof-sheet, draw a line through it, and place what must be substituted for it in the margin, with a vertical line at the right ; as in the corrections marked 4. Attention is drawn to an inverted letter by underscoring it, and writing opposite the character used in No. 5. An omitted word, letter, comma, semicolon, colon, exclamation-point, or interroga- tion-point, as well as brackets and parentheses, are written in the margin with a verti- cal line at the right ; as in the various corrections marked 6 : a caret shows where to introduce what is thus marked in. When there is so much omitted that there is not room for it in the margin, it is written at the top or bottom of the page, and a line is used to show where it is to be introduced ; as at the bottom of the proof-sheet. A period is marked in by placing it in the margin inside of a circle, as in No. 9. Apostrophes and quotation -points are introduced in a character resembling a V, and a caret is placed in the text to show where they are to be inserted. This is illus- trated in No. 11. No. 22 shows how the dash and hyphen are introduced. When a letter or word should be transposed, a line is drawn around it and carried to the place where it should stand, and the letters tr. are placed opposite, as in No. 7. No. 10 shows how to mark out a quadrat or space which improperly appears. If a broken or imperfect letter is used, draw a line through or beneath it, and make an inclined cross in the margin, as in No. 12. Sometimes a letter of the wrong size will be used by mistake ; in such a case, under- line it and place the letters w. f. (throng font} in the margin as in 13. If the letters of a word stand apart from each other, draw a curved line beneath the space which separates them, and two curves in the margin, as in 15. If the proper space is wanting between two contiguous words, place a caret where the space should be, and opposite to them make a character like a music sharp, as shown in No. 16. Two parallel horizontal lines, as in No. 17, are used when the letters of a word are not all in the same level, and a horizontal line is also drawn under such as are out of place. When a new paragraph has been improperly begun, a line is drawn from its com- mencement to the end of the previous paragraph, and the words no break are written in the margin; see No. 18. When it is desired to commence a new paragraph, the paragraph mark (^[) is introduced at the place, and also in the margin. PRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 469 "When letters at the commencement of a line are out of the proper level, a horizon- tal line should be drawn beneath them, and a similar one placed in the margin ; as in No. 21. When any portion of a paragraph projects laterally beyond the rest, a vertical line should be drawn beside it, and a similar one must stand opposite to it in the mar- gin ; see No. 23. When a lead has been improperly omitted, the word Lead is written at the side of the page, and a horizontal line shows where it is to be introduced, as in No. 25. If a lead too many has been introduced, the error is corrected, as in 24. When uneven spaces are left betweOT. words, a line is drawn beneath, and space better is written opposite ; see 26. If it is desired to retain a word which has been marked out, dots are placed beneath it, and the word stet (let it stand) is written in the margin ; as in 27. MAEKS USED IN COEEECTING PEOOF-SHEET. 9| 25 WILLIAM FALCONER. William Falconer was the son of a i barber in C^\ 3 4 a/ Edinburgh, ^nd was born in 1730. He had vary few o) 5 ^/ avantages of education, and (went to sea (in early life) tt. A A in the merchant service. He afterwards became mate i >a*/ of a vessel that wrecked in the Levant and was saved oTtoE, 8 Jy / 6 O with only two of his crew: Xhis catastrophe formed 3/ 4 T 1(i the subject of his poem entitled " The Shipwreck, on tyu which his reputation as a writer chiefly rests. Early 12 4 . 27 11 in 17G9, his "Marine Dictionary" appeared, which hasbeen highly BJ A mating its merits, (in this hasbeen highly spok e n of by those capable of esti- seam- year, he embarked ou the AURORA but E. o. - A the vessel was never heard of after she passed the Capej^ the poet_of__the Shipwreck is therefore sup- posed to have perisl/d by the same disaster he had "frirasQlf so graphically described. If The subject of th e "Shipwreck" and its authors fate demand our _1T i ^eoi 18 19 . / interest and sympathy. If we pay respect to the ingenious scholar who can produce agreeable verses \l 4 in leisure and retirement, how much more interest ^ must we take in the " shipboy on the high and giddy I - / 22 mast' chcrishing^the hour which he may casually snatch from I danger and fatigue. | / 6 <*/' W n [ / 22 470 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Psi. PRISONER OF WAR. Agreements are made between govern- ments at war ; or, when governments do not make such agreements, opposite commanding generals, during a campaign, regulate mutual ex- changes of prisoners, and also determine the allowances to be made to prisoners while they are held in captivity. PRISONERS. Whenever a*y officer shall be charged with a crime, he shall be arrested and deprived of his sword by the command- ing officer ; (ART. 77.) Non-commissioned officers and soldiers charged with crimes shall be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority ; (ART. 78.) (See PROVOST-MARSHAL ; REFUSAL.) When brought into court, a prisoner should be without irons or any manner of shackles or bands ; unless there is danger of an escape, and then he may be secured with irons ; (BLACKSTONE.) (See ARREST ; COUNSEL ; JUDGE-ADVOCATE.) PRIVATE. The term applied to the rank of a common soldier. PRIZE MONEY. (See BOOTY.) PROCEEDINGS. The proceedings of courts-martial of the pre- vious day are usually read over each day by the judge-advocate. Much time is lost by adopting this measure, and there is no rule directing the court to read them; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.) (See PRES- IDENT.) PROJECTILES. The projectiles for unrifled ordnance are solid shot and shells. (See CANISTER ; CARCASSES ; GRAPE ; GRENADES ; * LIGHT and FIRE BALLS; SHELLS; SPHERICAL CASE; STONES.) PROJECTILES, (CYLINDRO-CONOIDAL.) Sir Isaac Newton has given, in the " Principia," (lib. ii., schol. to prop. 34,) an indication of the form of a solid body which, in passing through a fluid, would experience less resistance than a body of equal magnitude and of any other form. He imagined that this might be of use in ship-building, and it is evident that the principle is equally applicable in the theory of projectiles. Investigations of the differential equations of the curve may be seen in the writings of mathematicians. The body is a solid of revolution, and the differential equation is Fro. 172. dy*dx in which C is a constant. The form of a section through the axis of the solid is given in the annexed diagram, (Fig. 172.) A B is the axis, and in the direc- tion of that line the solid is to move ; y is any ordinate, as D C ; and dx, dy, dz, PRO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 47 1 are elementary portions, E F, E D, D F, respectively. The end B, as well as A, of the solid is a plane surface ; for the numerator of the fraction in the above equation will evidently be always greater than the denominator, and therefore ?/, the ordinate to the curve, can never be zero. It is plain, however, that the minimum of resistance would not be obtained with a shot of an elongated form, when discharged from a musket or piece of ordnance, unless the axis A B can be kept in the direction of the trajectory. This may be accomplished if the shot be caused to have a rotatory motion on that axis by being discharged from a rifled bore; and without such rotation, not only will the axis perpetually deviate from the direction of the path, but the projectile will even turn over. The advantages of this form of shot are, that when rotating on their longi- tudinal axes, and moving with their smaller extremities in front, they experience less resistance from the air than spherical projectiles of the same diameter. To this form alone are to be referred the long range with the great momentum and penetrating power of the projectiles for rifle-muskets and other rifled ordnance now used ; (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS.) The elongated bullet was first experimented upon by M. Tamisier. It had a groove around the bottom or cylindrical part designed to attach the cartridge. A change having been made in the manner of attaching the cartridge to the projectile this groove was omitted as useless. The accuracy of the fire was there- FM 17g upon diminished. The groove being replaced, it was found that the slightest change in its shape or position had much influence on the accuracy of fire. M. Tamisier made experiments with a ball, the point of which, instead of being curved, was a cone and the rest a cylinder ; he varied the length of each part, and determined that these variations always produced variations in the ac- curacy of fire. These researches brought.him to results of the greatest importance, and led, with the idea of M. Minie of causing the ball to expand by the explo- sion of the charge, to the adoption of the Minie projec- tiles now used, which however are not identical in different countries. (See RIFLED ORDNANCE.) PROLONGE is a stout hempen rope, sometimes used to connect the lunette of a field-carriage with the limber when the piece is fired ; it has a hook at one end and a toggle at the other, with two intermediate rings, into which the hook and toggle are fastened to shorten the dis- tance between the limber and carriage. PROMOTION. " Congress may fix the rules for promotions and 472 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Pso. appointments ; and, in the reduction of the army and navy, deter- mine from whom such promotions and appointments shall be made. Every promotion is a new appointment, to be confirmed by the Sen- ate ;" (Report of Committee of Senate, April 25, 1822.) (See CONSTI- TUTIONAL.) " Promotions may be made through the whole army in its several lines of light artillery, light dragoons, artillery, infantry, and riflemen, respectively ; " (Act March 30, 1814) " Promotions by brevet may be conferred for gallant actions or meritorious conduct ; " (Act July 6, 1812.) " All promotions in the staff departments or corps shall be made as in other corps of the army ; " (Act March 3, 1851.) The French army has the most democratic organization of any army in the world. The following rules regulate promotions in that army ; (Law of April 14, 1832 ; and Law of March 16, 1838.) ART. 1. No person can be corporal, until he has served at least six months as a private soldier in some one of the corps of the army. 2. No one can be sergeant until he has served at least six months as corporal. All vacancies of corporal or sergeant on campaign, in any battalion, belong exclusively to those present in the field where the vacancies occur. 3. No one can be sows-lieutenant, unless he is at least 18 years of age, and has either served at least two years as a non-commissioned officer in one of the corps of the army ; or has been two years a pupil of a military school, arid has passed a satisfactory examination upon leaving the school. The first vacancy occurring on campaign, is given to some sergeant present. The 2d and 3d from those eligible, according to a fixed rule adopted at the beginning of the year. But when a non- commissioned officer has merited, for distinguished conduct mentioned in the orders of the army, a nomination for the grade of sows-lieutenant, and no vacancy exists in his regiment for the promotion of a non- commissioned officer, he is named for promotion, either in his own corps or in other regiments of his arm, to a vacancy belonging to the 2d and 3d classes. 4. All soldiers of the army, until the age of 25, may be received to undergo an examination for the polytechnique school. 5. No one can be lieutenant, unless he has served two years as sous- lieutenant. 6. No one can be captain, unless he has served two years in the grade of lieutenant. 7. No one can be chief of battalion, chief of squadron, or major until he has served four years as captain. PEG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 473 8. No one can be lieutenant-colonel, until he has served three years the grades of chief of battalion, chief of squadron, or major. 9. No one can be colonel, until he has served two years in the grade of lieut.-colonel. 10. No one can be promoted to a grade superior to that of colonel, until he has served three years in the grade immediately inferior. 11. One-third of the vacancies in the grade of sows-lieutenant of the different corps of troops of the army, shall be given to the non-com- missioned officers of the respective corps in which the vacancies occur. (See ART. 3.) 12. Two-thirds of the grades of lieutenant and captain shall be given by seniority, to wit : in the infantry and cavalry, to the officers of the respective regiments ; in the staff corps, to the officers of the corps ; in the artillery and engineers, to the officers among themselves who stand in competition. Promotions to the grades of lieutenant and captain are- made as follows : Half of the vacancies in the battalions, squadrons, or detachments which form an active army, and two-thirds of those occurring elsewhere, are given to sows-lieutenants, and lieutenants by seniority in their respective corps. All officers, whether with that portion of their corps in campaign or not, may be selected to fill vacancies in their corps belonging to the class of selections. But when, from distinguished con- duct duly mentioned in army orders, a sous-lieutenant or lieutenant merits promotion to the next superior grade, and there is no vacancy among the class of selections in his own regiment, he may be promoted to a vacancy in some other regiment of his arm. When so many- vacancies in the grades of lieutenant and captain of a regiment occur in war, that there is not a sufficient number of the inferior grade with the exacted qualifications to fill them, they will be filled from other regi- ments of the same arm. 13. Half of the grades of chef-de-lataillon and chief of squadron will be given by seniority of grade, as follows : In the infantry and cavalry and staff corps, to the captains of each arm ; in the artillery and engineers to the captains among themselves, who stand in competition. The employment of major (a regimental administrative officer) will be given by selection from those eligible. 14. All the grades superior to that of chief of battalion, chief of squadron, or major, will be by selection from those eligible. 15. Seniority of grade will be determined by date of commission, or in cases of similar date by the date of the commission of the inferior grade. 16. When an officer is no longer borne on the list of some one of 474 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [P R0 . the active corps of the army, the time that he thus passes out of service shall be deducted from his seniority, except in cases of mission, disband- ment, or suppression of employment. There shall also be deducted from his seniority the time passed in a foreign service ; but not the time passed upon detached service in the national guard, in the navy, or upon a diplomatic mission. Officers who cease to be borne on the list of corps of the army, in consequence of suppression of employment or disbandment of regiments, will nevertheless be entitled to promotion in the regiments of the same arm to which they belong, and which may be retained or subsequently created. 17. Officers, prisoners of war, will retain their rights of seniority for promotion ; but they can only be promoted to the grade immediately superior to that which they had when made prisoners. 18. The term of service exacted for passing from one grade to another, may be reduced one half by service in war or in colonies. 19. The conditions exacted by the preceding articles for passing from one grade to another, can be departed from only in the following cases : 1st. For distinguished conduct duly set forth and published in the gen- eral orders of the day to the army ; and 2d, when it is not: otherwise possible to fill the vacancies of corps in the presence of the enemy. 20. In time of war, and in corps in presence of the enemy, there shall be given by seniority half the grades of lieutenant and captain. All the grades of chief of battalion and chief of squadron shall be made by selection from those eligible. 21. In no case shall any one be appointed to a grade without com- mand, nor be granted an honorary grade, nor shall a rank be given superior to that of actual command. 22. All promotions of officers shall be immediately made public, with an indication of the vacancy filled, and the cause of promotion, whether by seniority, by selection, or distinguished action. 23. No officer admitted to the retired list can resume his position upon the active list. 24. Command is distinct from grade. No officer can be deprived of his grade, except in the cases and under the forms determined by law. 25. All the provisions of the present law are applicable to marines. 26. All provisions repugnant to the present law are abrogated. Selections by the law of March 16, 1838, are made as follows : Recommendations for appointment of non-commissioned officers are to be made to the colonel of the regiment by captains, accompanied by re- marks of the chiefs of battalions, squadrons, and lieutenant-colonel. The POL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 475 colonel appoints from this list those who are to fill vacancies. Jle may also, besides this list, select from those distinguished by an action of eclat. For promotion to the grades of sows-lieutenant, lieutenant and captain, the chief of the corps recommends, after taking the advice, of the chiefs of battalions or squadrons, and also of the lieutenant-colonel, when he is present. For promotion to the grade of chief of battalion or squadron, the general of brigade recommends, after taking the advice of the chiefs of corps of his brigade. For promotion to the grade of lieu- tenant-colonel, the general of division recommends, after taking the advice of the chiefs of corps and that of the generals of brigade. For promotion to the grades of colonel or general of brigade, the general in chief recom- mends, after taking the advice of the generals of brigade and division for the promotion of a colonel, and that of generals of division for the pro- motion of a general of brigade. These propositions for the different grades of officers are addressed through the regular channels of com- munication, and transmitted with his opinion to the Minister of War. The chiefs of corps and the general officers to whom this right of nomi- nation is given, designate for each vacancy three candidates taken from among the non-commissioned or commissioned officers under their orders, who have been presented for promotion in the form indicated. The number of candidates for the grades of lieut.-colonel, colonel, and general of brigade may be reduced. PROMULGATION. (See COURT-MARTIAL.) PROOFS. (See PRINTING.) PROSECUTOR. The judge-advocate is the prosecutor, usually ; but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject to the Articles of War, except the judge-advocate ; (Houan.) PROVOST-MARSHAL. An officer appointed in every army in the field to secure prisoners confined on charges of a general nature. In the British army he is intrusted with authority to inflict summary punishment on any soldier, follower, or retainer of the camp, whom he sees commit the act for which summary punishment may be inflicted. (See CONFINEMENT ; PRISONER ; REFUSAL TO RECEIVE PRISONER.) PULLEY. FIXED PULLEY. The power is equal to the weight. The pressure Q on the axis is to the power or weight as the chord c of the arc enveloped by the rope is to the radius r of the pulley. MOVABLE PULLEY. The power is to the weight, as the radius of the 476 MILITARY DICTIONARY. ^ [PUN. pulley is to the chord of the arc enveloped by the rope. The pressure on the fixed end of the rope is equal to the power : P= Q= . In a system of n movable pulleys, the power is to the weight, as the product of the radii of the pulleys is to the product of the chords i * of the arcs enveloped by the rope : P w c c' c' If the ropes are parallel, c = 2 r, and P = . PUNISHMENT. It is often necessary to punish to maintain dis- cipline, and the Rules and Articles of War provide ample means of punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judg- ment. In the French army degrading punishments are illegal, but sol- diers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison ; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon ; required to walk or to perform hard labor ; and officers may be sub- jected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punish- ment, must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a superior. An officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when relieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens, and the strength of authority. The punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-martial, according to the offence, and the jurisdiction of the court, are : death ; stripes for desertion only ; confinement ; hard labor ; ball and chain ; forfeiture of pay and allow- ances ; and dishonorable discharge from service, with or without mark- ing. It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding 14 days at a time, or for more than 84 days in a year at intervals of 14 days. PURCHASING from any soldier his arms, uniform, clothing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having cognizance of the same by fine in any sum not exceeding three hundred dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year ; (Act March 16, 1802.) PURVEYOR. A person employed to make purchases, or to pro- vide food, medicines, and necessaries for the sick. PYRAMID. A pyramid is a solid whose base is any right-lined plane figure, and its sides are triangles having all their vertices or tops meeting together in one point, called the vertex of the pyramid. PYROTECHNY. Artificial fire-works and fire-arms, including not only those used in war, such as cannon, shells, grenades, gunpowder, QUA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 477 ' wildfire, &c. ; but also those intended for amusement, as rockets, St. Catherine's wheels, &c. Q QUARRELS. All officers of what condition soever have power to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and disorders, though the persons concerned should belong to another regiment, troop, or company, and either to order officers in arrest, or non-commissioned officers or sol- diers into confinement, until their proper superior officers shall be ac- quainted therewith ; and whosoever shall refuse to obey such officer, (though of an inferior rank, and of a different regiment, troop, or com- pan^,) or shall draw his sword upon him, shall be punished at the dis- cretion of a general court-martial ; (ART. 27.) QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its organization.) This department provides the quarters and transporta- tion of the army, except that, when practicable, wagons and their equip- ment are provided by the Ordnance Department ; storage and trans- portation for all army supplies ; army clothing ; camp and garrison equipage ; cavalry and artillery horses ; fuel ; forage ; straw and sta- tionery. The incidental expenses of the army (also paid through the quartermaster's department) include per diem to extra duty men : postage on public service ; the expenses of courts-martial ; of the pur- suit and apprehension of deserters ; of the burials of officers and soldiers ; of hired escorts, of expresses, interpreters, spies, and guides ; of veter- inary surgeons and medicines for horses ; and of supplying posts with water ; and, generally, the proper and authorized expenses for the movements and operations of an army not expressly assigned to any other department. (Consult Regulations of the War Department for the Quartermaster's Department.) These regulations derive their validity from the following acts of Congress : " It shall be lawful for the Secretary of War to cause to be provided, in each and every year, all clothing, camp utensils and equi- page, medicines and hospital stores, necessary for the troops and armies of the United States for the succeeding year, and for this purpose to make purchases, and enter or cause to be entered into all necessary contracts or obligations for effecting the same ; (Act March 3, 1799.) The Secretary of War shall be authorized and directed to define and prescribe the species, as well as the amount of supplies to be respec- tively purchased by the commissary-general's and quartermaster-gen- eral's departments, and the respective duties and powers of the said departments respecting such purchases. And the secretary aforesaid 478 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [QUA. is also authorized to fix and make reasonable allowances for the store rent, storage, and salary of storekeepers necessary for the safe keeping of all military stores and supplies ; (Act March 3, 1813.) The acts of March 3, 1813, and April 24, 1816, make it also the duty of the Secretary of the War Department to prepare general regulations better defining and prescribing the duties and powers of the several officers of the quartermaster's department, and other staff officers ; which regula- tions, when approved by the President of the United States, shall be respected and obeyed until altered or revoked by the same authority. An essential element, in all services of supply, is the means of trans- portation ; and its formation, maintenance, and management call for the exercise of unremitting intelligence and activity on the part of the quar- termaster. The most important want is the carriage of provisions, to which a very large portion of all military transport must be devoted. The next in importance is the hospital transport service. (See AMBULANCE.) The carriage of ordnance and engineer stores requires a large number of wagons ; and the conveyance of camp equipage, regimental and staff baggage, as also of reserve small-arm ammunition, is also indispensable. In most foreign armies the nucleus of a trained transport corps is main- tained, in times of peace, organized with especial view to its easy ex- tension for the purposes of war, so that when a force takes the field it carries with it the means of conveying its most essential supplies ; while whatever transport can be drawn from the country under occu- pation, whether by hire or purchase, by requisition or by seizure, can at once be united to the trained and organized corps, and brought under the influence of military order and discipline. In our own army we have in this, as in other respects, too much neglected to pre- pare in peace for the exigencies of war. Relying upon our financial resources, and believing that while money abounds the materiel of war will riot be wanting, we have overlooked the necessity which exists in every branch of the military service for preliminary practice and train- ing, in order to turn our means to good account. Transport, to be effective, must be organized and trained to a systematic performance of duty, and this cannot be the work of a day. Whatever the nature or organization of the transport, however, a quartermaster should de- vote his best exertions to maintaining it in a state of efficiency. The men, whether soldiers or natives of the scene of operations, should be as much as possible encouraged to attach themselves to the service. Exposed, as they necessarily are, to so many fatigues and hardships in all weathers, they should be suitably clothed and well fed, and be ren- dered as comfortable when off duty as circumstances may allow. In QUA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 479 the case of native drivers, their peculiar habits should be consulted as far as may be practicable ; and while a strict discipline shoud be main- tained, and misconduct immediately and severely punished, good be- havior, steadiness, and attention to duty should be noticed and rewarded. JEsprit du corps is to masses of men what self-respect is to individuals, and should be fostered by all possible means, since it tends to impress men in every position with a sense of their duty. A quartermaster, who fully understands the importance of his functions, will not find it unworthy of his attention to study the character and disposition of the most humble individual under his orders, with the view of developing his good qualities and abilities to the greatest advantage of the public service. In dealing with people of different nations this becomes pe- culiarly necessary, and as a large portion of the personnel belonging to the transport of armies is generally drawn from the local population, care should be taken not to offend unnecessarily feelings or even preju- dices which, if properly directed, may be used to our advantage. Another error to be avoided is unnecessary interference in the attempt to improve indiscriminately upon local practices and habits. Both men and animals will work best in the way they have been ac- customed to, and even the most obvious improvements should be effected gradually and cautiously, lest in endeavoring to teach a new method before the old has been unlearnt, only the worst features of each should be the result. As a rule the practice in force, however opposed to our notions, is founded upon some sufficiently valid reasons. In this respect we have generally more to learn than to teach, and a little careful observation will probably serve to convince' us that prac- tices which at first sight we are disposed to deride or condemn are, under the peculiar circumstances of the case, preferable to any thing we could substitute. But while unnecessary interference is to be deprecated, the impor- tance of attending to the conditions of transport animals cannot be too strongly insisted upon. A quartermaster in charge should satisfy himself by frequent personal inspection that the animals are properly stabled, fed, cleaned, and shod ; the state of saddlery and harness should be carefully attended to, and on the march no halt should be made without the wagons being examined, and, if necessary, repaired. The break-down of a single wagon may, on a narrow road, seriously ob- struct the whole line of march, besides causing the loss of its load. Every cart or wagon should be required to carry the necessary tools for effecting repairs, as also the means of greasing the wheels, by which the draught is greatly diminished, and much wear and tear saved. 480 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [QUA These are trivial details, but nothing is unimportant that tends to main- tain the efficiency of army transport. In loading, the greatest care should be taken to adapt the weight to the capability of the animal or vehicle, and full allowance must be made for the chances of heavy roads or forced marches. Mules, which for mountainous roads are by far the best pack animals, can carry con- tinuously 2 cwt. for long marches ; they are moreover more hardy and less dainty in their food than horses, and, with common care, can with- stand any weather. Mules also work well in draught when no great speed is required ; but whenever supplies are expected to keep up with cavalry or artillery, light wagons with two horses are preferable to any other kind of transport. A good horse should, over even roads, be able to draw 10 cwt., vehicle included ; but over mountainous or heavy roads 12 cwt. (including the carriage) is more than a full load for a pair of horses. For the baggage and supplies required to accompany armies en masse on their ordinary marches, common country wagons drawn by oxen do excellent service ; they are slow, but can carry large loads, and the beasts get through a great deal of work upon small quantities of food. A well-organized train of pack animals, though a greater number is requisite than would suffice for draught, is the most man- ageable transport that can be devised, and for rapid marches far prefer- able to any other. The transport required for carriage of the ordinary material of War, and for hospital purposes, can always be computed with tolerable accuracy, since its extent is little affected by local circumstances. But it is different as regards consumable stores. In a country rich in re- sources, and with a friendly population, a small train suffices even for continuous marches ; but if the scene of operations yield little or noth- ing, if the progress of the army be through a wilderness or a desert of ruined fields and burning villages, it would be necessary to provide transport for the carriage of provisions and forage, and perhaps even wood and water, for the full number of days that the march is calcu- lated to last. The quartermaster must in these cases exercise his own judgment, in concert with the officer commanding the expedition. It must be borne in mind that every additional transport animal calls for a corresponding addition of supplies. It was computed, during the organization of the British Land Transport in the Crimea, that it would require about 9,000 men and 12,500 animals to carry the rations, ammunition, and hospital establishments for 58,000 men and 30,000 horses for three days. At this rate, additional provision would require to be made for one-third as much forage and one-fifth as many rations QUA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 481 as may be requisite for the actual combatant force in order to subsist the transport establishment. In other words, every three horses would have to be calculated as four, and every five soldiers as six, to cover the additional demands of the transport attached to the force. (See TRANSPORTATION.) In most foreign armies, ships of war are as much as possible used for the transport of troops ; and although the presence of soldiers may, to a certain extent, interfere with the economy and discipline of a vessel this objection, particularly in time of peace, is not so powerful as to justify the employment, at a large cost, of private ships, while numbers of our own are making objectless cruises over all the oceans of the globe or lying idle in harbor. A naval officer very naturally dislikes to be encumbered with some hundreds of soldiers with their wives and children, or to have a number of idle officers lounging about his quarter- deck ; but there are interests to be consulted beyond even the most praiseworthy professional amour propre, and it ought to be cpnsidered whether economy and good policy do not require that a more frequent use should be made of ships of war as transports, and also whether general regulations might not be adopted for the transportation of tho articles of supply from the places of purchase to the several armies, garrisons, posts, and recruiting places, and for the safe keeping of such articles, and for the distribution of an adequate and timely supply of the same to the regimental quartermasters, and such other officers as may, by virtue of such regulations, be intrusted with the same. (See ADMINISTRATION ; ARMY REGULATIONS ; CAMP ; CLOTHING ; SUPPLIES ; TRAIN; WAGON. Consult FONBLANQUE.) QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL has the rank, pay, and emol- uments of brigadier-general. He is not liable for any money or property that may come into the hands of subordinate agents of the department ; (Act May 22, 1812.) He accounts as often as required, and at least once in three months, with the Department of War, in such manner as shall be prescribed, for all property which may pass through his hands, or the hands of the subordinate officers in his department, or that may be in his or their possession, and for all moneys which he or they may expend in discharging their respective duties ; he shall be responsible for the regularity and correctness of all returns in his department, and he, his deputies, and assistant deputies, before .they enter on the execu- tion of their respective offices, shall severally take an oath faithfully to perform the duties thereof '; (Act March 28, 1812.) The quarter- master-general is authorized to frank and receive letters and packets by post, free of postage ; (Act March 2, 1827.) 31 482 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [QUA. Each quartermaster-general attached to any separate army, com- mand, or district shall be authorized, with the approbation and under the direction of the Secretary of War, to employ as many artificers, mechanics, and laborers as the public service may require ; (Act March 3, 1813.) QUARTERS. " No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law ; " (Constitution, 3c? Amend- ment.) The law not having made any provision for quartering sol- diers in time of war, troops of the United States at home would be subjected to exorbitant demands for the hire of quarters. (See BAR- RACKS; BILLETS.) QUESTIONS. (See EVIDENCE ; TRIAL.) QUICK-MATCH. It is made of threads of cotton or cotton wick, steeped in gummed brandy or whiskey, then soaked in a paste of mealed powder and gummed spirits, and afterwards strewn over with mealed powder. It is used to fire stone and heavy mortars, in priming all kinds of fireworks, such as fire-balls, light-balls, carcasses, priming tubes, &c. A yard burns in the open air in 13 seconds. QUOINS. In gunnery, a quoin is a \vedge used to lay under the breech of a gun to elevate or depress it. R BACK-STICK AND LASHING- consist of a piece of two-inch rope, about 6 feet long, fastened to a picket about 15 inches long, hav- ing a hole in its head to receive the rope. Rack-lashings are used for securing the planks of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribbons and the sleepers. RAFT. (See BRIDGE.) RAFTERS. (See CARPENTRY.) RAISE. To raise a siege is to abandon a siege. Armies are raised in two ways : either by voluntary engagements, or by lot or conscription. The Greek and Roman levies were the result of a rigid system of conscription. The Visigoths practised a general conscription ; poverty, old age, and sickness were the only reasons admitted for ex- emption. " Subsequently, (says Hallam,) the feudal military tenures had superseded that earlier system of public defence, which called upon every man, and especially upon every landholder, to protect his country. The relations of a vassal came in place of those of a subject and a citi- zen. This was the revolution of the 9th century. In the 12th and 13th another innovation rather more gradually prevailed, and marks the RAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 4S3 third period in the military history of Europe. Mercenary troops were substituted for the feudal militia. These military adventurers played a more remarkable part in Italy than in France, though not a little troublesome to the latter country." A necessary effect of the formation of mercenaries was the centralization of authority. Money became the sinews of war. The invention of fire-arms caused it to be acknowledged that skill was no less essential for warlike operations than strength and valor. Towards the end of the middle ages, the power of princes was calculated by the number and quality of paid troops they could support. France first set the example of keeping troops in time of peace. Charles VII., foreseeing the danger of invasion, authorized the assemblage of armed mercenaries called compagnies d'ordonnance. Louis XI. dismissed these troops, but enrolled new troops composed of French, Swiss, and Scotch. Under Charles VIII., Germans were admitted in the French army, and the highest and most illustrious nobles of France regarded it as an honor to serve in the gens d'armes. Moral qualifications not being exacted for admission to the ranks, the restraints of a barbarous discipline became necessary, and this dis- cipline divided widely the soldier from the people. The French rev- olution overturned this system. " Now (says Decker) mercenary troops have completely disappeared from continental Europe. England only now raises armies by the system of recruiters. The last wars of Europe have been wars of the people, and have been fought by nationalities. After peace armies remain national, for their elements are taken from the people, and are returned to the people by legal lib- erations. The institution of conscription is evidently the most impor- tant of modern times. Among other advantages, it has bridged the otherwise impassable gulf between the citizen and soldier, who, children of the same family, are now united in defence of their country. Per- manent armies have ceased to be the personal guard of kings, but their sympathies are always with the people, and their just title is that of skilful warriors maintained as a nucleus for the instruction of their countrymen in the highest school of art. (See CONSCRIPTION ; DEPOT ; DEFENCE, National ; ENLISTMENT ; MILITIA ; RECRUITING ; RE-ENLIST- ING ; VOLUNTEERS.) ^ RALLY. To re-form disordered or dispersed troops. RAMP. A ramp is a road cut obliquely into or added to the in- terior slope of the rampart, as a communication from the town to the terre-plein. RAMPART. A broad embankment or mass of earth which sur- 484 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RAM. rounds a fortified place, and forms the enceinte or body of the place. On its exterior edge the parapet is placed, while towards the place it is terminated by the interior slope of the rampart, on which ramps are made for the easy ascent of the troops and material. RAMROD. The rod of iron used in loading a piece to drive home the charge. RANGES. The extreme ranges of smooth-bored guns firing solid shot may be considered to vary, according to their size, from 2,000 to 4,000 yards. These great ranges are only attained by firing at great elevations, and the practice at such distances is consequently uncertain. Ranges of 1,000 to 1,200 yards for field-guns and of 1,500 to 2,000 yards for heavy guns are as great as can be secured with any thing like accuracy. It seems, however, more than probable, that smooth-bored guns will, before long, be altogether superseded by rifled ordnance, and reasoning from what has been already accomplished, we may at least expect to double the present ranges, and greatly to increase the accu- racy of fire. The ranges of grape-shot are equal only to the ranges of the individual balls of which the grape-shot is composed ; they are, therefore, subject to considerable variation, according to the dimensions of the gun from which the grape is discharged. The most effective ranges for grape-shot may be considered to lie between 800 and 600 yards. The range of canister-shot is very limited. From the small size of the bullets they rapidly lose their initial velocity. At ranges below 300 yards canister-shot against bodies of troops is very destruc- tive. Spherical-case shot is effective at much greater ranges than canis- ter or grape shot. It may be employed with good effect at any distance between 600 and 1,500 or even 1,800 yards. The ranges of shells vary according to their size from 1,000 to 4,000 yards. They are fired either from mortars or guns. With the method of firing them from mor- tars at an elevation of 45, with a charge of powder proportioned to the range desired, any great accuracy of practice is not to be expected. (See ARTILLERY ; COLUMBIAD ; FIRING ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; SPHERICAL CASE.) RANK. A range of subordination ; a degree of dignity. Rank also means a line of soldiers, side by side. Ranks in the plural, the order of common soldiers. Questions as to the positive or relative rank of officers may often be of the greatest importance at law, in con- sequence of the rule, that every person who justifies his own acts on the ground of obedience to superior authority must establish, by clear evidence, the sufficiency of the authority on which he so relies. There may also be many occasions on which the propriety of an officer's RAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 485 assumption of command, or his exercise of particular functions, or his right to share with a particular class of officers in prize-money, bounties, grants, and other allowances, may depend on the correctness of the view taken by himself or others of his right to a specific rank or command ; and an error in this respect may expose him to personal loss and dam- age in suits before the civil tribunals. The regulation of military rank is vested absolutely in Congress, which confers or varies it at pleasure. The will of Congress in this re- spect is signified by the creation of different grades of rank ; by making rules of appointment and promotion ; by other rules of government and regulation ; or is by fair deduction to be inferred from the nature of the functions assigned to each officer ; for every man who is in- trusted with an employment, is presumed to be invested with all the powers necessary for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office. Rank and Grade are synonymous, and in their military acceptation indicate rights, powers, and duties determined by laws creating the different degrees of rank, and specifying fixed forms for passing from grade to grade ; and when rank in one body shall give command in another body ; and also when rank in the army at large shall not be exercised. Rank is a right of which an officer cannot be deprived, ex- cept through forms prescribed by law. When an officer is on DUTY, his rank itself indicates his relative position to other officers of the body in which it is created. It is not, however, a perpetual right to exercise command, because the President may, under the 62d Article of War, at any time relieve an officer from duty ; or an officer may be so relieved by arrest duly made according to law ; or by inability to perform duty from sickness, or by being placed by competent authority on some other duty. But whenever an officer is on duty his rank indi- cates his command. During the Mexican war, an attempt was made to procure the pas- sage of a law creating the rank of lieutenant-general, in order that Mr. Senator Benton might be placed in command of the army with that rank. Corgress, however, refused to create the rank. The President then sought to obtain t}ie passage of a law authorizing him to put a junior major-general in command of a senior. Congress likewise re- fused him that power. On the 9th of March,, Mr. President Polk, in a letter to Mr. Senator Benton, thus writes : " Immediately after your nomination as major-general had been unan- imously confirmed by the Senate, I carefully examined the question, whether I possessed the power to designate you, a junior major-general, 486 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RAS. to the chief command of the army in the field. The result of the examination is, I am constrained to say, a settled conviction in my mind, that such power has not been conferred on me by existing laws." Struggle as commentators may, who desire to subject rank to executive caprice, rather than have its powers and duties defined by law, as the constitution requires in giving to CONGRESS the power to make rules for the government and regulation of the army, the rights of rank cannot, without usurpation, be varied at the will of the Presi- dent. The law has created rank. Rank means a range of subordination in the particular body in which it is created. It is, therefore, effective in that body, without further legislation, and its effect, when the officer is present for duty, is extended beyond that particular portion of the army in which the officer holds rank, or its exercise is restricted within a corps only by legislation. Executive authority cannot make rank vary at will, but whatever authority the executive has over rank must be determined by law. A reference to the 62d Article of War will show that the President is given the authority to limit the discretion of commanding officers, in special cases, in respect to what is needful for the service, and also to relieve the senior officer from any command, so that the command may fall upon the next officer in the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, " by commission there on duty or in quarters," or assign some senior to duty with troops, in order that such officer may become entitled to command under the 62d Article of War. Any power of assignment claimed for the President beyond this is not and ought not to be sanctioned by law. The 62d Article extends the validity of commissions in any part of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, and thus enables the senior officer of the line of the army present for duty to command the whole when different corps come together while the 61st Article provides that in the regiment, troop, or company, to which officers belong, although they may also hold higher commissions in the army' at large, they shall nevertheless do duty and take rank both in courts-martial and on detachments, which shall be composed only of their own corps, according to the commis- sions by which they are mustered in said corps. The legislation on the subject of rank is thus complete. Officers, when serving only with their own regiment, serve according to their regimental rank ; but when with other corps, the senior by commission in the line, whether by brevet or otherwise, is entitled to command. (See ASSIGNMENT.) RASANTE is a French term, applied to a style of fortification, in which the command of the works over each other, and over the MILITARY DICTIONARY. 48-3 country, is kept very low, in order that the shot may more effectually sweep or graze the ground before them. RATCHET-WHEEL. A wheel with pointed and angular teeth, against which a ratchet abuts, used either for converting a reciprocating into a rotatory motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for admitting of its motion in one direction only. RATION. The President may make such alterations in the com- ponent parts of the ration as a due regard to the health and comfort of the army and economy may require ; (Act April 24, 1818.) The allowance of sugar and coffee to the non-commissioned ^officers, musi- cians, and privates, in lieu of the spirit or whiskey component part of the ration, shall be fixed at six pounds of coffee and twelve pounds of sugar to every one hundred rations, to be issued weekly, when it can be done with convenience to the public service, and when not so issued, to be paid for in money ; (Act July 5, 1838.) Women not exceeding four to a company, and such matrons and nurses as rnay be necessarily employed in the hospital, one ration each ; (Act March 16, 1802.) The President may authorize rations to be issued to Indians visiting military posts; (Act May 13, 1800.) (See PAY; WAGON.) TABLE, SHOWING THE WEIGHT AND BULK OF 1,000 AEMY EATIONS. One thousand rations of Nett weight in pounds. Gross weight in pounds. Bulk in barrels. 100 rations consist of Pork 750 1 21875 3.75 75 Ibs or ) Bacon 750 903 19 4 90 75 Ibs j 1 125 1 234 06 574 112 5 Ibs or ) Pilot Bread ii Beans 750 1,000 155 921.69 1,228.91 177 32 9.03 12.05 71 75 Ibs., or [ 100 Ibs. In the field. J Rice 100 114 50 46 10 Ibs ' \ Coffee 60 70 90 35 6 Ibs 120 135.62 50 12 Ibs Vinegar . 92 5 107 50 33 4 quarts Candles 15 17 50 09 H lb Soao... 40 46.89 0.19 4 Ibs. Salt 33 75 38 66 16 2 quarts FORAGE. 14 Ibs. hay or fodder, ) , f When pressed 1 1 Ibs. to cubic foot. 12 qts. oats, or I P er horse J 40 Ibs. to bush., 33.14 Ibs. cub. foot. 8 qts. corn j P er day * ) 55 Ibs. to bush., 45.65 Ibs. cub. foot. Average mule pack, New Mexico, 175 Ibs. Average load to mule team across the prairies, 2,000 Ibs. RAVELIN is the work constructed beyond the main ditch, op. 488 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RAV. posite the curtain, composed of two faces, forming a salient angle, and two demi-gorges, formed by the counterscarp. It is separated from the covered way by a ditch which runs into the main ditch'. RAVELIN, (REDOUBT OP THE) is a work constructed within the ravelin, but separated from it by a ditch. RAZED. Works or fortifications are said to be razed, when they are totally demolished. READINESS. A state of alertness or preparation ; thus, to hold a corps in readiness, is to have it prepared in consequence of some previous order to march at a moment's notice. REAR, REAR RANK. The hinder rank. REAR GUARD. A detachment of troops in the rear of an army. RECEIPT. A voucher or acknowledgment, which should always be given when official papers are received. When flags of truce are the bearers of a parcel or a letter, the officer commanding at an outpost should give a receipt for it, and require the party to depart forthwith. RECOIL. The motion which a cannon takes backward when fired. RECOMMENDATIONS. All members of a court who concur in recommendations to mercy sign. The recommendation is introduced after the finding and sentence are closed and authenticated. The re- commendation should distinctly set forth the reasons which prompt it ; ( HOUGH.) RECOMPENSE. (See ALLOWANCE ; GRATIFICATION ; INDEMNITY ; PAY.) RECONNOISSANCE, RECONNOITRE, RECONNOITRING, may be distinguished into reconnoissance of the enemy, and topo- graphical reconnoissances. Reconnoissances are warlike operations for the purpose of procur- ing information of the positions and strength of corps of the enemy. Without such knowledge, no well-concerted measures of attack or defence can be made. First of all, notes of information are gained from spies, deserters, and travellers, and the position of the different corps of the enemy is marked out upon a good map. But when the opposing armies are more nearly approximated, it becomes necessary to ascertain, every day, what changes and movements have taken place, whether for purposes of concentration or withdrawal to other points. Reconnoissances by force result from this necessity, arid lead sometimes to bloody actions. The custom is almost universal to cover an army by outposts, and to detach clouds of light troops to mask the camp and prevent an enemy from seeing what dispositions are made for attack or defence. To gain EEC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 489 information, it is therefore necessary to push a reconnoissance through the curtains of light troops, by which the enemy has enveloped himself, and drive back or cut off outposts, so as to enable the officer charged with the reconnoissance clearly to see the army of the enemy, note the advan- tages and disadvantages of his positions, count his battalions, and judge of his means of resistance : whether he is intrenched, what artillery he has ; whether the ground is or is not favorable for cavalry ; where the cavalry is encamped, &c. These different objects ought to be seen rapidly and by a practised eye, for the reconnoissance will have called to arms a greatly superior force, and It is necessary as soon as possible to fall back. But the aim will have been attained, for the enemy having been compelled to unmask arid deploy his forces, the reconnoitring officer will know all that he desires, and consequently hastens his return to camp, in order that his party may not be exposed to have its retreat cut off. Similar reconnoissances ordinarily precede battles. By their means a general is assured of the true state of the enemy, before giving his last orders. On a march, the advance guard reconnoitres the enemy. Sometimes a reconnoissance has for its object to discover if a point is solidly occupied ; if a bridge over which an army is to pass has been broken ; whether a defile is fortified ; whether the enemy has guns in any particular position ; whether he is in a certain city, or whether he has followed such and such routes after losing a battle, &c., &c. Such reconnoissances are often made by small parties of cavalry alone to ensure rapidity ; but if resistance is anticipated or foreseen, the party must consist of all arms, or be constituted according to circumstances, and the command be given to an experienced officer. The commander of a reconnoissance ordinarily receives written instructions. He should well understand the object before him, and demand such explanations as he may require. He is furnished with a good map, a telescope, writing materials, and means of making field- sketches of the positions of the enemy. He secures two or three in- habitants of the country to serve as guides, and to answer his inquiries relative to the names and populations of villages, the nature of the roads, the extent of woods, the condition of water-courses, ground, &c. He ought to be accompanied by an officer who knows the language of the country, and he should, before commencing his march, inspect the troops intrusted to him to satisfy himself of the good condition of their arms, ammunition, and provisions. The detachment charged with pushing a reconnoissance marches with its advance guard arid flankers ; stops all persons who would 490 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rsc. precede it, and might give information of its march ; questions inhabi- tants of villages, and, if necessary, takes hostages to secure true in- formation. The attention of the commander is particularly directed to the ground over which he passes, to determine, in advance, points where a stout resistance may be made in the event of his being obliged to fight when making his retreat. He frequently consults his map to ascertain its fidelity to the country over which he passes, and notes its variations. The detachment pushes forward, using all necessary pre- cautions, without fear of compromising itself, attacking boldly such antagonists as present themselves, until the information has been gained for which it was despatched. There are other reconnoissances made by small detachments, which employ stratagem rather than force, and which consequently ought to shun any engagement that can be avoided. In strong reconnoissances or reconnoissances by force, on the contrary, the aim is to penetrate to the positions of the enemy, and the design must not be permitted to fail by an accidental meeting with troops ; but, profiting by such good fortune, the opposing troops must be overthrown, prisoners made who will give useful information, and the fugitives rapidly followed to the outposts, which will probably be in confusion at the repulse of the detachment. The line of the enemy is then soon pierced, and his corps will be soon seen deployed to repulse the attack. The commandant of the reconnoissance ought now to seek some elevated point from which he can gain a good knowledge of the force and positions of the enemy, and make, or have made by officers who acccompany him, a rapid sketch of the ground and the positions of' the enemy. When once this object has been gained, a retreat must be sounded even in the middle of the combat. And it is under such circumstances that skill and pru- dence guide courage ; and sang-froid is absolutely indispensable. The object of the reconnoissance is to gain information. Boldness must be employed to attain that end ; but, if in the hope of surprising a post, carrying off a convoy, or destroying troops, the commander forsakes his route and loses time, it is a violation of duty ; ho is blamable, even if success attends his enterprise. Secret reconnoissances are conducted on different principles. They are ordinarily composed of a single kind of troops ; of cavalry in flat, open districts, and of infantry in mountainous or intersected countries. The detachment marches with caution. If the eclaireurs announce the approach of an enemy, it endeavors to avoid observation by the shelter furnished by woods or any accident of ground at hand ; *>r else escaping by a prompt retreat if necessary ; or, if near its own outposts, and the RBC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 491 enemy is in strength, sending back information, and retarding the column of the enemy as much as possible, by simulating strength. When the commandant of such a reconnoitring party has reached his destination without hindrance, he holds his men concealed behind some curtain, such as a clump of trees, an old wall or ditch, and fol- lowed only by a few men in echelons, he takes some elevated position with his guide and two or three soldiers, whence he can observe the enemy. He notes what he sees, with the explanations of his guide. If the positions of the enemy are well seen, he makes sketches, which are always valuable even when very rough. He must not be imposed on by first appearances, but examining with sang-froid, he endeavors to seize exact ideas, and exposes himself when necessary to attain his aim. Inexact knowledge or lies are worse than total ignorance. Montluc well says that discretion must be exercised in selections for such expe- ditions, for an inexperienced man may soon take 'alarm, and even imagine " bushes to be battalions of the. enemy." Send always some fearless and skilful officer, and if you would do better go yourself. When the reconnoissance is finished, the commanding officer makes a written report to the general, when his verbal account is not sufficient. This report ought to be clear, simple, and as brief as possible. The officer will state only facts of which he is perfectly sure. His conjec- tures will be presented with great reserve, and always as conjectures. He will guard against flights of imagination, but confine himself to realities, and will avoid speaking much of himself; but, knowing the satisfactory result of his mission must do him honor, he will bestow just praise upon his troops. (See SURVEY, Military.) There are many signs which, if reported to a general and his staff, enable them to judge of what they wish to know, as clearly as if a detailed picture of the enemy were spread before them. It is neces- sary, therefore, that every officer and soldier should know how to mark and collect these signs. They consist, when a camp, bivouac, or can- tonment is observed, in the color of coats and pantaloons ; other dis- tinctive marks, the numbers of videttes, sentinels, fires, and tents of the enemy ; the frequency and direction of rounds, patrols, and reconnois- sances ; the nature and time of signals by trumpet or drum ; the placing of signal posts ; measures of straw ; boughs broken off; the arrival of reinforcements ; new uniforms ; collections of fascines, beams, joists, ladders, boats. When a corps is watched on the march, the signs to observe are the depth and front of columns ; the number of subdivi- sions ; the sort of troops, infantry, cavalry, artillery, trains ; the quick- ness and direction of the march ; the height of the dust ; the reflection 492 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [R KC . of arms ; the number of the flankers and the eclaireurs. When an army ready for battle is observed, we should particularly note the number of its lines, their extent, the composition of the troops in column or in line of battle ; the calibre of pieces ; their position relative to cavalry and infantry ; the number of skirmishers ; their manoeuvres ; the concentra- tion of forces or artillery on such a point ; flank marches of one or many corps. If troops are followed on their march, we note the tracks of men and horses, those made by wheels, cattle, and beasts of burden ; the rela- tive positions of these tracks : whether they are regular and preserve an invariable order ; whether the places where they stop have little or much space between them ; whether the route passed- over is covered with re- mains of animals ; whether the skeletons of the horses are lean and sore ; whether the ground is bloody ; if graves have been freshly made, whether some indications may not show them to be for superior offi- cers ; whether the country has been devastated ; whether the entrails of beef, mutton, or horses are seen ; whether the fires are recent ; whether they are numerous, and show much or little ashes ; whether bridges are broken, and in what parts ; whether the inhabitants of the country are anxious, sad, humble, animated, or satisfied. Topographical reconnoissances are not less important than recon- noissances of the enemy. It is necessary to know the distances of places to combine the march of different columns, and without a knowl- edge of the difficulties of a route, necessary measures to overcome them cannot be prescribed. It is by special reconnoissances that such knowl- edge is gained, for maps are never sufficient. They do not give the nature of -the soil, the quality of the roads, the condition of rivers or bridges, the thickness of forests, or the slope of mountains, &c., &c., but it is necessary to know all these things before undertaking any important enterprise. If this detailed information has not been col- lected in time of peace through special corps, officers of the staff, in presence of the enemy, and protected by troops, commonly make sketches, representing more or less exactly the most essential localities. Those officers, also, on the march of an army, make out itineraries, survey positions, fields of battle, and not unfrequently great extents of country. Officers of all arms, however, are liable to be placed in situations which require them to explore localities and give correct descriptions. The following means may be employed for that purpose without be- coming an expert in the art of drawing. The system of showing upon plans the levels of the ground by means of contour lines is one of some utility, but it is the most difficult representation in a topographical EEC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 493 map. The art is only acquired by study and practice, and even with skill there is not always time for its display in the field. Instead of attempting lines to represent slopes, the contour of hills may be marked by two curves, one for the top and one for the foot of the slope, and these contour lines naturally present themselves to the eye, and are at once put upon paper, to indicate the general form of the hill. The space between these two lines is sufficient to write a few words indi- cating the slope, &c. Whether, for instance, the slope is gentle or steep, accessible or not to cavalry, its approximative height. In order that the lines of circumscription representing heights may not be con- founded with other conventional signs, they must be long dots. Ci- phers in parenthesis give the heights of points of the superior curve above corresponding points of the inferior curve. Other objects, as water-courses, ponds, marshes, woods, vines, towns, villages, large farms, and other isolated constructions which may play an important part in battle, embankments, ferries, fords, stone and wooden bridges, all may be represented as in Fig. 174. Water-courses. Two lines, one heavier than the other, are sufficient to represent them. It is usual to add other lines between the two first. 494 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [R E c. Sometimes a blue shade advantageously takes the place of the inter- mediate threads. An arrow indicates the direction of the current. A mill is seen in the lower part of the river. Smaller streams empty into the river. Means of crossing. A ferry boat. A stone bridge, distinguished from a wooden bridge by being wider and having wings on the opposite banks. A ford, marked by dotted lines across the river. Ponds or lakes are designated by lines of contour, and by threads or a blue tint. Marshes. By a line of contour, and horizontal lines in the interior, with some points representing grass in the interior. Practicable or impracticable, &c., is written. Woods and vines. These objects are designated by tracing the contour. If colors are used India ink will designate woods, and violet vines. Write, in the interior, the nature and characteristic circum- stances of the wood ; \vhether it is undergrowth or forest, thickset or open, &c. Hocks. Endeavor to imitate them, but if they present themselves in prolonged walls, the crest and foot may be designated as in the sketch. Or a few written words may give a better idea. Habitations. A village is represented by a circle filled with par- allel lines. A town in the same manner, except that a square is sub- stituted for the circle. A red tint may replace the parallel lines in habitations. Isolated houses are designated merely by their form, without regard to the scale. Communications. A great route is represented by two parallel lines. A wagon road in the same manner, except that the lines are nearer together. Roads practicable only for light carriages by the same means, except that one of the lines is dotted. Distances being essential in a plan of this kind, they must be written along the routes between the objects. Levees and Embankments are represented by two parallel lines, with cross lines in the interior. See embankment near stone bridge. The sketch is completed by a meridian line. However rapidly such a sketch as Fig. 174 may be made, there are circumstances in which it is not possible to give that time, and a reconnoissance must be made at a gallop. In the latter case, the recon- noitring officer confines himself to taking rapid notes, and afterwards making his sketch from recollection. This is a most useful talent, and officers should be exercised in noting the prominent features of locali- ties, and tracing their recollections upon paper. Reconnoissances are REC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 495 FIG. 175. &c. Distance from A to D 4h. 50m. The route is good between these points, except next the river; there are deep ruts which must be filled. &C. Vi TAVERN. TOWN. (m\ D &C. Many scattered houses in the neighborhood. Surrounded by old walls: ac- commodates 3,000 men. 3 River is fordable. The bridge admits 10 abreast. HIGHEST POINT. It is necessary to double the wagons. 2 c N^ a VILLAGE | IB K) w *HB0I Marshy stream. Good position for defence. The front is covered by a marshy river. The flanks rest on woods, leaving an interval of 4,000 steps. "c Z 0. > CROSS Ib # / Eoad to T in 4| hours. Prac- ticable for wagons. o K Not capable of defence. Can lodge 10,000 men. CITV. JPJ A General Observations. Conventional Signs. Particular Observations. ITINERARY FROM A TO X. 496 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [REC. much simplified when confined to noting circumstances along a route, and are then called Itineraries. All particularities of the route are noted, whatever is remarkable on the right or left, the breadth of defiles, mil- itary positions, the steepness of slopes, w r hat is necessary to improve a road, the distances between points in time ; covers, that is, houses of all kinds are given according to their capacity of containing soldiers, &c. In itineraries, conventional signs as well as written notes are used. Itineraries are made of leaves of paper five or six inches in breadth. Leaves are subsequently united, and represent entire routes. Notes begin at the foot of the leaf, and are continued above, as in Fig. 175. (See also article JOURNAL.) Details concerning the resources of a country must be embodied in statistical tables. The itinerary would be too much complicated by embracing them. Such information is most important, however, in supplying an army ; but statistical tables, prepared with that view, should be confined to necessary objects. They should embrace details of the population of towns, inhabited houses, workmen, mills, ovens, grain, wagons, boats, horses, mules, beef cattle, with general observa- tions which would aid the departments of supply in the performance of their duties. (Consult DUFOUR ; BUGEAUD ; Aide Mcmoire cCEtat Major. See SURVEYS, Military or Expeditious.) RECRUITING. The system of recruiting armies practised in England and the United States by voluntary enlistments, is vicious. In continental Europe, the obligation is acknowledged that every subject or citizen of a certain age owes military service to his country, either personally or by substitute. The government consequently annually calls for as many men as are needed for the military service. In an. swer to this call, lots are drawn by the w r hole class liable to service, and those upon whom the lot falls become soldiers for a fixed period, varying in different countries from three to eight years. The military have but little to do with such a system of recruiting. There is in France simply a council for recruiting, in each department, instituted to pronounce upon the fitness for service of those men desigated by lot. It is composed of a prefect, a 'commanding general, a field-officer designated by the minister of war, a councillor of the prefect, and an officer of the gendarmerie. Those upon whom the lot has fallen, who think that they have good reasons for being exempted, present their cases before this committee, who examine such applications, and pro- nounce what exemptions shall be made, and in what cases substitutes shall be admitted. With such a system of recruiting, the ranks of an army are composed of all classes of the community. Promotion from RED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 497 the ranks is of ordinary occurrence. The soldier has a career before him. He is proud of his profession. The army is a national army, or an army of the people. Its sympathies are all with the people, and it is ever, as in France, a true representative of the popular sentiment. In England, where it is the policy of the government to keep the army under the control of the aristocracy, they are logical in rejecting a system of conscription, and adhering to a system of recruiting which divides an army into two castes : the officer and the soldier. What possible reason can be given for adopting that system in the United States, is unknown. (See DEPOT ; RAISE.) REDAN. Small work with two faces terminating in a salient angle, used to cover a camp, the front of a battle-field, advanced posts, ave- nues of a village, bridge, &c. Fig. 176 exhibits a bridge-head, composed FIG. 176. of a redan with flanks, flanked by two redoubts on the opposite bank of the river. These works are supposed to be in the neighborhood of hills, from which it is necessary that they should be defiladed. This is effected by traverses to cover the bridge, and by a traverse across the centre of each redoubt. (See FIELD-WORKS.) REDOUBTS are works inclosed on all sides of a square, poly- gonal, or circular figure. The latter form is rarely used, being unsuit- able to ground in general, and from the impossibility of giving any flanking defence to the ditch. Redoubts on level ground are generally square or pentagonal. On a hill or rising ground their outline will, in 32 498 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RED. most cases, follow the contour of the summit of the hill. Their dimen- sions should be proportioned to the number of men they are to contain. One file, that is, two men, are required for the defence of every lineal yard of parapet; the number of yards in the crest line of any redoubt should not, therefore, exceed half the number of men to be contained in it. Again, as every man in an inclosed work requires 10 square feet of the interior space, that space clear of the banquette must not contain less than ten times as many square feet as the number of men to be con- tained in it. From these considerations it follows : 1st. To find the least number of men sufficient to man the parapet of an inclosed work, multiply the number of yards in the crest line by two. 2d. To find the greatest number of men that an inclosed work can contain, find the area, clear of the banquette, in square feet, and divide this number by 10. When the redoubt contains guns, 324 square feet must be allowed for each gun, and this quantity, multiplied by the number of guns, Fto. 177. Side cf the Square along the Crest, 40 yards. Scale of yards for Fig. 177. RED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 499 must be subtracted from the whole interior space. The remaining number of square feet, divided by 10, will give the number of men which the redoubt can hold. The side of a square redoubt should, under no circumstances, be less than 50 feet. The great objections to small inclosed works are : 1st, the liability of their faces to be enfiladed from without ; 2d, the difficulty of pro- viding an effective flanking defence for their ditches ; 3d, the weakness of their salient angles, the ground in front of them being undefended by a direct fire. In the preceding diagram (Fig. 177) is shown a square redoubt, having a side of 40 yards, and capable of holding four pieces of artillery, and one hundred and twenty men. In tracing redoubts and all inclosed field works, care must be taken to direct as much as possible their faces upon inaccessible ground, so as to reduce to a minimum the effects of an enemy's enfilade, while approach on the salients must be rendered difficult by abatis, trous- de-loup, and obstacles of all available descriptions. It will hencefor- ward be very difficult to guard the interior of inclosed works from the effects of distant musketry. Well-trained troops from a distance of 900 yards could throw with certainty every shot into the interior of even a small redoubt ; while the angle at which they fall, some 15 to 20, would enable them to sweep the whole interior and make every part of the redoubt too hot. It seems to be a question whether such a work can be protected by traverses from such a plunging fire ; (HYDE'S Fortification.) (See ATTACK AND DEFENCE of field-works.) REDRESSING WRONGS. If any officer shall think himself wronged by his colonl^ or the commanding officer of the regiment, and shall, upon due application being made to him, be refused redress, he ,may complain to the general, commanding in the State or territory, where such regiment shall be stationed, in order to obtain justice ; who is hereby required to examine into the said complaint, and take proper measures for redressing the wrong complained of, and transmit, as soon as possible, to the Department of War, a true state of such complaint, with the proceedings had thereon ; (ART. 34.) If any inferior officer or soldier shall think himself wronged by his captain or other officer, he is to complain thereof to the commanding officer of the regiment, who is hereby required to summon a regimental court-martial for the doing of justice to the complainant ; from which regimental court-martial, either party may, if he thinks himself still aggrieved, appeal to a gen- eral court-martial. But if, upon a second hearing, the appeal shall appear vexatious and groundless, the person, so appealing, shall be punished at the discretion of the said court-martial ; (ART. 35.) (See 500 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RED. INJURIES, for liability for private injuries, personal injuries, and criminal liabilities ; REMEDY.) REDUCE. To reduce a place, is to oblige the garrison to surren- der. To reduce to the ranks, is when a sergeant or a corporal, for any misconduct, has his rank taken from him, and is obliged to return to the duty of a private soldier. Non-commissioned officers cannot be re- duced to the ranks except by the sentence of a court-martial, or by the order of the colonel of the regiment. RE-ENLISTING. Every able-bodied non-commissioned officer, musician, or private soldier, who may re-enlist into his company or regiment, within two months before or one month after the expiration of his term of service, shall receive three months' extra pay ; (Act July 5, 1838.) (See ENLISTMENT.) RE-ENTERING ANGLE is an angle pointing inwards, or towards the work. RE-ENTERING ANGLE OF THE COUNTERSCARP is that formed by the intersection of the two lines of the counterscarp, opposite the curtain. REFUSAL TO RECEIVE PRISONERS. No officer com- manding a guard, or provost-marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any prisoner committed to his charge by an officer belonging to the force of the United States ; provided the officer committing shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime with which the prisoner is charged ; (ART. 80.) No officer command- ing a guard, or provost-marshal, shall release any prisoner committed to his charge without proper authority for so doWg, nor shall he suffer any person to escape on penalty of being punished at the discretion of a court-martial ; (ART. 81.) Every officer or provost-marshal to whose charge prisoners are committed, shall, within twenty-four hours after such commitment or as soon as he shall be relieved from guard, report in writing to the commanding officer their names, crimes, and the names of the officers who committed them, on penalty of being punished for disobedience or neglect, at the discretion of a court-martial ; (ART. 82.) (See CONFINEMENT j PROVOST-MARSHAL.) REGIMENT. (Lat. rego, I rule.) A body of troops organized by law, subject to the same administration, discipline, and duties, hav- ing a legal head and members, and composed according to arm of companies, battalions, squadrons, or batteries. (See ARMY for the or- ganization of the several regiments of infantry, cavalry, and artillery.) REGIMENTAL COURT-MARTIAL. (See COURT-MARTIAL.) REGIMENTAL NECESSARIES. (See NECESSARIES.) REG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 501 REGIMENTALS. The uniform clothing of regiments, such as coats, trousers, caps, &c. REGULATIONS. Under the Constitution of the United States, rules for the government and regulation of the army must be made by Congress. Regulation implies regularity. It signifies fixed forms ; a certain order ; method ; precise determination of functions, rights, and duties. (See ARMY REGULATIONS.) Rules of Regulation also embrace, besides rules for the administrative service, systems of tactics, and the regulation of service in campaign, garrison, and quarters. In the case of the staff departments, legislative authority has been delegated jointly to the President and Secretary of War. But in relation to the powers, rights, and duties of officers and soldiers in campaign, garrison, and quarters, Congress has not delegated its authority to the President, nor have such matters been precisely determined by military laws. Even rights of rank, command, and pay, concerning which Congress has legislated, are subjects of dispute, and variable expositions of laws regulating those essentials of good government have been given by different executives, with an increasing tendency to invalidate rank created by Congress. There can be no remedy for these encroachments, unless Congress should pass a law to enable cases to be brought before the Federal civil courts, in order that the true ex- position of military statutes and authorities in dispute may be deter- mined. With such a remedy, laws, however defective they may be, would at least be known, and rights pow r ers, and duties established by law would be well determined. But it may be said in relation to such rules of regulation, how can a body like Congress determine upon systems of tactics, &c. ? Their constitutional duty might easily be performed as follows : 1. By clearly declaring, in a manner not to be misunderstood, that the general-in-chief is charged with the discipline and military control of the army under the rules made by Congress and the orders of the President. 2. The Secretary of War is charged with the administra- tive service of the army under the rules made by Congress and the orders of the President. 3. By directing the general-in-chief, with the advice of properly constituted military boards, to report to the Presi- dent rules for the government and regulation of the army in campaign, garrison, or quarters, including systems of tactics for the different arms of the service. 4. By directing the Secretary of War, with the advice of properly constituted boards, to report to the President rules for raising and supporting armies ; including regulations for the adminis- trative service. 5. By directing the President to submit the rules 502 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [R EJ . made in accordance with provisions 3 and 4, to another board organized by the President, with directions to harmonize the details of the several reports ; which last report shall be submitted to Congress for confirma- tion or orders in the case. 6. By directing that each year, previous to the meeting of Congress, the following boards be assembled under the orders of the general-in-chief, viz. : a board of general staff officers ; a board of artillery officers ; a board of cavalry officers ; and a board of infantry officers. The Secretary of War to assemble the following boards, viz. : a board of engineer officers ; a board of ordnance officers ; a board of medical officers ; and a board of quartermasters, commis- saries, and paymasters. Each of the boards so assembled to report to the general-in-chief or Secretary of War, such suggestions of improve- ments in their respective services as it may be desirable to adopt. 7. The repeal of all laws delegating legislative authority to the President and Secretary of War. (See ADMINISTRATION, and references ; ARTICLES OP WAR ; COMMAND ; CONGRESS ; GOVERNMENT, and its references ; LAWS, (Military ;) OBEDIENCE ; ORDERS ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SERVICE, and references ; STAFF, and references.) REJOINDER. The weight of authority is against permitting a rejoinder on the part of the prisoner, unless evidence has been adduced in the reply of the prosecutor. But such evidence should not be per- mitted in reply, and there should be no rejoinder ; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.) RELEASE OF PRISONERS. (See REFUSE.) RELIEF. A guard is usually divided into three reliefs. Relief is also the height to which works are raised. If the works are high and commanding, they are said to have a bold relief ; but if the reverse, they are said to have a low relief. The relief should provide the requi- site elevations for the musketry and artillery, to insure a good defence. RELIEVING THE ENEMY. Whosoever shall relieve the enemy with money, victuals, or ammunition, or shall knowingly harbor or protect an enemy, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 56.) REMBLAI is the quantity of earth contained in the mass of ram- part, parapet, and banquette. REMEDY. The rules and articles for the government of the army are defective in not providing sufficient remedies for wrongs. The army of the United States is governed by law. The law should there- fore provide a sufficient remedy for cases in which the rights of officers are wrested from them by illegal regulations, purporting to interpret the true meaning of acts of Congress. In cases arising in the land and RET.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 503 naval forces of the United States, where the true construction of any act of Congress is in dispute, legislation is wanted to enable an officer, who thinks himself wronged by an illegal executive decision, to bring the matter before the federal civil courts to determine the true exposition of the statute or authority in dispute. (See REDRESSING WRONGS ; SUIT.) REPAIRS OF ARMS. (See DAMAGE.) REPLY. It is the duty of a court to prevent new matter from being introduced into the prosecution or defence, but a prisoner may urge in his defence mitigating circumstances, or examine witnesses as to character or services, and produce testimonials of such facts, without its being considered new matter. If any point of law be raised, or any matter requiring explanation, the judge-advocate may explain., No other reply to be admitted ; (HOUGH.) REPORTING PRISONERS. (See REFUSE.) REPRIEVE. The President of the United States has power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment ; ( Constitution.) REPRIMAND. It is earnestly recommended to all officers and soldiers diligently to attend divine service ; and all officers, who shall behave indecently or irreverently at any place of divine w r orship, shall, if commissioned officers, be brought before a general court-martial, there to be publicly reprimanded by the President ; (ART. 2.) REPRISALS. Acts of war to obtain satisfaction for losses or acts of retaliation. (See WAR.) REPROACHFUL or provoking speeches or gestures, used by one officer to another, are punished by the arrest of the officer ; in the case of a soldier, he is to be confined and ask pardon of the party offended, in the presence of the commanding officer ; (ART. 24.) REQUISITIONS. Forms prescribed for the demand of certain allowances, as forage, rations, &c. (See ADMINISTRATION.) RESERVE. A select body of troops kept back to give support when needed, or to rally upon. RESIGN ; RESIGNATION. The voluntary act of giving up rank or an appointment. (See DISCHARGE.) RETAINERS. All sutlers and retainers to the camp, and all persons whatsoever, serving with the armies of the United States in the field, though not enlisted soldiers, are to be subject to orders according to the rules and discipline of war ; (ART. 60.) RETREAT. Retrograde movement before an enemy ; by retreat is also understood the drum-beat at sunset. RETRENCHMENT is an inner defensible line, either constructed in the original design, or executed on the spur of the occasion, to cut 504 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RET. "off a breach, or other weak point ; so that the capture of the latter shall not involve that of the retrenched post. RETURNS. Every officer who shall knowingly make a false return to the Department of War, or to any of his superior officers, authorized to call for such returns, of the state of the regiment, troop, company, or garrison, under his command ; or of the arms, ammu- nition, clothing, or other stores, thereunto belonging, shall on conviction thereof before a court-martial be cashiered ; (ART. 18.) The command- ing officer of every regiment, troop, independent company, or garri- son of the United States, shall, in the beginning of every month, remit, through the proper channels, to the Department of War, an exact return of the regiment, troop, independent company, or garrison under his command, specifying the names of the officers then absent from their posts, with the reasons for, and the time of, their absence. And any officer who shall be convicted of having, through neglect or design, omitted sending such returns, shall be punished according to the nature of his crime, by the judgment of a general court-martial ; (ART. 19.) Disbursing agents shall make monthly returns, in such forms as may be*prescribed by the treasury department, of the moneys received and expended during the preceding month, and of the unex- pended balance in their hands ; (Act March 3, 1800. See ACCOUNT- ABILITY ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.) REVEILLE. Drum-beat and roll-call at daybreak. REVERSE. The reverse flank in a column is the flank at the other extremity of the pivot of a division. REVETMENTS. The interior slopes of the parapets of permanent and field-works, as well as in some cases the sides of the ditches of the latter, require revetments to enable them to stand at that slope which is necessary, arid to endure the action of the weather. The materials made use of in the construction of field-revetments are : fascines, ga- bions, hurdles, sod, sand-bags, and timber. In siege operations, and in fact in all operations in active warfare, vast quantities of these materials are required, and are daily consumed, in the construction of breast- works, parapets, batteries, magazines, and a variety of miscellaneous purposes. Large quantities, then, must be prepared or manufactured by the ordinary troops of the line, superintended by their own officers, who should be acquainted with all the details necessary for their production. Fascines are strong, close, regular fagots, carefully and compactly made, generally of green brushwood. They should be straight, cylin- drical, and pliant ; bound round with good thick, unbroken gads or withes, of pliant wood, at equal distances, the knots well tied, and all in one line ; no variation in girth exceeding 1 inch to be allowed. REV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 505 Fascines are of several kinds and various dimensions, according to the purposes for which they are intended. The most common are the long fascines or saucissons, 18 feet long, 9 inches in diameter, about 140 Ibs. in weight ; such a fascine can be made by five men in one hour, including the cutting of the wood when at hand. Water fascines, 18 inches in diameter, 6 to 9 feet long. Trench fascines, 4 or 5 feet long, 6 inches in diameter. Sap fagots, 3 feet long, 9 inches in diam- eter, having a sharp-pointed stake, passed longitudinally through the centre, and projecting a foot or so beyond the extremity of the fascine. To make good fascines requires considerable practice and much care and attention, (Fig. 178.) The process is this : Stakes are driven into the % FIG. 178. ground, obliquely, in pairs, so that the stakes in each pair cross at the same height above the ground about 3 feet, where they are firmly bound together, forming a row of trestles each in shape like the letter X. These trestles should be placed about 4 feet apart when the brushwood is good ; closer together when it is bad. Thus 5 trestles at least will be requisite to prepare 18-feet fascines. A choker must now be prepared. This is made by fastening, by an iron ring, each extremity of a chain about 4 feet long, to an ash stake. Each stake is 4 feet long, and the point where the chain is fastened is about 18 inches from the thicker end. Two small rings are attached to the chain 28^ inches apart, (equal to the circumference of the fascine,) and equidistant from its middle point. In choking the fascine, the middle of the chain is placed under it, and the ends brought over and crossed as in Fig. 179. Two men, one on each side, then bearing on the longer arms of the levers tighten the chain, and compress the fas- cine to the proper dimensions, that is, until the rings on the chain meet. A third man now binds the fascine as close as possible to the choker, with a strong gad, or with stout spun yarn, when the choker may be removed and the operation repeated at the proper intervals, generally 18 inches. For withes or gads to bind fascines, very straight rods must be selected ; they should be 5 feet long, not thicker at the thickest part than the thumb, nor thinner at the thinnest than the little finger. To prepare them for use, place the thick end under the foot, and twist the 506 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [REV. rod from the top downwards, by which the rod will become flexible and capable of being securely knotted without fracture. The knot to FIG. 179. be formed in fastening the gad round the fascine is shown in Fig. 180. To make the fascine, the brushwood is laid in the trestles, the longest arid straightest rods being kept round the outside, the inferior material in the middle. The proper quantity of brushwood having been thus carefully arranged, the choker is applied near the extremity of the fas- cine, and subsequently at intervals of 18 inches as already mentioned. The ends and exterior are now neatly trimmed, by the hand saw and billhook, and the fascine is complete. When good gads or withes can- not be procured, stout, well-tarred spun-yarn may be substituted for them. With fascines are prepared bundles of stakes, called fascine pickets, in the proportion of six to each fascine ; they should be 4 feet long, ^ inch in diameter, and be cut to triangular points. Slopes, to be revetted with fascines, have usually a base equal to one-fourth their height. The fascines are placed horizontally one over another, as the work is built, until the whole slope is covered by one layer of fascines. Pick- ets are driven through each fascine to secure it to the work, and these are sometimes fastened to other pickets, buried vertically in the mass of parapet, as shown in Fig. FIG. ISO. FIG. 181. REV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 507 181. To find the number of fascines required to revet any slope, divide the length of the slope by the length of the fascine, and the height of the slope by the diameter of the fascine : these two quotients multiplied together will be the requisite number. Gabions are stout, rough, cylindrical baskets, open at top and bot- tom ; they are made of various dimensions according to their intended use. Those for revetting the interior slopes of parapets are usually 3 feet high and 2 feet in diameter ; strongly and somewhat coarsely made. Those used in sapping (called sap gabions) have about the same dimen- sions, but are carefully finished. To construct a gabion, a circle of 22 inches diameter must be traced on a clean, hard, level piece of ground, each quarter of this circla is then divided into four or five equal parts, and small holes made at the points of division, to receive straight up- rights of 3^ feet in length, around^which the withes are interwoven. Gabions may be made with one, two, or three rods woven together about the uprights ; when two rods are woven together, the work is called pairing ; when three, waling. The last gives the strongest gabions. The method of working will be best understood by reference to Fig. FIG. 182. FIG. 183. 182. Each rod passes outside two, and inside one, upright, and the three are twisted together like a rope. In revetting with gabions, a base is first made for them at right angles to the slope, so that when standing upon this, their surfaces will be coincident with the slope, (Fig. 183). When one row of gabions has been thus placed, and the parapet has risen as high as their upper surfaces, a row of fascines is laid horizontally upon the tops of the row of gabions. Above these again another row of gabions is placed at the same inclination with the former, and finally another row of fascines com- pletes the whole. Two rows of gabions and two of fascines are required for the revetment of an interior slope, of the usual height, without a banquette, and one row of gabions 508 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [REV. and two of fascines with a banquette ; therefore, in the former case, the number of gabions required, will be equal to the number of feet of crest to be revetted, and in the latter case to half that number. The number of fascines, in either case, will be equal to twice the length of the slope divided by the length of a fascine. Hurdles (Fig. 184) are the common coarse wicker hurdles made for farming, and other purposes, usually 3 or 4 feet high and 6 to 9 feet long. They are useful in temporary works, to retain earth at a steep slope, for ' a short time. When thus used, they should be secured by anchoring pickets. Hurdles are moreover useful, to form a dry footing in trenches, during wet weather ; in the passage of wet ditches, and for many similar purposes. Sods or turfs are used for the formation of the interior slopes of parapets, and the cheeks of embrasures. Sods should be cut from fine close turf, with thickly matted roots, previously mown, and if possible, watered, to make the earth adhere more closely to the roots of the grass. The sods are laid, with the grass downwards, alternately headers and stretchers, like bricks in a wall. Their under or upper surfaces should be perpendicular to the slope of the parapet, and not horizontal, except in a vertical revetment, and each sod should be fastened to those beneath, by two or three wooden pegs. Sod work can be made with great perfection, and is very durable. The arrange- ment of the sods is shown in plan and in rear elevation in Fig. 185, and in side elevation in Fig. 186. In meadows, the dimensions of sods may be from 12 to 18 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 4 to 6 inches thick. FIG. 185. FIG. 186. Fio. 184 1 -4 ^"Vfil y*a it i j n \ ( J ,_ i_-~ !"*"""- i \ / | v^ 1 ^vS / V ._ , W57//////M -*<\\- \ / 1 l%^fct_ ^~ J f 1 H/m/l//; (|j^_-)li ([ f / || -*;, - tS&3?'i ".< *S-MV_^_ f V (~~ (_ v ^ ^ { -=- < s jj ^ ^ V- ml if -^ ^ In heath, having large roots, they may be 2 feet long, 12 or 18 inches wide, and 8 to 10 inches thick. To find the number of sods required to revet any given length of slope, the revetment being one sod thick : REV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 509 FIG. 1ST. Divide the height of slope by thickness of sods, for the number of rows. Divide twice the length of the slope by the sum of the length and breadth of a sod for the number in one row. Multiply these two quo- tients together, for the whole. Sand-bags are coarse canvas bags, of a capacity sufficient to hold about a bushel of earth ; when empty they occupy only a small space, and are frequently of great use. A good field-revetment can be built with filled sand-bags, laid as sods ; such a revetment, however, is only fit for temporary purposes, as the sand-bags soon rot ; they are unfit for lining the cheeks of embrasures, as the flash of the guns speed- ily destroys them. In rocky positions, it is sometimes necessary to construct entire batteries and parallels with filled sand-bags. In Figs. 187 and 188, are shown a section of a para- pet revetted with sand-bags, and an enlarged plan of the same. Many of the British trenches and batteries before Sebastopol, owing to the rocky nature of the ground, were formed of sand-bags, baskets, casks, &c., filled with earth brought from a dis- tance. Sand-bags are used in great num- bers, laid on the superior slopes of para- pets, to form loop-holes for riflemen. Timber is used for revetments, in par- ticular cases only, as where it may be con- sidered advisable, in important field-works, to retain the escarp of the ditch at a steep slope. In this case, a revetment is neces- SAND-BAGS SHOTTLD BK TARRED. AND sary, which may be constructed of beams or UOLD ONE cumc FOOT 01 the trunks of small trees, planted 3 or 4 feet deep, vertically in the ground and touching each other, or by lining the surface of the slope with planks secured by stout posts, 3 or 4 feet apart, planted several feet in the ground, find there fastened to heavy horizontal beams. The strength of the revetment may be still further increased, by con- necting the upper extremities of the posts to others buried under the mass of the rampart ; (HYDE'S Fortification.) REVIEW. Prescribed form of passing troops before a general officer, an inspector, or other reviewing personage. REVISION. Where an officer, who orders a court-martial, does not approve their proceedings, he may, by the custom of war, return them to the court for revision, and no additional evidence can be taken on such revision ; (Houon.) FIG. 188. 510 MILITARY DICTIONARY. REWARD. Thirty dollars are paid for the apprehension of de- serters. RICOCHET. Guns fired with a small charge and a low elevation, project ricochet shot, which merely clear a parapet, and thence bound along a rampart, destroying gun-carriages, &c. (See FIRING.) RIFLED ORDNANCE. Rifle-muskets are wholly indebted to the elongated projectile for their efficiency and celebrity. Elongated shot possess, when their axes are coincident with the path they describe, the properties of being less resisted by the air, having longer ranges and greater penetrating power than spherical projectiles of the same diameter. To obviate the difficulty and loss of time in loading ordi- nary rifles, by forcing the ball into the barrel by repeated blows of the ramrod or a mallet, on account of which that arm had been little used, M. Delvigne proposed that the bullet should have sufficient wind- age tp enter freely into the barrel, in order that, when stopped by the contraction of the chamber with which this arm was furnished, it might be forced to expand and enter into the grooves, on receiving a few smart blows ; thus the piece being fired, the bullet would come out a forced, or rifle ball, without having been forced in. But this ingenious contrivance was not found to answer. The edge of the chamber on which the ball lodged, not being opposite to the direction of the blow, did not form a sufficient support upon which to flatten the ball when struck by the ramrod, and thus cause the bullet to expand ; whilst portions of the charge of powder previously poured in, hav- ing lodged on the contraction, cushioned and still further impeded the expansion of the shot ; and as, obviously, no patch could be used, the grooves were liable to get foul, and to become leaded, to an extent which could not be effectually obviated. To remedy this defect, Colonel Thouvenin proposed in 1828 to suppress the chamber, and substitute a cylindrical tige or pillar of steel, screwed into the breech in the centre of the barrel, so that the bullet, when stopped by, and resting upon the flat end of the pillar, directly opposite to the side struck, might more easily be flattened and forced to enter the grooves. But here another defect appeared. The pillar occupying a large portion of the centre of the barrel, and the charge being placed in the annular space which surrounds it, the main force of the powder, instead of taking effect in the axis of the piece, and on the centre of the projectile, acted only on the spherical portion of the bullet which lies over this annular chamber, arid thus the ball, receiving obliquely the impulse of the charge, was propelled with diminished force. The next im- RIP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 511 provement, which was proposed by M. Delvigne, was to make the bottom of the projectile a flat surface ; the body cylindrical, and to terminate it in front with a conical point, thus diminishing the resist- ance of the air comparatively with that experienced by a solid of the same diameter having a hemispherical end. The form of the projectile was, therefore, an approximation to that of Newton's solid of least re- sistance. (See PROJECTILE.) In 1841 a patent was obtained by Captain Tamisier for his method of giving steadiness to the flight of cylindro- conical shot, by cutting three sharp circular grooves each .28 inches deep, on the cylindrical part of the shot, by which the resistance of the air behind the centre of gravity of the projectile being increased, the axis of rotation was kept more steadily in the direction of the trajectory ; the grooves being to this projectile what the feathers are to the arrow, and the stick to the rocket. But the tige musket having been found inconvenient in cleaning, the pillar liable to be broken, and, after firing some rounds, the operation of ramming down so fatiguing to the men as to make them unsteady in taking aim, M. Minie, previously distinguished as a zealous and able advocate for restoring the rifle to the service in an improved form, pro- posed to suppress the tige, and substitute for it an iron cup, b (Fig. 189,) put into the wider end of a conical hollow, a, made in the shot : this cup being forced further in by the explosion of the charge, causes the hollow cylindrical portion of the shot to expand and fix itself in the grooves, so that the shot becomes forced at the moment of discharge. A slip of cartridge-paper is wound twice round the cylindrical part of the projectile, so that, as the latter does riot become forced or' rifled till the charge is fired, it fits so tightly to the barrel as to be free from any motion which would be caused by the carriage of the rifle on a march, or by its being handled before the shot is fired. But unless the cup b (Fig. 189) be driven, by the first action of the explosion of the charge, so far into the conical space in which it is placed, as to cause the lead to enter into the grooves of the rifle before the shot moves, there will be no rotation the paper wrapped round the shot not sufficing for this purpose. In the experiments of 1850 it was found that the hollow part of the Minie cylindro-conical shot was very frequently separated entirely from the conical part by the force with which the cup was driven into the hollow part of the shot, and sometimes remained so firmly fixed in the barrel that it could not be extracted ; but in the more recent trials 512 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RiF. with shot made by compression and with better lead, no such failure occurred. While efforts were being made in France to augment the power and accuracy of small-arms, loaded at the muzzle, as already described, M. Dreyse, of Sommerda, in Thuringia, was led to test whether the incon- venience of ramming down and flattening the shot might not be got rid of by loading the barrel at the breech an old project ; and he suggested a plan for this purpose, which has been adopted to a great extent in the Prussian army. The Prussian rifled musket for firing cylindro-conical shot is loaded at the breech, and is designated " zundnadelgewehr," from the ignition of the charge being produced by passing a needle through the cartridge to strike the percussion-powder placed in the wooden bottom, or spiegel. The escape of gas at the junction of the chamber and barrel is considered by all as a great objection to the needle-prime musket : it is stated that the point of the igniting needle soon becomes furred, so that it is difficult, and, after a time, impossible, to draw it back by the thumb. The Prussians, however, appear to be quite confident of the superiority of the latter over other rifle-muskets ; their government is said to have caused 60,000 stand of these arms to be executed, and at least half as many more are ordered. Their fusiliers, who are armed with the needle-prime musket, have also a short sword, with a cross hilt : this they plant in the ground ; and, lying down, they use the hilt as a rest for the purpose of taking a steady aim. It is, no doubt, in some respects, an important advantage in the Prussian rifles, that they may be loaded more quickly than the ordinary musket or rifle ; but rifle actions are generally decided, not by mere rapidity of fire, but by each soldier taking time to use his arm in the most efficient manner possible. Although the use of the rifle was sus- pended in the French armies throughout the whole of the general war (1704-1815,) yet the French infantry, armed with the common musket, were well trained to act en tirailleur, and showed great aptitude for that kind of service. Good patterns having been obtained of the Delvigne carabine a tige, the French and the Belgian Minie rifles, experiments were made at Woolwich in 1851 with these three arms and with Lan- caster's pillar-breech rifle, in order to test their relative merits in firing at a target 6 feet square, at 400 yards' distance. The results of these experiments fully established the peculiar advantages of M. Minie's method of quick loading, and forcing the shot into the rifled state, and a large supply of what has been called the regulation Minie musket was ordered. The form of its projectile, which is simply conoidal, is given in Fig. 190 annexed. RlF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 513 FIG. 190. Mr. Lancaster, who invented the ordnance with an elliptical bore, spirally formed, and the pillar-breech rifle, proposed also a description of musket having a bore of a similar kind. No grooves are cut in the interior surface of the barrel ; but in 'a trans- verse section, the bore has the form of an el- lipse of small eccen- tricity, being freed at . the breech : the projec- tile is cylindro-conoidal, with a circular base, and, when heated by the fired gunpowder, it expands so far as to take a form correspond- ing to the elliptical section of the bore. The bore, being a continuous spiral, fulfills the object of grooves, and causes the shot, in passing along it, to acquire a rotatory motion on its axis. The spiral is not uniform in its whole length, but has what is called by Americans a gaining twist or an increasing spiral. The advantages of this rifle are supposed to be greater accuracy of practice, less recoil than other muskets have, and no tendency to cause the rifle to turn over sideways. Jn December, 1853, a trial was made at Hythe of Mr. Lancaster's elliptically-bored muskets freed at the breech, in order to compare their shooting with that of a rifle-musket of .577 bore, having three grooves regularly spiral of one turn in 6 ft. 6 in., which was manufactured at Enfield in the same year ; the report of this trial w r as in favor of the Enfield rifle, Lancaster's muskets evincing a strong tendency to strip, and at the longer ranges this defect was very marked. In 1858, Mr. Whitworth of Manchester produced a musket having a hexagonal bore of a spiral figure, making one turn in 20 in., by which the projectiles either of hexagonal or cylindro-conoidal form in passing along the barrel acquire a swift and steady rotation on their axes. This species of rifle has been found considerably superior in accuracy of shooting to the Enfield rifle, which has been adopted in England. In order to test the relative merits of these two kinds of weapons, a series of trials were made at Hythe, under the direction of Colonel Hay, the able superintendent of the school of musketry at that place, and the results are stated in the following table. The rifles were fired from rests, and ten or twenty rounds were fired from each at the several 33 514 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RlF. distances. The numbers in the fourth column express, in feet and deci- mals, the means and the distances of the ten or twenty points of impact on the target, from a nearly central point of the group in each trial. TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH THE " WHITWORTH '" AND "ENFIELD" RIFLES. Description of Rifle. Distance in yards. Angle of elevation. Mean radial deviation. Eemarks. Enfield 600 1 32 Feet. 2.4 Whitworth 1 15 .37 Enfield 800 2 45 4 20 Whitworth 2 22 1 00 . Enfield 1 100 4 12 8 04 3 8 2.62 Enfield 1 400 ( Shooting so wild, no Whitworth 5 4 G2 { diagram taken. Enfield I 880 Not tried Whitworth 6 40 11 02 The superiority of the Whitworth rifle in accuracy of fire is hence manifest ; and it may be added that, from its form, the bore is less liable to be worn than that of any grooved rifle. As the projectile may be made harder, it will, consequently, have greater penetrating power ; and, in fact, the Whitworth projectile went through 35 half-inch planks of elm wood, and remained in a bulk of solid oak beyond, while the Enfield projectile went through only 12 such planks. Till within the last twenty years, no sight was considered necessary for a common musket the stud at the muzzle being sufficient for the purpose of taking aim. When percussion-arms were first introduced, a fixed block-sight for 120 yards was adopted ; and subsequently a block-sight for 200 yards and a leaf for 300 yards were affixed to the two- grooved rifle. At present every English rifled musket is furnished with a complicated and delicate sight. The rifles used by the Russians at the battle of the Alma were of good construction ; they have two grooves, and carry conoidal shot, each weighing 767 grains, equivalent in weight to a spherical bullet of 9 to the pound. They are flat at the base, and have projections at the sides corresponding with the grooves of the musket. The great weight of these projectiles is very objectionable; the soldiers who carry them must be very much distressed by the loads in their pouches, or these must contain a smaller number of shot than are usually carried. The Russian missile is more pointed than the English Minie shot, and no part being cylindrical, it must be liable to irregular Xnovements in the barrel, and, consequently, to unsteadiness in its flight. RIF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 515 It has the designation of a Minie shot, a term now generally but im- properly applied to all elongated shot for musketry, since they differ from one another both in form and weight. The rifle used in the French service up to the commencement of the late Italian war consisted only of the carabine a tige, and these were given only to special corps of riflemen. However eminent the authority of Colonel Minie on the subject of rifles, his method of rifling was never introduced into the French service. Throughout the Crimean war, the French infantry of the line were armed with the smooth-bored regula- tion musket. Some time previous to the Italian campaign the whole of the French' infantry had their old muskets rifled, and conical shot introduced the rifling principle being a triangular hollow cut in the bottom of the shot, without any cup, as in the Minie system. The efficient range did not exceed 600 yards, and was very inaccurate be- yond 400 yards. This imperfect measure, as admitted by the French authorities, hardly kept pace with the general improvement in small- arms ; but they were restricted by considerations of economy, which did not admit of any general alteration of the muskets in store. Thus all the French infantry during the Italian campaign used these defective rifled muskets, with the exception of the chasseurs, who retained the carabine a tige, the range of which was far superior to other French rnusket rifles. In 1846, iron rifled cannon, loaded at the breech, were invented by Major Cavalli and Baron WahrendorfF, for the purpose of firing cylin- dro-conical and cylindro-conoidal shot. In these guns the mechanical contrivances for securing the breech, are very superior to the rude pro- cesses of earlier times ; yet it appears doubtful whether or not, even now, they are sufficiently strong to insure safety when high charges are used in long continued firing. The length of the Cavalli gun is 8 feet 10.3 inches ; it weighs 66 cwt., and its calibre is 6 inches. Two grooves are cut spirally along the bore, each of them making about half a turn in the length, which is 6 feet 9 inches. The chamber, which is cylindrical, is 11.8 inches long and 7.008 inches diameter. In the summers of 1853 and 1854, trials were made at a spot between Leiny and Cirie, in Piedmont, of a rifled Cavalli gun, loaded at the breech, and with various improvements in the apparatus for loading and pointing. The gun carried cylindro-ogivale shells, each weighing 30 kilogrammes, (66 Ibs. 3 oz. English,) and provided with a metal fuze. The shells were fired with charges equal to one- tenth of the weight of the projectile, at elevations varying from 5 to 25 degrees. The firing was directed against a target about 10 feet 516 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RiF. square, and placed at the distance of 3,050 yards from the gun. In ten trials, at an elevation of 10 degrees, Ithe mean of the ranges obtained was 3,058 yards ; the means of the deviations were to the right 3.4 yards, and to the left 3.39 yards. After one rebound the shot went to the distance of 4,096 yards from the gun, with a deviation to the right equal to 126 yards. The mean time of flight was 11 seconds. In fifteen trials, at an elevation of 15 degrees, the mean of the ranges was 4,128 yards ; the mean deviations were, to the right 11 yards, and to the left 1 foot 11 inches. The time of flight was 16 seconds. In fifteen trials, at an elevation of 20 degrees, the mean of the ranges was 4,917 yards; while the mean deviations were, to the right 6 yards 2 feet, and to the left 10 yards. The time of flight was 19 seconds. Lastly, in ten trials, at an elevation of 25 degrees, the mean of the ranges was 5,563 yards, while the deviations were, to the right 3 yards, and to the left 4 yards. These trials were considered highly satisfactory ; and no less so were some experiments also made with metal fuzes, and with a charge equal to one-thirtieth of the weight of the projectile; the first shell so fired struck against one of the beams of the target, and tore away splinters of the wood varying in length from 1 ft. 9 in. to 1 ft. 11 in. The bursting-charge appeared to be fired a little "before the moment of the shell falling. Baron Wahrendorf invented a 24-pounder gun, which is also to be loaded at the breech. It is mounted on a cast-iron traversing carriage ; and, taking little room, it appears to be very fit for casemates. The upper part of the carriage has, on each side, the form of an inclined plane, which rises towards the breech, and terminates near either ex- tremity in a curve whose concavity is upwards. Previously to the gun being fired the trunnions rest near the lower extremity ; and on the discharge taking place, the gun recoils on the trunnions, along the ascending plane, when its motion is presently stopped. After the recoil, the gun descends on the plane to its former position, where it rests after a few short vibrations. The axis of the gun constantly re- tains a parallel position, so that the pointing does not require readjust- ment after each round. The gun was worked easily by eight men, apparently without any strain on the carriage, With a charge of 8 Ibs., and with solid shot, the recoil was about 3 feet, and the trunnions did not reach the upper extremity of the inclined plane, though the surface was greased. THE ARMSTRONG GUN. In the latter part of the year 1854, Mr. William George Armstrong (now Sir William George Armstrong) submitted to the Duke of Newcastle, then Minister at War, a proposal RlF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 517 for a rifled field-piece on a new principle, and undertook, with his grace's authority, to construct a gun upon the plan he had suggested. This gun was completed early in the following year, (1855,) and became the subject of a long course of experiments, which ultimately led to the general introduction of the weapon into the British service. Fig. 191 shows the exterior of a 12-pounder Arm- strong gun, such as is now used for field artillery, and also an end view of the same, showing the hole through the breech- screw for loading and sponging the gun. These guns can be fired with careful aim twice in a minute, and v fully three times per minute without aim. The following description of the Armstrong gun, as now manufactured, was given by Sir William in the discussion which recently took place at the Civil Engineers' Institute. " The gun is composed wholly of wrought iron, and the promi- nent feature in its manufacture is the application of the material in the form of long bars, which are coiled into spiral tubes, and then welded by forging. For the convenience of manufacture, these tubes are made in lengths of from 2 to 3 feet, which are united together, when necessary, by welded joints. From the muzzle to the trunnions the gun is made in one thickness, and is therefore, so far as that portion is concerned, strictly analogous to the barrel of a fowling-piece. 518 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RlF. FIG. 192. Behind the trunnions two additional layers of material are applied. The external layer consists, like the inner tube, of spiral coils ; but the inter- mediate layer is composed of iron slabs bent into a cylindrical form and welded at the edges. The reason for this distinction is, that the inter- mediate layer has chiefly to sustain the thrust on the breech, and it is therefore desirable that the fibre of the iron should be in the direction of the length, while elsewhere in the gun it is more advantageously applied in the transverse direction. The back end of the gun receives the breech-screw, which presses against a movable plug, or stopper for closing the bore. This screw is hollow, and when the stopper is removed, the passage through the screw may be regarded as a prolongation of the bore. The screw is turned by means of a handle, which is free to move through half a circle before it begins to turn the screw. It has thus a certain amount of run, which enables it to act as a hammer, both in tightening and slackening the screw. The bore is 3 inches in diameter, and is rifled with thirty-four small grooves, having the driving side rectangular and radial, and the opposite side rounded. The bore is widened at the breech end one- eighth of an inch, so that the shot may enter freely and choke at the commencement of the grooves. "The projectile (Fig. 192) consists of a very thin cast-iron shell, the interior of which is composed of forty-two segment-shaped pieces of cast iron, built up in layers around a cylin- drical cavity in the centre, which contains the bursting-charge, and the concussion arrange- ment. The exterior of the shell is thinly coated with lead, which is applied by placing the shell in a mould, and pouring melted lead around it. 12-PDB. SEGMENT sHELi. The lead is also allowed to percolate among A A. The cast-iron case or shell * ?? Jhe segment shot in layers, the segments, so as to fill up the interstices, the central cavity being kept open by the insertion of a steel core. In this state the C. The lead covering. D. The central cavity for bursting-tube, and con- cussion-fuze. E. Screw for time-fuze. projectile is so compact that it may be fired through six feet of hard timber without injury ; while its resist- RI.F.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 510 FIG. 193. ance to a bursting force is so small, that less than one ounce of powder is sufficient to break it in pieces. When this projectile is to be used as a shot, it requires no preparation, but the expediency of using it in any case otherwise than as a shell, is much to be doubted. To make it available as a shell, the bursting-tube, the concussion arrangement, arid the time-fuze, are all to be inserted; the bursting-tube entering first and the time-fuze being screwed in at the apex. If then the time-fuze be correctly adjusted, the shell will burst when it reaches within a few yards of the object ; or, failing that, it will burst by the concussion ar- rangement, when it strikes the object, or grazes the ground near it. Again, if it be required to act as " canister," upon an enemy close to the gun, the regulator of the time-fuze must be turned to zero on the scale, and the shell will then burst at the instant of quitting the gun. In every case the shell on bursting spreads into a cloud of pieces, each having a for- ward velocity equal to that of the shel\ at the instant of fracture. The explosion of one of these shells in a" closed chamber, where the pieces could be collected, resulted in the following fragments : 106 pieces of cast iron, 99 pieces of lead, and 12 pieces of fuze, &c. ; making in all 217 pieces. The construction of the time-fuze and the concussion ar- rangement are described as fol- lows : The body of the time-fuze (Fig. 193) is made of a mixture of lead and tin, cast to the required form, in a mould. The fuze-compo- sition is stamped into a channel form- ing nearly an entire circle round the body of the fuze, and is afterwards papered and varnished on the external surfaces. As the shell fits accurately into the gun, there is no passage TIME-FUZB. A A. The body of the fuze. B B. Groove containing fuze-composition. C. The detonator. D. The striker. E E. The holding pin. , F F. The flame passage. G G. Revolving cover, or regulator. H. Igniting aperture. I. Chamber for priming-powder. K K. Tightening cap. 520 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RlF. of flame by which the fuze could be ignited. That effect is therefore produced in the following manner : A small quantity of detonating composition is deposited at the bottom of the cylindrical cavity in the centre of the fuze, and above this is placed a small weight, or striker terminating in a sharp point presented downwards. This striker is secured in its place by a pin, which, when the gun is fired, is broken by reason of the vis inertice of the striker. The detonator is then in- stantly pierced by the point, and thus fired. The flame thus produced passes into an annular space, formed within the revolving cover, which rests on the upper surface of the fuze-composition, and from this annular space, it is directed outwards, through an opening, so as to impinge on and to ignite the fuze-composition, at any required part of the circle. The fuze, thus ignited, burns in both directions, but only takes effect at one extremity, where it communicates with a small magazine of powder in the centre. The fuze is surrounded by a scale-paper, grad- uated to accord with the elevation of the gun, so that when the range of a distant object is found by trial, it is only necessary to turn the igniting aperture of the cover to the point on the fuze-scale correspond- ing with the degrees and minutes of elevation on the tangent-scale. This fuze has the advantage of being capable of adjustment and re- adjustment any number of times, before entering the gun, and the officer in command has the opportunity of seeing that it is correctly set, at the moment of being used. "The concussion-fuze (Fig. 194) is on nearly the same principle. A striker with a point, presented upwards, is secured in a tube by a wire fastening, which is broken on the firing of the gun ; the striker, being then liberated, recedes through a small space, and rests at the bottom of the tube, but as soon as the shell meets with any check in its motion, the striker runs forward and pierces the detonator in front, by which means the bursting-charge is ignited. The process of loading is effected by placing the projectile, with the cartridge and a greased wad, in the hollow of the breech- screw, and thrusting them either separately or B ^ e holdin ? wire - collectively, by a rammer, into the bore oppo- C. The detonator. J ' J D. The chamber for priming- site; (Fig. 195.) The stopper is then dropped E E. Flame passages. into its place, and secured by half a turn of the screw. The gun is fired by the ordinary friction-tube, the vent being FIG. 194. ElF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 521 \ contained in the stopper. The whole operation ffi is simple, and can be very rapidly performed. | " In the early guns it was necessary that I the portion of the bore which was occupied - by the shot should be perfectly clean, other- o^ wise the shot would not always enter its |f place. A wet sponge had therefore to be &T used; but in the new guns, now issued for service, a slight alteration in the bore has ! enabled a greased wad to be employed with g perfect effect, in substitution of the wet sponge. " The gun can now be fired with great rapidity, ~ and apparently for any length of time, with- jr out being sponged at all. The reason for ? making the vent in the stopper is, that, since ET the chief wear of the gun always takes place 3- at the vent, it is better to make it in a part g which can be easily replaced, than in the | body of the gun itself. The breech-screw jj? being internal is never exposed to injury, j? nor can drifting sand, or dust, ever reach the ~ oiled surfaces, so as to impede the action of "^ the screw by adhering to the lubrication. The screw is of small diameter, and the few inches |. of extra length in the gun, required for its g reception, cannot be of any importance, con- sidering that any further reduction of weight . Fuze slide-plug. c. Cone to fuze-plug mus- ket size. d. Lead portion of packing. e. Canvas and tin portion of packing. m. Rectangular openings to periphery in recess. forming a shoulder in the fuze-orifice, to prevent the fuze-plug from being driven into the cavity of the shell, when, Flo 2 oi. by firing, the missile is expelled from the gun. The threads of a female screw are cut in the head of the fuze-orifice for the reception of the body of the fuze-orifice cap. This cap is of brass. Its diameter is an inch, its length half an inch ; its head is convexed, and has a slot cut in it for the reception of a screw-driver ; the base end is deeply cupped, to admit the nipple of a musket cone, and to give more play to the fuze-pi ug. The fuze-plug is of wrought iron, surmounted by a musket cone ; and its action in the fuze- orifice is like the ordinary working of a piston. Its length is li inches, of which the quarter is the length of its shoulder. The diameter of its shoulder and body, is very nearly the same as the two diameters of the fuze-orifice. Its vent is in its axis, and in size to receive the male screw of the musket cone. The threads of a female screw are cut in the head end of the vent, of sufficient length to receive the screw end of the said cone. When the shell is loaded, care should be taken not to overfill its cavity, and thereby prevent the working of the fuze-plug. The powder should be cleaned from the fuze-orifice ; the plug should be oiled to ensure its free and sure action. Its cone should be capped, but before the application the percussion cap should be carefully examined to see that it is perfect, and of the best quality. The fuze-plug, when so pre- pared, is then inserted into the fuze-orifice, and it should enter freely but not by its own weight, until the shoulders of the fuze-plug and orifice are in contact. The cap for the fuze-orifice should be then firmly screwed in, which completes the charging of the shells. If after the shell is loaded the fuze-plug should be disturbed by handling ; that is, if the plug has slidden forward, it will be forced back to its proper position by the impulse given to the missile, by the firing of the gun charge ; and it will so remain during the flight, until the shell impinges against any hard substance ; as ground, wood, 06C,, which, by obstruct- ing the progress of the missile, causes the fuze-plug to slide ' forward with violence, and by the collision of the cone's point against the bottom of the fuze-orifice cap-plug, the percussion cap on the cone will be ex- ploded, and the bursting charge of the shell fired. 34 530 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RiF. GENERAL C. T. JAMES'S PROJECTILE. SUMMARY OF TARGET-FIEING, WATCH HILL, R. I., 1860. 42-pdr. Service Gun y Rifled. 811 Jbs. averaged weight of projectile, of which 6J Ibs. packing, 2 " of powder, the loading charge of shell, 8 " averaged weight of charge of powder, 2 \ u elevation, 3i /; time of flight to target, 45 projectiles fired, 31 hits direct, 8 hits ricochet, 68.8 proportional direct hits per 100 shots 17.7 " ricochet ' " " target 20 by 40 feet. distance 1,000 yards. 5 2' elevation, 6 f" time of flight to target, 65 projectiles fired, 15 hits direct, 7 hits ricochet, 23 proportional direct hits per 100 shots 10.7 " ricochet " " target 20 by 40 feet. distance 2,000 yards. FIG. 202. Remarks. The averaged weight of the projectile at rest in the gun was 81^ Ibs. ; averaged weight of packing thrown off was 6 Ibs. ; weight of projectile when it impinged, 74J Ibs. Penetration, through 45 inches of the best well-seasoned oak, at 2,000 yards ; weight of oak target 17 tons, well bedded and firmly braced by back timbers ; forced back 10 inches by impact of shot ; range, at 15 elevation 4,346 yards, or nearly 2| miles ; ricochet on water, in prolongation of line of fire, but the projectile does not bound as often as round balls. When the missile is a shell loaded, it bursts by percussion, in penetrating earth, or other denser material. The Reed projectile is also an American inven- tion. Its peculiarity, whether shot or shell, con- sists in its having a base or cup of wrought iron connected by casting in, or in any other mode of attachment, to the cast-iron projectile, (Fig. 202.) The object is to obtain a material pliable enough to be forced by the expansive action of the powder into the grooves of the gun, and strong enough to give the BIF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 531 ^qSip jo ouitj^ UOI^BA ^uipaodsaajoQ J2 -nsi "*" ~ TO I 1 I S " ^qi^jo otoij, Z <, g w - UOI}UA915 o5 V5 & ^ iO ^ g -ODU JO 'OK t- GO 00 o s?iq ?o0.npjo -OK g s s ^ paiu sioqsjo-ojsl OS CO S S 00 5 iqSlBjoemu, TO TO -o ra jos?r/u V ff> <*> S a S O oo 00 S s^oqsjo o^ JOt- O OOOCOCO(M o > TO c o 2r TH ^r -09f nf) jo qqSp^i |9 S (M s sg-= l!M t- C3 .0 C3-S Increasing from at commencement to one turn in 50 feet at muzzle. Do. do. Uniform, one turn in 40 feet. Uniform, to the right, one turn in 25 feet. Uniform, one turn in 1C feet. . Uniform, one turn in 19 feet. GROOVES. ^ A ""o d o "? o -a .085 to .12 circular. .OTTto.lll circular. 8 i ^ *3 5 1 < o !j 4 o 10 o o K | CO i TO TO CO o ri i o B ^ s *s * fe u W ^ a a co -* TjJ -*' O g TO 01 64 5 TO (4 O 2 A 4 1 s c2 i s i 3 i o i ^ o s TJ -S ^ C^ wr< I fel 532 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RtF. necessary rotative movement to the projectile resulting from the twist of these grooves. The action is in fact similar to that of the common elon-, gated bullet for the rifle musket, or the application of the Minie ball to cannon. The projectile is 2.9 inches. R. P. Parrott, Esq., West Point Foundry, has produced a field-gun for firing this elongated bullet reinforced by wrought iron, the idea of which is not novel, but which he claims to have arranged in proper proportions, and otherwise to have brought into practical shape so as to make a safe, cheap, and good rifled cannon. The gun has, in reference to the projectile, three grooves and a twist of one turn in 10 feet. It has not yet been before a board, but has been successfully tried before officers of the army. (Consult Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS ; HYDE; WILCOX. See AMMUNITION ; ARMS; BUL- LET; CARBINE; FIRING; PERCUSSION; PROJECTILE.) RIFLE PITS are holes or short . trenches, about four feet long and three feet deep, forming, with the earth thrown out in front of them, cover for two men. There is generally a loophole on the vop of the breastwork, made, by placing two sand-bags across the parapet, and a third resting on these, in the direction of it, to cover the head and shoulders of the riflemen. A rifle pit of this construction is shown in plan, section, and elevation in Fig. 203. FIG. 203. TT "~/ Vt \uUJ -t -31 RIOT. (See EXECUTION OP LAWS.) ROADS. "When it is proposed to construct a line of road, extend- ing between two places, the officer upon whom such duty devolves, first makes himself well acquainted with the surface of, the country lying between the two places ; he is then to select what he thinks, all circum- stances being taken into consideration, the best general route for the proposed road. But previously to laying it out with accuracy, it is necessary to make an instrumental survey of the country, along tho route thus selected ; taking the levels from point to point throughout the whole distance, and making borings in all places where excavations are required, to determine the strata through which such cuttings are to ROA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 533 4 be carried, and the requisite inclinations of the slopes or slanting sides as well of the cuttings as of the embankments to be formed by the material thus obtained. It is also requisite, in the selection of the route for the proposed road, to have regard to the supply of materials, not only for first constructing it, but for maintaining it in repair. The re- sults of such an investigation should be reduced to plan and section ; the plan of the road being on a scale not less than 66 yards to an inch, and the section not less than 30 feet to an inch. The loss of tractive power and consequent danger produced by steep acclivities, render it necessary that a proper limitation should be imposed on the acclivities or inclina- tions on every line of road. As, however, this reduction of hills in a country w r here much inequality of surface exists, is attended with great labor and expense, greater rates of inclination must be allowed to hills or roads where the traffic is not sufficient to repay the expense of exca- vations. A dead level, even where it can be obtained, is not the best course for a road ; a certain inclination of the surface facilitates the drainage, and keeps the road in a dry state. There is a certain inclina- tion or acclivity, which causes, at a uniform speed, the traces to slacken, and the carriages press on the horses, unless a drag or break is used ; the limiting inclination within which this effect does not take place is called the angle of repose. On all acclivities less steep than the angle of repose, a certain amount of tractive force is necessary in the descent, as well as in the ascent ; and the means of the two drawing forces, ascending and descending, is equal to the force along a level road. The exact course of the road, and the degree of its acclivities being deter- mined, the next thing to be considered is the formation of its surface. The qualities which ought to be imparted to it, are twofold : first, it should be smooth ; secondly, it should be hard ; and the goodness of the road will be exactly in proportion as these qualities can be imparted to it, and permanently maintained upon it. The means re- sorted to accomplish these objects are : 1. Gravel Roads. A coating of four inches of gravel should be spread over the road bed, and ve- hicles allowed to pass over it, till it becomes tolerably firm rneri being required to ^ake in the ruts as fast as they appear ; a second coating of 3 or 4 inches of gravel should be then added and treated like the first, and finally a third coating. 2. Broken Stone Roads, or McAdam roads. French engineers value uniformity in size of the broken stone less than McAdam. They use all sizes from 1^ inches to dust. McAdam considers from 7 to 10 inches of depth of stone on the road sufficient for any purpose. He earnestly advocates the prin- ciple, that the whole science of road-making consists in making a solid 534 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ROA. dry path on the natural soil, and then keeping it dry by a durable water- proof coating. 3. Broken stone roads with a paved bottom or foun- dation, or Tilford Roads ; a road thus constructed will, in most cases, cost less than one entirely of broken stone. 4. Roads of Wood. The abundance, and consequent cheapness of wood, renders its employ- ment in road-making of great value. It has been used in the form of logs, of charcoal, of planks, and of blocks. When a road passes over soft swampy ground it is often made passable by felling straight young trees, and laying them side by side across the road at right angles to its length. This is the primitive corduroy road. A very good road has been lately made through a swampy forest, by felling and burning the timber, and covering the surface with charcoal thus prepared. Tim- ber from 6 to 18 inches through is cut 24 feet long, and piled up length- wise in the centre of the road about five feet high, and then covered with straw and earth in the manner of coal pits. The earth required leaves two good ditches, and the timber, though not split, is easily charred ; and when charred the earth is removed to the side of the ditches, and the coal raked down to a width of 15 feet, leaving it two feet thick at the centre and one at the sides. 5. Plank Roads. Two parallel rows of small sticks of timber (called sleepers) are imbedded in the road three or four feet apart. Planks, 8 feet long and 3 or 4 inches thick, are laid on these sleepers across them. A side track of earth to turn out upon is carefully graded. Deep ditches are dug on each side to ensure perfect drainage ; and thus we have the plank road. 6. Roads of Earth. These roads are deficient in the important requi- sites of smoothness and hardness, but they are the only roads usually made in the field to carry on military operations. Its shape, when well made, is properly formed with a slope of 1 in 20 each way from the centre. Its drainage should be made thorough by deep and capacious ditches, sloping not less than ] in 125. Trees should be removed from the borders of the road, so as not to intercept the sun and wind. The labor expended upon it, will, however, depend upon circumstances. Every hole or rut in the road should, however, be at once filled up with good materials, for the wheels fall into them like t hammers, deepening them at each stroke and thus increasing the destructive effect of the next wheel. (Consult GILLESPIE, Roads and Road-making.} The cross-sec- tion of a road embraces: 1. The width of the road from 16 to 30 feet, according to its importance, and the amount of travel upon it. 2. The shape of the road-bed. The best shape of the transverse profile for a road on level ground is two inclined planes meeting in the centre of road, and having their angle slightly rounded. On a steep hill, the Roc.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 535 transverse profile should be a single slope inclining inwards to the face of the hill. 3. Footpaths, d-c. 4. Ditches. The ditches should, if pos- sible, lead to the natural water-courses of the country. 5. The side slopes of the cuttings and fillings. These vary with the nature of the soil. ROCKET, (WAR.) A projectile set in motion by a force within itself. It is composed of a strong case of paper or wrought iron, in- closing a composition of nitre, charcoal, and sulphur ; so proportioned as to burn slower than gunpowder. The head is either a solid shot, shell, or spherical-case shot. The base is perforated by one or more vents, and in the case of the Congreve rocket, with a screw hole to which a guide- stick is fastened. The rockets used in the United States service are Hale's, in which steadiness is given to the flight of the rocket by rota- tion, as in the case of the rifle ball, around the long axis of the rocket. This rotation is produced by three small vents placed at the base of the head of the rocket. Fig. 204 shows Hale's rocket now used in the United States. Mr. Hale's last improvement (Fig. 205) consists in Fio. 204. a. Bore and vent c. ^ Z>. liecess in the base of the head. d. Head solid. FIG. 205. > placing three tangential vents in a plane passing through the centre of gravity of the rocket, and at right angles to the axis. This is accom- plished by dividing the case into two distinct parts, or rockets, by a perforated partition. The composition in the front part furnishes the gas for rotation, and that in the rear the gas for propulsion. The two sizes of Hale's rockets in use, are the 2 inch, (diameter of case,) weighing 6 Ibs. ; and 3i inch " " " 16 Ibs. tinder an angle of from 4 to 5 the range of these rockets is from 500 to 600 yards, and under an angle of 47 the range of the former is 1 ,760 yds., and the latter 2,200 yards. War rockets are usually fired from tubes or troughs, mounted on portable stands, or on light carriages. 536 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rou The following rules concerning the length of rocket-fazes, the ranges and elevations, for Congreve's rockets, may be useful, though they have not been confirmed by an extensive course of practice : For 24-pounder rockets ; if the whole length of the fuze is left in the shell of the 4-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about 3,700 yards, elevation 47 degrees. If the whole of the fuze-composition be bored out, and the rocket- composition left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 2,000 yards, elevation 27 degrees. If the rocket-composition be bored into, to within 1.5 inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 700 yards, elevation 17 degrees. For 12-pounder rockets ; if the whole length of fuze be left in the shell of the 12-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about 3,000 yards, elevation 40 degrees. If the whole of the fuze-composition be bored out, and the rocket- composition left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 1,500 yards, elevation 20 degrees. If the rocket-composition be bored into, to within one inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 420 yards, ele- vation 10 degrees. For 6-pounder rockets ; if the whole length of fuze be left in the shell of the 6-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about 2,300 yards, elevation 37 degrees. If the whole of the fuze-composition be bored out, and the rocket- composition be left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 1,100 yards, elevation 15 degrees. If the rocket-composition be bored into within one inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 20 yards, eleva- tion 10 degrees. For 3-pounder rockets ; if the whole length of the fuze be left in the shell of the 3-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about 1,800 yards, elevation 25 degrees. If the whole of the fuze-composition be bored out, and the rocket- composition be left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 850 yards, elevation 12 degrees. If the rocket composition be bored into within one inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 420 yards, ele- vation 8 degrees ; (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS.) ROLL. A uniform beat of the drum, without variation for a cer- tain length of time. SAB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 537 Long-roll. A beat of the drum, as a signal for the assembling of troops at any parade. Muster-roll. A return, forwarded every two months from every company in the service to the adj. -general and paymaster. It contains a list of the officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates, specifying their pay, and the casualties arising from deaths, promotions, &c. ROSTER OR ROLLSTER. Lists of officers for duty. The prin- ciple which governs details for duty is from the eldest down ; longest off duty first on. If an officer's tour of duty for armed service, court- martial, or fatigue happen when he is upon either duty, he is credited with both duties. A regiment, or detachment, detailed for any duty, receives credit for the duty when it marches off parade to perform the duty, but not if it is dismissed on parade. Officers on inlying pickets are subject to all details. ROUNDS. Visiting rounds ; grand rounds; visiting small posts, guards, and sentinels by commanders or staff officers. He who makes the round is alone, or accompanied according to grade and circum- stances. ROUT. To put to rout is to defeat and throw into confusion. It is not a retreat in good order, but also implies dispersion. ROUTE. An open road ; the course of march of troops. Instruc- tions for the march of detachments, specifying daily marches, means of supply, are given from the head-quarters of an army in the field, and are called marching routes. RUFFLE. "A low, vibrating sound beat upon a drum not so loud as a roll. RULES AND ARTICLES OP WAR. (See ARTICLES OF WAR.) RUN ; RUNNING. (See MANOEUVRES OF INFANTRY IN COMBATS.) RUNNING FIRE. Rapid and successive fire by troops. s SABOT, \nfield-guns, when firing solid shot, the charge* is usually about j the weight of the shot. For spherical case and canister, the charge is less. These projectiles are always fixed to a block of wood, called a sabot, (Fig. 206,) to which the cartridge is also attached ; forming what is called a round of fixed ammunition', (Fig. 207.) In the 12-pdr. field-howitzer, also, the ammunition used is fixed, A, (Fig. 206 ;) but with the other howitzers the projectile and charge are sep- arate ; the latter being attached to a block of wood called a cartridge- block, (Fig. 208,) the object of which is to give a finish to the cartridge 538 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [SAB. and fill the chamber, the dimensions of the block being so calculated for each different charge as to reach to the mouth of the chamber. The sabots used with these heavy howitzers are conical in shape to fit the connecting surface between the chamber and bore. Care should be taken in loading to put the seam of the cartridge to the sides, so that it will not come under the vent. In loading the 32 and 24-pdr. howitzer, the cartridge is first pushed carefully into the chamber without ramming, and the shell is then sent home, also without ramming. Shot. Canister. 12-PDB. HOWITZEE. FIG. 207. Shell. Bound Shot fixed. Canister. FIG. 208. Cartridge Block. i2 < Canister fixed. When sabots cannot be obtained, place upon the powder a layer of tow, about 0.2 in. thick, forming a bed for the shot ; tie the bag over the shot and around the tow ; the bag requires to be one inch longer than for strapped shot; (GIBBON.) SABRE. The cavalry sabre blade has shoulder, back, edge, bevel point, curvature, large groove, small groove, tang reveting. The HILT has a brass surmounting (gilt for officers) guard, and steel scab- bard. The blade of the mounted artillery sabre has but one groove ; the guard but one branch, (c^alry sabre guard has three;) steel scabbard. Officers of mounted artillery, and mounted officers of artillery and infantry use the sabre for mounted artillery with gilt mounting. (See SWORD.) SABRETASCHE. From the German, Sabel,'& sabre, and Tasche, a pocket. The sabretasche is part of the accoutrements of a cavalry or staff officer, consisting of a leathern case or pocket, suspended at Howitzer Cartridge. SAL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 539 the left side from the sword belt by three slings, corresponding with the belt. SACK. An expression used when a town has been taken by storm, arid given up to pillage. SADDLER. All acts of Congress previous to the Act of March 2, 1833, allowed one saddler to each company of dragoons. The omis- sion to provide for saddlers in the present cavalry organization would seem to be accidental. SAFEGUARD. Whosoever, belonging to the armies of the United States, employed in foreign parts, shall force a safeguard, shall suffer death ; (ART. 55.) The men left with a safeguard may require of the persons for whose benefit they are so left, reasonable subsistence and lodging ; and the neighboring inhabitants will be held responsible by the army for any violence done them. The bearers of a safeguard left by one corps, may be replaced by the corps that follows ; and if the country be evacuated, they will be re- called ; or they may be instructed to wait for the arrival of the enemy, and demand of him a safe conduct to the outposts of the army. The following form will be used : SAFEGUARD. By authority of Major-gen. , (or Brig'r-gen. .) The person, the property, and the family of , (or such a col- lege, and the persons and things belonging to it ; such a mill, &c.,) are placed under the safeguard of the United States. To offer any violence or injury to them is expressly forbidden ; on the contrary, it is ordered (hat safety and protection be given to him, or them, in case of need. Done at the head-quarters of , this day of , 18 . Forms of safeguards ought to be printed in blank, headed by the article of war relative thereto, and held ready to be filled up, as occa- sions may offer. A duplicate, &c., in each case, might be affixed to the houses, or edifices, to which they relate. SALE. The President is authorized to cause to be sold unservice- able ordnance or stores of any kind, but the inspection or survey of un- serviceable stores shall be made by an inspector-general, or such other officer or officers as the Secretary of War may appoint for that pur- pose ; and the sales shall be made under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the Secretary of War ; (Act March 3, 1825.) In all cases where lands have been, or shall hereafter be, conveyed to or for the United States, for forts, arsenals, dock-yards, light-houses, or any like purpose, or in payment of debts due the United States, 540 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [SAL. which shall not be used, or necessary for the purposes for which they were purchased, or other authorized purpose, it shall be lawful for the President of the United States to cause the same to be sold, for the best price to be obtained, and to convey the same to the purchaser by grant or otherwise ; (Act April 28, 1828.) SALIENT. The salient angle of a fortification is an angle project- ing towards the country. SALLY. A sally or sortie is a movement made by strong de- tachments from a besieged place to attack the besiegers or destroy their works. SALLY-PORTS. Openings to afford free egress to troops for a sortie. They are cut in the faces of the re-entering places of arms, and in the middle of the branches of the covered-ways. When sally-ports are not in use, they are closed by strongly constructed gates of timber supported by bars of iron. SALTPETRE. (^GUNPOWDER; NITRE.) SALUTE. A discharge of artillery in compliment to some in- dividual ; beating of drums and dropping of colors fur the same pur- pose ; or by carrying or presenting arms according to the rank and position of an officer. SAND-BAGS. Bags filled with earth, usually from 12 to 14 inches wide, and about 30 inches long. They are employed sometimes in constructing batteries, and in repairing breaches and embrasures when damaged by the enemy's fire. (See REVETMENT.) SANITARY PRECAUTIONS. Send troops where we may, they are destroyed by fevers. Is there any safeguard ? None, but in the good keeping, good condition, physical and moral, of the troops. After a fever has been established, physic does little, but the battle is fought by the nurse ; let that attendant be sagacious and vigilant, and the patient is saved ; the contrary, and he dies. The most successful treat- ment (the necessary evacuations always being premised) is cold water, or, in other words, the regulation of the temperature. Fever, when once it has gained entry, is the most tenacious of all pre-occupants. Rhythm, the rule of number counting by day, as if it played upon the nervous chords, paroxysm, remission and crisis, proclaim its sway. Let the practitioner obviate evil tendencies whenever he can, but if he turn to his medical books he will find in the medical records of two thousand years always the same results, viz. : the futility of interfering with medicines of specific power, and the deaths of a given number, almost always the same, when the air is pure, and the patient has had any thing like fair play. Quinine is a specific in intermittent fever, I SAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 541 but it is as futile as all other specifies in continued fevers. The prac- titioner must content himself with taking for his guides depletion at the outset, refrigeration during all the middle stages, and stimulation with support at the close of the disease. This course may be taken with very little aid from medicine, and the event will be more successful than if the patient had been drugged with all the stuff of an apothe- cary's shop. Disinfectants. The best disinfectants are caloric, light, ventilation, and the operation of water, and a bountiful Providence has placed them all at our disposal. It is a matter of experiment that even the concen- trated matter of small-pox, cow-pox, and the fomites of scarlatina are deprived of all infecting power on being subjected to a heat of 140 of Fahrenheit's thermometer. It may then be fairly inferred that if these could be so neutralized, gaseous factitious infectants, such as that of typhus fever, w r ouldbe dissipated under a much inferior degree of heat, and it is accordingly found that typhus will not readily cross the tropic of cancer, and the plague of the Levant goes out at the same boundary. Boiling water, then, must be all-sufficient for the purification of what- ever it can be made to touch ; and a portable iron stove, filled with ignited charcoal, will infallibly disinfect any building or apartment. The infection constantly given out from a living body cannot, while it continues diseased, be so disposed of; but all that it has inhabited is easily rendered harmless. Light is another sure disinfectant ; the strongest poisons, as prussic acid, when exposed to its influence lose their power. Ventilation comprehends all that the atmosphere can bring to the process of disinfection ; and water is only a more concentrated applica- tion of the same principle. Chlorine fumigation is utterly useless, " but the burning of a few handfuls of charcoal, with the aid of clean linen, will certainly disinfect the most saturated lazar that ever came out of a pest-house ; but until that ceremony, or an equivalent to it, such as a hot bath, be performed, no one can answer for his being otherwise than dangerous." Dysentery is truly an army disease. In some services the soldiery in the field nfiay escape fever, but never dysentery if they lie on the ground. Atmospherical vicissitudes, cold of the night, chill of the morning, after heat of preceding day, will cause it to spread. Heat is, however, uniformly the remote cause. The disease is purely inflamma- tory in the beginning ; yet, because the acid and sub-acid fruits some- times occasion griping when in health, these and vegetables of every kind are sometimes strictly prohibited. They are, however, amongst 542 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [SAN. the best remedies. For the peculiar inflammation which dysentery sets up in the mucous linings of the intestines, there has been no remedy yet discovered at all comparable to mercury, (calomel.) The specific inflammations, such as the iritic, the hepatic, the pneumonic, the syphi- litic, &c., all fall before its peculiar superseding stimulus. The habitual use of mercury is not fitted to all constitutions, and it has often been abused ; but the discovery of its power to supersede inflammation is one of the happiest of the uncertain art of medicine. Miasmata or marsh poisons, it has been supposed, are exhalations produced by the agency of vegetable or aqueous putrefaction. More general knowledge has, however, established the fact, that one condition only is necessary to the production of miasma on all surfaces capable of absorption, and that is, the paucity of water where it has previously and recently abounded. The greatest danger may exist, where there is no evidence of putrefaction, as every one can testify who has seen pesti- lence steam forth, to the paralyzation of armies, from the barren sands of the Alentyo in Portugal, the arid burnt plains of Estremadura in Spain, and the recently flooded table-lands of Barbadoes, which have seldom more than a foot of soil to cover the coral rock, and are there- fore, under the drying process of a tropteal sun, brought almost im- mediately after the rains into a state to give out pestilential miasmata. It is not known whether miasma is lighter or heavier than air, but it is established that the inhabitants of ground floors are affected by it in a greater proportion than those of upper stories ; and that this is caused by its attraction by the earth's surface is proved by its creeping along the ground, and concentrating and collecting on the sides of adjacent hills, instead of floating directly upwards in the atmosphere. Miasma is certainly lost and absorbed by passing over a small surface of water. The rarefying heat of the sun, too, certainly dispels it, and it is only during the cooler temperature of the night that it acquires body, concen- tration, and power. All regular currents of wind have also the same effect. The leeward shore of Guadaloupe, for a course of nearly thirty miles, under the shelter of a very high steep ridge of volcanic moun- tains, never felt the sea breeze, nor any breeze but the night land wind from the mountains ; and though the soil is a remarkably open, dry, and pure one, being mostly sand and gravel, altogether and positively with- out marsh in the most dangerous places, it is inconceivably pestiferous throughout the whole tract, and in no spot more so than the bare sandy beach near the high water mark. The colored people alone ever venture to inhabit it, and when they see strangers tarrying on the shore after nightfall, they never fail to warn them of their danger. SAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 543 The chief predisposing causes of every epidemic, and especially of cholera, are : damp, moisture, filth, animal arid vegetable matters in a state of decomposition, and in general, whatever produces atmospherical im- purity ; which always have the effect of lowering the health and vigor of the system, and of increasing the susceptibility to disease. Attacks of cholera are uniformly found to be most frequent and virulent in low- lying districts, on the banks of rivers, in. the neighborhood of sewer mouths, and wherever there are large collections of refuse, particularly amidst human dwellings. The practical precautions given in Russia are " to keep the person and dwelling-place clean, to allow of no sinks close to the house, to admit of no poultry or animals within the house, to keep every apartment as airy as possible by ventilation, and to pre- vent crowding wherever there are sick." Next to perfect cleansing of the premises, dry ness ought to be carefully promoted, by keeping up in damp and unhealthy districts sufficient fires, and this agent will promote ventilation as well as warmth and dryness. If, notwithstanding these precautions, cholera break out, the premonitory symptom of looseness of the bowels almost universally precedes the setting in of the more dangerous state of the disease. This looseness of the bowels may be accompanied with some degree of pain, but in many cases pain is wholly absent, and for some hours or even days the bowel complaint may appear so slight, without previous knowledge of the importance of its warning, as to escape notice altogether. But when the Asiatic cholera is epidemic, never neglect the slightest degree of looseness of the bowels. If neglected only a few hours, it may suddenly assume the most fatal form. The most simple remedies will suffice, if given on the first manifestation of the premonitory symptom, and the following, which are within the reach and management of every one, may be regarded as among the most useful, namely : twenty grains of opiate confection, mixed with two tablespoonfuls of peppermint water, or with a little weak brandy and water, and repeated every three or four hours, or oftener, if the attack is severe, until the looseness is stopped ; or an ounce of the compound chalk mixture, with ten or fifteen grains of the aromatic confection, and from five to ten drops of laudanum repeated in the same manner. From half a drachm to a drachm of tincture of catechu may be added to the last, if the attack is severe. Half these quantities should be given to young persons under 15, and still smaller doses to infants. It is recommended to repeat these remedies night and morning for some days after the looseness of the bowels has been stopped, and in all cases to have recourse to medical advice as soon as possible. Next in importance to the immediate employment of such 544 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [SAP. remedies, is attention to proper diet and clothing. The most wholesome articles of vegetable diet are ivell-baked but not new bread, rice, oatmeal, and good potatoes. The diet should be solid rather than fluid, and with the means of choosing, it is better to live principally upon animal food, as affording the most concentrated and invigorating diet avoiding salted and smoked meats, pork, salted and shell-fish, cider, perry, ginger beer, lemonade, acid, liquors of all description, and ardent spirits. If, notwithstanding these precautionary measures, a person is seized sud- denly with cold, giddiness, nausea, vomiting, and cramps, under circum- stances in which instant medical assistance cannot be procured, the con- current testimony of the most experienced medical authority shows that the proper course is to get as soon as possible into a warm bed ; to apply warmth by means of heated flannel, or bottles filled with hot water, or bags of heated camomile flowers, sand, bran, or salt, to the feet and along the spine ; to have the extremities diligently rubbed ; to apply a large poultice of mustard and vinegar over the region of the stomach, keeping it on fifteen or twenty minutes ; and to take every half hour a teaspoonful of sal volatile in a little hot water, or a dessert- spoonful of brandy in a little hot water, or a wine glass of hot wine whey, made by pouring a wine glass of sherry into a tumbler of hot milk ; in a word, to do every thing practicable to procure a warm, gen- eral perspiration, until the arrival of the physician whose immediate care under such circumstances is indispensable. (This article is an abstract from an article in the British Aide Me- moire to the Military Sciences, under the head of Sanitary Precautions, and that article is taken entirely from the works of Dr. W. Ferguson, Inspector-general of Military Hospitals, and Reports of the General Board of Health, London, 1849.) SAP. The sap is an apparently slow means of constructing trenches, but being continued by night as by day without cessation, its progress is soon felt. The work is executed by sappers rolling before them a large gabion, which shelters the workmen from musketry. In this manner one gabion after another is filled with earth and rolled in ad- vance of its predecessor after that part of the trench already made has been well consolidated. A trench thus formed is called a sap. When the fire of the enemy is slack, so that many gabions may be placed and filled at the same time, it is called a flying sap. If two parapets, one on each side of the trench, be formed, it is then called a double sap. SAP-FAGrOTS are fascines three feet long, placed vertically between two gabions, for the protection of the sappers before the para- pet is thrown over. ' SAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 545 SAPPERS. There is attached to the corps of engineers a company of sappers, miners, arid pontoniers, called engineer soldiers The com- pany is composed of ten sergeants or master workmen, ten corporals or overseers, two musicians, thirty -nine privates of the first class or artificers, and thirty-nine privates of the second class or laborers. The said engineer company shall be subject to the Rules and Articles of War, be recruited in the same manner and with the same limitation, and are entitled to the same provisions, allowances, and benefits, as are allowed to other troops constituting the present military peace establish- ment. The said company shall be officered by officers of the corps of engineers, shall perform all. the duties of sappers, miners, and ponto- niers, and shall aid in giving practical instructions in those branches at the Military Academy ; and shall, under the orders of the chief engineer, be liable to serve by detachments in overseeing and aiding laborers upon fortifications or other works under the engineer department, and in supervising finished fortifications as fort-keepers, preventing injury and applying repairs ; (Act May 15, 1846.) In marches near an ene- my, every column should have with its advance guard a detachment of sapppers, furnished with tools to open the way or repair the road. It would be well if these sappers, as suggested by General Dembinski, were mounted, in order rapidly to regain the advance guard, after having finished their work. SAP-ROLLER consists of two large concentric gabions, six feet in length, the outer one having a diameter of four feet, the inner one a diameter of two feet eight inches, the space between them being stuffed with pickets or small billets of hard wood, to make them musket-shot- proof. Its use is to protect the squad of sappers, in their approach, from the fire of the place. SASH. A mark of distinction, worn by officers round the waist, and composed of silk. SAW-MILL, (PATENT, UPRIGHT, PORTABLE.) It is composed of eight pieces of timber, from five to eight feet long ; four pieces of plank, from four to six feet long ; arid about fifteen hundred pounds of iron ; besides two long bed-pieces, a carriage, some small wooden fixtures, pulleys, etc. The common up-and-down saw, six and one-half or seven feet long, is used without sash-gate or muley, and will saw timber of the largest or smallest size. It is so very simple in its construction that it has but few bearings, and consequently but little friction, and will therefore require much less power to drive it than the more complicated mills now in general use. As much of the cumbrous machinery of other mills, such as large, heavy frames, sash-gates, etc., is dispensed with in 35 54G MILITARY DICTIONARY. [SCA. this, it is much less liable to get out of order ; while its simplicity en- ables any one of ordinary mechanical ability to repair or build it. The amount of repairs required with fair usage is of insignificant import. The great advantage of such a mill for military purposes is its portability. The engines and boilers furnished with these mills are constructed specially for it. The first size is a boiler 10 feet long, 24 tubes 2J inches in diameter, and 7J feet long, shell over the fire-box 44 inches in diameter, shell over the tubes 34 inches in diameter, and engine of 7- inch cylinder and 15-inch stroke. This is a large eight-horse power, and is sufficient to drive the mill with any rapidity in the hardest and heaviest timber. It is sold with the mill the whole establishment weighing about 6,500 pounds for $1,250. The second size is a boiler 11-J- feet long, 25 tubes 2]- inches in diameter, and 7 feet long, shell over the fire-box 44 inches in diameter, shell over the tubes 34 inches in diameter, engine same as that described above, (7-inch cylinder and 15-inch stroke,) excepting that it has extra connections. It may be rated as good ten-horse, and is capable of driving the mill, together with some other machinery at the same time, such as circular-saw for saw r ing slabs, lath, and other light work. This power is recommended. It is sold with the mill the whole weighing about 7,500 Ibs. for $1,400. In these prices smoke pipes, connections, and every thing necessary for running are included. The mill,, may be put up and at work in two or three days after its receipt at any given place. It is said to saw three thousand feet a day, and has been made to saw nine hundred feet per hour. With an exhaust pipe on the smoke stack the sawdust may be used for fuel. SCALING LADDERS. (See ESCALADE.) SCARFED. (See CARPENTRY.) SCARP. (See ESCARP.) SCARP (To.) To cut down a slope, so as to render it inacces- sible. SCHOQL. (See ACADEMY, Military.) SCOUTS. Horsemen sent in advance, or on the flanks to give an account of the force and movements of the enemy. SCREWS. In screws the parts are the stem, the head, the slit, and the thread. The bottom of the slit of the larger screws of small- arms is concave ; the base screw of the rear sight has two holes in the head instead of a slot, in order that it may not be removed by the ordinary screw-driver. The Screw is also a mechanical power. The power applied perpendicular to the axis, is to the weight, as the pitch of the screw s, or the distance between the two threads, is to the cir- SEC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 547 cumference described by the point to which the power is applied. Thus, if the power is applied by means of a lever I, p _ w s 2 vl SECANT. (&? > "^> should have to make for himself, or as to the instruction^ tq^e giv C T 1 | ,*M U 1 I \ f [ t 17 1 n] 1 i G ff i \s y 1* r 1 3 j_ pL 1 ^JffO . >o o too zuo son too t Scale. All plans are accompanied by a graphic scale which makes 596 MILITARY DICTIONARY, [Sus. known the length of lines on the ground by means of their representa- tions upon the plan and reciprocally ; (Fig. 225.) This figure repre- sents a scale of ^inr? tnat is to sav > a sca ^ e by which 1 metre on paper is equivalent to 20,000 metres on the ground. Reduction of Plans. It may be necessary to copy a plan and re- duce the scale. This is done by tracing an outline in which the desired relation is preserved. The different parts are then reduced by means of an angle of reduction. This angle is constructed by tracing a line a b ; (Fig. 226.) From b as a centre describe an arc of a circle with the radius b c so chosen that - = , being the relation between the a b n 1 two scales ; draw then the tangent a c. It results from this that if a c?, for example, is a line to be reduced, in describing from the point d an arc of a circle tangent to a c, e being the point of tangency, d e will be the desired reduction. FIG. 227. To trace a meridian at night. The means of establishing the merid- ian by the solar spectrum have been indicated. The meridian may be determined at night by passing a plane through a plumb-line and the north star. The trace of this plane on a horizontal plane will be the projection of the meridian sought; the north star being only 1 from the true pole. It is easy to recognize the north star ; it is the seventh star of the little bear, and is found precisely in the prolongation of the two first stars of the Great Bear, ( Grande Ourse,) a constellation disposed in symmetrical order as in Fig. 227; (Aide Memoire d'Etat Major.) SUSPENSION. In cases where a court-martial may think proper to sentence a commissioned officer to be suspended from command, they TAB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 597 shall have power to suspend his pay and emoluments for the same time, according to the nature and heinousness of the offence ; (ART. 84.) Rank and command are distinct. SUTLERS. All sutlers and retainers to the camp, and all persons whatsoever, serving with the armies in the field though not enlisted soldiers, are to be subjected to orders, according to the rules and disci- pline of war ; (ART. 60.) All officers commanding in the field, forts, barracks, or garrisons of the United States, are hereby required to see that the persons permitted to sutle shall supply the soldiers with good and wholesome provisions or other articles at a reasonable price ; (ART. 30.) Sutlers not to sell or keep their shops open after nine at night, or on Sundays during divine service or sermon ; (ART. 29.) Exorbi- tant prices not to be exacted from sutlers by commanding officers for the hire of stalls or houses let out. SWORD. The foot artillery sword resembles the Roman sword. The BLADE is 19 in. long, straight, two-edged ; Body (or blade proper) shoulder rounding, ridges, point bevels, edges ; Tang, its riveting and rounding, three holes for the gripe rivets ; HILT, (brass, in one piece,) cross, knob, and pommel of the cross ; SCABBARD (harness leather jacked) blackened and varnished with mountings and ferrule. The Infantry Sword. BLADE, (straight, cut, and thrust,) back, edge, groove, bevel point ; HILT (surmounting brass) covering of gripe brass with grooves and ridges ; GUARD in one piece ; SCABBARD, (leather.) This sword is for the non-commissioned officers of foot troops ; a similar one, without the guard plate, and with a blade 26 inches long, for musicians. The sword for officers not mounted is also of the same pattern, with ornamented gilt mountings, and a silver gripe ; the inner half of the guard plate is made with a hinge. (See SABRE.) SWORD-BAYONET. Short arms, as carbines, are sometimes fur- nished with a bayonet made in the form of a sword. The back of the handle has a groove, which fits upon a stud upon the barrel, and the cross-piece has a hole which fits the barrel. The bayonet is prevented from slipping off by a spring-catch ; the sword-bayonet is ordinarily carried as a side arm, for which purpose it is well adapted, having a curved cutting edge as well as sharp point. T TABLES. (See Articles ARTILLERY ; FIRING ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; RATION ; WEIGHTS.) (Consult A Collection of Tables and Formula useful in Surveying, Geodesy, and Practical Astronomy, including Ele- ments for the Projection of Maps, by Capt. T. J. LEE, Top. Engineer ; also Ordnance Manual for numerous useful tables.) 598 MILITARY DICTIONARY. TABLE OF NATURAL 8INE9 AND TANGENTS. [TAB. Deg. Min. Sine. Tangent Deg. Min. Sine. Tangent. 10 0029089 0029089 14 00 2419219 2493280 15 0043633 0043634 15 2461533 2539676 30 0087265 0087269 30 2503800 2586176 45 0130896 013090.7 45 2546019 2632780 1 00 0174524 0174551 15 00 2588190 2679492 15 0218149 0218201 15 2630312 2726313 30 0261769 0261859 30 2672384 2773245 45 0305385 0305528 45 2714404 2820292 2 00 0348995 0349208 16 00 2756374 2867454 15 0392598 0392901 15 2798290 2914734 30 0436194 0436609 30 2840153 2962135 45 0470781 0480334 45 2881963 3009658 3 00 0523360 0524078 17 00 2923717 3057307 15 0566928 0567841 15 2965416 3105083 30 0610485 0611626 30 3007058 3152988 45 0654031 0655435 45 3048643 3201025 4 00 0697565 0699268 18 00 8090170 3249197 15 0741085 0743128 15 3131638 3297505 30 0784591 0787017 30 3173047 3345953 45 0828082 0830936 45 3214395 3394543 5 00 0871557 0874887 19 00 3255682 3443276 15 0915016 0918871 15 3296906 3492156 30 0958458 0962890 30 3338069 8541186 45 1001881 1006947 45 3379167 3590367 6 00 1045285 1051042 20 00 3420201 3639702 15 1088669 1095178 15 3461171 3689195 30 1132032 1189356 30 3502074 3738847 45 1175374 1183578 45 3542910 3788661 7 00 1218693 1227846 21 00 3583679 3838640 15 1261990 1272161 15 3624380 3888787 30 1305262 1316525 30 36G5012 3939105 45 1348509 1360940 45 3705574 3989595 8 00 1391731 1405408 22 00 3746066 4040262 15 1434926 1449931 15 3786486 4091108 30 1478094 1494510 30 3826834 4142136 45 1521234 1539147 45 3867110 4193348 9 00 1564345 1583844 23 00 3907311 4244748 15 1607426 1628603 15 3947439 4296339 30 1650476 1673426 30 3987491 4348124 45 1693495 1718314 45 4027467 4400105 10 00 1736482 1763270 24 00 4067366 4452287 15 1779435 1808295 15 4107189 4504672 30 1822355 1853390 30 4146932 4557263 45 1865240 1898559 45 4186597 4610063 11 00 1908090 1943803 25 00 4226183 4663077 15 1950903 1989124 30 4305111 4769755 30 1993679 2034523 26 00 4383711 4877326 45 2036418 2080003 30 4461978 4985816 12 00 2079117 2125566 27 00 4539905 6095254 15 2121777 s 2171213 30 4617486 5205671 30 2164396 2216947 28 00 4694716 5317094 45 2206974 2262769 30 4771588 6429557 13 00 2249511 2308682 29 00 4848096 5543091 15 2292004 2354687 30 4924236 6657728 30 2334454 2400788 30 00 6000000 5773503 45 2376859 2446984 30 5075384 6890450 TAB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. TABLE OF NATURAL SINES AND TANGENTS (Coxrixmro.) 599 Deg. Min. Sine. Tangent. Deg. Mia. j Sine. Tangent. 31 CO 5150381 6008606 53 00 7986355 13270448 30 5224986 6128008 30 8038569 13514224 32 00 5299193 6248694 54 00 8090170 13763819 30 5372906 6370703 30 8141155 14019483 33 00 6446390 6494076 55 00 8191520 14281480 30 5519370 6618856 30 8241262 14550090 84 00 5591929 6745085 56 00 8290376 14825610 30 5664062 6872810 30 8336858 15108352 35 00 5735764 7002075 57 00 83867C6 15398650 30 5807030 7132931 30 8433914 15696856 36 00 5877853 7265425 58 00 8480481 16003345 30 5948228 7399611 30 8526402 16318517 37 00 6018150 7535541 59 00 8571673 16642795 30 6087614 7673270 30 8616292 16976631 38 00 6156615 7812856 60 00 8660254 17320508 30 6225146 7954359 61 00 8746197 18040478 39 00 6293204 8097840 62 00 8829476 18807265 30 6360782 8243364 63 00 8910065 19626105 40 00 6427876 8390996 64 00 8987940 20503038 30 6494480 8540807 65 00 9063078 21445069 41 00 6560590 8692867 66 00 9135455 22460368 30 6626200 8847253 67 00 9205049 23558524 42 00 6691306 9004040 68 00 9271839 24750869 30 6755902 9163312 69 00 9335804 26050891 43 00 6819984 9325151 70 00 9396926 27474774 30 6883546 9489646 .71 00 9455186 29042109 44 00 6946584 9656888 72 00 9510565 30776835 30 7009093 9826973 73 00 9503048 32708526 45 00 7071068 10000000 74 00 9612617 34874144 30 7132504 10176074 75 00 9659258 37320508 46 00 7193398 10355303 76 00 9702957 40107809 30 7253744 10537801 77 00 9743701 43314759 47 00 7313537 10723687 78 00 9781476 47046301 30 7372773 10913085 79 00 9816272 51445540 48 00 7431448 11106125 80 00 9848078 56712818 30 7489557 11302944 81 00 9876883 63137615 49 00 7547096 11503684 82 00 9902681 71153697 30 7604060 1 1708496 83 00 9925462 81443464 50 00 7660444 11917536 84 00 9945219 95143645 30 7716246 12130970 85 00 9961947 114300520 51 00 7771460 12348972 86 00 9975641 143006660 30 7826082 12571723 87 00 9986295 190811370 52 00 7880108 12799416 88 00 9993908 286362530 30 7933533 13032254 89 00 9998477 572899620 90 00 10000000 Infinite. Frigorific Mixtures. Nitrate of ammonia 1, water 1 ; ^thermometer falls from 50 to 4 Sulph. soda 8, muriatic acid 5 . . . . . 50 to Phosphate of soda 9, nitrate of ammonia 6, diluted nitric acid, 4 50 to 21 Common salt 1, snow or ice 2 . . . . . 32 to 4 Cry st. chloride of lime 3, snow 2 . . . 32 to 50 600 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TAB. Mastic Force of Steam at Different Temperatures. [From experiments of Committee of Franklin Institute.] The unit is the atmospheric pressure, or 1 atmosphere = 30 in. of mercury. Temp. Press. Temp. Press. Temp. Press. Temp. Press. Temp. Press. 212 1 275 3 304-fc 5 326 7 345 9 235 250 H 2 284 29H 4 310 815-J H 6 331 336 n 8 349 H 10 264 2| 298 4 321 6* 340i 8* Olive oil . Water . Milk . Vinegar . Spirits of turpentine Freezing Points of Liquids. . 36 Fahr. 32 . 30 28 16 Strong wines 20 Fahr. Sulphuric acid 1 Brandy . IV Mercury 39 Nitric acid 55 Boiling Points of Liquids! (Bar. 30 in.) Sulphuric ether . . .98 Ammonia . . . 140 Alcohol .... 174 Water, and essential oils 212 Water, saturated with salt . 224 Nitric acid 248 Phosphorus Spirits of turpentine Sulphur . Sulphuric acid Linseed oil Mercury 554 560 570 590 600 660 Liquids boil at a much lower temperature in vacuo, or under dimin- ished pressure of the atmosphere. At the altitude of about 17,500 feet above the sea, where the barometer stands at 15.35 in., water boils at 180. EELATIVE STRENGTH OF THE ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND RUSSIAN NAVIES. ENGLISH NAVY. Steam. Sailing. Total of Class of Ship. Afloat Building or Converting. Total. Afloat. Steam and Sailing. 48 12 60 16 *7fi 34 16 60 13 63 Block Ships g 9 4 4 ' 4 Corvettes 16 6 21 3 24 Sloops 80 15 95 95 Small Vessels 27 27 27 Gun Vessels and Gun Boats... Floatin^ Batteries 171 3 21 192 3 ... 192 3 Transports 15 15 15 4 4 4 Total 412 73 485 32 517 TAG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. FRENCH NAVY. G01 Steam. Sailing. Total of Class of Ship. Afloat. Building. Total. Afloat. Steam and Sailing. 33 4 37 9 46 34 13 47 28 75 Iron-cased Ships 2 3 6 5 Corvettes 17 2 19 13 32 86 3 89 46 135 39 29 68 68 Floatin " Batteries 5 4 9 9 31 31 31 Total 247 68 305 96 401 RUSSIAN NAVY. v Steam. Sailing. Total of Class of Ship. Afloat. Building. Total. Afloat. Steam and Sailing. 13 9 J 22 16 38 18 3 21 21 Corvettes 11 11 22 22 Small Vessels 30 30 30 112 25 137 137 8 8 8 Total 192 48 240 16 256 TACTICS as distinguished from strategy, is the art of handling troops. Sect. 7 Act May 8, 1792, prescribes the tactics established by Congress in 1779, as the rules for the exercise and training of the militia. Act of March 3, 1813, requests the President to cause to be pre- pared and laid before Congress a military system of discipline for the infantry of the army and militia of the United States. Act of May 12, 1820, prescribes that the system of discipline and field-exercise, that is or may be ordered for the infantry, artillery, and riflemen of the regular army shall be the same for the respective corps of the militia. Act of May 18, 1826, authorizes the Secretary 'of War to have pre- pared a complete system of cavalry tactics, and also a system of exer- cise and instruction of field-artillery, including manoeuvres for light or horse artillery, for the use of the militia of the United States, to be reported for consideration or adoption by Congress at its next session. 602 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TAG. Act of March 2, 1829, provides for the distribution of 60,000 copies of the abstract of infantry and light infantry and rifle tactics, and also 5,000 copies of the system of instruction for field-artillery prepared pursuant to Act of 1826. Tactics of Gustavus Adolphus and his contemporaries. Gustavus Adolphus, the greatest captain of his time, originated new principles iu the art of war, which in their essence still subsist. Ilis advent marks a fixed and certain epoch in the history of tactics. There are four ideas originated by him, which overthrew the tactics of his predecessors. 1. He gave in combats a greater, but not an absolute influence to the musket ; and united in order of battle heavy and small arms. 2. He increased the mobility of his troops by breaking up heavy masses, and thus also diminished the destructive effects of an enemy's fire. 3. He ranged the different arms according to their intention, and thus estab- lished facility in manoeuvring as well as their mutual capacity to aid each other. 4. He restored individual activity, which had all but ceased to exist, particularly in cavalry, since the invention of powder. Gustavus Adolphus conceived and executed all his projects him- self. He was at the same time an infantry, cavalry, and artillery soldier. He was a lover of mathematics and natural philosophy, and did not disdain to hold a pencil and compass. The order of battle of the Swedes consisted, according to circumstances, in a formation of two or three lines ranged parallel to each other or in echelons upon tho wings, the cavalry behind the infantry or upon its wings. The cavalry was proportionably very numerous. It fought in four ranks. The infantry was ranged in six ranks. The batteries of artillery were massed and masked. In assaulting Germany, Gustavus had two hun- dred pieces. Tactics before and during the war of the Spanish Succession. At this epoch there were great men, but no one like Gustavus took a giant step in tactics. The art was at a stand during more than a hundred years notwithstanding the rapid succession of wars, and the reiterated occasions such wars offered to genius. In this world it is not events which produce changes, but superior minds which control events. Gradually, however, the musket became the only arm of infantry, and the pike was entirely discontinued. Thus the possibility of infantry, de- fending themselves against cavalry vanished, and in order to restore the equilibrium, the epicus or half-pike was introduced. Each infantry man carried one at the beginning of the 17th century. This order was gen- eral. It succeeded against the Turks, but cruelly impeded the mobility of infantry. TAC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. C03 The bayonet appeared for the first time in the Netherlands in 1647, and essentially contributed to the discontinuance of the pike. At first this arm was very unhandy, as it was necessary to take it from the musket before firing. Under Charles XII. this was remedied, and in the Prussian army in 1732, the front rank \vas armed with a bayonet during the fire. In 1740 at the battle of Molwitz the three ranks \vere thus provided. To appreciate the spirit of the tactics of this time, it is necessary to study the campaigns of Turenne and Luxembourg, and those of Prince Eugene and Marlborough. The principal characteristic of the tactics of this epoch consisted in the attack of the whole line at the same time, and consequently of the general opening of a battle upon all points at once. A part of a line was rarely maintained in position during the attack of other portions. The importance of echelons was not appre- ciated, or it was not known how to use them in the oblique order. Manoeuvres, however, improved, but very slowly. Hence open fields of battle were generally preferred. If accidents of ground were sought, it was for the purpose of establishing lines of defence. Marches were executed, ordinarily, by many columns, each consisting of a single arm. There was therefore little reciprocity of action, and even in camps the same marked separation was preserved. Tactics of Frederick the Great and his contemporaries. Frederick found the art of war in a singular state. A great man a born captain was indispensable to raise this art from the dust under which it had been trampled and all but stifled by a miserable formalism. The active genius, the living courage, the free will which had signalized the com- bats of ancient times had disappeared ; the musket had become a power- ful arm, but pedantry had seized upon the order of battle ; all merit consisted in forms, and cavalry rendered useless in action had become only the furniture of parades. The great merit of Frederick consisted in recognizing the spirit of his age, and giving it a new bent. When Frederick appeared in camp, he found the musket in general use. He occupied himself in perfecting it. He fixed the depth of infantry at three ranks, and thus were seen deployed those long and thin lines which later took with the art of moving them the denomination of tactics of lines. ' Frederick required of his cavalry but two things : 1, Promptitude in surprising an enemy ; and 2, United and violent attacks to overthrow and annihilate him. For these reasons he exacted the exclusive use of the sabre in cavalry, which soon disdained the gun as useless and un- worthy of a true cavalier. All movements were executed regularly but 604 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TAG. rapidly. Frederick also occupied himself with perfecting artillery. He diminished the weight of field-pieces, and drew a marked line of separa- tion between field and siege pieces. The American Revolutionary War fixed attention specially upon the manner of fighting in dispersed order. This order of battle, in conse- quence of the difficulties of a wooded country, played here the principal part, and it may be affirmed that skill as marksmen an important part of the true system of light infantry or rifle tactics dates from that period. Tactics during the French Revolution, and its immediate effects. This epoch of tactics is distinguished by perfecting individual action, and re- newing the force of infantry in the shock of battle, by dispensing with long thin lines which were in part replaced by the order in mass. From the French Revolution was born the principle that all citizens are equal, and all owe service to their country. As the first consequence of this prin- ciple arose the general and legal obligation of devoting one's self to the military service. This obligation put in movement an aggregate of moral forces which could not otherwise have been collected in armies. But in spite of the enthusiasm of the people, (at least at first,) the absence of military instruction and discipline was everywhere seen. It was necessary that generals should endeavor to create a new tactics. Tactics then, for the first time, adapted itself to the national charac- ter of the soldier, and bent its forms to that character. It was impos- sible to harmonize the heavy tactics of lines with republican ardor. Instead, therefore, of losing their time in making soldiers machines, the wise generals preferred the machines already made. It was indispen- sable to create a more easy mechanism of sub-divisions, and they natu- rally determined upon formations in small masses, whilst the order in lines was gradually abandoned. Each republican, feeling himself called to defend his country, considered national interests as his own proper interest. It was not sufficient for him to occupy simply a place in the ranks, he wished to fight individually and with his own proper hands. The stamp of the tirailleur was thus impressed on every French- man by that ardent will, which was carefully maintained in giving full liberty to the highly pitched energy and courage of the soldier. But where it was necessary to break strength by strength, all were re- united in masses, and disputed the honor of dying in the foremost rank for the republic. These two systems (although they later took the name of systems) brought about the simple mechanism of the new French tactics, the essence of which is concentrated in the system of skirmishers and the system of masses. TAG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 605 A general tactics for all arms is a chimera. An army is com- posed of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineer soldiers. The three first are separate arms. Each of these arms must have its particular tactics. But the tactics of those arms, * when united, is simply the proper use of each arm by the general-in-chief according to ever- varying circumstances. Each arm ought to think itself invincible. This moral element, or, what is the same thing, a courage developed by discipline, is the most essential quality of a soldier. No one will deny that this moral element is increased in offensive movements. The mqre infantry attacks with the bayonet, the more cavalry is employed in the charge, the more artillery is brought within range of grape, the greater will be the valor of the soldiers of all arms. Infantry is the great body or nucleus of all armies. An army which possesses good infantry may repair all its losses in war. Light infantry requires a more developed instruction, more corporal dexterity, more circumspection and intelligence than infantry of the line. To march in masses is the duty of the latter. To act in isolated positions under all circumstances of personal danger, is required of the former. All good infantry, whether light or heavy, is at home in close or distant combats. The distinctive characteristic of infantry of the line is a regular, bold, and decided march upon an enemy, in closed ranks, en muraille, with a heavy fire when commanded, and sang-froid under all circumstances. The distinctive characteristic of light infantry should be skilfulness as marksmen, circumspection, capacity to act independently, indefatigability in occupying an enemy for hours, and even days, incommoding him at long distances, destroying him at short, shunning pressure and attacking anew when pressure ceases, knowing no difficulties of ground, advancing boldly, but when too adventurous uniting smartly for safety, again to resume the independent movements of skirmishers as soon as the danger has disappeared. In attack as in defence, infantry has three ways of fighting : 1, as skirmishers ; 2, by the fire in masses ; 3, by the bayonet. All three modes in their reciprocal action experience a great number of modifica- tions, which mujt depend upon the skill of the tactician. He must thoroughly understand the advantages and disadvantages of the open and close order. He must be able to apply either the one or the other, according to circumstances, and always keep in view the practicability of passing from one to the other. Soldiers ranged in line elbow to elbow are, as it were, tied together, and the will of the whole is con- trolled by the commander. This is the order in line of battle. If the line be broken into companies or divisions, and ranged one behind the GOG MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TAG. other, we have the order in column, and this order is important in manoeuvring. (See MANOEUVRES IN COMBAT.) The combat as skirmishers is in open or dispersed order. Almost all combats of infantry are begun by skirmishers. It is important, therefore, that infantry of the line as well as light infantry should be instructed as skirmishers. Nothing is so useful in concealing from an enemy our force and intentions than throwing forward skirmishers. If the skirmishers are skilful they may for a long time occupy an enemy, and meanwhile the great body of the army concealed behind the curtain thus formed may present themselves unexpectedly at a decisive point. (Consult prescribed Tactics for Manoeuvres of Infantry of the Line and Light Infantry ; Cavalry Tactics; Artillery Tactics; and DC la Tactique des Trois Armes, Infanterie, Cavalerie', Artillerie, par C. DECKER.) TAKE. In a military sense, to take is to make prisoner, or to capture. It has also a meaning in field movements, viz., to adopt anv particular formation, as to " take open order." To take ground to the right or left, is to extend a line, or to move troops in either of those directions. To take down, is to commit to paper that which is epoken by another. To take the field, is to encamp, to commence the operations of a campaign. To take up the gauntlet, is to accept a challenge. TAMBOUR is a stockade or timber wall, loopholed, made with two faces, forming a salient angle at the gorge of a work, to serve as a retrenchment or to cover the staircase, with a ditch in front, and some- times with a half roof sloping to the rear, to protect the defenders from hand-grenades and splinters of shells. (See BUILDINGS, Defence of.) TAMP. To pack the excavation of a mine, after the charge has been deposited. TAMPION OR TOMPION. Plug, stopper iron and copper; lead plate for covering shot holes ; muzzle cover of a mortar ; small circular bit of hard wood, sheet iron, or stiff paper for covering the claying of a rocket ; (BURNS.) TANGENT in trigonometry, is the straight line which touches a circular arc at one of its extremities, and is terminated by the produc- tion of the radius passing through the other extremity. The arc and its tangent have always a certain relation to each other, and when one is given in parts of the radius the other can always be computed by means TAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 607 of an infinite series. Let < denote an arc, and tan. < the tangent of the are < ; we have the following series : % = tan. < i tan. 8 4~ i tari - V I tan - T< A -f> & c -> / 3 O J 5 I -"r- i 7 /^f) J 9 Y> 16

o 12 g o o o 45 i 13 1 o o 46 j- o o o 14 d o 47 s s 15 o o o 56 O 16 00 57 | 17 J o . G7 00 o 23 } o o o o STOP -1 o 24 9 o o o o FINISH: o 612 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TEL. level with the central light at a distance from it equal to twice the length of the arm, and in the same plane nearly in which the arms re- volve. Hence the whole apparatus consists of two fixed and of two movable lights four in all. The number of telegraphic signs, com- binations, or changes which this telegraph is capable of exhibiting is shown in Fig. 229, and one of those, No. 4, in the day telegraph is liable to be confounded with the post and should not, therefore, be used. The number is, however, amply sufficient for telegraphic communication whether by alphabet or by reference to a telegraphic dictionary of words and sentences. The indicator, both by day and night, is merely a mark and nothing more, and the central light by night and the post by day are also merely guides to the eye. The signs of the telegraph are in reality, therefore, only composed of combinations of two movable bodies by day and two lights by night. It has been ascertained by ex- periment that the arms for day signals should be about 1 foot in length per mile in order to be distinguished by a common portable telescope. By the above rule, a telegraphic arm of six feet in length may suffice for stations six miles apart, but it is better to add a little to these di- mensions. The width of the arm need not exceed / 7 of its length. The indicator should be of the same width, but only of the arm in length. The height of the post should be such that movable objects near it should not obscure the indicator or arms when the telegraph is erected in the field. The telegraphs hitherto constructed on this prin- ciple are of two sizes : one having arms of 5| feet in length, with the lantern pivotis placed 6J feet from the centre of motion ; the other hav- ing arms 2 feet in length only, with the lantern pivots 3 feet 2 inches from the centre of motion. The latter are perfectly portable, as the whole apparatus does not weigh more than 34 Ibs. In clear weather these small telegraphs make signals distinctly visible at a distance of three miles. In cases of emergency, where the portable telegraph is not with an army, it has been ascertained by experiment that the most expeditious and satisfactory arrangement will always be to copy the regular con- struction as closely as circumstances will permit. A post, with two planks for the arms fixed externally on each side of the post, each worked merely by a couple of strings without pulleys, will constitute a day telegraph, and the addition of lanterns will convert the same simple apparatus into a night telegraph. In both cases the arms must be coun- terpoised by wood or iron, and also by weights in some rude manner, which must not impair the clearness of the telegraphic signs. (Consult Aide Memoire to the Military Sciences by British Offirers. See SIGNALS.) TIM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 613 TENAILLE is a low work, constructed in the main ditch, upon the lines of defence, between the bastions, before the curtain, composed of two faces, and sometimes of two flanks and a small curtain. TENAILLONS are works sometimes found constructed in an old fortress, on each side of the ravelin the short faces being traced, on the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin, from the counterscarp of its ditch ; the long faces being directed for flanking defence, to about the middle of the faces of the bastions. TENAILLONS (Demi) are very similar to tenaillons, excepting that their short faces are directed, perpendicular to the faces of the ravelin, about one-third or one-half down from the flanked angle. TENT. (See CAMP.) TERRE PLEIN is a name given to any space which is level, or nearly so ; thus, the area on the rampart, between the banquette and the interior slope of the rampart, is called the terre-plein of the rampart. TETE-DU-PONT. A neld-intrenchment covering a bridge. (See REDAN.) THEODOLITE. A surveying instrument for measuring the angu- lar distances between objects projected on the plane of the horizon. In accurate surveying, when the instrument used for observing angles is a sextant or reflecting circle, or such that its plane must be brought into the plane of the three objects which form the angular points of the tri- angle to be measured, the altitudes of the two distant objects above the horizon of the observer must be determined, and a calculation is then necessary to reduce the observed angles to the plane of the horizon. With the theodolite this work is unnecessary. (Consult SIMMS' Treatise on Mathematical Instruments / DAVIES' Surveying?) TIER SHOT. Grape shot sometimes so called. TIGE ARMS. Sometimes called pillar breech arms. Arms with a stem of steel, screwed into the middle of the breech pin, around which the charge of powder is placed. The ball enters free and rests upon the top of the pin which is tempered, and a few blows with a heavy ramrod forces the ball to fill the grooves of the rifled arm. This invention was an improvement by Capt. Thouvenin on Delvignes' plan of having a chamber for the powder smaller than the bore. Capt. Minie's invention superseded the tige arms, by means of a bullet which is forced to fill the grooves by the action of the charge itself at the instant of explosion. (See ARMS ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.) TIMBER. Sawed or hewn timber is measured by the cubic foot, or more commonly by board measure, the unit of which is a superficial foot 1 inch thick. Usual rule for measuring round timber : multiply 614 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Toi. the length by the square of one-fourth the mean girth, for the solid con- L C 2 tents, or - ; L being the length of the log, and C half the sum of the circumferences of the two ends. (Consult Ordnance Manual.) TOISE is 2.132 yards. Reduction of old French toises to metres ; 1 metre = 39.37079 English inches. TOISES. METRES. ENG. YARDS. 1 = 1.949 = 2.132 5 = 9.745 = 10.660 8 15.592 17.056 10 = 19.490 21.320 100 194.900 213.200 500 974.500 = 1,066.000 1,000 1,949.000 = 2,132.000 TOOLS. The French ordinance of 1831 prescribes the following camp tools : reaping-hook, scythe, axe, shovel, mattock, and bill-hook. Each tool has a leather case and a shoulder belt, in order that it may be carried by the men. (See UTENSILS.) TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS. (See ENGINEERS, Topo- graphical.) TOPOGRAPHY is the art of representing and describing in all its details the physical constitution, natural or artificial, of any deter- mined portion of country ; in making maps and giving a descriptive memoir. Military topography differs from geography in seeking to imitate sinuosities of ground ; it represents graphically and describes technically commanding heights, water-courses, preferable sites for camps, different kinds of roads, the position of fords, extent of woods. It enu- merates the resources that a country offers to troops and the difficulties which are interposed. By means of colored maps and other conven- tional signs, military topography presents before the eyes of a general much that is necessary to guide his operations. (Consult BARDIN. See RECONNOISSANCE ; SURVEYS, Military.) TOWER BASTION is one which is constructed of masonry, at the angles of the interior polygon of some works ; and has usually vaults or casemates under its terre-plein, to contain artillery, stores, &c. TRACING. (See OUTLINE.) TRADE. Licenses to trade with Indians shall not be granted to any but citizens of the United States, unless by express direction of the President ; (Act April 29, 1816.) The superintendent of Indian affairs in the Territories, and Indian agents under the direction of the President TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 615 of the United States, may grant licenses, not exceeding seven years, to trade with Indians ; which licenses shall be granted to citizens of the United States and none others, taking from them bonds with securities, in the penal sum not exceeding five thousand dollars according to capital employed, and conditioned upon the due observance of the laws regulat- ing trade and intercourse with Indian tribes. The superintendents and agents shall return to the Secretary of War, within each year, an ab- stract of the licenses granted, to be laid before Congress at the next session thereof; (Act May 6, 1822.) Unlicensed trade punishable by forfeiture of merchandise, a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, and imprisonment not exceeding thirty days; (Act March 30, 1802.) Receiving, or purchasing from any Indian, in the way of trade or barter a gun, any instrument of husbandry, or article of clothing, except skins or furs, punishable by forfeiture not exceeding fifty dollars and thirty days' imprisonment ; (Act March 30, 1802.) The purchase of horses from Indians without license from the superintendent or other person authorized by the President to grant licenses, punishable with forfeiture not exceeding one hundred dollars for every horse purchased ; (Act March 30, 1802.) No agent, superin- tendent, or other person authorized to grant licenses to trade or purchase horses shall have any interest or concern with any trade with Indians, excepting for and on account of the United States, under penalty of for- feiture not exceeding one thousand dollars and imprisonment not exceed- ing twelve months ; (Act March 30, 1802. See WAR.) TRAIL-HANDSPIKE for field-carriages, 53 inches in length. (Hickory, or young oak.) TRAIN. At the beginning of the French Revolution, artillery, en- gineer, and other supplies, and hospital trains were conducted by hired drivers. These men had neither military pride nor honor. They were cowardly and insubordinate, deserted in combats, cut the traces of their horses, and sought personal safety by abandoning equipages. On march and in camp or cantonments they were not unfrequently drunk and neglected their horses. These evils were corrected by enrolling them under the name of soldiers of the artillery train and equipages. They were given officers, a uniform and arms, and have since rivalled other corps of the army in zeal, courage, and devotedness. The artillery train now forms a part of the artillery, and is commanded by artillery officers. The train of provisions and ambulances is composed of squadrons and companies. The squadrons are commanded by a cap- tain, and the companies by a lieutenant. Each soldier conducts two harnessed horses. He is armed with a pistol and a small sword. 616 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TKA. * In 1850 the corps of military equipages in France consisted of a central bureau for wagon parks at Vernon ; of two arsenals of con- struction at Vernon and at Chateauroux ; of three arsenals for repair in Algiers ; and three companies of workmen. The soldiers properly be- longing to the train made four squadrons. (Consult BARDIN and LE COUTRIER.) The quartermaster's department in our army is charged with wagon trains, but neither enlisted soldiers as workmen or drivers have yet been added to the department. (See CONVOY ; QUARTERMAS- TER'S DEPARTMENT ; WAGON.) TRANSFERS. Officers of engineers are liable to be transferred, at the discretion of the President, from one corps to another, regard being paid to rank ; (ART. 63.) During the recess of Congress, the President may, on the application of the Secretary of the proper department and not otherwise, direct, if in his opinion necessary for the public service, that a portion of the moneys appropriated for any one of the following, branches of expenditure in the military department, viz. : For the sub- sistence of the army ; for forage ; for the medical and hospital depart- ment ; for the quartermaster's department be applied to any other ( f the above-mentioned branches of expenditure in the same [military] department ; (Act March 3, 1809.) No appropriation for the service of one year shall be transferred to another branch of expenditure of a different year ; (Act May 1, 1820.) Nothing in the act of March 3. 1809, shall authorize the President to direct any sum appropriated for fortification, arsenals, armories, cus- tom-houses, docks, navy-yards or buildings of any sort, or to munitions of war, or to the pay of the army or navy, to be applied to any other object of public expenditure ; (Act March 3, 1817.) But the President, under the restrictions of the act of Alay 1, 1820, may transfer from one head of appropriations for fortifications to that of another for like ob- jects; (Act. July 2, 1836.) TRANSPORTATION. (See QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT; SUP- PLIES ; TRAIN ; WAGON.) By Sea. For transportation by sea, make an inventory of the number of articles, the weight of each, and the total weight of each kind, leaving room for remarks. In estimating the weight, increase the total by one half the weight of the small articles, such as accoutrements, tools, &c., which occupy considerable space in proportion to their weight, and apply for vessels sufficient for the transportation of the whole weight. Inventories of articles on each vessel should be made in dupli- cate, one copy being kept by the master of the vessel, the other by the person having the stores in charge. (See EMBARKATION.) TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 617 Horses. The following arrangements on the English horse-transport steamer Himalaya, Capt. McClellan, gives as a model : Two rows of stalls, with the rear ends 2 1 at least from the vessel's side, are arranged on each deck. These stalls (Fig. 230) are each furnished with movable side-boards, a movable breast-board, and a fixed tail-board, all padded ; the side-boards on both sides, the tail-board next to the horse and nearly to the bottom of the stall, and the breast-board on top and on the side next the horse. The padding used consists of felt, or raw hide, (the FIG. 230. n latter objectionable on account of the odor,) stuffed with cow's hair wherever the animal can gnaw it, with straw in other parts. It is from 2" to 3" thick. The feed-troughs are of wood, bound on the edges with sheet-iron or zinc, and attached to the breast-boards with two hooks. The breast and side-boards ship in grooves. Fig. 230 represents the horizontal projection of one stall. In front of each head-post a halter- ring A is placed, and over this near the top of the post is a hook, to which the sea-halter is hung when not in use. The feed-troughs, head- boards, and stalls are whitewashed and numbered. FIG. 231. I I II 618 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TRA. Fig. 231 represents a section of one of these stalls through the axis. The flooring is raised above the deck on battens, and is divided into separate platforms for every two stalls, so that it can easily be raised to clean the deck beneath ; 4 strong battens are nailed across to give the animals a foot-hold. Fig. 232 is a section through the side-boards of a stall, and shows the dimensions of the timbers and height of side-boards, as well as the manner of inserting them in their grooves. B is the hook for hanging FIG. 232. up the sea-halter. This halter is made of double canvas, 2 f wide, and has two ropes, which, being fastened one to each post, keep the animal's head still, and prevent him from interfering with his neighbor. C and E are battens for securing the ropes of the slings, shown in Fig. 233. Z>, bolts, for the same purpose, when the sling is of the form represented in Fig. 234. On the spar deck, the stalls are under sheds, every 8 stalls forming a separate set, so that they can readily be moved about when the decks are to be cleaned. Water-proof curtains are provided for the front and rear ; a passage way of at least 2' is left between the sheds and the bulwarks. When practicable, a staging is erected alongside, that the horses may be walked on and off the vessel ; when this cannot be done, they are hoisted on board in the sling, a small donkey engine being used for the purpose. In this way, horses may be shipped or un- loaded at the rate of one per minute. The slings are of canvas, of the shape and dimensions represented in Figs. 233 and 234. For hoisting in and out the horses, the sling is provided with a breast strap and breeching. On the main and orlop decks the sling ropes are attached to the bolts ; on the spar deck to battens. It was intended to adopt the TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 619 FIG. 233. sling represented in Fig. 234, as diminishing vibration. At sea, the sling is used only when the animals show signs of weakness in bad weather, in which case about 1" play is given to the sling, as it is only intended to prevent the horses from falling. To place the horses in the stalls, all the side-boards are removed except the one at the end of the row ; a horse is then walked along to the last stall, and the other side-board put in, and so on with all the rest. They should be placed FIG. 234 in the same order that they are ac- customed to stand in the stable or at the picket rope. If it becomes necessary to remove a horse from his stall during the voyage, the breast-board is taken away, and he is walked out. All wooden parts are washed with some disinfecting compound, or simply whitewashed. Chloride of zinc is freely used. The decks are washed every day, and the stalls cleaned after every feed, especially at 7 P.M. From the spar and main decks, the stale passes off through the scuppers ; from the orlop deck it passes to the hold, and is pumped out by the engine. On the Himalaya not the slightest disagreeable odor could be detected. The feed-troughs and horses' nostrils are washed every morning and evening with vinegar. A scraper, brush, and shovel are allowed to every eight stalls. A guard always remains over the horses, and in case of necessity a farrier or non-commissioned officer is sent for. Great attention is paid to ventilation. The orlop deck, although hotter than the others, appears to be the most favorable one for the horses. So long as cleanliness is preserved, the commander of the vessel does not interfere as to the hours for feeding, which are usually at 6 and 11 A.M. and 5J P.M. If any horse refuses his food, the fact is at once reported. A supply of forage is always carried on board the ship. The horses drink condensed steam. The ration at sea was established at 10 Ibs. of hay, 6 Ibs. of oats, half peck of bran, and 6 galls, of water, as a maximum ; but it is generally considered this is too great, and that f the allowance except the water, would be ample, as it is found there is great danger from over-feeding at sea. No grain is given the day the horses come on board, but simply a mash of bran, which is considered the best habitual food at sea. For the men, bunks and hammocks are generally used. Standing bunks are found to be very objectionable, on 620 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TRA. account of the difficulty of keeping them clean. Hammocks are regard- ed as preferable for men in good health, while many officers consider it best to provide neither hammocks nor bunks, but to allow the men to lie down on the fore-decks, with their blankets and overcoats. When the transports are numerous, each one should have on the starboard and larboard, and on a broad pendant at the top of the mainmast, an easily distinguished number. By means of these numbers, which are marked on the bills of lading, the disposable resources of the expedition aro known at any time. Vessels carrying some particular flag should be specially appropriated for the transportation of powder, fire-works, and ammunition, which may be separated from the pieces. Disembarkation. If it becomes necessary to transship, or leave any articles upon the vessels, the fact should be carefully noted on the mani- fests. The ships' crews load and unload, using for these purposes the yard-arms and tackle. It is ordinarily sufficient to furnish them with rollers and skids, in order to place the articles convenient to the tackle. Under some circumstances, it becomes necessary to establish bridge abutments, sheers, gins, &c. For the want of the ordinary means, a temporary crane may be established. To do this a long mortise is cut in'a beam about of the distance from its end, and upon the ground is fixed a framework, furnished with a strong vertical pin. The beam is laid on this frame with the pin in the mortise, like an ordinary pintle, but in such a way that the ends of the beam can be raised and lowered. The shortest part of the beam is then turned towards the load, and the different weights being slung to it, are raised by lowering the opposite end, previously raised to make the lashing shorter. The beam is then turned around on its pintle until the weight is in the proper position, when it is lowered gently and unlashed. If a tree or beam fit for the purpose cannot be obtained, several small pieces may be lashed and pinned together. Railroad Transportation. In railroad transportation, when several trains are required, they should be in proportion to the power of ^the engine employed, and full loads should be placed on them. The men are provided, before starting, with provisions to last during the trip, which should be cooked and carried in the haversack. The canteens are filled with water ; the French, in warm weather, mix brandy with it. As the horses can eat in the wagons, even whilst the train is in motion, hay (pressed if possible) should be distributed at the rate of about 8, 14, or 24 Ibs. per horse, according as the trip is to last less than 12, be- tween 12 and 24, or more than 24 hours^ A feed of oats (half a ration, 6 Ibs.) is carried in bags, and placed in the baggage wagons. It should TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 621 not be given to the horses on the road, but after they have arrived at the terminus. The horses are carried in cattle-cars, or, if possible, in box-cars, which are covered. They are provided with bars at the doors to prevent the horses from backing out when the doors are opened. By taking care to keep the horses quiet, however, these bars may be dis- pensed with. The saddles, &c., the valises of the driver, and the bags of oats, are placed in the baggage cars, which should be provided with brakes. The u materiel " is carried on trucks or common platform cars. The troops should be at the station at least two hours before starting. The horses should have finished feeding about two hours previous to their arrival at the station, as they are then more docile. The baggage should arrive half an hour before the troops, under charge of an officer, and be loaded under the direction of the employes of the road. The cars for artillery should be arranged as near as possible in the following order : 1st, a baggage wagon ; 2d, a truck carrying the beams, platforms, &c. ; 3d, the horse-cars ; 4th, the cars for the men, one at least of which should be provided with a brake ; 5th, trucks loaded with materiel ; 6th, baggage cars (with brakes) loaded with saddles, &c. Cars with brakes should always be placed at the head and tail of the train. Guards should be detailed and so stationed on the train as to preserve order both when in motion and during stoppages. The com- manding officer should pay especial regard to the wishes of those hav- ing the train in charge, and enforce an observance of the road regulations in his command. On arriving at the station, the commander at once divides his command and materiel into the portions to occupy the different cars. Horses. An officer is detailed to superintend the embarkation of the horses. He furnishes each car with two bundles of litter, and places forage along the long side of the car opposite to the door. A non- commissioned officer is charged with loading the saddles, &c. The men are, under an officer, formed into detachments proportional to the im- portance of the materiel^to be embarked. As soon as a truck has received its load, the wheels of the different trains are locked together with cord from .5 to .6 inch in diameter, chocks are placed under the wheels and nailed to the floor, and the stability of the whole secured by tying the carriages to the rings of the truck. Straw ropes, or other means, are made use of to prevent friction between the parts. The men, with their knapsacks and arms, are divided, under the superintendence of an officer, into portions corresponding to the capacity of the cars. Each division is conducted promptly to the car it is to 622 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TRA. occupy, the men entering first going to the end farthest from the door, and so on. They seat themselves, holding their arms between their legs, the stock or scabbard resting on the floor. Fire-arms should never be laid on the seats or stood in corners, except when leaving the cars at the principal stopping places and stations. Inspecting. Immediately before starting, the commanding officer and conductor of the train inspect the cars to ascertain that every thing is in order. They should see that the couplings of the car containing the " materiel" are short enough to insure the contact of the buffers. The officers then enter the car assigned to them. Regulations. Tho men are strictly prohibited putting their heads or arms out of the car while it is in motion ; passing from one car to another ; uttering loud cries of any kind ; and from leaving the cars at the station before the signal for doing so is given. The men with the horses, keep them from putting their heads outside the car. They feed them with hay from the hand, until they get used to the motion, hold them by the bridle or halter, and quiet their fears whilst the locomotive is whistling. In case of any accident, they make a signal outside the car, by waving a handkerchief. If at any station the commander deems it necessary for the men to leave the cars, after the time indicated by the conductor, he informs the officers of the length of the halt. Tho officers remain in the vicinity of the cars containing their men, in order to direct and govern their movements. The guard posts sentinels wherever it is necessary, especially at the doors, to prevent the men from gathering near or opening them. At a given signal on the bugle, the men leave the cars in order, and without side-arms. The men in the horse-cars get out over the side. If it becomes necessary to open the doors of these cars, the door-bars are first placed in position. About the middle of the trip, as near as possible, the police-guard and men with the horses, are relieved. At each halt of more than ten minutes, the commander, or some other officer, and the conductor inspect the cars and especially those which carry the ammunition wagons. Five min- utes before starting a bugle-call gives the signal for entering the cars. At the station immediately preceding the terminus, the horses are bridled, and the forage is collected and formed into one bundle for each car. During feeding time there should be at least one man to every two horse-cars. In general, oats should be distributed only after the horses leave the cars. Hay is fed by hand by the drivers whilst the train is in motion. In ordinary weather, the horses are watered only when the trip exceeds twelve hours ; and even in this case they need but little, and a single ordinary-size pailful suffices for two horses. TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. G23 Unloading. To prevent accidents, it is well to provide one or S3v- eral movable bridges for discharging the horses, which are carried on the train. They are about sixteen feet long, a little wider than the car door, and are provided with hand-rails or ropes, movable at will. The bridge is supported at its upper extremity by 'a movable trestle of a height corresponding to the sill of the door, and the cars are unloaded by passing them in succession in front of this bridge ; or, by fixing to the forepart of the bridge two strong flanges of iron which rest upon the floor of the car, the bridge may be applied in succession to each of the cars to be unloaded. The non-commissioned officers in charge of the freight cars, imme- diately on arriving at the station, unload it as originally divided in the cars by the inverse means used to load it. As soon as the horse-cars reach the proper position, the men fix the mova*ble bridges, open the doors, and bring the horses out in the inverse order in which they entered. If the horses have to be taken out of the same door they entered, the first two are backed out, and the rest follow after making a half turn. As soon as a rear team is disengaged it is taken to the place where the harness is deposited, and harnessed to a carriage which is conducted to the park, where the harnessing is completed. (Consult GIBBON ; MCCLELLAN.) TRAVELLING ALLOWANCE. Where any commissioned officer is obliged to incur any extra expense in travelling, and sitting on general courts-martial, he shall be allowed a reasonable compensa- tion for such extra expense actually incurred, not exceeding one dollar and twenty-five cents per day to officers who are not entitled to forage, and not exceeding one dollar per day to such as shall be entitled to forage ; (Act March 16, 1802.) (See ORDNANCE ; TRAVELLING FORGE.) An officer, who travels not less than ten miles from his station, without troops, escort of military stores, and under special orders in the case from a superior, or summons to attend a military court, shall receive ten cents a mile ; or if he prefer it, the actual cost of his trans- portation, and of his field-allowance of baggage for the whole journey, provided ho has travelled in the customary reasonable manner ; (Reg- ulations for the Quartermasters Department.) Whenever any officer or soldier shall be discharged from the ser- vice, except by way of punishment for any offence, he shall be allowed his pay and rations, or an equivalent in money, for such term of time as shall be sufficient for him to travel from the place of his discharge to the place of his residence, computing at the rate of twenty miles to a day ; ( Act March 16, 1802.) TRAVELLING-FORGE. (See ORDNANCE.) 624 MILITARY DICTIONARY. TKAVELLING-KITCHEN. Marshal Saxe, it is believed, first suggested the idea of cooking while inarching, so as to economize the strength of soldiers ; have their food well cooked in all weather, and avoid the numerous diseases caused by bad cooking, and want of rest. Colonel Cavalli, of the Sardinian artillery, has with the same laudable motive embraced a kitchen-cart in the improvements suggested by him to replace the wagons now in use, (see WAGON ;) and an attempt is here made to elaborate the same idea of a travelling-kitchen, designed for baking, making soup, and other cooking, while on a march. Pig. 235 represents a cart, 12| feet long, mounted on two 6-feet FIG. 235. T.IA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 625 wheels, and covered with a very light canvas roof with leather-cloth curtains. A large range or stove forms the body of the vehicle ; its grate is below the floor, its doors opening on a level with it. A Pa- pin's digester is inclosed above the grate, in a flue whence the heat may pass around the double-oven in the rear, or straight up chimney, as regulated by dampers. At the side of the digester, over the grate, is a range, suited to various cooking vessels. The top of the oven forms a table nearly 5 feet square, at which three cooks may work, standing upon the rear platform. A foot-board passes from this platform to the front platform, where the driver and a cook may stand. Stores may be placed in the lockers at the side of the range, and under the rear foot board. The chimney may be turned down, above the roof, to pass under trees, &c., and may be of any height to secure a good draft. By bending the axle like that of an omnibus, the vehicle may bo hung without danger of top-heaviness. Cooking vessels, more bulky than heavy, may be suspended from the roof, over the range, Avhen not in use. The digester may have a capacity of 100 gallons, and an oven, of 60 to 75 cubic feet, would bo quite adequate to the cooking for 250 men ; or the dimensions of the cart may be smaller, and each company of 100 men might have its own travelling-kitchen, which would also furnish oven and cooking utensils for camp. TRAVERSES are portions of parapets, which cross the breadth of the covered-way, at the salient and re-entering places of arms. Other traverses are also placed between these, where necessary, to afford proper protection. Traverses are thrown up, to bar enfilade fire, along any line of work or passage which is liable to it. TRAVERSE*TABLE is the tabulated form in which the north- ing, southing, easting, and westing are made on each individual course and distance in a traverse, for the purpose of finding readily, by in- spection of the table, the difference of latitude and departure of any particular course and distance. Traverse tables afford a simple means of land-surveying, with' compass and chain. If the sum of each adjacent pair of distances perpendicular to a meridian (departures] without sur- vey, be multiplied by the northing or southing between them, in suc- cession round the figure in the same order, the difference between the sum of the north products and the sum of the south products will be double the area of the tract. The meridian distance of a course is the distance of the middle part of that course from an assumed meridian. Hence, the double meridian distance of the first course is equal to its departure. And the double meridian distance of any course is equal to the double meridian distance of the preceding course, plus its de. 40 626 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TRE. parture, plus the departure of the course itself, having regard to tho algebraic sign of each. Then to find the area : 1. Multiply the double meridian distance of each course by its northing or southing. 2. Place all the plus products in one column, and all the minus products in another. 3. Add up each column separately and take their difference. This difference will be double the area of the land. In balancing the work, the error for each particular course is found by the proportion : as the sum of the courses is to the error of latitude, (or departure,) so is each particular course to its correction. When a bearing is due east or west, the error of latitude is nothing, and the course must be subtracted from the sum of the courses before balancing the columns of latitude. And so with the departures. Let it be required to find the contents of a piece of land, of which the following are the field-notes : STA. COURSE. 1 N. 4G W. 2 N. 51f E. 3 East Dis. STA. COURSE. Dis. 20 chains. 4 S. 5G E. 27.GO chains. 13.80 21.25 5 G S. N. 33i 74 W. W. 18.80 30.95 u u CALCULATION. Stations. Courses. Dist. Chains. Diff. Lat. Departures. Balanced. D. M. D. + Area. + Area. N. + 8. E. + ^ Lat. Dep. 1 2 8 4 5 6 N. 46* W. N. 51f E. East. S. 56 E. S. 33* W. N. 74* W. 20.00 18.80 21.25 27.60 18.80 80.95 18.77 8.54 a27 15.44 15.72 10.84 81.86 U.88 14.51 + 18.8* + K61 15.29 10.81 10.88 29.83 + 8.48 - 14.56 4- 10.81 + 21.20 + 22.82 10.36 -29.94 14.56 10.81 42.82 86.84 99.30 59.03 202.0928 93.0741 497^6229 1327.7886 1552.0590 gm] 13i40 or in nc Acres, 80.53 81.16 80.58 rthing, .55 1 Hod, 16 Per 54.97 54.65 .82 :hes. 54.65 . | Error in westing. 792.789S12S79.8426 792.7898 2)2087.0528 En ANSWEB 1(M 1043.5264 (Consult Tables and Formulce by Capt. T. J. LEE, Top. Engineer.) TREATY. No purchase, grant, license, or other conveyance of lands or of any title or claim thereto from any Indian nation, or tribe of Indians within the bounds of the United States, shall be of any validity in law or equity, unless the same be made by treaty or convention, entered into pursuant to the constitution. Penalty not exceeding forfeiture of $1,000 and 12 months' imprisonment for vio- lation of this act. Provided, nevertheless, that any agent or agents of any State, who may be present at any treaty made by United States authority, in the presence and with the approbation of the United TRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 627 States commissioners, may propose to, and adjust with, the Indians the compensation to be made to them for land claims within such States, extinguished by the treaty ; (Act of Congress.) TRENCH. The communications, boyaux or zigzags, as well as the parallels or places of arms opened by besiegers against a fortifica- tion are trenches. They are from 6 to 10 feet wide and about 3 feet deep. To open the trenches, is to break ground for the purpose of carrying on approaches towards a besieged place. TRESTLE OR TRESSEL. The form of a trestle is the same as a carpenter's horse, that is, a horizontal beam supported by four legs. (See BRIDGE.) The horizontal. beam, termed the cap or ridge beam in trestles used for field-bridges, is usually of eight-inch scantling, and from twelve to sixteen feet long. The legs are of four and a half incli scantling ; they have a spread towards the bottom, the distance be- tween them across being equal to half the height, and lengthwise of the cap, their inclination is one-twelfth of the height. They are fastened to the cap, about 18 inches from the ends, by nails; the side of the cap and the top of the leg being properly prepared for a strong, accurate fit. The legs are connected either in pairs, or else all four by hori- zontal pieces of three-inch scantling ; sometimes diagonal pieces, going from the top of one leg to the bottom of the opposite one, are used. Bridges or trestles are principally useful in crossing small streams not more than six feet deep. The trestles should not be placed farther apart than sixteen feet between the ridge beams ; the balks should jut at least one foot beyond the ri5ge beams. The action of the current is counteracted by attaching each trestle to two cables stretched across the stream above and below the bridge. Another plan consists in making a network of tough twigs or cords around the legs near the bottom, and filling it in with broken stone. (Consult MAHAN.) TRIALS shall be carried on only between the hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon, except in cases which, in the opinion of the officer ordering the court, require immediate example ; (ART. 75.) No officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier shall be tried a second time for the same offence ; (ART. 87.) And no person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for any offence which shall appear to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period ; (ART. 88.) All trials before courts-martial, like those in civil courts, are con- ducted publicly ; and in order that this publicity may in no case be 628 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Tni. attended with tumult or indecorum of any kind, the court is authorized, by the Rules and Articles of War, to punish at its discretion, all riotous and disorderly proceedings or menacing words, signs, or gestures, used in its presence ; (ART. 76.) The day and place of meeting of a general court-martial having been published in orders, the officers appointed as members, the parties and witnesses, must attend accordingly. The judge-advocate, at the open- ing, calls over the names of the members, who arrange themselves on the right or left of the president, according to rank ; (ART. 61.) The members of the court having taken their seats and disposed of any preliminary matter, the prisoner, prosecutor, and witnesses are called into court. The prisoner is attended by a guard, or by an officer, as his rank or the nature of the charge may dictate ; but during the trial, should be unfettered and free from any bonds or shackles, unless there be danger of escape or rescue. Accommodation is usually afforded, at detached tables, for the prosecutor and prisoner ; also for any friend or legal adviser of the prisoner or prosecutor, whose assist- ance has been desired during the trial ; but the prisoner only can ad- dress the court, it being an admitted maxim, that counsel are not to interfere in the proceedings or to offer the slightest remark, much less to plead or argue. The judge-advocate, by direction of the president, first reads, in an audible voice, the order for holding the court. He then calls over the names of the members, commencing with the presi- dent, who is always the highest in rank. He then demands of the prisoner, whether he has any exception or cause of challenge against any of the members present, and if he have, he is required to state his cause of challenge, confining his challenge to one member at a time ; (ART. 71.) After hearing the prisoner's objections, the president must order the court to be cleared, when the members will deliberate on and determine the relevancy or validity of the objection ; the member challenged retiring during the discussion. Sufficient causes for challenge are : the expression of an opinion relative to the subject to be investigated ; having been a member of a court of inquiry which gave an opinion ; or of another general court- martial, in which the circumstances were directly investigated ; or of another general court-martial in which the circumstances were investi- gated incidentally and an opinion formed thereon; prejudice, malice, or the like. The privilege of challenge is not confined to the prisoner ; for there may be sources of prejudice in favor of the prisoner as well as against him, and urgent motives that may sway to acquit, as well as condemn. When the prisoner and prosecutor decline to challenge TEI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 629 any of the members, or where the causes of challenge have been dis- allowed, the judge-advocate proceeds to administer to the members of the court, the oath prescribed by the 69th Article of War, which is in the following words : " You, A. B., do swear, that you will well and truly try and determine, according to evidence, the matter now before you, between the United States of America and the prisoner to be tried ; and that you will duly administer justice according to the provisions of ' an act establishing rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States,' without partiality, favor or affec- tion : and if any doubt shall arise, not explained by said articles, ac- cording to your understanding and the custom of war in like cases : and you do further swear, that you will not divulge the sentence of the court, until it shall be published by the proper authority : neither will you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof, as a wit- xiess, by a court of justice in due course of law. So help you God." The oath is taken by each member holding up his right hand and re- peating the words after the judge-advocate. After the oath has been xidministered to all the members, the president administers to the judge-advocate, the particular oath of secrecy to be observed by him, and which, as prescribed by Article 69, is as follows : " You, A. B., do swear that you will not disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice in due course of law, nor divulge the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority, until it shall be duly disclosed by the same. So help you God." The oath taken by the president and members contains a twofold obligation to secrecy : 1st, That they will not divulge the sentence of the court, until it shall be published by proper authority ; and, 2d, That they shall not disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any partic- ular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof by a court of justice, in a due course of law. Both these ob- ligations have their foundation in reason and good policy. No sentence of a general court-martial is complete or final, until it has been duly approved. Until that period it is, strictly speaking, no more than an opinion, which is subject to alteration or revisal. In this interval, the communication of that opinion could answer no ends of justice, but might, in many cases, tend to frustrate them. The obli- gation to perpetual secrecy, with regard to the votes or opinions of the particular members of the court, is likewise founded on the wisest policy. The officers who compose a military tribunal are, in a great 630 MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [TEL degree, dependent for their preferment on the President. They are even, in some measure, under the influence of their commander-in-chief considerations which might impair justice. This danger is, therefore, best obviated by the confidence and security which every member pos- sesses, that his particular opinion is never to be divulged. Another reason is, that the individual members of the court may not be ex- posed to the resentment of parties and their connections, which can hardly fail to be excited by those sentences, which courts-martial are obliged to award. It may be necessary for officers, in the course of their duty, daily, to associate and frequently to be sent on the same command or service, with a person against whom they have given an unfavorable vote or opinion on a court-martial. The publicity of these votes or opinions would create the most dangerous animosities, equally fatal to the peace and security of individuals, and prejudicial to the public service. The oath which is taken by the judge-advocate, contains the same obligation to secrecy, except so far as it relates to the person who has the approving^ disapproving of the sentence of the court. It is not inconsistent with his oath or duty, for the judge-advocate to commu- nicate to the proper authority, his views of the proceedings of the court. The judge-advocate is, however, bound by oath, as well as the members of the court, to maintain the strictest secrecy with regard to the votes or opinions of individuals for the reasons above stated. The oath taken by the members of the court commences with these words : " You, A. B., do swear that you will well and truly try and determine, according to evidence, the matter now before you, between the United States of America and the prisoner to be tried ; " (Artx. 69.) The ex- pression, " prisoner," in the singular number, seems to imply that the swearing, and consequently the trial, should in each case be separate. That course should therefore be pursued. Application to delay the assembling of the court, from the absence or indisposition of the witnesses, the illness of the parties, or other cause, should be made, when practicable, to the authority convening the court ; but application to put off or suspend the trial may be urged with a court-martial, subsequent to the swearing of the members. It may be supported by affidavit, and the court, in allowing it to prevail, must be satisfied, if the cause be absence of a witness, that the testimony pro- posed to be offered is material, and that the applicant cannot have sub- stantial justice without it. The points, therefore, which each witness is intended to prove, must be set forth in the application, and it must also TRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. GG1 be shown that the absence of the witness is not attributable to any neglect of the applicant. A precise period of delay must be applied for, and it must be made to appear that there is reasonable expectation of procuring the attend- ance of the witness by the stated time ; or, if the absence of a witness be attributed to his illness, a surgeon, by oral testimony, or by affidavit, must state the inability of the witness to the court, the nature of his disease, and the time which will probably elapse before the witness may be able to give his testimony. The court must obviously be ad- journed at any period of its proceedings, prior to the final close of the prosecution and defence, on satisfactory proof, by a medical officer, that the prisoner is in such a state, that actual danger to his health would arise from his attendance in court ; and where the prisoner is so ill as to render it probable that his inability to attend the court will be of such continuance as to operate to the inconvenience of the service, either by the detention of the members of the court from their regi- ments, or from other cause, the court may be dissolved by the authority which convened it. Though the prisoner may have been arraigned, and the trial proceeded with, the prisoner, on recovery, would be amenable to trial by another court. The illness of the prosecutor would, in few cases, justify the suspension of the trial, excepting, perhaps, for a very limited period ; all prosecutions before courts-martial being considered at the suit of the United States, or an individual State, as the case may be. The court being regularly constituted, and every preliminary form gone through, the judge-advocate, as prosecutor for .the United States, desires the prisoner to listen to the charge or charges brought against him, which he reads with an audible voice, and then the prisoner is asked, whether he is guilty or not guilty of the matter of accusation. The charge being sufficient, or not objected to, the prisoner must plead either : 1st, Guilty ; or 2d, Specially to the jurisdiction, or in bar ; or 3d, The general plea of not guilty, which is the usual course where the prisoner makes a defence. If from obstinacy and design the prisoner stand mute, or answer foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment, as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded not guilty, (ART. 70 ;) but if the prisoner plead guilty, the court will proceed to determine what punishment shall be awarded, and to pronounce sentence thereon. Preparatory to this, in all cases where the punishment of the offence charged is discretionary, and especially where the discretion includes a wide range and great variety of punishment, and the specifications do not show all the circumstances attending the offence, the court should 632 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Tiu. receive and report, in its proceedings, any evidence the judge-advocate may offer, for tho purpose of illustrating the actual character of the offence, notwithstanding the party accused may have pleaded guilty ; such evidence being necessary to an enlightened exercise of the discre- tion of the court, in measuring the punishment, as well as for the ap- proving authority. If there be any exception to this rule, it is where the specification is so full and precise as to disclose all the circumstances (.f mitigation or aggravation which accompany the offence. When that is the case, or when the punishment is fixed, and no discretion is allowed, explanatory testimony cannot be needed. Special pleas are either to the jurisdiction of the court, or in bar of the charge. If an officer or soldier be arraigned by a court not legally constituted, cither as to the authority by which it is assembled, or as to the number and rank of its members, or other similar causes, a prisoner may except to the jurisdiction of the court-martial. Special pleas in bar go to the merits of the case, and set forth a reason why, even admitting the charge to be true, it should be dismissed, and the prisoner discharged. A former acquittal or conviction of the same offence would obviously be a valid bar, except in case of appeal from a regimental to a general court-martial. Though the facts in issue should be charged to have happened more than two years prior to the date of the order for the assembling of the court-martial, yet it is not the province of the court, unless objection be made, to inquire into the cause of the impediment in the outset. It would be to presume the illegality of the court, whereas the court should assume that manifest impediment to earlier trial did exist, and leave the facts to be developed by witnesses in the ordinary course. A pardon may be pleaded in bar. If full, it at once destroys the end and purpose of charge, by re- mitting that punishment which the prosecution seeks to inflict ; if conditional, the performance of the condition must be known ; thus, a soldier arraigned for desertion, must plead a general pardon, and prove that he surrendered himself within the stipulated period. No officer or soldier, being acquitted or convicted of an offence, is liable to be tried a second time for the same. But this provision ap- plies solely to trials for the same incidental act and crime, and to such persons as have, in the first instance, been legally tried. If any irreg- ularity take place on tho trial rendering it illegal and void, the prisoner must be discharged, and be regarded as standing in the same situation as before the commencement of these illegal proceedings. The same charge may, therefore, be again preferred against the prisoner who can- not plead the previous illegal trial in bar. TRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 633 A prisoner cannot plead in bar that he has not been furnished with a copy of the charges, or that the copy furnished him differed from that on which he has been arraigned. It is customary and proper to furnish him with a correct copy ; but the omission shall not make void, though it may postpone the trial. If the special plea in bar be such that, if true, the charge should be dismissed and the prisoner discharged, the judge-advocate should be called on to answer it. If he does not admit it to be true, the prisoner must produce evidence to the points alleged therein ; and if, on deliberation, the plea be found true, the facts being recorded, the court will adjourn and the president submit the proceed- ings to the officer by whose order the court was convened, with a view to the immediate discharge of the prisoner. The ordinary plea is not guilty, in which case the trial proceeds. The judge advocate cautions all witnesses on the trial to withdraw, and to return to court, only on being called. He then proceeds to the examination of witnesses, and to the reading and proof of any written evidence he may have to bring forward. After a prisoner has been arraigned on specific charges, it is irregular for a court-martial to admit any additional charge against him, even though he may not have entered on his defence. The trial on the charges first preferred, must be regularly concluded, when, if necessary, the prisoner may be tried on any further accusation brought against him. On the trial of cases not capital, before courts-martial, the deposition of witnesses not in the line or staff of the army, may be taken before some justice of the peace, and read in evidence, provided, the prosecutor and person accused are present at the same, or are duly notified thereof. The examination of witnesses is invariably in the presence of the court ; because, the countenance, looks, and gestures of a witness add to, or take away from, the weight of his testimony. It is usually by interrogation, sometimes by narration ; in either case, the judge-advocate records the evidence, as nearly as possible, in the ex- press words of the witness. All evidence, whatever, should be recorded on the proceedings, in the order in which it is received by the court. A question to a witness is registered before enunciation ; when once entered, it cannot be expunged, except by the consent of the parties before the court ; if not permitted to be put to the witness, it still ap- pears on the proceedings accompanied by the decision of the court. The examination in chief of each particular witness being ended, the cross-examination usually follows, though it is optional with the pris- oner to defer it to the final close of the examination in chief. The re- examination by the prosecutor, on such new points as the prisoner may 634 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Tui. have made, succeeds the cross-examination, and finally, the court puts such questions as in its judgment may tend to elicit the truth. It is customary, when deemed necessary by the court, or desired by a witness, to read over to him, immediately before he leaves the court, the record of his evidence, which he is desired to correct if erroneous, and, with this view, any remark or explanation is entered upon the proceedings. No erasure or obliteration is, however, admitted, as it is essentially necessary that the authority which has to review the sen- tence, should have the most ample means of judging, not only of any discrepancy in the statements of a witness, but of any incident which may be made the subject of remark, by either party in addressing the court. Although a list of witnesses, summoned by the judge-advocate, is furnished to the court on assembling, it is not held imperative on the prosecutor to examine such witness ; if he should not do so, however, the prisoner has a right to call any of them. Should the prisoner, having closed his cross-examination, think proper subsequently to recall a prosecutor's witness in his defence, the examination is held to be in chief, and the witness is subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor. Although either party may have concluded his case, or the regular examination of a witness, yet should a material question have been omitted, it is usually submitted by the party to the president, for the consideration of the court, which generally permitj it to be put. The prisoner being placed on his defence, may proceed at once to the ex- amination of witnesses ; firstly, to meet the charge, and secondly, to speak as to character, reserving his address to the court, until the con- clusion of such examination. The prisoner, having finished the exam- ination in chief of each witness, the prosecution cfoss-examines ; the prisoner re-examines, to the extent allowed to the prosecutor, that is, on such new points as the cross-examination may have touched on, and the court puts any questions deemed necessary. The prisoner, having finally closed his examination of witnesses, and selecting this period to address the court, offers such statement or argument as he may deem conducive to weaken the force of the prosecution, by placing his con- duct in the most favorable light, accounting for or palliating facts, con- futing or removing any imputation as to motives ; answering the argu- ments of the prosecutor, contrasting, comparing, and commenting on, any contradictory evidence ; summing up the evidence on both sides, where the result promises to favor the defence, and, finally, presenting his deductions therefrom. The utmost liberty consistent with the interest of parties not before TRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 635 the court and with the respect due to the court itself, should, at all times, be allowed a prisoner. As he has an undoubted right to im- peach, by evidence, the character of the witnesses brought against him, so he is justified in contrasting and remarking on their testimony, and on the motives by which they, or the prosecutor, may have been influ- enced. All coarse and insulting language is, however, to be avoided, nor ought invective to be indulged in, as the most pointed defence may be couched in the most decorous language. The court will prevent the prisoner from adverting to parties not before the court, or only alluded to in evidence, further than may be actually necessary to his own ex- culpation. It may sometimes happen, that the party accused may find it absolutely necessary, in defence of himself, to throw blame and even criminality on others, who are no parties to the trial ; nor can a pris- oner be refused that liberty, which is essential to his own justification. It is sufficient for the party aggrieved, that the law can furnish ample redress against all calumnious or unjust accusations. The court is bound to hear whatever address, in his defence, the accused may think fit to ofTer, not being in itself contemptuous or disrespectful. It is competent to a court, if it think proper, to caution the prisoner, as he proceeds, that, in its opinion, such a line of defence as he may be pursuing would probably not weigh with the court, nor operate in his favor ; but, to decide against hearing him state arguments, which, not- withstanding such caution, he might persist in putting forward, as grounds of justification, or extenuation, (such arguments not being ille- gal in themselves,) is going beyond what any court would be warranted in doing. It occasionally happens, that, on presenting to the court a written address, the prisoner is unequal to the task of reading it, from indisposition or nervous excitement ; on such occasions, the judge-advo- cate is sometimes requested by the president to read it ; but, as the impression which might be anticipated to be made by it, may, in the judgment of the prisoner, be affected more or less by the manner of its delivery, courts-martial generally feel disposed to concede to the accused the indulgence of permitting it to be read by any friend named by him, particularly if that friend be a military man, or if the judge-advocate be the actual prosecutor. Courts-martial are particularly guarded in ad- hering to the custom of resisting every attempt on the part of counsel to address them. A lawyer is not recognized by a court-martial, though his presence is tolerated, as a friend of the prisoner, to assist him by advice in preparing questions for witnesses, in taking notes, and shaping his defence. The prisoner having closed his defence, the prosecutor is entitled to 636 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Tni. reply, when witnesses have been examined on the defence, or where new facts are opened in the address. Thus, though no evidence may be brought forward by the prisoner, yet should he advert to any case, arid, by drawing a parallel, attempt to draw his justification from it, the prosecutor will be permitted to observe on the case so cited. When the court allows the prosecutor to reply, it generally grants him a reasonable time to prepare it ; and, upon his reading it, the trial ceases. Should the prisoner have examined witnesses to points not touched on in the prosecution, or should he have entered on an examination im- peaching the credibility of the prosecutor's evidence, the prosecutor is allowed to examine witnesses to the new matter ; the court being care- ful to confine him within the limits of this rule, which extends to the re-establishing the character of his witnesses, to impeaching those of the defence, and to rebutting the new matter brought forward by the pris- oner, supported by evidence. He cannot be allowed to examine on any points, which, in their nature, he might have foreseen previously to the defence of the prisoner. The prosecutor will not be permitted to bring forward evidence to rebut or counteract the effect of mutter elicited by his own cross-examination ; but is strictly confined to new matter intro- duced by the prisoner, and supported by his examination in chief. A defence, resting on motives, or qualify ing 'the imputation attaching to facts, generally lets in evidence in reply ; as, in such cases, the prisoner usually adverts, by evidence, to matter which it would have been impos- sible for the prosecutor to anticipate. The admissibility of evidence, in reply, may generally be determined by the answer to the questions : Could the prosecutor have foreseen this ? Is it evidently new matter ? Is the object of the further inquiry to re-establish the character of the witnesses impeached by evidence (not by declamation) in the course of the defence, or is it to impeach the character of the prisoner's wit- nesses ? Cross-examination of such new witnesses, to an extent limited by the examination in chief, that is, confined to such points or matter as the prosecutor shall have examined on, is allowed on the part of the prisoner. (See CHALLENGE ; COURT-MARTIAL ; JURISDICTION. Consult MACOMB.) TRIGGER. It has blade, tang or finger-piece, and hole for screw. (See ARMS.) TRIGONOMETRY. Ordinary trigonometrical tables contain the logarithm of the sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents for every ten seconds ; but if the values of any one of the four be computed for the different angles between and 90, the values of all the others will be obtained at the same time. Thus, since cos. A = sin. (90 A), a table TRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 637 of the values of the sine is also a table of the values of the cosine ; and since tan. A = sin. A -*- cos. A, the logarithm of the tangent of any angle isbbtained by subtracting the logarithm of the cosine from the logarithm of the sine, and the logarithm of the cotangent by subtracting the logarithm of the sine from that of the cosine. It is usual to desig- nate the semi-circumference of a circle whose radius is 1 by TT = 3.14159265. The solution of triangles is the proper object of trigonometry, and if tables contain the logarithms of the sines, cosines, tangents, and co- tangents to every minute or smaller division of the quadrant, the means will be easy of applying such tables to each particular case ; as, of the six parts of which a triangle consists, it is known from geometry that when any three except the three angles are known, all the rest are determined. Plane Trigonometry. A, J5, 67, the three angles ; , &, c, the three sides respectively opposite to them ; 7?, the tabular radius ; S, the area of the triangle ; p = %(a + b + c). Eight-angled Triangles : A being the right angle. sin. B. 12" a = Oblique-angled Triangles : a sin. sin. B (A - B) = tang. (A General Formula : E. sin. (a 5) = sin. a cos. 5 sin. 5 cos", a. E. cos. (a b) = cos. a cos. 5 sin. a sin. 5. JS. (sin. a sin. &) = 2 sin. ^ (a J) cos. -J (a 5). J?! (cos. a + cos. &) = 2 cos. i (a + 6) cos. i (a - 5). .#. (cos. a - cos. 5) = 2 sin. i (a + 5) sin. i (a - &). sin, a + sin. ~b _ tang. |(q + ft) cot, j (a - 5). sin. a - sin. J - 7? cos. __ Chord of J. = 2sin. A. - cos. 638 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TRO. FIG. 236. TROOP. A company of cavalry. A particular beat of the drum. TROPHY. Flags, colors, &c., captured from an enemy, and shown or treasured as a token of victory. Among the ancients, a trophy consisted of a pile or heap of arms taken from the vanquished troops, and raised by the conquerors on an eminence on the field of battle. As these were usually dedicated to some of the gods, it was considered sacri- lege to demolish a trophy. TROUS-DE-LOUP ortrapholes; are rows of pits in the form of inverted cones. They should be either 2J or 8 feet deep, so as not to be serviceable to the enemy's riflemen. Thcv should be traced in a check " ered form, and a strong pointed stake should be driven in the middle of each, (Fig. 236.) (See OBSTACLES.) TRUCK. The casemate truck weighs GOO Ibs., and is designed for transporting guns in casemate galleries. The store truck XX X XXXXX A xxxx XiXIXIX Weighs 80 Ibs ; it is a common hand truck used for moving boxes. TRUNNION. Short cylinder projecting from a piece of ordnance by which it rests upon its carriage. (See ORDNANCE.) TRUSS. (See CARPENTRY.) TUMBLER. (See ARMS ; LOCK ; MAYNARD'S Primer.) u UNDER. The correlative of over. (See COMMAND ; OBEDIENCE ; OVER ; SUPERIOR.) UNDRESS. Authorized habitual dress, not full uniform. The French designate the full dress as, grande temie ; the undress, as petite tenue. UNIFORM. Prescribed dress. The President shall have power to prescribe the uniform of the army ; (ART. 100.) UNMILITARY. Contrary to rules of discipline ; unworthy of a soldier. UNSPIKE. (See SPIKING.) UPBRAID. Any officer or soldier, who shall upbraid another for re- fusing a challenge, shall himself be punished as a challenger ; (ART. 28.) UTENSILS for camp and garrison are styled camp and garrison equipage, and are furnished by the quartermaster's department. The regulations allow : a general Officer, three tents in the field, one axe and one hatchet ; a field or staff officer above the rank of captain, two VEL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 639 tents in the field, one axe and one hatchet ; other staff* officers or cap- tains, one tent in the field, one axe and one hatchet ; subalterns of a company, to every two, one tent in the field, one axe and one hatchet ; to every 15 foot and 13 mounted men, one tent in the field, two spades, two axes, two pickaxes, two hatchets, two camp kettles, and five mess pans. Bed sacks are provided for troops in garrison, and iron pots may be furnished to them instead of camp kettles. Requisitions will be sent to the quartermaster-general for the authorized flags, colors, standards, guidons, drums, fifes, bugles and trumpets. The prescribed cooking utensils are evidently not adapted to field-service. The soldier is made too dependent on a baggage train. Some tools deemed necessary for service in the French army are also omitted in the enumeration of camp equipage furnished to the United States troops. (See TOOLS.) V VALUE. (& WEIGHTS.) VANGUARD. Advanced guard. VEDETTES OR VIDETTES. Sentries upon outposts, so placed that they can best observe the movements of an enemy, and communi- cate by signal to their respective posts and with each other. VELOCITIES. (See INITIAL.) Measurement of distances, ly sound. The velocity of sound, in one second of time at 32 Fahrenheit in dry air, is about 1,090 English feet. For any higher temperature, add 1 foot for every degree of the thermometer above 32. The measure- ment of distances by sound should always be made, if possible, in calm, dry weather. In cases of wind, the velocity per second must be cor- rected by the quantity, f cos. d ; f being the force of the wind in feet per second, and d the angle which its direction makes with that of the sound. Or, in general, in dry air, v = 1,090 feet -f (t 32) / cos. d. VELOCITY AND FORCE OF WINDS. Velocity in miles per 'hour. A wind, when it does not exceed the velocity oppo- site to it, maj r be denominated Velocity per second. Force on a square foot. 6.8 13.6 19.5 34.1 47.7 54.5 68.2 81.8 102.3 a gentle pleasant wind feet. 10 20 30 5K '70 80 100 120 150 Ibs. 0.129 0.915 2.059 5.718 11.207 14.638 22.872 32.926 51.426 a ve r v brisk cale .. ... & hi^h wind a very hi^h wind a storm or tempest a hurricane a violent hurricane, that tears up trees, etc. 040 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [VEK. VENT. The opening or passage in fire-arms, by means of which the charge is ignited. The diameter of the vent is two-tenths of an inch in ordnance, except the eprouvette, which is one-tenth. The vents of brass guns are bored in vent pieces of wrought copper, which are screwed into the gun. VERDICT. (See FINDING.) VETERAN". An old soldier. Twenty years' service in the army entitles an enlisted soldier to the privileges of the army asylum. (See ASYLUM.) VETERINARY. Veterinary surgeons are alone competent to treat grave cases of wounds and diseases in horses. Officers, however, may prevent accidents by watchfulness, recognize the existence of ail- ments, and by prompt care frequently relieve the horse entirely. Limping. The particular lameness is distinguished at a walk by observing that if a fore foot is lame, the horse raises the corresponding fore quarter before putting his foot to the ground. If a hind foot, he raises the hind quarter. At a trot, the contrary takes place. The horse should be watched in passing over ground of different degrees of hardness. For all lameness not connected with the shoe, prescribe rest, cold bathing, poultices. When there is pain in the joints, with swelling of the tissues, rub with spirits. Lameness from shoeing may proceed : 1st, from pricking. If the nail be at once withdrawn, and the pricking is not deep, the lameness is not immediate. It is necessary, however, to enlarge the opening, intro- duce the essence of turpentine and dress with pledget, or lint coated with the same substance ; act in the same way if the wound is old, after having taken out the nail, and cleared away to the bottom of the opening. 2. Bleyme, or inflammation in the foot of the horse between the sole and the bone. It is recognized by a red spot. Clear away the evil to the bottom, and dress as above. To prevent a return of the disease, it is perhaps necessary to clear away to the bottom of the offensive part for several successive shoeings. 3. Solbature is caused by the iron resting on the solo, or by a hard body introduced between the iron and the sole : clear the wounded part, apply a pledget coated with turpentine and retained in its place by a splint. Readjust the shoe. 4. Burnt sole is caused by an iron being applied when too hot and held too long. Act as in case of solbature. These accidents from shoeing are all shown by limping. The pre- cise seat of the accident is ascertained by pinching with the farrier's YET.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 641 pincers. If the horse is to march, attach the shoe \vith but few nails, simply to hold it in its place. Founder. There is great heat in the foot without apparent cause. The horse walks with difficulty, resting on the heel ; he shows discom- fort, want of appetite, fever. It is necessary to unshoe him ; cut the horn of the hoof to 1 the quick towards the toe ; even make it bleed ; bathe with cold salt water ; envelop the whole foot with linen soaked in vinegar to the crown ; later, rub hard from the ham to the knees with essence of turpentine and camphorated spirits : diet, bran with water. The horse must not march. Chaps, serosity of limbs. These exact cleanliness, washing with warm water and a little spirit of wine, and towards the termination of the ailment, with sub-acetate of lead. Injuries. At the least appearance of tumor stop the development of inflammation by washing with fresh water, vinegared or salted. Strengthen the tissues by friction with brandy, united with soap or camphor. Take off the load. Put on the saddle in such a way as to leave a space between it and the tumor. If the ailment increases, not- withstanding those precautions, it is necessary to relieve the horse from all weight, continuing the washings and rubbings. If the tumor still increases, open it. When opened wash the wound once a day only ; do not remove the pus entirely ; prevent its contact with the air by means of oakum or lint. When the wound begins to heal, its cicatriza- tion may be hastened by washing with sub-acetate of lead. When from their appearance tumors of the withers and loins seem to be soft and inclose red water, cut the hair smooth and apply a blister ointment, which it is rarely necessary to renew. When a horse is wounded under the tail, clean the wound and put in it the unguentum populi. For slight contusions from kicking, use twice a day the unguentum populi, and then rub the upper part with camphorated spirits. If the pain is severe, bleed and foment with warm mallows water. Internal affections. The ordinary symptoms are : dry and frequent cough, uneasiness and sadness, disgust of food, falling off; alteration of flank ; hair not smooth ; fever. Separate the horse from others ; put him to diet on bran, attending to the prescriptions of the veterinary surgeon. Examine the eyes, gently reversing the eylids, pass the hand into the mouth of the horse ; if the eye is red and the mouth very hot, bleed the horse, drawing from him 8 Ibs. of blood ; leave him two hours without eating ; rub him down well, cover him and give him some injections ; replace his allowance of oats with warm barbotage of barley-flour as much as possible. For want of appetite it is sufficient 41 642 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Vic. sometimes to sprinkle the forage with salt water. If the horse, in rising or lying down, looks at his flanks with an unquiet air he kas colic. In this case it is often sufficient in order to cure him to rub hard with rumpled linen upon the belly, and apply injections of decoctions of mallows or lettuce. If an hour or t\vo after the first trouble the colic is not over, call a veterinary surgeon ; death may take place in a short time. If a horse tries often to urinate, and shows pain, it is retention of urine. Recourse must be had to emollient injections, and to nitrated drinks. In certain diseases of the breast prompt succor is necessary. In grave cases, in the absence of the veterinary, put blisters or setons upon the breast, and bleed. The necessary tools, &c., are : syringes, bistouries, tape and needles to setons, dry oakum, camphorated spirits, soap, nitre, essence of turpen- tine, liquid, sub-acetate of lead, foot ointment, and unguentum populi. (See GLANDERS ; HORSE. Consult Memorial des Officiers tflnfanterie et de Cavalerie ; SKINNER'S Youatt.) VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. Using contemptuous or disrespectful words against, punishable by cashiering or otherwise at the discretion of a court-martial ; (ART. 5.) VICTUALS. Whosoever shall relieve the enemy with money, victuals, or ammunition, or shall knowingly harbor or protect an enemy shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 5G.) VILLAGES. Cavalry, the better to preserve their horses, should occupy villages whenever the distance of the enemy, and the time neces- sary to repair to its post in battle, will permit. Their quarters should be preferably farmhouses or taverns having large stables. Posts are established by the colonel or commanding officer, and the squadrons conducted to their quarters by their respective captains. Where in an exceptional case regular distributions are not made, the resources which the household assigned as quarters presents are equally divided. About two hours after their arrival the squadrons in succession water their horses and then give forage. Cavalry and infantry also should, when thus cantoned near an enemy, occupy, wherever it can be done, houses which will hold an entire company or some constituent fraction of a company, and at break of day stand to their arms. When in the same cantonment, cavalry should watch over the safety of the canton- ment by day and the infantry by night ; and in the presence of an enemy they should be protected by an advance guard ard natural or artificial obstacles. VINEGAR. On board ship vinegar is essential to the comfort of VOL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 643 horses, and should be freely used by sponging their mouths and noses repeatedly, and also their mangers. A small portion of vinegar drank with water supplies the waste of perspiration of men in the field. It is better than rum or whiskey ; it allays thirst, and men who use it avoid the danger of drinking cold water when heated, and are not fevered as they are too apt to be by the use of spirituous liquors ; (Dr. RUSH.) VIOLENCE. Any officer or soldier who shall offer any violence against his superior officer, being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever, punished by death or otherwise, according to the nature of his offence ; (ART. 9.) Violence to any person who brings provisions to the camp, garrisons, or quarters to the forces of the United States*employed in any part out of the said States, punishable in like manner; (ART. 51.) VOLUNTEERS. Whereas sundry corps of artillery, cavalry, and infantry now exist in several of the States, which by the laws, cus- toms, or usages thereof, have not been incorporated with, or subject to, the general regulations of the militia ; such corps shall retain their accustomed privileges, subject, nevertheless, to all other duties required by this act in like manner with the other militia ; (Act May 8, 1792.) (See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; and MILITIA.) This class of uniformed militia exists in every State of the Union. It is a regular, unpaid force, composed generally of men engaged in such private business operations, as must always prevent their being em- ployed except in their immediate vicinage. But in cases of riot, or the defence of their own firesides, town or city, experience has shown it to be a most reliable organization. There is, however, another class of troops, also called volunteers, which have from time to time been raised by Congress for temporary purposes. Such troops are properly United States and not State troops. The manner in which their officers are to be appointed is therefore always designated by Congress. The act of May 28, 1798, authorized the President to appoint the company officers of such volunteers ; the act of June 22, 1798, directed that the field- officers of such volunteers should be appointed by the President and Senate ; the act of May 23, 1836, directed that the officers of volunteers then raised, should be appointed in the manner prescribed by law in the several States and Territories to which such companies, battalions, squadrons, regiments, brigades, or divisions shall respectively belong ; the act of March 3, 1839, applies the same provision to the volunteers then authorized; the act of May 13, 1846, contains the same provision as to appointment of officers ; and the act of June 26, 1846, authorizes the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to 644 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [VOL, appoint such number of major-generals and brigadier-generals as the organization of such volunteer forces (raised by the act of May 13, 1846) into brigades and divisions, may render necessary j and in case the brigades or divisions of volunteers at any time in the service shall be reduced in number, the brigadier-generals and major-generals herein provided for shall be discharged in proportion to the reduction in the number of brigades and divisions. There should, then, be no question that these volunteers are United States troops raised by Congress under its constitutional authority to raise and support armies ; but, strangely enough, the officers have been usually commissioned by their respective States. It becomes, therefore, an important question to ascertain, if possible, by experience, whether the advantages which attend raising armies in this particular way are not greatly counterbalanced by its disadvantages ; whether the effi- ciency of such an irregular force is in any degree commensurate with its cost ; and whether deaths, diseases, discharges, and other casualties do not in such a force accumulate in such numbers as to deprive the Government of the moral right thus uselessly to sacrifice the citizens of the country. The statistics of the Mexican war, published by Congress, (Doc. 24, House of Representatives, 31st. Congress, 1st Session,) furnish the fol- lowing startling facts : REGULAR ARMY. AGGREGATE FORCE. LENGTH OF SERVICE. Old establishment, 15,736 26 months. Additional force, 11,186 15 " The old establishment of the regular army, with an aggregate of 15,736 men during 26 months' service, lost by discharges for disability 1,782 men ; by ordinary deaths, 2,623 men ; and by deaths from wounds in battle, 792 men. The additional regular force, with an aggregate of 11,186 men during 15 months' service, lost by discharges for disability 767 men; by ordinary deaths, 2,091 men ; and by deaths from wounds in battle, 143 men. The volunteer force, with an aggregate of 73,532 men during an average of 10 months' service, lost by discharges for disability 7,200 men ; by ordinary deaths, 6,256 men ; and by deaths from wounds in battle, 613 men. The number of wounded in battle were : In the old establishment, 1,803 men ; in the additional regular force, 272 men ; and in the volun- teers, 1,318 men. The number of deserters were, in the whole regular force, 2,849 men ; and in the volunteer force, 3,876 men. VOL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 645 These statistics require no commentary to show the waste of life and money in employing volunteers. But without explanation they do not show the numbers of each description offeree engaged in the differ, ent battles of Mexico, or how, with such a large aggregate of forces employed in Mexico, Taylor's battles were fought with never more than 6,000 men, and Scott had at his disposition only about 1 1,000 men for the inarch from Puebla and the capture of the city of Mexico. An analysis of the aggregates offerees engaged in those battles is therefore necessary, to ascertain by whom they were won, and this will lead to a subsequent inquiry, which will show why such ostentatious aggregates furnished so small a body of men for the great operations of the war. Regular Army. Ex-Doc. 24, House of Representatives, 31st Con- gress, 1st Session, shows that the old regular force on the frontier of Texas, May, 1846, at the commencement of the war was 3,554 men present and absent. This force alone under Taylor fought the battles on the Rio Grande, with an aggregate loss of killed in battle and died of wounds, of 72 men. There were wounded in the same affairs 147 men. May 24, volunteers began to arrive on the Rio Grande. August 1, General Taylor reports that the volunteer forces ordered to report to him are much greater than he can employ, and regrets that one divi- sion of volunteers should not have been encamped at Pass Christian, where it could have been instructed ; (Doc. 119, House of Representa- tives, 29th Congress, 2d Session.) For the march from Camargo upon Monterey, General Taylor or- ganized a force of volunteers of about 3,000 men, and about the same number of regulars. The volunteers lost 74 men killed and died of wounds in the battle of Monterey, Sept. 21, 22, and 23, 1846, and had 218 men wounded. The regulars lost in the same battle 68 men, and had 150 men wounded. At the battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 22 and 23, there were engaged 517 regulars and about 4,400 volunteers. The loss of the regulars 8 killed and died of wounds, and 36 wounded ; the loss of the volunteers 269 killed and died of wounds, and 372 wounded. At the siege of Vera Cruz, March, 1847, there were 6,808 regulars and 6,662 volunteers. The loss of the regulars 10 killed and died of wounds, and 26 wounded ; the volunteers lost 2 killed and 25 wounded. At Cerro Gordo, April, 1847, there were 6,000 regulars and 2,500 volunteers. The loss of the regulars was 61 killed and died of wounds, and 201 wounded ; the loss of the volunteers 38 killed and died of wounds, and 152 wounded. 646 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [VOL. At Contreras, Churubusco, San Antonio, and San Augustine, August 19 and 20, 1847, there was an aggregate of 9,GS1 of old and new reg- ulars and marines, and 1,526 volunteers. The regulars lost in killed and died of wounds 137 men, and 653 wounded ; the volunteers lost 52 men killed and died of wounds, and 212 wounded. At Molino del Rey, September 8, 1847, there were 3.251 regulars engaged. Lost 195 men killed and died of wounds ; 582 wounded. At Chapultcpec, and the capture of the city of Mexico, September 12, 13, and 14, 1847, the whole army for duty was 8,304 men. Reg- ulars 7,035 men; volunteers 1,290 men. The regulars lost 144 killed and died of wounds, and 434 wounded ; the volunteers 44 killed and died of wounds, and 239 wounded. In all other incidental affairs and skirmishes, mostly with guerilla parties of the enemy during the whole war, the aggregate losses of the regulars were 65 killed and died of wounds, and 163 wounded ; the loss of volunteers 62 killed and died of wounds, and 130 wounded. Having thus analyzed the losses in battle of the regulars and volun- teers, and given the numbers of each engaged in the important battles of the war, the inquiry recurs : why, with an aggregate of 73,000 vol- unteers and 26,922 regulars reported as being employed during the war, so small a body should have been at the disposition of command- ers for marching against the enemy. The first reason was undoubtedly the defective plan of campaign upon which the war was begun. Immediately after the victories of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, the public mind was inflamed. The volunteer system caused great numbers to flock to the standard of the country. The pressure upon the Administration was great for their reception. General Taylor was flooded with volunteers for whom he could find no employment. A plan of campaign was therefore devised in Washington, for inarching on New Mexico, marching on Chihuahua, marching on Monterey, and marching on California, with different de- tachments, thus hastily collected together without taking the necessary measures to organize and instruct the troops, and without first providing the materiel indispensable for such long marches. The plan was there- fore defective in all those respects, but still more defective in its pre- dominant idea of striking at remote frontiers of the enemy instead of marching on his capital. It was like pricking the fingers of man instead of pointing a dagger at some vital part. The second and paramount reason why with such large aggregates offerees mustered into service so few were employed in battles, is the failure of the law to provide for a well-digested system of national de- VOL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 047 fence prepared in peace, \vhich would enable Congress and the Executive to meet any crisis in foreign affairs. This want caused the reception into service of 12,601 volunteers for 3 months at the beginning of the war with Mexico. These lost 16 men killed in battle and died of wounds ; 129 by ordinary deaths, 922 by discharge, and 546 by deser- tion. Those killed in battle belonged to the Texas horse and foot, and they alone were engaged with an enemy. Upon the declaration that war existed by the act of Mexico, Con- gress, however, authorized the President to accept volunteers for twelve months or for the war. He accordingly received 27,063 v men of this class for twelve months. They lost during their service, killed in action or died of wounds, 439 men ; by ordinary deaths 1,859 men ; by dis- charges 4,(>36 men ; and by desertion 600 men. Some of this class of volunteers rendered most effective service at Monterey, Buena Vista, Vera Cruz, and Cerro Gordo. The great mistake committed in regard to them was in receiving them for the short period of twelve months. Generally mustered into service in June, 1846, they were entitled to discharge in June, 1847, at a moment when their services were much needed, in order to strike a decisive blow at the capital of Mexico. Every effort was made to re-engage them, but without success ; and General Scott, who had been employed to conduct military operations on the line from Vera Cruz to the capital, reluctantly put over 3,000 of these men in march from Jalapa to the United States in May, 1847, when he had ascertained that his column was not likely soon to be re- inforced by more than 960 army recruits, and the services of those volunteers for the short remainder of their time could therefore no longer be usefully employed. Meanwhile the Administration, having late in 1846 awakened from its dream of conquering a peace, by direct- ing blows against remote extremities of Mexico, had at last adopted the plan of striking at the vitals of their enemy. General Scott was put in command. Some volunteers were at once mustered into service for the war, but in insufficient numbers. Out of the whole force raised for the war, General Scott only received in time for his operations a regiment from New York, two from Pennsylvania, and one from South Carolina, and one company under Captain Wheat, who alone re-engaged themselves from the whole number of twelve-months volunteers ; and these were the only regiments of volunteers, which took part in the battles in the valley of Mexico, and the capture of the city, September 14, 1847, which secured the conquest of peace. The whole volunteer force raised for service during the war with Mexico, (but with the excep- tions stated, too late for important military operations,) were 33,596 648 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [VOL. men. They lost 152 men killed and died of wounds ; ordinary deaths 4,420 ; discharges 3,890 men ; and desertions 2,730 men. Of the 152 who were killed in battle or died of wounds, 134 belonged to the regi- ments mentioned as being with General Scott. It was not until Dec., 1847, months after the occupation of the capital, that other volunteers for the war reached Gen. Scott's head-quarters in the city of Mexico. The same want of administrative ability was shown by the War Department in despatching regulars to the scat of war. Doc. 24, H. of R., 31st Congress, 1st Session, exhibits an aggregate of 15,736 men of the old regular regiments, and 11,186 men of the new regular regi- ments in all 26,922 regulars employed during the war, and yet the largest regular force employed at any one time against the enemy was less than 10,000 men. Let us endeavor to ascertain how this happened. It has been seen that the whole regular force on the frontiers of Texas at the beginning of the war was 3,554 men, and that this force fought the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Fort Brown in May, 1846. In September, this force had not been largely increased ; for, at the battle of Monterey, Taylor had only about 3,000 regulars. In February and March, 1847, the regular force employed both at Buena Vista and at Vera Cruz had been increased to 7,425 men. And in April, 1847, at Cerro Gordo, and on the line to Vera Cruz and at Tampico, the whole regular force did not exceed 8,000 men. These all belonged to the old regular regiments. ^ Meantime, February 11, 1847, Congress passed an act for raising one regiment of dragoons* and nine regiments of infantry. But none of these troops reached Gen. Scott's head-quarters at Puebla, until July and August, 1847. The last detach- rnent came up August 6, and Gen. Scott marched on the city of Mexico, August 7, 1847, with only 2,564 new regulars. The forces which took part in the battles in the valley of Mexico were then : Old regular regiments . . . X 6.446 men. New regular regiments .... 2,365 " Marines 27 1 " Volunteers 1,569 10,651 men. The greater part of the additional force of regulars raised for the war, as well as the very large numbers of volunteers raised for the same purpose, were not, it thus appears, put at the disposition of military commanders, until final success in battles had already been accom- plished. The following tables, giving losses by regiments, &c., are from the report of the adjutant-general of Dec. 3, 1849 : VOL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 649 . a, '-2 8 <; V s > o s> 2 e 3 -5? < 5 w w o DED TTLE. FR EMPL A MUS INTO VI U3UI PUB sasogjo sq^Bap jo jaqinnu co" " Total killed and died of wounds. S il I- saooiyo s e jaquiuu n IJAIO pus jo 80JA 3uuup a aas jo q^Suai a^Bj uatn pne jo jdqcanu " i-r r o 3 % s S I I 650 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [VOL. RECAPITULATION OF LOSS IN BATTLE OF THE REGULAR ARMY, BY REGI- MENTS AND CORPS, IN THE CAMPAIGN OF 1840. BEGIMENTS AND COEPS. KILLED IN BATTLE. WOUNDED. 'O p III ti!2 ~ < a DIED OF WOCNDS. O d 3 1 i d i % I i B i o S "3 General staff i i i 2 1 1 2 11 19 6 9 28 17 31 1 1 2 23 38 7 11 33 22 43 1 59 49 49 17 71 8 Engineers Topographical engineers 1 1 1st regiment dragoons. . . 2d * 1st regiment artillery 3 2 14 17 1 2 5 5 12 17 19 1 2 5 5 12 1 20 17 9 2 12 8 11 19 6 8 26 16 2s '"i" 2 1 3 1 1 3 4 1 1 4 4 ^ 2d " " 3d " " 1 "2" 4th " " 1st regiment of infantry.. 8d " " "I! 4th " 5th " " ""i" 5 2 15 15 9 2 10 8 2 4 3 8 36 80 86 12 51 39 32 40 15 T>9 1 2 1 4 3 "io" 2 6 3 1 10 7th " " 1 8th " " Corps not specified Total in campaign of 1846. 2 3 18 107 ' 125 81 279 810 435 8 27 S5 RECAPITULATION OF LOSS OF REG^AR ARMY, IN THE CAMPAIGN OF 1847. REGIMENTS AND COEPS. KILLED IN BATTLE. WOUNDED. 8 DIED OP WOUNDS. I I 1 I I 1 1 General staff 1 1 2 2 2 2 10 1 22 42 37 13 Iff 113 163 84 84 8 2 10 1 27 56 46 20 181 142 185 100 106 Surgeons 1 .... 1 Engineers 5 1 2 8 6 4 11 5 8 ' 2 5 "'20' 39 31 9 144 108 160 82 81 Topographical engineers. Ordnance 5 14 8 7 24 25 21 13 20 5 14 9 7 26 29 22 16 22 .._.. 1 "5" 1 1 5 1st regiment dragoons ' 2d " " 1 8d " " Regiment mounted riflemen 1st regiment artillery.. . . . 2 4 1 8 2 2 1 2 15 1 19 13 4 17 2 21 13 4 2d " " 3d " " 4th " " 2d " " 3d " 3 25 20 25 86 84 18 84 10 28 20 27 41 84 20 84 11 9 4 6 8 5 8 13 5 1 4 4 170 128 59 153 64 '"42" 33 129 106 94 178 1:33 62 171 69 1 46 87 157 125 121 219 167 82 205 80 1 58 41 1 .... 2 2 '2' '1 4 15 11 19 13 29 2 4 16 13 21 13 81 4th " " 2 5 5th " " 6th " " 7tb " " 2 8th " " 9th " " 1 10th " " .... llth " " 2 10 12 4 4 12th " " 13th " .... 14th " " 6 6 i 7 11 13 | 6 15 97 22 103 28 116 .... 4 4 1 '2 15th " " 2 16th " " 9 6 9 7 14 4 140 24 9 11 9 160 28 9 11 10 169 35 9 24 11 2 1 1 12 1 13 1 i United States navy :::::::: Aggregate in the campaign of 1847. Aggregate in the campaign of 1846. Aggreeate of resnlar army killed andVounded'in 1846 and 1847. 154 27 83 18 898 107 431 125 143 1.953 31 279 2,090 2,527 310 435 IS 8 172 35 51 505 556 174 i 2,232 2.406 2,962 26 181 207 WAD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 651 RECAPITULATION OF LOSS IN BATTLE OF THE VOLUNTEER FORCES IN THE CAMPAIGN OF 1847, AND AGGREGATE OF THEIR LOSSES IN 1846. REGIMENTS AND CORPS. KILLED IN BATTLE. WOUNDED. vt]>2 ^ V DIED OP WOUNDS. Oflacers. a 1 H 1 o i I Officers. d fort' rth American. A Treatife on the Camp and March. With which is connected the Construction of Field Works and Mil itary Bridges ; with an Appendix of Artillery Ranges, &c. For the use of Volunteers and Militia in the United States. By Capt. HENRY D. GRAFTON, U. S. A. 1 vol. 12mo, cloth. 75 cents. Manual for Engineer Troops, Comprising Drill and Practice for Ponton Bridges, and PASLEY'S Rules for Conducting Operations for a Siege. The Sap, Military Mining and Construction of Batteries. By Capt. J. C. DUANE, TJ. S. Engineers. Plates and woodcuts. 12rno, cloth. Hf. mor. $2-00 New Manual of Sword and Sabre Exercife. By Captain J. C. KELTON, U. S. A. Thirty plates. In Press. D. Van Nostrand^s Publications. Notes- on Sea-Coaft Defence : Consisting of Sea-Coast Fortification ; the Fifteen-Inch Gun ; and Casemate Embrasures. By Gen. J. G. BARNARD, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. 1 vol. 8vo, cloth, plates. $1 60. "This small volume by one. of the most accomplished officers in the United States service is especially valuable at this time. Concisely and thoroughly Major Barnard discusses the subjects included in this volume, and gives infor- mation that will be re;id with great profit by military men, and by all interested in the art of war as a defensive force," New York Commercial. "It is no light compliment when we say that'Major Barnard's book does no ' longs. He writes concisely, and wi' -JiusselFa Army and 2i at y Gazette. discredit to the corps to which he belongs. He writes concisely, and with a thorough knowledge of Li3 subject." Ru*8t~~ Instructions for Naval Light Artillery, Afloat and Ashore. By Lieut. S. B. LUCE, TJ. S. N. 1 vol. 8vo, with 22 lithographic plates. Cloth. $2.00, Steam for the Million. A Popular Treatise on Steam and its Application to the Useful Arts, especially to Navigation. By J. II. WARD, Commander U. S. Navy. New and revised edition. 1 vol. 8vo, cloth. $1. "A most excellent work for the young engineer nnd peneral reader. Many facts relating to the management of'the boiler and engine are set forth with a simplicity of language, and perfection of detail, that brings the subject home to the reader. Mr. Ward is also peculiarly happy in his illustrations." American Engineer. Screw Propulfion. Notes on Screw Propulsion, its Rise and History. By Capt. W. II. WALKER, U. S. Navy. 1 vol. 8vo., cloth. 75 cents. " Some interesting notes on screw propulsion, its rise and progress, have iust been issued by Commander W. II. WALKER, U. S. N., from which all that is likely to be desired on the subject may be readily acquired. * * * * 'After thoroughly demonstrating the efficiency of the screw. Mr. Walker proceeds to point out the various other points to bo attended to in order to secure an effi- cient man-of-war, and eulogizes throughout the readiness of the British Admi- ralty to test every novelty calculated to give satisfactory results. * * * * Commander Walker's book contains an immense amount of concise practical data, and every item of information recorded fully proves that the various points bearing xipon it have been well considered previously to expressing an opinion." London Mining Journal. " Every engineer ehould, have it in his library." American Engineer. J). Van Nostranfrs Publications. Evolutions of Field Batteries of Artillery. Translated from the French, and arranged for the Army and Militia of the United States. By Gen. ROBERT ANDERSON, U. S. Army. Published by order of the War Department. 1 vol. cloth, 32 plates. $1. WAR DEPARTMENT, Nov. M, 1859. The System of " Evolutions of Field Batteries, 1 ' translated from the French, and arranged for the service of the United States, by Major Robert Anderson, of the 1st Kegiinent of Artillery, having been approved by the President, ia published fur the information and government of the army. All Evolutions of Field Batteries not embraced in this system are prohibited, and those herein prescribed will be strictly observed. J. B. FLOYD, Secretary of War. "This system having been adopted by the War Department, is to the artil- lerist what Hardee's Tactics is to the infantry soldier; the want of a work like this has been seriously felt, and will be eagerly welcomed." Louisville Journal Hiftory of the United States Naval Academy With. Biographical Sketches, and the names of all the Superintendents, Professors and Graduates, to which is added a Record of some of the earliest Votes by Congress, of Thanks, Medals and Swords to Naval Officers. By EDWAED CHAUNCEY MARSHALL, A. M., formerly Instructor in Captain Kinsley's Military School at "West Point, Assistant Professor in the N. Y. University, etc. $1. Ordnance and Gunnery. A Course of Instruction in Ordnance and Gunnery. Compiled for the Use of the Cadets of the United States Military Academy. By Captain J. G. BENTON, Ordnance Department U. S. A., late Instructor of Ordnance and the Science of Gunnery, U. S. Mili- tary Academy, West Point, and First Assistant to the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 1 vol. 8vo, half morocco, $5. Capt. Bonton has carefully revised and corrected this valuable work on Ord- nance and Gunnery, the first edition of which was published only about a year ago. The many important improvements introduced in this brunch" of the service have rendered such a revision necessary. The present edition will be invalua- ble, not only to the student, but as a standard book of reference on the subject of which it treats. D. Van N'ostrand^s Publications. Scott's Military Dictionary. Comprising Technical Definitions ; Information on Raising and Keeping Troops ; Actual Service, including makeshifts and improved materiel, and Law, Government, Regulation, and Administration relating to Land Forces. By Colonel H. L. SCOTT, Inspector-General U. -S. A. 1 vol., large octavo, fully illustrated, half morocco. $6. " It is a complete Encyclopaedia of Military Science." Philadelphia Even- ing Bulletin. " "We cannot speak too much in legitimate praise of thia work." National Intelligencer. " It should be made a Text-book for the study of every Volunteer. " liar- per's Magazine. " Wo cordially commend it to public favor.' 1 Washington Glolie. "T is comprehensive and skilfully prepared work supplies a want that has lon^ boon felt, and will be peculiarly valuable at this time us a book of refer- ence." JBofston Commercial Bulletin. "The Military Dictionary is splendidly got up in every way, and reflects credit on the publisrr-r. The officers of every company in the service should possess it."-/. Y. TaUet. "The work is more properly Military Enrycloprcdia, and is profusely illus- trated with engravings. It appears to contain every thing that can be wanted in the shape of information by officers of ail grades." Philadelphia North American. "This book is really an Encyclopedia, botli elementary and technical, and as such occupies a gap in military literature which has long been mo-t incon- veniently vacant. This book meets a present popular want, and will be secured not only by thise embarking in the profession but by a great number of civilians, who are determined to follow the descriptions and to understand the philoso- phy of the various movements of the campaign. Indeed, no tolerably good library would be complete without the work." New York Titnvn. "The work has evidently been compiled from a careful consultation of tho best authorities, enriched with the results of the experience and personal knowledge of the author. 11 ^. Y Daily Tribune. " Works liko the present are invaluable. The officers of our Volunteer ser- vice would all do well to possess themselves of the. volume." .y. 1'. Herald. New Bayonet Exercise. A New Manual of the Bayonet, for the Army and Militia of the United States. By Colonel J. C. KELTON, U. S. A. With thirty beautifully-engraved plates. Red cloth. $1.75. This Manual was prepared for the use of the Corps of Cadets, and has been Introduced at the Military Acairlemy with satisfactory results. It is simply the theory of the attack arid defence of the sword applied to the bayonet, on the authority of men skilled in the use of arms. > The Manual contains practical lessons in Fencing, and prescribes the de- fence again&t Cavalry and the manner of conducting a contest with a Sworda- man. "This work merits a favorable reception at the hands of all military men. It contains all the instruction necessary to enable an officer to drill his men in the use of this weapon. The introduction of the Sabre Bayonet in our Army renders p, tr.owledge of this exercise mora imperative.'WV'ettJ York Times. JD. Van Nostrand's Publications. Hand- Book of Artillery, For the Service of the United States Army and Militia. New and revised edition. By Maj. JOSEPH ROBERTS, U. S. A. 1 vol. ISrno, cloth, New and enlarged edition. $1 00. "A complete catechism of gun practice, coYorins the -whole ground of this branch of military science, and adapted to militia and volunteer drill, as well as to the regular army. It has the merit of precise detail, even to the technical names of all parts of a gun, and how the smallest operations connected with its use can be best performed. It h::s evidently been prepared with great care, and with strict scientific accuracy. By the recommendation of a committee appointed by the commanding officer of the Artillery School at Fort Monroe, "Va., it has been substituted for 'Burns 1 Questions and Answers,' an English work which has heretofore been the text-book of instruction in this country." New York Century. New Infantry Tactics, For the Instruction, Exercise, and Manoeuvres of the Soldier, a Com- pany, Line of Skirmishers, Battalion, Brigade, or Corps d'Armee. By Brig. -Gen. SILAS CASEY, U. S. A. 3 vols. 24mo. Half roan, lithographed plates. $2.50. YOL. I. School of the Soldier ; School of the Company ; In- struction for Skirmishers. VOL. II. School of the Battalion. YOL. III. Evolutions of a Brigade ; Evolutions of a Corps d'Armee. The manuscript of this new system of Infantry Tactics was carefully ex- amined by General MCCLET.LAN, and met with his unqualified approval, which, he has since manifested by authorizing General CASEY to adopt it for his entire division. The author has retained much that is valuable contained in the sys- tems of SCOTT and HAKDEE, but has made many important changes and addi- tions which experience and the exigencies of the service require. General CASEY'S reputation as an accomplished soldier and skilful tactician is a guar- antee that the work he has undertaken has been thoroughly performed. "These volumes are based on the French ordonncfnces of 1831 and 1845 for the manoeuvres of heavy infantry and chasseurs d pud ; both of these systems have been in use in our service for some years, the former having been trans- lated by Gen. Scott, and the latter by Col. Hardee. After the introduction of the latter drill in our service, in connection with Gen. Scott's Tactics, there arose the necessity of a uniform system for the manoeuvres of all the infantry arm of the service. These volumes are the result of the author's endeavor to communicate the instruction, now used and adopted in the army, to achieve this result." Boston Journal. " Based on the best precedents, adnpted to the novel requirements of the art of war, and very full in its instructions, Casey's Tactics will be received as the most useful and most comprehensive work of its kind In our language. From the drill and discipline of the individual soldier, or through all the various combinations, to the manoeuvres of a brigade and the evolutions of a Corps D'Armee, the student is advanced by a clear method and steady progress. Nu- merous cuts, plans, and diagrams illustrate positions and movements, and de- monstrate to the eye the exact working out of the individual position, brigading, order of battle, &c., &c. The work is a model of publishing success, being in three neat pocket volumes," New Yorker- D. Van Nostrand^s Publications. Elements of Military Art and History. Comprising the History of the Tactics of the separate Arras, the Com- bination of the Arms, and the minor operations of War. By ED- WARD DE LA BARRE DUPARCQ, Captain of Engineers, and Profes- sor of the Military Art in the Imperial School of Saint Cyr. Translated by Brig.-Gen. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. A., Chief of the Staff of Major-General H. W. Ilalleck, U. S. A. 1 vol 8vo cloth. $4. "I read the original a few years since, and considered it the very best work I had seen uj>on the subject, (Jen. Culluui's ability and familiarity with the technical language of French military writers, are a sufficient guarantee of the cor- rectness of his translation. "II. W. IIALLECK, Major-Gen., U. S. A." " I have read the book with preat interest, and trust that it will have a large circulation. It cannot fail to do good by spreading that, very knowledge, tin- want of which among our new. Inexperienced, and untaught BOldien, has cost us BO many lives, and so much toil and treasure. "M. C. MEIGS, Quartermaster Gen., U. S. A/' " I have carefully read most of Gen. Cullum's translation of M. Barrc Puparcq's 'Elements of Military Art and History.' His a plain, concise work, well suited to our service. Our volunteers should rend and study it. 1 wish it could be widely circulated among our officers. It would irivc them a comprehensive knowledge of the different arms of the service, and invite further investigation into the pro- fession of arms which they have adopted. A careful study ol such works will make our officers learned and skilful, as well as wise ami "successful ; and they have ample time .while they are campaigning to improve themselves In this re- gard- OE 01 T KTIS, Major-General, U. S. A." European Ordnance and Iron-Clad Defences, "With some account of the American Practice, embracing the Fabri- cation and Test of Heavy Guns; Projectiles and Rifling; the Manufacture and Test of Armor, from official data, with a de- tailed account of English experiments ; the principles, structure, and classification of Iron-Clad Vessels ; Marine Steam Machinery, &c. By ALEX. L. HOLLEY, B. P., author of " American and European Railway Practice," &c. 1 vol. 8vo, cloth. With two hundred and fifty illustrations. In press. Cavalry: its History, Management, and Uses in War. By J. ROEMER, late an Officer of Cavalry in the service of the Nether- lands. 1 vol. 8vo. With over two hundred beautifully engraved illustrations. Price $5 00. D. Van N'ostrand" > s Publications. Rifles and Rifle Practice. An Elementary Treatise on the Theory of Rifle Firing ; explain- ing the causes of Inaccuracy of Fire and the manner of cor- recting it ; with descriptions of the Infantry Rifles of Europe and the Uiilted States, their Balls and Cartridges. By Capt. C. M. WILCOX, U. S. A. New edition, with engravings and cuts. Green cloth. $1.75. "Although eminently a scientific work, special care seems to hare been taken to avoid the use of technical terms, and to make the whole subject readily comprehensible to the practical enquirer. It was designed chiefly lor the use of Volunteers and Militia; but the War Department has evinced its ap- proval of its merits by ordering from the publisher one thousand copies, for the use of the United States Army. 11 Louisville Journal. " The book will be found intensely interesting to all who are watching the chansrcs in the art of war arising from the introduction of the new rifled arms. We recommend to our readers to buy the book." Military Gazette. " A most valuable treatise." 1 New York Herald. "This book is quite original in its character. That character is complete- ness. It renders a study of most of the works on the rifle that have been published quite unnecessary. We cordially recommend the book." United Service Gazette, London. "The work being in all its parts derived from the best sources, is of the highest authority, and will be accepted as the standard on the subject of which it treats/' New Yorker. Army Officer's Pocket Companion. Principally designed for Staff Officers in the Field. Partly trans- lated from the French of M. DE ROUTRE, Lieutenant-Colonel of the French Stan Corps, with Additions from Standard Amer- ican, French, and English Authorities. By WM. P. CRAIGHILL, First Lieutenant U. S. Corps of Engineers, Assist. Prof, of Engineering at the U. S. Military Academy, West Point. 1 vol. 18mo. Full roan. 1.50. "I have carefully examined Capt. CRAIGHILL'S Pocket Companion. I find it one of the very best works of the kind I have ever seen. Any Army or Volunteer officer who will make himself acquainted with the contents of this little book, will seldom be ignorant of his duties in camp or field." H. W. HALLECK, . Major-General U. S. A. " I have carefully examined the ' Manual for Staff Officers in the Field.' It is a most invaluable work, admirable in arrangement, perspicuously written, abounding in most useful matters, and such a book as should be the constant pocket companion of every armv officer, Regular and Volunteer." G. W. CULLUM, Brigadier-General U. S. A. Chief of General Halleck's Staff, Chief Engineer Department Mit-sissippi. "This little volume contains a large amount of indispensable information relating to officers 1 duties in the siege, camp, and field, and will prove to them a most valuable pocket companion. It is illustrated with plans and drawings." Boston Com. Bulletin. D. Van Nostranfrs Publications. Sword-Play, THE MILITIAMAN'S MANUAL AXD SWORD-PLAY WITHOUT A MASTER. Rapier and Broad-Sword Exercises copiously Explained and Illustrated ; Small- Arm Light Infantry Drill of the United States Army ; Infantry Manual of Percussion Mus- kets ; Company Drill of the United States Cavalry. By Major M. W. BERRIMAN, engaged for the last thirty years in the prac- tical instruction of Military Students. Second edition. 1 vol. 12mo, red cloth. $1. "Captain Berriman has had thirty years' experience in teaching military Btndents, and his work is written in a simple, clear, and soldierly style. It is illustrated with twelve plates, and is one of the cheapest and most complete works of the kind published in tub country." Sew \ork World. "This work will be found very valuable to all persons sec-kins military in- struction ; but it recommends itself most especially to officers, and those who have to use the sword or sabre. We believe it is the only work on the use of the sword published in this country." Neio York Tabltt. " It is a work of obvious merit and value." Boston Traveller. Military Law and Courts Martial, By Capt. S. V. BENET, U. S. Ordnance, Asst. Prof, of Ethics in the United States Military Academy. 1 vol. 8vo. Law sheep, $3.50. The Artillerift's Manual: Compiled from various Sources, and adapted to the Service of the United States. Profusely illustrated with woodcuts and engrav- ings on stone. Second edition, revised and corrected, with valuable additions, By Capt. JOHN GIBBON, U. S. Army. 1 vol. 8vo, half roan, $5 ; This book is now considered the standard authority for that particular branch of the Service in the United States Army. The War Department, at Washing- ton, has exhibited its thorough appreciation of the merits of this volume, the want of which has been hitherto much felt in the service, by subscribing for 700 "It is with great pleasure that we welcome the appearance of a new work on this subject entitled 'The Artillerist's Manual,' 'b'y Capt. John Gibbon, a highly scientific and meritorious officer of artillery in our regular service. The voik, an octavo volume of 500 pages, in lanre, clear tvpe, appears to be well adapted to supply just what has been heretofore needed to fil the gap between the simple Manual and the more abstruse demonstrations of the science of gun- nery The whole work is profusely illustrated with woodcuts and engravings on stone, tending to give a more complete and exact idea of the various matters described in : the text The book may well be considered as a valuable and im- portant addition to the military science of the country," Jfew York Herald. D. Van N'ostrand's Publications. A Treatife on Ordnance and Naval Gunnery. Compiled and arranged as a Text-Book for the IT. S. Naval Acad- emy, by Lieutenant EDWARD SIMPSON, U. S. N. Second edi- tion, revised and enlarged. 1 voL 8vo, plates and cuts, half morocco. $5. M As the compiler has charge of the Instruction In Naval Gunnery at the Naval Academy, his work, in the compilation of which he has consulted a large number of eminent authorities, is probably well suited for the purpose designed by it namely, the circulation of information which many officers, owing to constant service afloat, may not have been able to collect. In simple and plain language it gives instruction as to cannon, gun carriages, gun powder, projectiles, fuzes, locks, and primers; the theory of pointing guns, rifles, the practice of punnery, and a great variety of other sinrlar matters, interesting to fighting men on 6ea and land." Washington Daily Globe. "A vast amount of information is conveyed in a readable and familiar form. The illustrations are excellent, and many of them unique, being colored or bronzed so as to represent various military arms, &c., with more than photo- graphic literalness." Washington Star. "It is scarcely necessary for us to say that a work prepared by a writer so practically conversant with all the subjects of which he treats, and who has such a reputation for scientific ability, cannot fail to take at once a high place among the text-books of our naval service. It has been approved by the Secretary of the Navy, and will henceforth be one of the standard authorities on all matters connected with Naval Gunnery." New York Herald. "The book itself is admirably arranged, characterized by great simplicity and clearness, and certainly at this time will be a most valuable one to officers of the Navy." Boston Commercial Bulletin. "Originally designed as a text-book, it is now enlarged, and so far modified in its plan as to make it an invaluable hand-book for the naval officer. It is comprehensive preserving the cream of many of the best books on ordnance and naval gunnery, and is printed and illustrated in the most admirable man- lier." New York World. Elementary Instruction in Naval Ordnance and Gunnery. By JAMES H. WARD, Commander U. S. Navy, Author of " Naval Tactics," and "Steam for the Million." New edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo. Cloth, $2. " It conveys an amount of information in the same space to be found no- where else, and given with a clearness which renders it useful as well to tha general as the professional inquirer." N. Y. Evening Post. "This volume is a standard treatise upon the subject to which it is devoted. It abounds in vnlunble information upon all the points bearing upon Naval Gunnery." 2f. Y. Commercial Advertiser. "The work is an exceedingly valuable one, and is opportunely issued." Boston Journal. D. Van N~ostrand' } s Publications. Gunnery Instructions. Simplified for the Volunteer Officers of the U. S. Navy, with hints to Executive and other Officers. By Lieut. -Commander EDWARD BARRETT, U. S. N., Instructor in Gunnery, Navy Yard, Brook- lyn. Third edition, revised and enlarged. 1 vol. 12mo, cloth. $1 25. "It is a thorough -work, treating plainly on its subject, and contains also some valuable hints to executive officers. No officer in the volunteer navy should be without a copy." Boston Evening Traveller. "This work contains detailed and specific instructions on all points connected with the use and management of guns of every kind in the naval service. It has full illustrations, and many of these of the most elementary character, especially designed for the use of volunteers in the navy. The duties of executive officers and of the division officers are so clearly set forth, that l he who runs may read' and understand. The manual exercise is explicit, and rendered simple by dia- grams. Forms of watch and quarter bills are given; and at the clo.se there is a table of ranges according to the kind and calibre of gun, the weight of the ball, and the charge of powder. A valuable little hand-book." Philadelphia In- quirer. "I have looked through Lieut. Barrett's book, and think it will be very valu- able to the volunteer officers who are now in the naval service. "C. R. P. RODGERS, Commanding U. S. Steam Frigate Walash." The " C. S. A." and the Battle of Bull Run. (A Letter to an English Friend.) By J. G. BARXARD, Major of Engi- neers, U. S. A., Brigadier-General, and Chief Engineer, Army of the Potomac. With five maps. 1 vol. 8vo, cloth. $1 50. "This book was begun by the author as a letter to a friend in England. but as he proceeded and his MSS. increased in magnitude, he changed his original plan, and the book is the result General Barnard gives by far the best, most compre- hensible and complete account of the Battle of Bull Run we have seen. It is il- lustrated by some beautifully drawn maps, prepared for the War Department by the topographical engineers. He demonstrates to a certainty that but for the causeless panic the day mitrht not have been lost. The author writes with vigor and earnestness, and has contributed one of the most valuable records yet pub- lished of the history of the war." Boston Commercial Bulletin. Models of Fortifications. Yauban's First System One Front and two Bastions ; Scale, 20 yards to an inch. The Modern System One Front; Scale 20 yards to an inch. Field-Works The Square Redoubt; Scale, 5 yards to an inch. Mr. Kimber's three volumes, viz. : Vauban's First System, The Modern System, and Field- Works, will accompany the Models. Price for the Set of Three, with books, $60. D. Van Nostrand's Publications. Siege of Bomarfund (1854). Journals of Operations of the Artillery and Engineers. Published by permission of the Minister of War. Illustrated by maps and plans. Translated from the French by an Army Officer. 1 vol. 12mo, cloth. 75 cents. " To military men this little volume is of special interest. It contains a translation by an officer of the United States Army, of the journal of operations by the artillery and engineers at the siege of Bomarsund in 1854, published by permission of the French Minister of War in the Journal des Armees speciales et de VEtat Major. The account of the same successful attack, given by Sir Howard Douglas in the new edition of his work on Gunnery, is appended; and the narrative is illustrated by elaborate maps and plans." Ifew York Paper. Lefsons and Practical Notes on Steam, The Steam-Engine, Propellers, &c., &c., for Young Marine Engi- neers, Students, and others. By the late W. R. KING, U. S. N. Revised by Chief-Engineer J. W KING, U. S. Navy. Fifth, edition, enlarged. 8vo, cloth. $2.00 "This is the second edition of a valuable work of the late W. R. KINO, U. S. N. It contains lessons and practical notes on Steam and the Steam- Engine, Propellers, &c. It is calculated to be of great use to young marine en- gineers, students, and others. The text is illustrated and explained by numerous diagrams and representations of machinery. This new edition has been revised and enlarged by Chief Engineer J. W. KING, U. S. N., brother to the deceased author of the work." Boston Daily Advertiser. "This is one of the best, because eminently plain and practical, treatises on the Steam-Engine ever published." Philadelphia Press. " Its re-publication at this time, when so many young men are entering the service as naval engineers, is most opportune. Each of them ought to have a copy" Philadelphia Evening Bulletin. Manual of Internal Rules and Reg- ulations for Men-of-War. By Commodore II. P. LEVY, U, S. N., late Flag-officer command- ing U. S. Naval Force in the Mediterranean, &c. Flexible bine cloth. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 50 cents. "Among the professional publications for wh ; ch we are indebted to the war, we willingly give a prominent place to this useful little Manual of Rules and Regulations to be observed on board of ships of war. Its authorship is a sura- cient guarantee for its accuracy and practical value ; and as a guide to young officers in providing for the discipline, police, and sanitary government of the vessels under their command, we know of nothing superior. JV. Y. lleraiO. " Should be in the hands of every Naval officer, of whatever grade, and will not come amiss to any intelligent mariner." Boston Traveller. " A work which will prove of great utility, in both the Naval service and the mercantile marine. 1 ' Baltimore American. D. Van Nostran&s Publications. Nautical Routine and Stowage, With Short Rules in Navigation. By JOHN McLEOD MURPHY, and WM. N. JEFFERS, Jr., U. S. N. 1 vol. 8vo, cloth. $2 50. Union Foundations. A Study of American Nationality, as a Fact of Science. By Major E. B. 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The "Automaton Regiment" is a simple combination of blocks and counters, BO arranged and designated by a carefully considered contrast of colors, that it supplies the student with a perfect miniature regiment, in which the position in the battalion of each company, and of every officer and man in each division, com* pany, platoon, and section is clearly indicated. It supplies the studious soldier with the means whereby he can consult his "tactics, and at the same time join practice to theory by manoeuvring a mimic regiment. The Automaton Company; Or, Infantry Soldiers' Practical Instructor. For all Company Move- ments in the Field. By G. DOUGLAS BREWERTON, U. S. A. Price in boxes, $1 25 ; when sent by mail, $1 95. The Automaton Battery; Or, Artillerists' Practical Instructor. For all Mounted Artillery Ma- noeuvres in the Field. By G-. DOUGLAS BREWERTON, U. S. A. Price in boxes, $1 ; when sent by mail, $1 40. D. Van JVostrand's Publications. School of the Guides. Designed for the use of the Militia of the United States. Flexible cloth. 60 cents. "This excellent compilation condenses into a compass of less than sixty pages all the instruction necessary for the guides, and the information being disconnected with other matters, is more readily referred to and more easily " The work is carefully got up, and is illustrated by numerous figures, which make the positions of the guides plain to the commonest understanding. Those of our sergeants who wish to be ' posted ' in their duties should procure a copy." Sunday Mercury, Philadelphia. " It has received high praise, and will prove of great service in perfecting the drill of our Militia."^. American and U. & Gazette, Phil. "This neat hand-book of the elementary movements on which th art of the tactician is based, reflects great credit on Col. LB GAL, whose reputation is de- servedly high among military men. No soldier should be without the School of the Guides." New York Daily News. Gunnery in 1858 : A Treatise on Rifles, Cannon, and Sporting Arms. By WM. GBEENER, C. E. 1 vol. 8vo, cloth. $3. Manual of Heavy Artillery. For the Use of Volunteers. 1 vol. 12mo. Red cloth. 75 cents. " Should be in the hands of every Artillerist." N. Y. Illustrated News. "This is a concise and well-prepared Manual, adapted to the wants of Vol- unteers. The instruction, which is of an important nature, is presented in a simple and clear style, such as will be easily understood. The volume is also illustrated with explanatory cuts and drawings. It is a work of practical value, and one needed at the present time in the serTice." Boston Commercial Bulletin. " An indispensable Manual for all who wish easily and accurately to learn the school of the Artillerist." .y. Y. Commercial Advertiser. Auftrian Infantry Tactics. Evolutions of the Line as practised by the Austrian Infantry, and adopted in 1853. Translated by Capt. C. M. WILCOX, Seventh Regiment U. S. Infantry. 1 vol. 12mo. Three large plates, cloth. $1. "The movements of armies engaged in battle have often been compared to those of the chess-board, and we cannot doubt that there are certain principles of tactics in actual war as in that game, which may determine the result inde- pendently, in a great measure, of the personal strength and courage of the men engaged. The difference between these principles as applied in the American Army and in the Austrian, is so wide as to have sucryested the iranslation of the \vork before us, which contains the whole result of the famous Field-Marshal EADETZKY*8 experience for twenty-five years, while in upreme command in Italy." New York Century. D. Van NostrandTs Publications. Viele's Hand-Book. Hand-Book for Active Service, containing Practical Instructions in Campaign Duties. For the use of Volunteers. By Brig.-Gen. EGBERT L. VIBLE, U. & A. 12010, doth. Monroe's Company Drill. The Company Drill of the Infantry of the lane, together with the Skinq^h'ing Drill of the Company and Battalion, after the method of Gen. LE LOUTEREL. And Bayonet Fencing. By Col J. Mox- ROE, 22d Regiment N. Y. S. M. 24mo, cloth. 60 cents. A System of Target Practice. For the use of Troops when armed with the Musket, Rifle-Musket, Rifle, or Carbine. Prepared, principally from the French, by Captain HENRY HETH, 10th Infantry. U S. A. 50 cents! "WAR DEPARTMENT, Washington, March 1> "The 'Svstem of Tareet Practice,' prepared* under direction of the V partment, by Captain Henry Hetb, 10th Infantry, having been apnr. adopted for the instruction of troops when armed with the musket, rifle-musket, rifle, or carbine," Hints to Company Officers. By Lieut-Colonel C. C. ANDREWS, 3d Regiment Minnesota Volunteers. 1 vol. ISmo, cloth. 50 cents. American Military Bridges, "With India-Rubber and Galvanized Iron Pontons and Trestle Sup- porters, prepared for the use of the Armies of the United States. By Brig.-Gen. GEO. W. CCLLUM, Lt-CoL Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., Chief of the Staff of Major-Gen. Hallecky Second edition, with notes and two additional chapters. 1 VOL Svo, with plates. $3.50. , Holley's Railway Practice. American and. European Railway Practice, in the Economical Gener- ation of Steam, including the materialsjjCWfConstruction of Coal- burning Boilers, Combustion, the Variable Blast, Vaporization, Circulation, Superheating, Supplying and Heating Feed-v. &