UC-NRLF $B 253 EDS ME"NTART ATIN GB,AMMAP. ROBTandWILKIFS REESE LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. i APR 13 1^^^ ■ l^eceived , i8g . z/lc cessions Nc^y^/^^. Class No p ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR AN ELEMENTAEY LATIN GEAMMAK ((rNlVEESlTY HENEY JOHN EOBY M.A., LL.D. AND A. S. WILKINS LITT.D., LL.D. EonDon MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1893 All rights reserved ^■^-7^^ PREFACE p^^j^ This book is intended to be used as an introduction to Mr. Eoby's Latin Grammar for Schools. Hence much has been intentionally omitted which is com- monly given in Latin grammars, but which is of little or no use to the pupil who is engaged with the elements of the language. Some parts of the larger book have been reproduced with slight omissions and occasional simplification^ lof -^ilguage, other parts have been greatly reduced, especially in the Syntax. The main purposes of its preparation have been that the pupil should have nothing to unlearn when he proceeds to his more advanced work, and that the facts of the language should be, so far as possible, explained, and not left to be a matter of memory. Some useful suggestions have been received from Mr. S. G. Owen, of Christ Church, Oxford. A. S. W. Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/elementarylatingOOrobyrich CONTENTS §§ §1. §2. §§ 3-4. ■ §5. §6. §7. §§ 8-9. 10-12. 13-32. J 33-39. §40. i 41-43. ! 44-47. \ 48-51. ! 52-74. i 75-79. I 80-81. The Latin Language Alphabet Consonants Vowels . Quantity- Accent . Phonetic Changes Inflexions in general Inflexions of Nouns .... First Class (§§ 14-18) . Second Class (§§ 19-24) i Stems and Consonant Stems (§§ 25-31) Greek Nouns (§ 32) . Pronominal Adjectives .... Certain Pronouns Comparison of Adjectives Numerals ...... Adverbs ...... Inflexions of Verbs .... Examples of Inflexions of Verbs — Consonant a stems (§§ 56-64) .... Other Vowel Conjugations (§§ 65-70) . Deponent Verbs (§71) Irregular Verbs (§§ 72-74) . Verbal Stems . . . . List of Irregular Verbs .... and 1 2 3 3 4 4 4 6 8 9 14 22 28 29 33 35 37 45 49 53 66 74 75 81 84 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR §§ 82-155. §90. §91. §92. §§ 93-95. §§ 96-102. §§ 103-111. §112. §§ 113-123. §§ 124-129. §§ 130-136. §§ 137-139. §140. §§ 141-146. §§ 147-151. §§ 152-154. §155. (§§ 100-102) Syntax Principal Use of Cases (§ 84) Nominative (§ 85) Accusative (§86) Dative (§ 87) . Ablative (§ 88) . Genitive (§ 89) . Infinitive Gerunds, Gerundive, Supine Participles Indeclinable Words Adverbs (§ 93), Prepositions (§ 94), Conjunctions (§95) . . . Use of Verb Inflexions . Inflexions of Voice (§§ 96-1 Inflexions of Person and Number Indicative Mood and its Tenses Imperative Mood . Subjunctive Mood . Contrasted Uses of the Indicative Reported Speech ... Difl*erent Kinds of Sentences . Sequence of Tenses Some Uses of the Cases . Use of Pronouns . Use of Conjunctions Interrogations Appendix — A. Roman Money B. Roman Reckoning of Time C. Relations by Blood and Marriage D. Abbreviations of Names E. Roman "Writers F. Prosodv and Metre ELEMENTARY LATIN GEAMMAK 1. Latin was the language spoken by the inhabitants of a district on the western side of Italy, hundreds of years B.C. Of this tract the chief town was Eome, and the conquests of the Romans spread the language over the neighbouring countries. The modern languages of Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Wallachia, and of parts of Eastern Switzerland, are derived from it ; and mainly through the influence of the Christian Church it w^as the language principally used in European literature, law, state documents, and learned intercourse, during the Middle Ages. The Latin language was at its best from about 100 B.C. to about 100 A.D. The greatest writers flourished during this period ; and it is the language of their writings which is especially treated of in this grammar. Latin belongs to the group of languages which includes the Greek, Keltic, Teutonic, and Slavonic families in Europe, and the chief languages of Persia and India in Asia. There are many points of resemblance between Latin and all ot these, both in vocabulary and in in- flexions. ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR ALPHABET 2. The following table contains the letters of the Latin alphabet as used in Cicero's time, with their names and probable pronunciation. iign. Name. Pronounced as English A a a in ;papa. B be h C ce k D de d E 6 a in late, or e in fete. P ef f G ge g hard, as in give. H ha h in hat. I i ee in feet, or i in machine. K ka k L el I M em m (except at end of words). N en n, but when before a guttural as ng. 0, approaching to an. P pe P Q qu q = k R er r (trilled). S es 5, sharp, as in hiss, not his. T te t V u 00 in shoot or u in brute. X ix X To which may be added two letters used only in copying Greek words, namely — Y u French, or ii German. Z English z, or perhaps dsi. VOWELS 3 CONSONANTS 3. Consonants are classified according to the character of the sound. Of the Latin consonants p, b ; c, g" ; t, d are m.omentary, or non- continuous (often called mutes), that is to say, the voice cannot dwell upon them ; s and f are continuous. Again p, c, t, s, f are voiceless, i.e. they are not accompanied by any sound of the voice ; b, g, d and usually r, 1, are voiced,'^ that is, they cannot be pronounced without some sound of the voice. If the air is allowed to pass through the nose instead of the mouth, the sounds m, n, and ng (a single sound, as in sing) are produced instead of b, d, g. Such sounds are called nasal. k was little used, and was always followed by a ; q was always followed by u, and qu (pronounced as in English) regarded in prosody as a single consonant. X was merely written for cs. 4. The following Table shows the classification of Latin consonants. Non-Continuous. Nasal. Continuous. Voiceless. Voiced. Usually Voiced. Voiceless. Voiced. Labial P b m {lip sounds). Labiodental. Guttural c, k, q g n before a {throat sounds) guttural. Dental t d n (when not s {tooth sounds). before a guttural). Lingual r, 1 {tongue sounds ; also called liquids) (usually) VOWELS 5. a is the simplest vowel ; for e and i the back part of the tongue is raised ; for o and u the lips are pushed forward, e is a middle sound between a and i ; and o a middle sound between a and u. i and u, when pronounced rapidly before other vowels, become half consonants, and in modern books are usually printed j and v. The sound of i or j then becomes as English y in yes ; the sound of u or V becomes as French ou in oui, or nearly as English w in we. ^ For voiceless the terms sharp, hard, surd and Latin ' tenues ' are also used ; for voiced the terms Jlat, soft, sonant and Latin * mediae. ' * 4: ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Diphthongs are sounds produced in the passage from one vowel sound to another. The right rule for pronouncing diphthongs is to sound the two vowels rapidly one after the other. Thus au as German au, a somewhat broader sound than the ordinary English ow in cow, town. eu as a Cockney or Yankee pronunciation of ow in cow, town. ae nearly as the single vowel a in English hat, lengthened. ei nearly as in English /em^, or ai in faint. oe between o^in hoil, and ei in feint. The vowels may be arranged thus, so as to suggest the relation of one to another. QUANTITY 6. Vowels are either long by nature, as a, or short by nature, as a. The pronunciation of the vowels is given by the following English examples : dhd, demesne, quinine, promote, Zulu. Vowels are said to be (usually) long by position, when followed by two consonants, as ardet ; more correctly the syllable is long, the vowel and the first con- sonant counting as a long vowel. Sometimes a vowel in such a position may be taken as either long or short ; it is then called common, and is marked thus, pMrem. ACCENT 7. One syllable in every Latin word which contains more than one, is pronounced with more stress than the rest. In words of two syllables the accent falls on the first syllable, as mdgnus ; in other cases it falls on the last syllable but one, if that be long, either by nature or by position, as indico, otherwise on the last but two, as indico. PHONETIC CHANGES 8. Many words underwent changes which made them easier for the Romans to pronounce. Some of the most frequent changes are the following : — Whole syllables were sometimes omitted, as vene - ficium for PHONETIC CHANGES 5 veneni-ficium, poison-snaking ; voluntas (for voluntitas), willing- nesSf from volens, willing. When three consonants come together, the middle one is often omitted, as fulmen, lightning (for fulg-men), from fulgere, to flash ; mul-si (for mulcsi), perfect of mulcere, to stroke. Of two consonants the former is often assimilated either (1) completely or (2) partially to the latter, as (1) ces-si for ced-si, sum-mus for sub-mus, puel-la for puer-la, op-pono for ob-p6no, ac-curro for ad-curro ; (2) scrip-tus for scrib-tus, op-tineo for ob-tineo, con-tmeo for com-tineo, im-berbis for in-berbis. 8 between two vowels is changed to r, as onus, oner-is (compare onus-tus), dirimo for dis-emo. 9. Yowels are changed often in composition and inflexions. a. Root- vowels are changed, when by a syllable being prefixed, as in compound words, the root syllable loses the first place. Thus a changes usually to e before two consonants or before r, as damno, condemno ; facio, effectus ; pario, comperio. a to 1 usually before ng or any single consonant except r, as tango, attingo ; facio, efificio. e to i, as lego, coUigo ; emo, adimo. ae to i, as aestimo, existimo ; caedo, incido. h. In sufiixes usually 6 changes to i, as cardon-, cardinis ; alto-, alti-tudo. e to i, as ille, illic ; unde, undique ; agmen, agmin-is, but e remains before r, as piper, piper-is, and before two consonants, as nutrimen, nutrimentum (compare nutrimin-is). c. Short vowels are often omitted between two consonants, as audac- ter for audaci-ter, vinclum for vinculum, dextra for dextera. h and v between two vowels are often omitted and the vowels then coalesce, as mi for mihi, prendo for prehendo, audisse for audivisse, amaram for amaveram. d. The quantity of vowels is sometimes changed ; thus short vowels are lengthened (1) "When a consonant is omitted, as ju-mentum, a plough least, from jugum, a yoke ; casus, a fall (for cadtus), from cadere, to fall. (2) In forming the perfect tenses of verbs, as lego, legi, ago, egi. (3) By contraction with another vowel, as fructuis (genitive of fructus) is contracted to fructus. e. Long vowels are shortened chiefly when the syllable becomes the last in the word, as calcar for calcare, amator compared with the genitive amatoris. ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL 10. Latin, like English, has many words which never vary in form, and many others which vary according to their particular use. Thus 7iian builds, men build, man built, man^s building are all sayings which contain two words altered in order to change the meaning. Of these words man expresses an existing thing, build expresses an action. Grammarians call man a noun, build a verb. Nouns (including pronouns and adjectives) and Verbs are the two great classes of words which are subject to change. The other parts of speech (adverbs, conjunctions, preposi- tions, interjections), commonly called particles, as hap;pily, and, after, alas, do not change. In Latin, both nouns and verbs have more changes than they have in English. These changes consist mainly of additions or other changes at the end of the word, some- times of additions at the beginning, sometimes of changes in the middle. Thus in English man^s, built, buildiiig show additions or changes at the end of the word ; men (compared with man) shows a change in the middle. A word, so far as it thus changes according to its use, is said to be inflected. The additions or changes are called inflexions ; the more permanent part of the word is called the stem. This remains unchanged unless affected by the suffix. 11. Nouns are divided into two classes, nouns substantive, which express things, and nouns adjective, which express the nature of things. In English the former are inflected to denote number and case, e.g. man, man^s, men, men^s. The latter are not so inflected, e.g. good man, good mariJs {food), good men. In Latin both nouns substantive and nouns adjective are inflected. Nouns substantive are inflected to denote the number as well as the case, as hominis, man's ; homines, inen ; hominum, men's. Nouns adjective INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL 7 are trebly inflected, i.e. they are changed to denote the gender (i.e. sex or imagined sex) of the person or thing denoted, and they are changed also to denote the case (like man's) and the number (like men), as bonus, good he ; bona, good she ; bonum, good thing ; plural, boni, good he's ; bonae, good she's ; bona, good things ; bonorum (cibus), good men's (food), etc. Pronouns are sometimes inflected like nouns, but more commonly like adjectives. The inflexions in Latin nouns are, as has been shown, much more numerous than in English. 12. Verbs again in Latin differ much from verbs in English. Not only are there many more changes to express different persons and numbers, different tenses and moods, but each form of a verb in Latin, which is not of the nature of a noun, is complete in itself and expresses a complete meaning. In English we require a pronoun or noun with the verb, e.g. I love, thou lovest, he loves. In Latin amo expresses by itself / love, amas expresses by itself thou lovest, amat expresses by itself a person loves, but may be he loves or she loves. Different forms are used for the plural, e.g. amamus, we love; amatis, ye love; amant, they love. Different forms again are used for past time, e.g. amabam, I was loving ; anaabas, thou wast loving ; amabat, he was loving ; amabanaus, we were loving ; amabatis, ye were loving; amabant, they were loving. Other forms slightly or considerably changed are used to denote future time or commands or wishes or the like. What in English is often expressed by combinations of different words is in Latin often expressed by changes in the same word. ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 13. The inflexions of nouns and pronouns are in the main the same. The inflexions of verbs are quite distinct. The inflexions of nouns are always additions to or altera- tions in the end of the stem. They serve to mark the gender, the case, and the number of the word. There are in Latin Three genders, called masculine, feminine, and neuter. Six cases, called nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative, and ablative. (The use of these cases is explained in § 84.) (In some nouns another form is found to which the name of vocative case has often been applied. ) Two numbers, singular and plural. Nouns are divided into two classes — The first class has the genitive plural ending in -arum, or -erum, or -orum. The second class has the genitive plural ending in -uum, or -ium, or in -um preceded by a consonant. INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 9 FIEST CLASS 14. The first class contains stems ending in a or e or o. 1. Stems in a : Examples. — aqu^ (/.), water ; b6na, a good she ; scriba, (m.), a clerk ; Claudia, a woman of the Claudian house. Singular. "Norn, aqua bona scriba Claudia Ace. aquam bonam scribam Claudiam Gen. ^ Loc. >- aquae bonae scribae Claudiae Dat, j Abl. aqua bona scriba Claudia FluraL Nom. aquae bonae scribae Claudiae Ace. aquas bonas scribas Claudias Gen. aquarum bonarum scribarum Claudiarum Loc. ") Dat. )-aquis bonis scribis Claudiis Abl. j Old forms : genitive singular, -ai or -as for -ae ; aquai, familias, for aquae, familiae. Poetic form : genitive plural, -um for -arum, caelicolum for caelicolarum. Old form : dat. abl. plural, flliabus for flliis. Most nouns of this class are feminine, as terra, land; silva, a wood; gloria, glory ; anima, breath ; mora, delay. Masculine are a few which denote male persons, such as agricola, a farmer ; incola, an inhabitant ; adv^na, a new- comer ; poeta, a ;poet ; transfuga, a deserter. 10 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 15. 2. Stems in e : Two words only have forms for all cases, viz. res (/.), a thing ; dies (m. /.), a day. Few have any plural. Singular, Nom. res dies acies Ace. rem diem ^ciem Gen. ) Loc. > rei or re diei or die acii or acie Dat. 1 Abl. re die Plural. acie Nom. Ace. 1 res dies acies Gen. rerum dierfim not found Loc. [^ rebus Dat. diebus not found Abl. In singular spes and fides are like res ; facies, effigies, species, series like acies. All these have in plural only the nom. and ace. The termination -ei was sometimes two syllables, either -ei or -6i, but generally probably a diphthong. Thus rei, fldei in Lucretius ; rei, fldei later ; but also spei, rei, fldei (-ei being one syllable). The form die is used as the locative. INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 11 16. ■3. Stems in : Examples. — dominus (m.), a lord , bonus (in. adj.), a good he ; bellum {n.\ war ; bonum (n. adj.), a good thing. Nom. Ace. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. Noni. Ace. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. Subst. dominus dominum domini > domino domini dominos Singular, Adj. bonus bonum boni bono Plural. boni bonos Subst. bellum bellum belli beUo bella bella Adj. b6num bonum boni bono bona bona dominorum bonorum bellorum bononim |-d6minis bonis bellis bonis Such masculine nouns have a form called the vocative used in addressing a person : thus domine, lord ; bone, my good man. But one word, deus, God, has no such form. The nominative and accusative singular retained the earlier -os and -om in old Latin. The gen. plur. is in -um for -orum in some names of weights and measures, and of nations in poetry, and in a few other cases. Examples. — Masculine — annus, a year ; oculus, an eye ; animus, the soul. Feminine — humus, the ground; and many names of trees, as alnus, alder; fagus, heech; populus, poplar; quercus, oak ; ulmus, elm. Neuter — oppidum, a town ; forum, market -place ; verbum, a wm^d. Adjectives — magnus, great ; multus, many; malus, bad; longus, long; nudus, naked; -pvlmMS, first ; decimus, tenth. 12 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 17. Stems in -ro generally drop the final us in nomi- native singular. Many omit e before r. Instances of different kinds are — numerus, a number ; puer, a hoy ; ager, a piece of land ; vir, a man. Singular, Nom. mimerus puer ager vir Ace. Gen. Loc. numerum puerum agrnm virum > ntimeri pueri agri viri Dat. Abl. > numero puero Plural. agro viro Nom. num^ri pu6ri agri viri Ace. numeros pueros agros viros Gen. niimerorum puerorum agrorum viroru Loc. "" ) Dat. ' > nfimeris pueris agris viris Abl. ' 1 Like n-iini^rus are declined erus (or herus), a master ; ilmerus (or humerus), a shoulder-, and the adjectives ferus, wild ; properus, hasty ; prospertis, favourable. Like piaer, are boc&v, father-in-law ; gener, son-in-law; vesper, evening star; and the adjectives asper, rough; liber, free ; niis6r, wretched ; tener, tender. • Similarly sattir, sattira, saturum, satiated. Like ^ger are declined aper, a wild hoar; fabSr, a workman ; liber, hark, a hook ; and the adjectives noster, our ; vester, yotcr : dexter, right (hand), and sinister, left, are usually so declined, but sometimes retain the e, like tener. INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 13 18. In the best period stems in -vo or -quo retained in nominative and accusative singular -6s, -om instead of -us, -um. Thus equos, a horse (also spelt ecus) ; aequom, equity ; but in modern books we usually find -us, -um. In substantives in -io the genitive singular ended in single i, ex- cept in some poetry. Singular. Norn. servos aequom filiiis imperiiim Ace. servom aequom fllium imperium Gen. Loc. vservi aequi fill imperi Dat. Abl. servo aequo filio ImperiQ Plural. Nom. servi aequi filii imperii Ace. servos aequos filios imperia Gen. servorum aequorum flliorum imperiorum Loc. ^ Dat. J"Servis aequis filiis imperils Abl. J Like servos are equos, a horse ; avos, a graifidfather ; divos, a god ; rivos, a stream ; clivos, a slope ; coquos (or cocus), a cook ; and many adjectives, as cavos, hollow ; novos, new ; parvos, small ; saevos, raging ; vivos, alive ; exignos, S7nall ; vacuos, empty ; antiquos, ancient, etc. Like aequom are aevom, age ; arvom, a ploughed field ; ovom, an egg. Like Alius are many proper names, as Claudius, Fabius, Livius, Servius, Decius, Julius, Horatius, Vergilius, etc. Like imperium are g-audium, joy ; odium, hatred ; ofificium, duty ; consilium, advice, etc. {N.B. — Adjectives have gen. sing, always in -ii, as medil, egregii.) 14 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR SECOND CLASS 19. The second class of nouns contains stems ending in u or i or a consonant. 1. Stems in u : Examples — manus (/.), hand ; visus {m.\ sight ; genu (n.), hnee. Singular, Norn, mentis visils g6nu Ace. manum visum genu Gen. mantis visus genus Dat. manui visui genui Loc. ) « _ - - .1, j-manu visu genu Plural. Nom. )>,- -- >,.. . >mS.nus VISUS genua Gen. manuum visuum genuum Dat. I Loc. /- manibus visibus genibus Abl. ) So also grS,dus, a step ; aestus, heat ; g^mitus, a groan ; tonitrus (also tonitru), thunder-, ductus, leading, etc. The dative singular sometimes, especially in poetry, ends in -u for -ui, as visu. The abl. plural in some words ends in -ubus, as acus, needle, acubus ; arcus, how, aroubus ; artus, joint, artubus ; partus, birth, partubus ; tribus^ tribe, tribubus. INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 15 20. Some words are found with inflexions both from o stems and from u stems. The most important word of this kind is domus (/.), a home. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Log. Abl. Singular. domtis domum domus domui, rarely domo^ d6ini Plural. d6inus domos or domus domtorum or domuum domo, rarely domu J > domibus Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. colus, distaff colum rcoli \ colus colo Jcolo \ coin Singular. cupressus cupressum r cupressi \ cupressus cupresso {cupresso cupressu laurus pinus laurum pinum c lauri / pini \ laurus 1 pinus lauro pino ( lauro I lauru ^ Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. colus Plural. {cupressi ( lauri cupressus (rarely) \ laurus { lauros cupressus ' ( pini (rarel}') \ pinus J pinos 1 laurus \ pinus pinorum lauris pinis s. querco and gen. pi. quercus {oalc) besides u stem has abl quercorum. myrtus {myrtle) has rarely nom. ace. plur. myrtus. Otherwise it is an o stem. arcus {how) besides u stem has gen. sing, arci or arqui ; humus {the ground) has locative humi. In Early Latin a genitive singular in i is frequent from verbal nouns, as adventi, fructi, gemiti, quaesti, sumpti. 16 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 21. 2. Stems in i : Of these some have nominative in -es, some in -is, some in -s preceded by a consonant or long vowel. Instead of -ris we often find -er. Neuters have nomina- tive in 6. Examples. — nubes (/.), cloud; puppis (/.), stern of a ship; tristis (m. /.), triste {n.)y sad; urbs (/.), city; lux (/.), light; ars (/.), art; mare (n.), sea; animalis (adj.), animal ; iraber (m.), a storm of rain. Singular, Nom. nubes puppis tristis I triste Ace. nubem puppim or tristem triste puppem Gen. nubis puppis tristis Dat. nubi puppi tristi Loc. Abl. >nube puppe Plural tristi Nom. nubes puppes tristes tristia Ace. nubes or puppes or tristes or tristis nubis puppis tristis Gen. nubium puppium tristium Dat. y nubibtis Loc. puppibtis tristibtls Abl. Singular. Nom. urbs lux ars imber Ace. urbem lucem artem imbrem Gen. urbis lucis artis imbris Dat. urbi luci arti imbri Loc. Abl. j urb6 luce arte imbre or imbri INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 17 Plural. Nom. urbes Ace. urbes or urbis urbium Gen. Dat. Loc. Abl. j urbibtis luces luces or lucis {not found) lucibus artes artes or artis artium imbres imbres or imbris imbrium artibus imbribus Singular. Nom. mar^ animalis ^nimale Ace. inar6 animalem animale Gen. maris animalis Dat. ) Loc. >-mari anim.ali Abl. f Plural. Nom. mari^ animales animalia Ace. m^ria animales animalis Gen. marium animalium Dat. ) Loc. > raaribtis animalibtis Abl. J As a substantive we have nom. ace. animal, abl. sing. animale ; other cases like the adjective. acer, sharjp, has nom. sing. acer(m.), acris (m.f.), acr6 (n.) Except for the use of acer for nom. s. mase. it is declined exactly like tristis, c 18 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 22. 3. Consonant stems : Stems ending in Mutes form nom. sing, by adding s ; t or d before this s is omitted. e before final stem consonant becomes i except in nom. sing, u before final stem consonant often becomes i, except in nom. sing. Sometimes where i in the other cases is the earlier form, this becomes e in the nom. sing. Examples. — princeps (adj.), stem princep-, chief; judex (m.f.\ stem judic-, a judge; rex (m.), stem reg-, a king ; ci vitas (/.), stem civitat-, citizenship; eques (m. /.), stem equet-, horseman ; c^put (n.), stem c^ptit-, head ; pes (m.), stem ped-, a foot. Singular. Nom. princep-s (adj.) judex rex Ace. princip-em (m. /.) princep-s (n.) judic-em reg-em Gen. princip-is judic-is reg-is Dat. princip i judic i reg i Abt fP^i^^^iP"^ judic-6 reg-e Plural, A ^^ f princip-es (m. /.) (no neut.) judic-es reg-es Gen. princip-um judic-um reg-um Dat. \ Loc. \ princip-ibus judic-ibtis reg-ibus Abl. j INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 19 Nom. civitas Ace. civitat-em Gen. civitat-is Dat. civitat-i Loc. Abl. • civitat-e Singular. eques equit-em equit-is equit-i equit-6 c^ptit caput capit-is capiti capit-6 pes ped-em ped-is pedi ped-e Plural. . ' Vcivitat-es equit-es c^pit-a ped-es Gen. civitat-um equit-um capit-um ped-um Dat. \ Loc. V civitat-ibus equit-ibtis capit-ibus ped-ibils Abl. J Civitas and a few other nouns with stem in tat- have sometimes -ium in gen. plur. 23. Stems ending in n form the nominative singular in one of two ways — Those ending in -on and -on (all being masc. or fem.) drop the final n, the o then being always long in good Latin ; in the cases other than nominative singular -on becomes -in. Those ending in -en remain unchanged ; in the cases other than nominative singular -en becomes -in. Most of these are in -men, and all these except flamen (m.) are neuter. As Examples : homo (m. /.), stem homon-, a man ; oratio (/.), stem oration-, speech; tibicen (m.), stem tibicen-, a flute-player ; nomen (n.\ stem nomen-, a name. 20 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Singular, Nom. homo oratio tibicen nomto Ace. homin-em oration-em tibicin-em nomen Gren. hom.in-is oration-is tibicin-is nomin-is Dat. homin-i oration-i tibicin-i nomin-i Loc. Abl. Nom. 1 homin-e oration-e tibicin-e nomin-e Plural. homin-es 6rati6n-es tibicin-es nomin-S, Ace. ) Gen. homin-um oration-um tibicin-nm nomin-um y * f homin- oration- tibicin- nomin-ibtls AR i ^^*« ^^^ ^^^ 24. Stems ending in 1, r, s are used as the nom. sing, without addition or change, except that some neuters change -or into -tir, others -6s into -us. Stems in s change s into r (also -tis into -er) before a vowel, i.e. in all cases except nom. sing. (Thus a nom. neut. in -us sometimes goes with a genitive -oris, sometimes with a genitive -eris, according as its stem is in -6s or -us.) Stems in -er generally drop e in inflexion. Examples : consul (m.), stem consul-, a consul ; mulier (/.), stem mtilier-, a woman ; pS,ter (m.), stem p^ter-, a father ; am6r (m.), stem amor-, love; temptis (n.)j stem temp6s-, time ; 6nus (n.)j stem onus-, a burden ; mos (m.), stem mos-, a habit ; crus {n.)y stem crus-, a leg. INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 21 Nom. consiil Ace. consul-em GeD. consul-is Dat. consul-i . > consul-e Gen. Dat. \ Loc. > Abl. j Singular. natllier mulier-em mulier-is mulier-i niulier-6 Plural. mulier-es pater amor patr-em amor-em patr-is amor-is patr-i amor-i patr-e am6r-6 patr-es amor-es consul-um muli6r-um patr-um amor-um consul-ibus mulier-ibus patr-ibus amor-ibiis Nom. tempus Ace. tempus t^mp6r-is temp6r-i > temp6r-6 Gen. Dat. Loc. Abl. Singular. onus onus oner-is oneri oner-e mos mor-em mor-is mori mor-6 cms crus crur-is crur-i orur-6 Plural. . * itemp6r-a oner-a Gen. temp6r-um oner-um Dat. ^ Loc. >temp6ribus oner-ibias Abl. j The principal adjectives with consonant stems are those in -OS, which express the comparative degree of adjectives. As Example : melior (adj.), stem m^Iios-, better. mor-es crur-S, mor-um crur-um mor-ibus crur-ibtis 22 ELEMENTARY LATIN GEAMMAR Singular. Plural. Nom. melior (/?^./.) melius (?^.) Nom. 1 meliores (m./.) Ace. melior-em melius Ace. j meliora {n.) Gen. melior-is Gen. melior-um Dat. melior i Dat. \ Loe. ) T- - Loc. > melior-ibus Abl. I "'^^^^-^ AM. j Contrast of i ^S'/^ms a7^6? Consonant Stems 25. The class of i stems and the class of consonant stems have, speaking generally, certain marked differences. 1. A very large proportion of the i stems have the syllable which precedes the i long, sometimes from the length of the vowel, more often from the i being preceded by two consonants, as fini-, parti-. In the consonant stems the final stem consonant is always preceded by a vowel, and this preceding vowel is generally short, as due-, princip-. 2. Further, the i stems fall mainly into three divisions, thus — A. Substantives and adjectives of not more than two syllables in the genitive singular, as nubes, gravis. B. Adjectives with derivative suffixes, as aud-aci, ag-ili. C. Adjectives compounded of noun stems, as in-ermi, tri-remi. The consonant stems fall into three divisions, thus — A. Substantives (few) of not more than two syllables in the geni- tive singular, as canis, mensis. B. Substantives with derivative suffixes, as ima-gon, am-or. Also adjectives in comparative degree. C. Substantives and adjectives compounded of verbal stems, as re-duc, prae-sed. CLASSIFICATION OF 1 STEMS 23 CLASSIFICATION OF i STEMS 26. A. The nouns of not more than two syllables in the genitive singular have either — 1. Disyllabic nominative in -es, or 2. Disyllabic nominative in -is (m. /. ), neuter in 6, or 3. Disyllabic nominative in -er (for eris), or 4. Monosyllabic nominatives. 1. Stems with disyllabic nominatives in -es: all feminine, as proles, offspring ; sedes, seat, except verres {m.)y a hoar. vates (m. /., gen. pi. often vatum), a seer, 2. Stems with disyllabic nominatives in -is. (a) Adjectives, e.g, — dulcis sweet grravis heavy levis light omnis all tristis sad turpis foul etc. (/3) Substantives. Common in gender •— angxiis (abl. -i rarely) snake finis (abl. often -i) boundary civis citizen hostis enemy testis witness Masculine — amnis (abl. -i often) river manes (pi.) ghosts coins hill orbis (abl. -i sometimes) a I'ound crTniR hair panis (no gen. pi.) loaf ensis sivord piscis fish fascis bu7idle postis (abl. -i often) doorpost follis leather hag sentes (pi. ) thor7is funis rope torquis collar fustis (abl. -i often) club unguis (abl. -i some- nuil, claw ignis (abl. -i usually) fire times) 24 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Feminine — apis (gen. pL apum hee puppis (ace. -im or stern of ship sometimes) -em, abl. -i or -e) avis (abl. -i some- hird restis (ace. -im usu- rope times) ally) classis (abl. -i often) fieet^ class sitis (ace. -im, abl. thirst clavis (ace. -im some- times) messis (ace. -im sometimes) navis (ace. -im, abl. -i often) key -i, no plnr.) tigris (also with stem tiger reaping tigrid-) turris (ace. -im usu- tower ship ally, abl. -i often) and others. Neuter- mare (plural only nom. ace.) sea, mille (indecl. in sing. ) thousand rete (abl. sometimes rete) a net 3. Stems with disyllabic nominatives in -er — imber (m. abl. -i often) shower venter {m. ) belly linter (/. usually) boat uter (m.) sMn bag 4. Stems with monosyllabic nominatives — Almost all have a long syllable, usually formed by two consonants, preceding the i, e.g. — arx (gen. arcis) a citadel urbs (gen. urbis) a city All are feminine except— Masculines — dens (gen. dentis) a tooth fons (gen. fontis) fount mas (gen. pi. marum male sometimes) lux (gen. lucis) plebs (gen. plebis) the common mons (gen. mentis) mus (gen. muris) pons (gen. pontis) mountain mouse bridge Neuters — lac (gen. lactis, no plur.) 7nilk plus (gen. pluris) onore plur. plures, m. f plura, 71. CLASSIFICATION OF i STEMS 25 Notice also — nix (/.) (gen. nivis, stem nigvi-), snow (no gen. pi.) vis {/'), force, thus declined — Singular. Plural. Nom. vis vires Ace. vim vires Gen. vis (rare) virium Dat. ? viribus Abl. vi viribus 27. B. Adjectives with derivative suffixes. With long penult — -aci, -oci, -trici, as audax, hold ; atrox, cruel ; victrix, conquering. -ati, -iti, as nostras, of our country ; penates (pL), gods of our home. -ali, -uli, -eli, -ili, as aequalis, equal ; tribulis, of a tribe ; crudelis, cruel ; hostilis, of an enemy. -ari, as familiaris, intimate. (Neuter substantives usually drop the e in the nom. singular : as animal, an animal ; laquear, a ceiling. ) -anti, -enti, present participles, as amans, loving ; serpens, crawling. -ensi, as forensis, of the forum. -esti, as agrestis, of the fields ; caelestis, of heaven. With short penult — -ili, as agilis, active ; facilis, easy. -bri, -cri, -stri (for beri, etc. ), as celeber, crowded ; alacer, alert ; equester, on horseback. 28. C. Adjectives compounded of noun stems, as inermis, un- armed ; expers, without share ; insignia, distinguished. D. A few others, as cohors, a troop ; indoles, native disposition : and adjectives like hilaris, cheerful ; inanis, empty ; felix, happy ; celer, swift ; memor, mindful ; viridis, green ; teres, round ; and a few others. /f<^\m, ^ 26 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAE CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT STEMS 29. A. Substantives disyllabic in genitive — (a) with disyllabic nom. : canis (m./.), dog. senex (gen. senis), old man ; mensis (m.), mo7ith (gen. pi. some- times mensium) ; f rat^r, brother ; mater, mother ; pater, father. (6) with monosyllabic nom. — Masculine. dux diicis leader lar laris household grex gregis JlocJc fur furls thief \g^d rex regis king flos floris flower pes pedis foot mos moris manner praes praedis surety ros roris dew vas vadis bail sol, soils, suuj and sal, sails, salt, have no gen. pi. Feminine, ops opis help crux crucis C7'0SS nux niicis nut nex necis murder pr6cem (no nom. s.) prayer vicem (no nom. s. ) change Neuter, aeris bronze crus cruris leg oris mouth jus juris law OS, bone, has nom. pi. ossa, gen. ossium. The following have no gen. plural — cor cordis heart ver mel raellis honey rus far farris spelt tus veris ruris country turis incense 30. B. Derivative substantives and a few adjectives. Masculine with stems in ec, et, on (except verbal subst. in ion), or or OS — CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT STEMS 27 As— vortex vorticis whirl carbo carbonis coal abies abietis fir histrio histrionis actor limes limitis boundary amor honor amoris love honoris honoicr Also (masculine) — fornix fornicis vault caro carnis Jlesh lapis lapidis pebble nepos nepotis grandson turbo turbinis whirl pecten pectinis comb margo marginis brink sanguis sanguinis blood cardo cardinis hinge cinis cineris ash ordo ordTnIs a row pulvis pulveris dust Feminine in ic, id, gon, don, ic, tat, tut, and verbals in ion — As— calix calicis cup cervix cervicis 7ieck cuspis cuspidis spear-point radix radicis root Virgo virginis girl civitas civitatis city fortitude fortitu- courage voluptas voluptatis plea- dinis [sure ISgio legionis a body of sol- juventus juventutis youth diers ratio rationis reckoning virtus virtutis manliness Neuter in -men, -or, - ur, -OS (-oris), -us (-eris)— agmen agminis drove. ebur eboris ivory troop femur femoris thigh carmen carminis song iter itineris journey nomen nominis name cadaver cadaveris corpse aequor aequoris level foedus foederis treaty fulgur fulguris lightning genus generis a kind corpus corporis body munus mun^ris gift litus litoris shore opus operis work 31. C. Substantives and Adjectives compounded of Yerb stems — redux reducis (adj.) bringing back dbses obsidis hostage compos compotis (adj.) having power ■pv&,QBeQ^Y2bQ&ii3ii& president princeps principis (adj.) chief comes comitis companion judex judicis judge miles militis soldier artifex artificis skilled maker eques equitis horseman 28 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR D. Also— custos (m. /. ) custodis keeper merces (/. ) raercedis heres (?;i. /.) heredis heir palus (/.) paltidis s&cerdos (m.) sa,ceT^6t\B priest quies (/.) quietis cinis {tn. ) cineris ash tellus (/. ) telluris pulvis (m.) pulveris dust a 7)iarsh rest the earth 32. Note. — Many Greek words, especially proper names, used in Latin retain some of the Greek case-endings. This is most frequent in the poets. Thus we find — 1. Stems in a : Nom. Prusia or Prusias Atrida or Atrides Circa or Circe Voc. Prusia or Prusia Atrida or Atride Circa or Circe Ace. Prusiam or Prusian Atridam or Atriden CircamorCircen Gen. Prusiae Atridae Circae or Circes Dat. Prusiae Atridae Circae Abl. Prusia Atrida Circa or Circe 2. Stems in o : Nom Epirus or Epiros Voc. Epire Ace. Epirum or Epiron Gen. Loc. - Epiri Dat. Abl. Epiro 3. Stems in 1 or consonant : Singular. Plural. Singular. Nom. Voc. -tigris tigres ^^yl^^^ Phylli Ace. tigrim or tigrin tigres or tigridas Phyllida Gen. tigris or tigridos tigrium Phyllidis or Phyllidos Dat. tigri or tigridi tigribus Phyllidi Abl. tigre or tigride tigribus Phyllide In such words there are many irregularities. PRONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES 29 PEONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES 33. Some adjectives have the genitive singular ending in -ius, the dative in -i, alike for all genders. E.g. totus, whole. Masc. Nom. totus Ace. Gen. Loc, Dat. Abl. toto Singular. Fem. tota totum totam totius in all genders > toti in all genders tota Neut. >• totum toto Plural. Nom. toti totae . jtota Ace. totos totas Gen. totorum totarum totorum Loc. ) Dat. > totis in all genders Abl. Similarly are declined unus, one ; ullus, any ; nuUus, none; solus, alone. So ipse (in old language ipsus), ipsa, ipsumt has gen. ipsius, dat. ipsi for all genders. Genitive. Dative. alter altera alterum one of two alterius alteri titer utra utrum. which of two utrius utri neuter neutra neutrum. neither neutrius neutri 30 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 34. A few other pronominal adjectives are declined in the same way except that they have d instead of m for the last letter of the neuter nom. and ace. singular. Thus — Singular^ Masc. Fern. Neut. ]^om. alius other alia aliud Ace. alium aliam aliud Gen. alius in all genders Dat. alii in all genders Loc. ) Abl. j alio alia alio Nom. ille that ilia illud Ace. ilium illam illud Gen. illius or illius in all genders Dat. illi in all genders Loc. 1 Abl. J iUo ilia illo So iste, that of yours, ista, istud. The plural is in all like totus. The demonstrative particle ce was sometimes ap- pended to those cases of ille and iste which end in s {e.g. illosce), and frequently in an abridged form (c) to the others (except gen. plural). E.g. Dat. Loc. illic. The neuters illud, istud become illuc, istuc. 35. hie, this, is declined as follows — Singular. Masc. Fern. Neut. Nom. hic haec hoc Ace. hunc hanc hoc Gen. huius (or hujus) in all genders Loc. hic (adverb) Dat. huic in all genders Abl. hoc hao hoc PRONOMINAL AND >SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES 31 Plural, Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. hi hae haec Ace. hos has haec Gen. horum hamm horum Loc. ^ Dat. > his in all genders Abl. j The fuller forms hosce, hasce, huiusce are found in Cicero. Haec is rarely found for nom. fem. plur. Plautus has also hice (for hie), etc. 36. Is, that, is thus declined — Singular. Nom. is eS, id Ace. eum earn id Gen. eius (ejus) in all genders Loc. ibi (adverb) Dat. ei in all genders Abl. eo ea eo Plural. Nom. ei or ii eae e^ Ace. eos eas ea Gen. eorum earum • eorum Loc. I Dat. > eis or lis in all genders Abl. 1 i and is are sometimes written for ii, iis. ibus, dat. ahl. plur., also occurs rarely. -pse is sometimes appended, as eumpse, eapse. 32 ELEMENTAKY LATIN GRAMMAK 37. Idem (for is-dem) is thus declined — Singular. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. idem eadem idem Ace. eundem eandem idem Gen. eiusdem (ejusdem) in all genders Loc. ibidem Dat. eidem in all genders Abl. eodem eadem Plural. eodem Nom. eidem or idem eaedem eadem Ace. eosdem. easdem eadem Gen. eorundemi earundem eorundem Loc. ) Dat. > eisdem or isdem in all slenders Abl. i 38. Qui, who^ which, what, any, relative, interrogative, and indefinite pronoun, is thus declined — Singular. Nom. qui quae Ace. quem quam. Gen. cuius (cujus) in all genders Dat. cui in all genders Abl. quo qua Plural. Nom. qui quae Ace. quos quas Gen. quorum quarum .1 ,* >quibus in all genders quod quod quo quae quae quorum PKONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES 33 As ablatives of all genders, qui in sing., quis in plural, are sometimes used. The genitive cuius is occasionally treated as an adjec- tive and declined cui^, cuium, etc. As an indefinite pronoun, qu^ is more common than quae in nom. sing. fem. and neut. plural. As indefinite and interrogative pronouns, quis (m. /.), quid {n.) are generally used for qui, quod, when not in agreement with a substantive. 39. Similar are the compound pronouns — Adjectives. Substantives. aliqui aliqua aliquod some aliquis aliquid ecqui ecqu^or ecquod any? ecquis ecquid ecquae quinam quaenam c^o&nsbniwhat? quis- quid- nam nam quidam quaedam quoddam a certain one quicun- quaecun- quodcun- que que que whatsoever quilibet quaelibet quodlibet any you like qui vis quae vis quod vis any you will Also like quis, quid — quisquis quidquid or quicquid whatsoever quisquam quidquam or quicquam any at all And partly like quis, partly like qui — quispiam quaepiam quodpiam some quisque quaeque quodque each PECULIAR INFLEXIONS OF CERTAIN PRONOUNS Personal Pronouns 40. The substantives called personal pronouns are very peculiar in their inflexions, nor are all the cases formed from the same stem. D 34 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Singular. Sing, and Plural. 1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person (reflexive). Norn. 6go tu no nom. Ace. me te se Gen. See below Dat. mihi tibi sibi Abl. me te se Plural Nom. inos Ace. vos Gen. nostrum vostrum or vestrum Dat. Abl. i nobis vobis Singular. Accusative and ablative. — Sese was fre- quently used for se ; tete rarely for te. The forms med and ted occur as accusatives and ablatives in Plautus. Genitive. — As possessive genitive the adjectives meus, my^ mine ; tuus, thy, thine ; suus, his {her) own, were used : as meus liber, m,y hook ; mea filia, my daughter ; meum opus, my work. As objective genitive the gen. sing. neut. of the same is used, viz. mei {of my being), tui, sui. Plural. Genitive. — As possessive genitive the adjectives noster and vester (voster) and suus were used. As objective genitives nostri, vestri, sui. As partitive genitives nostrum, vestrum, suorum. To all cases (except tu nom. ) of the substantive pronouns the particle -met is sometimes added. For tu, tute or tutimet is found. The adjectives often have in the ablative case -met or -pte appended, e.g. meopte, suamet ; rarely in the gen. sing., e.g. tuipte, and ace. plur., e,g. suosmet, suS,met. DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF NOUNS ADJECTIVE 35 DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF NOUNS ADJECTIVE 41. From many adjectives two derivative adjectives are formed in order to denote the degree of the quality ex- pressed by them. The simple form is called the positive. The comparative expresses a higher degree of the quality in a comparison of two things or persons. The superlative expresses the highest degree in a comparison of more than two things or persons, as durus, hard ; durior, harder ; durissimus, hardest. The comparative is sometimes used to express that the quality is possessed in too high a degree. The superlative is sometimes used to express that the quality is possessed in a veri/ high degree. Ordinary Fm^maiion of Comparative and Superlative 42. These derivative adjectives are formed from the positive as follows — 1. The stem of the comparative is formed by adding ios to the last consonant of the stem, i.e. by changing the inflexion i or is of the genitive into ios. The s is changed into r before vowels and in the nom. sing. masc. and fem. (see § 24). In the neuter nom. and ace. sing, ios becomes ius. 2. The stem of the superlative is formed by adding issimo or issima to the last consonant of the stem. Thus— Genitive. Comparative. Superlative. dur-us, hard dur-i dur-ior dur-issimus trist-is, sad trist-is trist-ior trist-issimus felix (felic-s), happy felic-is felic-ior felic-issimus Some adjectives form their superlative by doubling the last consonant of the stem and adding imus. These are — {a) Adjectives with stems ending in ero or eri, the e being omitted or retained in the comparative as in the inflexions of the positive. 36 ELEMENTAEY LATIN GRAMMAR pulcher, fair, comp. pulchr-ior, superl. pulcher-rimus. So niger, black ; piger, slothful ; ruber, red ; taeter, foul; vafer, cunning; acer, sharp; celeber, famous; s^luber, healthful. asper, rough asperior asperrimus So celer, swift ; dexter, right (also rarely superl. dexti- mus) ; liber, free ; miser, wretched ; pauper, poor ; tener, tender; uber, abundant. Also vetus, old no comp. veterrimus prosperus, prosperous prosperriraus (b) The following adjectives whose last stem consonant is 1: facilis, easy; similis, like; difficilis, difficult; dissimilis, unlike ; gracilis, thin, slender ; humilis, low ; as facil-is, facil-limus. Irregular or Defective Adjectives (besides those named above, 2, a). 43. The following are either deficient in the positive degree or form their comparative and superlative irregularly or from a different stem — Positive. bonus, good malus, bad magnus, great parvus, small multus, much nequam (indecl.), wicked dives \ dis ' senex, old juvenis, young potis, pote (indecl. ), alle, > rich (no positive) frugi (indecl.), useful Comparative. melior pejor major minor plus (neut.) nequior divitior ditior senior junior potior, letter ocior, swifter frugalior Superlative. optimus pessimus maximus minimus plurimus nequissimus divitissimus (Cic.) ditissimus ( Verg. ) (natu maximus) (natu minimus) potissimus ocissimus frug-alissimus NUMERALS 37 Positive. egens 1 egenus J benevolus, well-wishing maledicus, evil-sjjeaking magnificus, splendid citra (adv.), on this side de (prep.), down from Comx>arative. egentior Superlative, egentissiraus benevolentior benevolentissimus maledicentior maledicentissimus mag-niflcentior raag-niflcentissimus citerior citimus deterior, less good deterrimus supra (adv.), super i (adj.), g^pg^^Qj. high extra(adv.), externus (adj.), outside exterior J i extunus infra (adv. ), infer^ (adj. ), loiv inferior infimus, imus intra (adv.), within interior intimus post, posterus, next (in / posterior, fpostremus time) I hinder, later \ postumus prae (prep. ), before prior primus prope (adv.), near propior proximus ( supremus highest^ "j last (in time) ^ summus ultra (adv. ), heyond ulterior ultimus, farthest Adjectives used only in the positive — Many adjectives, which express a state or quality which does not readily admit the idea of a higher or lower degree, e.g. r)iaterial [e.g. aureus, golden), time {e.g. nocturnus, nightly), special relatio7iship {e.g. paternus, fatherly), have no comparative or superlative. In some others they are wanting without any such apparent reason. If a com- parison is required in such adjectives, the defect is supplied by adding magis and maxime. Thus magis mirus, more ivonderful ; maxime mirus, most wonderful. NUMERALS 44. Cardinal Numerals answer the question " how many?" (quot). Ordinal Numerals answer the question "which in numerical order?" (quotus). Distributive Numerals answer the question "how many each, or, at each time?" (quoteni). Numeral Adverbs answer the question " how many times ? " (quotiens). ^ Chiefly used in plural : inferi, the beings below ; superi, the beings above ; infera, the places below ; supera, the places above. 38 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 1. List of Arabic Signs. Roman Signs. Cardinal (adjectives). 1 I. VLvms^ a, um 2 IL duo, ae, 3 in. tres, tria 4 nil. or IV. quattuor 5 V. quinque 6 VI. sex 7 VII. septem 8 VIII. or iix. octo 9 viin. or IX. novem 10 X. decern 11 XL undecim 12 XII. duodecim 13 XIII. tredecim 14 xiiii. or XIV. quattuordecim 15 XV. quindecim 16 XVI. sedecira 17 XVII. septemdecim 18 XVIII. or xiix. duodeviginti 19 xviiii. or XIX. undeviginti 20 XX. viginti 21 XXL unus et viginti 22 XXII. duo et viginti 28 XXVIII. or XXIIX. duodetriginta 29 xxviiii. or XXIX. undetriginta 30 XXX. triginta 40 xxxx. or XL. quadraginta 50 L. quinquaginta 60 LX. sexaginta 70 LXX. septuaginta. NUMERALS 39 Numerals ORDINAL (all declinable adjectives). J priinz^5, a, urn f I prior, first of two \ f s^cund^s ( alter tertii^5 quarti^s quint^ts sextos septiniw5 octavw5 monus decimws undeciraws duod^cimiis tertms decimw^ quart^^s dQomius quint^s decimws sext?^5 decim^is septiraws deciin2^s duodevicensimits undevicensiraws vicensimi^s mhus (more rarely pri- mes) et vicensiin?(5 alter et vicenslmz^s duodetricensimi^s undetricensirai^s tricensimws quadragensiin?^5 qmnquagensiin?is sexagensimws septuagensimi^s DISTRIBUTIVE (all declinable adjec- tives -plural). NUMERAL ADVERBS. singula, ae^ a semel -| bim(for duini) bis (for duis) term (or ttmi) qu^term quini sem septem octom noven* den* undent duodem term den2 qu^term deni quim dem sem dem septem dem dtiodevicem undevlcen^ vicen^ vicem singuli vicent bini duodetricem undetricem tricem quadrageni quinquageni sexagem septuageni ter qu^ter quinquiens sexiens septiens octiens noviens deciens undeciens duodeciens terdeciens quaterdeciens quindeciens sedeciens septiens deciens duodeviciens (?) undeviciens ('?) viciens semel et viciens bis et viciens duodetriciens undetriciens C^) triciens quadragiens quinquagiens sexagiens septuagiens 40 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Arabic Signs. . 80 90 98 99 100 101 Roman Signs. Lxxx. or xxc. LXXXX. or XC. xcviii. or lie. xcix. or ic. c. CI. Cardinal (adjectives). octoginta nonaginta octo et nonaginta undecentum centum centum et unus 124 cxxiiii. or cxxiv. 200 CO. 230 ccxxx. 300 ccc. 400 cccc. 500 10. or D. 600 IOC. 700 lOCC. 800 lOCCC. 900 lOCCCC. 1000 CIO. or M. 1235 CIOCCXXXV 2000 CIOCIO. 4000 CIOCIOCIOCIO. 5000 6000 10,000 20,000 50,000 100. lOOCIO. ccioo. cciooccioo. 1000. centum viginti quat- tuor ducent?', ae^ a ducenti (a6,a)triginta trecenti, ae, a quadringent?, ae, a quingenti, ae, a sescenti, ae, a septingenti, ae, a octingent^, ae, a nongentz, ae, a mille mille ducenti (ae, a) triginta quinque duo million quattuor millia quinque millia sex millif)^ decem millia viginti millia quinquaginta millia 100,000 ccciooo. centum millia NUMERALS 41 (all declinable adjectives). octogensim^^.? nonagensim^^s duodecentensimi^s undecentensimi^s centensiinus centensimi^s primes centensimi^svicensi- rnus quart^^s ducentensim^s ducentensimt^s tri- censim^^s trecentensiin?^5 trecem quadringentensim^fs quadringem DISTRIBUTIVE (all declinable adjec- tives plural). octogem nonageni duodecenten?* undecentem centem centen^ sin- guli centem viceni quaterm ducem duceni tricem quingentensiin^5 sescentensimiks' 8eptingentensiin2^s octingentensimi^s nongentensim^^s millensimws inillensiinw5 ducen- tensiini^5 tricensi- laus qaintus bis inillensiinw5 quater inillensim?/5 millen- qumgen^ sescem septingeni octingem nongem singula millia singula millia ducena tri- cem]^ quina bina millia quaterna mil- lia quina millia NUMERAL ADVERBS. octogiens nonagiens duodecentiens undecentiens centiens centiens semel centiens viciens quater ducentiens ducentiens tri- ciens trecentiens quadringentiens quingentiens sescentiens septingentiens octingentiens nongentiens milliens milliens ducen- tiens triciens quinquiens bis milliens quater milliens quinquiens sim^^i' sexiens millensim^^s sena millia deciens millensimwi^ dena millia viciens millensimi^s vicena millia quinquagiens mil- quinquagena lensim^^5 millia centiens millensim^spelfte^a millia quinquiens mil- liens sexiens milliens deciens milliens viciens milliens quinquagiens milliens centiens milliens 42 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Arabic Signs. Roman Signs. Cardinal (adjectives). 500,000 lOOOO. quingent^^ million 1,000,000 CCCCIOOOO. deciens centum mil (a) The earlier form of ordinals in -imus ended in -um.us. For -ensimus, -esimus is often found. Multiplicative adjectives are formed with the suffix -plex, -fold : viz. simplex, sescuplex {one and a half fold), duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex. Others in -plus are generally used in neuter only, to denote a 2. Inflexions of Numerals 45. Unus. For mode of declension see § 33. In the plural it is used only with substantives whose plural denotes a singular, e.g. unae litterae, one e/pistle ; unae aedes, one house {set of rooms, or of hearths T) ; uni mores, one and the same conduct ; uni Suevi, the single tribe of the Suevi (or the Suevi alone). Duo. The masc. and neut. are : nom. ace. duo, gen. duorum or duum, dat. abl. duobus. For the m. ace. duos is also used. The fem. is : nom. duae, ace. duas, gen. duarum or duum, dat. abl. duabus. In expressions like duod^cim, duodeviginti, duoetvicesimus, duo is not varied. Ambo, both, is similarly declined. Nom. and ace. tres, n. tria, gen. trium, dat. and abl. tribus. All the other cardinal numbers up to centum are un- declined : so also is mille when used as an adjective. As NUMEKALS 43 ORDINAL (all declinable adjectives). quingentiens mil- lensira^^s deciens centiens inillensiini^5 DISTRIBUTIVE (all declinable adjec- tives plural). quingen^i mil- lia deciens cen- tena millia NUMERAL ADVERBS. quingentiens mil- liens deciens' centiens milliens (b) The later form of numeral adverbs ended in -ies. magnitude twice, etc., as great as another. These are simplus, sescuplus, duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus. Another series is binarius, containing two, ternarius, quater- narius, quinarius, senarius, septenarius, etc. a substantive it has a declinable plural millia (more correctly spelt milia), millium, millibus : but in the singular is rarely used except in nom. or ace. In expres- sions like caesi sunt tria millia trecenti milites, we must supply militum after millia. If the name of the thing, etc., numbered precede, it is usually put in the genitive, e.g. militum (not milites) tria millia trecenti caesi sunt. The other cardinal, and all the ordinal and distributive numbers, are declinable adjectives with o stems. The genitive plural of the cardinals and distributives is usually in -um for -orum (cf. § 16); e.g. multa praesens quingentum nummum aeris (for quingentorum num- morum), an immediate fine of 500 pounds of copper; pueri senum septenumque denum annorum, boys of sixteen and seventeen years of age. 44 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 3. Order in compounding Numerals 46. In compound numbers, from thirteen to nineteen inclusive, the smaller is usually prefixed to the larger \^-ithout et, e.g. septem decern (or septemdecim), septimus decimus, septeni deni, septiens deciens ; but in cardinals and ordinals the order is sometimes reversed, and in cardinals et is sometimes inserted, especially if the larger come first, e.g. decern septem, decern et septem, septem et decern ; decimus septimus (Sen.) From tiventy-one to ninety -ni^ie the rule is that either the larger should precede the smaller number without et, or the smaller precede with et ; so viginti quattuor, twenty-four^ or quattuor et viginti, four and twenty. From a hundred and one upwards the larger number usually comes first either without or (except with distributives) with a conjunction. Use OF Classes of Numerals 47. The ordinal, not the cardinal, is used in giving the date, e.g. In the year 1879 is anno millesimo octingentesimo septuagesimo nono. The distributives are used — (1) To denote that the number belongs to each of several persons or things, e.g. Caesar et Ariovlstus denos comites ad colloquium adduxerunt, took ten cor}ipanions each. (2) In expressions of multiplication, e.g. — bis bina twice two ter novenae virgines thrice nine girls deciens centena millia ten times a hundred thousand In these expressions the distributive numerals, e. g. deciens centena millia, do not mean a 7nillion to each 'person^ but a hutidred thousand taken each of ten times. Every other is expressed by alterni, e.g. alternis diebus, every second day. ADVERBS 45 ADVERBS 48. Adverbs and conjunctions are indeclinable words, chiefly oblique cases of existing or lost words. The chief pronominal adverbs of place and time and some others will be found in the tables following. Other adverbs, derived from adjectives and participles, end (a) in 6, or rarely 6, as — certo, certainly ; cito, quickly ; m^rito, deservedly ; raro, seldom ; tuto, safely ; vero, in truth ; primo, in the first place ; secundo, in the second place ; postremo, lastly. (b) in e, as — aegre, hardly ; docte, skilfully ; doctissime, most skil- fully ; plane, qidte ; recte, rightly ; valde, very. (c) in e, as — ben6, well ; m^le, badly ; facile, easily ; impune, with impunity ; paene, almost \ rit6, duly ; saepe, often ; forte, by chance \ quoque, also. (d) in -um, as — ^^ primum, for the first time ; itSrum, for the second time ; tertium, for the third time ; circum, found ; nimium, too much. (e) in -ter, especially from i stems, as — acriter, eagerly-, breviter, shortly, duriter, hardly; frequenteTj frequently •,la,rgiter, lavishly; similiter, in like fashion. (/) in -ttis, denoting /rom, as — antiquitus, from of old ; funditus, from the bottom ; penitus, from^ the interior, deeply. 46 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR {g) -tim, chiefly from past participles, as — furtim, stealthily ; partim, ^partly ; cursim, swiftly ; sensim, gradually ; statim, immediately ; nomina- tim, by name ; paullatim, little by little. Other noticeable adverbs are — man^, in the morning ; noctu, by night ; hodie, to-day ; eras, to-mmrow ; heri, yesterday \ temp^ri, in good time ; nuper, lately ; qu6tannis, yearly ; semper, always ; paul- lisper, for a little while ; diu, for long ; dudum, lately \ demum, at last ; pridem, some time ago ; extemplo, at once \ raodo, only^ just now ; it^rum, a second time ; rursus, back again ; item, likewise ; saltem, at least ; 6tiam, also ; ita, thus ; ergo, therefm-e ; ideo, on that account ; denuo, afresh ; oppido, quite \ br^vi, in few words ; profecto, recdly ; nimis, too much ; s^tis, enough : vix, scarcely ; fortassis, fortasse, perchance ; non, not ; immo, at the least, nay rather. 49. The following are the chief (pronominal) adverbs of time. quando j"'t'"- quamdiu {''""'^""^•'quotles /^"''"'A"? I when I as long as y as often as quom, when aliquaradiu, for some toties, so often nunc, now length of time aliquoties, several times tunc \ ^^^^ quousque, till when ? identidem, repeatedly turn J adhuc, hitherto nonnunquam \ sometimes^ antehac, before this aliquando c i.e. oiot tm - posthac, after this quandoque J frequently subinde, immediately afterwards interdum, sometimes {i.e. nondum, not yet occasioiially) alias, at another time unquam, ever (after nega- intSrim U,^,,^^^;, tives, etc.) interea J usque, ever (of progressive quondam \sometime^ i.e. formerly, continuance) olini / or hereafter ADVERBS 47 o © § skill's >o3 o* a* o3 o !2 48 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR ^ § I5 e >^ >i .03 I" S §2. fa ^ r6g-end-um ruling r6g-6r-6 to rule r6g-ens ruling r6g-ent-em (m. f.), r6g-ens (n.) Gerund 59. Indicative. Sing. 1. r6g-6r 2. r6g-6r-is 3. r6g-it-ur Plur. 1. r6g-im-ur Passive Voice Present y Subjunctive. / am being ruled r6g-^r or I am ruled Thou art being ruled r6g-ar-is or Thou art ruled or r6g-ar-6 He is being ruled rSg-at-tir or He is ruled r- We are being ruled r6g-am-ur or TVe are ruled 2. r6g-im-in-i Ye are being ruled r6g-am-in-i or Ye are ruled 3. r6g-unt-ur They are being ruled r6g-ant-tir or They are ruled VOWEL CONJUGATION 57 Imperative Mood Present. Sing. 2. ^m-a Love (thou) Plur. 2. ain-at-6 Xo'z;e (ye) „ ^ ^. 2. ) ^ _ . f Thou shall or mwsf Zove Future. Smg. _ > ^m-at-o { -rr -l n ^ ? ^ 3. j [He shall or must love Plur. 2. ^m-at-ot-6 Ye shall or mi^si love 3. ^m-ant-0 T/ie^/ s/ia^^ or must love Verbal Noun-Fmins Infinitive Present S»ni-ar-6 to love Participle Present S. Nom. ctm-ans loving Ace. am-ant-em (m. f.), am-ans (n.) Gerund . ' > S/in-and-um loving 60. Passive Voice Present Indicative. Subjunctive. Sing. 1. S;m-6r I am being loved ^m-^r or / am loved 2. am-ar-Is Thou art being loved S-m-er-is or Thou art loved or am-er-6 3. S»m-at-ur ^e ^s 6em^ /oi;e(^ ^m-et-tir or He is loved Plur. 1. am-am-tir ^e are being loved am-em-iir or TVe are loved 2. am-am-in-i Fe are being loved S,m-em-in-i or Ye are loved 3. S/m-ant-"fir They are being loved ^m-ent-llr or They are loved 58 CONSONANT CONJUGATION Future t/ Indicative. Subjunctive. Sing. 1. r6g-ar / shall he ruled 2. r6g-er-is Thou wilt he ruled or r6g-er-6 3. r6g-et-lir He will he ruled Plur. 1. r6g-em-ur We shall he ruled 2. r6g-em-in-i Ye will he ruled 3. reg-ent-tir They will he ruled Imperfect \J Sing. 1. r6g-eb-ar / was heing ruled r6g-6r-6r or I was ruled 2. r^g-eb-ar-is Thou wast heing ruled r6g-6r-er-is or r6g-eb-ar-6 or Thou wast ruled or r6g-6r-er-6 3. r6g-eb-at-ur He was heing ruled r6g-6r-et-ur or He was ruled Plur. 1. r6g-eb-am-ur We were heing ruled r6g-6r-em-ur or We were ruled 2. r6g-eb-am-iii-i Ye were heing ruled r6g-6r-em-in-i or Ye were ruled 3. r6g-eb-ant-ur They were heing ruled r6g-6r-ent-ur or They were ruled Imperative Present Sing. 2. r6g-6r-6 Be ruled Plur. 2. r6g-im-in-i Be ye ruled Future Sing.^ l' ] r6g-it-6r | ?!'''t '^f ^' '^''f ^' ^/'^ 6. ] ° [He shall or must he ruled Plur. 3. r6g-lint-6r They shall or must he ruled Verbal Noun-Fc/rms Infinitive Present rSg-i to he ruled Gerundive Sing. Norn. m. r$g-end-us ) , , ^ , , , r X J X ( ^0 rule or to he ruled reg-end^umf (»sed adjectivally) VOWEL CONJUGATION 59 Future Indicative. Subjunctive, Sing. 1. am-ab-6r I shall he loved 2. am-ab-6r-is Thou wilt he loved or am-ab-6r-6 3. am-ab-it-ur He will he loved Plur. 1. ^m-ab-im-tir We shall he loved 2. am-ab-im-in-i Ye will he loved 3. ^m-ab-unt-ur They will he loved Irrvperfed Sing. 1. ^m-ab-S^r I ivas heing loved S,m-ar-6r or I ims loved 2. ^m-ab-ar-is Thou wast heing loved ^m-ar-er-is or S,iii-ab-ar-6 or Thou wast loved or am-ar-er-6 3. ^m-ab-at-ur He loas heing loved ^m-ar-et-tir or He ivas loved Plur. 1. ^m-ab-am-ur We tvere heing loved ^m-ar-em-tir or We loere loved 2. ^m-ab-am-In-i Ye were heing loved am-ar-em-in-i or Ye were loved 3. ^m-ab-ant-ur They were heing loved am-ar-ent-ur or They were loved Imperative Present Sing. 2. S;ni-ar-6 Be {thou) loved Plur. 2. am-am-in-i Be {ye) loved „. ^. 2. )^ -.^ f Thou shalt or must he loved Future Sing. _ } am-at-6r { tt i. n .77 j ^ 3. J [He shall or must he loved Plur. 3. cim-ant-6r They shall or must he loved Verbal Noun-Forms Infinitive Present ^m-ar-i to he loved Gerundive Sing. Nom. m. am-and-tis ) . , ^ t, 7 7 ^ „ ^ n ^ \ to love or to be loved - (used adiectivally) n. am-and-um ) ^ ^ -^"^ etc. 60 CONSONANT CONJUGATION 61. Sing. Plur. Perfect Stem Active Voice Perfect / Indicative. Subjunctive. 1. rex-i I ruled or / have ruled rex-6r-im 2. rex-is-ti Thou ruledst or Thou hast ruled rex-6r-is 3. rex-it He ruled or He has ruled rex-6r-it 1. rexim-us We ruled or We have ruled rex-6r-im-us 2. rex-is-tis Ye ruled or Ye have ruled rex-6r-it-is 3. rex-er-unt They ruled or They have rex-6r-int or rex-er-6 ruled Sing. 1. 2. 3. Plur. 1. 2. 3. Sing. Plur. rex-6r-o rex-6r-Is rex-6r-it rex-6r-im-us rex-6r-it-is rex-6r-int Completed Future V / shall have ruled Thou wilt have ruled He will have ruled We shall have ruled Ye will have ruled They ivill have ruled [The i seems to have been properly short in the fut. perf. and long in the perf. subj. ; but there are many cases in which this rule is not ob- served. ] Pluperfect / 1. rex-6r-a,Tn I had ruled rex-is-sem 2. rex-6r-as Thou hadst ruled rex-is-ses 3. rex-er-at He had ruled rex-is-s6t 1. rex-6r-aTn-us We had ruled rex-is-sem-us 2. rex-6r-at-is Ye had ruled rex-is-set-is 3. rex-6r-ant They had ruled rex-is-sent Infinitii 'e rex-is-s6 to have ruled VOWEL CONJUGATION 61 62. Perfect Stem Active Voice Sing. Plur. Perfect y Indicative. 1. amavi 2. amav-isti 3. ^mav-it 1. etmav-im-us 2. amav-is-tis / loved or have loved Thou lovedst or hast loved He loved or has loved We loved or have loved Ye loved or have loved 3. ^mav-er-unt They loved or have loved or amav-er-6 Subjunctive. amav-Sr-ini amav-6r-is amav-6r-it amav-6r-im-us liinav-6r-it-is amav-6r-int Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Completed Future v 1. amav-6r-o 2. amav-6r-is 3. amav-6r-it 1. amav-6r-im-us 2. amav-6r it-is 3. ainav-6r-int / s/iaZZ have loved Thou wilt have loved He will have loved We shall have loved Ye will have loved They will have loved Pluperfect / 1. amav-gr-am / had loved amav-is-sem 2. amav-6r-as Thou hadst loved ^mav-is-ses 3. S;mav-6r-at He had loved amav-is-s6t 1. amav-6r-ani-us We had loved amav-is-sem-tis 2. amav-6r-at-is Ye had loved amav-is-set-is 3. amav-6r-ant They had loved amav-is-sent Infinitive amav-is-s6 to have loved 62 CONSONANT CONJUGATION Supine Stem Active Voice Supine rect-um, to rule, i.e. ace. case of verbal noun with u- stem rect-u, in the ruling, i.e. ablat. case of verbal noun with u- stem Part. Fut. (Sing. Nom.) rect-ur-tis (m.) rect-ur-a (f.) rect-ur-um (n.) about to rule Infin. Fut. (Sing. Nom.) rect-ur-us, -a, -um esse, to he about to rule ,, ,5 fuisse, to have been about to rule 63. Supine Stem Passive Voice Perfect ^ Indicative. Sing, (m.) (f.) (n.) 1. rect-tis rect-a rect-um sum / ham been or am ruled 2. rect-tis rect-^ rect-um 6s Thou hast been or art ruled 3. rect-tis rect-S, rect-um est He {she, it) has been or is ruled Plur. 1. rect-i rect-ae rect-a sumus TFe have been or are ruled 2. rect-i rect-ae rect-H estis Ye have been or are ruled 3. rect-i rect-ae rect-^ sunt They have been or are ruled Subjunctive. recttis, recta, rectum sim sis sit rect-i, rect-ae, rect-a sim-us „ ,, „ sitis sint VOWEL CONJUGATION 63 Supine Supine Stem Active Voice amat-um to love amat-u in tlw loving Part. FuL (Sing. Nom.) ^mat-ur-us (m.) | ^mat-ur-li (f.) > about to love amat-ur-um (n.) j Infln. Fut (Sing. Nom.) amat-ur-tis, -a, -um esse, io 5e a6oi^i ^o Zove ,, „ fuisse, to have been about to love 64. Supine Stem Passive Voice Perfect Sing. Indicative. 1. amat-tis, -H, -urn sum I have been or am loved 2. amat-us, -a, -urn es Thou hast been or art loved 3. S^mat-tis, -a, -um est Ife {she, it) has been or is loved Plur. 1. ^mat-i, -ae, -a sumtis ?Fe /la-ye been or are ^0'z;ec? 2. amat-i, -ae, -^ estis Fe have been or are ^ovecZ 3. amat-i, -ae, -^ sunt They have been or are loved Subjunctive. amat-us, -a, -um sim j> )j jj SIS at-ij -ae, -a simtis J) J? J5 >5 sitis sint 64 CONSONANT CONJUGATION Sing. 1. rect-tis recta rect-um 6ro 2. „ „ ,, 6ris 3. „ „ „ 6rit Plur. Completed Future i/ I shall have been ruled Thou wilt have been ruled He {she, it) will have been ruled 1. rect-i rect-ae recta erimus TVe shall have been ruled 2- ?, 5, „ 6ritis Ye will have been ruled 3- J J )> ;j 6runt They will have been ruled Pluperfect r Sing. Indicative. 1. rect-tis recta rect-um 6ram / had been ruled 2. rect-tis recta rectum 6ras Thou hadst been ruled 3. rect-us recta rectum 6rat He {she, it) had been ruled Subjunctive. rect-tis, -a, -um essem )y 7) ji esses ,, „ ,, esset Plur. 1. recti rect-ae rect-a 6ramtis TFe had been ruled 2. rect-i rect-ae rect-a Gratis Ye had been ruled 3. rect-i rect-ae rect-a grant They had been ruled rect-i, -ae, -^ essemtis essetis essent Participle Perfect rect-tiS, -S., -um, ^ Infinitive Perfect (Sing. Nom.) rect-tis, -ft, -um esse, to have been, or to be, ruled. VOWEL CONJUGATION 65 Sing. 1. ^mat-US, -a, -um 6ro 2. ,5 „ „ 6ris 3. ,, „ „ 6rit Completed Future I shall have been loved Thou wilt have been loved He (she, it) will have been loved Plur. 1. amat-i, -ae, -a erimtis We shall have been loved 2. >> J5 )j iritis Ye will have been loved 3. j> J) )> grunt They will have been loved Pluperfect Sing. Indicative. 1. amat-tis, -a, -um 6ram I had been loved 2. amat-fis, -a, -um eras Thou hadst been loved 3. amat-us, -a, -um 6rat He {she, it) had been loved Subjunctive. amat-tis, -a, -um essem J? )> )) esses essSt Plur. 1. amat-i, -ae, -a gramtis JVe had been loved 2. amat i, -ae, -a Gratis Ye had been loved 3. amat-i, -ae, -a 6rant They had been loved amat-i -ae, -a essemus „ ,, ), essetis ), „ „ essent Participle Perfect (Sing. Nom.) amat-tis, -a, -um, loved. Infinitive Perfect (Sing. Nom.) amat-us, -a, -umesse, to have been, or to be, loved. cnjt: -i-^OlAl 66 ELEMENTAKY LATIN GKAMMAR OTHEE VOWEL CONJUGATIONS 65. In some i-stems the i is retained throughout as part of the stem : in others it is only found in certain parts, not belonging to the original stem. To the latter class belong capio, take; ctipio, desire ; facio, make; fodio, dig ; p^rio, bring forth ; r^pio, seize ; sapio, have taste ; quatio, shake ; the compounds of these verbs and of the obsolete verbs C specio (-spicio), see ; lacio (-lioio), draw. 66. Present Stem Active Voice Indicative Mood Singular. Present 1. trib-u-o, assign c^p-i-o, take aud-i-o, 2. trib-u-is clip-is aud is 3. trib-u-it c^p-it audit hear Plural. 1. trib-u-im-tis cap-im-us aud-im-us 2. trib-u-it-is capitis aud-it-is 3. trib-u-unt cS,p-i-unt aud-i-unt m6n-e-o, warn m6n-es m6ii-6t m6n-em-iis m6n-etis mdn-ent Singular. 1. trib-u-am 2. trib-u-es 3. trib-u-6t Future cap-i-am copies cap-i-6t aud-i-am aud-i-es aud-i-6t m6n-eb-o mdn-eb-is mdn-eb-it Plural. 1. tribu-em-tis 2. trib-u-et-is 3. trib-u-ent cap-i-em-us cap-i-et-is cap-i-ent aud-i-em-tis aud-i-et-is aud-i-ent m6n-eb-im-us mdn-ebit is mon-eb-unt OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS 67 Singular. Imperfect 1. trib-u-eb-am cap-i-eb-am aud-i-eb-am mbn-eb-am 2. trib-u-eb-as c^p-i-eb-as aud-i-eb-as mdn-eb-as 3. trib-u-eb-at c^p-i-eb-at aud-i-eb-^t mdn-eb-^t Plural. 1. trib-u-eb-am-tis c^p-i-eb-am-us aud-i-eb-am-us m6n-eb-am-tis 2. trib-u-eb-at-is cap-i-eb-at-is aud-i-eb-at-is m6n-eb-at-is 3. trib-u-eb-ant c^p-i-eb-ant aud-i-eb-ant mdn-eb-ant Imperative Mood Singular. Present 2. trib-u-6 cap-6 aud i m6n-e Plural. 2. trib-u-it-6 cap-it-6 aud-it-6 mdn-et-e Singular. Future Iltrib-u-it-o cap-it-o aud it-o mdn-et-o Plural. 2. trib-u-it-ot-6 cap it-ot-6 aud it-ot-6 m6n-et-6t-6 3. trib-u-unt-o cap-i-unt-p aud-i-unt-o m6n-ent-o Infin. Pres. trib-u-6r-6 Verbal Noun-Forms cap-6r-6 aud ir-6 Part. Pres. (Sing. Nom.) trib-u-ens c^p-i-ens aud-i-ens Gerund (Sing. Nom.) trib-u-end-um cap-i-end-um aud-i-end-um mdn-end-um m6n-er-6 mdn-ens 68 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 67. Present ' Stem Passive Voice Indicative Mood Singular. Present 1. trib-u-6r cap-i-dr aud-i-6r ni6n-e-6r 2. trib-u-6r-is cap-6r-is aud-ir-is m6n-er-is 3. trib-u-it-ur cap-it-tir aud-it-tir m6n-et-ur Plural. 1. trib-u-im-tir cap-im-tir aud im-tir man-em-tir 2. trib-u-imin-i cap-imin-i aud-iTTiTTi-i mdn-emini 3. trib-u-unt-tir c^p-i-unt-ur aud-i-unt-ur mdn-ent-tir Singular. Future 1. trib-u-ar cap-iar aud-i-ar m6n-eb-5r 2. trib-u-er-is cap-i-eris aud-i-er-is in6n-eb-6r-is 3. trib-u-et-ur cap-i-et-tir aud-i-et-tir mdn-eb-it-tir Plural. 1. trib-u-em-ur c^p-i-em-ur aud-i-em-tir m6n-eb-im-ur 2. trib-u-eTniTi-i cap-i-emini aud-i-emini mdn-ebimin-i 3. trib-u-ent-ur cap-i-ent-tir aud-i-ent-tir m6n-eb-unt-iir Singular. Lrvperfed 1. trib-u-eb^r c^p-i-ebar aud-i-ebar m6n-eb-ar 2. trib-u-eb-ar-is c^p-i-eb-ar-is aud-i-eb-ar-is m6n-eb-ar-is 3. trib-u-eb-at-ur c^p-i-eb-at-ur aud-i-eb-at-ur mdn-eb-at-ur X J 1. trib-u-eb-am- cap-i-eb-am-ur aud-i-eb-^Tn- mdn-eb-am-tir ur tir 2. trib-u-eb- cap-i-eb- aud-i-eb- mdn - eb - amin-i amin-i amin-i amin-i 3. trib-u-eb-ant- c^p-i-eb-ant- aud-i-eb-ant- mdn-eb-ant- tir tir tir ur OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS 69 Imperative Mood Singular. Present 2. trib-u-6r-e cap-6r-6 aud-ir-6 ni6n-er-6 Plural. 2. trib-u-imin i c^p-imin i aud-imin-i mdn-emin-i Singular. Future ' > trib-u-it-6r cap-it-6r aud-it-6r m5n-et-6r Plural. 3. trib-u-unt-6r cap-i-unt-6r aud-i -unt-6r ni6n-ent-6r Verbal Noun-Forms Infin, Pres. trib-u-i cap-i Gerundive (Sing. Nom.) trib-u-end-us c^p-i-end-us aud-i-end-us mdn-end-tis aud ir i mdn-er i 68. Singular. 1. trib-u-am 2. trib-u-as 3. trib-u-at Present Stem Active Voice Subjunctive Mood Present cap-i-am cap-i-as capiat aud-i-am aud-i-as aud-iat m6n-e-ani mdn-e-as mdn-e-at Plural. 1. trib-u-am-iis cS,p-i-am-iis aud-i-am-'as mdn-e-am-tis 2. trib-u-at is c^p-i-at-is aud-i-at-is mdn-e-at is 3. trib-u-ant cap-i-ant aud-i-ant m6n-e-ant 70 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Singular. 1. trib-u-6r-em 2. trib-u-6r-es 3. trib-u-6r-6t Plural. 1. trib-u-6r-em- us 2. trib-u-6r-et-is 3. trib-u-6r-ent Im'perfed cap-6r-em aud ir-em mdn-er-em cap-6r-es aud ir-es mon-er-es cap-6r-6t aud-ir-6t m6n-er-6t c5;p-er-em-tis aud-ir-em-tis m6n-er-em-tis cap-6r-et-is cap-6r-ent aud-ir-et-is aud-ir-ent m6n-er-et-ls mon-er-ent Singular. 1. trib-u-^r 2. trib-u-ar-is 3. trib-u-at-ur Plural. 1. trib-u-am-tir 2. trib-u-amin-i 3. trib-u-ant-ur Passive Voice Subjunctive Mood Present cS,p-i-ar aud-i-S,r cap-i-ar is aud-i-ar-is cap-i-at-ur aud-i-at-ur c^p-i-am-tir cS,p-i-amini cap-i-ant-tir aud-i-am-tir aud-i-amin-i aud-i-ant-tir m6n-e-ar m6n-e-ar-is mon-e-at-ur m6n-e-am-tir m6n-e-amini mdn-e-ant-ur Singular. Imperfect 1. trib-u-6r-6r cap-6r-6r aud-ir-6r m6n-er-6r 2. trib-u-6r-er-is c^p-^r-er-is aud-ir-er-is mdn-er-er-is 3. trib-u-er-et-ur c^p-Sr-et-ur aud-ir-et-tir mdn-er-et-ur Plural. 1. trib-u-6r-em- cap-6r-em-iir aud-ir-em-ur m6n-er-em-ur ur 2. trib-u-6r- cap-6r-einin-i aud ir-emin-i m5n-er-eniin-i emin-i 3. trib-u-6r-ent- cap-6r-ent-ur aud-ir-ent-ur m5n-er-ent-tir OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS 71 69. Singular. 1. tribu-i 2. tribu-is-ti 3. tribu-it Plural. 1. tribu-im-us 2. 3. tribu-is-tis tribu-er-unt Singul; ar. tribu-6r-at-is tribu-6r-ant Perfect Stem Active Voice Indicative Mood Perfect cep-i cep-is-ti cepit audivi audiv-is-ti audiv-it cep-im-iis audiv-im-tis cep-is-tis audiv-is-tis cep-er-unt audiv-er-unt Completed Future 1. tribu-6r-o 2. tribu-6r-is 3. tribu-6r-it Plural. 1. tribu-gr-im-tis 2. tribu-6r-it-is 3. tribu-6r-int Singular. 1. tribu-6r-am 2. tribu-6r-as 3. tribu-6r-at Plural. 1. tribu-6r-am-tis cep-6r-o cep-6r-is cep-6r-it audiv-6r-o audiv-6r-is audiv-6r-it m6nu-i mdnu-is-ti m6nu-it mdnu-im-us m6nu-is-tis mdnu-er-unt m6nu-6r-o in6nu-6r-is m6nu-6r-it cep-6r-im- audiv-gr-im- us tis cep-6r-it-is audiv-6r-it-is cep-6r-int audiv-6r-int Pluperfect cep-6r-am audiv-6r-am cep-6r-as audiv-er-as cep-6r-at audiv-6r-at m6nu-6r-i]n-iis m6nu-6rit-is m6nu-6r-int m6nu-6r-am ni6nu-6r-as in6nu-6r-a,t cep-gr-am- audiv-^r-am- m6nu-6r-am-tis tis us cep-6r-at-is audiv-6r-at-is m6nu-6r-at-is cep-6r-ant audiv-6r-ant m6iiu-6r-ant 72 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Singular. 1. tribu-gr-im 2. tribu-6r-is 3. tribu-6r-it Plural. 1. tribu-gr-im-tis 2. tribu-6r-it-is 3. tribu-6r-int Singular. 1. tribu-is-sem 2. tribu-is-ses 3. tribu-is-s6t Plural. 1. tribu-is-sem-tis 2. tribu-is-set-is 3. tribu-is-sent Subjunctive Mood Perfect cep-6r-im audiv-6r-im cep-6r-is audiv-6r-is cep-6r-it audiv-6r-it m6nu-6r-im m6nu-6r-is in6nu-6r-it cep-6r im- audiv-6r im- m5nu-6r-ini-us Us us cep-6r-it-is audiv-6r-it-is m6nu-6r-it-is cep-6r-int audiv-6r-int m6nu-6r-int Pluperfect cep-is-sem audiv-is-sem in6nu-is-sem cep-is-ses audiv-is-ses mdnu-is-ses cep-is-s6t audiv-is-s6t ni6nu-is-s6t cep-is-sem- audiv-is-sem- m6nu-is-sem- Hs us us cep-is-set-is audiv-is-set-is m6nu-is-set-is cep-is-sent audiv-is-sent m6nu-is-sent 70. Singular. 1. tribut-tis 2. 3. Plural. 1. tribut-i 2. 3. Supine Stem Passive Voice Indicative Mood capt-us capt-i Perfect audit-US audit! m6nit-tis mdniti sum es est stimus estis sunt OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS 73 Singular. Completed Futur y? 1. tribut-tis 3. capt-tis audit-tis mgnit-tis gro gris grit Plural. 1. tribut-i 2. 3. capt i >» >> audit-i mdnit-i >> grimus gritis grunt Singular. Pluperfect 1. tribut-tis 2. 3. capt-tis audit-tis m6nit-us gram gras grat Plural. 1. tribut-i 2. 3. capti auditi mdnit-i >> >> gramtis gratis grant Subjunctive Mood Singular. Perfect 1. tribtit-tis 2. 3. capt-tis audit-tis m6nit-tis Sim sis sit Plural. 1. tribut-i 2. 3. capti » auditi >> 5) m6nit-i III Singular. Pluperfect 1. tribtit-tis capt-tis audit-US mgnit-tis essem 2. 3. ^ » esses essgt ICKIVl-lisiTY , 74 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Plural. 1. tribut-i 2. 3. capti audit-i mbnit i essemus essetis essent DEPONENT VEEBS 71. Deponent verbs have the inflexions of the passive voice with the active meanings, and have also a present and future participle active and the gerunds and supines. The following examples are given (for brevity's sake) only in the first person singular, or other leading form : sequ-, follow ; preca-, ;pray ; vere-, fear. Indicative Mood Present. s^quor, I follow pr6cor or am following v6r6or Future. sdquar, / shall pr^cabor follow v6rebor Imperfect. s6cLuebar, I was pr^cabar following or I followed v6rebar Perfect. s6cutus Slim, I prgcatus sum followed or have followed vgritus sum Gomp. Fut. s6cutus 6ro, I prgcatus 6ro shall have folloived v^ritus 6ro Pluperfect. s6cutus 6ram, prgcatus gram vdritus 6ra,m I had followed Subjunctive Mood Present. s^auar pr^cer vgrear Imperfect. s6qu6rer pr6carer v6rerer Perfect. seciitus Sim pr6catus sim v^ritus sim Pluperfect. s6cutus essem pr6catusessemv6ritus essem INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 75 Imperative Mood Present. sequ^rS, follow pr6car6 {thou) Future. s6cutor, thou pr^cator shalt follow v6rer6 v6retor Verbal Nouns Infinitive, Present. s^qui, tofoUoiv prScari v6reri Perfect. s6cutus esse, pr6catus esse veritus esse to have fol- lowed Participles. Present. sequens, follow- prgcans ing Future. s^cuturus, going pr6caturus to folloio Past. s6cutus, having pr6catus followed Gerund. s^auendum, fol- prScandum lowing Gerundive, s^quendus, to precandus follow or to he followed v6rens v^riturus veritus verendum v6rendus INFLEXIONS OF lEEEGULAR YEEBS 72. The tenses of the verb of being are partly from a root es- whence s-um (for esum), and partly from the root fu-. Pos-sum, / ain able or / can, is a compound of pote sura, and usually retains the t before a vowel but assimilates it to a following -s. The perfect potui is not a compound. 76 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Indicative. Subjunctive. Sing. 1. sum, I am pos-sum, I can sim possim 2. 6s, Thou art p6t6s, Thou canst sis possis 3. est, He is potest, He can sit possit Plur. 1. stimtls, TFe are posstimus, TFe can simus possimtis 2. es-tis. Ye are pdtestis. Ye can sitis possitis 3. sunt. They are possunt. They can sint possint Future. Sing. 1. 6ro, I shall he p6t6ro, / shall he ahle 2. ^tLSfThouwilt he -p6t^rls, Thou wilt he ahle 3. grit, He will he p6t6rit, He luill he ahle Plur. 1. 6rimus, We p6t6rimus, We shall he ahle shall he 2. iritis. Ye will he p6t6ritis. Ye will he ahle 3. 6runt, They will p6t6runt, They will he ahle he Imperfect. Sing. 1. gram, I was p6tgram, I could essem possem or might 2. 6ras, Thou wast p6t6ras esses 3. 6rat, He was p6t6rat ess6t Plur. 1. 6ramtis,Tre2^;ere p6t6ramtis 2. Gratis, Ye were p6t6ratis 3. 6rant, They were p6t6rant posses posset essemus possemtis essetis possetis essent possent Perfect. Sing. 1. p6tui, I could or might pdtuisti fui, / was or ham heen 2. fuisti, TJwu wast or hast heen 3. fuit. He was pdtuit Plur. 1. fuimiis,?Fe?^ere pbtulmtis 2. fmstlSfYe were p6tuistis 3. fuerunt or p6tuerunt fuere. They were potuere fu6rim p6tu6rim fugris p6tu6ris fugrit p6tu6rit fu6ri- p6tu6ri- mus mus fu6ritis p6tu6ritis fu6rint p6tu6rint INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 77 Gomp. Fixture. Sing. 1. fu6ro, / shall pdtu^ro, I shall have been able have been 2. fu6ris p6tu6ris 3. fu6rit p6tu6rit Plur. 1. fu6rimus 2. fu6ritis 3. fuSrint pdtugrimus p6tu6ritis pdtuerint Pluperfect. Sing. 1. fu6ram, I had pdtu^ram, I /lacZ fuissem pdtuissem been, etc. 2. fu6ras 3. fu6rat Plur. 1. fu^ramus 2. fu6ratis 3. fuSrant been able, etc. p6tu6ras p6tu6rlit pdtuSramus p6tu6ratis p6tu6rant fuisses fuiss6t fuisse- mus pdtuisses p6tuiss6t p5tuisse- mus fuissetis p5tuissetls fuissent p6tuissent Imperative Present Sing. 2. 6s, be Future Sing. 2 and 3. esto Plur. 2. est 6, be ye Plur. 2. estotg 3. sunto Verbal Nouns Infinitive. Present, esse, to be posse, to be able Perfect, fuisse, to have been pdtuisse, to have been able Future. f6re or futtirus esse, to be going to be Participles. Pres. (s-ens or ens) pdtens, powerful, only- only in compounds. adj. Future, futurus, going to be For the imperfect subj. forem, fores, foret, foremus, foretis, forent are frequently used. For the present (3d person) fuat is rarely used. 78 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAH Like sum are inflected its compounds, viz. — absum (perf. abfui or afui), am away. adsum or assum (perf. adfui or affiii), amp-esenf. desum (de-est, de-eram, etc., pronounced dest, deram, etc.), am wanting. insum, am in ; intersum, am among ; obsum, am in the way of. praesum, am over (3d pers. sing, praeest, some- times written praest). prosum, am for, benefit (prod- before a vowel ; e.g, prod-es, prod-ero). subsum, am under, supersum, am above. Of these absum and praesum alone have a present participle absens, praesens. 73. Indicative Mood Malo Nolo (Ma-volo Do, Volo, (Ne-volo), for mag-volo), Present Tense, give. be ivilling. be umvilling. prefer. Sing. 1. do v6lo nolo malo 2. das vis non vis mavis 3. dat vult non vnlt mavult Plur. 1. dS,mus vdltimus nolumus malumus 2. datis vultis non vultis mavultis 3. dant vdlunt nolunt malunt Future Sing. 1. d^bo v61am (not used) (not used) 2. dSstem ends in a short vowel, this vowel is usually changed to i or omitted, as crepa crepare crepitum mone monere monitum fugi fugere fugitum If the verb-stem ends in a consonant, this consonant is either retained, as carp-ere, carp-tum or assimilated, as reg-ere, rec-tum If the stem end in d or t or two consonants, the first being a liquid, the supine ends in -sum, as flect-ere flexum (for flect-tura) plaud-ere plausura (for plaud-tum) sparg-ere sparsum (for sparg-tum) defend-ere defensum (for defend-tum) The same change of -tura to -sum takes place also if a verb-stem ends in a short vowel preceded by d or t or two consonants, as above. fodi-o, fodere, fossum prande-, prandere, pransum mulge-, mulgere, mulsum senti-, sentire, sensum 78. (a) Verbs with stems in a, e, and i usually have perfect in -avi, -evi, -ivi supine in -atum, -etum, -itum (h) Verbs with stems in a or e have perfect in -ui, supine in -itum. In these verbs the a or e combines with the initial vowel of the suffix in tenses formed from the present stem, so as to show a or e, as sonamus sonare sonui sonitum monemus monere monui monitum VERBAL STEMS 83 The root-vowel is almost always short. But there are many exceptions, particularly (c) Verbs with stems in -u have perfect in -ui, supine in -utum (sometimes -uitum). Those in -ve have root-syllable lengthened and perfect in i simple, as vovere, vovi, votum. (d) Some consonant verbs whose root-syllable is short have perfect in -ui, supine in -itum, as fremo, fremui, fremitum. (e) Many verbs whose root-syllable is long, especially when this is because it ends in more than one consonant, have perfect in -si, and supine in -turn or -sum, as 79. carpere carpsi ca: rptum augere auxi auctum sugere suxi suctnm sentire sensi sensum le following are exceptions to (d) — jtibeo jussi premo pressi coquo coxi allicio allexi aspicio aspexi diligo dilexi rego rexi tego texi traho traxi veho vexi quatio quassi divido divisi m^neo mansi ctipio cupivi peto petivi rtido rudivi lino livi or levi eo ivi sTno sivi queo quivi sero sevi bibo bibi scindo scidi findo fidi ago egi venio veni s^deo sedi video vidi 84 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Exceptions to (e)- sorbeo sorbui torpeo torpui arceo arcui sterto stertui oportet oportuit sordeo sordui calleo callui palleo pallui areo arui pareo parui terreo terrui torreo torrui censeo censui texo texui ferveo ferbui horreo horrui verto verti ctido cudi scando scandi mando mandi pando pandi strideo stridi LIST OF IKEEGULAE VEEBS 80. The following list contains all the principal verbs which may be regarded as somewhat irregular. N.B. — (1) The supine is not much used, but is here mentioned wherever it or a perfect participle is known, as this is similarly formed. N.B. — (2) Where the English translation as given here, whether with or without a preposition, allows of the im- mediate addition of an object, the verb is transitive (though it may perhaps also be used intransitively), e.g. arcesso, send for ; laedo, hurt, are transitive. Where the English translation here given requires the addition of a preposition in order to make sense with an object, the verb is intran- sitive, e.g. noceo, be hurtful Supine. Pres. Infinitive. Present. Perfect. accerso. See arcesso ago, doj drive egi actum ag6r6 t adigo, drive to, compel, adegi, ^dactum, Mig^re. other compounds, except cogo, compel, c6egi, coactum, cog6re. stem. So the LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 85 Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. aio, sai/ The following forms only are preserved : Pres. aio, S^is, S,it, aiunt. Imperf. aiebam, etc., complete. Pres. subj. aias, aiat. The participle aiens is used only as adjective. algeo, he cold alsi algere alg-e- aio, nourish, raise ^lui altum ai6re cil- (S^litum, post-Augustan) S,mIcio, clothe amictmn S,micire S-mlc-i- ango, throttle, vex angSre ang- apiscor, fasten to aptus sum aptum apisci S,p-i- oneself, get More usual is compound ^dipiscor, adeptus sum, ^dipisci. arceo, inclose, keep arcui (artus, adj. arcere arc-e- off narrow) exerceo, exercise, exercui, exercitum, exercere. So also coerceo. axcesBO, fetch, send ) . . .^ ^ ( arcess- . '-^ ' > arcessivi arcessitum arcess6re < for j ( arcessi- Another form (perhaps of different origin) is accerso. ardeo, be on fire arsi (arsurus) ardere arde- audeo, dare ausus sum ausum audere aud-e- , ^ - > imperat. hail, also aveto, plur. ^vete, inf. ^vere augeo, increase auxi auctum augere aug-e- (trans.), endow bibo, drink bibi bib^re bib- For supine and fut. part, potum, poturus are used. cMo, fall c6cidi casum cS-d^re cM- occido, fall, occidi, occasum, occidSre. The other com- pounds have no supine. cs^edOjfell, cut, slay c6cidi caesum caedere caed- occido, slay, occidi, occisum, occidere. So other compounds. 86 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. -cando, light ; only in compounds e.g. accendo, accendi, accensum, accendSre. c^no, sing, play c6cini (cantus, c^n^re can- (on harp, etc.) subst.) concino, sing together^ concinui, concentum, concin^re. So other compounds. c^pesso, undertake capessivi capessitum capess6re J ^ ^ ] [ cap6ssi~ capio, take cepi captum c^p^re c^p-i- concipio, concepi, conceptum, concip6re. So most other compounds. careo, be in want c^rui (carlturus) c^rere c^r-e- csiT'po, nibble, pluck caxipsi carptum carp6re carp- decerpo, pluck of, decerpsi, decerptum, decerp6re. So other compounds. c^veo, beware, be- cavi cautum cS,vere c^v-e- ware of cedo, give way, cessi cessum cedSre ced- yield up C6d6, give, said to be old imper. 2nd pers. sing. The plural cette (for c6dite) only in early dramatic poets. -cello, strike (?) only in compounds : celsus, adj. high cell- percello, strike down, perctili, perculsus, percellere. censeo, count, give censui censum censere cens-e- opinion cerno, dft, didin- \ ^^^. J ^^®*|Jf ) cemere ^ ^^^' 3rno, sift, disti7i- ) _ . I . ( •I. \] 'J \ crevi { certus, V( qmsh, decide, see \ J j • I ^ * ' ^ \ adj. sure ) cre- The meaning see is confined to pres., fut., and imperf. tenses, decerno, decide, decrevi, decretum, decernere. So other compounds. cieo ) ^. - . y. f ciere ci-e- } stir up civi citum { - -CIO j ^ ( -cire ci- The i stem is rare in the simple verb ; the e stem rare in the compounds. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 87 Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. cingo, gird cinxi cinctum cing^re cing- claudo, shut clausi clausum claud6re claud- concludo, shut up^ conclusi, conclusum, concludere. So the other compounds. coepio, begin coepi coeptum coepSre coepi- Pres. iiid. and subj. in Plautiis only. Otherwise only perfect stem in use, except that coeptus and coeptums are also used. cultum c6l6re c61- consultum consul6re constil- coctum c6qu6re c6clv- cr^pitum cr6pare cr6p-a- cretum cresc6re cre- cubitum clibare ctib-a- cusum ctid^re cud- -cumbo, lie, only in compounds accumbo, lie up (at table), acctibui, acctibitum, accumb6re. So the other compounds. ctipio, desire ctipivi cupitum ctipSre ctip-!- curro, run cucurri cursum curr6re curr- The compounds sometimes retain the reduplication, e.g. accticurri, decucurri ; more usually drop it, e.g. accurri. deleo, blot out delevi deletum delere dele- dlcOy say dixi dictum dic6re die- disco, learn didici discere die- Compounds retain reduplication, e.g. edidici. divide, divide divisi divisum dividSre di-vid- dOf give (see ^, 78) d6di datum dare da- The half-compounds eircumdo, surround ; pessumdo, ruin ; satisdo, satisfy ; venumdo, expose to sale, follow do pre- cisely. cdlo, tilly pay at- c61ui tention to eonstilo, consult constilui c6auo, cook coxi credo. See do cr6po, rattle crgpui cresco, grow erevi cube, liej lie ill ciibui eudo, hammer cudi 1 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR credo, entmst, believe ; vendo, sell ; and the compounds witli monosyllabic prepositions have consonant -stems, e.g. credo, credidi, creditum, cred6re ; abdo, hide away^ abdidi, abditum, abdere. The reduplication is usually retained in the compounds. For the passives of vendo and perdo, ruin, veneo and p6reo are used. But perditus and perdendus are in use. Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. stem. dbceo, teach ddcui doctum ddcere d6c-6- ddleo, he in pain ddlui (ddliturus) dblere d6l-6- d6mo, tame dbmui ddmitiiTTi ddmare d6m-a- duco, draWf lead, diixi ductum duc6re duc- account 6do, eat edi esum dd^re 6d- c6m6do has cdmesum and c6mestum. 6mOjhuy{oTig.ta1ce) emi emptum 6m6re ^m- adimo, take away, ademi, ademptum, adimSre. So other compounds except (1) co6mo (coemi, coemptum), which retains e. (2) The earlier compounds como, demo, promo, sumo, which make compsi, comptum, etc. eo, go (see p. 79) ivi itum ire i Compounds always omit v in 1st pers. perf., e.g. adii ; and usually in other persons of perfect tenses. veneo, he for sale, perf. venii, no supine, is a compound of 60. See do above. &ces^, cause,) mcessitumfacessgre jf'^^^-. make off J ( facess-1- facio, make, do feci factum fac6re f^ci- For the passive in tenses formed from present stem, f io is used. prof icio, make progress, profeci, profectum, prof ic6re. So the other compounds with prepositions. But cai^facio, make warm, trSmefacio, make to tremble, etc., retain a. pr6ficiscor, set out (on a journey), travel, prdfectum, pr6- ficisci. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 89 Pres. Present. Perfect Supine. Infinitive. Stem. fallOj deceive, elude fgfelli falsum failure fall- rgfello, refute, r^felli, r6fell6re. farcio, stuff farsi fartum farcire fare i- rSfercio, r^fersi, rSfertum, refercire. f^t^or, acknowledge fassum fateri fat-6- confiteor, confess, confessum, confiteri. So profiteer, profess. fS.tisco ) yaivn (fessus,adj. ( f^tisc^re ) «^. . fS/tiscor (old) / droop weary) \ f^tisci J def 6tiscor, to he worn out, defessum, def 6tisci. f^veo, he favourable favi fautum f^vere fav-e- -fendo, strike, only in compounds fend- defendo, ward off, guard, defendi, defensum, defendSre. So also offendO) strike against. f§rio, strike f^rire f6r i- (percussi, percussum are often used as perfect and supine.) f6ro,&ear(seep.79) (tuli) (latum) ferre fer- Perfect and supine are borrowed from tollo. aff6ro, bring to atttili allatum afferre auf^ro, take away abstuli ablatum auferre diff^ro, put off disttili dilatum differre off6ro, bring to obtuli oblatum offerre r6f6ro, bring back rettuli r61atum referre refert, it is of importance (probably for rei fert), is used as impersonal, suff^ro, endure, has for perf. rarely susttili, usually sustinui. r fervi ferveo, boil, glow < fgj.ijy- fervere ferv-6- A consonantal stem {e.g. fervit, fervere) frequent in poets. f ido, trust f isum f id^re fid- fisus sum is used for perf., / have trusted. 90 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Present Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. f igo, fix fixi fixum figure fig- Also fictus as past participle. findo, cleave f idi fissum findgre f id- fingo, form, invent finxi fictum fing6re f ig- f 10, become (see p. 7 9) f I6ri fi- The compound infit, he hegins, only in this one form (poetical). flecto, lend flexi flexum fllect6re flect- fleo, weep flevi fletum flere fle- -fligo, strike, only in compounds affigOj strike against, knock down, afflixi, afflictum, afflig6re. So the other compounds, except profligo, put to rout, profli- gavi, profligatum, profLigare. fliio,/ow; fluxi flu6re fltlgv- (fluxus, adj. loose ; fluctus, sub. a ivave.) f6dio, dig fodi fossum f6d6re fdd-i- fatur, he speaks fatum fari fa- The following only found : pres. ind. fatur ; fut. fabor, fabitur ; perf. fatus est ; pluperf. fatus eram, erat ; imper. fare ; inf. fari ; part, fantem, etc. (no nomina- tive, except in phrase fans atque infans. Plant.), fatus, fando, fandus, and fatu. In compounds we have also -famur, -famini ; -fabar, -farer, etc., and in imperat. (act. and dep.), praefato, praefamino. fCveo, keep warm, fovi fotum fdvere f6v-6- cherish frar":o, break in fregi fractum frangSre frS-g- Compounds as confringo, smash, confregi, confractum, con- fringSre. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 91 Present. Perfect. fr6ino, roar, snort fremui frendo, gnash (with the teeth) frico, rub fricui frigeo, he cold frixi fmor, enjoy myself Fut. part, fruiturus. fUgio, flee, fly from fugi fulcio, prop fulsi fulgeo, flash fulsi Pres. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. fremitum fr6ni6re fr6m- ( fressum ( fresum j frictum ( fricatum frigere fructum frui frendSre fricare frend- fric-a- frig-e- fnigv- (fugiturus) fug6re ftig-i- fultum fulcire fulc i- fulgere fulg-e- A consonantal stem, e.g. fulgit, fulg^re, is found in poets. fundo, pour, rout fudi fusum fundSre fud- (an enemy) fnngor, get quit, dis- functum fungi fung- charge myself (of a duty, etc.) furis, thou ragest furore ftir- Only furis, furit, furunt, furebas, furebat, furore, furens are found. gaudeo, be glad gavisus sum, I rejoiced. ggmo, sigh, groan ggmui g6ro, carry, perform gessi gigno, beget, pro- g6nui duce gradior, step gavisum gaudere gavid-e- ggmitum gestum g^nitum ggmgre g6r6re gignSre gressum gr^di g6m- g6s- gen- grad-i- Compounds as aggr6dior, attaclc, aggressum, aggr^di. -grfio, only in compounds gru-f . congruo, agree, impend. congrui, congru6re. So also ini o. hd;beo, have babui habitum hS.bere hab-6- TTY 92 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR So the compounds cohibeo, hold in, cohibui, cohibitum, cohibere, debeo (for de-hibeo), owe, debui, debitum, debere ; praebeo (for praehibeo), afford, praebui, praebitum, praebere. Pres. Present Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. haereo, stick, intr. haesi haesum haerere haer-e- liSiMTiOjdrainjdrawhBMsi haustum haurire haus-i- (water) Fut. part, hausturus (Cic) and hausurus (Yerg.) : both in later writers. The subst. is haustus. hisco, gape, open the mouth, to speak hisc^re hi- j^ceo, lie j^cui (j^citurus) j^cere jac-6- jlicio, cast jeci j actum j^c6re j^c-i- abicio (sometimes spelt abjicio), throw away, abjeci, abjec- tum, abic6re. So the other compounds. Dissicio is for dis-jicio. porricio, offer (sacrifices), etc., porrectum, porric6re (without perf.) ICO, strike ici ictum ic6re ic- Present is rare (f6rio is generally used instead). incesso, attack incessi incess6re incess- indulgeo, yield, indulsi indulgere indulg-e- intr. I" I mctvi- The following forms only occur. Pres. ind. inquam, inquis, inquit, inquimus, inquiunt. Fut. inquies, inquiet. Imperf. inquiebat. Perf. inquii, inquisti, inquit. Imperat. 2nd sing, inque, inquito, plur. inquite. ir3iSCor, grow angry iratum irasci ira- iratus sum, I am angry ; succensui, I {fired up, i.e.) grew angry. jtibeo, hid jussi jussum jtibere jub-e- iMTLgo, yoke, join junxi junctum jung6re jung- juvo, help, delight juvi jutum juvare juv-a- Fut. part, juvaturus. Adjuvo has adjuturus. , inqv^- or mquam, say mquii ^ LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS J93 \ Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. labor, slip, glide lapsum labi lab- l^cesso, provoke l^cessivi lacessitum l^cess^re \ locessi -l5 Pluperfect j fuerim Infinitive. Present Fut. part, with Perfect (C) Person. ' se,suus, ipse (usually), of the subject of the sentence : is, ille, of what is not the sub- ject. hie, nunc, often by ille, turn, tunc ego, meus, nos, nos- ter, tu, tuus, vos,- vester, iste, is, ille. 135. The above rules will be best illustrated by the following extracts — Oratio recta. Oratio obliqua. (Is ita cum Oaesare egit) : Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem ituros atque ibi futuros Hel- vetios, ubi eos Caesar con- stituted atque esse volu- issety sin bello persequi Si pa- cem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in eam partem ihunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi tu eos constitums atque esse valuer is; sin bello persequi 146 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR Oratio recta. persever^quidfaceres I was seeing Ywhat you were doing Vidi(aor.); I saw ) (e) quid fecisses what you had done (/) quid facturus esses what you were going to do 2. In consecutive sentences the sequence is the same, except that sometimes the perfect subjunctive is used after a secondary tense to denote a distinct historical fact, as — Inde factum est ut Galli urbem ceperint (not caper- ent). Hence it happened that the Gauls took the town. 3. In final and jussive sentences the present is used after primary tenses, the imperfect after secondary tenses. Occlusit portas ut hostes excludat. He has shut the gates to keep out the enemy. Occlusit portas ut hostes excluderet. He shut the gates to keep out the enemy. NOTES ON SOME USES OF THE CASES 151 NOTES ON SOME USES OF THE" CASES 141. Some transitive verbs take two accusatives, one marking the person, the other the thing aifected : these are : doceo, teach ; celo, hide ; posco, flagito, demand ; rogo, ask ; ore, p^ay, as — Pacera te omnes oraraus, JVe all pray you for ;peace. The latter accusative is retained even after a passive verb, as — Rogatus est sententiam, He was asked his opinion. 142. An accusative is used by the poets after a passive verb to denote (a) a part of the body, (b) a thing worn, as — Tunica inducitur artus, His limbs are clothed with a tunic. Vestes induta recinctas. Clad in high-girt robes. 143. {a) The dative is very comnjon after verbs com- pounded with a preposition, as — Imponiinusonerajuinentis, We place burdens on beasts. But in prose the preposition is often repeated with its proper case. (b) The following verbs may be translated by a transitive verb in English, but in Latin they denote a state, rather than a direct action, and are therefore followed by the dative — adverser, am opposed. aemulor, am rival. blandior, am coaxing. diffido, am distrustful. displiceo, am displeasing. f&,veo, am favourable. fido, am trustful (so confido). irascor, am growing angry. 152 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR medeor, am healing. noceo, am hurtful. nubo, take the veil, i.e. marry (of a woman). parco, am sparing. pareo, am obedient. place o, am pleasing. praesto, am superior. satisfacio, do enough for, servio, am a slave to. sttideo, am zealous. supplico, am suppliant to. tempero, am sparing. And compounds of sum : such as, adsum, am obsum, am in the way of; praesum, am over; prosum, am on behalf of i.e. of use to. (c) Other verbs take a dative of the person and an accusative of the thing, which latter is often omitted, or replaced by a substantival clause, as — credo, trust. ignosco, overlook, pardon. imp^ro, order. invideo, grudge. minor, threaten. persuadeo, persuade. suadeo, advise. As hoc tibi credo, / entrust this to yva; tibi credo, / believe you ; Crasso invideo divitias, / grudge C. his wealth; Crasso invideo, / envy Crassus ; imperat Gallis frumentum, he orders corn of the Gauls; imperat servo ut redeat, he orders the slave to return. The dative of the agent is used in prose only with gerundive, and sometimes passive participles, and adjec- tives in -bills. NOTES ON SOME USES OF THE CASES 153 144. Prepositions are required with the ablative 1. To denote an agent rather than an instrument, as — A Caesare gladio occisus est, He was slain by Caesar with a sword. 2. When with means in company with, not by means of, as — Venit cum duobus servis. He came with tivo slaves, 3. To express manner, when no epithet is employed, (except in a few adverbial expressions), as — Dixit cum prudentia. He spoke with foresight. 4. To denote jplace ivhere, with a common noun, or the interior or neighbourhood of a town or country, as — In castris, in the camp ; ad Romam, near Borne ; in Hispania, in Spain. But with medius and totus in is usually omitted. 5. Usually to denote place whence, under the same conditions, as — Ex Italia pulsus est. He was banished from Italy. De saxo dejectus est, He was thrown down from the rock. 145. The following verbs are followed by an ablative which originally denoted the instrument : utor, use (lit. employ myself); vescor, feed on (lit. feed myself) fungor, discharge (lit. busy myself); fruor, enjoy (lit. enjoy myself) ; nitor, lean on (lit. support myself) potior, master (lit. make myself powerful). So also opus est, there is work to be done with, i.e. I need ; usus est, there is employment, i.e. I want. Oculi suo munere funguntur, The eyes discharge their function. Luce fruimur, We enjoy the light. Opus est nobis animis. We require courage. 154 ELEMENTAK7 LATIN GRAMMAR 146. (a) The genitive case is not used, as often in English, where a part of a thing, not really divided, is denoted by an adjective, as — Summus mons. The top of the mountain. Tota urbs, The whole of the city. Aversa charta. The hack of the paper, (b) The following impersonal verbs denoting mental emotion are followed by an accusative of the person and a genitive of the object or source of the emotion : (me) raiseret, (/) feel pity ; pudet, feel shame ; paenitet, feel discontent ; piget, feel annoyance ; taedet, feel weariness ; so also misereor, / feel pity ; but not miseror, / com- miserate, which takes an accusative : as — Paenitet te fortunae, You are discontented with your lot. USE OF PEONOUNS 147. Hie is the demonstrative pronoun of the first person, iste of the second, ille of the third. Hence hie is used of the nearer, sometimes " the latter " ; ille of the more remote, sometimes "the former"; (ille is also used of a well-known person or thing :) iste of something despised or disliked. Is denotes some person or thing named in the con- text, where mere reference without emphasis is required. 148. Se, suus are used with reference to the subject of the sentence ; sometimes we should use himself them- selves, his own, their own, in English, but by no means always. Thus Caesar Catoni dixit verba ejus sibi displieere, Caesar told Gato that his (Cato's) words displeased him {Caesar). Ipse is an adjective of emphasis : if a pronoun of the first or second person is not expressed, it is understood to refer to the third person. Neque sane, quid ipse sentiret, ostendit, Nor indeed did he show what he thought himself. USE OF PRONOUNS 155 149. The indefinite pronouns quis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam are used in affirmative sentences to denote " some one " ; quis is used thus only in relative sentences, and after cum, si, nisi, ne, num. Sometimes, if the sense requires it, they can be used in negative sentences also, but this is rarely the case except with quis. Si quis aliquando quidpiam dixerit. If some one has at some time or other said something. The pronouns quisquam (subst.) and ullus (adj.), any, are used only in negative sentences and such as imply a negative : quivis and quilibet, any you jjlease, may be used in affirmative or, if the sense requires it, in negative sentences. Compare — Non puto quemquam hoc facere posse, / do not think that any one at all can do this, with Non puto quemvis hoc facere posse, / do not think that any one you please (i.e. every one) can do this, 150. Uterque, each, is used of two only, quisque, each, of more than two. In the plural uterque and quisque are used of two sets or groups, and of more than two sets or groups respectively. Quisque is often used with se or suus, or with a superlative or an ordinal : as pro se quisque dixit, each spoke for himself; optimus quisque, all the best people-, decimus quisque occisus est, every tenth man was killed. Quisquis, quicunque, whoever, are properly used as indefinite relatives : as qui- cunque hoc dicit, errat, whoever says this, is mistaken. But they are sometimes used when quivis, etc., would be more exact. Alius is other generally ; alter, the other of two, or the second; ceteri, the rest. Ahus — alius is one — another; alter — alter, the one — the other; unus et alter is one or two. If alius is repeated in the same clause it is translated different : alius aliud videt, different men see different things. 156 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR 151. The first person plural is often used for the singular — Bxcurremus legati ad Pisonem, / shall go off as a com- missioner to Fiso. The second person plural is never used for the singular. For the indefinite " one " we find such expressions as — - (1) The second person singular subjunctive : dicas, one would say, (2) quis or aliquis : si quis dicat, if one should say, (3) an impersonal : non licet ire, one may not go, (4) a relative with is : is qui dicit, one who says. USE OF CONJUNCTIONS 152. Et simply connects words and sentences ; atque adds something on which more stress is laid ; -que generally adds something of less importance to complete the idea. As a rule, if there are three co-ordinate words a con- junction is used twice, or else not at all — Summa fide, constantia, justitia, or Summa fide et constantia et justitia. Not as in English. 153. Sed, verum, ceterum, autem, vero, at, and sometimes quod, are used as adversative conjunctions, to contrast the meaning while connecting sentences ; autera and vero are never placed first in a clause. 154. Aut, or, is used where the difference is important, vel, or, where it is slight : hence aut — aut, either — or, sug- gest that two statements are mutually exclusive, vel — vel, either — or (if you please), that both may be true, or that the choice is unimportant. Sive (seu) — sive (seu), whether — or, are used when it is uncertain or indifferent which alternative should be taken. INTERROGATIONS 157 INTEREOGATIONS 155. In simple questions -ne. suggests nothing as to the answer; videsne? do you see? nonne suggests an affirmative answer : nonne vides ? do you not see ? num suggests a negative answer : num vides? you do not see^ do you? In alternative questions utrum ? whether ? is often pre- fixed to the first member, but sometimes -ne is used and sometimes no particle is employed ; the second is intro- duced by an. Utrum hoc nescis an parvi facis? Do you not know this, or do you care little for it? (Or nescisne an . . . ?) Sometimes an introduces a simple question, when it is asked in consequence of something previously said. An putas me hoc dixisse ? Do you think, then, that I said this? In dependent simple questions num loses its special force, and is only introductory ; an is similarly used, but less commonly. Rogavit num puer abiisset. He asked whether the hoy had gone away. Nescio an adsit, / do not know whether he is here. In dependent alternative questions necne is more common than annon for " or not." APPENDIX A. — Roman Money The earliest coinage at Eome was of copper (aes), alloyed with tin and lead. The chief coin was the as, which was supposed to weigh a pound, though no extant pieces quite reach this weight. It was divided into 1 2 unciae ; and coins were struck for the half-pound (semis), four ounces ( triens), three '1 p ounces ( quadran s), two ounces (sextans), and ounce (uncia). J - By degrees theas was reduced in weight, until in B.C. 217 it weighed only one uncia, and afterwards only half an uncia. In B.C. 269 silver coins were first struck, the denarius = 10 asses, the quinarius = 5 asses, and the sestertius = 2| asses. (Sestertius = semis tertius, a half -as the third, i.e. 2|- asses.) After B.C. 217 16 asses went to the denarius, and therefore four to the sestertius ; and the value of the denarius was reduced to that of ^-^ of a pound of silver. For the time of the Republic the value of the sestertius was nearly 2d., that of the denarius about 8|d. Julius Caesar struck a gold coin called aureus, equal to 25 denarii. In reckoning money the sestertius was commonly used. Up to 2000 cardinal numbers are prefixed, e.g. ducentos sestertios accepit, he received 200 sesterces. But when milia would have been used, instead of milia sestertium, it was usual to say sestertia, the genitive plural being taken as a neuter singular and declined : e.g. septem sestertia misit, he sent 7000 sesterces. Forms like sestertium sexagena milia, 60,000 sesterces, are, however, also found. In the case of 160 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR amounts requiring the use of centum milia, numeral adverbs were prefixed ; and as the use of these always implied centum milia, these words were usually omitted : thus vicies sester- tium = vicies centum milia sestertium, 2,000,000 sesterces. With such numbers sestertium was again declined, but only in the singular : e.g. sestertio decies fundum emi, I bought the estate for a million (sesterces). Mille sestertium = £8 10s. nearly ; decies sestertium = £8500 nearly. (Translate Accepi vicies ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decem et septem nummos. — Cic.) Interest was in early times at the rate of ^ of the capital for a year of ten months (equal to 10 per cent for twelve months), or fenus unciarium. Afterwards interest was cal- culated, as in Greece, by the month, and the legal rate was y-J-^ of the capital (sors) each month, i.e. 12 per cent. This was called centesima. Lower rates were denoted by names derived from the fractions of the as, e.g. usurae quadrantes = 3 per cent : higher rates by distributive numerals, e.g. quinae cen- tesimae = 60 per cent. The most common measures were — Weight : libra = | of a pound Troy. Length : pes= 11*6 English inches ; passus= 5 pedes. Surface : jugerum = about | of an English acre. Capacity : sextarius = nearly a pint ; modius = nearly a peck. B. — Roman Eeckoning of Time The year was generally described by the names of the two consuls who held office during it. It was commonly dated by the number of years that had elapsed since the foundation of the city, attributed to B.C. 753. Thus "in b.c. 63" would be expressed anno urbis conditae sexcentesimo nonagesimo primo M. TuUio Cicerone et 0. Antonio consulibus. The year was originally divided into ten months, beginning with March : the names were mensis Martins (the month of Mars), Aprilis (of opening), Mains (of groivth), Junius (of thriving 1), Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, Novem- APPENDIX 161 ber, December {the fifths sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth months). To these were afterwards added Januarius {the month of beginning farm loork), and Februarius {of cleansing). After B.C. 153 the year was held to begin with January 1st. In B.c. 44, after the murder of Julius Caesar, the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honour, and in B.C. 8 the month Sextilis received the name Augustus in honour of the Emperor Augustus. The days of the month were computed from three days in each, called respectively Kalendae, Nonae, and Idus. The name of the month was added to these as an adjective in agree- ment. The Kalends were the first days of each month, on which it was the custom to proclaim (calare) to the people the name and divisions of the month. The Ides were probably the days of the shining (root id) of the full moon. The Nones were nine days (according to the inclusive reckoning of the Romans) before the Ides. Up to the time of the reform of the Calendar by Julius Caesar in B.c. 45, four months — March, May, July, and October — had 31 days, seven had 29, and one, February, had 28. Every other year an intercalated month of 22 or 23 days was inserted after February 23rd. After the reform the months were made of the same length as at present, i.e. two days were added to January, August, and December, and February 24th (the sixth day before March 1st) was reckoned twice over in every fourth year, hence called annus bissextilis. In the four months originally long the Ides fell on the 1 5th, and the Nones consequently on the 7th ; in all the others the Ides fell on the 1 3th and the Nones on the 5th. The days of each month were counted backwards from the next chief day, the days between the Kalends and the Nones from the Nones, those between the Nones and the Ides from the Ides, and those between the Ides and the Kalends of the next month from the Kalends. The day before was denoted by pridie, followed by an accusative. In all other cases the reckoning was inclusive : thus January 13th was " the third day before the Ides," March 25th " the eighth day before the Kalends of April." There were two ways of expressing the .1 I^" \. 162 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR date in Latin : either the preposition ante was omitted alto- gether, although the case remained the accusative, as if it were present : e.g. tertio (die ante) Idus Januarias, or it was transposed, and by an attraction put the ordinal numeral also into the accusative : e.g. ante diem octavum Kalendas Apriles, commonly written iii Id. Jan., a.d. viii Kal. Apr. Sometimes such a phrase as the last is governed by another preposition, as ex a.d. iii Non. Jun. usque ad prid. Kal. Sept., /rom June Srd to August 31 st. The civil day began at midnight and extended to midnight. But the natural day was from sunrise to sunset. This period was divided into twelve hours (horae) of equal length. At Home the day in midwinter is rather less than nine hours long ; at midsummer it is rather more than fifteen hours. Hence a hora in winter was equal to about forty-five of our minutes, in summer to about seventy-five. The seventh hour always began at midday. The night was divided for military purposes into four watches (vigiliae) of equal length. The following table gives the days of the months for the period after B.C. 45. Before that date, the dates in January, August, and December would answer to those in April, etc. — Jai ^UARY (so Aug. and March (so May, April (so June, Dec.) July, October). Sept. Nov.) 1. Kal. Jan. Kal. Mart. Kal. Apr. 2. a.d. iv Noil. Jan. a.d. vi Non. Mart. a.d. iv Non. Apr. 3. a.d. iii Non. Jan. a.d. V Non. Mart. a.d. iii Non. Apr. 4. Prid. Non. Jan. a.d. iv Non, Mart. Prid. N"on. Apr. 5. Non. Jan. a.d. iii Non. Mart. Non. Apr. 6. a.d. viii Id. Jan. Prid. Non. Mart. a.d. viii Id. Apr. 7. a.d. vii Id. Jan. Non. Mart. a.d. vii Id. Apr. 8. a.d. vi Id. Jan. a.d. viii Id. Mart. a.d. vi Id. Apr. 12. Prid. Id. Jan. a.d. iv Id. Mart. Prid. Id. Apr. 13. Id. Jan. a.d. iii Id. Mart. Id. Apr. 14. a.d. xix Kal. Feb. Prid. Id. Mart. a.d. xviii Kal. Mai. 15. a.d. xviii Kal. Feb. Id. Mart. a.d. xvii Kal. Mai. 16. a.d. xvii Kal. Feb. a.d. xvii Kal. Apr. a.d. xvi Kal. Mai. 30. a.d. iii Kal. Feb. a.d. iii Kal. Apr. Prid. Kal. Mai. 31. Prid. Kal. Feb. Prid. Kal. Apr. February is like April, except that Feb. 14th is a.d. XVi Kal. Mart, and so on to Feb. 28th, which is Prid. Kal. Mart. APPENDIX 163 C. — Relations by Blood and Marriage proavus avus = avia proavus avus = avia I patruus aniita I I patruelis amitinus I pater = mater avunculus matertera I I I I I I amitinus (?) consobrinus frater ego soror , lilius I nepos 2. noverca = pater = mater =vitricus {step- I (step- mother) I father) ego j nurus = filius L I 1 nepos neptis socer = socrus {father- I (mother- in-law) I ill-law) uxor = prior maritus I f privignus privigna ia=gener I nepos neptis D. — Abbreviations A Roman had always two names, sometimes three, or even more. The first (praenomen) denoted the individual, the second (nomen) the gens or " house " from which he came, the third (cognomen) the family within the gens to which he belonged, if the " house " was so divided. There was often also an agnomen, a personal or inherited surname. The praenomina were com- monly abbreviated as follows — 164 ELEMENTARY LATIN GEAMMAR A. Aulus. Mam. Mamercus. Lpp. Appius. N. or Num. Numerius. G. Gaius. P. Publius. Cn. Gnaeus. Q. Quintus. D. Deciinus. S. or Sex. Sextus. K. Kaeso. Ser. Servius. L. Lucius. Sp. Spurius. M. Marcus. T. Titus. M'. Manius. Ti. Tiberius. In old Latin C was used for G and G alike : hence its re- tention to denote Gaius and Gnaeus. E. — KoMAN Writers The following dates of Koman writers are to be remembered — T. Maccius Plautus, B.C. 254-184; comedies. P. Terentius Afer, B.C. 185-159; comedies. M. Tullius Gicero, B.C. 106-43 ; speeches, treatises on philo- sophy and rhetoric, letters. C. Julius Caesar, B.c. 101-44 ; history of his wars (other writings not preserved). Gornelius Nepos (rather later) ; lives of famous men. T. Lucretius Carus, b.c. 90-55 ; philosophical poem. G. Valerius Gatullus, b.c. 87-54 ; poetry of various kinds. G. Sallustius Grispus, B.c. 87-34 ; history. P. Vergilius Maro, B.C. 70-19 ; rural and epic poems. Q. Horatius Flaccus, B.C. 65-8 ; lyrical, satirical, and moral poems. T. Livius, B.C. 59 — a.d. 16 ; history of Rome. Albius TibuUus, b.c. 54 — B.C. 19 ; love poetry. Sex. Propertius, B.C. 50 — after B.C. 16 ; love poetry. P. Ovidius Naso, B.C. 43 — a.d. 17 ; poetry of various kinds. Phaedrus (about this time) ; fables in verse. Of later writers the most noteworthy are the philosopher, Seneca ; the satirist, Persius ; the epic poets, Lucan, Valerius, Silius, and Statins ; the learned Pliny, and his nephew Pliny the Younger, who has left many letters ; Quintilian, who wrote on rhetoric ; Tacitus, the historian ; and Juvenal, the satirist. APPENDIX 165 F. — Prosody and Metre 1. Metre in Latin verse consists in a regular succession of long and short syllables, and is not determined by accent, as in English verse. 2. A syllable is long, if the vowel is either (1) long by nature, or (2) long by position. Diphthongs, and vowels resulting from contraction, are long by nature, as aurum, cogo (for coigo). 3. Yowels are made long by position, if they are followed by two consonants, whether in the same word or in two different words, as p^t^r est, but p^ter dat. But if the vowel was originally short, the short quantity may be retained before a mute (p, b, c, g, t, d) or /, followed by a liquid (r, I) in the same word, as ^per, aprum or ^prum. 4. Vowels are short which come before another vowel, or h followed by a vowel, in the same word, as d6us, trS.ho. Long vowels and diphthongs are shortened before another vowel in composition, as prdifeustus. Except sometimes in the genitives of pronouns in -ius, in the genitive of e-stems in -ei, in fio (except before -er), and in Greek words. 5. In words of more than one syllable, a final a and e are short, except that a is long in — {a) ablative of a-stems, mensa ; (b) imperative of a- verbs, ^ma ; (c) indeclinable words, contra (but ita, quiS,). e is long in — (a) cases of e-stems, facie ; (6) imperative of e- verbs, mdne ; (c) adverbs from o-stems, docte (but b6n6, m^le). i is long, except in qu3;Si and nisi ; it is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ubi, ibi. is long, except in 6g6, cit5, du6, mddd. (In later poetry some other words have o common.) u is long. 166 ELEMENT AEY LATIN GRAMMAR 6. Final syllables ending in a single consonant, except s, are short. But in compounds of par this is long, as dispar ; and also in illuc, istuc ; in illic, istic (nom.) it is common. 7. Of final syllables in s as, es, OS, are long ; is, us, are short. But (1) when the genitive ends in -6tis, -itis, -idis, the nominative is 6s, as mil6s, obs6s ; with the exception of abies, aries, paries. (2) ab6s, etc., from absum, etc., p6n6s (preposition), ex6s, compos, impds. (3) is in {a) accusative, dat., and abL plur., as omnis, mensis. (b) 2nd sing. pres. ind. of i-verbs, as audis. (c) v61is, nolis, malis, possis (and other com- pounds of sum). (cQ 2nd pers. sing. fut. perf. and perf. subj., as S,mav6ris, where it is common. (4) US in (a) gen. sing, and nom. and ace. plur. of u-stems. (b) nom. sing, of nouns where the stem has long u, as paius, paiudis ; virtus, vir- tutis. [There are many Greek words used in Latin poetry to which these rules do not apply ; and some exceptions, not often occurring, have been omitted.] In monosyllables the following exceptions to the above rules are to be noted : e, me, te, se, ne ; die, hie (adverb), hie (pro- noun), sie, hoe, hUe, due ; sal, sol ; en, quin, sin, non ; far, lar, par, ver, eur, fiir ; 6s, glis, vis, lis ; grus, sus. Notice also 6s (ossis), but 6s (oris). 8. "When a word ending in a vowel or diphthong was followed by another beginning with a vowel or h, the final vowel or diphthong of the former word was omitted or slurred over in pronunciation, so as not to count as a syllable in the verse. This is called elision. A final m was pronounced so lightly as not to prevent elision. Thus ilium habet, ipse adest, vive hodie are read as equal to ill-abet, ips-adest, viv-odie. APPENDIX 167 9. The metres most usual in Latin verse are (1) Hexameters, (2) Elegiacs. The hexameter verse consists of six measures, each either a dactyl or a spondee. In a dactyl, one long syllable is followed by two short ones (- v^) ; in a spondee there are two long syllables ( ). A dactyl is therefore equal in metrical length to a spondee. In a hexameter the first four measures or feet may be dactyls or spondees at pleasure ; the fifth is always (with rare excep- tions) a dactyl, the sixth a spondee. (The last syllable of a line, if not long by nature, is counted so for the metre.) There is always a caesura, i.e. a place where a word ends in the middle of a foot, either in the third foot, or in the fourth, or commonly in both. e.g. Pellibus| incubu|it||stra|tis som|nosque pe|tivit. 10. Elegiac couplets consist of a hexameter, followed by a pentameter. The pentameter consists of two parts, each answer- ing to the first two feet and a half of the hexameter, except that in the latter half spondees are not admitted. Thus e.g. Optima | cum ca|ra|| matre re|licta sor|or. 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