"CT! O/l'l' 4it*tf'! vt'":■ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/ancientartitsremOOmlrich ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAI^^S ; • •».•*•• •«• OR A * ,*»•• •«** •••,»*»-»^* MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. BY C. O. MULLER, u 'Author of "The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race," " A Scientific System of Mythology," &c. NEW EDITION, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS BY F. G. WELCKER. TRANSLATED FUOJM THE GERMAN BY JOHN LEITCH. LONDON: HENET a. BOHN, YORK STREET, COYENT GARDEN MDCCCLII. IV>«> « t ' « t « J . * « - • ' ' , I \ ' ' ' , * f « ' .. « ' .' ' ' ■ > < » . . • . ' < ■ ' < , t « • • • c 4 « « n ts» . "V\ c aSS.enr \ 3 DEDICATED TO THE EIGHT HOXODEABLE SIR ROBERT PEEL, BART., M.P., WITH SINCERE ADMIRATION OF HIS VIRTUES AND TALENTS, BY THE TRANSLATOR. 756951 TKANSLATOE'S PREFACE. In this Translation I have endeavoured to avoid, as much as pos- sible, the introduction of new words; but, in the original, various technical terms occur, with which, notwithstanding their novelty to the English reader, I could not dispense; because their rejection would occasion, in some measure, a sacrifice of sense, or a disturb- ance of the system pursued by the author, — as in Tectonics and Architectonics for example. I may also mention the word scalpture. It is not, I believe, in use in our language, but as scalptura designates a particular branch of ancient art, I did not hesitate to Anglicise it. It may be proper also to explain, that throughout the work a dis- tinction is kept up between column and 2ydlar^ the former denoting the circular supporting member of the difierent orders of architec- ture, the latter the square pier. The words foi^mative and plastic^ likewise, are employed as convertible epithets, except in a few in- stances where the latter is used in its original and more restricted sense; in these, however, its meaning may be discovered from the sontext. The most learned of my readers will be most ready to make allowance for the difficulties of my task, which were greatly en- hanced, at least in the notes, by the author's desire to express his ideas in the briefest possible manner. By the perhaps too unspar- ing use of ellipsis he has frequently rendered his meaning obscure or ambiguous. In some instances I was enabled to discover the sense by my recollection of the monuments described, in many others by reference to the author's sources, and in some cases I have derived considerable benefit from the suggestions of Professor Donaldson, whose valuable works on the architectural remains of Greece and Italy are so frequently referred to by Miiller, and to whom I take this opportunity of ofiering my warmest thanks for his obliging assistance. Nevertheless I cannot flatter myself that I have always succeeded in overcoming the difficulties I have had to encounter, and, in glancing over the work, J[ still find passages which I should have wished to amend. vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. It would certainly Lave been desirable to have the references throughout the work verified, but I was withheld from making this addition to my labour, by their immense number, my other engage- ments, and the difficulty of getting access to the works referred to, many of which are not to be found in any of our public libraries. However, I have in numerous instances consulted the authorities quoted, when I wished to clear up any doubt or obscurity; and on such occasions I have very rarely discovered any inaccuracy in the citation. When I was aware of any foreign work having been translated into English I transferred the reference to the translation. The present work will probably be followed by Miiller and Oes- terley's " Monuments of Ancient Art," when the original work, which is now in course of publication at Gottingen, will have been completed. It is intended as a companion to this Manual, and con- tains numerous plates illustrating the different periods of art, ac- cording to the system here pursued. London, 22 Welbecr Street, July, 1847. The present edition of this work, besides containing all the addi- tions in the last German edition, which were partly derived from the manuscripts of the lamented author, and in great part contri- buted by the Editor, Professor Welcker of Bonn, is enriched with a considerable number of additions which that eminent archaeologist was so obliging as to transmit to me while the translation was pass- ing through the press. It will be easy to distinguish his share in the work, as his contributions are all enclosed within brackets. The paragraph on Nineveh was written before the publication of Capt. Layard's work, and his discoveries, therefore, are not mentioned. I very recently requested from Mr. Welcker a supplementary no- tice of them, which I would have appended to the book, but he thinks it better to be silent until he can obtain a more connected and leisurely view of those important discoveries, and be thus enabled to treat the subject in a more complete and satisfactory manner. The additions, which are with very few exceptions confined to the notes, amount altogether to several thousands, and this edition is nearly a fourth larger than the last. J. L. Rothesay, May 1850. AUTHOK'S PEEFACE. As the book which I now present for a second time to the public, has been found useful in its earlier form, I have allowed the latter to remain on the whole unaltered, and have even marked several new paragraphs (§. 75*. 157*. 241*. 324*. 345*. 345**.) so as that the previous arrangement might not be disturbed by them. I am indeed aware that much other information on inscriptions, coins, and the topographical references of monuments might be expected in a Manual of Archaeology; but I have been forced by my plan to exclude everything whereby our knowledge of the formative art in antiquity was not immediately advanced, and have been obliged, therefore, for example, to treat coins merely as highly important re- mains of ancient art, but not as monuments of the political life and commerce of the ancients — the chief consideration, and which has been still too little brought into view, in this study. On the other hand, I am in like manner convinced, that far more can be done than this Manual attempts, in the exposition of the internal princi- ples by which the artists were guided, consciously or unconsciously, in the development of their ideas. However, I have also, in this new edition, adhered to the opinion that its object should be nothing more than to collect the sum and substance of the previous treat- ment of the science, and, therefore, that it should only communicate the most certain and evident observations on these questions, which have not yet been sufficiently examined in their higher connexion. I have considered it my duty to practise a similar self-denial in re- gard to the mythology of art, on which my views still differ widely from those which are held, for the most part, by the present genera- tion of archaeological inquirers. If, as they assert, the sculptors of antiquity sought consciously and designedly to express in their works certain fundamental ideas of heathendom, which are therefore to be interpreted, so to speak, as hieroglyphics of a physical theo- logy, we ought not, in my opinion, to expect from the artists of the best era of Greek art a greater knowledge of their hereditary faith than we should from any person among the people; but every thing else was, with the creative spirits among the artists, an activity as free and peculiar to them, dependent only on the requirements of their art, as the development of any mythus into a Sophoclean tra- gedy. In whatever way this question, which ought to receive in our time a thorough investigation, may be decided, the adherents of this doctrine cannot bring against the present Manual the reproach viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE. that it gives little information regarding an ancient system of theo- logy which can be discovered alone from works of art. But I have so much the more endeavoured to complete, define more precisely, and arrange more accurately the facts which should find a place in my book. The great additions to our knowledge of ancient art during the last few years have not been patched on, in notices hastily raked together, but have, with continued attention, been interwoven with the whole. The numerous criticisms to which the work has been subjected on the part of various learned archaeo- logists, have also been carefully turned to account. But, altogether, I may say that the labour attending this second edition has been scarcely less than that which was at first expended on the entire work. I cannot flatter myself that I have always hit the proper medium between scantiness and superfluity of materials. Those who possess a knowledge of the subject will readily discover the principles which I laid down for myself as to the facts and monuments which the work should embrace; but in many cases, however, I might be guided merely by a subjective, sometimes by a momentary feeling. My task was rendered more diflacult from the circumstance that I intended my book to form at the same time a basis for oral exposi- tions and a Manual for the private student, as a separation of the two objects might not be advisable in the present state of our studies. Hence there is more matter given in this book than can be developed and exhausted in an academical course of a hundred lectures; and although, perhaps, it might be made the basis of archaeological prelections of very difierent kinds, yet each lecturer might still employ a free and independent method of his own; in- deed, the author himself has latterly found it the best plan to anti- cipate in the first or historical part what it is most important to know on the technics, forms and subjects of ancient art, without be- ing the less convinced on that account that the systematic arrange- ment of the second part is of essential advantage to the study. GoTTiNGEN, January 1835. EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS AND METHODS OF CITATION. C. A. stands for Catalogus Artificum (by Sillig). C. L — Corpus Inscriptionum Grtecarum (by Bockh). D. N. — Doctrina Numorum (by Eckhel). D. A. K. — Denkmaler der Alten Kunst, see page 18. G. — Galerie, Galeria. G. M. — Galerie Mythologique (by Millin). g. — gens (in the so-called family coins). Inst. — Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, see page 17. M. — Museum, Musee, Museo. M. I. Mon. In. — Monument! Inediti, Monumens inedits. N. — Numi. N. Brit. — Veterum popul. et regum numi, qui in Mu- seo Britannico asservantur (by T. Combe). N. H. — Naturalis Historia (by Pliny). N. Pomp. — Pompeiana, New Series (by Sir W. Gell). No. — Number (in the enumeration of Monuments). 01. — Olympiad. P. gr. — Pierres gravees. PCI. M. PCI. — 'II Museo Pio-Clementino, see page 17. V. — Villa. In the titles of books B. denotes Berlin, F. Firenze, L. London, N. Napoli, P. Paris, R. Roma, V. Venezia. w In the Mythological Division the single initial letters constantly denote the deity named at the beginning and in the heading of the Section. The figures accompanying the Letter L. denote the numbers of the antiquities in the Mus^e Royal in the Louvre according to the Description of 1830. (see p. 288.), those with the antiquities of Dresden, the numbers in the Catalogue of 1833 (see p. 292.), and those marking the antiquities of Munich are taken from the Description of the Glyptotheca by Klenze and Schorn. The antiquities in the British Museum are sometimes quoted by the numbers which they had in the year 1822. R. with a number cites the remark on the paragraph ; the number alone re- fers to the division of the §. itself. The Remarks always belong to that divi- sion of the §. which has the corresponding No. on the margin. EXPLANATIONS OF ABBREVIATIONS, &c Bouill. The work of Bouillon the painter (see p. 17.) is, for the sake of brevity, always quoted so as that the numbers of the plates run on from the beginning to the end of each volume. Micali's Engra-vdngs (see p. 160.) are always quoted in the new and enlarged form of the work, if the earlier edition is not expressly mentioned. ^lionnet's Empr. refers to the impressions of coins enumerated in the Cata- logue d'une Collection d'Empreintes. Paris an. 8., and which are in the archaeo- logical collection of Gottingen, together with numerous additional impressions from the same hand. The latter are quoted by the numbers which they bear in Mionnet's Description de Medailles antiques Grecques et Romaines. Mionnet PI. denotes the volume of engravings which accompanies the Description. In the enumeration of monuments of one kind a semicolon between the re- ferences denotes the difference of the monument. For example two different statues are indicated by M. PCI. ii, 30. ; M. Cap. iii, 32. one and the same by M. PCI. i, 12. BouiU. i, 15. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. A. THEORETICAL PORTION. Page 1. Analysis of the Idea of Art. §. 1 sqq. , . . . 1 2. The simplest and most general Laws of Art. §.9. . . 3 3. Division of Art. §.16. . . . . . .5 4. General reflections on the Historical appearance of the Arts, especially the Formative. §.29. . . . . . 11 B. LITERARY INTRODUCTION. §.35. . . . .12 HISTORY OF ART IN ANTIQUITY. THE GREEKS. FIRST PERIOD, TILL ABOUT THE 60tH OLYMPIAD. General Conditions and Main Features of the Development of Art. 2. Architectonics. §.45. 3. Tectonics. §. 56. . ^. Fonnative Art. §.64. ...... \^. Beginnings of Painting. §. 73. . 19 20 29 33 41 SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE 50tH TO THE 80tH OLYMPIAD. 1. The Character of the Age in general. §. 76. 2. Architectonics. §. 80. 3. The riastic Art. a. Its extended cultivation. §. 82. b. Religious Statues. §. 83. c. Statues of Honour. §. 87. d. Mythological Figures as consecrated gifts. e. Sculptures of Temples. §. 90. f. Style of the Formative Art. §.91. g. Remains of the Plastic Art. §. 96. The Art of Engraving Stones and Dies. §. 97. S^ Painting. §. 99. ... . 43 • 45 • 48 • 60 62 §. 89. 64 64 • 68 GO • 65 67 xii CONTENTS. THIRD PERIOD. FROM THE 80tH TO THE IUtH OLYMPIAD. 1. The Events and Spirit of the Age in relation to Art. §. 100. . 70 2. Architectonics. §. 105. ...... 73 3. The Plastic Art. a. The age of Phidias and Poly clitus. §.112. . . .81 b. The age of Praxiteles and Lysippus. §. 12-1. . . 95 The Art of Engraving Stones and Dies. §.131. . . . 109 #. Painting. §. 133. . . . . . .111 rODRTH PERIOD. FROM THE IIItH TO THE THIRD TEAR OF THE 158tH OL. 4. Events and Character of the Period. §. 144. . . .120 2. Ai-chitectonics. §. 149. ...... 123 3. The Plastic Art. §. 154. . . . . . .128 The Art of Engraving Stones and Dies. §. 161. . . . 136 V/4. Painting. §. 163. . . . . . . .137 Pillage and devastation in Greece. §.164. . . . 140 EPISODE. ON GREEK ART AMONG THE ITALIAJf NATIONS BEFORE OLYMPIAD 158, 3. 1. Original Greek race. §. 166. . . . . . . 144 2. The Etruscans. §. 167. . . . . . . 145 3. Rome before the year of the city 606. §. 179. . , . 161 FIFTH PERIOD. FROM THE TEAR OF THE CITT (OLTMPIAD 158, 3.) TILL , THE MIDDLE AGES. 1. General reflections on the character and spirit of the time. §.183. . 165 2. Architectonics. §. 188. . . . . . .168 3. The Plastic Art. §. 196. . . . . . .182 \J4. Painting. §. 208. ....... 200 Destniction of Works of Art. §.214. . , . . 207 APPENDIX. THE NATIONS NOT OF GEEEK RACE. I. EGYPTIANS. 1. General remarks. §. 215. ..... 209 2. Architectonics. §. 219. . . . - . . .217 3. The Plastic Arts and Painting. a. The Technics and Treatment of Forms. §. 228. . . 226 b. Subjects. §. 232. . ... . .231 II. THE SYRIAN RACES. §• 234. .... 238 A. BABTLONIANS. 1. Architectonics. §. 235. , . . , 238 2. The Plastic Art. §. 237. ...... 240 B. PHCENICIAN AND NEIGHBOURING TRIBES. 1. Architectonics. §. 239. ...... 243 2. The Plastic Art. §. 240. ..... 244 C. ASIA MINOR. §. 241*. ..... 247 III. THE NATIONS OF THE ARIAN RACE. §. 242. . 248 1. Architectonics. §. 243. ... . . 249 2. The Plastic Art. §. 245*. .... 252 CONTENTS. xiii Page IV. THE INDIANS. §• 249. ..... 257 SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT OF ANCIENT ART. PRELIMINARY DIVISION. GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT MONU- MENTS OF ART. 1. General remarks. §. 251. ...... 261 2. Greece. §. 252. ....... 262 3. Asia and Africa. §. 255. ...... 267 4. Italy. §. 257. ....... 269 5. The West of Europe. §.262. . . . . .286 6. Germany and the North. §. 264. . . . .292 FIRST MAIN DIVISION. TECTONICS. §. 266. . 299 I. BUILDINGS. ARCHITECTONICS. §• 267. . . 299 1. Building materials. §. 268. ..... 300 2. The simple geometric fundamental forms. §. 273. . . 303 3. The architectural members. §. 275. .... 305 4. Kinds of Buildings. §. 286. ..... 315 II. FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. §• 297. . . .334 SECOND MAIN DIVISION. THE FORMATIVE ART. §. 303. ........ 343 FIRST PART. OF THE TECHNICS OF ANCIENT ART. §. 304. . 343 I. MECHANICAL TECHNICS. A. OP THE PLASTIC ART IN ITS MOKE EXTENDED SENSE. 1. The Plastic Art strictly so-caUed, or modelling in soft or softened masses. a. Working in Clay and other materials. §. 305. . . 344 b. Metal-casting. §. 306. 2. Working in hard masses. a. Wood-carv'ing. §. 308. b. Sculpture. §• 309. c. Working in Metals and Ivory. §.311. d. Working in Precious Stones. §. 313. e. Working in Glass. §. 316. f. Art of Die-cutting. §.317. B. DRAWING ON A PLANE SURFACE. By laying on colouring stuffs of a soft and fluid nature a. Monochrome Drawing and Painting. §. 318. b. Painting in Water-colours. §. 319. c. Encaustic Painting. §. 320. d. Vase-painting. §. 321. 346 350 351 354 359 365 366 368 368 371 374 Designing by the junction of solid materials, Mosaic-work. §. 322. 376 II. OPTICAL TECHNICS. §• 323. .... 379 SECOND PART. ON THE FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. §• 324. 382 XIV CONTENTS. 1. FORMS OF NATCBE AND LIFE. A. OP TUS HUMAN BODY. 1. General principles. §. 325. . . . • S. Character and beauty of individual fonns. a. Studies of the ancient artists. §. 328. b. Treatment of the countenance. §. 329. c. Treatment of the rest of the body. §. 331. . d. Proportions. §. 332. .... e. Colouring. §. 333. . . . . • f. Combination of human with other forms. §. 334. g. The body and features in action. §. 335. B. DRAPERY. !• General principles. §. 336. 2. Grecian male costume. §. 337. .... 8. Female costume. §. 339. .... 4. Boman costume. §.341. .... 5. Military costume. §. 342. .... 6. Treatment of the drapery. §. 343. C. OP ATTRIBUTES AND ATTRIBUTIVE ACTIONS. §. 344. n. FOBMS CREATED BY ART. §. 343. TUIRD PART. ON THE SUBJECTS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. § I. MTTUOLOOICAL SUBJECTS. §. 347. A. THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN DEITIES. 1. Zeus, or Jupiter. §. 349. 2. Hera, or Juno. §. 352. 8. Poseidon, or Neptune. §. 354. 4. Dcmeter, or Ceres. §. 357. 5. Apollo. §. 359. 6. Artemis, or Diana. §. 3C3. 7. Ilephmstns, or Vulcan. §. 366. 8. Pallas Athena, or Minerva. §. 368. 9. Ares, or Mars. §. 372. 10. Aphrodite, or Venus. §. 374. 11. Hermes, or Mercury. §. 379. 12. Ueatia, or Vesta. §. 382. B. THB OTHER DEITIES. 1. Dionysian cycle. a. Dionysus, or Bacchus. §. 383. b. Satyrs. $. 885. .... c Sileni. §.886. d. Pans, §. 887. .... e. Female figures. §. 388. f. Centaure. §. 389. g. The Thiasos of Dionysus in general. §. 390. 2. Cycle of Eros, or Cupid. §.391. 8. The Muses. §. 393. 4. Gods of health. §. 894. 6. The primeval world ; creation of Man. §. 395. 6. The Lower World and Death. §. 397. 7. Destiny and government of the world. §. 398. Page 383 346. 417 . 417 488 . 496 499 . 501 503 . 505 507 . 509 515 . 518 520 . 524 528 CONTENTS. XV 8. Time. §. 399. 9. Beings of light. §. 400. . 10. The Winds. §. 401. 11. The element of Water. §. 402. . 12. The Vegetation of the Coimtry. §. 404. 13. Country, City and House. §. 405. 14. Human activities and conditions. §. 406. 15. The Gods of early Italy. §. 407. 16. Foreign Oriental Deities. §. 408. C. HEROES. §. 409. 1. Hercules. §. 410. 2. The other Heroic Cycles. §. 412. Pape 630 531 534 535 540 642 646 649 549 552 553 562 n. SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE. A. OP AN INDIVIDUAL KIND. 1. Historical representations. §. 419. \ 2. Portraits. §. 420. .... B. REPRESENTATIONS OP A GENERAL KIND. 1. Religious transactions. §. 422. 2. Agones. §. 423. .... 3. War. §. 426. 4. The chase, country life, economical occupations. §. 427. 5. Domestic and married life. §. 428. 6. Death. §. 431. ..... 593 696 602 606 612 614 616 620 ni. SUBJECTS FROM THE REST OF NATURE. 1. Animals and Plants. §. 433. 2. Arabesques, Landscape. §. 435. 3. Amulets, Symbols. §. 436. Index. . . • • 622 625 627 629 • * • > INTRODUCTION. A. THEORETICAL PORTION. I. ANALYSIS OF THE IDEA OF AKT. §. 1. Art is a representation, that is an activity by means 1 of which something internal or spiritual is revealed to sense. — Its only object is to represent, and it is distinguished by its 2 being satisfied therewith from all practical activities which are directed to some particular purpose of external life. 2. Because the exercise of art is aimless it is often called, especially among nations of a practical turn of mind, a sport, ludns. Useful in contradistinction to fine art is mere handicraft. 2. The more immediate determination in art depends espe- 1 cially on the kind of connexion between the internal and the external, the representing and the represented. This con- 2 nexion must absolutely be one imparted of necessity in the nature of man, not assumed from arbitrary regulation. It is 3 not a subject of acquisition, although it may exercise greater or less influence on different natures and different stages of civilization. 3. The spiritual significance of a series of tones, the character and expression of a countenance, are not learned, although more strongly and delicately felt by one than another. Nature herself has established this sympathy of the mind with sensible forms, and on it all art depends. 3. At the same time this correspondence in art is so close 1 and intimate that the internal or spiritual momentum imme- diately impels to the external representation, and is only com- pletely developed in the mind by the representation. Hence 2 the artistic activity is from the very beginning in the soul directed to the external manifestation, and art is universally regarded as a making, a creating (art, rsyjri). 1. The artistic representation, according to Kant, Kritik der Urtheil- skraft, s. 251, is a representation properly so called, vTcorv'Truai;, exhibitio, and not a characterism like language which is only a means for the re- production of notions, and does not immediately represent them. A €■ • INTRODUCTION. • • - . . . •''•'-' r'*' W' •* Irki'exJernaVor representing in art is a sensible form. 2 Now 'the' sensible rorm which is capable of expressing an internal life can be created by the fancy, or present itself to 3 the external senses in the world of reality. But as even or- dinary vision, and much more every artistic exercise ot sight, is at the same time an activity of the fancy the form-creat- ing fancy in general must be designated as the chiel laculty of representation in art. 3 " The painter reaUy paints with the eye ; his art is the art of see- indty." NovaUs ii. s. 127. The difference, therefore, be- tween imitative and freely-creative art is not so distinct as it may ap- pear. ... 5. The creative fanciful conception of the artistic form^ is accompanied by a subordinate but closely connected activity —the representation of the form in the materials— which we call execution. For example, the representation of the musical tone by song or instru- monts, of the form of an organic body in stone or by colours. The less the artistic activity is developed, the less is the execution separate from the creation of the form, and the fashioning in the materials see7ns to be the first, the original object. 6. To the internal or represented in art — the spiritual life whose corresponding and satisfying expression is the ar- tistic form, the soul of this body — we apply the term artistic idea, understanding thereby, in quite a general way, the mood and activity of the mind from which proceeds the conception of the particular form. Even a work of art copied from nature has still, however, its internal life in the artistic idea, that is, in the mental emotion to which the con- tcmplation of the object gave rise. 7. The artistic idea is never an idea in the ordinary sense (Die Kunstidee ist niemals ein Begriff), inasmuch as the lat- ter is a frame into which different phenomena may fit, whereas the artistic idea must stand in the most intimate agreement with the altogether particular form of the work (§. 3), and therefore must itself be altogether particular; hence also the idea of a work of art can never be rendered in a thoroughly satisfactory manner by language, which is merely the expres- sion of ideas or notions. This idea lias no expression except the work of art itself. Represen- tation of notions in art (for example, truth) is only apparent. A notion is not represented by a work of art, but rather a sum of concrete ideas and impressions which lie at the bottom of it. Allegory which indicates notions by external shapes^ with the consciousness of their difference, is THEORY OF ART. 3- a play of the intellect which does not, strictly speaking, lie within the sphere of the artistic activity. 8. The artistic idea is rather an idea of a pecidiar indivi- dual kind, which is at the same time united with a strong and lively feeling of the soul, so that sometimes idea and feeling lie combined in one spiritual condition (an obscure mood), sometimes the idea comes forward more detached, but yet in the creation as well as the adoption of the artistic form the feeling remains predominant. 1. Scliiller, in his correspondence with Go the (vol. vi. Letter 784, p. 34), speaks in an interesting manner of the obscure total idea which pre- cedes the production of a work of art, as the germ goes before the plant. Schiller's Auserlesene Briefe iii. s. 228. 2. The artistic idea of a simple melody which expresses a certain mood of the soul may be compared with that of a kindred work in sculp- ture. The music of a dithyramb and a Bacchian group have to repre- sent nigh-related ideas, but the group, even without taking into account the more fixed sensible impression of the artistic forms, represents the idea on which it is based in more perfect development and with greater distinctness. II. THE SIMPLEST AND MOST GENERAL LAWS OF ART. 9. The laws of art are nothing else than the conditions 1 under which alone the sensibility of the soul can be excited to agreeable emotions by external forms; they determine the 2 artistic form according to the demands of sensibility, and have their foundation therefore in the constitution of the sensitive faculty. 2. This constitution is here merely recognised in its manifestations j the investigation of it belongs to psychology. 10. The artistic form must in the first place, in order to excite a connected emotion in the sensitive faculty, possess a general conformity to laws, which is manifested in the obser- vance of mathematical relations or organic forms of life; without this regularity it ceases to be artistic form. Music affects us only by incorporating itself with mathematical rela- tions, and sculpture only by investing itself with the organic forms of nature ; if they tear themselves away from these they lose the ground on w^hich they can find access to our minds. 11. But this conformity to law is not in itself capable of expressing an internal life; it is only a condition of repre- sentation, the boundary of the artistic forms which range to and fro within, modifying, but on the whole preserving this conformity. 4 INTRODUCTION. This is the relation of the harmonic laws to melody, of the law of equilibrium in rhythm to the multiplicity of measures, of the organic fundamental form to the particular formations of the plastic art; viz. that these laws indeed condition the representation, but do not yet con- tain any representation in themselves. 12. Whilst this regularity is the first requisite in the ar- tistic form generally, beauty is a more immediate predicate of the artistic form in reference to sensation. We call those forms beautiful which cause the soul to feel in a manner that is grateful, truly salutary and entirely conformable to its nature, which, as it were, produce in it vibrations that are in accordance with its inmost structure. Although the theory of art, by such a definition, consigns the further inquiry into the nature of the beautiful to assthetics as a part of psy- chology ; it may be seen, however, even from what has been laid down, how the beautiful severs itself from that which merely pleases the senses, and also why desire and personal interest are shut out from its enjoy- ment. " I wish some one would try to banish the notion and even the Avord heauty from use, and as is right put truth in its most complete sense in its place." Schiller, Briefwechsel II. s. 293. 1 13. As the soul naturally strives after this grateful and salutary emotion in its sensitive life, so the beautiful is cer- tainly a principle of art, without, however, being ever in itself an object of representation, artistic idea in the above sense, as the latter (§. 7) is always an absolutely particular idea and 2 sensation. On the contrary, beauty, carried to the highest point, even stands in direct hostility against every endeavour to produce something particular. 2. Hence the profound apophthegm of Winckelmann (vii. 76), that perfect beauty, like the purest water, must have no peculiarity. It has been disputed whether the beautiful or characteristic is an important principle of art. A thorough destruction of beauty and regularity by exaggerated characterizing is caricature ; on the contrary a partial, on the whole self-neutralizing destruction (dissonance, arrhythmy, apparent disproportion in architecture) may become an important means of repre- sentation. 14. The sublime and the graceful may be regarded as op- posite points in the chain of sensations which is denoted by the beautiful; the former demands from the soul an energy of feeling wound up to the limits of her power, the latter draws her of itself, without any exaltation of her force, into a circle of asreeable sensations. 'o* 15. It lies in the notion of a work of art as an intimate combination of an artistic idea with external forms, that it must have a unity to which everything in the work may be referred, and by which the different parts, whether succes- sively or simultaneously existing, may be so held together, THEORY OF ART. that the one, as it were, demands the other and makes it necessary. The work must be one and a whole. m. DIVISION OF ART. 16. The division of art is especially dependent on the 1 nature of the forms by means of which it represents, although it is not to be doubted that even artistic ideas, in intimate agreement with artistic forms, are of different kinds in dif- ferent arts, at their first dawning. Now, all forms to 2 which belongs a definite conformity to laws, are fitted to be- come artistic forms, particularly the mathematical forms and proportions, on which depend in nature the figures of the celestial bodies and their systems, and the forms of mineral bodies; and, 2dly, the organic shapes in which life on our earth is more largely and highly developed. In this way art appears, as it were, a second nature which repeats and renews her processes. 1 7. In connexion herewith we note the circumstance, that 1 the more obscure and undeveloped the conception contained in the artistic idea, the more do the mathematical relations sufliice for its representation; but the clearer and more defi- nite that conception becomes, the more are the forms borrowed from more highly and largely developed organic nature. Now, 2 as the scientific intellect completely penetrates only those mathematical relations, and, on the other hand, can never re- solve organic life in the same degree into comprehension, so also the artistic fancy appears only in those forms freely cre- ative, independent of external nature, whereas in the latter it is more fettered and altogether confined to the observation of what is externally present. 1. Rhythmic, music and architecture, which operate by mathematical proportions, represent ideas of a more obscure description — which are less developed and articulate. The fundamental forms of the universe, but not of any individual life, are forms of the same kind in time and space. The forms of vegetative life (landscape-painting) admit of more distinctness of conception ; but those of the highest animal life in the greatest degree (historical painting, sculpture). We even find that the animal kingdom is not shut out from the enjoyment of artistic forms of the first kind ; there are musical and architectonic, but no plastic in- stincts. Every art fails when it would employ its forms otherwise than agreeably to their destination ; music, for instance, when it paiiUs. 18. Every form presupposes a quantity, which may be either given in time or in space, in succession or co-existence. Time only comes to view and separate measurable quantity by movement. And indeed movement is so much the more « INTRODUCTION, to be regarded as a pure time-magnitude, the less that which belongs to space — the moving body and the line of movement 2 — comes into consideration. Such a pure time-magnitude is the musical tone in reality, which, as such, rests altogether on the degree of rapidity in the regular vibrations of the sound- ing body. The art which obtains the most perfect expression of artistic ideas from the succession and combination of these quicker or slower vibrations is music. 3. Musice est exercitium arithmeticce occvltum tiescientis se nunierare ani- mij Leibnitz. Kant (p. 217) limits too much this correct observation when he maintains that Mathematics is merely the conditio sine qiui non of the musical impression, but " has not the slightest participation in the charms and mental emotions to which music gives rise." With the musical tone, which alone cannot make itself manifest, sound is neces- sarily combined in production ; that is the wave of sound striking on the ear, which is evidently formed differently in different instruments, and is not defined in a purely quantitative and measurable, but in a really qualitative manner. 1 19. The musical tone may be called a disguised time- magnitude, inasmuch as the difference of tones, which is but quantitative in reality, is, from the constitution of our sense, changed ere it reaches the mind into an apparently qualita- 2 tive difference. On the other hand, the tones again are de- termined in their duration by another species of artistic forms - in which the quantitative, the measuring of a time-magnitude distinctly presents itself to the mind, — in which we have the 3 consciousness of measuring and counting. The art which ex- presses its ideas by this kind of measures is rhythmic, which can never by itself alone appear as an art, but must enter inta combination with all arts that represent by movement. 2. Rhythmic measures tones and movements of bodies. Moreover the notion of rhythm finds application also in the arts which represent in space, and here denotes a simple easily comprehended relation of quantities to one another. Rhythmic applied to language and condi- tioned by this material is metric. 1 20. Another series of arts with time conjoins space, with the measure of movement its quality or kind and manner. Man can only realize such a representation in time and space 2 simultaneously by the movement of his own body. This series of arts reaches its highest point in mimic orchestics, an ex- pressive art of dancing in which, besides the rhythm of the. movement, its quality or manner, the beautiful and signifi- 3 cant gesture is artistic form. But manifestations of such an artistic activity pervade in greater or less degree, according to the dispositions of individuals and nations, the whole of life, and are combined with various arts. THEORY OF ART. 7 2. The mimic art in itself, when combined with the oratorical arts, is called declanmtion, among the Greeks an^ua,, ay(^yiiJL!x,T:a.. 3. Every movement and gesture speaks to us involuntarily ; without design we constantly represent spiritual life. To regulate this involun- tary representation was a main point in Greek education. It was ex- pected that by habituating to outward dignity and a noble bearing the mind would be also tuned to acoiPQoavvYi and kxXokcc/oc.^Iu. Gymnastics likewise, especially in the exercise of the Pentathlon, took the form of an artistic representation allied to orchestics. We find that the arts in which man appears acting by voice and gesture were on the whole umch earlier developed than the operative arts which require an outward ma- terial. Only the former, therefore, belonged in Greece to general liberal education. Comp. Wachsmuth Ilellen. Alterthumskunde, II, ii. s. 311 ff'. But the living plastics of the gymnic games and choral dances were after- wards promoted and exalted in a surprising manner by sculpture in stone and brass. 21. The arts which exhibit in space alone (those of de- 1 sign) cannot, like music, represent by pure (arithmetical) quan- tity, inasmuch as what belongs to space must always be at the same time defined as figure, and therefore qualitative. They have only two means of representing, viz. by the form 2 that admits of geometric definition, and the organic corporeal form which is closely combined with the conception of life. 1. Time corresponds to the line in space — leaving out of view its par- ticular direction and inclination — therefore to a thing unsusceptible of external representation and nowhere existing. 2. Tlie organic in its more enlarged sense comprehends the vegeta- tive. 22. Geometric forms may unquestionably even by them- 1 selves be cultivated according to artistic laws and become artistic form ; however, this species of artistic forms appears, for reasons which lie in the relation of art to the remaining life of men and nations, almost never independent and purely representative, but in general fettered to a creative industry which aims at satisfying a particular want of life (§ 1, 2). From 2 this alliance springs a series of arts which form and perfect vessels, implements, dwellings, and places of assembly, on the one hand indeed agreeably to the end for which they arc de- signed, but, on the other, in conformity with sentiments and artistic ideas. We call this class of artistic activities tec- 3 tonics. Their highest point is architectonics, which rises most above the trammels of necessity and may become power- fully representative of deep feelings. 3. I have here tried to introduce the expression tectonics to denote a scientific notion which we can scarcely dispense with, although in doing so I did not overlook the fact that among the ancients, masons and joiners in- deed, but not workers in clay and metal, were called tUtouss in special use 8 ^^^^» INTRODUCTION. of the term. I have in this work employed it in the general sense which lies in the etymology of the word. Comp. Welcker, Rhein. Museum fiir Phil. Bd. ii. s. 453. [E. Curtius in Cotta's Kunstblatt, 1845, s. 41.]— Ar- chitecture clearly shows what influence may be exercised over the hu- man mind by geometric forms and proportions. But so soon as it leaves the geometrically constructible figure, it appropriates a foreign art, as in animal and vegetable ornaments. Antiquity, with correct sentiment, first admitted the latter in partable articles, cauldrons, thrones, and the like. The art of gardening may be called an application of architecture to vegetable life. 23. The peculiar character of these arts rests on the union of conformity to the proposed end with the artistic represen- tation, two principles which are still but little distinguished from each other in the simpler works of the kind; but in the higher problems they always stand more distinctly apart without however losing their necessary connexion. Hence the chief law of those arts is that the artistic idea of the work must naturally spring from its destination to satisfy a lively and deep feeling. 1. A vessel for a simple object will, for the most part, be beautiful from the very circumstance that it is fitted for its end ; and the inti- mate dependence of vemistas and dignitas on viilitas also in architecture is finely brought out by Cicero de Or. iii, 46. However, in the rites per- taining to the worship the artistic idea naturally first separates itself from external usefulness. The Gothic church is not indebted to utility for its height, the striving upwards of all its parts. Here necessity often gives merely the occasion, and the fancy appears almost freely creative in the composition of geometric forms. 24. Tliose arts which represent by the organic natural forms derived from life, are essentially imitative (§. 1 7, 2) and depend on the artistic study of nature, as only the actual, organic, natural form stands in that necessary and intimate connexion with spiritual life (§. 2, 3), possesses that universal signifi- cance from which art takes its rise. But the artist is capable of attaining a conception of the organic form which shall stand above individual experience, and find therein the fun- damental form of the most exalted ideas. 2. A perfectly developed natural form is just as little furnished by ex- perience as a pure mathematical proportion, but it may be felt out from what has been experienced, and seized in the moment of inspiration. The true and genuine ideality of the best Greek art rests on the striving after such a conception of organism. C. F. von Rumohr speaks with much discernment of the opposite tendencies of the idealists and realists in art and theory. Italienische Forschungen i. s. 1 — 157. [Letters of F. Thiersch and Rumohr in Creuzer Zur Archaol. ii. s. 82 — 99. and Creuzer i. s. 59 ff. m direct opposition to Rumohr.] — The combinations of the lower forms of nature with one another and with those of man (griflSns, THEORY OF ART. 9 centaurs, winged figures) are partly justified by religious belief, and they belonged in the best times to decorative sculpture. In Arabesque the ma- thematical ground-lines of buildings and vessels are for purposes of de- coration played over in a free manner into vegetable and even animal forms. " A kind of painting which employs all natural forms in fantas- tic composition and combination, to express allegorical forms merely in an illusive manner." Schorn, Umriss einer Theorie der bild. Kunst. 1835. s. 38. 25. NoAV these arts are distinguished from one another in 1 this, that the one, sculpture or the plastic art, places bodily before us the organic forms themselves (only that the differ- 2 ence of material often makes changes of form necessary in order to attain a similar impression), and that the other, de- 3 sign or the graphic art, merely produces by means of light and shade the appearance of bodies on a surface, inasmuch as the eye only perceives corporeal forms by means of light and shade. 1. Il'hocariK'i}, originally used in a more restricted sense (see below, §. 305) had already this wider signification in the later rhetoricians and sophists. Jacobs and Welcker ad Philostr. p. 195. 2. The essentially different impression of the animate and inanimate body forbids a perfectly true stereometric representation ; different mate- rials, however, admit herein of different degrees of approximation. 3. Design is happily called by Kant the art of illusion (Sinnen- schein) ; however, the eye also transforms every plastic work into a pic- ture, while regarding it from a particular point of view. 26. Colour, so far as regards external possibility, can in- 1 deed be combined with both arts, but in sculpture it operates with so much the less advantage the more it tries to approach nature, because in this endeavour to represent the body com- pletely, the want of life only strikes us the more disagree- ably; on the other hand it enters quite naturally into com- 2 bination with design, which in itself represents more imper- fectly, and does not represent bodies, but merely the effects of light upon them, to which colour itself belongs, and ele- vates design to the art of painting. Colour, in its nature, 3 effects, and laws, has a great resemblance to sound. 1. Hence the repulsiveness of wax figures ; the illusion aimed at is precisely what here revolts. The painted wooden images of elder Greek art did not try to attain this faithful imitation of local colours. 3. Colours also probably only dififer quantitatively (according to Euler by the number of vibrations in the ethereal fluid). They form a kind of octave, produce concord and discord, and give rise to sensations simi- lar to those awakened by tones.— Comp. Gothe's Farbenlehre, especially the 6th section " Sinnlich-sittliche Wirkung der Farben." 27. The relation of sculpture and painting, as regards 1 their capabilities and destination, is already hereby defined 10 INTRODUCTION. in its main features. The plastic art represents the organic form in highest perfection, and justly holds by its apex, the form of man. It must always represent completely and roundly and leave nothing undefined; a certain restricted- ness in its subjects, but, on the other hand, great clearness belongs to its character. Painting, which immediately repre- sents light (in whose wonders it rightly shows its greatness), and in exchange is satisfied with the appearance thereby pro- duced in the corporeal form, is capable of drawing much more into its sphere and making all nature a representation of ideas; it is more suggestive, but does not designate so dis- tinctly. * The plastic art is in its nature more directed to the quiescent, the fixed, painting more to the transient; the lat- ter can also, in that it combines far and near, admit of more movement than the former. Sculpture is therefore better adapted for the representation of character (^^oc), painting for expression (ra crcc^>j). Sculpture is always bound to a strict regularity, to a simple law of beauty; painting may venture on a greater apparent disturbance in detail (§. 13, note), because it has richer means of again neutralizing it in the whole. 5. The pictoriq^ is by moderns often opposed to the beautiful, the plastic never. ^ The bas-relief (basso-, mezzo-, alto-relievo), whose laws are difficult to determine, hovers between both arts. Antiquity treated it rather in a plastic manner, and modern times, in which painting predominates, often pictorially. Tolken ueber das Basrelief. Berlin 1815. Scalpture (the art of cutting stones and dies) is in general nothing else than the art of producing mediately a relief in miniature. 1 28. The oratorical arts differ more from the others in their forms of representation than these do from one another. They also represent outwardly, sensibly, and follow external laws of form (euphony, rhythmic), but this external represen- . tation (the sound striking on the ear) is so little essential and necessary that the enjoyment of the artistic production 2 is even possible without it. The activity of the poet is cer- tainly more complicated than that of other artists, and it in a manner makes double the way, inasmuch as certain series of spiritual views, images of fancy spring out of the spiritual basis, the artistic idea, and language then proceeds to seize, describe, and communicate these by notions. 2. It cannot, likewise, be denied that every discourse which excites emotions in a satisfactory and agreeable manner bears affinity to a work of art ; this holds good not merely of eloquence, properly so called, but • also of clear philosophical exposition. Such a production is not, how- ever, on that account, strictly speaking, to be called a work of art. THEORY OF ART. II IV. GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON THE HISTORICAL APPE^VR- ANCE OF THE ARTS, ESPECIALLY THE FORMATIVE. 29. ^ The whole artistic activity, in so far as it depends on 1 the spiritual life and habits of a single person, becomes indi- mdual, on those of an entire nation, national. It is deter- 2 mined by both in the artistic ideas as well as in the concep- tion of forms, and is determined in different ways according to the changes in the life of individuals and nations at dif- ferent times and stages of development. This determination 3 which art thereby receives we call style. 3. For example, the Egyptian, the Grecian style ; the style of Greek art at particular epochs ; that of Phidias, of Praxiteles. He only has a style whose peculiarity is sufficiently powerful to determine energeti- cally his whole artistic activity. The style conditions the conception not merely of the forms but also of the idea, although it has been re- cently attempted to confine it entirely to fulfilment of the conditions of the material (§. 25, 2). Schorn Umriss, s. 40. defines style: regular beauty, the musical or rhythmical element of form-creation. On the other hand, manner is a false blending of the personal with the artistic activity from indolent habits or morbid tendencies of feeling, whereby the form is always modified in a similar way without regard to the re- quirements of the subject. 30. The spiritual life which expresses itself in art is con- l nected in the closest manner with the w^hole life of the spirit, only the constantly active impulse to representation makes the artist. However, art universally stands most especially 2 in connexion with religious life, with the conceptions of deity, because religion opens up to man a spiritual world wliicli does not appear externally in experience, and yet longs for an outward representation which it more or less finds in art according to the different tendency of nations. Thus the exercise of architecture, sculpture, music, poetry, orchestics, and gymnastics, was connected in Greece with the religious worship by temple, statue, hymn, chorus, pompce, and agones. 81. Religion will be the more artistic, and in particular 1 the more plastic, the more its conceptions are representable in an adequate manner in the forms of the organic world. A religion in which the life of deity is blended with that 2 which exists in nature and finds its consummation in man (as the Greek religion was), is doubtless especially favourable to the plastic art. However, even such a religion still recog- 3 nises at the same time something unrepresentable in deity, something that is not adequate to those forms; and all parts and phases of it do not surrender themselves, in the sama manner to artistic representation- 12 INTRODUCTION. 3. The religious feeling which dispenses with adequate forms, we call mystical; when it seeks external forms they are for the most part designedly strange and deformed. 32. Whilst the genuine artistic form demands an entire correspondence and intimate combination of the spiritual sig- nificance with the external representation, the symbol rests on a bolder conjunction of the conceptions of divine beings with outward objects, which can only be explained by the efforts of the religious feeling to gain external aids and rest- ing points for the aspirations of the soul. Of this description are the animal symbols of Greek deities ; only he who is penetrated by the particular feeling and faith sees the divine life in the animal. Religious worship in the strict sense is symbolical ; art only links itself to it, and the symbolical becomes subordinate in art the more the latter is developed. 33. As the artistic ideas grow out of conceptions which have been formed and established among nations in an his- torical manner, they are of a positive nature; however, all peculiar artistic life would cease if they were completely po- sitive, wherewith would necessarily be connected the estab- lishment of altogether defined, and ever-repeated forms (§. 3. 7). Forms of this kind, which are established by regulation or custom, and which set bounds to the free activity of art, are called types. 2. A type is adhered to in the imitation without emanating sponta- neously from the mind of the artist as the most suitable form. The so- called ideals of the Grecian gods are not types ; they do not preclude the freedom of the artist ; they rather contain the strongest impulse to new genial creations. 34 It is clear from every thing that a people and a time in which a deep and at the same time stirring life, which is more supported than fettered by the positive in religion and customs, coincides with a living and enthusiastic conception of natural forms and with the necessary mastery over the materials, will be favourable to the cultivation of art. B. LITERARY INTRODUCTION. 35. The arts of design were even in antiquity made a subject of learning and science, although never in that gen- eral connexion with which it is at the present day attempted to treat them. AVe here distinguish the following classes of writers: 1st, Artists who communicated rules of their art LITERATURE. 13 and reflections on works of excellence. 2d, Historical inquir- ers into the history of artists. Sd, Periegetic authors who described remarkable objects in places famed for art 4th Sophists who took occasion for rhetorical compositions from works of art. 5th, Learned collectors. 1. There were ancient writings, commentarii, of architects on parti- cular buildings erected by them, originating probably in reports (comp. Corp. Inscr. n. 160), by Theodorus of Samos (?) about 01. 45, Chersiphon and Metagenes (?) about 55, Ictinus and Carpion, 85, Philo, 115, and others in Vitruvius vii. Preef. The Nsia Hoinaig which was ascribed to the ancient Theodorus or Philo, contained, according to a fragment (in Pollux X, 52, 188. comp. Hemsterh.), general instruction in sacred archi- tecture ; 6'7r'Ko^7ix,-/i of Philo. M. Vitruvius Pollio, engineer under Caisar and Augustus, De Architectura libri x. Publ. by L. Marini, 1837, Annali d. Inst. Archeol. viii. p. 130. Bullett. 1837. p. 188. The artists Antigonus, Menaschmus, Xenocrates, after Alexander, and others. De Toreutice, Plin. Elench. auctor. xxxiii. Pasiteles {a. u. 700) wrote mirabilia opera. Scientific painters, Parrhasius (01. 95), Euphranor (107), Apelles (112), and others, wrote on their art (PI. El. xxxv). Writings by painters and sculptors, Euphranor, Silanion (114) on symmetry, Plin. xxxv, 40, 25. Vitruvius vii. Praef. Laas xs^i 'hl^au yT^vcp^g, Bekker Anecd. Gr. p. 1182. 2. 0/ '7roKv'7:^ee,y[Aovviacx,vrig a-T^ovhyi roc If roiig 'TrT^a.aToi,;, Paus. V, 20, 1. Historians, treating of particular epochs, quote from these the contem- porary artists. On the connoisseursliip of the ancients, see §. 184, 6. 3. The first source are the Ciceroni, k^riy^ctl, '^ioiYiyrprxl, fivarxyayol, 01 iTTi ^oc.vf<,x(riu (see Cic. Verr. iv, 59. Mystagogi Jovis Olympiae et Minervse Athenis, Varro ap. Non. p. 419), who lived by mythi and anec- dotes of art (Lucian Philops. 4). Comp. Facius Collectan. 198. Thorla- cius De gustu Graecorum antiquitatis ambitioso, 1797. Bottiger Archaol. der Mahlerei, 299. — Periegetic authors : the searching and comprehen- sive Polemon, 6 'Tn^tnyfirvig, arrfhoKO'Troig, about 01. 138, Heliodorus on Athens, Hegesandrus, Alcetas on Delphi, and numberless others. See L. Preiler Polemonis Perieg. fragm. Lpz. 1838. Pausanias the Lydian, under Hadrian and the Antonines, an accurate and very intelligent writer, but who must be altogether conceived as a. perie^eies, ' E7\.hethg 'Tre^iTiyTja^ug, /3. /. 4. Descriptions of pictures by the rhetorician Philostratus (about 220 p. C.) and the son of his daughter, the younger Philostratus^ In oppo- sition to Welcker Passow Zschr. f. A. W. 1836. s. 571., from ignorance of ancient art. [Kayser in his ed. of Philostr. 1844, in the prooemium to the Pictures.] 'E)c(pQa(Ts:g of Libanius (314—390) and other rhetori- cians. Comp. Petersen's four Programmes De Libanio, Havniae 1827, 1828. The most ingenious of the kind are some writings of Lucian. Of a kindred description are the greater part of epigrams on works of art, regarding which see Heyne, Commentat. Soc. Gott. x. p. 80 sqq. 5. M. Terentius Varro De novem Disciplinis, among these De Archi- tectura. Plinius Nat. Hist, xxxiii— xxxvii. (Cod. Bamberg. Schorn's Kunstblatt 1833. N. 32—51). J. Chr. Elster Proleg. ad exc. Pliniana ex. 1. xxxv. Programme by Helmstadt 1838. 14 INTRODUCTION. 1 36. The modern treatment of ancient art since the love for classic antiquity was revived, may be divided into three periods. 2 I. The artistic, from about 1450 to 1600. Ancient works of art were taken up with joy and love, and collected with zeal. A noble emulation was kindled therein. There was little interest felt in them as historical monuments; enjoy- ment was the object. Hence the restorations of works of art. 2. Henrici Commentatt. vii. de statuis ant. mutilatis recentiori manu refectis. Viteb. 1803 sqq. 4to. Works of art were at no time during the middle ages entirely disregarded; Nicola Pisano (died 1273) studied ancient sarcophagi (Cicognara, Storia della Scult. i. p. 355) ; no- thing was done, however, towards guarding and preserving. The history of the destruction of ancient Rome does not even close with Sixtus IV. (died 1484 ; comp. Niebuhr's Kl. Schriffcen 433) ; however, they went to work in a more and more sparing spirit. Gibbon's 71st cap. " Prospect of the Ruins of Rome in the fifteenth century." Collections began as early as Cola Rienzi, that aper of antiquity (1347), with Petrarca (died 1374; coins); more considerable ones with Lorenzo di Medici (1472-92, statues, busts, but especially gems ; see Heeren Gesch. der Classischen Literatur ii. 68) ; even earlier at Rome, as Eliano Spinola's under Paul II. Poggius (d. 1459) only knew about five statues in Rome, according to his work De fortunse varietate urbis Romse, edited by Dom. Georgi 1723. On Poggius Florent. De varietate fortunae, see Heumann, Poecile ii. p. 45 sq. Zeal of the popes Julius II. and Leo. X. Raphael's magni- ficent plan for laying open ancient Rome. (Raphael's Letter to Leo X. in Bunsen's Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. i. 266. Leo's Commission to Raphael, P. Bembo, Epistolae, no. 21). Michael Angelo's, Benvenuto Cel- lini's enthusiasm for antiques. By far the greatest number of antiques, especially statues, were found between 1450 and 1550. Giovanni Agnolo Montorsoli, about 1532, the principal restorer (on the Apollo Belvedere, Laocoon). Numerous palaces were filled with them (comp. Fiorillo's History of Painting, i. 125 sqq. ii. 52 sqq.). Ostentation took the place of genuine love for art. Restoration was practised in a mechanical manner. 1 37. II. The antiquarian, from about 1600 to 1750. The antiquary, who was at first principally employed as nomen- clator of the statues to be erected, gradually attained more importance; however, those who were most distinguished for their knowledge of antiquity did not give themselves much 2 concern about art The endeavours to explain ancient works of art, although not without merit, were generally too much applied to what was external and trifling, and as they did not proceed from an accurate knowledge of Grecian life, were 3 busied in i\ilse directions. That period also attended to the making collections known, at first negligently, but gradually with more care and skill. 2. Rome was the central point of these studies ; hence the early in- LITERATURE. 15 terest in the topography of Rome (from Fl. Biondo 1449 downwards- coi»p. §. 258, 3); but hence also the mania for always interpreting ancient works of art from Roman history: — Andr. Fulvius Raphael's contem- porary, was the first that took the name of antiquary. — Iladr, Junius (1511—1575). Fulv. Ursinus (1529—1600). Jacques Spon (withWheler in Greece 1675) subdivides the whole materials in a rough way into Numismato-Epigrammato - Architectono-Icono-Glypto-Tore umato-Bil )lio- Angeiography. Miscellanea antiquit. Lugd. Bat. 1685. Recherches Curi- euses d'Antiquite contenues en plusieurs dissertations — par. M. Spon. Lyon 1683. A similar treatment prevails in the writings of Laur. Be^-er Thesaurus Brandeburg. Berl. 1696. In Montfaucon's Antiquite expliqueo et representee en figures, 1st pt. 1719, 2d ed. 1722. 5 vols. f. (Supplement in 5 vols. 1724), art is merely employed to present to view the externals of ancient life. This antiquarian spirit also prevails in Ernesti's Archtc- ologia Literaria (ed. alt. by G. H. Martini. Leipz. 1790), and Christ's Abhandlungen iiber die Litteratur und Kuntswerke, vornehmlich des Alterthums (edited by Zeune. Leipz. 1776). Works of art were only regarded as monuments of commemoration like inscriptions. Notices of discoveries from a Manuscript of Ghibroti, Bullett. d. Inst. 1837, p. 67. 3. The earlier works with engravings of statues are at the present day only of importance in regard to the history of their preservation and restoration. At first insignium virorum imagines were in especial request (after coins and busts). Of more value are Engravings by Agos- tino Veneto (de' Musis) after drawings by Marc. Ant., Bartsch Peintre graveur xiv. p. 176. Lafrerii Speculum Rom. magnitudinis Romae [plates engraved singly from 1544-75, Aldroandi statue di Roma 1556.] Ant. statuarum urbis Romae icones. R. ex typis Laur. Vaccarii 1584. T. ii. 1621 ex typis Gott. de Scaichis. Cavaleriis Antiquse statuae urbis Romae (1585), Boissard's Antiqu. Romanae, 6 vols. f. 1579 — 1627. Franc. Pcrrier's Segmenta nobil. signorum et statuarum (1638), and Icones et segmenta illustr. e marmore tabularum (1645). Insigniorum statuarum urbis Romae icones by lo. lac. de Rubeis (1645). Signorum vet. icones by Episcopius (Jan de Bischop). Gio. Batt. Rossi Antiq. statuarum urbis Romae i. et ii. lib. 1668 f. Sandrart's Teutsche Academic der Bau- Bild-und Malereikunst. 4 vols. f. Niirnberg 1675-76. The designs and engravings of Pietro Santi Bartoli, mostly accompanied with explana- tions by G. P. Belloni, the Columnae, Lucernae, the Pitture, the Admir- anda Romanorum antiquitatis (an excellent collection of reliefs, first ed. by Jac. de Rubeis, second by Domen. de Rubeis R. 1693, especially valuable) and others form an epoch. Raccolta di statue antiche da Domen. de Rossi, illustr. di Paolo Aless. Maffei. R. 1704. Statua) insig- niores by Preisler, 1734. Ant. Franc. Gori (the Etruscan antiquary's) Museum Florentinum, 6 vols. fo. 1731—1742. Recueil des Marbres antiques— a Dresde by le Plat. 1733 (bad). Antiche statue, che nell' antisala della libreria di S. Marco e in altri luoghi pubblici di Venezia si trovano, by the two Zanettis, 2 vols. fo. 1740. 43. Mich. Ang. Causei (de la Chausse) Romanum Museum. R. 1746, a motley antiquarian collection. (Graevii Thesaur. T. v. xii.). [Prange Magazin der Alterth. Halle 1783 f.] Of the works on architectural remains especially : Les rcstcs de I'an- cienne Rome, drawn and engraved by Bonavent. d'Overbeke. Amsterd. 1709. 3 pts. fo. 16 INTRODUCTION. 38. III. The scientific, 1750—. This age enjoyed the ad- vantage of the greatest external aids, to which belonged the excavation of the buried cities skirting Vesuvius, a more accurate knowledge of the architectural monuments and lo- calities of Greece, and the discovery and acquisition of most important sculptures from Grecian temples ; moreover, a more widely-extended knowledge of Egypt and the East, and — latest of all — the unexpectedly great discovery of Etruscan tombs. On the other hand, we are indebted to this period for the design of a history of ancient art which emanated from the great mind of Winckelmann ; as well as numerous attempts to investigate more deeply the art of the Greeks both philosophically and historically; and also a more circum- spect explanation of art, and built on more accurate bases. 1. The excavation of Herculaneum begun in 17 11,' but not recom- menced till 1736. — Stuart (1751, at Athens) and Revett's Antiquities of Athens, the first vol. Lond. 1762. Undertakings of the Society of Dilettanti founded in 1734 (Ionian antiquities 1769-97. Uned. Antiq. of Attica 1817). Investigations of English, French, and other travel- lers : Chandler, Choiseul-Gouffier, Cockerell, Sir W. Gell, Leake, Dodwell, Pouqueville, von Stackelberg, Bronsted ; the French expedition to the Morea. — Discovery in -^gina in 1811, at Phigalia in 1812. Acquisition of the Elgin collection (1801) for the British Museum 1816.— The Egyp- tian expedition 1798. — The sepulchres of Vulci 1828. 2. Winckelmann, born 1717, died 1768, went in 1755 from Dresden to Rome. Antiquario della camera apostolica. The Monumenti inediti 1767 form an epoch in archaeological interpretation. The History of Art 1764. Principal edition of his works at Dresden 1808-20, 8 vols, (by Fernow, H. Meyer, Schulze, Siebelis). Notes by C. Fea [New ed. Dres- den, 2 vols. 4to. 1829-1847]. — Count Caylus, his contemporary, distin- guished for technical knowledge and taste, Recueil d' Antiq. Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques et Romaines 1752-67, 7 vols. 4to. Lessing (1729-81) tried to reduce the peculiarities of Grecian art to precise notions, some- times one-sided : Laocoon, or on the Limits of Painting and Poetry, 1766. Heyne (1729 — 1812) completed Winckelmann's work, especially in the chronological department (Antiquar. Abhandl. ; Comment. Soc. Gott. ; Opusc. Academ.), and made archaeology, after attempts by Christ (died 1756), a subject of philological instruction. Akad. Vorlesungen ueber die ArchJiol. der Kunst. Braunschweig 1822. Ennio Quirino Visconti, a learned and tasteful illustrator of art, especially in the Museum Pio Clem. His labours in France and England. Publication of his works at Milan 1818-19. Minor works collected and published by Labus. Zoega, distinguished for depth and solidity. Bassirilievi Antichi. 1807, sqq. Millin's writings invaluable for the diffusion of a knowledge of works of art and for popularizing it. Gothe's exertions for the preservation of a genuine love for ancient art. Propylseon ; Kunst und Alterthum. Bot- tiger's services to learned archaeology, Hirt's chiefly, but not merely, for architecture, Welcker's, Millingen's and others for the illustration of art. Symbolical method of explanation (Payne Knight, Christie, Creuzer). H. ^Meyer's (W. K. F.) Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste bei den Griechen LITERATURE. . ' 17 von ihrem ersten Ursprungc bis zum hochstcn Flor. 1824 [with engrav- ings 1825, and a General View in Tables 1826, fob], a further development of Winckelmann's views [3 parts publ. by Riemer 1836.]. An attempt at a new system : Thiersch, ueber die Epochen der bildenden Kunst unter den Griechen (2d edit. 1829). Compare Wiener Jahrb. xxxvi-xxxviii. Die Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste bei den Alten von A. Hirt. BerL 1833. The publication of antiques in single or different museums by means of engravings is going on and becx)ming more complete. Museum Capi- l^linum T. i — iii. 1748-55, by Gio, Bottari, T. iv. by Nic. Foggini. GaJe- ria Giustiniana, R. 1631, 2 vols. fo. Barbault les plus beaux Monumens de Rome Ancienne, R. 1761, fo., and other works by him. Giambatt Pir- anesi's (till 1784) and his son Francesco's sumptuous works on Roman architecture, Raccolta d'antiche Statue, Busti, Bassirilievi ed altre scul- ture restaurate da Bartol. Cavaceppi, R. 3 vols. 1768-72. Monum. Mat- tha^iana (bad engravings) 3 vols. fo. 1779, with expl. by Rudolph Venuti and Gio. Chr, Amaduzzi. II Museo Pio-Clementino descritto da Giam- batt. Visconti, T, i. 1782, da Enn. Quir. Vise. T. ii— vii. 1784—1807* Museo Chiaramonti, by Fil. Aur. Visconti and Gius. Ant. Guattani, T. i. 1808. [T. ii. by A. Mbby 1837, in fol. and 4to.] Guattani's Monum. Inediti (1784--89, 1805, in 4to) and Memorie enciclopediche Romane 1806-17, 4to, Augusteum; Dresden's Antike Denknmler von W, G. Becker, 3 vols. fo. 1804-11. [Corrections and additions by W, A. Becker 1837--8.] Principal works on the antiquities collected at Paris by Napo- leon : Musee Fran9ois publ. par Robillard-Peronville et P. Laurent, P, 1803-11. Text by Croze-Magnan, Visconti and Emm. David. As a con- tinuation Musee Royal publ. par H. Laurent [One antique always ac- companied by 3 pictures]. Musee des Antiques dessine et grave par B. Bouillon, peintre, avec des notices explicatives par J. B. de Saint Victor, Paris, 3 tomes, 1812-1817. — Specimens of ancient Sculpture by the soci- ety of Dilettanti, London 1809 [vol. ii. 1835]. Ancient Marbles of the British Museum by Taylor Combe, 6 parts, 1812-1830 [7, 8. 1839], Ancient unedited monuments by James Millingen, 1822 (a model of a work). Monumens Inedits d'Antiquite figuree recueillis et pubhes par Raoul-Rochette, 2 vols. fo. 1828, 1829. Antike Bildwerke zum erstenmale bekannt gemacht von Eduard Gerhard, begun in 1827 [ended in 1839. E. Braun, Ant. Marmorwerke zum erstenmal bekannt gemacht, 1. 2. decade Lpz. 1843 fo. By the same, Zwolf Basreliefs aus Ballast Spada u. s. w. Rom. 1845. fol. comp. Bullett. 1846. p. 54]. The establishment of the In- stituto di Correspondenza archeologica (Gerhard, Panofka, the Due de Luynes) forms an epoch in regard to the rapid circulation of archaeologi- cal intelhgence and ideas. Monumenti Inediti, Annali and Bullettini dell'Instituto from 1829 downwards. [1846, 18 vols, of the Ann. and the same number of the Bull. Also Nouvelles Annales de la Section Fran^aise 1836. 1838. 2 vols. 8vo. with 24 pi. fob] Memorie dell'Inst. Fasc. i. 1832. [2. 3. Bullettino Napoletano since 1842 liutirely the work of Avellino, in 4to, confined to the monuments of the kingdom ; Gerhard's Archaol. Zeit 4to from 1843, Revue Archeol, P. 1844 up to this time, 3 vols. 8vo.] 89. The main object of this Manual is to reduce to scien- tific order the materials contained in archaeological literature, and which have been sufficiently illustrated by special under- B U INTRODUCTION. takings, strictly confining itself to the arts of design among the ancients. Other literary aids. Millin Introduction a I'etude des Monuraens an- tiques, 1796 and 1826. Gurlitt's General Introduction in his archaeolo- gical works, edited by Com. Miiller, pp. 1 — 72. Joh. Phil. Siebenkees llandbiich der Archaologie. Niirnberg 1799, 2 vols, (not very critical). Chr. Dan. Beck Grundriss der Archaologie. Leipz. 1816 (not completed). Biittiger Andeutungen zu vierundzwanzig Vorlesungen iiber die Arch- aologie, Dresd. 1806. Gio. Batt. Vermiglioli Lezioni elementari di Arch- eologia, Tom. 1, 2. Milano 1824. (Archa3ology as the knowledge of monu- ments). N. Schow Laerebog i Archaeologia. Kiobenh. 1825. Champol- lion Figeac Resume complet de I'Archeologie, 2 vols. P. 1826. (In Ger- man by Mor. Fritsch. Lpz. 1828.) Nibby Elementi di Archeologia, R.- 1828 (mostly topography). R. Rochette Cours d'Archeologie. P. 1828 (twelve lectures). Fr. C. Petersen AUgem. Einleitung in das studium der Archaol. Translated from the Danish by Friedrichsen. Lpz. 1829, A. von Steinbiichel Abriss der Alterthumskunde. Vienna 1829 (also mythology and geographical numismatics), with a large antiquarian at- las. [A. W. Schlegel Le9ons sur I'histoire et la theoriedes beaux arts trad, par Couturier, P. 1830.] Levezow on Archaeol. criticism and interpreta- tion, a treatise in the Berl. Acad, der AViss. 1833. B. 1834.— The Denk- miiler der Alten kunst von K. 0. Miiller und K. Oesterley, begun in 1832, stands in connexion with this manual. [After Bd. ii. heft 2. continued by Wieseler, heft 3. 1846. The manual is made use of by Ross in his *Ey;^£/^/S/OJ/ r^; a^;^«/oAoy/a$- twv nxvojy, ^toti/ofcr} -TTQcrr/i. ' A^tju'/jat 1841. 1st part. Bottiger's Kl. Schriften Archaol. u. antiq. Inhalts gesammelt von Sillig 3 bde, 1837-38. Fr. Creuzer's deutsche Schr. 2 Abth. Zur Archaol. oder zur Gesch. u. Erkl. der a. K. 1. 2. Th. 1846. Th. 3. 1847.] "These lectures were late of publication, and should not indeed have been published at all. HISTORY OF ART IN ANTIQUITY. THE GREEKS. FIRST PERIOD, TILL ABOUT THE 50th OLYMPIAD (580 A. C). 1. GENERAL CONDITIONS AND MAIN FEATURES OF THE DEVELOP- MENT OF ART. ; 40. Of all the brandies of the Indo-Germanic race, the Greeks were that in which sensible and spiritual, internal and external life were found in the finest equipoise; hence they appear to have been from the first most peculiarly fitted for the independent cultivation of artistic forms, although it re- quired a long process of development and many favourable circumstances before this feeling for art, which showed its activity so early in poetry and mythology, could be also trans- ferred to external matters and ripen into sculpture. 41. This people from a very early age dwelt in Greece Proper, in Lower Italy, and partly also on the coast of Asia Minor, as a settled agricultural nation founding fixed habita- tions with temples and citadels (roXsig). These settlements belonged, for the most part, to the original tribe of Pelasgians. 'A^yog, the name of several Pelasgian countries ; Au^iaaoc (also Aiaec according to Hesychius, from Aac), the name of citadels. To^v; in Crete (rstxiosacra., II. ii, 646) was also called Larissa and K^-^/^cviu. The citadel of Mycenas was about 1,000 feet in length, that of Tiryns 220 yards, ac- cording to Sir W. GeU. 42. Even in the heroic period which rested on the domin- i ion of Hellenic races, especially those of a warlike character, a certain splendour of life was unfolded in the houses of the Anaktes, which was partly derived from the close connexion 2 with Asia Minor, and thereby with the further East. In the 3 construction of their dwellings and the workmanship of their furniture it was exhibited in a style of architectonics and tectonics Avhich aimed at magnificence (§. .2.2). 20 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. 2. The city of Sipylus (Cyclopean Ruins, Millin's Magas. Encyclop. 1810, V. p. 349. Raoul-Rochette, Hist, de I'etabl. des Col. Grecques, iv. p. 384), was the ancient seat of the Tantalida). The Heraclidae (properly speaking, the Sandonidae) of Lycia were an Assyrian dynasty. Gold, silver, ivory. Pontic metals (Alybe) came early to Greece. Phoenician commerce. The gold-abounding Mycenae and Orchomenos Minyeios (U. ix, 381. Minyas, son of Chryses). 43. Through the so-called return of the Heraclidge, the Dorians, descending from the mountains of Northern Greece, became the most powerful tribe in that country. They were a race in which the Hellenic sense of strict order and due proportion appears to have been most cultivated, with a pre- dominant tendency to the earnest, the di.cx.ayiK6u OT Ui?^a.(}yiK6!/ ruxog in Athens. [Gottling in the Rhein. Mus. f. Philologie 1843^ iv. s. 321, 480. The same Die GaUerien und die Stoa von Tirynth, Archilol. Zeit 1845, N. 26. Taf. 26. Exped. de la Moree II. p. 72.] Ten Cyclopean ruins in Argolis ("Apyoj UsT^uayov.) On the age and fortification of Lycosura in Arcadia, Pausan. viii, 38. Dodwell ii. p. 395. Sir W. Gell; City walls, pi. 11. On the very numerous Epi- rotic walls (Ephyra) Pouqueville Voyage dans la Gr^ce, T. i. p. 464 sqq. and elsewhere, Hughes' Travels, ii. p. 313. 46. The enormous, irregular, and polygonal blocks of 1 these walls are not, in the rudest and most ancient style, connected by any external means, and are entirely unhewn i^pyoi), and the gaps are filled up with small stones (at Tiryns) ; in the more improved style, on the contrary, they are skilfully hewn and fitted to one another with great nicety (at Argos and partly at Mycense), from whence resulted the most indestructible of walls. The gates are mostly pyramidal ; 2 regular towers could not be easily employed. This mode of 8 building passed through various intermediate stages into the square method, which was in later times the prevailing one, although it is not to be denied that in all ages polygonal blocks were occasionally employed in substructions. 1. In the first and ruder style the main thing was the quarrying and removing of stones with levers (fioxi^ev-tu '^rir^ovg Eurip. Cycl. 241. conf. Od. ix, 240). The Cyclopean walls of Mycenae, on the contrary, were formed, according to Eurip. Here. Fur. 948 (Nonnus xli, 269), by means of the measuring-line and stone-axe, (poiviKi koivoui ko,] rvMtg '/iPfco7/^ivcc. The stones were larger than a,y,a.^ixlQi. The walls of Tiryns from 20 to 24^ feet thick. 2. In the gates the jambs and lintels are mostly single blocks, the stone-door was mortised in the middle. In regard to towers, an angular one is to be found at the termination of a wall at Mycenaj, and it is said that there was a semicircular one at Sipylus. In the walls of Mycenae and Larissa, and especially at Tiryns (in Italy also), are to be found gable-shaped passages formed of blocks resting against each other. [Gott- ling, das Thor von MykenjB, N. Rhein. Mus. i. S. 161. The gateway of Mycenae, cleared away in 1842, is 5 paces in breadth, and proportionately long ; there are wheel tracks visible in the smooth slabs of the floor.] Tho i2 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. coursing of the stones too has often somewhat of the form of an arch. At Nauplia there were airrfKitiot, Kstl h avroi; oix-ooo^rrroi -hotlivpiv^ot called Cy- clopeia, Strab. viii. p. 369, 373. Probably quarries used as places of burial. Cyriacus of Ancona (1435) Inscriptiones sen Epigr. Grseca et Lai. reperta per lUyricum, etc. Romae 1747 (MS. in the Barber. Library). "NVinckelmann Anmerk. iiber die Baukunst. Th. i. §. 357, 535. Petit- Radel in the Magasin Encyclop. 1804. T. v. p. 446. 1806. T. vi. p. 168. 1807. T. V. p. 425. 1810. T. v. p. 340. (Controversy with Sickler, Mag. Enc. 1810. T. i. p. 242. T. iii. p. 342. 1811. T. ii. p. 49, 301.) in the Moniteur 1812, No. 110, in the Musee-Napoleon, T. iv. p. 15, in Voyage dans les principales villes de lltalie, P. 1815, and the Ann. dell' Inst. i. p. 345. Comp. Memoires de I'lnstitut Royal, T. ii. Classe d'hist. p. 1. Raoul-Rochette Hist, de I'etabl. des col. Gr. T. iv. p. 379 sqq., and Notice Bur les Nuraghes de la Sardaigne. Paris 1826. Rapport de la 3e Classe de I'lnstitut an 1809. Rapport fait k la CI. des Beaux Arts 14 Aout 1811. W. Gell Argolis. L. 1810. Probestiicke von Stadtemauern des al- ten Griechenlands. Miinchen 1831. Dod well's Classical Tour. His Views and descriptions of Cyclopean or Pelasgic remains in Greece and Italy, with constructions of a later period. L. 1834 fo. 131 pi. [Petit-Radel Les Murs Pelasg. de I'lt. in the Memorie d. Inst, archeol. i. p. 53. Rech. sur les mon. Cycl. et descr. de la coll. des modeles en relief composant la galerie Pelasg. de la bibl. Mazarine par Petit-Radel, publiees d'apres les MSS. de I'auteur. P. 1841. 8vo.] Squire in Walpole's Memoirs, p. 315. Leake, Morea, T. ii. p. 349, 368, 377, &c. Hirt in Wolf's Analecta, v. i. p. 153. Gesch. der Baukunst Bd. i. s. 195, pi. 7. — With regard to those of Italy, §. 166. Sacredness of building with d^yoi T^iBoi in altars. In like manner Exod. xx. 25. Deut. xxvii. 5. 1 47. The taste for magnificence which manifested itself in the erection of these walls, was also displayed in the con- struction of the extensive and spacious palaces of the princes 2 in the heroic times [f^aff/Xg/a in Pausanias] which were built 3 for the most part on the acropoleis ; it was here united with a great love for bright metal ornaments — a characteristic fea- ture in the architecture of the heroic times. 2. Homer's description of Odysseus' palace is certainly correct as a general poetical picture. Comp. Voss, Homer, v. iv. pi. 1, Hirt. i. p. 209, pL 7. "E^xo.c, «yX^ with altar of Zeitg 'E^xMog, colonnades, otBomot against the house, ^^oBv^ou, large ,u£yot^oi/ with rows of pillars, ^dcKotf/.ot or more secret chambers. The upper portion of the house for the women, the vTTiPuu, did not extend, like our stories, over the entire ground-floor. The house of Odysseus on the acropolis of Ithaca, discovered by Gell (Ithaca, p. 50 sq.) ; Goodisson, however, did not discover anything. Many iso- lated buildings around. In Priam's house fifty BaAa^o/ iiaroio a/Bo/o of the sons, opposite to them in the aula twelve rtyioi BaA. |. x. of the sons- in-law beside each other. II. vi. 243, [not less poetical invention, as may be seen from the mythic numbers, than in the palace of Alcinous]. 3. Toig 5' ^u ;iaXx£« ^sv rivx,tct, y:,*hyAoi 'hi n oIkoi Hesiod E. 152. XaXxoJ ; ARCHITECTONICS. 23 t-Ki(pxuro$. Od, iv. 72. XxXKibi fnu yccQ roiyfii iM>^oil»r iv^'x Kcti tu^ec if f^v^ov i'i ovlov' '7ri(n U BqtyKog Kvotvoio. -^(tyaiixi Vi ^v(>xi TrvKfuov So^ov iyrd; ■ii^you- d^yv^ioi V. arx^^ol hj ycxy.Kiu hruaxu ovIa, oi^yv()iov 'S £(p' UTrin^vma'jy ■XQvain hi Ko^uum, in the fairy palace of Alcinous, Od. vii. 8G, e7^i(pxuT6hToi l6f4.oi in Asia, Eurip. Iph. Aul. 583. Comp. §. 48. Rem. 2. 3. §. 49, 2. 48. The most remarkable of these princely fabrics of tlic 1 heroic ages were the treasuries, dome -shaped buildings ■which seem to have been destined for the preservation of costly armour, goblets, and other family heir-looms (?c£//x7jA/a). Similar to these generally subterranean buildings were the 2 O'oboi of many ancient temples, cellar-like and very massive constructions, which likewise served in an especial manner for the preservation of valuable property. Finally, corresponding 3 forms were not unfrequently given to the thalami, secret chambers for the women, and even to the prisons of that early period. 1. Thesaurus of Minyas (Paus. ix, 38. Squire in Walpole's Memoirs, p. 336. Dodwell i. p. 227) of white marble, 70 feet in diameter. Views, pL 13 ;— -of Atreds and his sons at Mycense (Paus. ii, 16.), one of which was opened by Lord Elgin (s. Gell, Argolis, t. 4 — 6. Squire, p. 552. Dodwell ii. p. 236. Views, pi. 9, 10. Descr. de la Moree, ii, 66 sqq. Pouqueville iv. p. 152 ; above all Donaldson, Antiq. of Athens : Supplement, p. 25). Dia- meter and height about 48 feet. The ruins of three others are to be seen there. Leake, Morea, ii. p. 382 sqq. Views, pi. 11. [Comp. §. 291 R. 5, and also Col. Mure on the royal tombs of the heroic age in the Rhein. Mus. 1838. vi. S. 240, who makes a striking comparison with the dungeon of Antigone in Sophocles, a ^m^^iiov Kxraynou according to Aristophanes of Byzantium in substance. Col. Leake, Peloponnesiaca, a supplem. 1846. p. 258, opposed to his view. But it receives a strong confirmation from a tomb at Caere, together with which Canina (Cere ant. tv. 3 — 5. 9) also give^ a representation of that at Mycenae, see p. 94, also Em. Braun, Bull. 1836, p. 57. 58. 1838. p. 173, and Abeken, Bull. 1841. p. 41, and Mittelitalien s. 234.] — of Hyrieus and Augeas built by the Minyans Trophonius and Agamedes (Orchomenus, p. 95. Comp. the Cyclian Eugammon in Proclus). — Thesaurus (of Menelaus) discovered by Gropius not far from Amyclaj ; [W. Mure, Tour in Greece, ii, 246, Tomb of Menelaus, who was buried according to tradition at Amyclas, or of Amyclas, of the ancient Amy- clasean kings :] traces at Pharsalus. Autolycus, son of Daedalion (the In- genious), xAs/ffTot K7\.i7rt6i'j sBmccvQi^sv, Pherecyd. Fragm. 18 st. Od. xix,410. 2. OyBoV, foundation, socle, hence household, but also a subterranean repository ; the Tixiuog oi/los at Delphi was a thesaurus, II. ix, 404, which the Minyan architects are said to have built with Cyclopean masses of rock (Hymn to the Pyth. Ap. 115. Steph. B. s. v. Asxcpol). [It is stated by others as well as L. Ross in his ' Eyp^g/^/o/o;/, §. 67, 2, that this is not cor- rect.] Even the ^x^^ksos ovOos of Colonos in Sophocles is also conceived as a walled abyss (comp. II. viii, 15. Theog. 811. So>o/o tqus xcvrot with treasures, H. in Merc. 247). The u^p6^o(pog BxT^xf^og of Odysseus, Menelaus, Priam, placed deep in the earth and filled with all sorts of valuable things (Od. ii, 337. xv, 98. xxi, 8. II. vi, 288), is also a sort of thesaurus. Ac- cording to Eurip. Ilecabe 1010, a treasury at Ilium was indicated hy a 24 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. black Btone jutting out of the ground. Subterranean store-houses of fruits and other things were also everywhere common, as the an^ol for corn in Thrace, Philo Mathem. vett. p. 88. the favissae in Italy, the Aay.xo/ for fruits, wine, and oil at Athens, the German cellars. Tacit. Germ. 16. Phry- gians and Armenians even dwelt under the earth (Vitruv. ii. 1, 5. comp. ■ Schol. Nicand. Alexiph. 7. Xenoph. Anab. iv, 5, 25, &c.). 3. To these belong the pyramidal thalamus of Cassandra (Lycophr. 350), the h-azen one of Danae, that of Alcmene, of the Proetides. Paus. 6ycv(io\ -TTctD^ivZveg comp. Iph. Aul. 738. [The pyramids, not far from the Erasinos and Lemae, of which Mure gives a drawing, Tour in Greece, ii, 195. as a monument of the heroic period, similar to another in Argolis, Gel. p. 102, and that mentioned by Pans, ii, 36. Comp. L. Ross. Reiscn in Peloppnnes. S. 142. Stackelberg La Gr^ce P. 1829. vignette, comp. §. 294 R. 6.]— The brazen cask of the Aloidae (II. v, 387), and of Eurystheus (Apollod. ii, 5, 1), is conceived as a kind of building. [ Welcker Kl. Schr. ii. s. cxv.] In later times also there was used as a prison at Messene (Liv. xxxix, 50. Plut. Philopo^men 19) a thesaurus publicus sub terra, saxo quadrato septus. Saxum ingens, quo operitur, machina su- perimpositum est. 1 49. The Mycensean treasury, the best-preserved specimen of this so wide-spread and often employed species of building, is constructed of horizontal courses of stone which gradually approach and unite in a closing-stone (a^/xov/a rou crai/rog), and 2 is provided with a pyramidal door skilfully roofed over. It was probably, like many similar buildings, lined with bronze plates, [the holes for] the nails of which are still visible [in horizontal rows] ; but on the fa9ade it was decorated in the richest manner with half-columns and tablets of red, green, and white marble, which were wrought in quite a peculiar style, and ornamented with spirals, and zig-zags. 1. The door 18 feet high, 11 feet broad below, the lintel one stone, 27 feet long, 16 broad (22 and 20 according to Haller in Pouqueville). On the wedges between the single stones of a course, Cockerell in Leake, Morea ii. p. 373. Donaldson, pi, 2. 2, On the fragments of the lining, two plates of which are in the Brit. Mus. Wiener Jahrb. xxxvi. p. 186. Donaldson, pi. 4, 5. [These fragments, found in the neighbourhood (the precise spot unknown), are by others supposed to have been fixed on the walls of the gateway. W, Mure, Tour in Greece, ii, 167. Stackelberg La Grece places them in the portal. Three fragments of these ornaments also at Munich in the United Collections.] 50. The Greeks of the mythic ages no doubt also employ- ed the same powerful style at an early period in their tem- ples (1), tombs (2), outlets of lakes and canals (3), and even harbours (4). 1. Paus. and others relate many legends regarding the Delphian temple ; the brazen one was probably the same with the uvhog (§. 48, DORIC ARCHITECTURE. 25 2.) [The small temple on the summit of Ocha above Carystos §. 53. R. 2. belongs to this class.] • 2. The tombs of the heroic period had mostly the form of conical hillocks (tumuli, xoX^;^«/). Phrygian sepulchres (Athen. xii. p. 025), graves of Amazons (Plut. Theseus, 26). Ancient barrows, Stieglitz', Beitr. s. 17. [Lelcgia, barrows as well as hill-forts of the Leleges in Caria and around Miletus, in Strabo.] Greece is still full of such bar- rows. To the tombs probably belong also [pyramids §. 48. R. 3, and] the labyrinths at Nauplia (§. 46. R. 2), at Cnossus (a aTrriT^oihy oivr^uh; ac- cording to Etym. M.), in Lemnos (with 150 columns; exiant reliquicej Plin.), as chambers in rocks for the dead was an ancient custom of that people. Quarries gave occasion for them. Acc^v^iv^g is genuine Greek, and is connected with T^ccv^ia.. Daidalus, as architect in Crete and among the Hesperians (§. 166). 3. The subterranean outlets of the Copaic lake (Katabothra), the gulfs (^sVs^^st) of Stymphalus and Pheneus, where there was also a canal of Hercules, seem at least to have been completed by the hand of man. [Comp. §. 168. R. 3.] 4. The xxnoq T^if^^v of Cyzicus, a work of the giants (Encheirogastores), or the Pelasgians. Schol. Apoll. i, 987. 51. The Doric temple -architecture, on the other hand, was in its origin clearly connected with the immigration of the Dorians. In it the efforts of the earlier times, whicli aimed more at splendour and richness, returned to simpli- city ; and art thereby acquired fixed fundamental forms which were invaluable for its further development. Dorus himself was said to have built the Heraeum at Argos. Vitruv. iv, 1. ' 52. In this style of architecture everything was suitable 1 to its object, everything in harmony, and for that very reason noble and grand ; only stone-building borrowed many forms 2 from the earlier wooden structures, which were long main- tained especially in the entablature. For instance, the tri- 3 glyphs (as beam-ends) and metopes (as vacant spaces be- tween) which form the frieze, are to be explained from car- pentry, to which also must be referred the drops under the triglyphs and the mutules (rafter-ends). The great thickness ^ of the columns, and their great diminution as well as their closeness, have solidity and firmness for their aim. But the weight which rests upon these supports is also in due propor- tion to their strength, for the entablature in the older temples was of considerable height and weight (fths of the height of the columns). The ample projection of the capital and the 5 great prominence of the corona which clearly expresses the destination of the roof — to extend widely its protection-- manifest a striving after a decided character of forms; archi- 2G HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. tccture did not yet seek to soften abrupt transitions by inter- C mediate mouldings. The proportions are simple, and the uniformity of the dimensions which is often observed in indi- vidual portions satisfies the eye; but, on the whole, the great horizontal main lines of the architrave and cornice predomi- nate over the vertical lines of the columns and triglyphs, 7 which are still more brought out by the fluting. The impos- ing simplicity of the leading forms is agreeably interrupted by a few small ornamental members (grooves, annulets, drops, 8 nail-heads, according to moden architects). Everywhere the forms are geometrical, for the most part produced by straight lines; vegetable ornaments, however, were added in colours which earlier antiquity preferred of a lively and glaring char- acter. 2. Wooden temple of Poseidon Hippius at Mantinea, Paus. viii, 10, 2. Metaponti templum Junonis vitigirieis colunitiis stetit, Plin. xiv. 2. Otuoiaocou X10V, Paus. v, 20, 3. Oaken column in the Heraeum, v, 16. — The simplest temples (anKol) of the primitive ages indeed were merely hollow trees in which images were placed, as at Dodona (ualeu Veu Tirv^y.hi (pnyov, Hesiod Schol. Sophocl. Trach. 1169. Fragm. 54. Gottling.), at Ephesus (j/»o!/ Tr^if^-' va hi Tcrihiyir Dionys. Per. 829. comp. Callim. Hymn to Art. 237), and Artemis Cedreatis in Arcadia (Paus. viii, 13). Artemis on the tree (Ga- ry atis) a relief, Annali d. I. i. tv. c, 1. The column is developed from the trunk of the tree. The four-cornered stone is far less advantageous therefor ; only unbroken circles give complete strength. Klenze Apho- rist. Bemerkungen s. 57 ff. is opposed to the derivation of the Doric temple architecture from wooden buildings. But the cornice and the mutules point thereto. The principle therefore is established. 3. Eurip. Iphig. Taur. 113 {ihu r^iy7^v(pcdv ottqi Ktvov) presupposes beam- ends with spaces between. In like manner, Orest. 1366, 7ci(pivya, — Kiloa^ rot 'TTocarxlai/ vrnQ riQSf^uoi Aoj^iko,; rs r^iy'Kv(^ovg. Wooden triglyphs are also to be assumed, Bacch. 1216. 3—7. Comp. §. 275—277, 282, 288. The proportion 1 : 1 can be pointed out in the placing of the columns and in the parts of the enta- . blature. » . 8. Hittorffde I'Architecture polychrome chez les Anciens. Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 263. Comp. §. 80, 274. On the painting of temples, reference should be made to the investigations of the Duke of Luynes in his work on Meta- » pontum, P. 1833 fo. (Annali V. p. 292) after painted teracotta fragments, and to the statements of Semper which embrace all antiquity. Vorlaiifige Bemerkungen iiber bcmalte Architektur and Plastik bei den Alten. 1834 (comp. Gott. G. A. S. 1389). Kugler ueber die Polychromie der Gr. Archit. und Sculptur und ihre Grenzen B. 1835 (agreeing mostly with Gtitt. Anz.) :— H. Hermann Bern, ueber die Antiken Decorationsmale- reien an den Temp, zu Athen in Allegem. Bauzeitung, Wien 1836. N. • 11. Some ornaments partly painted, drawn at Athens 1835, Ibid. 1837 N. 15. Bl. cxviii. Blue triglyphs well preserved, found on the acropolis (triglyphs on the propyla)a and in .^gina also blue) and other coloured arcliitectural members, Kunstbl. 1836. N. 16. Painted terracottas, eave- • DORIC ARCHITECTURE. 27 tiles, cymas, and portions of cornices, Ibid. N. 24. by Ross. The same on Lithochromie, Kunstbl. 1837. N. 15. comp. Stackelberg, Tf. 5. 6. : [Also inscription Steles, at least aU those that were crowned with an aetoma, Ross Hall, A. L. Z. 1834. Intell. s. 322.] Klenze Aphor. Bern, aiif einer Reise in Griechenland s. 548 ff. [Against exaggeration Ulrick quotes many passages from the ancients, Reisen in Griechenland, S. 72 fi'.] 53. The foundation for a richer development of the Doric 1 architecture was laid at Corinth, a city which flourished at an early period by means of its commerce by sea and land. Here originated the decoration of the tympanum with reliefs in clay (for which groups of statues were afterwards substi- tuted) as well as of the eave-tiles with sculptured ornaments, and later also the ornamental form of the cassoons (^arvw^aara, lacunaria). Byzes of Naxos invented the art of cutting mar- 2 ble tiles about the 50th Olympiad. ^ 1. Pindar, 01. 13, 21, together with Bockh's Expl. p. 213, in regard to the eagle in the oikruiAo, (comp. the coin of Perge, Mionnet, Descr. iii, p. 463). Welcker Rhein. Mus. II. s. 482. against the eagle. According to Pliny, XXXV, 12, 43, Bibutades was the plastes qxd primus perso7uis te- gvlarum extremis imhricibus imposuit, comp. Hirt's Gesch. der Baukunst, i. §. 227. — On the lacunaria, §. 283. In reference to these the Spartan asks the Corinthian, Do the trees with you grow four-cornered 1 Plut. Lye. 13. 2. On Byzes, Paus. v, 10. Regarding the skilful junction of the tiles, comp. Liv. xlii, 3. Among the important monuments of the Doric order at this time were the Herseum of Olympia (Ilirt i. s. 228), said to have been built eight years before Oxylus (Paus. v, 16. comp. Photius lex. p. 194), and the He- rajum of Samos, which formed an epoch, founded by Rha3cus and Theo- dorus about the 40th Olympiad. Vitruv. vii. Praef. comp. §. 80. Rem. 1, 3. Ruins. The small temple on Mount Ocha built of large blocks, with pyramidal door, without pillars, Hawkins in Walpole's Travels. [M. d. I. iii, 37. Annali xiv. p. 5. Bull. 1842. p. 169. Rhein. Mus. ii. s. 481. An hypaethron, an opening in the roof which was of large stone-flags pushed over one another from all sides. Dodwell discovered more than one hieron in Cyclopean structures in Italy, especially at Cigliano, 50 feet long, of well cut irregular polygons, at Marcellina, at Colle Malatiscolo, Universel P. 1829. N. 170. Others later in the country of the iEquicoli, Bull. 1831. p. 45 sqq.] The Ruins of the temple (of Pallas Chahnitis?) at Corinth, the monolith pillars of limestone, 71 moduli high. Lc R(^y Mon. de la Grece, P. i. p. 42. pi. 25. Stuart, Antiq. of Athens vol. iii. ch. 6. pi. 2. comp. Leake's Morea, T. iii. p. 245—268. [Descr. de ]Moree, iii. pi. 77. 78. A portion of the temples at SeHnus appears to belong to this period. Thiersch. Epochen, S. 422 f.]— The smaU Doric temple of Neme- sis at Rhamnus is here referred to, particularly on account of the walls of polygonal blocks.. Uned. Antiq. of Attica, ch. 7. 54. Beside this Doric style of architcctuic the louic took 1 28 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. its place, not gradually and by intermediate stages of transi- 2 tion, but all at once as an essentially diiFerent order. The columns had here from the first much more slender and less 3 tapering shafts which were raised upon bases. The orna- mented form of the capitals with their projecting portions (the volutes) cannot be deduced from the necessary and use- 4 ful. The entablature retained only the general divisions of the Doric, and relinquished the closer relations to wooden building ; it is, in conformity with the more slender and widely placed supports, much lighter and presents less simple 5 masses than the Doric. Everywhere prevail more rounded and as it were elastic forms (as in the bases and cushions), and more gentle transitions (as between frieze and cornice) where- ' by the order receives a sprightlier grace without losing what C is characteristic in the forms. The ornaments of individual members have been mostly discovered at Persepolis, (§. 244, 6,) [282. R 5] and were perhaps widely diffused in Asia at an early period. 2. The columns in the temple of Ephesus were eight diameters high, Vitruv. iv, 1. 2^i, see §. 275—277. 3. The Ionic capital is an ornamented Doric, on the echinus of which a heading is placed composed of volutes, canal and cushions, which in a similar way is to be found on the upper border of altars, cippi, and mo- numents, and may have perhaps derived its origin from the suspending of rams' horns. Comp. Hesych. s. v. K^iog — ,ui^og n rov KooivSiiov kiovo; (probably the volutes on it). As the ram was a customary offering to the dead, this agrees with the derivation of the Ionic order from grave-pil- lars, in Stackelberg ApoUot. s. 40 ff. R. Rochette, M. I. i. p. 141, 304, carried much too far by Carelli, Diss. eseg. int. all'origine ed al sistema della sacra Archit. presso i Greci. N. 1831. Volute capitals, (T7r£i^oyJ(pa7^ou, Marm. Oxon. ii, 48, 19. Perhaps, therefore, in spins columiiarum in Pliny is to be referred to the volutes. Example of an Ionic column as a grave-pillar on Attic base, M. Pourtal^s pi. 25. Volute altars for in- stance, Stackelberg Graber Tf. 18. The Old Ionic base akin to the Pe- lasgian and Persian. Kugler s. 26. [E. Guhl Versuch ueber das lonische Kapitiil, Berl. 1845, from Crelles Journal fiir die Baukunst.] 55. The beginnings of this architecture are probably to be ascribed to very early times, as they are even to be found, out of Ionia, in the treasury of the Sicyonian tyrant Myron at Olympia, which was built soon after the S.3d Olym- piad; and at the commencement of the following period it at once unfolded itself in full splendour in the temple of Arte- mis at Ephesus. . In this thesaurus there were two thalami, the one of Doric and the other of Ionic architecture, and at least lined with brass. Pans, vi, 19, 1. The dome-shaped Skias of Theodorus the Samian at Sparta also de^ serves notice here, as one of the more remarkable buildings of the time Paus. iii, 12, 8. Etym. M. s. v. 2x;«f. ' TECTONICS. 29 S. TECTONICS. 56. Even the period described by Homer attached great 1 weight to the rich and elegant workmanship of articles of fur- niture and vessels, &:c. such as chairs, bedsteads, coifers, gob- • lets, cauldrons, and warlike weapons. With regard to woodsn 2 utensils these were hewn out of the rough block with an axe (rixrahuv^ rrsXszs/v), then carefully wrought with finer instru- ments (Js£/v), and afterwards ornaments of gold, silver, ivory or amber were inlaid in bored and depressed portions {dmvv eXs- ..^?^oV ««A'/j, lonhaxivi in the tent of Achilles, II. xvi, 221, and that which Arete gave to Odysseus, Od. viii, 424. Tsktxivuu also of .ships, regarding the workmanship of which, comp. Od. v, 244; the Trojan .TiKTcou ' A^fcouilng is distinguished in this art (II. v, 60). Aiuovi/ signifies to work into a round shape, like ro^vovv, comp. Schneider in the Lex. s. v. rofysva. Instruments mentioned in Homer : -TriT^iKvg, aKiTrcc^uou, d^iuvi, ri^troot^ r^v'T^a.'jou (with frame, Od. ix, 383. Eurip. Cycl. 460), aru^fcn. — Ivory was used on keys, reins, scabbards, (koT^so; vsoTr^iarov I'hiipccuros, Od. viii, 404. comp. TrqidTov i7\.i(pa,urog, Od. xviii, 195 ; xix, 564.) and amber on walls and furniture (Bernstein, Buttmann in the Schr. der Berl. Acad. 1818-19. Hist. CI. s. 38). [Mythologus Bd. ii. s. 337. Comp. Phoenician art, §. 239.] 57. This inlaid work in wood also continued to be a favourite 1 art in post-Homeric ages, and, instead of mere ornaments, com^ positions with numerous figures were sculptured on wooden utensils. In this manner was the ark (xdovat:, xv-^sXr,) 2 adorned which the Cypselidae as tyrants of wealthy Corinth sent as an ofiering to Olympia. 2. Dio Chrysost. xi. p. 325. Reisk. a; ocvro; kcoQcocag iimv tv ' O'Kv^'riet iv Tfij OTTia^oho/aa rov vsco ryjg "H^xg VTro^uvYifiet rvjg a.^Trctyrig ix,siurig, h rri ^v'hi'jyi Kilicrrcd rri duccri^rsia^ v'tto Kv^kXKov. It stood in the Heraeum at Olympia, was made of cedar-wood, of considerable size, probably ellipti- cal, as Pausanias says nothing of different sides, and Aa^val applied to Deucalion's and other ships entitles us to suppose such a form. The figures were partly wrought out of the wood, partly inlaid with gold and ivory, in five stripes one above another {x'^^°^i)j the first, third and fifth of which Pausanias describes as he went round, from right to left, and the second and fourth from left to right. They contain scenes from the heroic mythi, partly referring to the ancestors of Cypselus who came from Thessaly, comp. §. 65, 3. . Pausanias, who believes the fables told regarding this chest, imagines it to have been made about the 10th Olympiad, and supposes Eumelus to have been the author of the inscrip- tions; but Hercules had here his ordinary accoutrements (Paus. v, 17. ex.) which he did not receive till after the 30th Olympiad, §. 77, 1. On the inscriptions, Volkel Archaeol; Nachlass. i. s. 158.— Heyne uebet den 50 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. Kastcn des Kypselos; eine Vorlesung 1770, Descrizione della Cassa di Cipsclo da Seb. Ciampi. Pisa 1814. Quatrembre-de-Quincy, Jup. Olymp. p. 124. Wclcker's Zeitschrift fiir Gesch. und Ausleg. der Kunst. Th. i. 8. 270 ff. Siebelis, Amalthea ii. s. 257. Thiersch Epochen, s. 169. (1829.) [0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 3. H. Brunn in the Rhein. Mus. v. s. 321. 355 ff.] 58. With regard to articles of metal, such as Hephaestus, the patron of all smiths (x^^XxsTc), manufactured in highest perfection. Homer celebrates cauldrons, goblets, tripods, cups, coats of mail, and shields, as partly of native and partly of foreign workmanship. Besides these there are mentioned a great number of metallic and other shining articles which it was the custom to dispose in such a way as to produce a striking effect. 1. Tripods of Hephaestus, II. xviii, 374, and elsewhere. Nestor's cup with two bottoms and four handles (ovxrx), on which golden doves were fashioned, Asclepiades tts^I Ngo-ro^/So?, Amalthea iii. s. 25. The Cyprian coat of mail (on which were Kvotueoi Z^uKovrsg iqia-atu eoiKorsg), the shield with a Gorgoneion, and the rest of Agamemnon's armour, II. xi, 17 sqq. Shield of ^neas, II. xx, 270. An Egyptian spinning basket, Od. iv, 125. .Sidonian craters, II. xxiii, 743. Od. iv, 616. [Comp. §. 240, 4.] Laerces, a xa.'hx.tvi; and •jc^vao-^iog, gilds the horns of the bulls, Od. iii, 425. 2. Metals. Brass, also iron ( lSa7o/ AaxryAo/ ivQov lu ov^iiyiai vccrrccig ioeurei (ri^Yi^ou, eg 'TTUQ r ijuByKUU kx\ u^iTTQeTrsg s^you sht^ccv, Phoronis), gold, silver, Kot-aain^og (probably tin, Latin! plumbum album, Beckmann, Gesch. der Erfindungen iv. p. 327 sqq.) lead, Kvocvog (a metallic stuff of dark blue colour), rirotvog (gypsum) on the shield of Hercules in Hesiod. Comp. Millin, Mineralogie Homerique, (2 ed. 1816.) p. 65 seq. Kopke, Krieg- swesen der Griechen im Heroischen Zeitalter, p. 39. On the instruments a.Kfio)u (^ccKjxo^STQu), pocKTrvj^, a(pv^», 'Trv^otyqx, the (pOaoti {a,x,^o(pvaiov), ■^(fia.vat. Millin p. 85. Clarac Mus^e de Sculpt, i. p. 6 seq. 59. On one of these works of art, the Hephaestian shield of Achilles, Homer even describes large compositions of nu- merous figures ; but the very extent and copiousness of such re- presentations, and the little regard that is therein had to what is really susceptible of representation, preclude the idea that he describes human works of similar compass, although indeed it must also be admitted that the working of figures of small size on metal plates was a thing not unheard of Here the mode of proceeding could have been no other than this ; the metal, after being softened and hammered into plates, was wrought with sharp instruments, and then fastened to the ground with nails, studs, or the like. 1. Restorations of the shield of Achilles were attempted some time ago by Boivin and Caylus, and more recently by Quatrem^re-de-Quincy, Jupiter Olymp. p. 64, M6ra. de I'lnstitut Royal, t. iv. p. 102. [Recueil de Dissert. 1817.] and Flaxman for a new silver-work. Comp. Welcker Zeitschr. i. p. 553. ad Philostr. p. 631. [Nauwerk, der Schild des Ach. in L WORKS IN METAL. 31 neun Darstell. Berlin 1840. Programme on the same by D. Lucag Em- merich 1842, Marx at Coesfeld 1843, Clemens at Bonn 1844. Comp. II. Brunn in the Rhein. Mus. v. S. 340. On the Hesiodic shield K. Lehrs in Jahns Jahrb. 1840. S. 269 ff.] 2. On the smelting of metal, II. xviii, 468. Hes. Theog. 862 ; comp. Schneider s. v. x^a-'j-n. But works of cast-metal are later as well as the art of soldering. All earlier works were beaten with the hammer {tT(pv^7i7.ccroe), and the joinings effected by mechanical means, lii,7ri7retiafAi'ju. 60. Working in vessels was brought to much perfection after the Homeric times by means of two great inventions ; first that of casting in moulds, which is ascribed to a Samian master Rhoecus, son of Phileas, and his son Theodorus, [not traceable among the Phoenicians, §. 240, 3,] and was no doubt of great advantage to them in the making of craters and other vessels, in which those artists were distinguished. The history of the ancient Samian School of Artists is very difficult even after Thiersch, Epochen p. 181 (who distinguishes two Theodorus and two Telecles), Hirt, Amalth. i. p. 266 (who rejects both distinctions), Meyer Kunstgesch. Anm. p. 26, Sillig in Cat. Art. s. vv. Rhoecus, Telecles, Theodorus, Panofka, Sam. p. 51, with the last of whom what follows most nearly agrees. On this point these testimonies are in accordance with each other, viz. Herod, i, 51. iii, 41, 60. Diodor. 1. 98. Vitruv. Pracf. vii. Plin. vii, 57. xxxiv, 8, 19, 22. xxxv, 12, 43. xxxvi, 13, 19, 3. Pans. iii. 12, 8. viii, 14, 5. x, 38, 3. Amyntas in Athen. xii, 514 F., Diogen. L. ii, 8, 19 ; only that the history of the Ephesian temple §. 80, Rem. 1. will not allow us, with some in Pliny, to place Rhoecus and Theo- dorus long before the 30th Olympiad. The following is the greatest possible extension of the genealogy : Olymp. 35. Rhoecus, son of Phileas, the first architect of the enormous Hera^um (Samos therefore was already very rich and powerful ; it got its first triremes in the 18th Olympiad ; its power seems to have increased particularly about the 30th Olympiad), employed on the Lemnian la- byrinth. Invented metal-casting. I ^ . 01. 45. Theodorus employed on Telecles worked in the Heraeum, as well as on conjunction with the labyrinth. Builder of his brother, the Skias, laid the founda- tions of the Arteraisium at Ephesus. Was the reputed inventor of the norma, li- hella, tornus, clavis. Casts statues from iron. 32 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. 01. 55, TnEODORUS, no longer architect, merely a worker in metals, made for ,• Croesus (between 55th and 58th 01.) a large silver crater, enchased the ring of Poly crates, and made a golden ring which was to be seen in the palace of the Persian kings. Probably to the works of this school belonged even the brazen caul- dron which the Samians on their return from Tartessus dedicated in the Ilerajum about the 37th 01. with the heads of griffins in alto-relievo on the rim, and three kneeling figures seven cubits high as feet. Herod. iv, 152. ■ 61. Secondly. ' By means of the art of soldering (^oXXtjc/c, ferruminatio), i. e. a chemical junction of metals, in which Glaucus of Chios, a contemporary of Halyattes (40, 4 — 55, 1.) and probably a scholar of the Samian brass-caster, acquired fame, and in like manner proved his skill by ingeniously wrought vessels — especially the stand of a crater at Delphi. Of Chios according to Herod. Pans. &c., of Samos according to Steph. Byz. s. V. ABot'hri. See Sillig s. v. Glaucus, with the scholia to Plato, Phajd. p. 108, 18. Bekk. and Heindorf. p. 225. The Ko'h'hYjaig ai^ri(>ov is mentioned in particular as his exclusive invention ; that it is soldering there can be no doubt from the very clear description of the uttok^yityiqiIioi/j Paus. X, 16, 1. But Glaucus was likewise admired for the art of harden- ing and softening iron ((r/Ssj^oy aro/aaaig Kcci y,ccha,'i,ig). Plut. de def. or. 47. comp. Ramshorn de Statuar. in Graecia Multitud. p. 19 sqq. On the art of soldering, Fea on Winckelm. v. 429 Dresden. ' E^/tj^^cto? ic^ciTTjo C. I. i. p. 236. 62. A third handicraft which, on account of the plainness of the vessels which, taken by itself, it produces, has been less noticed than it deserved to be, from its connexion with the plastic art, — is that of pottery, xs^a/xsur/x;?. It flourished as an important trade especially at Corinth, ^gina, Samos, and Athens, Avhere the potters from an early period formed a con- siderable portion of the population. Homer describes (II. xviii, 600,) the potter's wheel, the pretty poem K»fiti/og 5} K£^cAf4,is, the furnace which Athena protects and many hostile demons threaten. T^ox,6s of Talus. The handicraft was early exercised at Corinth (Hyperbius, Dibutades, v. Bockh ad Pind. 01. xiii, 27) ; in iEgina (^ginet. p. 79, also Pollux vii, 197. Hesych. and Phot, s, v. ' Hxcj 'x-erQxix) ; in Samos (Samia terra, vasa, Panofka Sam. p. 16) ; at Athens (Cerameicus, a quarter of the city and suburb) ; Athena, Hephaestus and Prometheus, the patrons of the handicraft. Coroebus was said to have erected the first workshops, and Hyperbius and Euryalus (Agrolas in Paus.), according to Pliny, the first brick- walls ; the earth of Colias was an excellent material ; oil-jars were prizes at the Panathensea, hence the amphora on coins ; the potters' market held especially at the festival of the wine-filling, h ro7s Xov(fi. According to • Scylax p.. 54, Huds. the POTTERY. 33 Phoinicians shipped Attic earthenware as far as Kerne. Comp. Valckc- naer ad Herod, v. 88, and Wien. Jahrb. xxxviii. p. 272). 63. As the potters in these officinw sought to refine their 1 materials, which nature presented to them of excellent quality, and to give them additional beauty by mixing them, especially with ruddle ; so also do we find elegant forms in tlie oldest 2 vases of Greek manufacture, and the skill of the plastes, in the primitive sense of the word, is displayed in the ears, handles, and other parts added at will. On the fine clay mixed with sand which is found in Greece, Due do Luynes De la Poterie Antique. Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 138. Dibutadis in- ventum est, rubricam addere, aut ex rubrica cretam fingere, [Cod. Bam- berg and Isidor. xx, 4, 3, ex rubra creta], Plin. The earth of Cohas made an excellent mixture with f^ly^rog, Suidas s. v. K^yA/aSo? Ks^ufcijig. 4. FORMATIVE ART. 64 The Homeric poems and the mythic accounts which have come to us in other ways agree in this, that no statues were known to early Greece except images of the Gods. And although sculptures adorning vessels and architectural monu- ments soon made their appearance, a round figure standing by itself, and which was not a religious idol, seems to have re- mained for a long time unknown in Greece. 1. The golden handmaids of Hephaestus, the golden torch-bearers, and gold and silver dogs which Hephasstus gave to Alcinous to guard his house, can hardly refer to anything real. [A golden dog in the temenos of Zeus in Crete, Anton. Lib. 36, an imitation of the actual watching of temple gates, for example on Mount Eryx, on the Capitol ; the golden lychnuchi are an imitation of the real, Odyss. vii, 91, the simplest in- vention for candelabra, which is repeated in angels for torch-bearers, by a contemporary of Lor. Ghiberti (Boisseree Gesch. des Doms zu Coin S. 13) and as is said by Mich. Angelo, a very beautiful work in a church at Florence. The candelabrum of very antique style from Vulci, Cab. Pourtales pi. 40. p. 112. is after the same idea.] The passage in the Iliad xviii, 590, is with several ancient interpreters to be understood thus : that Hephaestus formed on the shield a dancing place, an orchestra, similar to that which Daedalus constructed at Cnossus for Ariadne (who according to the Cretan custom danced with youths). This is the funda- mental signification of x<^Q^h comp. II. iii, 394. Od. viii, 260, together with Eust. ; if we adhere to it all difliculties are removed. The later Cretans indeed understood the passage otherwise, Paus. ix, 40 ; also the younger Philostr. 10. [The antique pedestal of Clitias at Florence (Bul- lett. 1845. No. 7.) presents the choir of Daedalus in 7 pairs, certainly according to the meaning of the poet. See Rhein. Mus. ii. S. 484.] 2. The Cyclopean lions on the gate of Mycena) (comp. the legend of the walls of Sardis, Herod, i, 84), are a very remarkable work of architeo- 34 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. tonic sculpture, of green marble, Dodwell ii. p. 239. in a rude indeed, but simple and natural style. Pans, ii, 16, 4. W. Gell Argol. pi. 8—10. D. A. K. pi. 1, 1. Specimens ii, 3. Descr. de la Moree ii, 60. The Egyptian, Klenze Aphorist. Bern. S. 536 similar. Rather pointing to Persia, Phoe- nicia and Lydia. [The green marble is only assumed for the sake of the Egyptian hypothesis, very boldly, for the stone is the same as what was quarried quite in the neighbourhood, only it was carefully selected. See also besides Gottling on the gate of Mycenae in the Rhein. Mus. i. S. 161. W. Mure, Tour in Greece, ii. p. 167 sqq. Annali d. I. archeol. xvii. p. 168. Sufficiently remarkable also is the figure at Sipylos, three leagues from Magnesia, which is hewn out of the rock in alto relievo on a depressed ground, and which was recognised as Niobe by Chishull and given as such by Steuart. PI. i. (§. 241*. R. 3). MacFarlane also, Constantinople in 1828, L.1829. gave a drawing on shadow p. 159, but imagined it to be Cybele, which is a mistake, see Bull. 1843, p. 65. Pausanias visited this Niobe i, 21, 5, and mentions viii, 2, 3. the fable of its weeping in summer, which is even referred to in the Iliad. There is a large cleft in the rocky precipice which is nearly perpendicular, and water issuing from it trickles down upon the figure. It is in a sitting posture, with the hands placed over one another, and the head a little inclined to one side, both suitable to the expression of grief. Mr. Steuart expressly confirms what Pausanias alludes to, viz, that when you go up quite near, you can perceive no trace of the chisel, whereas you can from below, as Mr. MacFarlane states, distinctly see the statue, which is three times the natural size, from a considerable distance, although it is about 200 feet from the ground.] The taste for animal figures and monsters in decoration, manifested itself very early in works of art of the most different kinds. Comp. §. 75, 2; 434, 1. 65. Leaving out of consideration the external circum- stances, dependent on defective technical knowledge, which opposed great obstacles to the development of sculpture, it was the entire character of their fancy, in so far as it occu- pied itself with the life of gods and heroes, which at that period impeded its cultivation among the Greeks. The fancy of the Greeks, such as it presents itself in epic poetry, was still so much busied in depicting the wonderful and gigantic, the conceptions of the gods had yet attained so little sen- sible distinctness, that poetry must have been much better adapted to the representation of them than sculpture. In the plastic art of this period grotesque representations of forms of terror (such as the Gorgoneion) occupied a considerable rank ; by these was art, still in a state of rudeness, first en- abled to excite interest 2. The plastic talent which creates material forms cannot certainly fail to be recognised even as early as Homer : but it was only by means of epic poetry that it was gradually developed. — The forms of the gods are gigantic ; their appearances not unfrequently spectral ; the shapes in which they present themselves cannot in many cases be conceived in a definite manner. The epithets are for the most part less plastic than significant. In the yjs^o(poiTtg ' E^ivv;, in the Harpies floating along in the EARLIEST IDOLS. 35 wind, we must not call up to our imaginations the later forms of art. The deeds likewise of the heroes are often unplastic, above all, those of Achilles. Homer has no touches borrowed from works of art, like later poets. Herein probably lies the cause of the remarkable phenomenon that the sculptures adorning the shield of Achilles and elsewhere in Homer never contain mythic subjects, but such as are taken from civil and rural life (a circumstance overlooked by those who explained the two cities to be Eleusis and Athens), excepting perhaps the two figures of Ares and Athena, altogether of gold, and towering over the people (for Eris and Kudoimos metamorphosed themselves into human shapes). The shield of Hercules, although in part more rudely conceived and more fantastically decorated, yet in many points comes much nearer to actual works of art, especially to the ancient vase paintings, as well as the coffer of Cypselus, as in the dragon-form in the middle, Ker, the battle with the Centaurs, Perseus and the Gorgons, the boars and lions. The further development of what is said respecting the shield of Hercules, I have given in Zimmermann's Zeitschr. f. Alterthumswiss. 1834. N. 110 ff. Comp. §. 345**. R. 5. 3. The Gorgon mask already floated before Homer and Hesiod from sculpture, such as the Cyclopean Gorgoneion at Argos (Pans, ii, 20, 5) to which many representations on ancient coins, vases and reliefs may come pretty near. See Levezow Ueber die Entwickelung des Gorgonen-Ideal. B. 1833. S. 25 f. §. 397, 5, contested by Due de Luynes, Ann. d. Inst, vi. p. 311. Similar in kind was the terrific form of the dragon {iQXKovroi cpofiog) on the shield of Hercules (Hesiod 144), and the lion-headed Pho- bos of Agamemnon's shield on the coffer of Cypselus (Pans, v, 19, 1. comp. II. xi, 37), on which generally a crude symbolism prevailed, as in the lameness of Death and Sleep, the terrific Ker (Pans, v, 19, 1, comp. with Shield 156, 248), and the strange figure of Artemis, §. 363. Eave tiles adorned with Gorgon masks at Selinus and other places. According to Plin. xxxiv, 12, 43, Dibutades was the plastes qui primus personas tegularum extremis imbricibus imposuit, comp. Hirt's Gesch. der Bau- kunst i. S. 227. L. Ross in the Kunstbl. 1836. No. 57. 66. Now, with regard to the image of a deity, it did not 1 by any means from the beginning claim to be a resemblance (iixujv) of the god, but was only a symbolical sign (§. 32) of his presence, for which the piety of old times required so much the less external manifestation, the more it was inwardly filled with belief in that presence; hence nothing is more common than to find rude stones, stone pillars, wooden stakes and the like set up as religious idols. All these things were converted 2 into objects of adoration, less from the form than from the consecration {'Idivffig). If the sign was executed in a more 3 costly and ornamental style in honour of the deity, it was called an a/aX/xa, as were also cauldrons, tripods, and other ornaments of temples. 1. 'Agyoi A^o/ especially in the case of great deities of nature, the 36 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I, Eros of ThespisD, and the Charites at Orchomenus. Paus. ix, 27, 1. 35, 1. comp. vii, 22, 3. "EQf4.xi», heaps of stones, by which, at the same time, the roads were cleaned ; here the simple piety of primitive times attained two objects at once. Eust. on the Od. xvi, 471. Suidas "'E^(/,oi,iov. E. Otto De Diis Via- libus, c. 7. p. 112 sq. Stones sprinkled with oil at the trivice, Theophrast. Char. 16, comp. Casaub. The Zeus x.ctiv'Kara.g in Laconia, Paus. iii, 22. Jupiter lapis as a Roman god of adjuration. The THIRTY PILLARS at Pharas as statues of so many gods, Paus. vii, 22, 3. More on such stone pillars in Zoega, De Obeliscis, p. 225 sqq. In the temple of the Charites at Cyzicus there was a triangular pillar which Athena herself had presented as the first work of art, Jacobs, Anthol. Pal. 1. p. 297. n. 342. Bockh, Expl. Pind. p. 172. Apollo Agyieus kiuv Kuvostl'/is among the Dorians at Delphi and Athens, Dorians i. p. 321. Oxford. It appears on coins of Ambracia, and Apol- lonia and Oricus in Illyria. Millingen, Ancient Coins 1831. pi. 3, 19. 20. D. A. K. 1, 2. 'Ayvisvg according to many belonging to Dionysus. Har- pocr. V. dyvixg. Artemis Patroa, Paus. ii, 9, 6. The stele on the tomb, a ^sarog -Trsr^og, was an clyccT^fc ' Mix, Pind. N. X, 67. The Tropa3on was a (i^irccs A/oV t^ottuiov, Eurip. Welcker Sylloge Epigr. p. 3. Lances as ancient statues of gods (Cseneus Parthenopseus in -^schylus) Justin, xliii, 3. Agamemnon's Skeptron or I6^v worshipped at Chseronea, Paus. ix, 40, 6. In the same way the trident represents Poseidon (Bot- tiger Amalth. ii. S. 310), the xyj^vKehv Hermes; such ayaA,t«fltTi« we must fancy the Koivoliufiiot, in iEschylus' ' Ix.gr. 219. Hera at Argos a Kioyv (Phoronis in Clem. Strom, i. p. 418), and at Samos a (rotvig (Callimachus in Euseb. Prsep. Ev. iii, 8), in like manner Athena at Lindos a T^iioy ihog, that is, an unwrought smooth beam. Ac- cording to Tertullian, Apol. 16. Pallas Attica and Ceres Raria a rudis palus. Dionysus {Tn^iKiovtog) at Thebes a column overgrown with ivy, Clem. Strom, i. p. 348. Sylb. Hermes-Phallus at Cyllene, Paus. vi, 26, 3. Comp. Artemidorus i. 45. Reifi" p. 257. The Dioscuri at Sparta two up- right beams with two pieces of wood across (^okocuo), Plut. De Frat. Am. 1. p. 36. The Icarian Artemis a lignum indolatum, Arnob. Adv. Gentes vi. 11. &c. Comp. below: The Phoenicians §. 240. 2. On the il^via^oti (erecting, entwining with wool, and anointing, together with an oblation or sacrifice) Vandale De oraculis, p. 624. Comp. §. 68, 1. 83, 2. 422, 6. 3. On oiytthf^a Ruhnken ad Timaeum, 2. (Koch Obs. p. 1), Siebelis Paus. 1. p. xli. Barker's Stephan. s. v. 67. In order to place the sign in a closer relation to the deity, single, especially significant, portions were added to it — heads of characteristic form, arms holding attributes, and phalli in the case of the generative gods. In this way originated the herma which long remained the principal work of sculpture in stone. The making of herma pillars {reTqayuvog l^yetala) had perhaps, like the worship of Ilermcs, its home in Arcadia, Paus. viii, 31, 4. 39, 4. 48. 4. CARVED IMAGES. 37 {'Xi^iaaug yizfi ^ rt ra «rp,;5j,«aT/ rovro) (pccivourot! fiot x.^l^itv o/'A^xaStj) ; but was cultivated at an early period by the kindred Athenians (Thuc. vi' 27) from whence Pausan. (i, 24. iv, 33), derives the four-cornered hermae! ' E^/^oy'hvCpslx at Athens the quarter of the workers in stone {htSfo^ooi, Lu- cian's Dream 7). The head wedge-bearded (a(pnuo'7ro}yau, Artemid. ii, 37) ; instead of arms {oLkcSKoij trunci), at the most, projections for suspending garlands (D. A. K. 1, 3) ; the phallus must not be wanting (which the ' E^,uoKQ7rilott Tre^dKoi^ocu, comp. especially Aristoph. Lysist. 1093; Plutarch An Seni 28); a mantle often thrown round (Pans, viii, 39, 4. Diog. Laert. v, 82). They stood on the streets at cross- ways, hence with several heads (for example the three-headed Hermes of Procleides at Ancyle, called by Aristophanes r^i(pa,'Kmg, Philochorus p. 45, Siebelis ; the four- headed one of Telesarchides in the Cerameicus, Eust. ad II. xxiv, 333. Hesych. s. v. 'E^^^c), also as a finger-post with the numbers of the stadia (with the C. I. n. 12. comp. Anthol. Pal. ii. p. 702. Planud. ii, 254). Comp. Sluiter Lect. Andocid. c. 2. p. 32 sq. Gurlitt Archaeol. Schriften, s. 193. 214. below §. 379, 2. A similar manner of representing Dionysus was early introduced, as in the Lesbian Aiov. (pa.'KKviv of olive-wood (Paus. x, 19. Euseb. PraBp. Ev. V, 36. Lobeck Agl. p. 1086). Dionysian hermae §. 383, 3. D. A. K. 1, 5. In this manner was also formed the brazen column of the Amycla^an Apollo with helmeted head and weapons in its hands. We have still to mention the n^a|/S/xst/ ^iod as head images (Gerhard's Bildw. Prodromus S. 64. 107. [Dionysus as a mask head §. 345"^, 3. 383, 3. and in like man- ner other Bacchian daemons, Zoega Bass. 16.] 68. On the other hand the carvers in wood ventured at an 1 early period to make entire images (go'ava), particularly of those deities whose attributes required a complete figure for a basis, such as Pallas. Images of this kind were even in later times regarded as the most sacred; numberless wonderful legends explained often merely their form, for instance the brandished lance, the kneeling posture, the half-closed eyes. Their ap- 2 pearance was frequently odd and ludicrous, particularly from being overloaded with attributes. In the simplest style the 3 feet were not separate, and the eyes were denoted by a streak ; there was afterwards given them a striding attitude with eyes slightly opened. The hands, when they carried nothing, lay close to the body. 1. s,6a,mv Siebelis, Paus. i. p. xlii. '"Elo;, a temple image, a il^vf^iyov (in the stricter sense a sitting one. C. I. i. p. 248. 905). Welcker Sylloge, p. 3. TO Tvig ' K^nvoig Uog Isocr. de antid. 2. 'Elo^oftv Ruhnken ad Tim. p. 93. (KochObs. p. 16). The Trojan palladium, a lu'Tmig according to Apollod. iii, 12, 3, (comp. Diod. Fragm. n. 14. p. 640. AVess.) brandished a lance in the right hand, and held in the left a distaff and spindle. However, the term was in other cases only applied to Pallas armed with the ^gis and raising her shield and spear, such as she always appears at the theft by Diomed, the .outrage on Cassandra and elsewhere (§. 415. D. A. K. 1, 5-7). Particu- larly antique on the vase in R.-Rochette M. I. pi. 60. Comp. 3Iillingen Anc. U^. Mon. Ser. ii. p. 13. At Athens too the image of Athena Polias 38 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. on the acropolis was not called the palladium, but that in the southern part of the city which was reputed to have come from Troy. See ^s- chylus' Eumenides with illustrative essays by the author of this Manual, p. 72. English Trans. Sitting images of Athena were distinguished from it ; there was also in Troy one of this sort according to Iliad vi, 92. Comp. Strab. xiii. p. 601. Eust. on the II. ibid. 2. Comp. the legends of the ludicrous figure of the Delian Leto (Athen. xiv, 614), and the image of Hera ridiculed by the Proetides (Acusilaus in ApoUod. ii, 2, 2), probably that cut out of wild pear-tree by Peirasus (Thiersch. Epochen s. 20). On Daedalus' images Paus. ii, 4: dTOTr^rsQuc. fih rviv oxpiu, i-TrfTr^STrei Is of^ag ri Kctl h^iov rovroig. 3. 2x£Ai7 (TVfAfis/inK^x, cvfA'jro^oe, of the ancient statues Apollod. ibid. JSginet. p. 110; hence the hu(is(iw.caoi, of Daedalus appeared to be alive. Gedike on Plato's Menon, p. 72. Buttmann. — Xs/^g? Trcc^ocnruf/Avxi. Diod. i, 98. x,x^s(,u£vcn Kxl r»7s T'hsvQxlg xsKoTinf^heci iv, 76. — The 6',uf<,ccrct fASfcvKikx, which Daedalus opened (Diod. iv, 76. Suidas s. v. AxtloiT^Qv TTOiTificcrec. Schol. ad Plat. p. 367 Bekk.) are often explained by crimes which the deity did not wish to behold, as the Pallas at Siris, Lycophr. 988. Strab. vi. p. 264, Comp. Plut. Camill. 6. 69. But in these idols the principal thing was, that they gave opportunity for manifold services and attentions of a human description. These wooden figures were washed, po- lished, painted, clothed, and had their hair dressed ; they were decorated with crowns and diadems, necklaces and ear-pen- dants : they had their wardrobe and toilette, and in their whole character had decidedly more resemblance to puppets (mane- quins) than to works of cultivated plastic art. The custom of decking out the gods in this way came from Babylon to Italy. The Capitolian deities had a regular corps of servants for the purpose (Augustin De C. D. vi, 10). The colours of the wooden images were glaring, often significant. Kugler Polychrom. Sculpt. S. 51. Klenze Aphorist. Bemerk. s. 235, painted terracottas of Baron Holier, S. 257. Plut. Qu. Rom. 98. ro ^sX/r/j/ov, ^ roe, ^otXa/a tZv oLyoChi^ctruv kx^a^ov. Dionysus as well as his Bacchantes Hermes and Pan were painted red (Paus. ii, 2, 5. vii, 26, 4. viii, 39, 4. Voss on Virgil ii. p. 514), and Athena Sciras white CA^. ^ki^ocs t^svkyI ;^^/£r«/, Schol. Arist. Wasps 961). At Rome Jupiter was given by the censors miniandits. The countenances often gilt, as the Amyclaean Apollo was with Croesus' gold. Comp. Paus. iii, 10, 10, with Siebelis' remarks. On the draped temple images, Quatremere-de-Quincy, Jup. 01. p. 8 sq. Pallas had the peplos at Troy, Athens, and Tegea (according to coins), Hera at Elis, Asclepius and Hygieia at Titane. Paus. ii, 11, 6. Record regarding the wardrobe of Artemis Brauronia at Athens (01. 107, 4 — 109, 1. (C. I. n. 155. xiTuvot, dfAo^yivQu ttsqI ra I'Sg; — ifcoiriou 7^ivx.6v 'ttcc^x- XoygyeV* TowTO to "hi^iuov 'ihos ccfCTrix^'^' — oi^'Kiyfivov, APTEMIA02 lEPON l'jr/yly^«9rra/, Tre^i tw 'thu to) ccqx,'*'^^ and SO forth. Even in the later period of the emperors purple mantles were hung around statues, Vopisc. Probus 10. Saturninus 9. Libanius i. p. 324. R. Plynteria at Athens was the festival of the washing of Athena's drapery, the 25th of CARVED IMAGER. 3^ Thargelion (nqu^isQyl^oci). Kallynteria the festival of the cleansing, of the statue, on the 19th (comp. Bekker's Anecd. i. p. 270, where K«AAyvrsj^/« is to be inserted). On these occasions were employed the 7^ovr^t%g and TrT.vuTQthg (comp. Alberti ad Hesych. ii. p. 498), and the KecToc'ji'Trm;, Etym. M. AovT^ac of Pallas at Argos only with oil icithout anohuhig and tlie mirror (CaUim. Hymnus 13 sqq, with Spanheim, and du Theil Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxix. p. 327). The 'H^sff/os? were the Aoyr^ofpo'^o; of Hera at Argos (Etym. M., Heysch.), her draping festival was called '^!) appears to have wrought under Procles (140 years after the Trojan war) in Samos, about OL 40 in Lomr,.;- at the 40 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I. Labyrinth with Rhcecus and Theodorus. Images of Hera especially, ^ginet. p. 97. 4. The Hihxhis (Mulciber) also appear to have been an ancient guild of smiths and image-makers at Sicyon, Crete and Rhodes, from whom the weapons and images of the gods are derived (Zeus, Hera, Apollo Telchinus at Rhodes). Pindar alludes to the Dasdalian life of their statues and the evil fame of their sorceries, 01. vii, 50. Comp. Bockh and Dissen. Welcker Prometh. s. 182. Hoeck Greta i. s. 345. Lobeck Aglaoph. p. 1181. All these guilds and races figure not unfrequently in fable as malicious enchanters. Some carved images were also attributed to Epeius of Panopeus (a Minyan city) the master who made the ^ov^uog 'i'TTTrog. — The Samian bro- thers Telecles and Theodorus executed a carved statue of Apollo Pythaeus at Samos of two pieces of wood, as was pretended, apart from each other, whence it was inferred that they wrought by a fixed -Egyptian canon. Diodor. i, 98. 71. In the last century of this period metal statues of the gods made their appearance, — probably not without impulse from Asia Minor, — such as the Zeus of the Daedalid Learchus (§. 70. rem. 2), some few works of the Samian school, but 5 especially the colossal Zeus of beaten gold which was conse- crated at Olympia (about 01. 38) by Cypselus or Periander, and for which the wealthy inhabitants of Corinth were obliged to sacrifice a considerable portion of their property, [if this is not an invented tradition]. 1. There lay a virgin of brass on the tomb of a Phrygian king. Epigr. Homer. 3. Comp. §. 240. — Of the Samian school Pausanias could only discover in brass a statue of Night at Ephesus by Rhoecus, a very rude work, X, 38, 3. 2. The Cypselid work is called Kohoaaog, evf^csyi^yig diuh^toi;, uyocT^fAcc, Tiivg, -jC^vaovg, aCpv^rihetrog, o'Aoffi^vQQg (not plated). The following are particu- larly instructive passages : Strab. viii. p. 353, 378, the authors in Photius and Suidas, s. v. Kv\p£7\.iluu, the Schol. Plat. Phsedx. p. 20, 1. Bekk. Comp. Schneider Epim. ad Xen. Anab. p. 473. 1 72. Images of the gods were also produced in the work- shops of the potters, although less for the service of the tem- ples than for domestic worship and sepulture. Many such, manufactured by Attic workers in clay (cr^jXccrXaSo/), of great simplicity and rudeness, are still found in the tombs at 2 Athens. Figures and reliefs of earth were also made at an early period as ornaments for houses and public porticoes, especially at Corinth and in the Attic Cerameicus. [Stamped silver money was introduced by Pheido §. 98.] 1. n^x/i/o/ ^soi, particularly Hephaestus, Schol. Arist. Birds 436, Juven. X, 132. Attic Sigillaria, Walpole's Memoirs, p. 324. pi. 2. [D. A. K. 1 Tf. 2. n. 15.] Zeus and Hera of Samos, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 1. Comp. BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING. 41 Hirt Gcscli. der. Bild. Kunst bei den Alten, S. 92. Four painted clay figures of Gaea Olynipia in a sajcophagus at Athens. Stackelb. Gniljcr Taf. 8. Similar ones, Kuntsbl. 1836, No. 24. Gerhard Ant. Bildw. 95 — 99. [The shapeless clay figures from Athens and Samos with which may be compared rude little figures of marble from Paros, los, Naxos and Thera, may have come down from the Carians and other anti-IIellenic in- habitants, and partly, judging from their resemblance to the Sardic idols, such as those in Walpole, from the Phoenicians, to whom also point the animal figures of the finer -r/So/ in the tombs of Thera, Melos, &c. Comp. L. Ross on Anaphe in the Schr. der Bair. Akad. Philos. Kl. ii, 2. §. 408.] 2. Tradition of the first clay relief (ry-^ro?) by Dibutades, Plin. xxxv, 43. Protypa, [prostypa] ectypa bas- and haut-reliefs. Chalcosthenes made unburnt statuary (cruda opera, Plin. 45) in the Cerameicus of Athens ; and Pausanias saw there on the roof of the king's hall «y«?i,t*«T« OTrry}; yvjg. i; 3, 1. COmp. 2, 4. 5. BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING. 73. Painting was still later than sculpture in becoming 1 an independent art in Greece, partly because the Grecian worship stood in little need of it. Although Homer several 2 times mentions garments inwoven with figures, he does not 3 however speak of any kind of paintings but " the red-cheeked ships '' and an ivor}^ horse-ornament, which is painted purple by a Maeonian or Carian damsel. For a long time all painting 4 consisted in colouring statues and reliefs of wood and clay. 1. In opposition to Ansaldus, De Sacro ap. Ethnicos Pictar. Tabular. Cultu. Ven. 1753, see Bottiger Archajol. der Mahlerei, S. 119. Empedo- cles of Aphrodite, p. 309. rviv o'iy svasliisacriu dyu.'K^ct.atv VhaaMvng, y^x-Trrols T£ ^miai. Comp. Bockh C. I. ii. p. 663.—Uiuoikss were hung on statues of the gods as votive tablets, ^schyl. ' Ikst. 466, in like manner on sacred trees, Ovid IMet. viii, 744. Comp. Tischbein's Vaseng. i, 42. MiUin Mon. Ined. i, 29. [on wells M. d. I. iv, tv. 18.] Painters of these 7r rs kxi oidx. 88. Excepting these victors in sacred games, statues of individuals were still very rare during this period ; their con- secration always presupposes entirely particular occasions ; the ^aXxovv riva ffrriffai was at first an almost '/5gw/X9i TifM^. This holds true of the statues of the Argives Cleobis and Biton at Delphi, Herod, i, 31, about the 50th 01. ; [of the Bathyllus of Polycrates consecrated in Samos, §. 96. No. 17, if the words qua nihil videor effectius cognovisse, did not raise a suspicion that a false inscription was given to a charming and spirited brazen statue in the Heraeon, executed in later times] ; of the patriots Harmodius and Aristogeiton of Athens (the for- mer were made by Antenor, 67, 4, the latter by Critics, 01. 75, 4. Bockh, C. I. ii. p. 320. 340. Stackelberg Graber, Vign. S. 33. Welcker Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 472. M. Hunter, tab. 9. n. 4 [R. Rochette sur le torse du Belve- dere, p. 29. Suppl. au Catal. des Artistes, p. 204] ; of the Phocian gene- rals in the dreadful war against the Thessalians, works of Aristoraedon, about 01. 74. Paus. x, 1, 4; also of the sUay^cc of the princes of Sparta who fell in battle, Herod, vi, 58. The statue of Hipponax (§. 82) waa anything but an honorary statue, comp. §. 420, 1. Kohler iiber die Ehre der Bildsaulen, Schriften der Miinchner Akademie Bd. vi. b. 67. Hirt, Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1814—15. Hist. CI. s. 6. Bockh, C. L L p. 18 sq, 872 sq. (on the Sigsean Inscription). 54 HISTORY OF «}REEK ART. [Per. II. D. MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES AS CONSECRATED GIFTS {*vx'^7if4.cx,ru). 1 89. Figures or even whole groups, mostly of brass, from the mythi of gods and heroes, were now much more frequent con- 2 secrated gifts. As a reminiscence of the sort of oiFerings which were general in former times (§. 78) statues were occasionally placed under tripods which served as a frame and roof to 3 them. In these dedicatory gifts mythology was employed en- tirely in the same way as in lyric poetry and by iEschylus in the drama — in order to lend a higher significance to the pre- sent. 2. Tripods at Amyclae by Gallon and Gitiadas with goddesses under them, Paus. iii, 18. Comp. Amalthea iii. p. 30 sq. Even the consecrated gifts for the Persian war, and the victories of the Sicilian tyrants over' Carthage were in great part tripods. Ibid. p. 27. 3. The Phocians consecrated the theft of the tripod by Hercules for the victory over the ThessaUans at Parnassus : Leto, Artemis, Apollo on the one side, Hercules, Athena opposite. Here the idea was to represent the Phocians as defenders of the Delphic tripod ; the Thessalian princes were Heraclidae, their war cry Athena Itonia. The masters were Cliionis, Diyllus, and Amyclseus. Herod, viii, 27. Paus. x, 13, 4. comp. x, 1, 4. A victory of Tarentum over the Peucetii was celebrated in a group by Onatas, wherein were Taras and Phalanthus. Paus. x, 13, 5. E. SCULPTURES ON TEMPLES. 1 90. In a similar way were mythological groups chosen as ornaments for temples, — it having become usual to place stone sculptures in the metopes, on the frieze, the pediments and acroteria, — for here also everything bore reference to the deity, the consecrators, and the circumstances of the consecra- 2 tion. Two works of architectonic sculpture mark pretty well the boundaries of this period, — the reliefs in the metopes at 3 Selinus, and the pediment statues of JEgina. Of these the latter are also especially calculated to throw light on that art in regard to the choice and treatment of the mythological subject. 2. The metope tablets of calcareous tufa (4 f. 9| 1. X 3 f. 6| 1.) which were discovered in 1823 on the acropolis of Selinus n ar the middle tem- ple by W. Harris and Sam. Angell, and put together by them, and which are preserved at Palermo, are adorned with reliefs which were painted, and show that the art was still in its infancy (perhaps about the 50th 01.) [or 5 — 10 01. earlier], a. Hercules naked (the lion hide perhaps of gilded bronze) carrying the Cercopes. h. Perseus with the hat {y.wr) of Hermes (comp. the coins of ^nos, Mionnet, Descr. pi. 49, 3) and the talaria, Athena in the peplos. Medusa with Pegasus. The relief with the quadriga from the same place is considerably later as well as the metope- reliefs of the middle temple in the lower town, although these, which SCULPTURES ON TEMPLES. 55 represent a goddess stabbing a hero or giant, and the torso of a dying warrior, especially the latter, are executed in a hard antique style wliich perhaps belongs to the end of this period. Comp. §. 119. Both temples had metopes only on the east front. P. Pisani, Memorie suUe opere di scultura in Selinunte scoperte. Palermo 1823. B. Klenze in the Kunstblatt 1824, No. 8, comp. Nos. 28 39, 69, 78. 1825, No. 45. 1826, No. 98. Bottiger's Amalthea iii. p.'sOT Bqq. Sculptured Metopes discovered among the ruins of Selinus — descr. by S. Angell and Th. Evans 1826. fo. liittorflf, Archit. Ant. de la Sicile pi. 24, 25, 49. (Fr. Inghirami) Osservazioni SuUe Antich. di Selinunte illustr. del. S. P. Pisani 1825. Monum. Etruschi Ser. vi. t. v. 5. Thiersch, Epo- chen p. 404 sqq. pi. 1. (with drawings by Klenze). R. Rochette, Journ. des Sav. 1829. p. 387. Brondsted, Voy. en Grece ii. p. 149, D. A. K. pL 4, 24. 5, 25—27. As to the Metopes on the temple at Pastum (see §. 80. ii, 4), which are related in style to the ^ginetan sculptures, there is but little (Phrixus on the ram) that can be recognised; those at Assos (§. 255, 2) are not yet sufficiently known. 3. The -^ginetan sculptures, discovered by various Germans, Danes and Englishmen (Brondsted, Koes, Cockerell, Foster, von Haller, Linkh, von Stackelberg), have been restored by Thorwaldsen and brought to Munich (Glyptothek n. 55 — 78). They formed two corresponding groups in the tympana of the temple of Minerva (§. 80) of which that to the west is most complete, but the eastern figures are larger and better exe- cuted. Athena leads the combats of the -^acidae or uEginetan heroes against Troy, in the west the combat around the body of Patroclus (ac- cording to others that of Achilles, see Welcker, Rhein. M. iii, 1. p. 50), in the east around Oicles who was slain by the Trojans as the companion in arms of Hercules against Laomedon. Comp. Gott. G. A. 1832. p. 1139. In the east Hercules stands in the same relation to Telamon the Macid — as the archer to the heavy-armed soldier (comp. Pind. L v, 27, also Eurip. Here. Fur. 158), — that Teucrus does to Ajax in the west; the costume and form of Hercules correspond to those on the Thasian coins. As the ^acidas here beat the barbarians of Asia, and rescue their countrymen from great peril, so, more recently they aided in battle at Salamis, according to beKef (Herod, viii, 64, A.), and their descendants, the ^ginetans contributed their assistance in the salvation of Hellas. The Persian archer -costume of Paris, the leathern coat, the curved cap, (fee, point especially to these parallels [?], (Herod, i, 71. v, 49. vii, 61). Vase in antique style, manner, and arming of heroes, among whom there is one very like Paris, Pourtal^s pi. 8, also in Stackelberg's Graber Tf. 10. These groups, therefore, certainly belong to 01. 75 sqq. [?J. There was gilded bronze added to the marble (many holes enable us to guess where the armour was placed) ; the hair also was partly of wire. Traces of colour on weapons, clothes, the eye-balls and the lips, not on the flesh. The disposition of the groups is simple and regular [architec- tonico-symmetrical] ; as to the style of the workmanship §. 92. On the acroteria stood female figures in antique drapery and attitude (Moirae, Nikse, Keres?). Wagner's Bericht iiber die Mgin. Bildw. mit KunstgeschichtL Anm. 56 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II. von Schelling 1817. Hirt in Wolf's Analekten H. iii. p. 167 (where most has been done towards explanation and determination of time). [Comp. Gotting. Anz. 1818. St. 115 if.] Cockerell §. 80. Rem. ii, c. Leake, Morea ii. p. 467. Thiersch, Amalthea i. s. 137 ff. Gothe's Kunst u. Alterthum iu. 8. 116 ff. D. A. K. Tf. 6—8, B. Edw. Lyon, Outlines of the iEgina marbles. Liverpool, 1829. [90* A place beside the statues of ^gina may worthily be given to the reliefs of the earlier large monument of Xan- thus in Lycia, which could not have been erected after the capture of the city by Harpagus, 01. 58, 3, nearly the time when the former were probably produced. For when that event took place, all the Xanthians, not excepting even the absent heads of families, perished (Herod, i, 176) ; and, after- wards, when Lycia became a tributary province, and, although it was intrusted with the government of its cities, which pro- bably formed a confederation even at that time, there was however a Persian agent in the capital, Xanthus, it is very unlikely that so important a monument should have been raised to one of the subjugated. Besides, notwithstanding all the difference of the figures, the antique severity of the style, subdued by a pervading grace, the admirable simplicity and truth and the already acquired certainty and delicacy of execu- tion, give considerable probability to the supposition that the Lydian work was produced nearly at the same time with the other at ^gina; but whether it was by a native school or under the influence of the workshop of Chios, which was much famed at the time, or of the scholars of Dipoenus and Scyllis, is a point which will never be made out. Art at this stage, as we learn from the later Italian, can at the most different points having but slight connection with one an- other, develope from within outwards the wonderful agree- ment which we observe between these Lydo-Grecian works and the Grecian monuments otherwise known to us. How far inferior to this monument are the frieze-pieces from Assos. We are indebted to Sir Charles Fellows for the surprising extension of the history of art by means of Lydian antiquity. For the monu- ments collected by him in that country, where he made this discovery in his first journey in 1838, a large separate building has been erected at the British Museum, to which he presented them. The Xanthian marbles, their acquisition, &c. L. 1843. See engraving of the reliefs in Fellows' Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, L. 1839. p. 231, and a better one in his Account of Discoveries in Lycia, L. 1841. p. 170, repeated in Gerhard's Archaeologische Zeitung 1843. Tf. 4. S. 49. still more improved and corrected. M. d. I. iv. tv. 3. with which we should take in connexion the extremely profound description and ex- planation of E. Braun, Ann. xvi. p. 133. Bull. 1845. p. 14., and in the N. Rhein. Mus. 1844. S. 481—490. comp. Gerhard Archaol. Zeit. 1845. S. 69. This monument, like four others, mostly found in Xanthus itself, is a SCULPTURES ON TEMPLES. 67 quadrangular tower of limestone in a single piece on a base, so that the frieze was above 20 feet from the ground ; over the frieze was a large Bima with abacus upon it. The figures are nearly as on the frieze of the Parthenon, 3 feet 6 in. high, and divided into three white marble tablets on each side ; the east and west sides 8 feet 4 in., the two others not quite BO long. M. d. I. iv. tv. 2. On the western, being the principal side, the frieze is perforated by a small doorway, above which is a cow suckling, as there is a lion over a similar one (Fellows' Asia M. p. 226) ; this door leads into a chamber seven and a half feet high, and is very incon-- venient to enter, and may have been rather destined for pushing in cin- erary urns or for making libation. This arrangement is similar to that on the tomb of Cyrus, §. 245. R. 2. The art, on the other hand, not only seems to be pure Greek on the whole, but the resemblance is still more surprising in particular figures, for instance the enthroned goddesses to the Leucothea Albani, of which, therefore, a cast has been taken and placed beside the sepulchral chamber, and in drapery generally the female figures resemble the goddess ascending the chariot, and the man in arm- our the Aristion on the stele at Athens (§. 96. No. 19). We are therefore the more struck with what is strange and peculiar in the religious ceremonies represented, the gods and their attributes. The compositions on the four sides have evidently a unity of connexion and a close rela- tion to one another. On the side with the entrance we may with great probability recognise Demeter and Cora, the former with a patera, the younger figure with pomegranate and blossoms, together with the three Hora3 or Charites, those in the centre with pomegranate and blossoms, the one behind with an egg ; and as on the three other sides the centre is occupied by three gods enthroned, with sceptres in wide-sleeved gar- ments and mantles, two bearded, the third beardless without being younger, the idea of the three Zeus is naturally suggested (only that in that case, Poseidon is not to be forced out of this relation into particu- lar connexion with Demeter as Phytalmios). However, this supposition is not supported by an animal resembling a bear more than any other, a Triton as an ornament under the arm of the throne, a pomegranate blossom in the hand of the second and pomegranates in both hands of the third. To these three gods a family seems to be dedicating offerings, — the man in armour his helmet, the woman a dove, a child a cock and a pome- granate. This child is on the other broader side which lies opposite to that with the door and the two goddesses, and which has two subordinate standing figures at the one end and one at the other, corresponding to the Horae opposite ; whereas the ends of the two narrower sides are occupied with four very beautiful Harpies carrying off maidens. However appropri- ate and intelligible this secondary subject may be, to which the figures in the principal representation were at first playfully referred in a variety of ways, it is nevertheless diflicult to give a definite and particular ex- planation of the latter from the artistically available details of native Greek mythology and symbolism, which are for the most part scanty in themselves or in their bearings, ambiguous as to time and place, and totally destitute of connexion. With regard to coloured ornaments, besides the blue of the ground, we perceive traces in the red peak of the helmet, and that the fillets of the plinths and on the thrones, which are in lower relief, had been painted. 68 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II. There are in London specimens of far earlier art and in coarser stone from Xanthus, a stele with two lions upon it, several animals from a wall built at the time of the Romans, partly engraved, Lycia, p. 174. Of great antiquity also are pieces of a frieze similar to that of Assos, a bear, a stag, a lion tearing a stag, a satyr running with a branch of a tree ; a narrower frieze with fighting cocks and other birds, four winged sphinxes from a tomb, and a couchant sphinx of perfect workmanship in the severe style, &c. The lion and bull are prevailing subjects in Lycian sculpture (Lycia, p. 173), and lions are said to inhabit still the Lycian mountains (p. 182). All the monuments in the new Lycian Museum are from Xan- thus ; Sir Charles Fellows has only brought with him drawings and a few casts from other cities, Tlos, Telmessus, Pinara, Myra, Kadyanda.] F. STYLE OF THE FORMATIVE ART. 91. Although when we take into account the widely dif- fused cu'tivation of art, the difference in character of the Doric and Ionic races, and the want of a central point, it is not to be expected that art in a time of such intense striving should everywhere have advanced in the same way ; we can still observe, however, certain general changes which neces- sarily arose in the progressive development of Hellenic art. They consist chiefly in this, that the forms passed over from their original poverty and rudeness in characterizing into an exuberance of expression, directed on the one hand to the exhibition of strength, energy and activity, and on the other to the display of elegance which at this period had to supply the want of grace. The sculptures to which this tendency gave rise are said to be executed in " the old Greek style,'' in- stead of which they were formerly always miscalled Etruscan. 3. After Winckelmann Lanzi perceived still more clearly the true relation of these styles. — L. Lanzi, Notizie della Scultura degh antichi e dei vari suoi stili (Sec. ed. 1824. German by Lange, L. 1816), c. 2 dello £tilo Etrusco. [Zoega Bassir. ii. p. 57 ; de ObeL p. 222, who first ap- plied to them the term of hieratic] 1 ^ 92. The forms of the body in these sculptures are exces- sively muscular, the joints and sinews extremely prominent, 2 whereby all the contours are rendered hard and sharp. This hardness was manifested in a high degree by Gallon, less al- ready by Canachus, but too much sharpness in the delinea- tion of the muscles was even still objected to the style of the 3 Attic masters about the 75th Olympiad. However, this very severity of design led to that fidelity to nature which is in most particulars so much admired in the jEgina marbles. 4 With this force of design are usually combined short and com- pact proportions, although an excessive lengthening of the figures is not unseldom to be found, more however in paint- 5 ings than sculptures. The gestures have often something STYLE OF THE FORMATIVE ART. 69- violent (a tendency which was very much favoured by the fre- quent representation of mythological battle scenes), but even where there is great animation there is still a certain stiff- ness, something abrupt and angular. 2. Duriora et Tuscanicis proxima Gallon atque Hegesias, Quintil. Inst, xii, 10. Canachi rigidiora quam ut imitentur veritatem, Cic. Brut. 18, 70. 07oc roc TTig nrcCKoucti; i^yxaiots earl 'Hymcriov jcocl rau clf^(pi K^nluv Tou mwiurri'j, d,'77ia(pi'yy.kvcc (adstricta) x.a.\ vsvqcj^-^ kocI cxXyj^a koci oLkpi^u^ dTrcnnrx^kyoe, rotlg yqctf/^j^oug. Lucian Praec. Rhet. 9. Demetr. De Elocut. §. 14, says that the earlier rhetorical style was unperiodic, but 'T^i^n^ia- f/>iuog, like the ancient dyoiT^f^ura,, whose ri^v/i was avaroK'^ kxi lax^cnng. 3. With such a truth to nature as excites our wonder, there are united in the jEgina marbles many singularities, such as the prominence given to the cartilage of the breast, the peculiar intersection of the mus- culus rectus, and the peaked form of the knee which is also much bent. Wagner (§. 90.) p. 96. The Hermes dyopulog erected about the 64th Olym- piad seems to have possessed equal merit as regards fidelity to nature, and was even in the time of Lucian (Zeus Tragod. 33) a study for brass- casters. Wiener Jahrb. xxxviii. p. 282. 4. Short proportions, especially in the Selinuntine metopes (the draw- ing of which is also determined by the endeavour to exhibit every part of the body in the greatest possible breadth). In the -^Egina marbles the heads, especially in the lower parts, are large, the breast long and broad, the waist short in proportion, and the thighs short compared with the legs. Other examples of short proportions §. 96. No. 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 16, 19. Comp. §. 99. No. 1, 2, 3, 6. Examples of slender proportions §. 96. No. 20, 21, 23. Comp. §. 99. No. 4, 5, also 9, 10. 93. But that antique love of elegance is shown in the 1 neatly and regularly folded drapery (comp. §. 69) ; the curi- ously braided or wire -like curling and symmetrically ar- 2 ranged hair ; then in the peculiar mode of holding the finger, 3 which always recurs in the grasping of sceptres, staffs and the like, and also, with female figures, in tucking up the garments ; in the buoyant method of walking on the fore part of the 4 foot, and numerous other particularities. Of a kindred nature 5 is the demand for parallelism and symmetry in the grouping of a number of figures. 1. See §. 96. No. 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 16, 17. Besides the stiffened and flat- tened temple-drapery the taste of the age for elegant and many-folded garments must be taken into account. It prevailed chiefly in Ionia, and went out at Athens with the time of Pericles. Tirriyo(p6^o{, «?;)c«/V axwotrt Xa^u'TrQoL The author's Minervae Poliadis aedis, p. 41. 2. So in the ^gina marbles (even in the pubes), comp. §. 96. No. 1, 7, 12, 14, 16. 17. This also was derived from the custom of higher and more polished life at that time, and which was especially observed and maintained at festivals. Asius ap. Athen. xii, 525 F. Bxli^stu ' U^cciop i^TriTrXiy/iCivou. ' ABnux TrxQccTTi'^'hiyf^ivri. Pollux 11, 35. ea HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Pee. II. 3. See No. 14, 15, 16, 17, 21. They worshipped primore digito in erectum pollicem residente, Appul. Met. iv. p. 90, Bip. Offering-boxes, incense, &c. were presented with three fingers. Aristoph. Vesp. 95. Porphyr. de abstin. ii, 15. Ovid. P. ii, 573. Lactant. Inst, v, 19. 94. There prevail in old Greek art certain fundamental forms in the shape of the head which had their origin partly in the ancient imperfection of art, partly in a degraded con- ception of the national features, and which, by frequent appli- cation in famous schools of art, almost attained a typical con- sideration, and hence were even adhered to when art had already made great advancement in the drawing of the rest of the body. To these belong on the whole a retreating fore- head, peaked nose, the mouth drawn in with the corners turned up, flat elongated eyes, prominent angular chin, lank cheeks, and high ears.^ 1. Vultum ab antiquo rigore variare, was Polygnotus' merit in paint- ing. Plin. XXXV, 35. 2. Comp. the Apollo of Canachus §. 86 with the statues of jJlgina, and §. 96. No. 5, 12, 13, 14, 16, together with the coins §. 98. 95. The peculiarity of the -ffiginetan style, judging from the- allusions in ancient authors and the character of the works preserved (§. 90, 3, and 96. No. 3), seems to have con- sisted partly in a rigid adherence to the Antique, partly in a very accurate and studious imitation of nature, and therefore (conformably with the character of the Doric race), in a very conscientious, but certainly not a free manner of exercising art. T^oVo? T^f Iqyetaiecg 6 AlyiuaTiog, 'Tt'ha.ar ix,Vi 7] Alyivociu, and the like. Paus. i, 42. ii, 30. vii, 5. viii, 53. x, 36, 3. who accurately distinguishes therefrom rau ' Am Koju roi a,^y^oi,ivrot,ra(., as well as the Kiyv'Trriu, vii, 5. Hesych. AiyivynriKec 'i^yet roitg ffvfc/5elin)c6rxg (comp. §. 68, Rem. 3) ocvlQixurocg. G. REMAINS OP THE PLASTIC ART (d. A. K. PL. 9 — 14.) 96. It is difficult to point out accurately the remains of the old Greek style, for this reason that, keeping altogether out of view its long continuance in Etruria, even in Greece consecrated gifts for temples were at all times intentionally executed in a stiiF and over-ornate style. This is called the hieratic or archaistic style. No wooden statues of this period have been preserved, and as to sculptures in metal, besides the analogous works in Etruria, nothing has come down to us but one very stiff antique figure in bronze. No. 1. This figure served as the foot oi a vessel. Inscription (C. I. n. 6) : YloT^vKQscreg xvt^iKs. [It is very bold to understand here the famous Samian.] In Paciaudi, Mon. Pelop. ii. p. 61. Collectio Antiq. Mus. Nan. x^iilMAlNS OF THE PLASTIC ART. .61 n. 29, 276. Its genuineness is doubted by Count Clarac, M61angc8 d'An- tiq. p. 24. Panofka Cab. Pourtal^s pi. 13. p. 42. The excellent bronzo figure of which an account is given §. 422. R. 7. must also be mentioned here as a chef d'oeuvre of an early Peloponnesian school of art. 2. The Lampadephorus a master- work of early Peloponnesian schools §. 422. R. 7. ' 3. Early Greek bronze in Tubingen about 6 in. high, see Griineisen in the Kunstbl. 1835. No. 6 sqq. also publ. separately 8vo. The style .^ginetan, the features however more natural, the figure also more slen- der. The s^sT^acala. of Amphiaraus ? Pandarus according to Thiersch, but evidently a charioteer, urging and at the same time restraining. 4. Bronze Minerva from Besan§on, hieratic, the head fine, pieces de rapport of silver. j^ 5. Centaurs in bronze §. 389. R. 2. There was an ancient species of working in the same ma- terial — engraTed designs — of which very antique specimens, and an excellent monument from the ^ginetic school, have been preserved. 6. Graffiio in bronze, a stag torn in pieces by two lions, in a very old style. To be regarded as an example of many similar works in elder Greece. Gerhard, Ant. Bildwerke Cent. I. Tf. 80, 1. 7. Very thin bronze plate with embossed figures, very antique, the eyes of little balls, five men, four women ; I explain them to be Argo- nauts and Lemnian women. Cab. Pourtal^s, vignette. 8. A Bronze Discus from ^gina with two figures referable to the Pentathlon, a leaper with leaping-weights and a javelin-thrower (with the dyKv'Karou djcovriov), very natural and careful in design. E. Wolf. Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 75. tv. B. The stone statues of the old style which are best known, be- sides those which have been already mentioned §. 86, 90, might be classified according to their style, somewhat in this way. 9. Apollo, a colossus, first executed. Ross in the Kunstbl. 1836, No. 12, similar smaller statue at Thera, Ross Kunstbl. 1836, No 18. [His Inselreise i. s. 34. 81.] small curls of stone, tresses on the shoulders, breast full and broad, athletic, striding somewhat with the left leg, as in the colossus of Naxos, and the fragments of the Delian [are these latter sufficient to deter- mine this ? The Theraeic Apollo, one of the most remarkable monuments of early antiquity, now in the Theseion at Athens, engraved in A. Scholl's Mittheilungen Tf. iv, 8, cf. Schneidewin's Philologus i. s. 344. Not less important the statue of the sedent Athena on the acropolis, A. Scholl Tf. i. with which a smaller supplementing one also on the acropolis cor- responds. Cf. BuU. 1842. p. 186.] 10. Statues in the sacred way of the Branchidae. Notwithstanding their extreme simplicity and rudeness they come down, according to the inscriptions,. as far as the 80th Olympiad. Ionian Antiq. T. 1. new ed. Amalthea iii, 40. C. I. n. 39, and p. xxvi. 62 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II. 11. Pallas of the Villa Albani. Winckelm. Mon. Ined. P. I. p. 18, n. 17. Werke vii. Tf. 4. 12. Penelope in the Pio-Clementino Museum and Chiaramonti pub- lished by Thiersch, Kunstblatt 1824. p. 68 sqq. Epochen p. 426, and R. Rochette, Mon. Ined. pi. 32, 1. 33, 3. comp. p. 102, 420. The beautiful terracotta with four figures Canina Tusculo tv. 3. 13. The Dresden Pallas (no. 150). 'Ei/ -r^o/SoxJ?. Imitation of a draped wooden statue with reference to the Panathenaic peplos (on whicli Bockh Tragic. Princ. p. 192, the author's Minervse Poliadis aedis, p. 26). The relief, which represents the battle of the giants wrought in embroi- dery, is with good reason considered to be in the improved style. Au- gusteum 9, 10. Bottiger's Andeutungen, p. 57. Schorn, Amalthea ii. 8. 207. Meyer's Gesch. Tf. 5. A. 14. Herculanean PaUas in the hieratic style, gilt and painted. Mil- lingen, Un. Mon. Ser. i. pi. 7. p. 13. comp. §. 368, 5. "^ 15. Artemis from Pompeii in a similar style, tending to the Etruscan taste, of Luna marble and painted 4 palmi high. Winckelm. W. v. s. 20, 44, 200. M. Borbon. ii. tv. 8. comp. §. 363. 16. Among the archaistic statues of Apollo there is one particularly worthy of notice in the Chiaramonti Museum (^K^vfio; of Argos?). Gerhard, Ant. Bildwerke i. Tf. 11. 17. Giustiniani Vesta, remarkable for its columnar figure, and flute- like folds, probably conditioned by architectonic purposes. It is doubt- ful if it came from Athens. Raccolta 87. Winckelm. W. vii. Tf. 4. Hirt, Gesch. der Bild. Kunst, s. 125. Thiersch, Epochen, s. 134. There are different figures allied to the Giustiniani Vesta by short proportions, large heads, rectilinear folds of the double chiton, and a peculiar inter- mediate stage between antique austerity and naive grace ; they all seem to represent Attic maidens in procession, or costuming themselves there- for, especially in the Herculanean bronze figures, M. Borb. ii, 4 — 7, and the others put in juxtaposition with these, §. 422, R. 7, The reliefs in stone may be arranged somewliat as follows (it must, however, be remarked that only a few can with cer- tainty be assigned to the period whose style they nearly represent). 18. Samothracian relief with Agamemnon, Talthybius and Epeius. From a judgment-seat, according to Stackelberg, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 220. After the 70th 01. (on account of the n, C. I. n. 40. Clarac, Melanges, p. 19), but executed in a very ancient manner. Tischbein u. Schorn's Ho- mer nach Antiken, H. ix. Tf. 1. Millingen, Un. Mon. Ser. ii. pi. 1. Am- althea iii. 8. 35. Clarac, M. de Sculpt, pi. 116. Comp. Volkel's Nach- lass, 8. 171. 19. The so-called relief of Leucothea ; a mother presenting her child to a child-fostering deity {KQv^oT^6(pog ^ia). Winck. Mon. In. I. i. p. 67. n. 56. Zoega Bassir. 1. tv. 41. Winckelm. W. iii. Tf. 3. Comp. Panof ka, Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 217 (Birth of Hera). [The stele of Aristion t^yov ' A^iaroKhiovg, excellent figure of a Marathonomachos with traces of colours in the Theseion ' V.(piiAtoig d^^uioT^oy. Tv. 75. i. p. 127 sq. N. REMAINS OF THE PLASTIC ART. G3 Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 4. Tf. 1, Scholl Mittheil. Tf. 1. In Schmi. Tf. 2, 4. there is also the large relief on the acropolis of a female figure ascending a chariot, in which grace is remarkably combined with antiqueness. The bas-relief Despuiges §. 364. R. 8 is far more antique. 20. Theft of the Tripod — a subject early cultivated (§. 89. Rem. 3), probably much employed at the consecration of tripods, which very often occurred at Delphi, Thebes and Athens. The base at Dresden, n. 99 (August. 5 — 7), can be best explained as the stand of a tripod which was won as a prize in an dyuu 'Kotfc'Trcx.oovx.o;- The reliefs in Paciaudi, Mon. Pelop. i. p. 114 (from Laconia), carry us back to the same original Mon. du. M. Napol. ii. pi. 35 (in the Louvre, n. 168. Clarac, pi. 119), Zo- ega ii. tv. 66 (Villa Albani). The subject was already treated in ancient vase-pictures in a more free and lively manner. Comp. especially Fr. Passow in Bottiger's Archaol. und Kunst, i. s. 125. [In one only; only in one relief also on a sarcophagus at Cologne, Verein der Alterthuras- freunde. Bonn 1845. vii. s. 94. where 46 monuments are collected, to which others also will be added.] 21. Reconciliation of Hercules, before whom advances Athena, and whom Alcmena (?) follows, with the deities of Delphi, who are followed by Hermes and the Charites as the deities of peace and friendship, from the well of a Corinthian temple (z-g^/ffro.w/oi/, puteal sigillatum) in the possession of Lord Guilford. DodweU, Alcuni Bassir. 2 — 4. Tour ii. p. 201, comp. Leake, Morea iii. p. 246. Gerhard, Ant. Bildwerke i. Tf 14 — 16 (Procession of the new-born Aphrodite to Olympus, also Welcker, Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 328). Panofka, Ann. ii. tv. F. p. 145 (Marriage of Hercules and Hebe). — This Corinthian relief treated in greatest detail by K. W. Bouterweck in Schorn's Kunstblatt, 1833, Nos. 9&— 99, who also endeavours to prove that it represents the introduction of Hercules to Olympus and his marriage with Hebe. [The author repeats the above explanation in the Dorians i. 431 and D. A. K. xi, 42, Gerhard his in the text to the Ant. Bildw. 2 Lief. 1844. s. 194—207. E. Braun also takes the representation to be a marriage scene, but as Her. and Hebe, in his Tages s. 10, and 0. Jahn agrees with him. Archaol. Aufs. s. 108. 1 10 — 1 13.] 22. Altar of the Twelve Gods from the Villa Borghese in the Louvre, No. 378, an excellent work nobly conceived, and executed with extreme care and industry. Beneath the twelve deities are the Charites, Horae, and Moerae. Perhaps an imitation of the l5o)iu,6; ^uIskx BeZv of the Pisis- tratidae about the 64th Olympiad. Visconti, Mon. Gabini, tv. agg. a. b. c. Winckehn. W. iii. Tf. 7, 8. M. Bouill. iii, 66. Clarac, pi. 173, 174. Similar groupings: the Capitolian puteal with twelve deities, Winck- ehn. Mon. In. no. 5. M. Cap. iv. tb. 22. Winckel. W. iii. Tf. 4 ; the ara tonda of the Capitol with Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, M. Cap. iv. tb. 5G. Winckelm. W. iii. Tf. 5 ; another from the Mus. of Cavaceppi with Zeus, Athena, Hera, Welcker's Zeitschrift i, ii. Tf. 3. n. 11. Comp. Zoega, Bassir. ii. tv. 100, 101. 23. Anathermta for victories in musical games in the most ornate hieratic style. Apollo, frequently accompanied by Leto and Artemis, as Pythian singers to the cithern, making libation after the victory ; a god- dess of victory pouring out. Zoega, Bassir. ii. tv. 99 ; Mon. du M. Na- pol. iv. pi. 7, 9, 10 (Clarac, pi. 120, 122); Marbles of the Brit. Mus. ii. 64 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II. pi. 13. Fragment from the Elgin Collection in the Brit. M. R. xv. 103 ; from Capri in Hadrava, tv. 4. As a frieze ornament in terracotta, Brit. M. no. 18. — Apollo in the same costume singing a pa^an to the cithern, whose cords he grasps with the left {-^xKhii), and strikes at the same time with the plectron in the right (k^Uu) Mon. du M. Napol. iv. pi. 8 ; quite like the Samian bronze statue of Bathyllus in the costume of Apollo. Appul. Florid, p. 128. Bip. Anacreont. 29, 43. — Comp. Welcker, Ann. d. Inst. V. p. 147. [§. 361, 4.] 24. Sacrifice for a victory to Athena-Polias, who is clearly recognised by the guardian-serpent, oUov^og 6(pig, in several reliefs, which — with a not unfrequent extension of the original signification — were placed on the cippi of warriors. Mon. du M. Napol. iv. pi. 11. Amalthea iii. s. 48. Comp. R. Rochette, Mon. In. i. p. 288, 426. Welcker, Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 162. This representation also on a marble discus M. Borbon. x. 11. The stele has the aphlaston. [Avellino Casa di Pompeji 1840, tav. 4. p. 67 — 80 where the Salaminian victory of Ajax is indicated. Comp. Annali d. Inst. V. p. 162. R. Rochette Mon. Ined. p. 228. 426.] The following reliefs in particular may serve to present more clearly to view the transition from the old-Greek style to the improved style of the following period. 25. Hercules kneeling on the hind {Tcaurcx, viv^cohn). Combe, Marbles of the Brit. M. ii. pi. 7. Specimens, pi. 11. The posture also remained nearly the same in later art. See Anthol, Pal. ii. p. 653. Plan. 96. [The fine group found in Pomp, published by Gaet. d'Ancora, N. 1805. 4to. and in the M. d. I. iv, 6. with a similar one in marble, Annali xvi.p. 175 by H, Keil] 26. Castor as horse-tamer with the Castorian dog from the Tibur- tine Villa of Hadrian. Combe ii. pi. 6. Specimens, pi. 14. 27. Festal procession of a Satyr and three Maenads, in the ancient solemnity of style. Inscription : }LuXKt[/,cfx,og I'Troui. M. Cap. iv. tb. 43. 28. Cippus with the figure of the deceased (as a vxiag) leaning upon a staff, giving a grasshopper to a dog, near Orchomenos. Clarke, Travels iii. p. 148. Dodwell, Tour i. p. 243. The figure in a relief at Naples from the grave of a Campanian named Meddix (according to the inscription) [The inscription does not belong to the stele, and is now even separated from it] is very similar, only it is clad in a shorter dress, and has an oil- vessel (A^xy^o?) suspended from the wrist as a symbol of gymnastics. R. Rochette, Mon. Ined. i. pi. 63. p. 251. Odysseus with the dog Argos ac- cording to Welcker (as weU as R. Rochette and the Catal. del Mus. Bor- bon.) Rhein. Mus. iii, 4. s. 611 [which is however an error. Mus. Borbon. xiv, 10]. Works of the hieratic style also in terracotta are much more common, and are undoubtedly genuine works of this period. 29. Those relief -figures are genuine antiques which were found at Mclos, without a ground, probably from a votive shield, representing Perseus as slayer of the Gorgon, and Bellerophon as vanquisher of the ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES. 65 Chimaera. Millingen, Un. Mon. Ser. ii. pi. 2, 3. [Also Alcacus and Sap- pho in the Brit. Mus. still unpublished.] 30. Terracotta relief from ^gina, the Hyperborean Artemis riding with Eros in a chariot drawn by griffins. Welcker, Mon. In. d. Inst. tv. 18 b. Ann. ii. p. 65. THE ART OF ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES. 97. The arts of engraving precious stones and coin-stamps l gradually arose, as smaller and less regarded ramifications of the plastic art, into which life did not until late extend from the main branches. Both served as their first object the purposes of economy and traffic. The art of stone-engraving was occu- 2 pied with signet-rings, s^eayTdzc, the demand for which was increased by the ancient practice of sealing up stores and trea- sures, but was also partly satisfied by metal or even wooden 3 seals with devices of no significance. However, the art of working in hard and precious stones at a very early period advanced, after the example of the Phoenicio- Babylonian stone-cutters (§. 238, 240), from a rude cutting out of round holes to the careful engraving of entire figures in antique se- vere style. 2. Regarding the sealing of rxf^,ie7», Bottiger, Kunstmythol. S. 272. and elsewhere. On the old metal signet-rings, Atejus Capito ap. Macrob. Sat. vii, 13. Plin. xxxiii, 4. On the B^iTro/S^aroi, S^/Tr^B^tn-o/ (in part ac- tually made from worm-eaten wood, and partly seals in imitation of it), see Salmas. Exc. Plin. p. 653. b. It is doubtful whether the ring of Po- lycrates was engraved. Strab. xiv. p. 638 ; Pans, viii, 14, 5. Clemens Protr. iii. p. 247. Sylb. for the affirmative. Plin. xxxvii, 4 distinctly op- posed to that opinion : comp. Herod, iii, 41, o-fp^/jyi? jc^vco'Ssto? afzu^xylou T^l^ov ; Theodoras certainly did nothing more than eiichase it [si fabula vera]. According to Diog. Laert. i, 2, §. 57, it was a law of Solon : S««- TyA/oyXy(p«j ^^ \%iivcti a(p^oc'/7^u (pv'ha.miv rov 'Tr^ot^evTog Zocktv'Xiov. The same writer, according to Hermippus, called the father of Pythagoras a §i56xryA;oyAy(pos- (viii, 1). 3. On Scarabsei (§. 175. 230, 2) with figures, which almost entirely consist of round rudely formed holes placed close to one another, Meyer, Kunstgesch. i. s. 10. Tf. 1. An excellent collection, partly of this sort and partly of ancient and careful workmanship, but chiefly Etruscan, is furnished in the Impronti Gemmarii d. Inst. Cent. i. 1 — 50. iii, 1—55. See besides, Lippert, Dactyl. Scr. i. P. ii. n. 79, 496. ii, 1, 431. ii, 103. MiUin, Pierres Gravees Ined. 6, 7, 13, 25, 26, 50, 51. Specimens, p. Ixxxi. Comp. Lessing, Antiq. Briefe Th. i. s. 155. Facius, Miscellaneen zur Gesch. der Kunst. im Alterthum, iv, 2. s. 62 (where also are noticed the pretended rT(pQ»y7hs of mythology). Gurlitt, iiber die Gemmenkundc, Archseol. Schriften, s. 97 ff. Hirt, Amalthea ii. s. 12. D. A. K. Tf. 15. 98. Coined silver money had even about the 8th Olym- piad taken the place of the bar-monev formerly used. It was E C6 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II. introduced by the Argive king Pheido, and iEgina became 2 the first officina of coining. But for a long time they Avere satisfied with the simplest devices on the convex obverse of the coins, with rudely indicated tortoises (in ^gina), shields (in Bccotia), bees (at Ephesus), and the like. On the flat re-- verse remained the impression of a projection {quadratum in- cusum) by which the coin was held fast while receiving the 3 stamp. The heads of gods and complete figures first made their appearance at this period ; and the depressed fields of the reverse became gradually filled with representations more and more ingenious; different schools of coining were devel- oped, as in the characteristically but not elegantly designed numi incusi (with raised and at the same time depressed figures) of Lower Italy, and the coins of Macedonia and Chal- cidice which were executed in a very sharp style and with much delicacy of detail 1. On Pheido and the ancient ^gina standard of money, the author's ^ginet. p. 51, 88. [Bockh's Metrologie s. 76.] 2. The most unshapely yX^civia, of -^Egina (in Mionnet's Empreintes, n. 616 sqq.) certainly reach very far back. Many of the Corinthian coins with the Pegasus and Koppa, and the Boeotian with the shield approach the same epoch. Levezow iiber mehrere im Grossherz. Posen gef. uralte Griech. Munzen, B. 1834. 3. On the Attic coins in place of the rude Gorgoneion (comp. Cou- sinery, Voy. de la Maced. ii. p. 119. pi. 4) came the head of Minerva with the antique and bizarre profile (jMionnet, Descr. pi. 41, 50, 54. Empr. 603, 4, 5), and the owl on the reverse, a type which continued for a long time. Coins of Athens in the imperial cabinet of coins, Weiner Jahrb. 1838. Ixxxii. s. 28. — The numi incusi (comp. Stieglitz, Archaeol. Unter- haltungen ii. s. 54) of Sybaris, Siris, Poseidonia, Pandosia, Taras, Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, Pyxoeis, extend from about the 60th to the 80th 01. (Sybaris destroyed, 67, 3. Pyxoeis founded 77, 2. Siris conquered about 50, but Sirites continued to exist). Mionnet, Descr. pi. 58 — 60. MicaU, Italia tv. 58, 60. MiUin, Mag. Encycl. 1814. T. ii. p. 327.— Coins of Rhegium and Messana with the hare, and mules in harness (Mionnet, pi. 61, 5. Combe, M. Brit. tb. 3, 27), are of the time of Anaxilas (70 — 76). Aristot. in Pollux v, 12, 75; others of Messana have the types of the Samians who had settled there (70, 4). Gott. G. A. 1830. s. 380. Elegantly executed old coins of Syracuse and Gela. [Coins with the head of Theron, probably after 01. 77 ; Visconti Iconogr. Gr. A. ii. p. 6 sq.] — The coins of Alexander I. (OL 70 to 79) which were imitated by the BisaltsB, are in a severe but very excellent style of art ; the old style appears very elegant on the coins of Acanthus, also of Mende. Lion and bull on coins of Acanthos explained from Herod, vii, 125. by Pinder, p. 20. But the lion there only attacks camels. The Thasian coins (0A) with the satyr embracing the nymph (on others probably also from thence the satyr pursues the nymph) exhibit the art advancing from coarse caricature (comp. §. 75*) to the cultivation of elegant forms. At Lete in Mygdonia and Orrhescos in the same country these and other antique coins were PAINTING. C7 '.mitated in barbarian workmanship (with a centaur instead of the satyr). Mionnet, Descr. pi. 40, 44, 50. Suppl. ii. p. 545. iii. pi. 6, 8. Cadalvbne Recueil de ISIed. p. 76. Cousinery, Voy. dans la Maced. T. i. pi. 6 7. Comp. Gott. G. A. 1833. s. 1270. — The figures of animals and moiutra especially are also often very antique on the old gold staters of Asia Minor of Phocaea, Clazomenae, Samos, Lampsacus, Cyzicus. (The combination of lion and bull on the Samian staters reminds one of oriental conjunc- tions.) See Sestini, Descr. degli Stateri antichi. Firenze 1817, and in particular Mionnet, Suppl. v. pi. 2, 3. Comp. besides Stieglitz, Versuch einer Einrichtung antiker Miinzsammlungen zur Erlauterung der Ge- schichte der Kunst. Leipz. 1809. D. A. K. Tf. 16, 17. 4. PAINTING. 99. At this period the art of painting, by means of Cimon 1 of Cleonae and others, made such progress, especially in the perspective treatment of subjects, as enabled it to appear in great perfection at the very beginning of the next period. Vase-painting, which had been introduced into Italy and 2 Sicily from its two metropolises Corinth and Athens, remained more restricted in its resources, so that the works especially of the Chalcidian Greeks in Lower Italy took Attic models as their ground-work both in subjects and forms. In the now 3 prevailing species with black figures on reddish-yellow clay were exhibited all the peculiarities of the old style: excessive prominence of the chief muscles and joints, stiffly adhering or regularly folded drapery, constrained postures or abrupt movements of the body ; — but at the same time, owing to the facility of exercising this art, there were a great variety of manners belonging to particular places of manufacture, often with an intentional striving at the bizarre. 1. Cimon of Cleonae, PKn. xxxv, 34. Ml. V. H. viii, 8 (on the con- trary we must read MiKau, [who improved on the invention of Eumarus '§. 74] in Simonides, Anthol. Pal. ix. 758, also perhaps App. T. ii. p. 648), invented catagrapha, obliquce imagines^ i. e. oblique views of figures, from the side, from above, from below ; and stimulated to more exact details in the body and drapery. That was a great picture which was dedicated by the architect Mandrocles in the Heraeum — ^the bridge over the Bos- porus and the passage of Darius (Herod, iv. 88). Pictures in Phocaea about the 60th 01. Herod, i, 164. Mimnes mentioned by Hipponax 01. 60, painted triremes [Aglaophon in Thasos, father and master of Polyg- notus and Aristophon.] 2. It is proper to refer here to the question as to whether the great mass of the vases of Volci (respecting their discovery §. 257), which probably belong to the time between the 65th and 95th 01., and by their subjects and inscriptions decidedly refer to Athens, were manufactured at Volci by Attic colonists or metceciy or whether they came by means of commerce from Athens or a Chalcidian colony of Athens. Comp. Millin- 68 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IT. gen, Trans, of the Roy. Soc. of Lit. ii. 1. p. 76. Gerhard, Rapporto int. i Vasi Volcenti, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 1 (Mon. tv. 26, 27). Welcker, Rhein. Mus. fiir Philol. I, ii. s. 301 (for the first view, which Gerhard supports, Bull. 1834. p. 76).— R. Rochette, Journ. des Sav. 1831. Fevr. Mars. The author in Comment. Soc. Gotting. vii. p. 77 (for the second as well as Bun- sen Annali vi. p. 40. R. Rochette ibid. p. 285, Journ. des Sav. 1837, p. 486 for importation. Gerhard gives up the Tyrrhenian species as such, Ann. ix. p. 136, but supports their Italian origin, p. 140). Comp. below No. 13. As to the imitation of Athenian vase-paintings in Chalcidian Nola, Bockh has brought to light a remarkable instance, Prooem. Lect. Hiem. 1831. 3. Among the great host of antique vase-pictures we here select some of particular interest which belong to the different manners which were developed in Greece itself. There is an entire series of these with figures in shadow. Stackelb. Tf. 10 — 15. [The greatest and most remark- able of all vases of the earlier times is that discovered by Alessandro Fran9ois in 1845 in the district of Chiusi, painted by Clitias, made by the potter Ergotimus, with a cyclus of important compositions probably grouped under a particular point of view, with 115 names of persons re- presented. An introductory account given by E. Braun AUegem. Zeit. 1846. s. 1379. Bull. 1845. p. 113, and Gerhard ibid. p. 210, and ArchaoL Zeit. 1846. s. 319.] No. 1. The Attic prize-vase, TON A0ENE0[E]N A0AON EMI, in the possession of Mr. Burgon (Millingen, Un. Mon. S. i. pi. 1 — 3. comp. C. I. n. 33, and p. 450), representing Athena as promachos, and a con- queror in a chariot race with yJyr^ou and f^otari^. A Panathenaic vase from -lEgina, Bull. 1830. p. 193. 1831. p. 95, one from Gyrene Annali vi. p. 2873. [A host of such vases M. d. I. i. tv. 22. Gerhard Etr. u. Cam- panische Vasen Tf. A. B.] The numerous amphorae with different gym- nic and equestrian contests, also a cithern-singer from Volci, are in a more elegant style and evidently merely vases for show, (Gerhard, Ann. d. Inst, ii. p. 209. Ambrosch, ibid. v. p. 64. Mon. 21, 22), as well as some found in Magna Grecia (the Roller vase at Berlin, in Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. i. Tf. 5 — 7 ; eyiag iyQoc\pi uiks b. Stackelb. Tf. 25, the only example from Athens ; a peculiar style of painting, with short stiff figures, from a small Athen- ian tripod ; the Lamberg vase at Vienna, the least antique, in Laborde i. 73, 74 ; comp. Panof ka, M. Bartoldiano, p. 65 sqq.). On the destination of these vases, Brondsted, Trans, of the Roy. Soc. II. i. p. 102. 2. Vase with the slaying of the Minotaur, in a stiff antique style ; the female figures with drapery checked in different colours and without folds. Work of the potter Taleidas ; found in Sicily, but probably of the Attic school, as the subject is presented exactly in the same way on an Attic vase in the possession of Mr. Burgon. Most accurately given in Maisonneuve, Introd. pi. 38. [Gerhard Auserl. Vasen i. Tf. 1 — 4.] 3. Birth of Pallas in a style very similar to that of the preceding vase. From Volci, where there were a gi-eat number of the kind. JNIicali, Ant. popoli Italiani, Monum. tv. 80, 2. [Gerhard Auserl. Vasen. i. Tf. 1 — 4.] 4. Vase with boar-hunt by a hero Antiphatas, a prize for a victory in the horse-race, from a tomb near Capua with Dorian inscriptions. Very symmetrical arrangement of the figures, Hancarville, Antiq. Etr. Grec. et Rom. i. pi. 1 — 4. Maisonneuve, Introduction, pi. 27. PAINTING. 69 5. Hermes with the three goddesses hastening to Paris, as on the coffer of Cypselus, Pans, v, 19, 1. Similar to the preceding vase : paral- lel direction of the limbs ; regularly folded drapery, slender proportions. Millingen, Coll. de Cogliill, pi. 34. 6. Hercules with the lion's hide, but at the same time a Boeotian shield, violently springing upon Cycnus (comp. the statue on the Amy- clajan throne, Pans, iii, 18), in Millingen, Un. Mon. S. i. pi. 38. 7. Achilles dragging the body of Hector (in gigantic form) behind his chariot, often on Sicilian vases, in R. Rochette, Mon. In. i. pi. 17, 18. On a similar one at Canino the small winged figure of a hero represents the eidolon of Patroclus, R. Rochette, p. 220. 8. Departure of Eriphyle from Amphiaraus and Adrastus, two groups on a Magna Grecian vase. Scotti, Illustrazioni di un vaso Italo Greco. N. 1811. 4to. [Millingen Peint. de Vases, pi. 20, 21. The author's D. A. K. Denkm. i. Tf. 19, 98. Minervini in the Bullett. Nap. ii. p. 122. iii. p. 48, 52. 0. Jahn Archseol. Aufs. S. 139 f.] 9. Memnon overcome by Achilles and carried away by Eos, two groups on an Agrigentine vase (but with Attic inscription) of powerful and finished design, Millingen, Un. Mon. i. pi. 4, 5. 10. Pyrrhus slaying young Astyanax before the walls of Troy, at the altar of the Thymbraean Apollo, on a Volcian vase. Mon. d. Inst. 34. Comp. Ambrosch, Ann. iii. p. 361. [young Troilus, Ann. v. p. 251 — 54. 0. Jahn Telephos and Troilos, S. 70.] 11. Athena, recognisable by her helmet and lance, sitting at the right hand of Zeus, with the thunderbolt ; before them two Horae, behind the throne Hermes and Dionysus, in a finished antique style such as prevails at Volci. Copied in colours (red and white) in Micali tv. 81. 12. Dionysus in the ship of the Tyrrhene pirates (an ingenious and grandiose composition) on a cup from Volci, in the inside. On the out- side of the rim combats around two fallen heroes. Inghirami, G. Omerica tv. 259, 260. [Gerhard Auserl. Vasen i. Tf. 49.] 13. Athenian virgins drawing water for the bridal bath from the fountain Callirrhoe (KAAIPE KPENE, read Y^ofKKipfm K^yjun), from Volci. Brondsted, A brief descr. of thirty-two anc. Greek vases, n. 27. Comp. the marriage-vases for Lysippides and Rhodon in Pr. Lucian, Musee Etrusque n. 1547, 1548. 14. A traffic-scene, — sale of wool [Silphion] under the superintendence of a magistrate, with Doric inscriptions ( AQKsaiTixg), on a vase from Etruria, in a bizarre style, not Attic. Mon. d. Inst. 47. Ann. v. p. 56. Micali tv. 97. [Cab. Durand, no. 422. Panofka Bilder antiken Lebens Taf. xvi, 3. Inghirami Vasi fitt. tav. 250.] 70 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. THIRD PERIOD. FROM THE 80th TO THE 111th OLYMPIAD (460—366 B. C). FROM PERICLES DOWN TO ALEXANDER 1. THE EVENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE AGE IN RELATION TO ART. 1 100. The Persian wars awakened in Greece the slumber- 2 ing consciousness of national power. Athens was entirely fitted, by the character of the race to which its inhabitants belonged, to become the central point of Grecian civilization, and availed itself, with great skill, of the means which the 3 circumstances supplied; whereby it quickly arrived at such a degree of power as no other city ever possessed. 2. The Athenians were, in common with their kindred race, the lon- ians of Asia, susceptible, lively, and fond of innovation, but combined with these qualities an energy which had there soon disappeared. To Z^uaT9]Qiou, TO ^eiuov. 3. The beginning of the palmier state of Athens is fixed by Herod. V. 78 as early as 01. 67, 4. Themistocles' popular decree for the expen- diture of the silver of Laurion on the fleet, about 73. Battle of Salamis, 75, 1. The hegemonia of the Greeks who had been under the king fell to Athens for the Persian war, probably 77, 1. Aristides' reasonable taxa- tion ; the treasury at Delos ; the sum of the yearly tributes, (p6^oi, 460 talents (afterwards 600 and 1200). Pericles removed the treasure to Athens about 79, 3. From that time the allies mostly became subjects, the alliance-treasure a state-treasure. The highest amount of treasure before the Peloponnesian war was 9,700 talents, the yearly revenue at that time about 1,000. Bockh, Pub. Econ. p. 396 sqq. 433. Lewis. 1 101. The great riches which at this period flowed to Athens, whereof only a small portion was expended on the Persian war which was indolently carried on, were at first laid out principally in the fortification of the city, but after- 2 wards in adorning it in the most magnificent style with tem- ples, and edifices for games. 1.. The building of the walls of the Peiraeus was begun by Themisto- cles in the time of the Archon Cebris before 01. 75 (according to Bockh De archont. pseudepon. 01. 72, 1), continued 75, 3. The rebuilding of Athens and the renovation of the walls 75, 2. About 01. 78, 4, Cimon caused the south side of the acropolis to be strengthened (Plut. Cim. 13. Nepos, Cim. 3), and the foundation of the long walls to be laid, which Pericles completed 01. 80, 3, 4, but afterwards added another wall to them. On the three long walls, Leake's Topography by Rienaecker, Nachtr. s. 467. EVENTS AND SPIRIT OP THE AGE. 71 2. The Theseion was begun under Cimon, 01. 77, 4. About 01. 80 3. the Athenians made a proposal for a renovation at the common expense of the temples destroyed by the Persians ; and about this time many temples were built in Attica. The Parthenon completed 01. 80, 3. The Pro- pylaea built 85, 4 to 87, 1. The stone theatre was begun {(^ira, to 'Ktouy TO, i'KQix) 70, 1, but the upper portions were not completed until the financial administration of Lycurgus (109 — 112). The Peisianactic Hall was formed into a picture gallery, noiKiXyj, about 79, 3. The Odeion was built by Pericles for the Panathenaea before 84, 1. See the author's Commentatt. de Phidia i. §. 5. The cost of these buildings was consi- derable ; the Propylsea cost (together with all their appurtenances) 2012 talents (Harpocration) ; Thucydides ii, 13. says nothing in contradiction to this. 102. While in these works of architecture a spirit of art 1 was unfolded which combined grace with majesty in the hap- piest manner, the plastic art, emancipated by means of the free and lively spirit of democratic Athens from all the fetters of antique stiffness, and penetrated by the powerful and magnifi- cent genius of the age of Pericles, attained through Phidias the same culminating point. However, in conformity with 2 the character of the elder Hellenians, the admired master- pieces of that time still bore the impress of calm dignity and unimpassioned tranquillity of soul. The spirit of Athenian 3 art soon acquired the sway throughout Greece, although art was also cultivated in the Peloponnesus in great perfection, especially among the democratic and industrious Argives. 3. Athenian artists about 01. 83, (De Phidia i. 14) worked for the Delphian temple [N. Rhein. Mus. i, s. 18.] and the Phidian school about the 86th 01. adorned Olympia and Elis with sculptures. On the state of Argos, see the author's Dorians ii. p. 147. Lewis and TufneU. 103. The Peloponnesian war, from 01. 87, 1 ex. to 93, 4, 1 destroyed in the first place the wealth of Athens, the ex- penses of the war having exceeded the amount of revenue, and at the same time tore asunder the bond which united the Athenian school with the Peloponnesian and other artists. Of deeper influence was the internal change which occurred 2 during the Peloponnesian war, not without considerable co- operation from the great pestilence (01. 87, 3) which swept away the manly race of old Athenians and left a worse behind. Sensuality and passion on the one hand, and 3 a sophistical cultivation of the understanding and lan- guage on the other, took the place of the solid manner of thinking, guided by sure feelings, which was a character- istic of earlier times. The Grecian people broke down the bulwarks of ancient national principles, and, as in public life, so also in all the arts, the pursuit of enjoyment and the desire for more violent mental excitement, pressed more prominently into view. 72 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. 1. On the expenses of the war see Bockh's Pub. Econ. i. p. 289. On the separation of the schools of art during the war, De Phidia i. 19. 2. IlQarov rs ^^ig }ccii eg toXKa tw ttoAs; I^< 'ir'hiov duofAiotg rd yoarif^oc—ori "hi vi^ri T£ vihif kou 'Tra.vrotxo^iv ro tg ccino jce^uT^kou, rovro kocI kcx.'Aov kxi Y^^viaifAov KXTiorrm. Thucyd. ii. 63. 3. In public life the tribe of flatterers of the demos, Cleon, ]KYlU Kxl TO BSOCTQOU TO AtOI/. e^Sl^yoCaXTO X,OCt tTtTihiai, KXt TO re arothiov ro TLsa/ot^. x.ccl ro yv/icuoiaiou ro Avxsiou KxrsaKSvoiffi. Comp, p. 251. Paus. i, 29, 16. The noblest private outlay, however, still continued to be that on war-horses and statues, and it is a severe reproach to Dicaeo- genes (Isseus on Dicasog. Inher. §. 44), that he allowed dedicatory pre- sents, purchased by the person whose property he inherited for three talents (o£615), to lie scattered about unconsecrated in the studios of sculptors. 2. ARCHITECTONICS. 1 05. The first requisite for the prosperity of architecture, the putting forth of every energy in order to accomplish something great, was already exemplified in the walls built at this period, especially those of the Peiraeus, which, at the same time that they resembled Cyclopean walls in their colos- sal size, were distinguished by the utmost regularity of exe- cution. The circuit of the walls of the Peiraeus with Munychia measured 60 stadia ; the height was 40 Greek cubits (Themistocles wanted the double) ; the breadth was such that during the erection two waggons laden with stones could pass each other, the stones were oii^cc^ium, closely fitted to one another (b rof^vi kyyuyioi), and held together without any mortar, only with iron cramps soldered with lead. The walls of the Parthenon were built in the same way ; the cylindrical blocks of the columns, on the other hand, were connected by wooden plugs (cypress wood in the tem- ple of Sunium, Bullet, d. Inst. 1832. p. 148). [One of these plugs with its sheath in Munich.] All the technical details are here found in the highest perfection. 106. Further, there was evinced in the construction of 1 theatres, odeia, and other buildings for festal amusements, a clearer and more penetrating understanding which conceived in the distinctest manner the aim of the building, and knew how to attain it in the most direct way. The theatron, like 2 the ancient chorus (§. 64, 1), was always still in the main an open space for dancing (orchestra), having entrances on both sides. Around it arose the seats, arranged so as to hold the 74 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. greatest possible number of persons, and the elevated scaffold- ing of the stage. The building of theatres probably emanated from Athens, but at this period it had already extended 3 over all Greece. The Odeion also, a smaller theatre with an umbrella roof, received its form at Athens, and it is in like 4 manner probable that one of the contemporaries of Phidias first produced at Olympia the ingenious form of the barriers (a^gtf/;) of a hippodrome. 2. On the theatre at Athens §. 101, Rem. 2. That of Epidaunis, a work of Polyclitus (about 01. 90), was the first in beauty and symme- try ; a portion of the very commodiously built stairs is still remaining. [The seats are stUl almost entire ; the restoration with the stones them- selves removed from their places would be easy.] See Clarke, Travels ii, 11. p. 60. Donaldson, Antiq. of Athens, Suppl. p. 41. pi. 1. The theatre of Syracuse (comp. Houel, T. iii. pi. 187 sqq. Wilkins, Magna Grecia, ch. 2. p. 6. pi. 7. Donaldson, p. 48. pi. 4, 5) [Cavallari in Serradifalco An- tich. di Sicilia iv. tv. 17 — 22. p. 132] was built by Democopus-Myrilla before Sophron (01. 90). Eustath. ad Od. iii, 68. p. 1457. R. Comp. §. 289. 3. The odeion is pretended to have been built in imitation of the tent of Xerxes, and the roof was said to have consisted of Persian masts, hence also Themistocles instead of Pericles has been called the founder (Hirt, Gesch. ii. p. 18). But even Attica furnished at an early period much longer trees than it did afterwards for the roofing of large build- ings. Plato, Critias, p. 111. On the design of an odeion §. 289. 4. On Cleoetas, the son of Aristocles, Bockh, C. I. p. 39, 237. The author, De Phidia i, 13; on his xtpiaig Hirt, Gesch. iii. p. 148. It fulfilled the object of bringing all the chariots round the Spina at an equal dis- tance from the normal starting-point of the circuits. 1 107. Probably also the art of arching, which was not yet anywhere employed in temples at this period, except perhaps in the Eleusinian Megaron, was already used in the building 2 of these theatres. According to the tradition of the ancients it was invented by Democritus, but he perhaps only im- 3 ported it from Italy (see §. 168) into Greece. The same De- mocritus instituted, together with Anaxagoras, investigations into the perspective design and detailed construction of the theatrical scene; it was through him, in an especial manner, that a philosophical spirit of inquiry began to benefit the arts. 2. Poseidon, in Seneca Ep. 90. Democr. dicitur invenisce fornicem ut lapidum curvatura paulatim inclinatorum medio saxo (key-stone) alli- garetur. Democritus, according to the most probable account, died 01. 94, 1, about 90 years old. 3. Vitruv. Praef. vii. Namque primum Agatharcus (§. 134) Athenis, -(Eschylo docente tragoediam, scenam fecit et de ea commentarium reli- quit. Ex eo moniti Democr. et Anax. de eadem re scripserunt, quemad- modum oporteat ad aciem oculorum radiorumque extensionem, certo ARCHITECTONICS. 75 loco centro constitute, ad lineas ratione natural! respondere. This matter falls in with the last days of uEschylus (about 01. 80), hence Aristotle Poet. 4, 16, ascribes scenography or perspective scene-painting to Sopho- cles first. Scenography thenceforward figured as a separate art ; about the 90th Olympiad we find in Eretria an architect and scenographer called Cleisthenes (Diog. Laert. ii, 125) ; afterwards there were various others, as Eudorus, Serapion in Plin. Aristot. Poet. 4, 16. Also a pictor scsenarius in Gori Inscr. Etr. i. p. 390. Comp. §. 324. 108. With regard to the columnar ordinances, the Doric 1 was at this period cultivated to a higher degree of grace without however losing its predominant character of majesty. The Ionic existed at Athens in a peculiar ornate form, and in 2 Ionia itself in that which was afterwards retained as the regular canonical form. Beside these appeared about the 85th 3 Olympiad the Corinthian capital, which was unfolded by an ingenious combination of the volute forms of the Ionic with freer and richer vegetable ornaments, but only attained gra- dually its canonic form. Accordingly it is found single at 4 •first, then multiplied, but only in subordinate portions of the building. As a leading order it was first employed in small honorary monuments. 3. See the story of Callimachus* invention in Vitruv. iv, 1. 4. See §. 109. No. 5, 12, 13, 15. We find it employed throughout for the first time in the Choregic monument of Lysicrates, which, though elegant, is by no means to be regarded as a perfect model, 01. Ill, 2. Stuart i. ch. 4. 109. Whilst the temples of Athens at this period bore the character of the purest proportion, the choicest forms, and the most perfect harmony, and a similar spirit was exhibited in the Peloponnesus, elegance and magnificence were the quali- ties most aimed at in Ionia where the art was later of coming into full bloom, and the Ionic style was almost exclusively employed (with striking, indeed, but not so careful execution in detail). The Sicilian temples on the other hand adhered to the old Doric forms, and imposed by their gigantic size and boldness of plan. I. ATTICA. 1. [Comparison of the dimensions of 17 temples in Serradifalco, Ant, di SiciUa ii. p. 80, and a collocation of 21 Sicilian temples in ground plan. V. tv. 43]. The Theseion, from 01. 77, 4. (§. 101. rem. 2) till later than 80 (§. 118). Peript. hexast. in the Doric order, 104 X 45 f. of PcnteUc marble. The height of the columns more than 11, the intcrcolurama 3 mod. Well preserved, even the beautiful lacunaria. Stuart, Antiq. of Athens iii. ch. 1. Supplem. ch. 8. pi. 1. [L. Ross to 0«<7wov *«i v«of TO J "Ae^o,^ h 'A^^'^ccis 1838. 8vo. Archiiol. Zeit. 1844. S. 245. In oppo- sition to this Ulrichs Annali d. Inst. xiii. p. 75. E. Curtius in Gerhard s Archiiol. Zeit. i. S. 97]. 76 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. T 2. The Parthenon or Hecatompedon, 50 feet larger (longer) than an older one whose site it occupied, Hesych. Built by Ictinus and Callicrates, a work on it by Ictinus and Carpion. Peript. hexast. hypseth. in the Doric order, on a high platform, entirely of Pentelic marble. Substruc- tion, Ross Kunstbl. 1835. No. 31. Consists of the encircling colonnade ; the -TT^ouviiou at each end, formed by columns with railings between, the hecatompedon strictly so called, that is the cella 100 feet in length [breadth rather, calculated after Stuart p. 8. and Le Roy p. 5. by Ideler in the Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1812, S. 186] with 16 (or 23?) columns round the hypaethron ; the parthenon properly so called, or chamber for the virgin, a square enclosed space around the statue ; and the closed opisthodomos with 4 columns, to the west. The front was to the east. Entire dimen- sions 227 X 101 English feet, height 65 feet. The height of the columns 12 mod., the intercol. almost 2|-, diminution of the shaft i^ ; the swell ■^^ ; corner columns 2 inches thicker. Shields hung on the architrave ; re- garding its riches in statuary §, 118. The triglyph frieze ingeniously composed with the greatest possible saving of stone, Klenze Aphorist. Bem. S. 368. Tf. 1. Fig, 2, 3. The pure splendour of the marble was enhanced by the gold and colours used in ornamenting the smaller fillets and mouldings. The temple suiFered particularly on the 28th of Sept. 1 687, from the Venetians, and more recently from Elgin ; but it always still excites a wonderful enthusiasm. J. Spon (1675) Voy. de Gr^ce. Stuart ii. ch. i. Wilkins, Atheniensia, p. 93. Leake, Topography, ch. 8. Bockh C. I. p. 177. The new editors of Stuart in the German translation (Darm- stadt 1829) i. p, 293, where there is also given at page 349 an account of the vestiges of the old Parthenon. Cockerell's plan in Brondsted, Voy. dans la Grece ii, pi. 38. On Heger's Investigations, Gott. G. A. 1832, s. 849. The Parthenon measured anew by J. Hoflfer, Wiener Bauzeit. 1838. N. 40 flf. [There is a model of the restored Parthenon in the gallery of the Bodleiana at Oxford, 6| feet in length.] One also in the Brit. Museum. 3. The Propyl^a, built by Mnesicles. They formed the access to the acropolis as to the court of a temple, and stood in connexion with a road leading up from the market. Carriage road to the Propylsea of Pentelic marble slabs. L. Ross in the Kunstbl. 1836. N. 60. A grand gate, with four subordinate doors, an Ionic portico on the outside, and on each side a Doric frontispiece, the architecture of which was very skilfully combined with the Ionic in the interior. Comp. N. 5, c. At the sides project wings, the northmost of which served as a poikile; in front of the one to the south stood a small temple to Nike Apteros, Stuart ii. ch. 5. Kinnard, Antiq. of Athens, Suppl. (on the ascent). Leake, Topogr. ch. 8. p. 176. Le temple de Victoire sans ailes, restaure par R. Kous- rain decrit par V. Ballanti R. 1837 fo. Bull. 1837. p. 218. [Kunstbl. 1835. N. 78 f. L. Ross u. E. Schaubert Die Akropolis von Athen, 1 Abth. der T. der Nike Apteros. B. 1839. fo.] 4. The Temple of Athena Polias and Poseidon Erechtheus. A very ancient sanctuary which was renewed after the Persian war, but (ac- cording to the Record C. I. n. 160) not completed till after 92, 4, full of sacred monuments, by means of which the plan of the building received peculiar modifications. A double temple {uxog liTrXovg) with a separate apartment to the west (Pandroseion) a prostyle to the east, and two porticoes {•TrqoarxGtii) on the N.W. and S.W. corners. The edifice stood ARCHITECTONICS. 77 on two different foundations, inasmuch as a terrace extended along on the north and west sides, and stopped short towards the north and west (on which side stood the rolyfii 6 Ikto; in the inscription). Size without the porticoes 73 X 37 feet. Caryatids (xo'^ot/, Athenian maidens in the full Panathenaeic costume) [§. 330, 5] around the portico in the south-west corner (in which the Erechtheian salt spring and the very old olive-tree appear to have been); windows and engaged columns in the Pandro- seion. The frieze of the whole was of Eleusinian lime-stone with reliefs (of metal) fixed on (^wa^). [Seventeen pieces stand in the Erechtheion, a list of them in Ann, d. I. xv. p. 309 sq.] The Ionic architecture pre- sents much that is peculiar, especially in the capitals (§. 276) ; the care in execution is unsurpassed. Stuart ii. ch. 2. Wilkins, p. 75. The author's MinervsB Poliadis sacra et aedis. 1820. Rose, Inscript. Graecre Vetustissimae, p. 145. C. I. i. p. 261. New Edition of Stuart, p. 482. Fragments of a second inscription referring to this temple. KunstbL 1836. St. 60 [39 f. Complete in the 'Ecpyj^s^i; d^^o^niK. 1837. p. 30. in Ranga- bis Antiqu. Hellen. p. 45. and Ann. d. I. xv. p. 286 — 327. An architect Archilochus of Agryle therein]. Inwood The Erechtheion of Athens, fragments of Athenian architecture, and a few remains in Attica, Megara and Epirus. L. 1827. [Von Quast Das Erechtheum zu Athen nach dem Werk des Hr. Inwood B. 1840. — Temple of Athene Ergane on the acropo- lis. See Ulrichs in the ' ABnux 1841. 4th June, and in the Abhd. der Miinchner Akad. philos, philol. Kl. iii, 3. S. 627.] 5. Eleusis. lined. Antiq. of Attica, ch. 1 — 5 (Traduct. par M. Hittorff Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 345). a. The great temple {[/.iyoc^ov, dvuKro^oy) erected under the superintendence of Ictinus of Coroebus, Metagenes, and Xeno- cles, and planned for the celebration of the mysteries. Departure in the Eleusinian building from the pure style. Kugler S. 43. A large cella with four rows of Doric columns running across in two tiers ; between them a large opening for light, which was arched by Xenocles (to ottxIov iKOf)v(puai Plut. Pericl. 13. comp. Pollux ii, 54), as this temple must not be hypasthral. Portico of 12 Doric columns (by Philo in the time of Deme- trius Phalereus) which have already thin fillets between the flutings. 212. 10. 2 X 178. 6. the measurement of the square within 167 X 166. 0. Beneath the cella a crypt, undiminished cylinders supported the upper floor. The material mostly Eleusinian lime -stone, little marble. The size of the whole 220 X 178 f. Statements somewhat at variance, Ionian Antiq. ch. 6, 19—21, new ed. b. The smaller Propyloea in the inner peri- bolos, with enigmatical disposition of the door. We have here the capi- tal of a pilaster with the leaves of the acanthus, c. The larger Propyl!y/;coV x,cd 'ijrctvrctyjiv Tr^otoc, Dio Chrysost. xii. (Olympicos) p. 215. More general expressions of admiration, Livy xxxv, 28. Quintil. xii, 10. Bio Chrysost. Or. xii. p. 209 sqq. A. Among the works which have been preserved, those which bear the greatest affinity are the Ve- rospi Jupiter and the Medicean and Vatican busts, §. 349. Elean coins of the Caesars with the Olympian Zeus in De Quincy, pi. 17. p. 312, and M. Fontana 6, 1. Volkel liber den grossen Tempel und die Statue des Jupiter zu Olym- pia. Lpz. 1794. Archaeol. Nachlass 1831, p. 1. Siebenkees iiber den Tem- pel. u. die Bildsaule des Jupiter zu Olympia. Niirnb. 1795. Bottiger, Andeut. p. 93. (Marchese Haus) Saggio sul tempio e la statua di Giove in Olimpia. Palermo, 1814. Q. de Quincy, Jup. Olympien, p. 384. The author's Comm. de Phidia ii, 11. Rathgeber, Encyclop. Ill, iii. p. 286. 116. Besides these and other works in the torexitic art, 1 Phidias executed numerous statues of gods and heroes in brass and marble as religious images or consecrated gifts. But he 2 unfolded in particular the idea of Athena with great ingenu- ity, in different modifications, inasmuch as he represented her for Platasa in an acrolith (§. 84) as warlike (Areia), and for the Athenians in Lemnos, on the other hand, peculiarly graceful and in a mild character {KaX}J,(io^(pog). The most co- 3 lossal statue, the brazen Promachus, which, standing between the Parthenon and the Propyla&a, and towering over both, was seen by mariners at a great distance, was not yet finished when Phidias died ; almost a century later Mys executed after the designs of Parrhasius the battle of the centaurs on the shield, as well as the other works of the toreutic class with which the casting was ornamented. 1. Petersen, Observ. ad Plin. xxxiv, 19, 1. Ein Programm, Havnise, 1824. Sillig, C. A. p. 344. comp. p. 288. Comm. de Phidia i, 9. 2. The temple of Athena Areia was, according to the circumstantial account of Plutarch, built from the spoils of Platasa (Aristid. 20) ; but the age of the work is not quite determined by this. On the KalUmorphos, Paus. i, 28, 2. Lucian. Imag. 6. Plin. xxxiv, 19, 1. Hiraerius, Or. xxi, 4. [cf. PreUer in Gerhard's Archaol. Zeit. 1846. S. 264]. 3. The site of the Promachus is determined by Paus. i, 28, 2. comp. 66 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. with Herod, v, 77. Here she is also seen on the coin (Leake, Topogr. Vig- nette. Mionnet, Suppl. iii. pi. 18. Brondsted, Reise ii. Vign. 37). She raised the shield {di^sx'-' '^^^ daTrilu) and grasped the spear (c,7ou roig k'^tovaiu euiaroiff^oit ^sAAot/aa, Zosima V, 6, 2). The height of the statue without the pedestal was probably more than 50 feet, but under 60, as may be inferred from Strabo vi. p. 278. On the age of the work, Comm. de Phidia i, 9. 10. 1 117. The disciples of Phidias also, especially Agoracritus who was sincerely devoted to the master, and Alcamenes who was more independent and even disputed with his instructor, 2 applied their art principally to images of the gods. Beauty in full bloom, combined with a mild and tranquil dignity in the features, doubtless characterized the statues of the female deities which they produced in emulation of each other — the Aphrodite in the gardens, by Alcamenes, and the corre- sponding statue by Agoracritus, of Parian marble, which, hav- ing lost the prize, was, with the addition of the proper attri- butes, consecrated as Nemesis at Rhamnus. 2. Corap., besides others, Zoega's Abhandlungen, p. 56. 62. Welcker, ibid. p. 417. De Phidia i, 20. Sillig, p. 26 sqq. — The ingeniously fash- ioned Hephaestus of Alcamenes. Sillig, p. 32. 1 118. There still exist as works of this first of all schools of art, the architectonic sculptures with which it adorned the temples of Athens, doubtless under the immediate superin- 2 tendance and direction of Phidias. First, there are preserved portions of the eighteen sculptured metopes together with the frieze of the narrow sides of the cella in the temple of Theseus, the style of which evidently belongs to the Phidian school; secondly, a considerable number of the metopes of the Parthe- non all ornamented in alto-relievo, as well as a great part of the frieze of the cella, besides some colossal figures and a mass of fragments from the pediments of that temple, on which latter the master himself seems chiefly to have em- 3 ployed his hand. In all these works we perceive on the whole the same spirit of art, only that artists who belonged to the elder school, which still continued to exist (§. 112. Rem. 1), and whose workmanship is less round and flowing, seem to have been sometimes occupied on the metopes, and that in the frieze the uniform filling up of the space, which the archi- tectonic decoration required, as well as the law of symmetry and eurhythmy, in many points imposed conditions on the 4 striving after nature and truth. Leaving this out of view, we everywhere find a truth in the imitation of nature, which, without suppressing anything essential (such as the veins swoln from exertion), without ever allowing itself to be sev- ered from nature, attained the highest nobleness and the purest beauty; a fire and a vivacity of gesture when the sub- PLASTIC ART. 87 ject demands it, and an ease and comfort of repose, where as in the gods especially, it appeared fitting; the greatest truth and lightness in the treatment of the drapery where regular- ity and a certain stiffness is not requisite, a luminous projec- tion of the leading idea and an abundance of motives in sub- ordinate groups, evincing much ingenuity of invention ; and lastly, a natural dignity and grace united with a noble sim- plicity and unaiFectedness, without any efibrt to allure the senses, or any aiming at dazzling effect and display of the ar- tist's own skill, which characterized the best ages not merely of art, but of Grecian life generally. 2. Theseion. The statues which stood in the east pediment have disappeared. Ross QviGfioy, p. 26. [Not. 63 asserts that 6 or 7 statues stood in each pediment ; Ulrichs throws doubt on the existence of those in the back pediment, as there are no traces of their erec- tion in the tympanum.] In the ten metopes on the east the achieve- ments of Hercules ; in the eight adjoining to the north and south those of Theseus. On the frieze in front a battle of heroes under the guidance of gods, explained to be that of Theseus and the Pallantida3, Ilyperbor. Romische Studien i. s. 276 [a gigantomachy according to Dodwell Trav. i, 362. according to Ulrichs Ann. d. Inst. xiii. p. 74 the Heraclidae defended by Theseus from Eurystheus, a view which is op- posed by K. F. Hermann, Getting. Anz. 1843. S. 488 ff., confirmed by E. Curtius in Gerhard's Archaol. Zeit. 1843. S. 104 f., and which is pre- ferred "not unconditionally" by 0. Jahn, Jen. L. Z. 1843. S. 1167.] ; the battle of the centaurs behind. All equally spirited and grandiose. Stucco casts in the British Museum (R. xiv, 52 — 73). Stuart iii. ch. 1. Dod- well. Tour i. p. 362. together with engraving. Alcuni Bassirilievi tv. 5. D. A. K. Tf. 20—22. Parthenon, a. Metopes, abbut 4 f. high, the projection of the figures 10 inches. In the whole there were 92 tablets ; 15 from the south side are now in the British Museum, 1 in the Louvre (Clarac, pi. 147), frag- ments in Copenhagen (Brondsted, Voy. in Grece ii. pi. 43) ; 32 from the south side were drawn by Carrey by order of Count Nointel 1674 (given in Brondsted), comp. §. 109, 2, some in Stuart ii. ch. 1. pi. 10 — 12. iv. ch. 4. pi. 28 — 34, and in the Museum Worsleyanum ii. ch. 5. Accounts of others in the new edition of Stuart and in Leake's Topography, ch. 8. p. 226; From these we see that on the front or east side Pallas' combat with the giants and other battles of the gods (that also about the tripod) were chiefly represented, in the middle of the south side scenes from the elder Attic mythology, towards the two corners the battle with the cen- taurs (to this belongs all that is in best preservation), on the north, among others, the battle of the Amazons, on the west equestrian and foot battles alternately, probably of historical import. Comp. Stuart's Antiq. of Athens in the German Ed. ii. p. 658. b. Frieze op the cella, Z\ feet high, 528 long (of which as much as 456 is still pretty accurately known). There are fifty-three tablets in the British Museum, besides the stucco castings of the whole west side,' one in the Louvre n. 82. (Clarac pi. 211); there have been four 83 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. lately excavated at Athens (together with a piece of a metope), see Hall. ALZ. 1833. Intell. 74. There are a great number given in Carrey's designs which are preserved at Paris and not published, in Stuart ii. pi. 13—30. iv. pi. 6 — 28, and the M. Worsleyanum. Comp. the general \dew in the German translation of Stuart ii. p. 667, D. A. K. pi. 23—25. Three re- cently discovered fragments of the frieze in the Kunstbl. 1835. N. 8., a. vessel-bearers, b. charioteer (from the plate b. Stuart ii, 1, 18), c. three men and two cows ; moreover, three of the twelve deities sitting (Posei- don, Theuseus and Agraulos, according to Visconti) Kunstbl. 1836. N. 60. Cf. Forchhammer in the Archaol. Intell. Bl. 1833. N. 14. BuU. 1833. p. 89. 137. 1835. p. 113 — 20. The whole represents the Panathenaic pro- cession. On the west side were to be seen the preparations for the caval- cade ; then south and north in the first half, the horsemen of Athens galloping in files {k'7n^»l5'ho(po^ov ureg), next those who took part in the chariot-contest which succeeded the procession, in the lively action of apohatoe springing up and down (see the German Stuart ii. p. 686,) and with them goddesses of battle as charioteers ; then farther on the south the old men and women of the city, on the north choruses with auletm and kitharisice, ascophori, scaphephori, and hydriaphori, nearest the front on both sides the sacrificial cows with their attendants. On the east side, surrounded by virgins who bring the consecrated gifts, and the pre- siding magistrates, are seated the 12 gods (Zeus, Hera with Iris or Hebe, Hephaestus [§. 366, 5], Demeter, the Anakes, Hygieia, Asclepius, Posei- don, Erechtheus 1 Peitho, Aphrodite with Eros according to the writer) between whom the priestess of Pallas Polias with two ersephori and the priest of Poseidon Erechtheus, who hands the peplos to a boy, form the central group. There are traces of gold and paint on the draperies and hair ; the reins, stafis and the like were of metal, as well as the gorgo- neion, and the serpents on the segis of Pallas, &c. in the tympanum. c. Statues in the Pediment (height of the pediment 11^ feet, breadth 94 feet, depth of the lower cornice 2 feet Hi inch). The Brit- ish Museum has 9 figures from the east pediment, and from the west 1 figure and 5 considerable fragments : delineated, in Marbles of the British Museum, P. vi. ; Carrey's design (Stuart iv. ch. 4. pi. 1 — 5) gives the west pediment almost complete, but of the east one figure (Nike) less than there is in the British Museum. D. A. K. pi. 26, 27. [In the excava- tions conducted by L. Ross, several fragments ha . e come to light. A head from Venice now in Paris, Kunstbl. 1824. S. 92, 253. The Akad. Mus. at Bonn, S. 86., as a new discovery in Revue Archeol. 1845. p. 832. cf. 1846. p. 335.] On the east the first appearance of Athena among the gods (as in the Homeric Hymn 28. o-g/Sa? I' 'i^i •xa.vra.q o^a-jrotg d^xuxrovg — ffT^o-gj/ 3' ' fTrsQioi/os dy'Kudg viog 'iTTTrovg UKVTrohug Bjj^oji ^Q^i^^id > ^^ ^^^ west PaUas contending for the tutelar dominion of Athens conquers Poseidon by teaching Erichthonius how to yoke the horse created by the former. So, according to the writer's explanation, De Phidia Comm. iii. Others difiering from the above are given by Visconti, Leake, Q. de Quincy, Mon. restitues T. i. p. 1. Brondsted, Voy. en Grece ii. p. x. Cockerell in Marbles of the Brit. Mus. P. vi. Comp. Reuvens in the Classical Journal, N. 53, 56. Antiquiteiten, een oudheidkundig, Tijdschrift ii, i. s. 1. ii. s. 55, and Millingen, Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 197. [The birth of Athene from the head of Zeus, according to Gerhard Drei Vorlcs. Berl. 1844, ac- PLASTIC ART. 89 cording to "Welcker in the Classical IMus. L. 1845. vi. p. 3G7 404. the birth of the goddess who immediately attains her full stature, among the gods of Olympus in the middle, and the gods of Attica at each side ; and the moment is that of the declaration of the victory of Athena who turns to her chariot, whilst Poseidon expresses his discontent, with the gods who took part with either at the sides.] For general accounts : Memorandum on the subject of the Earl of Elgin's Pursuits in Greece, 2 Ed. 1815. Visconti, Deux Memoires sur les ouvrages de sculpture de la collection d' Elgin. 1816. Q. de Quincy, Lettres h, M. Canova sur les Marbres d' Elgin. 1818. [The Elgin marbles in outlines after the London ed. (of Stuart) 1816. Leipz. and Darmst. fo. with the temple, 51. pi.] The reliefs of the temple of Nike Apteros are later than these works, but in many respects related to them, and display uncommon energy and animation (§. 109. Rem. 3. comp. Leake, Topogr. p. 193) ; in the British Museum, R. xv. n. 257—260. in Stuart ii. ch. 5. pi. 12, 13. They partly represent battles of Greeks with Persians, and partly of Greeks with one another. [In Ross and Schaubert Tf. 11, 12. Brit. Mus. ix. pi. 7 — 10. p. 30, new arrangement of the tablets which are divided between Athens and London, and violently divorced from one another.] The in- fluence of the Phidian style is also recognizable in the Athenian sepul- chral reliefs of this and the succeeding period. Clarac, M. de Sculpt, pi. 154, 155 (comp. pi. 152). D. A. K. pi. 29. Stackelb. Graber, Tf. 1, 2. Perhaps this would be the proper place for again placing together the sculptures scattered elsewhere which evidently manifest the spirit of the Phidian school, and whose noble simplicity and freshness of nature in the forms as well as easy negligence in the attitudes distinguish them at the first glance from all others. For the present I may here mention the famous relief of Orpheus finding Eurydice §. 413. R. 4, the fragment of a heroic combat from a very large frieze in the Villa Albani, in Winck. M. I. 62, Zoega Bassir. i, 51. comp. p. 247, and the representation of the giv- ing away the bride referred to in §. 429. R. 3 ; moreover, the fragment in Zoega ii, 103, which was in the court of the Louvre in 1822. 4. The ancients extol in Phidias especially to {/^iyccKuost x,xi ro uKQifiis eifix, Demet. de Eloc. 14. ro as/^uou x,xt ^syot'Xorex.i'ov kxI «|/w^«t;xo'v, Dionys. Hal. de Isocr. p. 542. 119. The influence of this school in enlivening, and rescu- ing from antique stiffness was also shown in other districts of Greece in the plastic adornment of temples, but it was modi- fied in a remarkable manner by the genius and tendencies of other individuals and schools of art. The splendid groups in the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, executed by Alcamenes and Paeonius of Mende have entirely disappeared ; but the remains of the metopes on the pronaos and opisthodo- mos (comp. §. 109. ii, 9.) representing the labours of Hercules manifest a fresh truthfulness and naive grace which have no longer anything of the fetters of the old style,_ but still how- ever remain far short of the grandeur of the Phidian ideal for- mations (especially in the conception of Hercules). The reliefs of Phigalia give, in individual groups, distinct indications of 90 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. III. Athenian models, and display in the composition a matchless power of invention combined with the most lively imagination ; on the other hand we perceive in them a less purified sense of forms, a love of exaggerated violent gestures and almost strained postures, a throwing of the drapery into folds singu- larly tight or as if curled by the wind, and in the conception of the subject itself a harsher character than can be ascribed to 4 the Phidian school. In Sicily indeed we find the old style preserved in all its severity even at this period for architec- tonic ends, in the giants of the Agrigentine temple of Zeus ; but the fragments from the tympana of this sanctuary as well as the metopes found in the southernmost temple of the lower city of Selinus (comp. §. 109. iv, 24.) show that here also, in the decades immediately subsequent to the activity of the Phi- dian school, a freer and livelier treatment had found its way from Athens. 2. Olympia. On the east pediment were to be seen — the workman- ship of Paeonius — around the statue of Zeus, (Enomaus with his wife Sterope, on the one side, and Pelops and Hippodameia on the other, then the charioteers, quadrigae, and attendants of the horses, and lastly the river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus in symmetrical disposition ; on the west pediment, by Alcamenes, as central point of a battle with centaurs, Peirithous the son of Zeus, whom Cseneus helps in rescuing his wife who had been carried off by Eurytion, whilst Theseus chastises two centaurs as robbers of boys and girls, Paus. v, 16. But of the twelve labours of Hercules (in the enumeration of which in Pausanias, v, 10, 2, Cerberus has probably fallen out), the combat with the Cnossian bull, the vanquished and dying lion, a local goddess (perhaps the Stymphalian nymph Metopa), a portion of the hydra and of the Amazon lying on the ground, on the opis- thodom, parts of Diomed, the boar, Geryon in the pronaos, together with several smaller fragments, were discovered in the year 1829, and are now . at Paris. The hair, which was not worked out, was indicated by colours. Exped, Scient. de la Moree pi. 74—78. Clarac M. d. Sculpt, pi. 195 bis. D. A. K. pi. 30. Comp. R. Rochette Journal des Sav. 1831. p. 93. Bullet. d. Inst. 1832. p. 17. 33. Ann. p. 212. Welcker's Rhein. M. I. iv. p. 503. Hall. Encyclop. Ill, iii. p. 243. 3. Phigalia. The frieze of the temple of Apollo Epicurius (§. 109. ii, 12) discovered by Linckh, von Haller, Cockerell, Foster and others, ran over the Ionic columns around the hypsethron ; it is in the British Museum, in tolerably complete preservation. It represents in alto-relievo the battle of the Centaurs and Amazons, and between them Apollo and Artemis as auxiliary deities hastening to the scene in a chariot drawn by stags. The group of Cajneus is treated as on the Theseion, the rape of the maiden and boy as in the pediment at Olympia. Bassirilievi deUa Grecia disegn. da G. M. Wagner, 1814. Marbles of the British Museum P. iv. 0, M. Baron von Stackelberg's ApoUotempel zu Bassas in Arca- dien und die daselbst ausgegr. Bildwerke. 1828. 4. Agrigentum. On the giants §. 109. iv. 20 ; the Caryatides of the temple of Athena Polias (§. 109. i, 4) have in common with these a firm PLASTIC ART. 91 and upright posture, although they are in other respects animated by a quite different artistic spirit. The pediment groups represented the battle of the giants on the east, and the capture of Troy on the west • the slight fragments of these belong to the noblest style of art. Cockerell, Antiq. of Athens, Suppl. p. 4. frontisp. Selinus. Portions of 5 metopes from the pronaos and posticum of the temple nearest the sea, dug up in 1831, by the Duke of Serradifalco and by Villareale, from the indications of Angell, now in Palermo, Actajon clothed in the hide of a stag (as in Stesichorus), Hercules with the Queen of the Amazons, Pallas and Ares [a giant], Apollo and Daphne (?) are thought to be recognised in them. The bodies of calcareous tufa, with a coating of paint. Only the extremities are of marble after the manner of acroliths (§. 84), only white extremities however in women [as in the vase paintings]. Bullet, d, Inst. 1831. p. 177. Transactions of the Royal Hoc. of Litter, ii, i, vi. [Serradifalco Ant. d. Sicilia ii. tav. 30 — 34.] 120. Beside this Attic school rose also the Sicyonico- 1 Argive school (comp. §. 82) to its zenith, by means of the great Polyclitus. Although, according to some, it was still left to 2 this master to carry the toreutic art to perfection in his colossal statue of Hera at Argos, he nevertheless remained far behind Phidias in the fashioning of gods in general. On the other 3 hand the art of modelling brazen statues of athletes, which pre- vailed in the Peloponnese, was raised through him to the most perfect representation of beautiful gymnastic figures, in which peculiarity of character indeed was not neglected, but still however the main object was the representation of the purest forms and justest proportions of the youthful body. Hence 4 one of his statues, the Doryphorus, whether this was the in- tention of the artist or whether it was the judgment of pos- terity, became a canon of the proportions of the human frame, which at that time were in general shorter and stouter than afterwards. In like manner was ascribed to him, according 5 to Pliny, the establishment of the principle, that the weight of the body should be laid chiefly on one foot {ut uno crure insisterent signd), whence resulted the contrast, so significant and attractive, of the bearing and more contracted with the borne and more developed side of the human body. 2. On the Hera in the sanctuary at Argos, especially Pans, ii, 17, Maximus Tyr. Diss. 14. p. 260 R., Bottiger Andeut. s. 122. Q. de Quincy p. 326. [His copy is worse than a caricature.] Comp. §. 353. The head of the statue is copied on later coins of Argos (MilUngen, Anc. Coins pi. 4, 19. Cadalvene, Recueil pi. 3, 1. Comp. the HPA APFEIA of the Alexandrian coin of Nero, Eckhel D. N. iv. p. 53) ; it is adorned with the same broad Stephanos (comp. §. 340) as the Hera Olympia represented in older style on the coins of EUs, the Lacinian Hera on coins of Pandosia, and of Crotona (according to Eckhel ; of Veseris according to Millingen, Anc. Coins pi. 2, 8), and also the Platsan Hera, placed together in D. A. K. tf. 30. T« Iloy.vK-KiiTOv ioxvot t?, nx^'fl' ««^A/s> comp. also ibid. s. 152. The frequent use of the PLASTIC ART. 95 auger, the first application of which to marble is ascribed to him (comp. §. 56. Rem. 2), the Corinthian capital (§. 108), the elegant lychnos of PaUas Polias (executed perhaps after the 92d 01.), the saltantes Lacacnaj, emendatum opus, sed in quo gratiam omnem diligentia abstulerit, agree very well with this soubriquet. 2. Dem. nimius in veritate, Quintil. xii, 10. His Pelichus of Corinth (comp. Thuc. i, 28) was Tr^oyxaru^, (paXxuriug, viyjyvfcvos rvju oiva.fio-Kviv, iivi^aykvog rov iruyuyog rxg rQix^g hia,g, iTTiaYif^og rxg (pUfixg, ctvToxv^^uTra ofAoiog, according to Lucian Philops. 18, where Dem. is called dv^^aira'Troti;. A Signum Corinthium of precisely the same style of art is described by Pliny, Epist. iii, 6. 3. See especially the accounts of the sacred gifts presented by the Lacedaemonians of ^gospotami (the sea-blue nauarchi) Paus. x, 9, 4. Plut. Lysander 18, de Pyth. orac. 2. Comp. Paus. vi, 2, 4. An iconic statue of Lysander in marble at Delphi. Plut. Lys. 1. B. THE AGE OF PRAXITELES AND LYSIPPUS. 124. After the Peloponnesian war a new school of art i arose at Athens and in the surrounding district, — not con- nected with the previous one by any discoverable succession, — whose style in like measure corresponded to the spirit of the new, as that of Phidias did to the character of earher Attic life (§. 103). It was chiefly through Scopas who was born 2 at Paros, an island related by race to Athens and then subject to it, and Praxiteles, a native of Athens itself, that art first received the tendency to more excitable and tender feelings, which corresponded to the frame of men's minds at that time. It was combined however in these masters in the most beau- tiful manner with a noble and grand conception of their sub- jects. 1. Plastic artists of the period : Mentor, toreutes, between the 90th 01. (he imitated the cups of Thericles in silver) and the 106th (when some of his works perished in the Artemision of Ephesus) ; Cleon of Sicyon, a scholar of Antiphanes, 98 — 102 ; Scopas the Parian, probably son of Aristander (§. 112. Bockh C. I. 2285 b.), architect, sculptor and brass-caster, 97 — 107. Polycles of Athens, a scholar of Stadieus (?), brass-caster, 102 ; Damocritus of Sicyon, a scholar of Piso, brass-caster, 102 ; Pausanias of Apollonia, brass-caster, about 102 ; Samolas from Ar- cadia, brass-caster, about 102. Eucleides of Athens, sculptor, about 102 (?) ; Leochares of Athens, brass-caster and sculptor, 102 — 111. (About 104 he was, according to the Ps. Platon. Letter xiii. p. 361, a young and excellent sculptor) ; Hypatodorus (Hecatodorus) and Aristogeiton of Thebes, brass-casters, 102. Sostrates, brass-caster, 102 — 114. Damophon from Messenia, brass-caster, 103 sqq. ; Xenophon of Athens, brass-caster, 103 ; Callistonicus of Thebes, brass-caster, 103 ; Stbongylion, brass-caster, about 103 (?). Olympiosthenes, brass-caster, about 103 (?) ; Eupubanor, the Isthmian, painter, sculptor, brass -caster and toreutes, 104—110. 96 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. Praxiteles of Athens (C. 1. 1604. Opera ejus sunt Athenis in Ceramico, Plin. K H. xxxvi, 4, 5), sculptor and brass-caster, 104 — 110. Echion [or Action], brass-caster and painter, 107; Therimachus, brass -caster and painter, 107 ; Timotheus, sculptor and brass-caster, 107 ; Pythis, sculptor, 107 ; Brtaxis of Athens, sculptor and brass-caster, 107 — 119; . Herodotus of Olynthus, about 108 ; Hippias, brass-caster, 110 ; Lysippus of Sicyon, brass-caster, 103 — 114 (with Pans, vi, 4, comp. Corsini Diss. Agon. p. 125), according to Athen. xi. p. 784, as late as 116, 1 (1) ; Lysis- trates of Sicyon, brother of Lysippus, plastes, 114 ; Silanion of Athens, a self-taught artist; Sthenis, Euphronides, Ion, and Apollodorus, brass- casters, 114 ; Amphistratus, sculptor, 114; Hippias, brass-caster, 114 (to be inferred from Pans, vi, 13, 3) ; Menestratus, sculptor about 114 (?) ; Chaereas, brass-caster about 114; Philo, son of Antipatrus (?), brass- caster, 114 ; Pamphilus, a scholar of Praxiteles, 114. Cephissodotus (or -dorus) and Timarchus, sons of Praxiteles, brass-casters, 114 — 120. 125. Scopas, principally a worker in marble (the product of his home), the mild light of which doubtless seemed to him better suited to the subjects of his art than the sterner brass, borrowed his favourite themes from the cycles of Dionysus ! and Aphrodite. In the former he was certainly one of the first who presented the Bacchic enthusiasm in a perfectly free ! and unfettered form (comp. §. 96, Rem. 21) ; his mastery in the latter was shown by the collocation of Eros, Himeros and Pothos, beings differing from one another by slight shades, in : one group of statues. The Apollo-Ideal is indebted to him for the more graceful and animated form of the Pythian Cith- arcedus ; he produced it by lending to the accustomed figure in art (§. 96, Rem. 17) a greater expression of rapture and ■ exaltation. One of his most splendid works was the group of sea-deities who escorted Achilles to the island of Leuce — a subject in which tender grace, heroic grandeur, daring power and a luxuriant fulness of strong natural life are combined in such wonderful harmony, that even the attempt to conjure up and conceive the group, in the spirit of ancient art, must ! fill us with the most cordial delight. It is highly probable that the character of the forms and gestures peculiar to the Bacchian cycle, was first tranferred by Scopas to the repre- sentation of beings of the ocean, whereby the Tritons took the shape of Satyrs, and the Nereids of Maenads of the sea, and the entire train seemed as if animated and intoxicated with inward fulness of life (comp. §. 402). 2. Dionysus at Cnidus in marble, Plin. xxxvi, 4, 5. A Maenad with streaming hair as x'f^'>^'Q°^ov<>s> in Parian marble, Callistratus 2. Anthol. Pal. ix, 774, and Plan, iv, 60 (App. ii. p. 642), probably the one on the relief in Zoega, Bassir. ii. tv. 84, which also recurs on the reliefs, ibid. 83, 106, on the vase of Sosidius (Bouill. iii, 79), in the Marquis of Lans- downe's collection and in the British Museum (R. vi. n. 17*). A PanisQ Cic. de. Divin. i, 13. PLASTIC ART. 97 3. At Rome a naked Venus Praxiteliam Ulam aiUecedem (in order of time?), Plin. xxxvi, 4, 7. Venus, Pothos (and Phaethoni) in Samo- thrace, Plin. ibid. Eros, Himeros and Pothos at Megara, Paus. i 43 6. Scopas' brazen Aphrodite Pandemos at Elis, sitting on a goat, formed a remarkable contrast to Phidias' Urania with the tortoise, which was placed beside it. Paus. vi, 25, 2. Chameta)r£c ? 4. The Apollo of Scopas was, according to Pliny, the chief statue of the temple by which Augustus expressed his gratitude to his tutelar deity for the victory at Actium, and hence it appears on Roman coins since the time of Augustus with the two legends: J^?. Actius and Pala- tinus. See Eckhel D. N. vi. p. 94, 107. vii. p. 124. Comp. Tacit. Ann. xiv, 14. Sueton. Nero 25 (with the notes of Patinus). It is described by Propert. ii, 31, 15 : Inter matrem (by Praxiteles, Plin.) deus ipse irUerqiLe sororem (by Timotheus, Plin.) Pythius in longa carmiim veste sonat The one in the Vatican discovered together with the muses in the villa of Cassius is a copy of this Palatine Apollo. See M. PioCl. i. tv. 16 (comp. Visconti p. 29, who was inclined however to consider the statue by Tim- archides, Plin. xxxvi, 4, 10 as the original). M. Franf. i. pi. 5. Bouill. i. pi. 33. 5. Sed in maxima dignatione, Cn. Domitii delubro in Circo Flaminio, Neptunus ipse et Thetis atque Achilles, Nereides supra delphinas et cete et hippocampos sedentes. Item Tritones, chorusque Phorci et pristes ac multa alia marina omnia ejusdem manus, praeclarum opus etiamsi totius vita) fuisset. Plin. On the mythus of the statuary, see especially V. Kohler, Mem. sur les lies et la Course d'Achille. Petersb. 1827. Sect. 1. 126. The Roman connoisseurs could not determine, as in 1 some other works, whether the group of Niobe (which stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome) was by Scopas or Praxiteles. At all events the group gives evidence of a style 2 of art which loved to represent impressive and agitating sub- jects, but treated them at the same time with the moderation and noble reserve which the genius of the Greeks in the best ages required. The artist does his utmost to win over our 3 minds for the stricken family punished by the gods ; the noble and grand forms of the countenances, in which family relation- ship is expressed, appear in no instance disagreeably distorted by bodily pain and fear of the impending danger ; the coun- tenance of the mother — the apex of the whole representation — expresses the despair of maternal love in the purest and most exalted form. A judgment on the composition and the 4 motives which animated and held together the groups in their parts is rendered very difficult by the state in which they have come down to us. This much however is clear that, 5 besides the mother, among the other figures also there were several united into smaller groups, in which the effort to pro- tect and assist others interrupted the series of fugitives trying to save themselves, in a manner equally satisfactory to the eye and the mind. O 98 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. 1. Par hacsitatio est in templo Apollinis Sosiani, Nioben cum liberis morientem (or Niobas liberos morientes) Scopas an Praxiteles fecerit, Plin. xxxvi, 4, 8. The epigrams pronounce for Praxiteles (Anthol. Pal. App. ii. p. 664. Plan, iv, 129. Auson. Epit. Her. 28). The temple of Apollo Sosianus was probably founded by C. Sosius who was under An- toninus in Syria (com. Dio. Cass, xlix, 22, with Plin. xiii, 11). [Wagner S. 296.] As to the group having been placed on a pediment (according to Bartholdy's idea), see Guattani, Memorie Enciclop. 1817. p. 77, and Le statue della favola di Niobe sit. nella prima loro disposizione, da C. R, Cockerell. F. 1818, also (Zannoni) Galeria di Firenze, Stat. P. ii. tv. 76. [Wagner disputes this.] Thiersch doubts it, but nevertheless gives to the group the triangular form and bilateral disposition. [Not the trian- gular form, S. 369. comp. 273.] - 4. To the Florentine group (found at Rome in 1583 near the gate of S. Giovanni) many unsuitable figures have been added (a discobolus, a Psyche, a muse-like figure, a nymph, a horse). The group of youthful pancratiasts likewise, although found hard by, does not fit well into the whole, but seems to have been executed after the symplegma of Cephisso- dotus, the son of Praxiteles (digitis verius corpori quam marmori impres- sis, Plin.) [?]. But even the rest of the statues are of unequal merit, nay of difierent marble. Of the Niobids at Florence, besides the mother with the youngest daughter, ten figures may be held as genuine, and (conformably to the remark of Thorwaldsen) the so-called Narcissus (Craleria tv. 74) may be added to them. It is stiU very doubtful whether the Florentine figures are those which were famous in antiquity, as the treatment of the bodies, although in general excellent and grandiose, does not however display that uniform perfection and living freshness which characterized the works of the Greek chisel at the best period. — On the contrary the breathing life of Greek art cannot but be recognised in the so-called Ilioneus in the Glyptotheca at Munich (no. 125) ; though worthy of a Scopas, it cannot however receive an entirely satisfactory explanation from a union with the Niobids. Comp. Kunstblatt 1828. No. 45. The so- called Niobid at Paris (L. 441. Clarac, pi. 323), is more probably a Maenad struggling away from a Satyr. Of the authentic figures in the group, out of Florence the sublime head of the mother (very fine in Sarskoselo and in Lord Yarborough's collection) and the dying outstretched son (also at Dresden and Munich) are most frequently to be met with. 5. Besides the mother, the following partial groupings are indicated : a. The paedagogue (Gal. 15) was so placed beside the youngest son (Gal. 11) that the latter pressed towards him on the left side while he drew him to himself with the right arm, according to the group found at Soissons, which is copied (with a confounding of right and left) in R. Rochette M. I. pi. 79. comp. p. 427. b. A son (Gal. 9) supported, with his left foot advanced under her sinking form, a dying sister, — who is preserved in a group in the Vatican, called Cephalus and Procris, — and endeavoured to shield her by spreading his garment over her ; ac- cording to the observations of [Canova], Schlegel, Wagner, and Thiersch (Epochen, s. 315). c. A daughter (Gal. 3) in like manner tried with out- spread upper-garment to protect the son who is sunk on his left knee (Gal. 4, Race. 33) ; a group which can be recognised with certainty from a later gem-engraving (Impronti gemm. d. Inst, i, 74). I also recognise PRAXITELES. 99 these two Niobids, the brother protected by his sister (D. A. K. Tf. 33 d. e.), in the group M. Cap. iii, 42. in which however more accurate in- formation is desirable regarding the restorations, by means of which the sister appears to have been brought from the upright posture into this stooping attitude. [Scarcely tenable, 0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. S. 178.1 Fabroni, Dissert. suUe statue appartenenti alia favola di Niobe. F. 1779 (with unsuitable illustrations from Ovid). H. Meyer, Propyliicn Bd. ii. St. 2, 3, and Amalthea i. s. 273 (Erganzungen). A. W. Schlegcl, Bibliotheque Universelle 1816. Litter. T. iii. p. 109. [(Euvres T. 2.1 Welcker, Zeitschr. i. s. 588 ff. Thiersch, Epochen, s. 315. 368. Wagner in the Kunstblatt 1830. N. 51 ff. [Welcker on the grouping of Niobe and her children, in the Rhein. Mus. iv. S. 233. Feuerbach Vatic. Ap. S. 250 ff. Guigniaut Religions de I'Antiqu. pi. 215 bis. Explic. p. 331-33. Ed. Gerhard Drei Vorles. 1844. S. 49 ff. Ad. Trendelenburg, Niobe, cinigo Betrachtungen liber das Schone u. Erhabene Berl. 1846.] Drawings in Fabroni, in the Galerie de Florence i . . iv. and the Galeria di Firenze, Stat. P. i. tv. 1 sqq. D. A. K. tf. 33, 34. Comp. §. 417. 127. Praxiteles also worked chiefly in marble, and for 1 the most part preferred subjects from the cycles of Diony- sus, Aphrodite and Eros. In the numerous figures which he 2 borrowed from the first, the expression of Bacchic enthusiasm as well as of roguish petulance was united with the most refined grace and sweetness. It was Praxiteles who in several 3 exquisite statues of Eros represented in consummate flower the beauty and loveliness of that age in boys which seemed to the Greeks the most attractive ; who in the unrobed Aph- 4 rodite combined the utmost luxuriance of personal charms with a spiritual expression in which the queen of love herself appeared as a woman needful of love, and filled with inward longing. However admirable these works might be, yet in 5 them the godlike majesty and sovereign might, which the earlier sculptors had sought to express even in the forms of this cycle, gave place to adoration of the corporeal attractions with which the deity was invested. The life of the artist with G the Hetcerae had certainly some influence in promoting this tendency ; many a one of these courtesans filled all Greece with her fame, and really seemed to the artist, not without reason, as an Aphrodite revealed to sense. Even in the cycle of 7 Apollo, Praxiteles thought fit to introduce many changes; thus in one of his most beautiful and finely imagined works he brought the youthful Apollo nearer in posture and figure to the nobler satyric forms than an earlier artist would have done. Altogether, Praxiteles, the master of the younger, as 8 Phidias was of the elder, Attic school, was almost entirely a sculptor of deities; heroes he seldom executed, athletes never. 1. Of Praxiteles as a worker in marble, Plin. xxxiv, 8, 19. xxxvi, 4, 5. Ph^dr. V. Prsef. Statius S. iv, 6, 26. 'O K»Tct,uI^ccs ukqus rol; T^tBlyoig iQyotg TO. rvjg ■^vx.vi? ^^S>?, Diodor. xxvi. Eel. 1. p. 512. Wess. 100 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. 2. Cycle of Demeter, see Preller Demeter u. Persephone, S. 91. Dionysus of Elis, Paus. vi, 26, 1, perhaps the one described by Callistra- tus 8, of brass, a beautiful youth crowned with ivy, engirt with a nebris, resting his lyre (?) on the thyrsus, and with a tender and dreamy expres- sion. Besides this youthful form, which was then but newly introduced, Praxiteles also represented the god in the older style, in mature man- hood, as in the group which Pliny describes, xxxiv, 8, 19, 10 : Liberum patrem et Ebrietatem nobilemque una Satyrum quern Graeci '7reQifi6r,rou cognominant. It is not ascertained whether the Satyr of the Tripod- street (Paus. i, 20, 1. Athen. xiii, 591 b. comp. Heyne, Antiq. Aufs. ii, s. 63) is the same. This is taken to be the one which is often to be met with leaning on the trunk of a tree and reposing after playing on the flute: M. PioCl. ii, 30; M. Cap. iii, 32; M. Fran9. ii. pi. 12; BouiU. i, 55. comp. Winckelm. W. iv. s. 75, 277. vi. s. 142. Visconti PioCl. ii. p. 60. Satyr at Megara, Paus. i, 43, 5. Praxiteles executed a group of Maenads, Thyads, Caryatic dancers (§. 365.) and Sileni in noisy procession. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 5. Anthol. Pal. ix, 756. Pan carrying a wine-skin, laughing nymphs, a Danae, in marble, Anthol. Pal. vi, 317. App. T. ii. p. 705. Plan, iv, 262. Hermes carrying the young Dionysus, in marble (Paus. v, 17, 1), probably copied in the relief, Zoega, Bassir. i, 3, and on the vase of Salpion. §. 384. 3. Eros. a. At Parion, in marble, naked, in the bloom of youth, Plin. xxxvi, 4, 5. b. At Thespise, of Pentelic marble with gilded wings (Julian Or. ii. p. 54 c. Spanh.), a boy in youthful bloom (h a^a), Lucian, Amor. 11. 17. Paus. ix, 27. Dedicated by Phryne (or Glycera), carried away by Caligula, then again by Nero, at the time of Pliny in Octaviae scholis (Manso Mythol. Abhandl. s. 361 ff.). At Thespiae stood a copy by Menodorus, Paus. Julian, from ignorance, speaks of the Thespian statue as if it were of brass, ^gypt. Anthol. Pal. App. ii. p. 687. Plan, iv, 203. c. The Eros of marble in the sacrarium of Hejus at Messana, similar to the Thespian, Cic. Verr. 1. iv, 2, 3. (Comp. Amalthea iii. s. 300. Wiener Jahrb. xxxix. s. 138). d. e. Two of brass, described by Callistratus 4, 11, the one reposing (Jacobs, p. 693), the other encircling his hair with a fillet. The Parian or Thespian statue is probably imi- tated in the beautiful Torso from Centocelle, with languishing expression, and hair arranged in the fashion of youth (Crobylus), M. PioCl. i, 12, Bouill. i, 15, the more perfect one, with wings, is preserved at Naples, M. Borbon. vi, 25. The Eros of the Elgin Collection in the Brit. Mus. is similar, only it is still more slender and delicate. R. xv. n. 305.* D. A. K. Tf. 35. [Brit. Mus. T. ix.] 4. Aphrodite, a. The one ordered by the Coans velata specie, that is entirely draped, Plin. xxxiv, 4, 5. b. That purchased by the Cnidians, in the temple of Aphrodite Euploea, placed in a chapel specially fitted up for it (jedicula quae tota aperitur, Plin., utag df/.cpl'^vqog, Lucian Amor. 13. vi^ttTKi'Trru iv\ x.^^V^ Anthol. Pal. App. T. ii. p. 674. Plan, iv, 160) ; after- wards in Byzantium, according to Cedrenus. Of Parian marble ; Lucian gives the essential features. Amor. 13 sq. Imag. 6, as follows : 2£ff>j^oV/ yiT^uri f4,ix,^ov VTrof^si^iZax. — ' 0(p^vav ro ivy^ocfcf^.ov Kctl rav otp'bothf^uv to vy^QV cii/,ot, ra (pxt'^^a kxI Kixot^iafA.ivu. — TlSiv Se ro KoiKhtg uvrvjg oLKohvirrov, ov^efiixg ia^ijTog ci,[A'7rf)c^vaYig, yiyvf^uurxi, iv'hviv oacc rri kri^oc yfii^ riji/ et/Si PRAXITELES, LEOCHARES. lOi OVK XV il'TTOi rig ag ^li/g 6 yihug. Myjgoy T£ koX xv^f^fig tie ^i,^i Ttx:Uft',i/\ti xx^i 'TTotog vtK^ifiai^ivoi pv^(/.oi. From this and irom the' corns 6f CnSdi's in honour of Plautilla we can recognise this Aphrodite in the statue in the gardens of the Vatican (Perrier, n. 85. Episcopius, n. 46, Race. 4), in the recently draped one in the M. PioCl. i, 11, and another brought to Munich (n. 135) from the Braschi palace (Flaxman, Lectures on Sculpt, pi. 22), and from these also in busts (in the Louvre 59. Bouill. i. 68) and in gems, Lippert Dactyl. I, i, 81. Her nudity was accounted for by the laying aside her dress in the bath with the left, the right covered her lap. The forms were grander, the countenance, notwithstanding an ex- pression of smiling languishment, was of a loftier character and rounder form, than in the Medicean Venus; the hair was bound by a simple fillet. The identity of the Cnidian and the Medicean Venus was main- tained by Meyer ad Winckelm. W. iv, ii. s. 143. Jenaer ALZ. 1806. Sept. 67. Gesch. der Kunst. i. s. 113, in opposition to Heyne Ant. Aufs. i. s. 123. Visconti M. PioCl. i. p. 18. Levezow, Ob die Mediceische Venus ein Bild der Knidischen sei. B. 1808. Thiersch Epochen, s. 288. — c. A brazen one, Plin. d. One of marble at Thespiae, Paus. ix, 27. e. An Aphrodite by Praxiteles stood in the Adonion at Alexandria on Latmus, Steph. B. s. V. 'AAsiayB^s/os. Peitho and Paregorus (7r«g(pfl6ff/f, Homer) with the Aphr. Praxis at Megara. Paus. i, 43. 6. According to Clem. Alex. Prot. p. 35. Sylb. Arnob. adv. gent, vi, 13, Praxiteles took Cratina as the model of his Aphrodite ; according to others Phryne, who also stood sculptured in marble by him at Thespiae (Paus. ix, 27) and gilt at Delphi (Athen. xiii. p. 591. Paus. x, 14, 5. Plut. de Pyth. orac. 14, 15), the trophy of Hellenic voluptuousness according to Crates. Comp. Jacobs in Wieland's Att. Mus. Bd. iii. s. 24. 51. Accord- ing to Strabo he also made a present of an Eros to Glycera, ix. p. 410. According to Pliny he represented the triumph of a sprightly hetaera over an Attic matron of melancholy disposition : Signa flentis matronae et meretricis gaudentis (Phryne). Comp. B. Murr " Die Mediceische Venus und Phryne." 7. Fecit et (ex aere) puberem [ApoUinem] subrepenti lacertae comi- nus sagitta insidiantem, quem Sauroctonon vocant, Plin. comp. Martial, Epigr. xiv, 172. Seitz maintained that this lizard-slayer is no Apollo, Mag. Encycl. 1807. T. v. p. 259. There is now perceived in this an allu- sion to augury by lizards (Welcker, Akad. Kunstmus. zu Bonn, s. 71 ff. A. Feuerbach Vatic. ApoU. s. 226), but playfully handled. Imitations, possessing naive grace and loveliness, very similar to the satyr of Prax- iteles in the posture of the feet, are often to be met with (Vill. Borgh. St. 2. n. 5. Winckehn. M. I. i. n. 40. M. Royal, i. pi. 16 ; M. PioCl. i, 13 ; a brazen one in Villa Albani) ; also on gems (Millin, Pierr. grav. pi. 5 and elsewhere). There is also mention made of an Apollo with his sister and mother ; Leto and Artemis several times (osculum quale Praxi- teles habere Dianam credidit, Petron.), and numerous other statues of deities by Praxiteles. SiUig C. A. p. 387. On the encaustic treatment of the statues of Praxiteles, §. 310. 128. A like spirit of art animated Lcochares, whose Gany- 102 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. ' » c « ^. 'iilede waV an' 'equally noble and charming conception of the /'-, ; jf^yOftriteof Z^us borne upwards by the eagle, although the ' "'2' subject 'hW always a questionable side. The striving after personal charms still more predominates in the Hermaphro- dite, an artistic creation for which we are probably indebted 3 to Polycles. The tendency to the affecting is shown particu- larly in Silanion's dying Jocasta, a brazen statue, with deadly- 4^ pale countenance. Timotheus (§. 125, R. 4) and Bryaxis also seem to have been fellow -artists and contemporaries of Praxiteles; they both ornamented the tomb of Mausolus 5 jointly with Scopas and Leochares, after 01. 106, 4 (§. 149). There were likewise portrait-statues of Macedonian princes by Leochares and Bryaxis, and in Athens itself [where Deme- 6 trius erected models, §. 123, 2.] many artists were employed on honorary statues (comp. §. 420). All the masters just named (only information is wanting as to Timotheus) were Athenians ; they form together with Scopas and Praxiteles the newer school of Athens. 1. Leochares (fecit) aquilam sentientem quid rapiat in Ganymede, et cui ferat, parcentemque unguibus {(piihoy.ivoiig ovv%i(}(ji, Nonn. xv, 281) eti- am per vestem, Plin. xxxiv, 19, 17. comp. Straton, Anthol. Pal. xii, 221. The statue in the M. PioCl. iii, 49, is a decided imitation. It represents the devotedness of the favourite boy to the erastes in the allusive man- ner of antiquity. For that the eagle denotes the lover himself, is brought out more clearly for example on the coins of Dardanus (Choiseul, Gouf- fier Voy. Pitt. ii. pi. 67, 28), where the subject is more boldly handled. Ganymede is therefore even placed together with Leda, as in the por- tico at Thessalonica (Stuart, Ant. of Athens iii. chap. 9. pi. 9. 11), as mascula and muliebris Venus. Hence it is probable that this concep- tion of ancient art (§. 351) also belongs to the same period. 2. Polycles Hermaphr. nobilem fecit, Plin. That the elder Polycles, of this period, is here meant, becomes still more probable from observing that in Pliny xxxiv, 19, 12 sqq, the alphabetically enumerated piastre stand again under each letter in the same way that they were found af- ter one another in the historical sources (a rule which is tolerably gen- eral, and by which perhaps the age of some other artists can be deter- mined) ; accordingly this Polycles lived before Phoenix the scholar of Lysippus. Whether his hermaphrodite was standing or lying (§. 392, 4), is a question difficult to answer. 3. On the Jocasta see Plut. de aud. poet. 3. Qusest. Sym. v, 1. 5. By Leochares, statues of Amyntas, Philip, Alexander, Olympias, and Eurydice, of gold and ivory. Pans, v, 20 ; of Isocrates, Plut. Vit. x. Oratt. A king Seleucus by Bryaxis. Polyeuctos against Demades asks, in Apsines Art. Rhetor, p. 708, whether an honorary statue held a shield,^ the akrostolion of a ship, a book, or prayed to the gods % [Longin. do invent, ed. Walz T. ix. p. 646.] 6. Even the reliefs on the Choregic monument of Lysicrates (§. 108) : — ^Dionysus and his satyrs quelling the Tyrrhenians — may show clearly SCULPTURES OF XANTUUS. 103 the state of art at Athens during this period; disposition and design excellent, the expression in the highest degree animated, the execution however already less careful. Stuart i. ch. 4. Meyer, Gcsch. Tf. 25 27 D. A. K. Tf. 27. comp. §. 385. [128.* Here lies the extreme boundary beyond which the second large monument on the acropolis of Xantlius cannot be brought down. It was not till his third journey that Sir Richard Fellows, after the most assiduous excavation, had the good fortune to discover the widely scattered constituent parts, out of which he afterwards ingeniously attempted to re-construct in design the building known under the name of mausoleum, or monument in honour of Harpagus. And it is still a question whether this restoration of the Ionic building can establish, with complete certainty, that the statues, which even surpass the Mcenads of Scopas in boldness and lightness of representation, belonged to the building whose masterly friezes point rather to the time of the Phigalian sculptures. There are two of these friezes, the one 3 f . 4 in,, the other 1 f. 11 in. high, the larger one consisting of twelve marble tablets. The composition as a whole and the connexion of particular parts has not been ascertained, as , only a portion has been discovered. The larger frieze exhibits a battle with the fire and animation of the representations of Phigaha, but a real battle, and with the imitation of reahty even in the accoutrements of the combatants, by which it is difficult to distinguish the two sides. There are distinctly to be seen, Ionic hophtse in long drapery, Lycians such as Herodotus (vii, 92) describes them, others wear anaxyrides, the archers' leathern armour ; two kinds of helmets, the laiseion (Philostr. Imag. p. 323). On five tablets there are hopKtae fighting with horsemen, on others merely foot soldiers, the most diversified battle groups. The lances, swords and bows were not expressed ; only as an exception to this principle we find a shaft in marble, and a hole for inserting the sword in the hand. On the smaller frieze is represented the capture of a city, a defeat outside, which is viewed from the walls by the besieged, attack on the principal gate, a sally, storming ladders placed against well manned, triple walls towering above one another, ambassadors surrendering the city. Before the conqueror with Phrygian cap and mantle, who is seated on a throne and over whom a parasol is held (a sign of the high- est rank, which passed from the Persians to Egyptians, and is even in use at the present day in Marocco, that of the imperial prince among the spoils of the French), two old men stand speaking, accompanied by five men in armour. On a corner stone there are prisoners, who are not soldiers, led away with their hands tied at their backs. Detailed descrip- tions given by Sam. Birch, Britannia xxx. p. 192—202 (with explana- tions which are to be received with -caution), and E. Braun in the N. Rhein. Mus. iii. S. 470., afterwards enlarged in the Archaol. Zeit. 1844. S. 358 fi". comp. Bull. 1846. p. 70. Now, these scenes are referred to the conquest of Xanthus by the general of Cyrus; on this point there is hitherto no disagreement with Sir C. Fellows (Xanthian Marbles 1842. p. 39). Col. Leake indeed assumes (Transact, of the II. Soc. of Liter. Second Series i. p. 260 ss.), on account of the style, that the monument 104 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. of Harpagus was not raised soon after the taking of the city (01. 58, 3), but on the contrary not till about 01. 70, perhaps by the grandson of Harpagus, who figures in Herodotus 01. 71, 4 ; judging from it, we might rather come down another century (01. 95) "or two;" but the history of Asia Minor after Alexander wiU not allow this. However, we may abide by the one century, as we would besides think of the period of Scopas and Praxiteles, and this objection of history against the evidence of the style as to the age is removed : Sir Edward Head also (in the Classical Museum, No. ii.), although he agrees with Leake in other respects (p. 224. 228) assigns the monument to 01. 83 or 96, or even later (p. 230). But the contents of the frieze itself are opposed to this suppo"^ sition : they are not merely different from the history in details as Leake apologetically admits, but entirely and essentially, and are even in some measure directly the opposite. After the Xanthians had been driven back into the city by the masses of Harpagus, they collected together their wives and children, their slaves and other property, in the acropolis^ consumed them with fire, and then, bound by a fearful oath, they rushed upon the enemy, and sought in combat a common death, so that Xanthus received an entirely new population, with the exception of eighty heads of families who were in other countries at the time of the destruction. It is impossible therefore that the Persians, who passed over the dead into the open acropolis, could be represented negotiat- ing with the Xanthians during the heat of the storming, nearly about the time when the true history, — whose peculiar nature does not admit a well-grounded suspicion of distortion or exaggeration, and which could neither be artistically concealed nor forgotten in general, — was related by Herodotus or soon after. Add to this, that the frieze does not exhibit any Persians fighting, who must have been conspicuous in the army of Har- pagus above the Ionian and ^Eolian auxiliaries. So important an histo- rical representation compels us therefore to resort to another supposition. The Xanthians who also defended their city with similar obstinacy against Alexander, and again destroyed themselves with their wives and children in the war of Brutus and the Triumvirs, after the enemy had effected an entrance by stratagem, might have also at an early period have made an attempt, like the lonians, to shake off the Persian yoke, the bad result of which was triumphantly and threateningly presented by tliis monument to the eyes of their descendants ; it is probable, however, that this would not have been passed over by Herodotus. Or the representation of the conquered city does not refer to Xanthus, but to external deeds of the Persian commissary in Xanthus, as the Greek verses on the pillar of peace from Xanthus mentioned by Appian, and now in London, covered over with Lycian characters, extol the son of a Harpagus for proving himself in the land-fight {xsf^ai '^ruhnv) the best among all the Lycians — who fought therefore along with, not against him— destroyed many fortresses, and procured for his kinsmen a share of the dominion (the conquered foreign cities, under the royal sanction). This was probably in the war with Euagoras, who also caused Cilicia to revolt, and was beaten by the Persians in a sea fight, 01. 98, 2, and six years afterwards in Cyprus itself (Franz in the Archaol. Zeit. 1844. S. 279). The lonians, then, were here also mercenaries in the service of Artaxerxes, as there were probably Arcadians fighting on the other side, the Swiss of antiquity, as we know from ancient comedy. Of the two pediments, there are pre- PLASTIC ART. 105 served the half of one with a battle scene, and pieces of the other with two gods enthroned and standing figures probably with thank-oflferinga to the gods for the victory, and this perhaps on the fa9ade. Among the statues of different size, for the most part very incomplete, which Sir C. Fellows has placed in the intercolumnia of the front and back pediments and on the acroteria, our admiration is most excited by the female figures which are represented hastening away, either inclined to the right or left, in highly animated movement, partly looking round, whereby the not less bold than inventive hand of the master has devel- oped so many beauties in lines of the body — to which the seemingly transparent drapery adheres — and the flying masses of drapery, that in consideration of them we may easily overlook what is amiss or incom- plete in the rapid execution. These peculiarities of treatment may be distinguished from antique hardness. On the plinths of these figures there is a fish, a larger fish, a lobster, a spiral shell, a bird which we must in this connexion take to be a sea-bird, not a dove ; and besides those figures with their corresponding signs, we may also assume that there were similar animals attached to two similar figures which be- longed to the series, although they are wanting with the greater portion of the whole. Now, if these symbols evidently indicate Nereids, we can only conceive their flight to be occasioned by the disturbance of their realm from a sea-fight, such as that against Euagoras, or by a battle on shore, which compelled the enemy to rush helter-skelter to their ships, as for instance in Herod, v, 116 ; and only on this supposition could Nereids be introduced appropriately on a monument commemorating a victory. In that case they would also furnish a further proof that the capture of Xanthus by the first Harpagus is not represented in the friezes, but rather a later victory of the Persian authorities over a re- belUous outbreak. But the unmistakeable reference of these Nereids to a sea-fight seems also to lend a strong confirmation to the architectonic combination that they belonged to the same building as these friezes. This union of the tumult of battle on shore and (allusively) at sea, with the image of stormed cities, produces a good general effect. In this way was the Assyrian and Persian custom of representing battles (§. 245.* 248. R. 2) here imitated by an Ionian hand and in the purely Greek style. Besides this monument there have been also brought to London from Xanthus, two lions, the tomb named from the winged chariot with remark- able representations (Asia M. p. 228. Lycia p. 165), a frieze of chariot and horsemen (Lycia p. 173), a chase, probably from a tomb, as well as the procession of peasants paying their tribute in tame and wild animals and other natural productions (Lycia p. 176),— all of the best period of art. The following also seem to be very good, the fragments of a battle of Amazons and a festal procession. Ibid. p. 177, Bellerophon vanquish- ing the Chimsera, p. 136, which is of colossal size and has also been taken from a tomb ; and not afewcf the reliefs from sepulchral monuments, which represent merely domestic scenes or war (p. 209 does not even seem to form an exception) contain very excellent and pecuUar compositions, p. 116 (comp. the title-plate, where we must read ME202), 118. 135. 141. 166. 178. 197. 198. 200. 206. 207. 208.] 106 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. 1 129. As the first artists of this school still bore in them the spirit of Phidias, although in a state of transformation, and therefore chiefly endeavoured to express an inward spir- itual life in gods or other mythic shapes; so, on the other hand, Euphranor and Lysippus especially continued the Ar- givo-Sicyonic school — that of Polyclitus, the aim of which was always more directed to fine corporeal forms, and the re- 2 presentation of athletic and heroic energy. Among heroes, the character of Hercules was perfected by Lysippus in a new style, and the powerful structure of his limbs, developed by labour and exertion (§. 410), was piled up to that colossal size which the art of later sculptors always strove to at- 3 tain. The statues of athletes did not now occupy the artists so much as formerly, although six sculptures of this kind are quoted as works of the incredibly active Lysippus ; on the contrary it was chiefly idealised portraits of powerful princes 4 that the age demanded. In the form of Alexander, Lysippus even knew how to lend expression to defects, and, as Plutarch says, he alone could duly blend the softness in his eyes and the posture of his neck with what was manly and lion-like 5 in Alexander's mien. Accordingly, his portrait-statues were always animated and skilfully conceived ; whilst, on the con- trary, other artists of the time, as Lysistratus, the brother of Lysippus, who was the first to take casts of the lace in stucco, merely made it the aim of their art to produce a faithful re- semblance of the external form before them. 1. Cicero, Brut. 86, 296 (comp. Petron. Satyr. 88), Polycleti Dory- phorum sibi Lysippus magistrum fuisse aiebat. Exactly as Polyclitus did §. 120, he executed according to Pliny destriii^entem se. Hence also why they have been confounded, Sillig C. A. p. 254. N. 7. 2. Euphranor (as painter) primus videtur expressisse dignitates her- oum, Plin. xxxv, 40, 25. — Lysippian statues of Hercules, Sillig C. A. p. 259. a. Hercules reposing for a little from some great undertaking, the Famesian colossal statue (Maffei, Race. 49. Piranesi, Statue 11. M. Borbon. iii, 23, 24) found in the baths of Caracalla, under which em- peror the statue probably was brought to Rome (Gerhard Neapels Bildw. S. 32.), executed by the Athenian Glycon after an original by Lysippus, as is proved by the inscription on an inferior copy (Bianchini, Palazzo dei Cesari tv. 18). The hand with the apples is new, the genuine legs were substituted in 1787 for those by Gugl. della Porta. The Hercules with the name of Lysippus is in the Pitti palace, and a second copy with the name TATK-QN at Volterra in the house Guarnacci. The Farnesian statue in Fea's Winckelmann ii. tv. 7. iii. p. 459, a smaller copy in marble Gal. di Fircnze Stat. T. iii. tv. 108, small ones in bronze 110. 111. p. 25 sqq. Of little bronze figures there is no reckoning the number, scarcely any other famous original has so many. On the reference of the statue, see Zoega Bassir. ii. p. 86, 0. Jahn Telephos u. Troilos S. 63. A statue precisely similar is described by Libanius (Petersen, De Libanio Com- PLASTIC ART. I07 ment. ii. Havn. 1827) ; the figure is also often to be met with othcrwiso in statues and gems, and on coins (Petersen p. 22) ; the head is perhaps surpassed by that in Marbles of the Brit. Mus. i. 11, in depth of expres- sion. Corap. Winckelm. W. vi, i. s. 169. ii. s. 156. Meyer, Gesch. s. 128. D. A. K. Tf. 38. b. Hercules resting after the completion of his labours a colossus at Tarentum, brought by Fabius Max. to the Capitol, after- wards taken to Byzantium, described by Nicetas De Statuis Constan- tinop. c. 5. p. 12 ed. Wilken. [Fabr. Bibl. Gr. vi. ed. 1. p. 408.] lie sat, anxiously stooping, on a basket (in reference to the cleaning of Augeas' stalls), on which lay the lion's hide, and supported the left arm on his bent knee, the right lay on the right leg which hung down. This is evidently the figure so frequent on gems, in Lippert, Dact. i. 285 — 87. ii. 231. Suppl. 334 — 346. c. Hercules bowed down by the might of Eros, and despoiled of his weapons (Athol. Pal. ii. p. 655. Plan, iv, 103), pro- bably preserved in gems in a figure similar in form to the preceding. Lippert, Dact. i. 280, 281. ii. 225—27. Suppl. 331. Gal. di Fir. v. tv. 6, 2. 3. d. A small bronze Hercules {sTrn^ot'^i^ios), described by Statius S. iv, 6, and Martial ix, 44, of the grandest form and serene expression, as if at the banquet of the gods, sitting on a stone covered with the lion's hide, a goblet in his right hand, the left resting on his club. Evidently (according to Heyne) the model of the Torso (§. 160 and 411). [The Hercules of gilded bronze in the Capitol puts one in mind of Lysippus by its more slender proportions, its longer and less thick neck, and by its excellence, although it is somewhat injured by mannerism and overload- ing in the execution, as is the case with imitations of other masterly compositions. The figure also occurs on coins of Berytus (Rasche Suppl. i. p. 1361) and others.] 3. Euphranor's Alexander et Philippus in quadrigis, Plin. Lysippus fecit et Alexandrum Magnum multis operibus a pueritia ejus orsus — idem fecit Hephgestionem — Alexandri venationem — turmam Alexandri, in qua amicorum ejus (krui^av) imagines summa omnium similitudine expressit (Alexander, around him 25 hetaeri, who had fallen at the Granicus, 9 warriors on foot, see Plin. comp. Vellei. Paterc. i, 11, 3. Arrian i, 16, 7. Plut. Alex. 16) — fecit et quadrigas multorum generum. On Alexander's Edict, SiUig C. A. p. 66. N. 24. 4. Chief statue of Alexander by Lysippus, with the lance (Plut. de Isid. 24) and the later inscription : A-vouaovurt B' 'ioiKiv 6 ;),j«Ax£o$- els A/ot 'KtvaaaV Tccu vtt sfiol ri^if^coct, Zev, ai) B' "OAy^-^roi/ &%& (Plut. de Alex. virt. ii, 2. Alex. 4. Tzetz. Chil. viii. v. 426, (fee). An equestrian statue of Alexander as founder (of Alexandria, as it seems) had ray-like waving hair. Libanius Ekphr. T. iv. p. 1120 R. On the agreement in character of Alexander's statues, Appulei. Florid, p. 118 Bip. The hair arched up from the forehead (relicina frons, uvccaTohyi rijg k6,uyi:, Plut. Pomp. 2) is always one of the principal distinguishing marks. From the statue with the lance, the helmeted and pecuHarly inclined head is preserved on the coins of the Macedonians from the times of the Cesars (Cousinery, Voy- age dans la Maced. T. i. pi. 5. n. 3, 5, 8) ; with it corresponds the Gabinian statue (Visconti, Mon. Gab. 23) and the similar head of the statue in the Louvre, 684. Bouill. ii, 21. Clarac, pi. 263. On the contrary the head of Alexander in the Capitol, taken by many for Ilelius (Winckelm. M. I. n. 175), may have been taken from that equestrian statue. The Ron- 108 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. danini statue, at Munich (n. 152. Guattani M. I. 1787 Sett.), of Alexan- der arming himself for battle, has little of the Lysippian character, especially in the proportions. The bronze of Alexander struggling in the press of battle is excellent, M. Borb. iii, 43 b. Comp. §.163, 6. The head of the dying Alexander at Florence is an archaeological enigma. Morghen, Principj del disegno tv. 4 b. Le Blond Le vrai portrait d' Al- exandre. Mem. de I'lnst. Nat. Beaux Arts i. p. 615. As a true portrait, but executed without the spirit of Lysippus, the Cav. Azara's bust is of most value, in the Louvre, 132. Visconti Iconogr. Grecque, pl. 39, 1. Meyer, Gesch. Tf. 13. 29. D. A. K. Tf. 39. 40. On Alexander as the son of Zeus and Hercules §. 158, 2. 6. Hominis autem imaginem gypso e facie ipsa primus omnium ex- pressit ceraque in eam formam gypsi infusa emendare instituit Lysistra- tus. — Hie et similitudinem reddere instituit ; ante eum quam pulcherri- mas facere studebant (on the contrary §. 123). Plin. xxxv, 44. 1 130. Observation of nature and the study of the early masters, which Lysippus closely combined with each other, led the artists to many refinements in detail {argutiw ope- rwrn) ; the hair in particular was arranged by Lysippus more 2 naturally, probably more for pictorial effects. These artists also directed the most earnest study to the proportions of the human body ; but here the striving to exalt especially portrait- figures, as it were, beyond the human standard, by an extra- ordinary degree of slenderness, led them to a new system of more delicate proportions, which was begun by Euphranor (also by Zeuxis in painting), but first carried out harmonically by Lysippus, and which afterwards became prevalent in Greek 3 art. It must however be admitted that this system sprang, less from a warm and cordial conception of nature, which particularly in Greece displayed itself to greatest advantage in more compact figures, than from an endeavour to elevate the 4 work beyond the real. The tendency likewise to the colossal which will be found to predominate in the next period, already announced itself clearly in the works of these artists. 1. Propriae hujus (Lysippi) videntur esse argutiae operum, custoditae in minimis quoque rebus. Plin. xxxiv, 19, 6. Statuaria3 arti plurimum traditur contulisse capillum exprimendo. Ibid. Comp. Meyer, Gesch. s. 130. Quintilian particularly applauds the Veritas in his and Praxiteles' works xii, 10. — Lysippus and Apelles criticised each other's works, Syne- sius Ep. i. p. 160. Petav. 2. Euphr. — primus videtur usurpasse symmetriam, sed fuit in uni- versitate corporum exilior, capitibus articulisque grandior (precisely the same of Zeuxis xxxv, 36, 2) : volumina quoque composuit de symme- tria. — Lys. stat. arti plur. trad. cont. capita minora faciendo quam antiqui, corpora graciliora siccioraque, per quae proceritas signorum major vide- retur. Non habet Latinum nomen symmetria quam diligentissime cus- todivit, nova intactaque ratione quadratas (§. 120) veterum staturas per- mutando. Plin. xxxiv, 19, 6. xxxv, 40, 25. Comp. below §. 332. On his ENGRAVED STONES AND DIES. 109 principal of representing quales viderentur homines, Wien. Jahrb. xxxix. s. 140. 4. Fecit et colossos (Euphranor), Plin. xxxv, 40, 25. Lysippus' Jupi- ter at Tarentum was 40 cubits high ; comp. Silig C. A. p. 257, 259. THE ART OF ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES. 131. The luxury of ring- wearing at this period raised the i art of the dactylioglyphist to the height which it was capable of attaining in proportion to the other branches of the forma- tive art ; although the accounts of writers do not mention the 2 name of any artist of this class, except that of Pyrgoteles who engraved Alexander s signet-ring. In gems also we can here 3 and there find a composition and treatment of forms corre- sponding to the Phidian sculptures ; but works of this descrip- tion in which the spirit of the school of Praxiteles is mani- fested are far more numerous. 1. On the rings of the Cyrenseans (Eupolis Maricas) and the emerald of Ismenias the aulete, bought in Cyprus, with an amymone, uElian V. H. xii, 30. Plin. xxxvii, 3. Musicians in particular were richly adorned with them {a(p^oi,yihoyv)(,a,^'yox,of^viTo(.i) and likewise ornamented their in- struments in the same way ; comp. Lucian Adv. Indoct. 8. Appulei. Flo- rid, p. 114. Bip. 2. On the pretended gems of Pyrgoteles, Winckelm. Bd. vi. s. 107 fF. Comp. FioriUo, Kleine Schriften ii. s. 185. A fact adduced by R. Ro- chette, Lettre a M. Schorn, p, 49, shows that, even during antiquity, the name of this as well as other famous artists was fraudulently used. AVe have no ground for assigning to this period other names which are only known through gems (see v. Kohler in Bottiger's Archaeol. u. Kunst. i. s. 12) ; however some of the more celebrated stone-engravers were per- haps not much later. 132. There was also great care bestowed on the engraving 1 of coin-dies, often in districts and towns which are not other- wise known as the seats of schools of art; yet, during the first half of the period the design of devices on coins, although often grandly conceived and full of character, still retained for the most part a certain hardness; in the second half, on the con- trary, especially in the cities of Sicily, the highest and bright- est point that has ever been reached in beauty of expression was attained (but accompanied often with a surprising awk- wardness in the mechanical process of stamping). At the 2 same time the art was advanced by the custom of multiply- ing the already extremely numerous types of coins, by the commemoration of victories in sacred games, deliverance from dangers by the help of the gods, and other events which adnntted of mythological representation ; and thus we have 110 . HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. often presented to us here in the smallest compass a plastic scene replete with ingenious thoughts and allusions. 1. In coins, to the first half of this period (before the end of the Pelo- ponnesian war) belong, — ^besides those of Athens which maintained their primitive impress even in the best age (see Diog. Laert. vii, 1, 19.) — many of Corinth, of Argos with the wolf, also those of Sicyon or Secyon (Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 336) with the sharply drawn chimera ; in Sicily the coins of Selinus with the river gods Selinus and Hypsas (between 01. 80 and 94), those of Naxus with the noble head of the bearded Dionysus, and the saucy form of the old Satyr, also the fine Agrigentine coins with the two eagles on the hare (before 01. 93, 3). — The fine silver pieces of Pheneus and Stymphalus were probably struck after the Peloponnesian war, when Arcadia was enriched and polished by the school of PolycK- tus ; then about the 104th 01. the coins of the Arcadian league with the head of Zeus and Pan ; from that time begin the coins of Megalopolis and Messene which were generally inferior. About 01. 100, when Olynthus presided over the Chalcidian confederation, the Chalcidian silver money ■with the head of Apollo and the cithern, was current there (See Cadal- v^ne Recueil, pi. 1, 28) ; the splendid coins of Opus are worthy of the best period, as well as many of Thessaly, Lesbos, Cos, and Crete. To those of Philip are related those of Philippi, but of remarkably hard design. In Italy many coins of Tarentum, Heracleia, Thurii, Velia, and Metapon- tum belong to this period ; and in like manner the costly master-pieces of Sicilian engravers (comp, §. 317), the great Syracusan pentekontalitres at the head (Etrusker i. s. 327. Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 81), are to be ascribed to one age, that of the two Dionysii (Payne Knight, Archseol. Brit. xix. p. 369), in which also the towns of SicUy dependent on Carthage partici- pated in the same zeal for art. But when Timoleon restored (01. 109, 2) the colonial connexion of Syracuse with Corinth, it is probable that the great amount of money in Sicily was struck, with less attention to beauty, with the head of Pallas and Pegasus, which were also in use in the other colonies of Corinth at that time (with other initial letters instead of the Corinthian Koppa), R. Rochette, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 311 sqq. Coins of the Campanians in Sicily by the Due de Luynes, Annali d. Inst. i. p. 150. Engravings of Greek coins available for the history of art in Landon's Numismatique du Voy. du J. Anacharsis, 2 vol. 1818, in the more recent works of T. Combe, Mionnet, Millingen, R. Rochette, Cadalvene, Cousinery, &c. Very fine ones in the Specimens of ancient coins of Magna Grecia and Sicily, sel. from the cabinet of the Lord ISTorthwick, drawn by del Prate and engr. by H. Moses ; the text by G. H. Nohden. 1824. 25. D. A. K. Tf. 41, 42. [Due de Luynes. Choix de med. Grecques 1840. fo. 17 Tf. Prokesch Collection in Gerhard's Arch. Zeit. Tf. 21. 22. 32. 41. 43. Aker- mann. Ancient Coins of Cities and Princes. L. 1844—46. P. 1 — 6. 8vo.] 2. Plut. Alex. 4. says of Philip that he put the Olympic victories on his coins ; with regard to those of Sicily the same is proved by ocular evidence. — The Arcadians denoted their sovereignty over Olympia, from the treasures of which they paid their troops, by delineating the head of Olympian Zeus, and their god Pan sitting on the rock of Olympia and sending forth the eagle of Zeus. On the coins of Selinus we see Apollo and Artemis approaching as plague-sending deities, but at the same time PAINTINa. Ill on the reverse the gods of the rivers, with the waters of which Empcdo- cles had removed the pestilential air of the marshes, offering a libatioa to Esculapius. The coins of Alexandria looked very well without being good in comparison with the Attic tetradrachms, as Zeno states in Diog. L. vii. 1. 18. 4 PAINTING. 133. At this period, painting reached, in three great stages, i a degree of perfection which made it, at least in the opinion of the ancients, a worthy rival of the plastic art. Ancient 2 painting, however, remained more closely allied to sculpture than the modern, by reason of the predominance of forms over the effects of light; sharpness and distinctness of design, separation of the different figures in order not to confuse their outlines, a uniform distribution of light and clear illumina- tion throughout, and the avoidance of great foreshortenings (notwithstanding considerable knowledge of linear perspec- tive) still belonged, although not without exceptions [§. 140, 2.], to its character in general. 2. Artifices etiam quum plura in unam tabulam opera contulerunt, spatiis distinguunt ne umbras in corpora cadant. Quintil. viii. 5, 26. The shading should merely make the corporeal form of each figure stand out by itself. 134. The first painter of great renown was Polygnotus the i Thasian, who was naturalized at Athens and a friend of Cimon. Accurate drawing and a noble and distinct manner of 2 characterizing the most different mythological forms was his great merit; his female figures also possessed charms and grace. His large tabular pictures were conceived with great know- 3 ledge of legends, and in an earnest religious spirit, and were arranged according to architectonico-symmetrical principles. 1. Polygnotus, son of the painter Aglaophon, probably at Athens, from 79, 2, Painted for the Poecile, the Theseion, Anaceion, perhaps also the portico at the Propylaea, the Delphian temple (Pliny), the Lesche of the Cnidians, the temple of Athena at Plataja, at Thespiae. Bottiger, Ar- cheeol. der Mahl. i. s. 274. SiUig C. A. p. 22, 372. De Phidia i, 3. 2. ' HSoy^a(pof, »ja;;coV, i. 8. the painter of noble characters, Aristot. Poet. 6, 15. Pol. viii, 5. Comp. Poet. 2, 2, and §. 138. Instituit os apcr- ire, etc. Plin. xxxv, 9, 35. Lucian praises the beautiful lines of the eye- brows, the soft bloom of the cheeks, a light disposition of delicate dra- pery (sa^vircc eg to ■KiTrrcnrurov e^nQyua/niunu). Imagg. 7. Primus muUeres lucida veste pinxit, Plin. [Comp. Nouv. Ann. de la Sect. Fran9. de I'Inst. Archeol. ii. p. 389 sq. where a resemblance to the style of Polyg- notus is sought for in the vase with Boreas and Oreithyia pi. 22, 23. now in Munich. Kindred to these are Vases Luynes, pi. 21, 22. Achilles tak- ing leave of Nereus, pi. 28. Zeus committing the infant Bacchus to the 112 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. Naiads, pi. 34. and in Gerhard's Trinkschalen Tf. 9. Peleus and Thetis, &c.] On the technical treatment of his paintings, comp. §. 319. [135. R. 3.] 3. On the pictures in the Lesche, Ilion overthrown, and the departure of the Greeks on the right ; on the left the visit of Odysseus to the ne- ther world, Paus. x, 25—31. Caylus, Hist, de I'Ac. T. xxvii. p. 34. F. und J. Riepenhausen Gemalde des Polygnot in der Lesche zu Delphi. Th. i. 1805. mit Erlauterungen von Chr. Schlosser (the Destruction of Troy, comp. therewith Meyer in the Jen. ALZ. JuH 1805, and Bottiger Archaeol. der Mahl. s. 314). Peintures de Polygn. a Delphes dessinees et gravees d'apr^s la descr, de Pausanias, par F. et J. Riepenhausen, 1826, 1829 (on the composition comp. Gott. G. Anz. 1827, s. 1309). [0. Jahn Die Gemalde des Polygnot in der Lesche zu Delphi, Kiel 1844.] In the picture of the infernal world particular regard must be had to the allu- sions to the mysteries, which were introduced partly in the corners (the priestess Cleoboea, Ocnus, the Uninitiated), and partly in the middle. Here sat the mystagogue Orpheus in a circle of bards and old men, sur- rounded by five Trojan and five Grecian heroes. Comp. Rathgeber, in the Encycl. under Ocnus. In the picture of Ilion, Neoptolemus, the un- wearied avenger of blood (whose tomb was in the neighbourhood), pre- sents an interesting contrast to the gentle Menelaus, who only seeks to carry off the beauteous prize. With this picture that on the Nola vase, Tischbein's Homer ix, 5, 6, held to be somewhat antique, has some, but only a few, features in common. On these pictures in general, Corre- spond, de Diderot, T. iii. p. 270 sq. (ed. 1831). Gothe's W. xliv. s. 97. 135. Together witli Polygnotus several other painters (chiefly Athenians, but also Onatas of Mginsi) are mentioned with distinction ; for the most part they decorated temples and porticoes with large historical pictures abounding in figures, the subjects of which they also willingly took from the history of the times. One of these, Dionysius, equalled the expressive and elegant drawing of Polygnotus, but wanted his grandeur and freedom. 1. Iphion the Corinthian in Simonides ccxxi. Schneidew. Sillax the Rhegian, about 75. Ibid, ccxxii. Onatas also a painter, from 78 — 83. MicoN of Athens, painter and brass-caster, distinguished particularly in horses, 77 — 83. (SiUig C. A. p. 275, comp. above §. 99, 1. In Simonides ccxix. and ccxx. we must with Scheidewin read ^Iikuu. MIkuu is also to be restored in Arrian, Alex, vii, 13). Dionysius of Colophon, Micon's contemporary (comp. Simonides §. 99. Rem. 1). Aristophon, brother of Polygnotus. Euripides (the tragic poet, Eurip. Vita ed. Elmsleius) about the same time. Timagoras of Ohalcis, 83. PANiENus of Athens, Phidias' ii'hih(pthovg, about 83 — 86. AaATHARCHCs, scene- and house-painter, from about 80 (so that )\q fecit scendm for the last trilogy of j3Eschylus) till 90. (Comp. Volkel's Nachlass, s,'103, 149). Aglaophon, son of Aristophon, as it appears, 90 (comp. i^id. 113). Cephissodorus, Phrylos, Euenor of Ephesus, Demophilus of Himera, Neseas of Thasus, 90. Cleisthenes of Eretria (above §. 107. Rem. 3), about 90. Nicanor, Arcesilaus of Paros, encaustic painters, about 90 (?). Xeuxippus of Heraclea, about 90 PAINTING; APOLLODORUS. 113 (comp. Heindorf ad Plat. Protag. p. 495). Cleagoras of PhliuB, 91 (Xen. Anab. vii, 8, 1). Apollodorus of Athens, 93. 2. In the Poecile (braccatis illita Persis) there were : 1. The Battle of Marathon by Micon (or Panajnus, also Polygnotus) ; the generals of both armies likenesses ; the Plata3ans with Boeotian helmets (Demosth. ag. Neajra, p. 1377), Gods and heroes were mingled together ; the bat- tle taken at several stages ; besides the flight to the ships (Bottiger, Archaeol. der Mahl. s. 246). 2. The capture of Troy and the judgment on the violation of Cassandra, by Polygnotus. 3. Battle of the Atheni- ans and Amazons, by Micon. 4. Battle at (Enoe. See Bottiger, s. 278. [0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. S. 16.] Plato, Euthyphr. p. 6, speaks also of battles of gods with which the temples (?) were painted. [The same statement §. 319. R. 5. without any mark of doubt.] 3. Dionysius, according to ^lian, V. H. iv, 3, imitated closely the style of Polygnotus in regard to the representation of character, the pas- sions, gestures, and delicate drapery, but without his grandeur ; comp. Aristot. Poet. 2. and Plut. Timol. 36. who calls his works forced and la- borious, as Pronto ad Verum 1. non inlustria [referring to the mate- rials] ; in Pliny he is called oiu^^a7ro'y^x(pog, in the same way as Demetrius §. 123. 136. But Apollodorus of Athens, the sciagrapher, was the 1 first who directed a deeper study to the gradations of light and shade, and by these essential requisites he constituted an epoch. His art was doubtless built on the perspective scene- 2 painting of Agatharchus (§. 107. Rem. 3), and its immediate aim was to deceive the eyes of the spectator by the semblance of reality; but this involved a sacrifice in regard to careful drawing (hence many unfavourable criticisms by the ancients on sciagraphy altogether) ; however, it was at all events a necessary preliminary step for the higher development of art 1. Apollodorus invented (pBo^oiv kxi uTcox^miv cKtSig, Plut. de glor. Athen. 2. Hesych. (Luminum umbrarumque rationem invenisse Zeuxis dicitur, Quintil. xii, 10). He said of himself : Ma/^TiffSTcti rig (AoXKav ^ fAi^'/iOirui. Neque ante eum tabula ullius ostenditur quae teneat oculos, Plin. Similar, really unjust criticisms, Quintil. xii, 10. 2. Apollodorus was sciagrapher or scenographer according to Hesy- chius. On the close connexion of both, Scheider Eel. Phys. Ann. p. 265. On the destination of sciagraphy to produce effect at a distance {aKict- ■y^ct(ptct u(xoc(pyig kxI d'Ka.xfihog, Plato Critias, p. 107), Plat. Resp. x. p. 602. comp. Phaedo, p. 69. Parmen. p. 165. Theaetetus, p. 208, with Heindorf's Notes. Arist. Rhet. iii. c. 12. 137. Now began with Zeuxis the second age of improved 1 painting, in which art arrived at illusion of the senses and external charm. The novelty of these achievements seduced 3 the artists themselves into a degree of presumption unheard H 114 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. 3 of among arcliitects and plastic artists ; although their art, as well in regard to the earnestness and depth with which subjects were conceived, as in respect of moral severity, al- ready seemed to have degenerated from the spirit of the earlier 4 period. At this epoch the Ionic school was in the ascendant; conformably to the character of the race (§. 48) it had a greater tendency to softness and voluptuousness than the old Peloponnesian, and the immediately preceding Attic school. 1. See the stories of the grapes of Zeuxis and the curtain of Parrha- sius, (fee. The tradition also bears on this, that Zeuxis laughed himself to death over an old woman painted by him, Festi Sched. p. 209. Mull. On the illusion of painting. Plat. Sophist, p. 234. Resp. x. p. 598. Many evidently held this to be the highest aim of art, in the same way that the tragic art since the time of Euripides sought to attain dnsa.Tti (formerly it aimed at 'iKTr'KYi'i.ig). . 2. ApoUodorus wore a lofty tiara after the Persian fashion [which was imitated by Alcibiades and the rich Callias], Hesych. Zeuxis at last gave away his works in presents because their price could not be esti- mated (Plin. XXXV, 36, 4), and on the other hand he took money for admission to see his Helena {Ml. V. H. iv, 12). Parrhasius was proud and luxurious as a satrap, and asserted that he stood at the boundaries of art. 3. Parrhasius pinxit et minoribus tabellis libidines eo genere petu- lantis joci se reficiens. An instance, Sueton. Tiber. 44. comp. Eurip. Hippol. 1091. Clem. Alex. Protr. iv. p. 40. Ovid, Trist. ii, 524. Lobeck, Aglaoph. p. 606. 4. Ephesus was at the time of Agesilaus (95, 4) full of painters, Xenoph. H. iii, 4, 17. [Several §. 139. R. 2.] — The painters of the period : Zeuxis of Heraclea, or Ephesus (the head-quarters of the school, Tolken, Amalth. iii. s. 123), somewhere about 90 — 100 (Pliny puts him at 95, 4 ; but he painted for 400 minae the palace of Archelaus, who died 95, 3, jiElian V. H. xiv, 7. comp. Pliny xxxv, 36, 2. — An Eros crowned with a gar- land of roses in Aristoph. Acharn. 992. Olymp. 88, 3, is ascribed by the Schol. to Zeuxis. [Sillig C. A. p. 464 doubts the correctness of this, R. Rochette Peintures ant, ined. p. 170 contradicts him]), also a worker in clay. Parrhasius of Ephesus, son and scholar of Euenor, about 95 (Seneca, Controv. v, 10. is a mere fiction). [Kunstbl. 1827. S. 327. Feu- erbach's Vatic. Apollo S. 71.] Timanthes of Cythnos (Sicyon) and Co- lotes of Teos, at the same time. Euxenidas, 95, Idaeus (Agesilaus' 'pay.ocoec, Xenoph. H. iv, 1, 39), about the same time, Pauson, the pain- ter of ugliness (Aristot.), about 95 (see, however, Welcker in the Kunst- blatt 1827. S. 327). [The author's explanation is contested Kunstbl. 1833. S. 88.] Androcydes of Cyzicus, 95—100. Eupompus of Sicyon, 95 — 100. Brietes of Sicyon, about the same period. J 138. Zeuxis, who appropriated the discoveries of ApoUo- dorus in sciagraphy and improved upon them, made single figures of gods and heroes his favourite subjects in painting. He appears to have been equally distinguished in the repre- sentation of female charms (his Helena at Crotona) and sub- PAINTING; ZEUXIS. n<5 lime majesty (his Zeus on the throne surrounded by gods) • yet Aristotle (§. 134 Rem. 2) misses ethos in his pictures. • Par- 2 rhasius could give still more roundness to his, and was much richer and more varied in his creations ; his numerous pic- tures of gods and heroes (as his Theseus) attained a canonic consideration in art. He was overcome, hoAvever, in a pictorial 3 contest by the ingenious Timanthes, in whose sacrifice of Iphi- genia the ancients admired the expression of grief carried to that pitch of intensity at which art had only dared to hint. 1. The centaur-family is the best known of the works of Zeuxis— a charming group in which also the blending of man and horse and the accuracy of execution were admired. Comp. the gem M. Florent. i. tb. 92,5. 2. Parrh. in lineis extremis palmam adeptus — ambire enim se extre- mitas ipsa debet. PUn. On him as law-giver of art, Quintil. xii, 10. On his Demos of the Athenians, where in one figure very contradictory traits were expressed by form of body, expression, gestures, and attri- butes, a singular hypothesis has been built (an owl with heads of other animals) by Q. de Quincy, Mon. Restit, T. ii. p. 71 sqq. On the earlier opinions, G. A. Lange 1820. N. 11. [Lange Vermischte Schr. S. 277.] 3. Graphic agoiies in Quintil. ii, 13. Plin. xxxv, 35. 36, 3. 5, at Cor- inth, Apostol. XV, 13, in Samos, M\. V. H. ix, 11. Athen. xii, 543. Ti- magoras of Chalcis composed a song of victory to himself. The pic- ture in Pompeii (Zahn's Wandgemalde 19. R. Rochette M. I. i, 27. M. Borb. iv, 3. comp. §. 415, 1) has at least the veiled Agamemnon in com- mon with the picture of Timanthes. Comp. Lange in Jahn's Jahrbii- chern 1828. s. 316. [Verm. Schr. S. 163.] The picture Antich. di Erco- lano ii, 19 may be compared with his Marsyas religatus [also a vase- painting]. In unius hujus operibus intelligitur plus semper quam pin- gitur (as in the very charmingly conceived picture of the Cyclops), Plin. xxxv, 36, 6. 139. Whilst Zeuxis, Parrhasius and their followers, under 1 the general name of the Asiatic school, were opposed to the Grecian (Helladic) school, which flourished before, and whose chief seat was at Athens, the school of Sicyon now arose by 2 means of Pamphilus in the Peloponnese, and took its place beside those of Ionia and Attica as a third essentially diiFer- ent. Its chief distinctions were scientific cultivation, artistic 3 knowledge, and the greatest accuracy and ease in drawing. At this period also encaustic painting was cultivated by Aris- 4 tides of Thebes and Pausias of Sicyon; but according to Pliny it had been already exercised by Polygnotus (comp. §. 320). 2. The Sicyonic painters as a class, Athen. v. p. 196 e. Polemon (§. 35, 3) wrote on the poecile at Sicyon, built about 01. 120. Athen. vi, 253 b. xiii, 577 c. [In the first Ed. followed, " Hence Sicyon Helladica, which expression of later writers can only perhaps he derived from the 116 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. language of ealier connoisseurs." And in ^ginet. p. 156 the distinction between the Athenian and HeUadic painting and the Asiatic is correctly •drawn. Suid. ItKvatv ii uvv 'EXAa?.] Celebrated painters of the period : Pamphilus of Amphipolis, scholar of Eupompus (school of Sicyon), 97 — 107. Abistides of Thebes, scholar of Euxenidas, perhaps 102 — 112, also encaustic painter. Leontion, at the same time [drops out in the Cod. Bamberg]. Pausias of Sicyon, son of ^Briete8, scholar of Pamphilus, encaustic painter, at the same time. Ephorus of Ephesus, and Arcesilaus (Ionic school), about 103. Euphra- NOR, Isthmian, that is, of Corinth (he worked, however, at Athens, and is numbered by Plutarch, De Glor. Athen. 2, among the Attic painters), encaustes, 104 — 110. Cydias of Cythnos, enc. 104. Pyrrho of Elis, about 105. Echion [if it is not ^tion], Therimachus, 107 (§. 124). Aristodemus, 107. Antidotus, scholar of Euphranor, enc. 108. Aristolaus, son and scholar of Pausias, enc. 108. Mechopanes (?) [perhaps M-fixo(pa.yv}g ; for Nicophanes is very remote], 108. Melanthius, scholar of Pamphilus, about 104 — 112. Ctesidemus, about 108. Philochares of Athens, brother of ^schines, 109. Glaucion of Corinth, about 110 (?). Alcimachus, 110 (Plin. comp. Corsini, Dissert. Agon. p. 128). Apelles of Colophon, an Ephesian by his school (through Ephorus and Arcesilaus), but also a Sicyonian (through Pamphilus), 106 — 118. (Comp. Tolken, Amalthea iii. s. 123). Nicomachus, son and scholar of Aristodemus (school of Si- cyon), 110 sqq. NiciAs of Athens, son of Nicomedes, scholar of Antido- tus, enc. (assists Praxiteles), 110 — 118. Amphion (?) [Cod. Bamb. Mel- anthio], 112. Asclepiadorus of Athens, 112. Theomnestus, 112. Theon of Sam OS, about 112. Carmanides, scholar of Euphranor, 112. Leonidas of Anthedon, scholar of Euphranor, 112 (he was a writer on proportions). Protogenes, the Caunian (also brass-caster), 112 — 120. Athenion of Maronea, scholar of Glaucion, enc, about 114 (?). GryUon, about 114, Ismenias of Chalcis, 114 (?). 3. Pamphilus praestantissimus ratione, Quintil. xii, 10. He taught 10 years for one talent. Required preparatory mathematical knowledge. Drawing was now received into the circle of a liberal education, Plin. XXXV, 10, 40. comp, Aristot. Paedag. by Orelli, in the Philol. Beytragen aus der Schweitz, s. 95. [Teles in Stobaeus, xcviii, 72, mentions, among the teachers of the ephebi, the painter atid the x^fcovtyJ;, Axiochus 7 and Kebes 13 the K^niKovg instead.] The story in Phn. refers to the delicacy and firmness of outline, xxxv, 36, 11. which Q. de Quincy, Mem. de I'lnst. Royal. V, 300, interprets too freely ; the expression in ilia ipsa must be retained. The same figure was outlined on the same space three times always more minutely and accurately. The one corrected constantly the drawing of the other. Comp. Bottiger, Archaeol. der Mahl. s. 154. Mel- anthius, the painter, in his books of painting in Diog. L. iv. 3, 18. hlv oci/^xhsidcv rivex, x.ct\ ax.'hri^cjrrrrroi. rolg 'i^yotg STTir^i^c^iv, ofioiag Be kocv rolg ^^iaiv. 1 140. Aristides of Thebes rendered himself conspicuous on the third stage by his representations of passion, and aifecting 2 subjects ; Pausias by figures of children, and animal and flower 3 pieces, and with him began the painting of lacunaria ; Euphra- 4 nor vas distinguished in heroes (Theseus) and gods ; Melan- PAINTING ; APELLES. 117 tliius, one of the most thinking artists of the school of Sicyon, occupied, in the opinion of Apelles, the first rank in regard to disposition ; Nicias, of the newer Attic school, painted 5 chiefly great historical pictures, naval engagements, and equestrian battles, in which he attained high excellence. 1. (Aristides) primus animum pinxit et sensus hominum expressit, quae vocant Graeci iiBn (on the contrary §. 133, Rem. 2), item perturba- tiones (the ttx^). Hujus pictura oppido capto ad matris morientis ex vulnere mammam adrepens infans : inteUigiturque sentire mater et timere, ne emortuo lacte sanguinem lambat. Plin. xxxv, 36, 19. comp. Jilmilian. Anthol. Pal. vii, 623. 2. On the black bull of Pausias (a master-piece of foreshortening and shading) and the beautiful garland-weaver, Glycera, Plin. xxxv, 40, 24. —Idem et lacunaria primus pingere instituit, nee cameras ante eum taliter adornari mos fuit ; that is, he introduced the decorative ceiling- pictures, afterwards common, consisting of single figures, flowers and arabesques. The ornamenting of lacunaria with painted stars and the like had been previously practised in temples. 3. In the twelve gods which Euphranor painted for a portico in the Cerameicus, after he had exhausted himself in Poseidon, he seems, in regard to Zeus, to have been contented with a copy of Phidias' work. See the passages in Sillig, C. A. p. 208, add. Schol. II. i, 528. — From Echion's nova nupta verecundia notabilis, something has perhaps passed into the so-called Aldobrandini Marriage, comp. §. 319. 141. Before all, however, ranks the great Apelles, who 1 united the advantages of his native Ionia — grace, sensual charms, and rich colouring — with the scientific severity of the Sicyonian school. To his richly endowed mind was imparted 2 charts, a quality which he himself avowed as peculiarly his, and which serves to unite all the other gifts and faculties which the painter requires ; perhaps in none of his pictures was 3 it exhibited in such perfection as in his famous Anadyomene. But heroic subjects were likewise adapted to his genius, espe- 4 cially grandly conceived portraits, such as the numerous like- nesses of Alexander, his father and his generals. He not only represented Alexander with the thunderbolt in his hand (as xs^aui/opo^os), but he even attempted, as the master in light and 5 shade, to paint thunder-storms (/3foi/r?i, dtrr^ao-Ji, xegayvo/SoX/a), probably at the same time as natural scenes and mythological personijfications. 1. Parrhasius' Theseus was, according to Euphranor, nourished with roses; on the contrary Antidotus, Athenion and Pausias, scholars of Aristolaus and Mechopanes [Mechophanes §. 139. R. 2.], were seven, duri in coloribus (especially Mechopanes by means of sU, which was much used §. 319.) There evidently prevailed in the Ionic school a more glow- ing, in the Sicyon a more sober tone of colour. 118 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III. 3. The Anadyomene stood in the Asclepieion in Cos {y^au^^a, Klmv, Callim. Fragm. 254 Bentl.), and was transferred by Augustus to the temple of D. Julius at Rome, where, however, it was in a decayed state even at the time of Nero. [Most likely that of which Petron. says : quam Gra3ci Monocnemon vocant, etiam adorant, see Philostr. Iraag. p. Ixi. Kunstbl. 1827. S. 327. (in opposition to SiUig). There also an Amazon by Strongylion was called ivKuri^og, and Monocremon is the corrupted reading. See §. 318.] It was, according to some (Pliny), painted from Pancaste,— according to Athenaeus, from Phryne. Epigrams by Leonidas of Tarentum, and others. Ilgen, Opusc. i. p. 34. Jacobs in Wieland's Att. Mus. iii. s. 50. A later picture of the Anadyomene, Bartoli, Pitt, i, 22. comp. Anacreont. 51. 4. On the standing out of Alexander's arm with the thunderbolt, Plin. XXXV, 36, 15. In like manner Nicias is praised for painting so lit eniinerent e tabvlis picturce, and Euphranor for the I'iixov. [Fr. Linde- mann De imagine Al. M. ab Ap. picta Lips. 1820. 8vo.] 5. Comp. Philostr. i, 14. Welcker, p. 289. Plin. xxxv, 36, 17. On the glazing of the pictures of Apelles, §. 319, 5. — Arnaud, Sur la vie et les ouvrages d'Apelle, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. T. xlix. p. 200. [ApeUes and Antiphilus by Tolken in Bottiger's Amalthea iii. S. Ill — 134.] 142. Contemporaneously with him flourished, besides those named, Protogenes, whom Apelles himself, whose genius raised him above every low feeling, had rendered celebrated, — a self- taught artist whose, often too careful, industry and accurate study of nature made his works, which were few in number, invaluable. Theon also, who was distinguished by the liveli- ness of his inventions {(pavraffiai, visiones), belonged to this short-lived period of bloom in painting. 1. Protogenis rudimenta cum ipsius natural veritate certantia non sine quodam horrore tractavi, Petron. 83. His most famous picture was that of the city-hero Jalysus with the dog and the reposing satyr, a my- thic representation of the city and district, on which he was 7 years engaged (11 according to Fronto), 01. 119. Fiorillo, Kleine Schriften i. s. 330 ff. Cic. Verr. iv, 60. mentions as one of his finest pictures Para- lum pictum (pictam), namely, the ship Paralus, which he painted toge- ther with the Ammonian trireme in the propylaea of the acropolis at Athens, and as a portion, too, of the picture of the island of Phajacia, as may be conjectured from Plin. xxxv, 36, 20. Paus. i, 22, 6. — It is my opinion, although it be not perfectly fixed, that in this passage of Paus. (cf. Hermann de pict. parietum p. 19, who does not consider the matter in its connexion) the name of Protogenes, as painter of the picture of the Nausicaa in the Athenian Propylaeum, has fallen out ; also that Pliny xxxv, 36, 20 alludes to the same picture, which also contained the repre- sentation of a harbour in which lay the Athenian state-vessels Ammonias and Paralus, after the latter of which Cicero named the whole picture. [The latter part of this note is from the App. to the 2d Ed. Afterwards there was reference made in the margin to Welcker's explanation, which is perfectly difierent. Zwei Gemalde des Protogenes bei Plinius in Zim- VASE-PAINTlNa. 119 mermann's Zeitschr. 1837. N. 83 f. Comp. R. Rocliette Lettres Archeolog. 1840. i. p. 46—61. Westermann in the Jahrb. f. Philol. xxv. S. 480.1 2. Bottiger's Furienmaske, s. 75. On the matricide of Orestes by Theon, R. Rochette, M. I. p. 177. 143. The glorious art of these masters, as far as regards 1 light, tone, and local colours, is lost to us, and we know no- thing of it except from obscure notices and later imitations ; on the contrary, the pictures on vases (with thinly scattered bright figures) give us the most exalted idea of the progress and achievements of the art of design, if we venture, from the workmanship of common handicraftsmen, to draw conclu- sions as to the works of the first artists. There were (lis- 2 covered in the excavations at Volci (§. 99, 2) in particular abundant specimens: 1st, of elegant and noble, but still stiff, symmetrical, and over-ornate drawing; but also 2dly, of a free and at the same time simple and grand style, such as we might suppose to have been borrowed from Polygnotus ; also 3(1 ly, a very interesting example of over-laboured and trifling imita- tion of nature somewhat in the manner of Dionysius (§. 13o, 3). On the other hand, among the vases of Nola, which are, as re- gards the mass, of later date, together with older styles there were found speciimens of an ease, delicacy and tender grace such as must have first emanated from the Ionic school of painting. 2. Specimens of (1) : The contest over the body of Patroclus and the reconciliation with Achilles, on a cup from Volci, Inghirami, G. Omer. ii, 254. Peleus bringing Thetis to the grotto of Chiron, vase from Volci ; Ingh. ibid. 235. Vasi fittili 77. Thetis among the Nereids carried off, on the lid of a Nola vase, more in an imitated style, M. I. d, Inst. 37. comp. J. de Witte, Ann. v. p. 90. Apollo and Idas, fighting about Marpessa (?) on an Agrigentine vase, M. I. d. Inst. 20. comp. Ann. ii. p. 194, iv. p. 393. Bullet. 1831, p. 132. Poseidon hurling the island of Nisyros on the giant Ephialtes, on a Sicilian vase, MiUingen, Un. Mon. i, 7. (2.) Athena receiving the child Erichthonius from the Earth, in presence of Hephaestus, vase from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 10. Ann. i. p. 292. Achilles and Hector hastening to combat ; the former held back by Phoenix, the latter by Priam, vase of Volci. (The figures of the heroes still very antique.) M. I. d. Inst. 35, 36. comp. Ann. iii. p. 380. iv. 84. Tityus subdued by Apollo, vase of Volci (the drawing of the muscles liere also in an older style). M. I. d. Inst. 23. comp, Ann. ii. p. 225. Apollo, after his voyage in the shape of a dolphin, striking the cithern on a tripod encompassed with the wings of swans, vase of Volci. M. I. d. Inst. 40, Ann. iv. p. 333. Micali, Mon. 94. (3.) Vase of Sosias, the inside picture representing Acliilles bind- ing the wounds of Patroclus, with a careful observation of all details in the figures and dress ; the outside probably represents the gods assembled at the marriage of Peleus and promising good fortune, in an older and less studied style. M. I. d. Inst. 24. 25. Ann, ii. p. 232. iii. p. 424. iv. p. 120 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. 397. [Now in Berlin, No. 1030. Gerhard Trinkschalen des K. Mus. Taf. 6.] (4.) The heroes Actaeon, Castor, Theseus and Tydeus united in the chase on a vase probably from Nola, of extremely graceful design, Mil- lingen, Un. Mon. i, 18. Rape of Thetis, ingenious, but more carelessly handled, ibid. i. 10. Achilles and Patroclus taking leave of their fathers, with other pictures, on a magnificent vase in the Louvre, probably from Locri or Croton, of very careful, noble design, ibid, i, 21. Comp. D. A. K. Tf. 43 — 46. Women and two Erotes, in variegated colours and with gilding extremely graceful, Stackelb. Graber Tf. 27. Gildings the same, pi. 27. 30. Polychrom. Attic vases, with light and shadow. Steles with libations, the same, pi. 44 — 46. [Similar and very beautiful Cab. Pour- tal^s pi. 25.] Charon's boat, Hermes brings a woman to it pi. 47, a man comes along with him 48 (mythically explained by Stackelb.). [Poly- chrom. Lekythi, many of which from Athens are now scattered about, in R. Rochette Point. Ined. pi. 9, 10. A collection formed several years ago in Athens, and containing several excellent specimens, is now in Paris.] FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE lllTH TO THE THHID YEAR OF THE 158th OLYMPIAD (336—146 B. C.) FROM ALEXANDER TO THE DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH. 1. EVENTS AND CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD. 1 144. In consequence of the conquest of Persia by a Gre- cian prince, and the foundation of dynasties by his generals, the arts of design found unexpected and manifold occasions 2 for great works. New cities, laid out and built in the Grecian 3 style, arose in the midst of the Barbaric land; the Grecian 4 gods received new temples. The courts of the Ptolemies, the Seleucida?, the Pergamenian and other princes gave continued and abundant occupation to art. 2. Alexandria near Issus, 01. Ill, 4?, in Egypt, 112, 1. (St. Croix, Examen des Hist. d'Alex. p. 286), in Ariadna and Arachotis 112, 3., on the Paropamisus 112, 4., on the Acesines 112, 2, and so forth (70 cities in India ?), R. Rochette Hist, de I'Etab. T. iv. p. 101 sqq. — Antigonia (afterwards named Alexandria) in Troas, Philadelphia, Stratonice, Do- cimea, and other cities in Asia Minor; Antigonia 01. 118, 2., Antiochia on the Orontes 119, 4,, at the same time Seleucia on the Tigris and many towns in Syria. — Cassandria 116, 1., Thessalonica. Uranopolis, on mount EVENTS AND CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD. 121 Athos by Alexarchus, brother of Cassander (Chois. Gouff. Voy. Pitt ii pi. 15). 3. Daphne is an example, a sanctuary of the Pythian Apollo, and place of recreation near Antioch, since 01. 120 or thereabouts, Gibbon Hist, of the Decline, &c., ch. 23. T. ii. p. 396 (1781). The Seleucidw were reputed descendants and great worshippers of Apollo (as is proved by their sacred presents sent to the Didymaeon, and the restitution of the statue by Canachus ; Apollo at the tripod, and sitting on the om- phalos, on their coins). See Norisius, Epochae Syro-Macedonum Diss. 3. p. 150. 4. The Ptolemies were patrons and encouragers of art down to the Vllth (Physcon), under him a general dispersion of artists and men of learning about 01. 1C2. Among the Seleucida), Seleucus I. and II., Antio- chus III. and IV. In Pergamus, Attains I. and Eumenes II. Besides these, the Syracusan tyrants, Agathocles and Hieron II. Pyrrhus of Epirus, likewise son-in-law of Agathocles, was a friend of art ; see as to Ambracia's riches in art, Polyb. xxii, 13. Li v. xxxviii, 9. 145. At the same time that the horizon of the Greek ar- tists was thereby undeniably extended, they were stimulated by the wonders of the east to rivalry in colossal grandeur and magnificence. The reason, however, why, strictly speaking, no blending of the styles of the different nations took place, probably lies in this, that the civilization of antiquity, and especially of the Greeks, was intrinsically stable, sprung from a native germ, and therefore guarded from external influence ; but at the same time also in the distinct separation which long continued between the conquering and the native races; so that the cities where Greek art was exercised were scat- tered like islands amidst foreign environment. 3. This separation, with regard to Egypt, where it was most sharply defined, is very clearly brought out by recent investigations (§. 217, 4). The administration there preserved entirely the character of a standing army established in a foreign country. In the religion the Ponto-Egyp- tian Serapis and the Agathodaemon Knuphis were added to the Hellenic deities ; on the coins of the Ptolemies, however, down to the latest times the only strange god to be seen is Ammon who had been long Hellenised ab-eady (Eckhel, D. N. i, iv. p. 28). Neither have the coins of the Alex- andrine Cesars many Egyptian divinities ; it is otherwise with the nomi- coins, §. 232. Antioch had a Grecian demos with phylae and popular assemblies in the theatre, and a council chosen from old and wealthy families. All its gods were Grecian, only that Isis received a temple under Seleucus II., and the Chaldaean astronomy early found admission. There are Egyptian symbols on coins of Antiochus VII., and on those of the VIII. a Zeus-Belus as a god of the stars. Cities of mixed popula- tion like Antiochia ^/|o/3«e/3«?o? (afterwards Edessa) in Osrhoene, were of rare occurrence. Malalas, T. ii. p. 60. Ven. 146. The cities of ancient Greece, moreover, always re- mained the seats of artistic industry; but few artists sprang 122 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. up in the Grecian settlements in the east, and nowhere did a school of art of any repute attach itself to any of the courts. Comp. §. 154. On the trade of Sicyon with Alexandria in objects of art, Plut, Arat. 13. Athen. v. p. 196 e. Among others Bryaxis the ' Athenian (§. 128, 5. 158, 1) and Eutychides the Sicyonian (§. 158, 5) worked for Antioch. 1 147. Now it can admit of no doubt that the schools of art in Greece were in a flourishing condition, especially at the beginning of this period, and that the pure feeling lor art which characterized the earlier times still continued long alive in individual minds nurtured by the models of the best 2 era. On the other hand, art must have experienced a detri- mental influence when the intimate union in which it had subsisted with the political life of free states was weakened, and on the contrary the pleasure and gratification of indi- 3 viduals prescribed as its great aim. It must have been led into many a devious path when it was called upon to gratify now the vanity of slavish-minded cities, now the freaks of splendour and magnificence of pampered rulers, and to pro- duce with expedition a great amount of showy workmanship for the pageantry of court-festivals. 2. Comp. on the union of art with public life in republican times, Heeren Ideen iii, 1. s. 513, On the other hand, on the spirit of this period, Heyne, De genio sseculi Ptolemaeorum, Opusc. Acad. i. p. 114. 3. The character of these court festivals is shown in the description -of that appointed by the 2d Arsinoe in honour of Adonis at Alexandria, under Ptolemy the 2d. Theocrit. xv. 112 sqq. Aphrodite and Adonis on couches in an arbour, where many little Erotes hovered around [auto- matically, as at the festival at Florence in the Weisskunig ; various au- tomata are mentioned in the sequel], two eagles soaring up with Gany- mede, and the like. All composed of ivory, ebony, gold, magnificent tapestries, foliage, flowers and fruits. Comp. Groddeck, Antiq. Versuche i. s. 103 if. — Further, in the description of the pompa instituted by Ptol. II. in honour of all the gods, especially Dionysus and Alexander, from Callixenus, ap. Athen. v. p. 196 sqq. Thousands of images, also colossal automata, such as the Nysa nine cubits in height. A (puKhog xivaovg 'Trnxav iKotrov iiKoiTi (as in the temple at Bambyce) ^iocysyQccju.fciyog kxI hicchz^s/nivog a'TTifi.ju.xai })tx-)(,Pvaoig, 'ixav Itt oIkqov clarinoc x'^vaovu, ov riv vj 'Trs^lfiSTQOc nrny^uv t'l. Comp. §. 150. Manso Vermischte Schriften ii. §. 336 u. 400. — Also the pompa of Antiochus the Fourth, in which there were images of all gods, daemons and heroes, regarding whom there was any legend, gilded for the most part, or clothed in drapery embroidered with gold. Polyb. xxxi, 3, 13. 1 148. To these external circumstances, brought about by the progress of political life, are to be added others which lay in the internal life of art itself Art appears on the whole to ARCHITECTONICS. 123 have completed the cycle of noble and dignified productions for which it had, as Hellenic art, received its destination. The creative activity, — the real central point of the entire 2 activity of art, — which fashions peculiar forms for peculiar ideas, must have flagged in its exertions when the natural circle of ideas among the Greeks had received complete plas- tic embodiment, or it must have been morbidly driven to ab- normal inventions. We find, therefore, that art, during this 3 period, with greater or less degrees of skill in execution, de- lighted now in fantastical, now in effeminate productions cal- culated merely to charm the senses. And even in the better and nobler works of the time there was still on the whole something, — not indeed very striking to the eye, but which could be felt by the natural sense, — something which distin guished them from the earlier works — the strimng after effect. 1. Hoc idem (eminentissima ingenia in idem artati temporis spatiura congregari) evenisse . . . plastis, pictoribus, scalptoribusque, si quis tem- porum institerit notis, reperiet, et eminentia cuj usque operis artissimis temporum claustris circumdata. Vellei. i, 17. Visconti's theory of the long continuance of Greek art in a state of equal excellence, throughout six centuries (I'etat stationnaire de la sculpture chez les anciens depuis Pericles jusqu'aux Antonins), which found acceptance in France and now also to some extent in Germany, cannot even be reconciled with the general history of the human mind. [KQhler in Bottiger's Archiiol. und K. I. S. 16.] 2. A comparison with the history of the other arts, especially oratory, is here useful, (comp. §. 103, rem. 3) ; in it the Asiatic and Rhodian styles of rhetoric arose side by side during this period, principally through the influence of the Lydians and Phrygians, who were naturally more in- clined to pathos, bombast and parade. 2. ARCHITECTONICS. 149. Architecture, which had formerly the temple as its 1 chief subject, seemed at this period much more active in min- istering to the comfort of life and the luxury of princes, and in laying out cities so as to produce a splendour of gen- eral effect. Among these Alexandria constituted an epoch. 2 It was built after the design of Deinocrates, whose powerful genius alone kept pace with Alexander's spirit of enterprise. The fitness and regular beauty of this plan, the magnificence 3 and colossal magnitude of the public, and the solidity of the private buildings, made this city a pattern for the rest of the world, {vertex omnium ckitatum, according to Ammian). But, 4 however, if we leave out of consideration the grandiose fabrics to which commerce gave occasion, it is probable that Autioch, 124 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. when it was completely built, produced a still more striking and pleasing impression ; its magnificent edifices remained throughout antiquity models for all similar undertakings in that part of the world (§. 192). 2. Deinocrates (Deinochares, Cheirocrates, Stasicrates, Timochares) •was the architect of Alexandria, the restorer of the Temple at Ephe- sus^ — the same who, according to Pliny xxxiv, 42, proposed to trans- form Mount Athos into a kneeling figure ; he is also said to have under- taken the magnetic temple of the second Arsinoe (01. 133) ; from wliich entirely fabulous building we must distinguish the real temple of Arsinoe- Aphrodite Zephyritis (Valckenaer ad Theocr. Adon. p. 355 b). Auson. Mos. 311 — 17. [Booking in his ed. 1845 assumes that this Dinochares was different from the founder Dinocrates, with Tross, whom Osann opposes in the Mem. d. Inst. I. p. 341 sqq. The variation in the form of the names is customary, Lobeck Aglaoph. p. 996. 1301.] The building of Alexandria was conducted by Cleomenes of Naucratis (Justin, xiii, 4. Comp. Fr. Diibner), together with whom Olynthius, Erateus, and Libius' sons Heron and Epithermus (?), are named as architects by Jul. Vale- rius (de R. G. Alex, i, 21. 23). At the same period lived Crates the canal-builder (Diog. Laert. iv, 23. Strab. ix. p. 407. Steph. Byz. s. v. 'ABvjucti); SosTRATUS the Cnidian was somewhat later (01. 115); on his hanging portico, Hirt, Gesch. ii, 160. Amphilochus, son of Lagus, a cele- brated architect of Rhodes, perhaps also at this period (Inscr. in Clarke's Travels ii, i. p. 228). C. I. n. 2545. Satyrus the architect, Phoenix the machine-maker under Ptol. II. Plin. xxxvi, 14, 3. Ctesibius under Ptol. Euergetes II. Becker's GaUus I. S. 187. 3. On Alexandria, comp. Hirt ii, 78. 166. Mannert, Geogr. x, i. p. 612. The city extended in an oblong form, divided at a right angle by two main streets upwards of 100 feet in breadth, the longer one stretch- ing 30 stadia, from the west gate which led to the necropolis, to the east gate, that of Canobus. About a fourth of the whole was occupied by the acropolis (Bruchion) on the north-east, with the palace, the mausoleum ((jcjy.ci), the museum and propylaea (consisting of four gigantic pillars on which arose a round temple with a cupola, according to the description in Aphthonius, which is however rather obscure, Progymn. 12. p. 106. Walz.) [On the citadel of Alexandria after Aphthonius by Heffter. Zeitschr. f. A. W. 1839. n. 48. On the so-called Pompey's PiUar, see §. 193. R. A similar granite column " next to this one the largest in the world," with- out base and capital, 37 f. 8 in. high, 5 f. 3 in. in diameter (that of Alex- andria is 9 feet) and in one piece, was seen by Clarke at Alexandria Troas on a hill above the city, and he conjectured therefore that both were in- tended to carry a statue of Alexander. Trav. ii. 1. p. 149. (iii. p. 188, 8vo. ed.). This is wrong, as seven other columns of precisely the same di- mensions are still to be seen lying in the quarries not far from thence, and like those of one block, unbroken and without trace of a pedestal. Sir Ch. Fellows Asia Minor, p. 61 sq. (Many of the same kind lie in the quar- ries above Carystus.) Abdollatif saw in Alexandria four hundred columns broken in two or three pieces, of the same stone as those enormous ones, and of a third or fourth of the size as it would seem. Abdoll. traduit par Silv. de Sacy, p. 282.] PALACES, TOMBS. 125 4. Antioch consisted of four towns with separate walls, enclosed by a great wall ; the 1st and 2d were built under Seleucus I., on the south bank of the Orontes, the walls by the architect Xenoeus ; the 3d under Seleucus II. and Antiochus III. on an island in the river, very regular with streets intersecting each other at right angles ; in the northern portion the largo and magnificent palace of the king with double colonnades behind, over the wall of the city ; the 4th under Antiochus IV. on the slope of ]\Iount Silpion, which quarter of the city comprehended the acropohs and the catacombs, likewise, in the lower portion, the principal street 36 stadia in length, lined with two covered colonnades and intersected by another of the same description at right angles, with triumphal arches {nr^u'rzv- Mig) at all the crossings. The author's Antiochense Dissertationes (1834). 150. The more splendid fitting up of apartments, which 1 was unknown to republican Greece, such as we afterwards find it at Rome, and such as Vitruvius describes it, certainly originated at this period, as can be gathered indeed from the names of the Cyzican, Corinthian and Egyptian rooms (oeci). An idea of it may be formed from the inventive magnificence 2 and splendour with which the Dionysian tent of the second and the Nile-ship of the fourth Ptolemy were fitted up, and all this merely for single festal and pleasure parties. But 3 besides the palaces of the rulers the mass of the population in the great cities was cared for by the erection of theatres, pro- bably also thermae and nymphasa (§. 292, 1. 4), and the liter- ary men had their museums (§. 292, 5). 2. On the Dionysian tent for the pompa of Ptolemy the Second (§. 147, 4. 244, 5.) Callixenus in Athen. v. p. 196 sq. Colossal columns of the form of palms and thyrsi ; on the architraves, under the roof of the tent which arose in the form of a cupola (ou^otulaKog), there were grottos in which personages of Tragedy, Comedy and the Satyric Drama, apparently Uving, gat at table, Caylus, Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. xxxi. p. 96. Hirt, s. 170. — On the uxvg ^oc.?,oc,uYiy6g of Ptolemy the IV., a floating palace, Callixenus, ibid. p. 204. In it there was an oecos with Corinthian capitals of ivory and gold ; the ivory reliefs on the golden frieze, however, were but of ordinary workmanship ; a temple of Aphrodite in form of a cupola (similar to the Cnidian chapel, §. 127, 4) with a marble image ; a Bac- fchian hall with a grotto, a dining-room with Egyptian columns, and many things of the kind. [Alexandrina belluata conchyliata tapetia, to- gether with peristromata picta Campanica, Plautus Pseud, i, 2, 16.] 151. This epoch was equally magnificent in its sepulchral 1 monuments, in which species of edifice the Mausoleum of the Carian queen Artemisia, even before the time of Alexander, challenged emulation. Even the funeral piles destined for 2 the flames, were at this period sometimes raised to a towering height, with a senseless waste of money and art. I. Mausolus died 106, 4. Pytheus (§. 109, iii.) and Satyrus, the architects of his monument. An almost square building (412 f ) with a peristyle (25 yards high) supported a pyramid of 24 steps; on which stood a quadriga, aere-vacuo pendentia Mausolea, Martialis de spectac. 1, 126 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. Height of the whole 104 f. Reliefs on the frieze by Bryaxis, Leochares, Scopas, Timotheus (Praxiteles according to Vitruvius) of which there are still probably remains on the citadel of Budrun. (Of these reliefs, partly Amazonian battles, there is some account in R. Dalton's Antiq. and Views in Greece and Egypt, L. 1791. Appendix ; Ionian Antiq. ii. pi. 2 add. in the 2d ed. [Five pieces were brought to London in 1846. They contain 22 groups which are described by Ulrichs in Gerhard's Archseol. Zeitung 1847, S. 169-176, and Gerhard ibid. 177-185 gives an account of the Mansoleum after Chas. Newton in the Classical Museum xvi. comp. W. R. Hamilton in the Trans, of the Royal Soc. of Literature 1847. ii. p. 251-257. 308.] On a beautiful Caryatid torso likewise from thence, Bullet. d. Inst. 1832. pi. 168). See Caylus, Mem. de FAc. xxvi. p. 321. Chois. Gouff. Voy. Pitt. i. pi. 98. Hirt, s. 70. Tf. 10, 14. Philo de septem orbis spectac. c. 4 and in Orelli's Ed. p. 127. Leonis AUatii diatr, and p. 133 Cuper. de nummo Mausoleum Artem. exhib. Quatremere de Quincy Rec. de Dis- sert. 1. A similar monument at Mylasa, R. Rochette in the Journ. des Sav. 1837. p. 202. This form of monument is to be found widely diffused in Syria; similar to it was the tomb erected in Palestine about the 160th ' Olympiad, by the high priest Simon to his father and brothers, — a build- ing surrounded with columns and serving as a foundation to seven py- ramids. Joseph. Ant. xiii, 6. 2. The so-called Monument of Hephsestion was only a funeral pile {ttv^o., Diod. xvii, 115) ingeniously and fantastically constructed by Deino- crates in pyramidal terraces (for 12,000 talents ?). The pyre of the elder Dionysius (Athen. v. p. 206) described by Timaeus was probably similar, and the ro^i of the Cesars on coins present the same fundamental form. Comp. §. 294, 7. Ste Croix, Examen p. 472. Caylus, Hist, de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxi. p. 76. Q. de Quincy, Mem. de I'lnst. Royal iv. p. 395. Mon. Restitues ii. p. 105. 1 152. Mechanics, however, the favourite science of the period, showed itself still more worthy of admiration, in large and curiously constructed chariots, in boldly devised warlike machines, and, above all, gigantic ships with which the princes 2 of Egypt and Sicily tried to outdo one another. Hydraulics was applied to manifold water-works with equal success. 1. On the state-chariot (ot^^a^«^«) for Alexander's body. Hist, de I'Acad. des Inscr. xxxi, p. 86. Ste Croix p. 511. Q. de Quincy, Mem. de rinst. Roy. iv. p. 315. Mon. Restitues ii. p. 1. — The beleaguering ma- chine of Demetrius Poliorcetes, Helepolis, built by Epimachus, frus- trated by Diognetus, 01. 119, 1. About the same time (Vitruv. vii. Praef.), perhaps, however already under the administration of Lycurgus, Philo built for the Athenians the large ship-houses. The machines of Archi- medes at Syracuse, 01. 141, 3. The Tarentine machine-builder Hera- elides, inventor of the Sambuca, contemporaneous. Polyb. xiii, 4. Athen. xiv. p. 634. Polyajn. v, 17. — Enormous ship of Ptolemy the Fourth with 40 banks of oars. Iliero the Second's great ship with 3 decks and 20 banks of oars, built by Archias of Corinth, and launched by Archimedes. — There are a few details on the history of mechanics among the Greeks (there is a great deal unknown) in Kiistner's Gesch. der Mathematik ii. s. 98. Comp. Hirt, ii. s. 259. TEMPLES. 127 2. Ctesibius of Alexandria, under Ptol. VII. His pupil Heron the hy- draulist. 153. It must be understood, however, that tern pie- arch i- 1 tecture also was by no means neglected at a time which took so much delight in building, and which moreover liberally in- dulged in magnificent display towards the gods. The Corin- 2 thian order now became more and more common, and took its place among the chosen and established forms which the Roman artists retained. But all the stately edifices erected 3 by the Greek rulers in the east, as well as Grecian civilization itself, have vanished and scarcely left a vestige behind ; Athens 4 alone, which now did little by its own exertions, but was emulously adorned by foreign monarchs, has still some traces remaining. ... 2. At this time it was a favourite practice to adorn the Corinthian capitals with foliage of gilded bronze, as in the Museum at Alexandria (Aphthonius). Comp. §. 150, Rem. 2. 3. Temples op the Period. Temple of Apollo at Daphne, at the time of the Emperor Julian, amphi prostyle, with internal colonnades (Jo. Chrysost. de Babyla c. Julianum c. 17. 21). Temple of Bel and Atergatis (Zeus and Hera) at Hierapolis or Bambyce, built by Stratonice (about 12.3), the model of Palmyra. Over the naos arose the thalamos (the choir) ; the walls and roof were entirely gilded. Lucian, De Dea Syria. Probably to this time also belonged aU the important buildings at Cyzicus, especially the temple, according to Dio Cass. Ixx, 4, the largest and most beautiful of all temples, with monolith (?) columns 75 feet high and 24 in circumference. [Similar monoliths §. 149. R. 3.] This is perhaps the magnificent temple of Zeus whose marble seams were marked by gold threads (Plin. xxxvi, 22). An earthquake destroyed it under Antoninus Pius, who restored it in honour of Hadrian. See Aristides, Paneg. Cyzic. i. p. 241. Malalas, p. 119. Ven. The temple of ApoUonis at Cyzicus was built by Attains II., one of her four sons, after 01. 155j 3; comp. §. 157, 2. Regarding the plan of Cyzicus (it was similar to that of Carthage, Rhodes and Massalia), Plin. ibid. Strab. xii. p. 575. xiv. p. 653 ; the ruins have not been yet properly investigated (Renouard de Bussi^res, Lettres sur I'Orient i. p. 165. pi. 11). Temple of Olympian Zeus at Syracuse built by Hiero the Second. Diodor. xvi, 83. Cic. Verr. iv, 53. [Serradifalco iv. tav. 28 sq. p. 153.] The Doric ruin at Halicarnassus (Chois. Gouff. i. pi. 99 sq.) perhaps belonging to the time after Mausolus, shows the order in its decline ; it is without character. [At Cnidos a Corinthian pseudoperipteral prostyle, Ion. Ant. iii. ch. 1. pi. 5 sqq., a Doric temple, about 200 years before Christ (p. 30) pi. 26 ; at Aphrodisius Ibid. ch. 2 a Corinthian, pi. 23. A Corin- thian temple at Labranda, Fellows Asia Minor, p. 261, perhaps later.] 4. At Athens edifices were reared by the kings (Gymnasion of PtoL II. ; Portico of Eumenes, and of Attains, an Odeion of the Ptolemies ?), above all Antiochus Epiphanes, who, about the 153d Olympiad, caused 128 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. the temple of Zeus Olympius (§. 80, i, 4) to be changed into the Corinthian style by Cossutius a Roman (G. I. 363. corap. p. 433) ; however it was first completed by Hadrian. Stuart iii. ch. 2. Comp. Ersch Encycl. Attika s. 233. At a later period Ariobarzanes II. of Cappadocia renewed the Odeion of Pericles which was burnt 173, 3, by Aristion. The architects were G. and M. Stallius and Menalippus. G. I. 357. The octagonal horologic building of Andronicus Gyrrhestes with peculiar Corinthian columns also belongs to this time. Stuart i. ch. 3. Hirt, s. 152. There was at Rome an imitation of it, but with 12 figures of the winds. See Polenus, Exercit. Vitruv. ii, 2. p. 179. [Magnificent gymnasia in Asia Minor, §. 292. R. 2.] 3. THE PLASTIC ART. 1 154 Together with the immediate scholars of Praxiteles, the Sicyonian school in an especial manner flourished from the beginning of this period, till the 120th Olympiad and even somewhat later. In it brass-casting was practised in its ancient perfection and noble style, by Euthycrates, indeed, with more severity (austerius) than the taste of the time ap- 2 proved. According to historical accounts the art of brass- 3 casting afterwards died out (cessamt deinde ars) ; and although for a while very meritorious statuaries were still active in Asia Minor, yet casting in brass, and art in general were visibly declining, till at the end of this period, by the study of earlier works, a restoration of art was brought about at Athens, which coincided with the ascendancy of Greek taste at Rome. Plastic artists of this period, whose time is known : Aristodemus, brass-caster, 118. Eutychides of Sicyon, a scholar of Lysippus, brass- caster and painter, 120. Dahippus and Beda, sons and scholars of Ly- sippus, Euthycrates and Phoenix, scholars of Lysippus, brass-casters, 120. Zeuxiades, a scholar of Silanion, brass-caster, 120 (comp. Welcker in the Kunstblatt 1827. No. 82). Daetondas of Sicyon, brass-caster, 120. Polyeuctus, brass-caster at Athens, about 120 (?). Chares of Lindus, scholar of Lysippus, 122 — 125. Praxiteles, the younger, brass-caster, 123 (in the Testament of Theophrastes?). ^Etion (Eetion) of Amphipo- lis, carver, about 124 (Theoc. Ep. 7. Gallimach. Ep. 25). Tisicrates of Sicyon, a scholar of Euthycrates, sculptor, 125. Piston, brass-caster, contemporary of Tisicrates (?). Gantharus of Sicyon, scholar of Euty- chides, sculptor, 125. Hermocles of Rhodes, brass-caster, 125. Pyro- MACHUS, brass-caster and painter, 125 (120 according to Pliny) till 135 (comp. §. 157*). Xenocrates, scholar of Tisicrates (or Euthycrates), brass-caster, 130. Isigonus, Stratonicus, Antiochus [rather Antigonus, from Plin. xxxiv, 8, 84 Sillig], brass-casters, about 135 and later. Micon, son of Niceratus, of Syracuse, brass-caster, 142. ^ginetes, plastes, 144. Stadieus 150. Alexandrus, son of king Perseus, toreutes, 153 (Plutarch Paulus 37). Antheus, Gallistratus, Polycles, Athenaeus (?), Callixenus, Pythocles, Pythias, and Timocles and Timarchides, the sons of Polycles (Pans. X, 34, 3. 4.), brass-casters, also inpart sculptors, 155. The sons of SCULPTURE, RHODIAN SCHOOL. 129 Timarchides, sculptors, 158. See §. 159. [A series of Rhodian brass-casters was discovered by L. Ross on the acropolis of Lindus, partly from Soli Ca- lymna and other places, Archimenidas, Epicharmus, father and son, Xeno Mnasitimus, Peithandrus, Protus, Pythocritus, Sosipatrus, all of whom he places before the time of the Roman supremacy, and the majority even pretty far back into the Macedonian period. N. Rhein. Mus. iv. S. 161 f.] 155. The Rhodian school was an immediate off-shoot 1 from the school of Lysippus at Sicyon ; Chares of Lindus, a scholar of Lysippus, executed the largest of the hundred co- lossi of the sun at Rhodes. As the Rhodian eloquence was 2 more flowery than the Attic, and more allied to the spirit of the Asiatic, we may readily believe that the plastic art likewise at Rhodes was distinguished from that of Athens by the striving after dazzling effi^ct. Rhodes flourished most 3 from the time of the siege by Demetrius (119, 1) till it was laid waste by Cassius (184, 2); at this time also the island may probably have been most a centre of the arts. 1. The Colossus was 70 Greek cubits in height, cast in separate parts, said to be of the metal of Helepolis, executed from 122, 1. to 125, 1. It stood near the harbour, but not over the entrance — only till the earth- quake, 139, 1. (Thus according to the chronographers ; but according to Polybius v, 88, the earthquake took place before 138, 2 ; in that case the statue must also have been executed somewhat earlier). See Plin. xxxiv, 7, 18. Philo of Byzantium, De vii. mundi miracuHs (evidently a later work by a rhetorician) c. 4. p. 15. together with Allatius' and Orelli's Remarks, p. 97 — 109. Caylus, Mem. de I'Ac. Inscr. xxiv. p. 360. Von Hammer, Topograph. Ansichten von Rhodes, s. 64. On the other colossi, Meurs. Rhod. i, 16. The Jupiter of Lysippus at Tarentum 40 cubits high. 3. Hermocles the Rhodian executed the brazen statue of the eunuch Combabus ; but it is quite uncertain whether the numerous other statues of heroes and kings in the temple at Hierapolis were also by him. 156. To this time, then, probably belongs the Laocoon: a 1 miracle of art as regards the noble and refined taste in the solution of so difiicult a problem, and the profound science dis- played in the execution, but evidently calculated for dazzling effect and exhibition of skill, and of a certain theatrical cha- racter compared with the works of earlier ages. At the same 2 time the pathos in this production appears to be worked up as high as the taste of the ancient world and the nature of the plastic art could ever admit, and much higher than the time of Phidias would have allowed. 1. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 11 : Laocoon, qui est in Titi Imp. domo, opus om- nibus et picturae et statuaria^ artis prajponendum (i. e. a work of sculpture of such boldness in composition as brass-casting and painting can hardly attain). Ex uno lapide eum et liberos draconumque mirabiles nexus dc consilii sententia fecere summi artifices, Agesander et Polydorus et I 130 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. Athenodorus Rhodii (Athenodorus was the son of Agesander, according to an inscription). Similiter (viz. also de consilii sententia) Palatinas Cjfiss. domes, etc. Discovered in 1506 in the neighbourhood of the baths of Titus ; in six pieces ; the right arm restored after models by Giov. Agnolo. Some portions of the sons are also new. Race. 1. M. PioCl. ii, 39. Piranesi, Statue. M. Fran9. iv, 1. M. Bouill. ii, 15, A pyramidal group arranged in a vertical plane. The secondary figures also subordi- nated according to size, as in Niobe. Three acts of the same tragedy ; the father in the middle, in whom energy and pathos at the highest pitch. Antique heads of Laocoon in the collection of Prince Arensberg, and at Bologna [in the Villa Litta at Lainata near Milan]. Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s. 101 IF. comp. ii. s. 203 ff. Heyne Antiq. Aufs. ii. s. 1. Lessing's Laocoon. Propyla^en Bd. i. St. 1. Thiersch Epochen, s. 322. The head of the Duke of Arensberg at Brussels, in the Mon. d. Inst, ii, 416, comp, Schorn Annali ix. p. 153., on that at Milan p. 160. [The former is not antique. Das. Akad. Kunstmus. at Bonn 1841. S. 14; the Farnesian head referred to by Winckelmann seems to represent Capaneus.] 157. The Farnesian Bull, the work of Trallian artists, which was brought from Rhodes to Rome, also appears to be- long to the Rhodian school. It is outwardly imposing indeed, but without a satisfying spiritual import. The representation of the scene was at that time a favourite subject in Asia Mi- nor, and it is exactly the same as in the temple of Apollonis at Cyzicus (§. 153), whose reliefs, representing, in numerous mythological and historical groups, examples of the piety of sons toward their mothers, are deserving of notice as a work of fine conception and skilful invention towards the end of this period. 1. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 10 : Zethus et Amphion ac Dirce et taurus, vin- culumque, ex eodem lapide, Rhodo advecta opera ApoUonii et Taurisci. Probably restored even at the time of Caracalla, then again in modern times, and overloaded with unsuitable figures (such as Antiope [?]). Pira- nesi, Statue. [Gal. Myth. pi. 140. Clarac pi. 811. 811 St.] Maffei, Race. 48. Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s. 128 ff. (comp. ii. s. 233.) vii. s. 190. Heyne, Antiq. Aufs. ii. s. 182. Fr. Paganuzzi, Sopra la mole scultoria volg. den. il Toro Farnese. [The author's Annali ix. p. 287 — 92. Two mural paint- ings and other monuments in Avellino Descriz. di una Casa di Pompei 1843. p. 40. Welcker Alte Denkm. 5, 352-370.] 2. The same group on a coin of Thyatira, Eckhel N. Anecd. tb. 15, 1, and probably also at Antioch, Malalas, p. 99. Ven. — It is also described in the Epigr. on the Cyzican Reliefs, Anthol. Pal. iii {oiyt kxI U ruv^oto Kct^tk-Trmi hiTT'hUKec asi^vju, o 136 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. p. 118]. In both names, Apollonius and Glycon, there are to be observed letters which pass into the cursive character (iv). These made their ap- pearance in inscriptions on stone not long before the Christian era. THE AET OF ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES. 161. The luxury in engraved stones was carried to a greater height particularly by the custom, derived from the east and now chiefly maintained by the court of the Seleucidae, of adorn- ing with gems, cups, craters, lamps and other works in precious metals. For this and other purposes, where the figure on the stone was merely intended to be ornamental and not to form impressions as a seal, the gems were cut in high relief, as cameos, for which variegated onyxes were preferred (§. 313). To this class belong the cups and goblets entirely composed of engraved precious stones (onyx-vessels) which made their ap- pearance at the same time. In this sort there were executed real wonders in beauty and technical perfection, at the earlier stages of this period when art was stiU animated by a higher spirit. 1. According to the letters of Parmenion (Athen. xi. p. 781) there were among Alexander's Persian spoils cups set with gems {'Trorvi^icc X/3o- )c6KKrrra,) weighing 56 Babylonian talents, 34 minse. Theophrastes' brag- gart (Char. 23) also brought home T^i^ox.o'h'ATiroe. TrorTj^ix from Alexander's expedition, and therefore considered the Asiatic superior to the European artists. On the luxury of the Seleucidae in these matters, Cic. Verr. iv, 27, 28, 32. Athen. v. p. 199. compared with Virgil ^n. i. 729. A ^//yxr^^ /3a^/3flfc^/xoV 7^t5f6x.o?^'Xog with other silver vessels presented by Seleucus II. to the Didymaeon, Corp. Inscr. no. 2852, 48. 3. Mithridates, whose kingdom was the great mart of precious stones, had, according to Appian (Mithr. 115), two thousand cups of onyx with gold chasings. In Cic. Verr. iv, 27. Vas vinarium ex una gemma per- grandi, truUa excavata. 4. The noblest work is the Gonzaga cameo (now in the possession of the Russian emperor) with the heads of Ptolemy the Second and the first Arsinoe (according to Visconti) almost half a foot long, in the most beauti- ful and ingenious style. Visconti Iconogr. pi. 53. That of Vienna with the heads of the same Ptolemy and the second Arsinoe is an excellent work although not so grand in style. Eckhel, Choix des Pierres grav. pi. 10. The same Ptolemy is very ingeniously costumed in a fragment to be seen at Berlin. Beger. Thes. Brand, p. 202. A beautiful cameo with the heads of Demetrius the First and Laodice of Syria in Visconti pi. 46. The cameo in Millin M. I. ii. pi. 15. p. 117, belongs to this time. Compare the description of the very skilfully cut agate, with Apollo and the Muses, which was in the possession of Pyrrhus, in Pliny xxxvii, 3. Nicomedes IV. of Bithynia, Impronte gemm. iv, 85. COINS. PAINTING. 137 1 62. The degeneracy of art in the Macedonian dominions 1 is manifested more clearly in the coins than in anything else, and at the same time in the most certain and authentic man- ner. During the first half of the period they display gener- 2 ally excellent design and execution, such as those of xMexan- der himself, Philip Arrhidasos, Antigonus and Demetrius Poli- orcctes, of Lysimachus, of Seleucus Nicator, Antiochus Soter and Theus, especially the coins of Agathocles, Hicetas and Pyrrhus, struck in Sicily, which cannot be surpassed in deli- cate handling, but are however far inferior to earlier works in power and grandeur. The Macedonian coins fron Anti- 3 gonus Gonatas, and the Syrian coins from Antiochus II. down- wards, are of much less value ; even the Sicilian coins of Hiero 11. and his family (Philistis, Gelon and Hieronymus) are inferior to the earlier ones. In like manner, among the 4 coins of the Ptolemies, which however are not generally of high excellence, the older ones are distinguished as the best. But among the coins which were struck by Grecian states after the time of Alexander many will be found remarkable for easy and powerful handling, none however to which can be aAvarded the praise of genuine perfection in art. 2, 3. Mionnet's impressions give sufficient examples ; and the custom which began with Alexander of putting portraits of the princes on coins facilitates very much the chronological arrangement ; although, especially in the case of the Ptolemies, where distinct surnames are wanting, the assigning of the coins to the rulers who caused them to be struck has its difficulties. Vaillant's Seleucidar. Imperium and Hist. Ptolemaeorum, Frohlich's Ann. Regum Syriae, P. van Damme Recueil de Med. des Rois Grecs. 4. The money of the Achaian league from Olympiad 133—158 (Cou- sin6ry, Sur les Monn. d'Arg. de la Ligue Acheenne.), the Cistophori struck in anterior Asia Minor about 01. 130—140 (Neumann N. V. ii. p. 35, tb. 1), the large Athenian and Rhodian silver coins, which can bo easily distinguished from those of earlier times, form particularly impor- tant classes for the history of art. Cavedoni Oss. sopra le antich. moneto di Atene. Modena 1836, Bullett. 1837. p. 142. 4. PAINTING. 163. Painting was zealously cultivated, especially at the 1 beginning of this period, in the three schools which flourished during the preceding period ; no one however of the successors made even a distant approach to the fame of the great masters of the time immediately previous. At Sicyon, where artists 2 were assembled in greatest number, the works of the earher masters were more admired about the 134th Olympiad than 138 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. 3 augmented by similar productions. The tendencies Avhich were peculiar to this period gave birth sometimes to pictures "which ministered to a low sensuality, sometimes to works which attracted by their eiFects of light, and also to carica- 4 tures and travesties of mythological subjects. Hasty painting, which was rendered necessary by the state-processions in the cities where the kings resided (§. 147), must have ruined 5 many an artist. At this time also rhyparography (so-called still-life) probably made its appearance, and scenography was applied to the decoration of the palaces of the great (§. 209). 6 As the love of magnificence among the great now also de- manded the decoration of painting on their floors, the mosaic art arose, and quickly developing itself, undertook to repre- sent great combats of heroes and highly animated battle- 7 scenes. The painting of earthen vases, which was so favour- ite an occupation in earlier times, died out in the course of this period, and sooner, so far as can be observed, among the Greeks of the mother country and the colonies than in many of the but superficially Hellenised districts of Lower Italy, where these vases continued longer to be esteemed as objects of luxury, but thereby also present very clearly to the eye the degeneracy of design into a careless manufacture-work, or a system of mannerism and affected ornament. 1. Floruit circa Philippum et usque ad successores Alexandri pictura prsecipue, sed diversis virtutibus, Quintil. xii, 10. comp. Plaut. Poenul. V, 4, 103. Artists of note : Antiphilus from Egypt, a pupil of Cteside- mus, 112 — 116 (it does not necessarily follow from the circumstance of his painting Alexander as a boy that he had seen him when a boy). Aristides, son and pupil of Aristides of Thebes, about 113. Ctesilochus, brother and scholar of Apelles (Ionic school), 115. Aristides, brother and scholar of Nicomachus (Sicyonic school), about 116. Mcophanes and Pausanias (school of Sicyon) at the same time as it appears. Philoxenus of Eretria and Corybas, a scholar of Nicomachus (school of Sicyon), about 116. Helena, daughter of Timon, contemporaneous. Aristocles, Nico- machus' son and scholar (school of Sicyon), about 116. Omphalion, a scholar of Nicias (Attic school), about 118. Nicerus and Aristo, sons and scholars of Aristides of Thebes, 118. Antorides and Euphranor, scholars of Aristides (Aristo?), 118. Perseus, scholar of Apelles (Ionic school), 118. Theodorus (Sillig. C. A. p. 443), 118. Arcesilaus, son of Tisicrates, about 119. Clesides, 120 (?). Artemon, 120 (?). Diogenes, 120. Olbiades (Pans, i, 3, 4), 125. Mydon of SoH [Cod. Bamberg. Monac. Milo], scholar of the brass-caster Pyromachus, 130. Nealces of Sicyon, 132. Leontiscus (school of Sicyon), about 134. The second Timanthes of Sicyon, 135 (as it seems). Erigonus.the colour-grinder of Nealces, 138. Anaxandra, daughter of Nealces, 138 (Clem. Alex. Strom, iv. p. 523). Pasias, scholar of Erigonus (Sicyonic school), 144. Heraclides, from Macedonia, ship-painter, encaustes, 150. Metrodorus, at Athens, philo- sopher and painter, 150. 2. On the Sicyonic school, particularly Plut. Arat. 13. The Anacre- PAINTING. i:jj^ ontic poem (28), where painting is called the Rhodian art, belongs for that very reason to the time after Protogenes. 3. Polemon in Athen. xiii. p. 567 mentions Aristides (probably him of the 116th Olympiad) together with Nicophanes and Pausanias us TToouoy^x^poi. Of the same stamp (if not identical) with Nicophanes was Chaerephanes, who painted dKoT^acrrov; ofci'hiocg yvuociKcJv 'ttpo; oiuopxg. Pint, de and. poet. 3. The boy blowing the fire by Antiphilus, Plin. ; he first painted pylli (§. 435). A parturient Zeus by Ctesilochus [in vases pa- rodies on Hercules, as queller of the Cercopes (d'Hancarville iii, 88. Saint Non Voy. Pitt. T. ii. p. 243), the judgment of Paris, &c.] ; on such paro- dic treatment of mythi, see Hirt, Gesch. s. 265, and below §. 390, 6. Galaton's spitting Homer was certainly meant as a hit at the Alexan- drine poets. 4. Pausias (vi/^s^Tjaiog -ttipx^), Nicomachus, but especially Philoxenua (hie celeritatem praeceptoris secutus, breviores etiamnum quasdam pic- turae vias et compendiarias invenit), and afterwards Lala figured as rapid painters. Quintilian xii, 10, celebrates the facilitas of Antiphilus. The passage Petron. 2 is enigmatical : Pictura quoque non alium exitum fecit, postquam ^gyptiorum audacia tam magnae artis compendiariam invenit. 5. Pyreicus (time unknown) tonstrinas sutrinasque pinxit et asellos et obsonia ac similia : ob hoc cognominatus rhyparographos, in iis con- summatae voluptatis, Quippe eae pluris veniere quam maximae multoruni. Comp. Philostratus i, 31. ii, 26 (Xenia). Rhopography, on the other hand, denotes the representation of restricted scenes in nature — a small por- tion of a wood, a brook and the like. Welcker ad Philostr. p. 397. [Ob- sonia ac similia, fruits and flowers, §. 211. R. 1. 434. R. 2. are not dirty, even shops, laden asses, the class generally are not conceived by a healthy sense under the aspect of dirt adhering to them ; the name would not be trivial but a disgusting term of reproach ; it cannot be a Grecian artis- tic expression. Besides Cicero the Etym. M. gives pu'roy^aipov;, from paTTsg, vM' The appellation of Pyreicus refers to another kind of puTToy^xCpicc, from pcj^rog, miscellaneous wares which the merchant ship brings (JSschyl. fr. Hect. Bekker. Anecd. p. 61). Such puTrog were dis- played in the booths, asses were laden with them, even fish may be com- prehended under that name. To this refers an obscurely composed ar- ticle in Phot. Suid. and Zonaras, and the allusion of Leonidas Tar. poiTTtKtx, y^a,-^a,(/,iuo(, in jocular double entendre (Syll. Epigr. Gr. p. 98.). On the contrary rhyparogra]phus rests solely on the passage in Pliny, and emendation therein, which is even rejected by Passow and Pape in their dictionaries. The explanation of still-hfe is, as the author himself re- marked, contested by A. W. Becker de com. Romanor. fab. p. 43. Fruit pieces were also specially called Xenia, Philostr. i, 31. Vitruv. vi, 7. 4. ideo pictores ea quae mittebantur hospitibus picturis imitantes Xenia appellaverunt, whereby the conjectured explanation to Philostratus is confirmed.] 6. The first mosaics which are mentioned are the unswept room {oUog dadiqarog) of Sosus the Pergamenian, of clay tesserae, Plin. xxxvi, 60 ; the cantharus there introduced with the doves drinking and sunning themselves is imitated, but imperfectly however, in the mosaic froni Hadrian's Villa, M. Cap. iv, 69 [a more perfect repetition found at 140 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. Naples in 1833]. Then the floors of several apartments in Hiero's great ship (§. 152, 1) of stone mosaic, which represented the entire mythus of Ilion [on which 300 workmen were employed for a year, Hiero, 01. 127, 3 — 148]. Among those that have been preserved, that which was dug up in the Casa del Fauno at Pompeii on the 24th of Oct. 1831 [now in the Museum at Naples, in the Hall of Flora], consisting of small pieces of marble [of glass, as has been shown by more recent investigation] is most deserving of being assigned to this period. It gives an idea of the lively, almost tumultuous manner, departing considerably from the Greek taste, in which battle scenes were conceived by the painters of this time, among whom Philoxenus painted a battle of Alexander with Darius, and Helena the battle of Issus. The mosaic certainly represents one of Alexander's battles, — that of Issus (Curtius iii, 27), according to the opinion of Quar- anta, also adopted by Minutoli, Notiz iiber den 1831 gefundenen Mosaik- Fussboden B, 1835. [by G. B. Baizini Due Lettere, Bergamo 1836., Heeren in the Getting. Anz. 1837. No. 89, also in the Rhein. Mus. iv. S. 506], which is the most probable, — according to Avellino [and Janelli, Nuove rifless. sul gran. mus. 1834.] that at the Granicus, — according to NiccoHni [and Roulez Not. sur la mos. de Pompei 1836.] that of Arbela, — according to Hirt that with the Mardi on account of Bucephalus. M. Borb. viii. tv. 36—45. Kunstblatt 1832. N. 100. Schulzeitung 1832. N. 33. Berlin. Jahrb. 1832. ii, 12. [The author's D. A. K. 1 Tf. 55. Zahn Ornam. Neue Folge Taf. 91—93. Mistake of Schreiber Die Marcellusschlacht in Clastidium, Freiburg 1843. 4to. not materially rectified by the turn given to it by Bergk, Zeitschr. f. A. W. 1844. No. 34 f.] 7. If the Nola vases, which are distinguished by elegance of form and design, fine varnish and agreeable dark yellow colour, may belong to the time of Philip and Alexander, when the people were greatly at- tached to everything Greek (Dionys. Hal. Exc. p. 2315. Reiske) ; so, on the contrary, the vases of Apulia (from Barium, Rubi, Canusium), mostly large and slender, of curious forms and mannered design, as well as those of a similar description which were found in the interior of Lucania (Armento), will belong to a period when art, in an already degenerate state, found its way together with Grecian luxury to the Sabello-Oscan tribes (perhaps at the time of Pyrrhus). The subjects, which bear refer- ence sometimes to the luxurious enjoyment of life, sometimes to the mys- teries of Bacchus, and are handled in a very arbitrary and unrestrained manner, point at the condition of Lower Italy before the SG. de Baccana- libus, 564, a. u. c. (comp. Gerhard, Bullet, d. Inst. 1832. p. 173). Large vase from Ruvo with a variety of scenes Md. I. ii, 30 — 32. E. Braun Annali viii. p. 99. Another with reliefs on the neck and handles, paint- ings on the belly. Hall. L. Z. InteU. 1838. N. 91. Others from Apulia, ibid. 1837. N. 30. In the same way may the decline of art be traced on the Campanian vases, comp. §. 257, and, on the last epoch of vase paint- ing, §. 177. 1 PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE. 164. The carrying away works of art, which appeared as robbery of sanctuaries in the mytholon^iral times, as real artis- PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE. 141 tic plundering in the Persian wars, and as the work of pecu- niary want especially in the Phocian war, [as robbery on the part of the tyrants here and there,] now became under the Romans a regular recompense which they appropriated on account of their victories. In this, however, they had be- 2 fore them the example of many of the earlier Macedonian princes, who hardly all adorned their residences by purchase. There were also many monuments destroyed from hatred of tyrants (as by Aratus), and numerous temples, by the JEto- lians especially, from sheer brutality. 1. To this class belongs the stealing of Palladia, and the like, as well as the deorum evocationes. In the Xoanephori of Sophocles the gods them- selves carried their images out of Ilion. Later also statues were still oftener stolen from pious motives. See the examples in Pausanias viii, 46. Gerhard's Prodromus, s. 142. Xerxes took the Apollo of Canachus (§. 86) and the Attic tyrannicides (§. 88). Then the melting of works of art by the leaders of the Phocian mercenaries (o^fios ' E^i(pv>i^s ; the golden eagles) ; and the temple robberies of Dionysius. 2. The -(EtoKans laid waste in the war of the League, from 139, 4 downwards, the temples of Dodona and Dion, of Poseidon on Taenaron, of Artemis at Lusce, Hera at Argos, Poseidon at Mantinea, the Pamboeo- tion, Polyb. iv, 18, 62, 67. v, 9, 11. ix, 34, 35; on the other hand Philip the Second ravaged Thermon twice, Pol. v, 9. xi, 4 (2,000 dvl^ixuns). He also, about 144, laid waste the temples of Pergamon (Nicephorion), Pol. xvi, 1 ; after this (156, 3) Prusias plundered the treasures of art at Per- gamon, in the Artemision of Hiera-Kome, and the temple of Apollo Cy- nius at Temnos. Pol. xxxii, 25. 165. The Roman generals plundered at first with a cer- 1 tain moderation, as Marcellus at Syracuse and Fabius Maxi- mus at Tarentum, merely with the design of adorning their triumphs and the public buildings. In particular the tri- 2 umphs over Philip, Antiochus, the -ffitolians, the Gauls of Asia, Perseus, Pseudophilip, above all the conquest of Corinth, and afterwards the victories over Mithridates and Cleopatra filled the Roman porticos and temples with works of art of the most various kinds. The Romans became lovers of art from 3 the time of the Achaian war; the generals now pillaged for themselves ; at the same time the struggle for military sway, as in the case of Sylla, necessitated the melting of valuable objects. Even sacrilege, strictly so-called, which at an earlier 4 period the college of high priests was appointed to prevent, was less and less abstained from ; the plunderers passed from the offerings to the religious images. The governors of pro- 5 vinces (Verres is one of many), and after them the Cesars, completed the work of the conquering generals ; and an approximate calculation of the plundered statues and images soon runs up to a hundred thousand. 142 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV. 1. The Generals. On the moderation of Marcellus (01. 142, 1), Cic. Verr. iv, 3, 52. On that of Fabius (142, 4), Liv. xxvii, 16; but on the other hand, Strab. vi. p. 278. Plut. Fab. 22. Marcellus even gave pre- sents to Grecian temples, Samothrace for instance, Plut. Marc. 30. On the treasures of art at Capua (01. 142, 2). Liv. xxvi, 34. 2. T. Quinctius Flamininus' triumph over Philip the Third, 01. 146, 3., introduced all sorts of works of art from the cities of the Macedonian party. L. Scipio Asiaticus over Antiochus the Third, 147, 4, (vasa caelata, triclinia acrata, vestes Attalicae, see especially Plin. xxxiii, 53. xxxvii, 6. Liv. xxxix, 6). Triumph of Fulvius Nobilior over the -^tolians and Am- bracia (285 brazen figures, 230 of marble, comp. §. 144. 180), 01. 148, 1. (Reproaches for plundering temples, Liv. xxxviii, 44). Cn. Manlius over the Asiatic Gauls, 01. 148, 2 (also particularly vases, triclinia aerata, abaci, Plin. xxxiv, 8. and xxxvii, 6). L. ^miKus Paulus over Perseus, 153, 2 (250 chariots full of works of art). Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus over Pseudophilip, 158, 2, particularly statues from Dion. Destruction of Corinth by Mummius, 158, 3. On Mummius' barbarity (without malice however), Vellei. i, 13. Dio Chrys. Or. 37. p. 137 sq. Roman soldiers play at dice on the Dionysus and suffering Hercules of Aristides, Polyb. xl, 7. From this time forward a taste at Rome for signa Corinthia and tabulae pictae, Plin. xxxiii, 53. xxxvii, 6. But every thing did not come to Rome ; many went to Pergamon ; much also was thrown away. Other regions of Greece were also plundered at that time. Comp. Petersen, Einleitung, s, 296. Carthage destroyed at the same time, where there were in like manner Greek and Sicilian works of art (Phalaris' Bull, BCckh ad Pind. Schol. p. 310, the great Apollo, Plut. Flamin. 1). — Somewhat later, 161, 3, the bequest of Attains the Third brought particularly Attalica avlaea, peripetasmata to Rome. — In the Mithridatic war Sylla conquered and plundered Athens (173, 2) and Boeotia, and caused the treasures of Olympia, Delphi and Epidaurus to be delivered to him. The whole army plundered and stole (comp. Sallust. Catil. 11). — Lucullus about 01. 177 acquired many fine things, but chiefly for himself. — The pirates plundered, before 178, 2, the temples of ApoUo at Clarus, Miletus, Actium, and in Leucas, of Poseidon on the Isthmus, Taenarum, and Calauria, of Hera in Samos, at Argos and Crotona, of Demeter at Hermione, of Esculapius at Epidaurus, of the Cabiri in Sa- mothrace, until they were overcome by Pompey. Plut. Pomp. 24. Pom- pey's triumph over Mithridates (179, 4) brought especially engraved stones (Mithridates' Dactyliotheca), figures of gold, pearls and such valuables to Rome; victoria ilia Pompeii primum ad margaritas gem- masque mores inclinavit. Plin. xxxvii, 6. Octavian procured treasures of art for Rome from Alexandria (187, 8) and also from Greece. 6. The Governors. Verres' systematic plunder in Achaia, Asia, and particularly in Sicily (01. 177) of statues, pictures and vasa cadata. Fra- guier, Sur la Gal6rie de Verres, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. ix. Facius Mis- cellen. s. 150. Comp. §. 196, 2. — Plena domus tunc omnis et ingens Btabat acervus numorum, Spar tana chlamys, conchy lia Coa, et cum Parr- hasii tabulis signisque Myronis Phidiacum vivebat ebur, nee non Poly- cleti multus ubique labor : rarae sine Mentore mensae. Inde Dolabellae atque hinc Antonius, inde sacrilegus Verres referebant navibus altis PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE. 143 occulta spolia et plures de pace triumphos, Juvenal viii, 100. Cn. Dola- bella, Cons. 671, Proc. in Macedonia and Cn. Dolabella, praetor of Sicily (Verres was his Quaestor) were both accused rejjetmularum ; Cn. Dola- bella, Cicero's son-in-law, plundered the temples of Asia. Cic. Phil, xi, 2. A proconsul plundered the Athenian Pcecile according to Synesius, Ep. 135. p. 272 Petav. Bottiger, Archaeol. der Mahlerei, s. 280. The Emperors. Especially Caligula, Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s. 235 ; Nero, who out of envy threw down the statues of the victors in Greece, brought 500 statues from Delplii for the Golden House, . 167 Scenographic pictures, in which illusion was the highest aim, were also employed at the games. Plin. xxxv, 7. 4. See Cato's speech (557), Liv. xxxiv, 4. Plin. xxxiv, 14. Cicero was afraid to be held by the judges a connoisseur in art : nimirum didici etiara dum in istum inquiro artificum nomina. Verr. iv, 2, 7. Cicero's love for art, however, was very moderate, see Epp. ad Div. vii 23. Parad. 5, 2. Not so with Damasippus, Epp. ibid. Herat. Sat. ii, 3, 64. 6. The intelligentes stood in contradistinction to the ihinctt, Cic. ibid. But even Petronius' Trimalchio says amid the most ridiculous explanations of art : Meum enim intelHgere nulla pecunia vendo. Important passai^es on connoisseurship in Dionys. de Dinarcho, p. 664. do vi Dem. p. 1108. [Juv. i, 56 doctus spectare lacunar.] The test was : non inscriptis auc- torem reddere signis, Statins, Silv. iv, 6, 24. The idiotce, on the contrary, were often deceived with famous names. Beck, De Nom. Artif. in Mo- num. artis interpolatis. 1832. 185. IL The Time of the Julii and Flavii, 723 to 848 1 A. u. (96 A. D.). Prudent princes, by means of magnificent undertakings which also procured to the common people ex- traordinary comforts and enjoyments, brought the Romans into entire oblivion of political life; half insane successors, by the gigantic schemes of their folly, gave still ample occu- pation to the arts. Although art even in such times must 2 have been far removed from the truth and simplicity of the best ages of Greece, still, however, it everywhere manifested during this century spirit and energy; the decline of taste is yet scarcely observable. 1. The saying of Augustus: that he would leave the city marmorea which he had received lateritia. Nero's burning and rebuilding. 186. III. From Nerva to the so-called Triginta Tyrannic 1 96 to about 260 years after Christ. Long-continued peace in the Roman empire; splendid undertakings even in the pro- vinces; a transitory revival of art in Greece itself through Hadrian; magnificent erections in the East. With all this 2 zealous and widely-extended exercise of art, the want of in- ternal spirit and life is shown more and more distinctly from the time of the Antonines downwards, along with the striv- ing after external show; vapidity and inflation combined, as in oratory and literature. The force of the spirit of Greco- 3 Roman culture was broken by the inroad of foreign ideas; the general want of satisfaction with the hereditary religions, the blending together of heterogeneous superstitions must have been in many ways pernicious to art. The circumstance 4 that a Syrian sacerdotal family occupied for a while the Ro- man throne had considerable influence. Syria and Asia Mi- o nor were at that time the most flourishing provinces, and an Asiatic character emanating from thence, is clearly observable in the arts of design as well as in literature. 168 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Pek. V. 3. The worship of Isis, which made violent intrusion about the year 700 a. u. and often served as a cloak to licentiousness, became gradually so prevalent that Commodus and Caracalla openly took part in it. — The worship of Mithras, a mixture of Assyrian and Persian religion, became first known in the Roman world through the pirates, before Pompey, and was established at Rome from the time of Domitian, and still more from the time of Commodus. The Syrian worship was in favour even under Nero, but became prevalent particularly from the time of Septi- mius Severus. — Add to this, the Chaldsean Genethliology ; Magic amu- lets, §. 206 ; theurgic philosophy. Comp. Heyne, Alexandri Severi Imp. religiones miscellasprobantis judicium, especially Epim. vi. : de artis fin- gendi et sculpendi corruptelis ex religionibus peregrinis et superstitioni- bus profectis, Opusc. Acadd. vi. p. 273. 4. Genealogy also is of importance to the history of art : Bassianus Priest of the sun at Emesa _^ \ Julia Domna Julia M^sa the wife of Septimius Severus ! Bassianus Septimius So-simias Julia Mamm^a Caracalla Geta by a Roman senator by a Syrian I I Heliogabalus Severus Alexander. 1 187. IV. From the Triginta Tyranni to the Byzantine times. 2 The ancient world declined, and with it art. The old Roman patriotism lost, through political changes and the powerless- ness of the empire, the hold which the rule of the Csesars had 3 still left it. The living faith in the gods of heathendom dis- appeared; attempts to preserve it only gave general ideas for personal substances. At the same time was altogether lost the manner of viewing things to which art is indebted for its existence, — the warm and living conception of external nature, 4 the intimate union of corporeal forms with the spirit. A dead system of forms smothered the movements of freer vital power; the arts themselves were taken into the service of a tasteless half-oriental court-parade. Before the axe was laid externally to the root of the tree the vital sap was already dried up within. 2. ARCHITECTONICS. 1 188. Even before the Caesars Rome was provided with all kinds of edifices which seemed necessary to adorn a great 2 city, after the manner of the Macedonian structures; — ele- STRUCTURES AT THE CLOSE OF THE REPUBLIC. 169 gantly built temples, although none of considerable extent • curicB and hasilicw, which became more and more necessary to 3 the Romans as places of assembly and business, as well as markets {ford) surrounded with colonnades and public build- ings; buildings also for games which the Roman people was 4 formerly accustomed to see even although magnificent, con- structed only for a short duration, were now built of stone and in gigantic masses. In the same way luxury in pri- 5 vate buildings, after it had timidly and hesitatingly taken the first steps, soon advanced rapidly and unprecedently to a great height; at the same time the streets were crowded with 6 monuments, and superb villas swallowed up the space destined for agriculture. 2. Temple of Honor and Virtus built by the architect C. Mutius for Marius, according to Hirt ii. s. 213 ; others (as Sachse i. s. 450) hold it to be that of Marcellus, §. 180. Rem. 2. The new capitol of Sulla and Catulus with unaltered plan, dedicated in 674. The temple of Venus Genitrix on the Forum Julium, vowed in 706 ; Temple of Divus Julius, begun in 710. 3. The Curia of Pompey 697 ; the magnificent Basilica of ^railius Paulus, the consul 702, with Phrygian columns (Basilica ^Emilia et Ful- via, Varro de L. L. vi. §. 4). The Basilica Julia, which Augustus com- pleted and then renewed, at the south-west corner of the Palatine. See Gerhard, DeUa BasUica Giulia. R. 1823. Adjoining it was the new Forum Julium, completed by Augustus. On the design of a Forum §. 295. 4. In the year 694 M. -^milius Scaurus as aedile fitted up magnifi- cently a wooden theatre ; the wall around the stage consisted of three tiers of pillars (episcenia), behind which the waU was of marble below, then of glass, and then of gilded wainscot ; 3,000 brazen statues, many pictures and tapestries. JCurio the tribune's (702) two wooden theatres were united into an amphitheatre. Pompey's theatre (697), the first of stone, for 40,000 spectators, was copied from that of Mitylene. On the upper circuit stood a temple of Venus Victrix. Hirt iii. s. 98. [Canina sul teatro di Pompeo in the Mem. d. acad. Archeol. 1833.] The first am- phitheatre of stone erected by Statilius Taurus under Augustus. The circus Maximus was fitted up for 150,000 men in the reign of Caesar. 5. The censor L. Crassus was much censured about the year 650 on account of his house with six small columns of Hymettic marble. The first that was faced with marble (a luxury which now crept in) belonged to Mamurra, 698 ; but even Cicero lived in a house which cost llsxxxv, that is .£26,090. Mazois, Palais de Scaurus, fragm. d'un voyage fait ^ Rome vers la fin de la republ. par Merovir prince des Su^ves. In Ger- man with notes by the brothers Wiistemann. Gotha 1820. 6. Lucullus' villas, Petersen Einl. p. 71. Varro's Ornithon (after tho tower of the Winds at Athens, de R. R. iii, 3). Monument of Caecilia Metella, the wife of Crassus, almost the only ruin of that time.— Archi- tects in the time of Cicero, Hirt ii. s. 257. Cyrus in Cicero's letters. 170 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V. 1 189. In the time of the first Caesars Roman architecture in public buildings cultivated a character of grandeur and magnificence, which was certainly the most conformable to the relations and ideas of a people that governed the world. 2 Pillars and arches took their place in considerable buildings as a leading form, together with the columns and their entab- lature, while at the same time the fundamental law was ob- served that both forms, but each preserving its own place, should go side by side, so that the arches formed the internal construction of the building, the columns the external front, and where no roof rested upon their entablature should fulfil 3 their end as supports to statues. However, there Avere more severe scholars of the Greek masters, such as Vitruvius, who were even already forced to complain of the mixture of hete- 4 rogeneous forms; a reproach, that must also indeed apply to the so-called Roman capital which did not make its appear- ance till after Vitruvius. Purity of architecture required to be even at that time learned from the edifices of the Grecian mother country and Ionia. 3. See Vitruv. i, 2. iv, 2. on the blending of the Ionic dentels with the Boric triglyphs. It is found exemplified in the theatre of Marcellus. Vitruvius complains more loudly of scenography which mocked at all architectonic principles, §. 209. 4. The Roman or Composite capital places the Ionic corner-capital entire over the lower two-thirds of the Corinthian, into which however the former had been already taken up in the most suitable manner ; it loses thereby all unity of character. The columns are carried to a height of 9 to 9| diameters. First introduced in the arch of Titus. 1 190. Augustus, with a true princely disposition, compre- hended all branches of a Roman order of architecture: he found the field of Mars still for the most part unoccupied, and together with Agrippa and others converted it into a superb city agreeably interspersed with groves and verdant 2 lawns, which eclipsed all the rest of the city. The succeed- ing emperors crowded with their buildings more around the Palatine and the Via Sacra; one enormous fabric here arose 3 on the ruins of another. In the room of the gigantic edifices of Nero, which only ministered to the debauchery and vanity of the builder, the Flavii planted structures of public util- ity ; in their time, however, a perceptible decline of good taste 4 took place. A terrible event in the reign of Titus has pre- served to posterity the animated spectacle of a whole Roman country-town, in which, notwithstanding the utmost econ- omizing of space, and on the whole a slight and cheap style of building, there are to be found nearly all kinds of public buildings which a capital possessed, and a taste for elegant form and pleasing ornament are seen everywhere diffused. ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 171 1. Under Augustus (Momim. Ancyranum) : I. In Rome. a. Built by the Emperor. Temple of Apollo Palatinus completed in 724, of Carrara, and the colonnades around of Punic marble • libraries in it. Sachse ii. s. 10. Petersen Einl. s. 87. Temple of Jupiter Tonans, now of Saturn (three Corinthian columns together with entabla- ture on the Capitoline hill are remains of a restoration, Desgodetz, Les Edifices Antiques de Rome, ch. 10) ; of Quirinus, a dipteros ; of Mars Ultor on the capitol, a small monopteros, which we still see on coins, and in the forum of Augustus a large temple, of which three columns still remain. Piale, Atti dell' Ace. Archeol. Rom. ii. p. 69. The Roman /ora according to Bunsen, Mon. d. Instit. ii, 33. 34. Theatre of Marcellus, built into the Palace Orsini, 378 feet in diameter (see Guattani M. 1. 1689, Genu. Febr. Piranesi, Antichitk Rom. T. iv. t. 25 — 37. Desgodetz, ch. 23). Portico of Octavia (formerly of Metellus) together with a curia, schola, library and temples — a vast structure. A few Corinthian columns of it remaining, as is thought (comp. Petersen Einl. s. 97 IF). Mausoleum of Augustus toge- ther with the Bustum on the field of Mars beside the Tiber ; remains of it. Aquce. Vice. [The bust at the Corso, Beschr. Roms iii. 3 Einleitung,] b. Buildings of other great personages (Sueton. August. 29). By M. Agrippa, great harbours and cloacae ; the portico of Neptune or the Argo- nauts ; the Septa Julia and the Diribitorium with enormous roof (Plin. xvi, 76, and xxxvi. 24, 1. e cod. Bamberg. Dio Cass. Iv, 8) ; the large Thermae. The Pantheon formed an advanced building in front (727) ; a circular edifice 132 feet high and broad within, with a portico of 16 Corinthian columns of granite ; the walls reveted with marble, the lacu- naria adorned with gilded rosettes. Brazen beams supported the roof of the portico, the tiles were gilded. Dedicated to the gods of the Julian family (Jupiter as Ultor, Mars, Venus, D. Julius and three others), colossal statues of whom stood in niches. — [Instead of the words Pantheon lovi Ultori in the second passage of Pliny, the Cod. Bamb. has vidit orbis : non et tectum diribitorii? There are only six niches.] — Other statues in tabernacles, the Caryatides of Diogenes on columns. Colossi of Augus- tus and Agrippa in the portico. Restored 202 after Christ. S. Maria Rotonda. Desgodetz, ch. 1. Hirt in the Mus. der Alterthums W. Bd. i. s. 148. Guattani 1789. Sett. Mem. Encycl. 1817. p. 48. [Beschr. Roms iii, 3. 8. 339—59.] Four [legal] documents by Fea. 1806 and 1807, [on the removal of the adjoining houses]. Wiebeking Biirgerl. Baukunst, Tf. 24. Rosini's Vedute. By Asinius Pollio the atrium of Libertas with a bibliotheca and busts of literary men. See Reuvens in Thorbecke, De Asinio Pollione. Cornelius Balbus' Theatre.— Pyramid of Cestius. On the picturesque appearance (scenography) of the Campus Martius at this time, Str. v. p. 256. Comp. Piranesi's imaginative panoramic view: Campus Martius. R. 1762. II. Out op Rome. In Italy the arches in honour of Augustus at Rimini (see Briganti's work), Aosta and Susa (Maffei, Mus. Veron. p. 234. Work by Massazza), which are still standing. Road cut through the hill of Posilippo by T. Cocceius Auctus. R. Rochette, Lettre k M. Schorn. p. 92. In the provinces, several temples of Augustus and Roma ; ruins at Pola. The stoa of Athena Archegetis at the new forum of 172 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Peb. V. Athens with an equestrian statue of L. Csesar (slender Doric columns) about 750. C. I. n. 342. 477. Stuart i. ch. 1. Remains of a small temple of Augustus have been lately discovered (C. I. 478). Nicopolis near Ac- tium, and near Alexandria built by Augustus. Ara maxima built to Au- gustus in 744 by the nations of Gaul, on an inscription in Osann Zeitschr. f. A. W. 1837. s. 387. Sumptuous buildings by Herod the Great in Ju- daea (Hirt, in the Schriften der Berl. Acad. 1816) ; the new temple en- deavoured to bring the old style of Solomon into harmony with the Greek taste now prevailing in architecture. Temple of C. and L. Caesar at Ne- mausus, Nismes, an elegant Corinthian prostyle pseudopeript., built 752 (1 after Christ). Clerisseau, Antiquites de Nismes. Comp. §. 262, 2. 2. The Claudii. The camp of the Praetorians (a. d. 22) marks the time of Tiberius, and the street-like bridge of vessels across the bay of Baise that of Caligula (Mannert Geogr. ix, 1. s. 731). Claudius' great harbour of Ostia with gigantic moles and a pharos on an artificial island, afterwards still more improved by Trajan (Schol. Juven. xii, 76); his aqueducts (aqua Claudia et Anio novus) and draining of the lake Fucinus. [Completed by Hadrian, Martiniere Geogr. Lex. iv. s. 1973 sq.] Bunsen Annali d. Inst. vi. p. 24. tav. d'agg. A. B. [L. Canina sulla sta- gione delle navi di Ostia, sul porto di Claudio 1838. Atti del acad. pontef.] Claudius' triumphal arch on the Flaminian way (on coins, Pedrusi vi. tb. 6, 2), buried ruins of it. Bullet, d. Inst. 1830. p. 81. Palatine palaces of the Caesars. Del palazzo de' Cesari opera postuma da Franc. Bianchini. Ver. 1738. A new Rome regularly built arose from Nero's conflagration (65). The golden house (on the site of the traiuitoria) extended across from the Palatine to the Esquihne and Cselius, with porticoes several miUia in length and large parks laid out in the interior, and indescrib- able splendour particularly in the dining-halls. The architects were Celer and Severus. The Flavii destroyed the greatest part ; numerous cham- bers have been preserved in the Esquiline, behind the substruction-walls of the baths of Titus. See Ant. de Romanis, Le antiche Camere Esqui- line 1822, and Canina's Memorie Rom. 11. p. 119. comp. §. 210. Nero's baths on the Campus. [Canina sul porto Neronlano dl Ostia, R. 1837. from the Atti d. acad, pontef.] 3. The Flavii. The third capitol, by Vespasian, higher than the ear- lier ones (on coins, Eckhel D. N. iv. p. 327) ; the fourth, by Domitian, still always according to the same ground-plan but with Corinthian pil- lars of Pentelic marble, within richly gilded (Eckhel, p. 377). Temple of Peace, by Vespasian (Eckhel, p. 334) ; extensive ruins on the Via Sa- cra. The cross-arch of the centre-nave was supported by eight Corin- thian columns; at each side three subordinate compartments. Bra- mante borrowed from them the idea of St. Peter's, According to others It belonged to a basilica of Constantino (Nibby del tempio d. Pace et della bas. di Constant. 1819. La bas. di Constant, sbandita della Via Sacra per lett. dell' Av. Fea. 1819). Desgodetz, ch. 7. Comp. Caristie, Plan et Coupe du Forum et de la Vole Sacree. Amphitheatrum Flavi- um (CoUseum) dedicated by Titus, in the year 80, and used at the same time as a Naumachia. The height 158 Parisian feet, the small axis 156 (Arena) and 2 X 156 (Seats), the large, 264 and 2 X 156. Desgodetz, ch. 21. Guattanl 1789. Febr. Marzo. Five small treatises by Fea. ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 173 Wagner de Flav. Amph. Commentationes. Marburghi 1829 — 1831. comp. §. 290, 3. 4. Titus' palace and thermae. Domitian built many mag- nificent edifices, as to which Martial, Stat. Silv. iv, 2, 48. Large domed hall on the Palatium by Rabirius. The Alban citadel (Pirancsi, Anti- chita d'Albano). Forum Palladium of Domitian or Nerva with richly decorated architecture ; chamfered corona ; modillions and dentels toge- ther ; see Moreau, Fragmens d' Architecture, pi. 7. 8. 11. 12. 13. 14. 17. 18. Guattani 1789. Ottobre. Arch of Titus on the Via Sacra, the architec- ture somewhat overloaded, the corona channelled. Bartoli, Vet. Arcus August, cum notis I. P. Bellorii ed. lac. de Rubeis 1690. Desgodetz, ch. 17. comp. §. 294, 9. [Gius. Valadier Narraz. artist. deU' operato nel ristauro dell' arco di Tito. In Roma 1822. 4to.] 4. Under Titus (a. d. 79), Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabi^ buried. History of their discovery, §. 260. Pompeii is highly interesting as a miniature picture of Rome. A third portion of the city has been laid open, and here there are a principal forum, with the temple of Jupi- ter (?), a basilica, the Chalcidicum and Crypta of the Eumachia, and the Collegium of the Augustales (?), the forum rerum venalium, two theatres (the unroofed one built by Antoninus Primus, M. Borbon. i, 38), thermse, numerous temples mostly small, among them an Iseum, many private buildings, in part very stately dwellings provided with atrium and peri- style, such as the so-called house of Arrius Diomedes, that of SaUust, of Pansa, and those called after the tragic poet and the faun ; the street of sepulchres before the gate towards Herculaneum ; separated from these the amphitheatre to the east. Almost everything on a small scale, the houses low (also on account of earthquakes), but neat, clean, and com- fortable, slightly built with rubble stones, but cast with excellent plaster ; beautiful floors of particoloured marble and mosaic. The columns mostly of the Doric order with slender shafts, but sometimes Ionic with singular deviations from the regular form, and with a coating of paint (Mazois, Livr. 25), also Corinthian. The most antique structure is the so-called temple of Hercules. Much had not yet been restored after the earth- quake of 63 A. D. Principal Books : Antiquites de la Grande Gr^ce, grav. par. Fr. Piror nesi d'apres les desseins de J. B. Piranesi et expl. par A. J. Guattani. P. 1804. 3 vols. fo. Mazois' splendid work, Antiquites de Pompei, begun in 1812, continued since 1827 by Gau. [Completed with the fourth part 1838.] Sir W. Gell and Gandy, Pompeiana or Observations on the Topo- graphy, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii. L. 1817. New Series 1830, in 8vo. Goro von Agyagfalva's Wanderungen durch Pompeii. Wien 1825. R. Rochette and Bouchet, Pomp6i. Choix d'Edifices Inedits, be- gun Paris 1828. [contains Maison du po^te trag. broken off at the 3d part, 22 pi] Cockburn and Donaldson, Pompeii illustrated with pic- turesque Views. 2 vols. fo. W. Clarke's Pompeii, translated at Leip- zig 1834. M. Borbonico. Comp. §. 260, 2. The latest excavations, BulL 1837. p. 182. [Engelhardt Beschr. der in Pompeii ausgegraljenen Ge- baude, Berlin 1843. 4to. (from CreUe's Journal for Archit.) The Library of Entertaining Knowledge. Pompeii 2 vols. 2d Ed. London lh33. L. Rossini le antichit^ di Pompeii delin. sulle scoperte fatte sino I'anno 1830. R. fol. max. 75 tav.] 174 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V. 191. The vast buildings erected by Trajan, the struc- tures of Hadrian which vie with everything earlier, and even particular edifices reared under the Antonines, present archi- tecture in its last period of bloom, on the whole still as noble and great as it was rich and elegant, although, in particular works, the crowding and overloading with ornaments, to wdiich the time had a tendency, was already very sensible. We find also, even from the time of Domitian, the insulated pedestals of columns (stylobates) which arose from continuous posta- ments (stereobates). They have no other ground and aim than the straining at slender forms and the greatest possible interruption and composition. 1. Trajan's Forum, the most stupendous in all Rome according to Ammian. xvi, 10, with a brazen roof which must have been perforated (Paus. v, 12, 4. X, 5, 5. gigantei co7itextus, Ammian.) ; many columns and fragments of granite found there recently. In the middle the column (113 A. D.) with the brazen statue of the emperor (now St. Peter). Pe- destal 17 feet; base, shaft, capital and pedestal of the statue 100 feet. The shaft 11 feet thick below and 10 above. Composed of cylinders of white marble ; with a stair inside. The band with the reliefs becomes broader as it ascends, which diminishes the apparent height. Bartoli's Columna Trajana. [1673. Col. Traj. 134. sen. tabulis insc. quae olim Mu- tianus incidi cur. cum expl. Ciacconi, nunc a C. Losi reperta imprimitur. R. 1773.] Piranesi's superb work 1770. Raph. Fabretti, De Columna Tra- jani. R. 1683. Against the traces of colours which Semper and others as- serted, Morey in the Bull. 1836. p. 39. The Basilica Ulpia adorned with numerous statues, on bronze coins (Pedrusi vi. tb. 25). A great number of architectural works, — thermae, odeion, harbour, aqueduct (on coins). Traj anus herba parietaria. Almost all by Apollodorus, Dio Cass. Ixix, 4, as likewise the bridge over the Danube, a. d. 105. Comp. Eckhel D. N. vi. p. 419. Arches of Trajan are still in existence at Ancona (very fine, of large masses of stone), and at Benevento, of almost Palmyrenian architecture. Works on these by Giov. di Nicastro and Carlo Nolli. The correspon- dence with Pliny the younger shows the Emperor's knowledge, and his interest in the buildings in all the provinces. Pliny's Villas (Mustius the architect,) treatises upon them by Marquez and Carlo Fea. Hadrian, himself an architect, put Apollodorus to death from hatred and jealousy. Temple of Venus and Roma, pseudodipt. decast., in a fore- court with a double colonnade, chiefly of marble with Corinthian columns, large niches for the statues, beautiful lacunaria and brazen roof. See Caristie, Plan et Coupe n. 4. The front view (with the history of Ro- mulus on the pediment) on the bas-relief in R. Rochette M. I. i. pi. 8. Tomb on the further side of the Tiber, described by Procopius, Bell. Goth, i, 22. Now the castle of S. Angelo, Piranesi, Antichita iv. t. 4— 12. Restorations, Hirt Gesch. Tf. 13, 3. 4. 30, 23. Bunsen (after Major Bavari's investigations) Beschr. Roms ii. s. 404. A structure square be- low supported a circular building which probably diminished upwards in three stages. [Circus in the neighbourhood of the Mausoleum, a treatise thereon by Canina, 1839, in the Mem. d. Acad. Rom. di Archeol.] Tibur- ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 175 tine villa, full of imitations of Greek and Egyptian buildings (Lyceum Academia, Prytaneum, Oanopus, Poecile, Tempe, [Lesche, in great part preserved] a labyrinth of ruins, 7 millia in circuit, and a very rich mine of statues and mosaics. Pianta della villa Tiburt. di Adriano by Pirro Ligorio and Franc. Contini. R. 1751. Winckelm. vi, 1. s. 291. As euer- getes of Greek cities Hadrian completed the Olympieion at Athens (01. 227, 3. comp. C, I. n. 331), and built a new city to which he gave his name ; the arch over the entrance to it is still standing ; there were there a Heraeon, Pantheon, and Panhellenion, with numerous Phrygian and Libyan columns. Probably the very large portico 376 X 252 feet, north from the citadel, with stylobates, is also one of Hadrian's edifices. Stuart i. ch. 5 (who takes it to be the Poecile), Leake, Topogr. p. 120. To the Attic monuments of the time belongs also that in commemoration of the Seleucid Philopappus' admission to the citizenship of Athens, erected in the Museion about the year 114 under Trajan. Stuart iii. ch. 5. Grandes Vues de Cassas et Bence, pi. 3. Bockh C. 1. 362. In Egypt Antinoe (Besa), beautifully and regularly laid out in the Grecian style, with co- lumns of the Corinthian order, but of free forms however. Description de I'Egypte, T. iv. pi. 53 sqq. Decrianus, architect and mechanician, §. 197. Under Antoninus Pius, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, at first probably destined only for the latter, a prostyle with beautiful Corin- thian capitals, the cornice already greatly overloaded. Desgodetz 8. Moreau pi. 23. 24. ViUa of the Emperor at Lanuvium. The column in honour of Antoninus Pius erected by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, merely a column of granite, of which nothing more than the marble postament is preserved, in the garden of the Vatican, §. 204, 4 : Vignola de Col. Antonini. R. 1705. [Seconda Lettera del sgr. M. A. dela Chausse sopra la col. d. apoth. di A. P. Nap. 1805.] Column of Marcus Aurelius, less imposing than that of Trajan (the bas-relief band is of the same height throughout). [The col. of Marcus Aurelius, after P. S. Bartoli's designs, by Bellori 1704.] A triumphal arch erected at the same time in the Flaminian way, the reliefs of which are still preserved in the palace of the Conservatori. Herodes Atticus, the preceptor of M. Aurelius and L. Verus (comp. FioriUo and Visconti on his inscriptions) showed an in- terest in Athens by the embellishment of the stadion and by building an odeion. A theatre at New-Corinth. [A temple, supposed to have been built in the time of the Antonines at Jaeckly near Mylasa, Ion. An- , tiq. i. ch. 4.] 192, After the time of Marcus Aurelius, although the love 1 of building did not cease, a more rapid decline in architectural taste took place. Decorations were crowded to such a degree 2 that all clearness of conception was destroyed, and so many intermediate mouldings were everywhere introduced between the essential members that the principal forms, especially the corona, completely lost their definite and distinctive character By seeking to multiply every simple form, interrupting the 3 rows of columns together with the entablature by frequent advancings and retirings, sticking half-columns to pilasters, 176 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V. making one pilaster jut out from another, breaking the ver- tical line of the shafts with consoles for the support of sta- tues, making the frieze belly out, and filling the walls with a great number of niches and frontispieces, they deprived the column, the pillar, the entablature, the wall and every other member, of its significance and peculiar physiognomy, and together with a bewildering perplexity produced at the same 4 time an extremely tiresome monotony. Although the techni- cal construction on the whole was excellent, the workmanship, however, in detail become more and more clumsy, and the care in the execution of the enriched members diminished in pro- 5 portion as these were multiplied. The taste of the nations of Syria and Asia Minor had evidently the greatest influence on this tendency of architecture ; and there likewise are to be found the most distinguished examples of this luxuriant and 6 florid style. Even native structures in the East may not have escaped all influence ; the mixtures of Greek with indigenous forms in barbaric countries, which can be pointed out, appear chiefly to belong to this period. 1. Under Commodus, the temple of Marcus AureHus with convex frieze (built into the Dogana). The arch of Septimifs Severus, bungled in the design (the middle columns advance without any aim), overloaded with tracery of rude workmanship. [Suaresius Arcus Sept. Sev. R. 1676. fol.] Another arch erected by the Argentarii. Desgodetz, ch. 8. 19. Bel- lori. Septizonium quite ruinous in the 16th century. A labyrinth built by Qu. Julius Miletus as an institution for the recreation of the people. Welcker, Sylloge, p. xvii. Caracalla's thermae, an enormous structure with excellent masonwork ; light vaulted roofs of a composition of pu- mice-stone, of great span, particularly in the cella solearis (a swimming bath towards the east), comp. Spartian Carac. 9. (The chief mine of the Farnesian statues, the earlier of excellent, the more recent of ordinary workmanship.) A. Blouet's Restauration des Thermes d'Ant. Caracalla. On new excavations, Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom. Studien, s. 142. The so- • called circus of Caracalla (probably of Maxentius ; the inscription how- ever does not entirely decide) before the Porta Capena, badly built. Lately laid open. Investigation on the subject by Nibby ; Kunstblatt 1825. N. 22. 50. 1826. N. 69. Heliogabalus dedicated to the god after whom he was named a temple on the Palatium. Severus Alexander, Thermae and other bathing establishments ; many earlier buildings were then renewed. There are many things besides at Rome which have come down from the time of florid architecture, such as the so-called temples of Jupiter Stator, Fortuna Virilis (now Maria Egiziana), and Concordia (a later restoration of a temple to Divus Vespasianus, according to Fea). 6. In Stria, Antioch was adorned by almost every emperor with buildings, particularly aqueducts, thermae, nymphaea, basilicas, xysta, and edifices for games, and its ancient splendour (§. 149) was often restored after earthquakes. At Heliopolis (Baalbeck) the great temple of Baal built in the time of Antoninus Pius (Malalas, p. 119. Ven.), peript. decast. 280 X 155 Par. F., with a quadrangular and a hexagonal fore- ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 177 court; a smaller temple peript. hexast. with a thalamus (comp. §. 153. Rem. 3) ; a strangely designed tholus. R. Wood, The Ruins of Baalbeck, otherwise Heliopolis. L. 1757. Cassas, Voy. pittor. en Syrie ii. pi. 3 57. Souvenirs pendant un voy. en orient (1832. 33.) par M. Alph. de Lamar- tine, P. 1835. T. iii. p. 15 sqq. Magnificent description on the temple of the Sun, data by Russegger, in the Bull. 1837. p. 94 sq. Palmyra. (Tadmor) sprang up as a place of traffic in the desert in the first century after Christ, and flourished, after being restored by Hadrian, during the peaceful reign of the Antonines, afterwards as the residence of Odenatus and Zenobia, till its conquest by Aurelian. See Heeren, Gommentatt. Soc. Gott. rec. vii. p. 39. Diocletian also caused baths and churches to be built there, and Justinian renewed them (according to Procopius and Malalas). Temple of Helios (Baal) octast. pseudodipt. 185 X 97 feet, with columns having metal foliage fixed on, in a large court (700 feet long and broad) with Propylaja, on the east. Small temple prost. hexast. on the west. Between them a street of columns 3,500 feet in length, an imitation of that at Antioch. Round about ruins of a palace, basilicas, open colonnades, markets, aqueducts, honorary monuments, tombs (that of lamblichus built a. d. 103, of very remarkable architecture) ; for games only a small stadium. Wood, The Ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tadmor. 1753. Cassas i. pi. 26 sqq. In similar style were laid out the cities of Decapolis, east from the Jordan, especially Gerasa (on which Burck- hardt treats in his Travels in Syria, p, 253, and Buckingham, in greater detail, Trav. in Palestine, p. 353 sqq. with various plans and sketches) and Gadara (Gamala in Buckingham, p. 44). The same gorgeous and overloaded architecture prevailed in Asia Minor, as is shown in the tem- ple at Labranda (Kiselgick, according to others, Euromus, Choiseul, GoufF. Voy. Pitt. i. pi. 122. Ionian Antiq, i. ch. 4), the monument of My- lasa, with columns elliptical in transverse section (Ion. Ant. ch. 7. pi. 24 sq. Chois. pi. 85 sq.), the ruins of a temple at Ephesus (Ion. Ant. pi. 44. 45. Chois. pi. 122) ; the portico of Thessalonica (Stuart iii. ch. 9) also belongs to this time. In the rock-sepulchres near Jerusalem, especially those called the tombs of the kings, the period of which it is difficult to deter- mine (Miinter Antiq. Abhandl. s. 95 sq. Raumer's Palastina s. 212. 216) there appear simpler forms of Greek architecture; only the character of the ornaments is oriental (grapes, palms and the like). Cassas iii. pL 19 — 41. Forbin, Voy. d. le Levant, pi. 38. 6. In the remarkable ruins of Petra, the rock environed and almost inaccessible city of the Nabatheans, which was enriched by the com- merce from the Red Sea, there are found rock-built temples with domes, theatres, sepulchres, ruins of palaces ; also colossal statues ; on the whole, Grecian forms, but arbitrarily composed, and disfigured by a love of fantastic multiplicity of forms. See especially Burckhardt, Trav. in Syria, p. 421. Leon de Laborde and Linant, Voy. de I'Arabie Petr6e, Livr. 2 sqq. Not only do we find an interesting combination of later Roman with native forms in the empire of the Sassanidae (§. 248) but also in that of Meroe, especially at the small temple near Naga (Cail- liaud, Voy. k M6roe i. pi. 13). 193. Reckoning from the time of the Thirty Tyrants, and still more from that of Diocletian, luxuriance passed over en- M 1 178 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Pek. V. tlrely into rudeness which neglected the fundamental forms 2 and principles of ancient architecture. Columnar was so combined with arched architecture that the arches were at first made to rest on the entablature, and afterwards were even made to spring immediately from the abacus in vio- lation of the laws of statics, which require undiminished and angular pillars under the arch; at length they went so far as to give the entablature itself, together with the dentels 3 and modillions, the form of an arch. They placed columns and pilasters on consoles, which projected from the walls in order to support arches or pediments ; they began to give the shafts screw-channelled and otherwise convoluted forms. 4 Covering members were on account of the multiplicity of the parts regarded as the principal thing, and were loaded on those lying beneath in a most unwieldy manner, as the cornice was on the entablature in general, and in its separate 5 subordinate parts. The execution Avas universally meagre, tame and rude, without roundness or effect; there was left however, as a remnant of the Roman spirit, a certain gran- deur in the design; and in the mechanical details things were G still done worthy of admiration. In consequence of the new organization of the empire fewer buildings were undertaken 7 at Rome itself, but on the other hand provincial cities, espe- cially from the time of Diocletian, flourished with new splen- 8 dour. What injured Rome most was the transference of the throne to Constantinople. 6. Gallienus' arch, of travertine, in a simple style destitute of art. Un- der Aurelian the walls of Rome were widened, attention to security began (Nibby's statements in Mura di Roma 1821 are not always correct, see Stef. Piale in the Dissert, dell' Ace. Archeol. ii. p. 95). Great double temple of Bel and HeKus. Salaried teachers of architecture. Diocle- tian's Thermae in tolerable preservation ; the circular hall in the centre, the groined vault of which is supported by eight granite columns, was converted by Michael Angelo in 1560 into the beautiful church S, Maria degli Angeli. Desgodetz 24. Le Terme Diocl. misur. e disegn. da Seb. Oya. R. 1558. Strong castle and villa of the Ex-emperor near Salona (at Spalatro) in Dalmatia, 705 feet long and broad. Adam's Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, 1764. fol. The column in honour of Diocletian at Alexandria (otherwise Pompey's pillar) is very large indeed (88^ Par. f.) but in bad taste. Descr. de I'Egypte T. v. pi. 34. Anti- quites, T. ii. ch. 26. Append., Norry Descr. de la Colonne de Pompee. Hamilton's uEgyptiaca, pi. 18. Cassas iii. pi. 58. [(§. 149. R. 2). Clarke Tra- vels ii, 2. a title plate, Dalton Mus. Gr. et Mg. or Antiquities from draw- ings, pi. 43, The shaft is good in style, the capital and base bad, on which account Norry, Leake in the Classical Journal, vol. 13. p. 153, and Wilkinson Topogr. of Thebes 1835, regard it as a Grecian work of the flourishing period of Alexandria, and suppose from the inscription 20 feet high which was restored by Villoison and Leake, that it was only at last dedicated to Diocletian. J. White -rEgyptiaca, Oxf. 1801, thought that ARCHITECTURE IN THE DECLINE OF THE ExMPIRE. 179 Ptol. Philad. raised it to his father. Only Zoega de obel. p. 607 has shown that Apthonius in his description of the acropolis of Alexandria Progynm. 12 speaks of this column as the far-conspicuous central point of the buildings on the acropoUs which were derived from the Ptolemies {d.^X'^^ ^^ "^^^ omai/ rrj rijs Kiouog Koov(p^ 'Tre^ieaTTjKXffi), and that the place where it now stands also agrees therewith. This testimony cannot be shaken, although the inscription given by Cyriacus, which says that the column was erected by Alexander the Macedonian (Deinocrates being the architect), and which is defended by Osann in the Memorie d. Inst, archeol. iii. p. 329, cannot be genuine. Accordingly the column did not first proceed from the granite quarries of Syene in the years 205 — 209, as Letronne maintains in Rech. pour servir ^ I'hist. de I'Eg. p. 367, and Journ. des. Sav. 1836. p. 593, and the present author also has conceded in the Hall. A. L. Z. 1835. Jun. s. 245. that the shaft may have been taken from that column which was erected on the same site in the time of Alexander or the Ptolemies.] The arch of Constantino, adorned with Dacian vic- tories from Trajan's arch, the new sculptures very ill proportioned. Baths of Constantino. Tomb of Constantia, the daughter of Constantine (the so-called temple of Bacchus, Desgodetz, ch. 2.), beside the church of S. Agnes ; and of Helena the wife of Julian, a tholus, in the style of the Pantheon, on the Via Nomentana. The corrupt style of architecture at that time, with its twisted and convoluted columns, is not seen so dis- tinctly in ruins as on sarcophagi (for example that of Probus Anicius, about 390. Battelli's Dissertation on it, R. 1705), also on coins of Asia Minor, for instance those of Blaundos under Philippus Arabs. 7. Besides Rome, the following were places of importance : Mediola- num, on the buildings of which see Ausonius' (died in 390) Clarae Urbes 5, Verona, with the colossal amphitheatre, and the gates built in 265 in three stories with spirally-fluted columns, and pilasters on consoles ; [Count Orti Manara Delle due antichissime porte esist. in Verona ai tempi de' Romani, Verona 1840. fob] Treveri, where there are many ruins, the Porta Nigra, a strong work, although rude in detail, comp. §. 264; Narbo, Carthage. 8. At Byzantium, Septimius Severus had already done much in build- ing ; the city was now quickly provided with edifices for the requirements of the people and the court. A forum of Augustus, other fora, senatus, regia, the 'palatium^ baths, such as the Zeuxippeion, the hippodrome (Atmeidan), with the obelisk erected by Theodosius and the serpent- tripod, reputed to be from Delphi. At first temples were also dedicated to Roma and Cybele. Theodosius built the Lauseion and thermae. The anemodulion (somewhat resembling the Athenian Tower of the Winds) was a remarkable monument. See Nicetus Acorn. Narratio de statuis antiq. quas Franci destruxerunt, ed. Wilken, p. 6. For general accounts, Zosimus, Malalas, and otlur chroniclers, Procop. De jEdif. Justiniani, Codinus, and an anonymous author, Antiqq. Cpolitanaj, Gyllius (died in 1555), Topogr. Cpoleos, Banduri Imperium Orientale, Heyne Serioris artis opera quae sub Imper. Byzant. facta memorantur, Commentat. Soc. Gott. xi. p. 39. There are still preserved the obeUsk of Theodosius ; the porphyry column in the ancient forum, 100 feet high, on which stood the statue of Constantine, and afterwards that of Theodosius, renewed by Man. Comnenus ; the marble pointed coluinns, 91 feet high, which Con- 180 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V. stantine Porphyrogenitus or his grandson caused to be covered with gilded bronze ; the pedestal of the Theodosian column (§. 207) and some other things of less importance. See Carbognano, Descr. topogr. dello stato prcsente di Cpoli. 1794. Pertusier, Promen. Pittoresques dans Constantinople, 1815. V. Hammer's Constantinopolis und der Bosporus, 2 bde 1822. Raczynski's Malerische Reise, s. 42 ff. Among the princi- pal buildings were the aqueducts (such as that of Valens), and the cis- terns, large fabrics, but petty in detail, which also prevailed in other parts of the East (for example at Alexandria, Descript. de I'Egypte T. v. pi. 36. 37), and served as models for Arabic buildings. In Byzantium there are eight, partly open, partly vaulted over with small domes ; only one still used, that beside the hippodrome 190 X 166 feet large, in three stories, each of which consists of 16 X 14 columns. The columns are • mostly Corinthian, but also with other quite abnormal capitals. Walsh's Journey from Constantinople to England, ed. 2. 1828. Count Andreossy's Constantinople et le Bosphore. P. 1828. L. iii. ch. 5. 8. 1 194 During this period was developed the Christian church-architecture, not from the Grecian temple, but, con- formably to the wants of the new religion, from the basilica, inasmuch as old basilicas were sometimes fitted up for that purpose, and sometimes new ones built, but after Constantine 2 chiefly with plundered pieces of architecture. A portico (pro • naos, narthex), the interior entirely roofed, several aisles, the central one higher, or all equally high; behind in a circular recess (concha, sanctuarium) the elevated tribune. By length- ening this and adding side-porticoes, the later form of Italy 3 arose. Besides these, there were at Rome as baptisteries par- ticular round buildings, whose form and disposition were de- rived from the bath-rooms of the Romans (§. 292, 1); but in the East, even as early as Constantine, churches also were 4 built of a round form with wide-vaulted cupolas. This form was on the whole very grandiose, although in the individual parts developed in a paltry taste in the church of St. Sophia, which was erected in the time of Justinian; it afterwards be- came prevalent in the Eastern empire, and even the later Greek churches, with their main and subordinate cupolas, pay 5 homage to this taste. The edifices of the Ostrogothic time, especially from Amalasuntha downwards, did not probably arise without the influence of Byzantine architects. 1. Church of Saint Anges founded by Constantia, the daughter of Constantine, a basilica with three aisles, and with two ranges of columns, one above the other. A five-aisled basilica of S. Paul outside the walls, according to some, by Constantine, the columns of different kinds, as also in St. John of the Lateran, the curious carpenter-work originally overlaid with gold; recently burned down (Rossini's Vedute). N. M. Nicolai Delia Basilica di San Paolo. R. 1815 fol. The five-aisled basilica of St. Peter on the Vatican (Bunsen, Beschreibung von Rom ii. s. 50 sq.) connected by porticoes with the bridge across the Tiber as St. Paul's was with the city. St. Clemens, a model of the ancient disposition of basilicas. CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURAL WORKS. 181 Gutcnsohn and Knapp, Monumenti della Rel. Christiana R. begun 1822. Besides, Agincourt, Hist, de I'Art par les monumens depuis sa decadence, T. iv. pi. 4 — 16. 64. Platner, Beschreibung Roms, i. s. 417. The descrip- tion of the church built by Constantine at Jerusalem corresponded in aU the main points with these Roman basilicas, Euseb. V. Const, iii, 25 — 40 ; the same remark applies to the Church of the Apostles built by Constantine and Helena at Byzantium, Banduri, T. ii. p. 807. Par. 3. The so-called Baptistery of Constantine is a circular building of this sort, Ciampini 0pp. T. ii. tb. 8. On the Baptistery in St. Peter's, Bunseu ii. s. 83. The description by a rhetor (Walz Rhetores i. p. 638) of a Bap- tisterion (is/^uslou BccTrTiarov) with rich mosaics in the cupola over the baptismal font is particularly interesting. The oldest example of a round church is the cathedral of Antioch, built also by Constantine, of octagonal plan, similar in construction to the church of San Vitale (Rem. 5) with very high and wide cupola, Euseb. iii. 50. Dronke and Lassaulx Mat- thias Kapelle bei Kobern, s. 51. a list of 61 round and polygonal churches. 4. The church of Saint Sophia was rebuilt by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles before 537. The dome (t^oiJaxo?), resting on four pillars, was restored after an earthquake in 554 by the younger Isidore. It was now more durable, but not so imposing. Under the dome was the isQxnhu, in the galleries at the sides the places for men and women, in front the narthex. Procop. I. 1. Agathias v, 9. Malalas p. 81. Ven. Cedrenus p. 386. Anonym, in Banduri Imp. .Or. i. p. 65. ch. ii. p. 744. — Other architects and finxaura.i oi isqoy^u/^tfictTUs in Clemens. On rolls of papyrus, which seem to belong to a kind of liturgy, and to contain hymns. The same species of writing is found in fragments of folded papyrus (comp. Herod, ii, 100), with the names of the kings and the years of their reigns, in the Turin collection. See Quintino Lezioni intorno a diversi argomenti d'Archeologia. 1825. Mai's Catalogo de' papiri Egiziani della bibl. Yaticana chiefly contains hieratic documents. 1825. 4to. 4. 'ETT/ffToXoygafp/x^ /niBolo; in Clemens, In^uonKoc, ^Yif^a^yi yQ. in Herod, and Diod. Qy^c^Qioc is more general). Used on papyrus for deeds, letters, and all sorts of secular registries. Records and deeds of a family of Chol- chytes, or mummy-dressers at Thebes, partly demotic, partly Greek, some- times corresponding to each other. Individual matters published by Bockh (Erklarung einer -ffigypt, Urkunde. B. 1821) and Buttmann (Erk- larung der Griech. Beischrift. 1824), by Petrettini (Papiri Greco-Egizii. 1826), by Peyron (Papyri Grseci R. Taurinensis Musei ^gyptii, especially the pleadings of 117 bef. Christ), in Young's Account and Hieroglyphics, in Mai ibid, and Rosegarten De prisca ^gyptiorum litteratura, Comm. i. 1828. These documents and the Rosetta stone have led to the deter- mination of a number of letters which appear in Greek names, the signs of the numbers and other cyphers, principally through Young, Champol- lion, and Rosegarten. On Spohn's work (De Lingua et Literis veterum ^gyptiorum, ed. et absolvit G. Seyifarth), comp. among others Gott. G. A. 1825. St. 123. The best materials of these researches are given in the Hieroglyphics collected by the Egyptian Society, arranged by Thos. Young, 2 vols. C. Yorke and M. Leake, Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, i, i. p. 203. Bunsen Obss. generales sur I'^tat actuel de nos connaissances relativement a I'age des mon. de I'Eg. Annali d. Inst. vi. p. 87. 217. By the recently acquired knowledge of these kinds of writing, particularly the first, and a greater attention to ^lane- tho occasioned thereby, we have at the same time been enabled 212 EGYPTIAN ART. to determine the age of many monuments, which, considering what Plato says as to the immutability of art in Egypt for thousands of years, could hardly be discovered immediately from the style of the monuments. We distinguish, then : 2 I. The period before the Syro-Arabian conquest of the Hycsos or Shepherd kings (sixteen dynasties in Manetho) in which This and Memphis especially flourished. At the end of it nothing escaped destruction except the pyramids of Memphis, works of the fourth dynasty. But even fragments of temples of the earlier time are found here and there built into later works; — ^they show precisely the same kind of art as the latter. The prodigious devastations of these Hycsos which wound up this period, have rendered it impossible to follow this national style of art step by step, and trace its de- velopment. 3 II. The race of native princes, which was not extinguished even under the Hycsos, but had retired into the most remote regions, issuing again from the southern boundaries of Egypt, gradually reconquered the empire (the eighteenth. Thebaic dynasty in Manetho) and raised it to new splendour, which reached its zenith under Rhamses the Great (Sethos in Man- etho) otherwise called Sesostris (the first of the princes of the nineteenth dynasty, 1473 years before the Christian era). His name, and those of several other Rhamses, Amenophis, Thutmosis, stand on numberless temples and other monu- ments, even in Lower Nubia. Thebes was the central point of Egypt, and rose to a most flourishing condition. The suc- ceeding dynasties likewise, even the Ethiopian conquerors, who were of the same kindred with the Egyptians, have left behind monuments of their name in a similar style ; and, un- der the Philhellenic rulers of Sais, there is still nothing of Greek influence observable in art. 4 III. Egypt was under foreign dominion, first Persian, then Greek, and afterwards Roman, without, however, any altera- tion being thereby produced on life in the interior of the country. The ancient division into castes, the hierarchy in its relative position to the nation, continued to subsist; all the occupations of life and branches of art were carried on in the old system. The kings and queens were treated by the priesthood of the difierent districts, in titles and mode of representation, entirely after the manner of the ancient Pharaohs. Chris- tianity first annihilated by external destruction this mummy- like, dried up, and therefore incorruptible Egyptian world. 1. Manetho (260 before Christ), leaving out of consideration the cor- ruptions of the text, deserves as much more credit than the purely his- torical accounts of Herodotus, as authentic records, made use of by an PERIODS OF EGYPTIAN ART. 213 intelligent native, ought to have in preference to oral communications by equivocal intermediate persons to a stranger. Among such records of which Manetho might avail himself, the genealogy of Ramses the Great, given in the tablet of Abydos (most correct in Ilierogl. 47) is worthy of notice. At least the order of succession here, Thutraosis, Amenophis, Horus, coincides with Manetho. [Bockh Manetho u. die Hundsternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Pharaonen, B. 18-15.] 2. The Builders of the Pyramids, Suphis I. (Cheops, Herod.), a de- spiser of the gods, Suphis II. (Chephren), Mencheres (Mykerinos), kings of the fourth dynasty, were thrust down by the priests whom Herodotus heard, from theocratic reasons, into the time of the decline. Comp. Hecren, Ideen 2. s. 198. with Champollion, Lettres h, M. le Due de Bla- cas, ii. ; and the latter on the fragments of earlier buildings which are found in the temple and palace of Ammon at Carnac in the ruins of Thebes. 3. The xviii. dynasty according to Champollion: Amnoftep, Thoyt- mus, Amnmai, Thoytmus II., Amnof, Thoytmus III,, Amnof II. (Pha- menophis or Memnon), Horus, Ramses I., Ousirei, Manduei, Ramses II. III. IV. (Mei-Amn) V. The xix. : Amn-mai Ramses VI., Ramses VII., Amnoftep II., Ramses VIII. IX., Amen-me, Ramses X. ChampoUion's assumptions are opposed in several points to Burton Excerpta Hierogl. Qahira 1828-30 and Wilkinson, Materia Hieroglyphica. Malta 1828 (comp. Bull. d. Inst. 1832. p. 221) ; Rosellini, Monumenti dell' Egitto e della Nubia dis. dalla Spedizione Scientifico-letteraria Toscana in Egitto P. I. Mon. Storici 1832. 33. (comp. G. Gel. Anz. 1833. St. 200.) arranges the succession as follows : xviii.: Amenof L, Thutmes I. II. III., the Queen Amense, Thutmes IV., Amenof II., Thutmes V., Amenof III. (Memnon), Ilorus, Tmauhmot, Ramses I., Menephtah I., Ramses II. III. (Amn-mai Ramses or Sesostris), Manephtah II. III., Uerri. The xix. begins : Ram- ses Mai-Amn (also Sethos or jEgyptus — a very uncritical combination). The following are thought to be found on monuments: Manduftep (Smendes XXL), Scheschon, Osorchon, Takelothe (XXII.) ; Sabaco and Tirraka (XXV, these by Salt), Psemteg (Psammetichus XXXI.), Nai- phroue, Hakr. (Nephereus and Acoris, of the xxix. dynasty in the time of the Persians). 4. The chief supports of this view which has been gained but recently are 1. The Rosetta stone, an address in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek characters, by the priests assembled at Memphis, to Ptolemy V., (who had caused himself to be inaugurated after the manner of the Pharaohs,)- thanking him especially for freeing the priesthood from many burdens. Last explained by Drumann, 1823. Such decrees of praise and thanks were frequent ; even the virtues of Nero were extolled in hieroglyphics by the inhabitants of Busiris. 2. The Greek inscriptions on the walls of temples, mostly to this effect, that the Ptolemies and Imperators, or the inhabitants of the country, for the welfare of these rulers (v7ri^ xvruv), dedicate temples or new portions of them to their native gods; they come down as far as the time of the Antonines. Letronne, Recherches pour servir h, Fhistoire de I'Egypte pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains. 1823. 3. The hieroglyphic inscriptions with names of Ptolemies and Roman emperors accompanying representations which 214 EGYPTIAN AflT. both in import and form are purely Egyptian; according to Rosellini they come as far down as Caracalla. 4. The archives of the Cholchytes lead us still deeper into private life, §. 216, 4. Comp. Gott. G. A. 1827. St. 154 — 156. We see from them that the entire sacred laws of the Egyptians, and what here did not belong to them, continued still nearly unimpaired in the later times of the Ptolemies. 1 218. The monuments of the Egyptian style of art are divided according to locality as follows: I. The Upper Nubian. Here lay the kingdom of Meroe which was in a flourishing state at least before the time of Herodotus; in it the sway of the priesthood down till Erga- menes (about 270 years before Christ) was still more stern, and priestly knowledge still more generally diffused. On this so-called island there are still found considerable groups of ruins, which however for the most part exhibit the Egyptian style only in a later state of degeneracy. At the northern end of it, indeed beyond the island, there are found similar remains of Napata, the seat of the queens Candace ; there are also to be seen edifices of a kindred description in several places in Abyssinia. 2 II. The Lower Nubian, separated by a great space from the former, and approaching closer to Upper Egypt. The reason that they mostly wear the form of cavern-structures lies perhaps partly in the smaller extension of the valley of the Nile, which did not furnish a sufiicient surface for other constructions; according to the hieroglyphic inscriptions those that lie higher up belong to the flourishing era of Thebes, those in the border country to later periods. The unfinished state of the greater number proves that the circumstances which gave occasion to them were transient. 3 HI. The Upper Egyptian, partly above Thebes partly in Thebes itself, partly below as far as Hermopolis. The monu- ments of Thebes, by far the most colossal of all, mostly owe their origin to one and the same time, the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasty, and exhibit therefore one and the same massive and grandiose style. 4 IV. The Central Egyptian, and V. the Lower Egyptian, originally not less numerous, but in great part utterly de- stroyed by the more frequent migrations and devastations in these districts, as well as by the rise of new cities in the neigh- bourhood. VI. Oases. 1. The KINGDOM OF Meroe is nearly an island formed by the Nile and the Astaboras, — the land of Cush compassed by the river Gihon. Ruins on the Nile around Shendy, 17 north latitude. Here lie Gurcab where there are 43 pyramids, and Assur where there are 80. Southward from Shendy, and farther from the Nile, is Me§aurah, where there is a temple LOCALITIES OF EUiPTIAN ART. 215 (the temple of the oracle according to Heeren) of labyrinthine design, and Naga, where there is a temple of Ammon with alleys of sphinxes. Below the confluence of the rivers are the ruins on Mount Barkal and near Merawe, formerly Napata. These structures were pai'tly erected by Egyptian rulers (the oldest name is Amenophis IL), partly much later, therefore not in the severe style of Egyptian art in architecture and sculpture ; the queens, who sometimes appear with a king and sometimes alone, in warlike or sacerdotal transactions, are probably of the Candaces who reigned here from the Macedonian period down to the 4th century of the Christian era, and besides Napata also possessed Me- roe (Plin. vi, 35). See Burckhardt's Travels in Nubia. G. A. Iloskin's Travels in Ethiopia, 1835. 4to (Gott. G. A. 1836. St. 166. 167. Cailliaud's Voyage a Meroe etc. 2 vols, plates, 3 vols. text. Accounts by Riippel, Lord Prudhoe and Major Felix (Bull. d. Inst. 1829. p. 100). Map by Ritter in the second part of the Charten und Pliine. Axum in Habesh (founded, according to Mannert, through the emigra- tion of the Egyptian warlike castes), a powerful kingdom about 500 years after Christ. Obelisks of an anomalous description, without hiero- glyphics. Accounts by Bruce and Salt, Lord Valentia, Travels T. iii. Similar ones in the port of Azab, and perhaps also in Adule. 2. The monuments of Lower Nubia, beginning from Sesce, are sepa- rated from Meroe by an empty space of 30 miles. Temple of Soleb (Reliefs of Amenophis II.) ; Aamara ; Semne ; Wady-Halfa ; Ibsambul [Kerkis], two rock-temples with colossi, the larger is a monument in honour of Ramses the Great; Derri; Hasseya; Amada; Wady-Sebua, temple and rows of sphinxes; Moharraka [Hierosykaminon] ; Korti [Corto]; Dakke [Pselkis]; Temple of Hermes Pautnuphis; Gyrshe [Tulzis], with a very large temple-grotto, colossi as pillars, particularly old ; Dondur ; Kalabshe [Talmis] with a temple and a monument in the rocks; Tafa [Taphis]; Kardassy [Tzitzi]; Debod with the island Be- rcmbre [Parembole]. The monuments of the Ptolemies and Romans reach as far as Sykaminon (thus far extended the awoQioc of the empire before Diocletian) ; then begin older works. Berenice on the Red Sea has a small temple. Chief sources, The Travels of Burckhardt and Ligth, for Ibsambul Belzoni : Narrative of the operations and recent discover- ies within the pyramids, temples, tombs and excavations in Egypt and Nubia, Sec. Ed. 1821, especially Gau's Antiquites de la Nubie. 13 Livr. plates with text. P. 1822, also Leljegreen from the Swedish in Schorn's Kunstblatt 1827. N. 13 ff. and the map by A. v. Prokesch from measure- ments in 1827. 3. In Upper Egypt, on the borders, the island of Isis Phila) with a large temple (much built by Ptol. Euerg, the Second ; the temple still existed at the time of Narses), Parthey De Phihs ins. ej usque monum. B. 1830; Elephantine (Monuments of Amenophis II.); Syene [now As- suan] ; Omboi [Koum Ombo] ; Silsilis ; Great ApoUinopolis [Edfu] with a magnificent temple, together with Typhonion, of the time of the Pto- lemies ; Eilethyia [El Kab] with many fine catacombs ; LatopoHs [Esneh] with a large strong-built, and a small, late, and ill-built temple ; Aphrodi- topolis [Eddeir] ; Hermonthis [Erment]. Then Thebes, whose ruins altogether are five gcogr. miles in circuit. 216 EGYPTIAN ART. 1 . The city properly so called on the east side. Temple and palace at Luxor (Amenophis II.), connected with the temple (of Amenophis I. and other kings) and palace (of Ramses the Great) at Carnac by an alley of sphinxes more than 6,000 feet long. Small hippodrome. 2. The Memnoneia, that is, the city of the Mausoleums, especially in the neighbourhood of Kurnah. Here stood, where the field of the colossi is now, the Memnoneion (in Strabo), the Amenophion (in papyrus-writings), probably the same which Diodorus describes as the Osmandyeion. See Gott. G. A. 1833, St. 36. [Letronne opposed to this view, in the Journ. des Sav. 1836, p. 239.] Fur- ther the Ramesseion (the Osmandyeion of the Descript.) with the alley of sphinxes, the Menephtheion (palace at Kurnah) and other monuments as late as Ptolemy the First^s time. Grottoes and syrinxes all around. Above the Memnoneion (according to Strabo) there were about 40 splen- did sepulchres of kings hewn out of the rocks, 16 of which have been discovered in the rocky valley Biban-el-Maluk. Southward, near Medi- net-Abu, a palace (of Ramses Meiamun) and pavilion (according to the authors of the Description) in two stories beside the great Hippodrome (6,000 X 2,000) feet. Denon's Voy. dans la Haute et Basse Egypte pen- dant les camp, du Gen. Bonaparte. 1802. Description de TEgypte, An- tiquites T. i. ii. iii. Hamilton, Remarks on several parts of Turkey, i. jSIgyptiaca. Wilkinson Topogr. of Thebes and General View of Egypt. L. 1835. Quarterly Rev. 1835. CV. p. 103. Journ. des Sav. 1836. p. 271. Wilkinson, p. 80 an arch of 154 a. C. Grotto of Brei-Hassan, similar to Doric architecture. Vault ancient. Horkier Voy. en Ethiopie, p. 352. 353. Wooden plugs. Reise zum Tempel des Jupiter Ammon in der libyschen Waste und nach Ober-JBgypten von H. Freiherm v. MinutoU, herausg. von Tolken. 1824. Minutoli*s Nachtrag. 1827. ChampolUon, Lettres ecrites d'Egypte et de Nubie. P. 1833. Further down : Little ApoUinopolis [Kous] ; Koptos [Kuft] ; Tentyra with a beautiful temple which, according to the cartouches, was begun by Cleopatra and Ptolemaeus Caesar, and carried on by the Emperors ; Little Diospolis ; Abydos [El-Arabat] ; This [near Girgeh] ; Chemmis [Eckhmin] ; Antaeopolis [Kan-el- Kebir] ; Lycopolis [Es Syut]. 4. In Central Egypt : Hermopolis [Benisour] ; Kynopolis (?) [Nesle Sheik Hassan] ; Aphroditopolis [Doulab el Halfeh] ; beside it the district of Lake Moeris [Fayoum] with the labyrinth and pyramids, also a tem- ple conjectured to be one of Ammon, in the neighbourhood, and the city Crocodilopolis (Arsinoe). Description T. iv. pi. 69 sqq. Memphis ; the 'hivx,6u ru'^os which doubtless contained the royal citadel, stood high, and was probably connected behind with the pyramids of Saccarah as a Necropolis. The pyramids of Ghizeh, the highest, stand 40 stadia north- ward from the city ; those of Dashour to the south. The ground fuU of syrinxes (tombs of Beni-Hassan). No vestige of the temple of Phthas with the tx.v'hvi of Apis. Descr. T. v. In Lower Egypt : Busiris (Ruins near el Bahbeyt) ; Heliopolis or On [near Matarieh], only an obelisk stiU extant ; Tanis (San), a dromos of granite columns ; Sais [Sa el Haggar], considerable ruins, particularly of the Necropolis ; Taposiris [Abusir]. Descr, T. v. Oases. Ammonian Oasis [Siwah], Ruins of the Temple of Ammon (at Oram-Beydah), the royal citadel, catacombs, Reise von Minutoli: Voy. a rOase de Syouah, redige par Jomard d'apres les materiaux recu- TEMPLES. 217 eillis par Drovetti ct Cailliaud. Northern Oasis of Egypt [El-Wah or El-Kassar] with extensive ruins visited by Belzoni. Southern Oasis [El Khargeh and El-Dakel] with Egyptian temple and later buildings, mi- nutely described by Cailliaud. Cailliaud Voy. a 1' Oasis de Thebes et dans les Deserts situes k I'Orient et h, FOccident de la Thebaide, redige par Jomard. — Egypto-Grecian buildings in the Emerald Mountains at Sek- ket, Cailliaud, pi. 5 sqq. — Hieroglyphic stones also in Arabia Petraca. — Monuments of Sesostris at Berytos (Cassas ii. pi. 78), see Journ. des Sav. 1834. p. 527. Bull. 1834. p. 20. 151. 1835. p. 20. 1837. p. 134. 145. [Lepsius Monum. de Beirut M. d. I. ii, 51. Annali x. p. 12 — 19. Differ- ence between Herodotus' description of the monuments of Sesostris and these, Bull. 1842. p. 184. 2. ARCHITECTONICS. 219. The architecture of Egypt did not, like that of Greece, 1 receive its forms in an evident manner from timber building ; on the contrary, the want of wood obliged the Egyptians at an early period to employ their abundant rock-materials; and a troglodytic burrowing in these was carried on, from the most primitive ages, at least jointly with the piling up masses of stone upon the earth. Just as little could these forms be de- 2 termined by provision for carrying away rain (hence there are nowhere gable-roofs) ; the endeavour to obtain shade and a cool current of air can alone be laid down as the climatic conditions, with which sacerdotal principles and the particu- lar feeling of the nation for art united in order to produce this peculiar and simply grandiose style of architecture. Quatremere de Quincy's and Gius. del Rosso's works on Egyptian archi- tecture are now of little use. On the contrary Hirt, Gesch. der Bau- kunst i. s. 1 — 112 valuable. 220. The sacred structures did not possess in their design 1 the internal unity of the Greek ; they were rather aggregates which could be increased indefinitely, as we are even taught by the history, for instance, of the temple of Phthas at Mem- phis in Herodotus. Alleys of colossal rams or sphinxes form 2 the approach or dromos ; sometimes we find before these small temples of co-ordinate deities (especially Typhonia). Before the main body of the edifice usually stand two obelisks com- memorative of the dedication. The direction of the whole design does not necessarily follow the same straight line. The 3 principal structures begin with a pylon, that is, pyramidal double towers or wings (Strabo's ptera) which flank the gate- way, and the destination of which is still very much in the dark (they might have served as bulwarks to the entrance, and also for astronomical observations). Then follows usually 4 a court surrounded by colonnades, subordinate temples, and houses for the priests (a propylon or propylaion, and at the 218 EGYPTIAN ART. 5 same time a peristylon). A second pylon (the number may even be increased) now leads into the anterior and most con- siderable portion of the temple properly so-called, a portico enclosed with walls, which only receives light through small windows in the entablature or openings in the roof (the pro- 6 naos, a hypostyle apartment). Adjoining to it is the cella of the temple (the naos or secos), without columns, low, generally enclosed by several walls, often divided into various small chambers or crypts, with monolith receptacles for idols or mummies of animals, in appearance the most inconsiderable portion of the whole. 1. Menes built this temple, Sesostris made an addition to it of enor- mous stones and placed six statues of his family within. Rhampsinit built propylaea on the west with two statues, Asychis placed propylaea on the east, Psammetichus on the south and an otyAij for Apis opposite, Amasis erected a colossus in front of it. 2. See Strabo xvii. p. 805. c. Plutarch de Is. 20. and comp. with the expressions Diod. i, 47, 48. As to particular temples, see especially that of Ammon at Carnac, Descr. iii., that of Philge, Descr. i., that of Soleb, Cailliaud ii. pi. 13, of Mount Barkal i. pi. 64. 3. The latter destination of the pylon is supported by Olympiodorus' statement that Claudius Ptolemy dwelt 40 years in the TrrsQal; rov Kocvaliov, observing the stars, tttsox, kuI Iq6/xoi C'Trxi^Qioi of the temples, on the other hand x.QV7rra, with subterranean aroKtaryj^iu, Plut. de Is. 20. See Butt- mann in the Museum der Alterthumsw. ii. s. 489 ff. The separate wings either describe a square (at Edfu of 96, in Philas of 54 feet), or they are higher than broad, which appears to be the later style of building. The inner side-lines of these wings, prolonged to the ground, fall on the outer- most points of the gateway. On adorning the reliefs on festivals with masts and flags, Descr. iii. pi. 57, 3. CaiUiaud Voy. a Meroe ii. pi. 74. 1 221. This design can be contracted as well as extended, and also so modified as that the main portion of the temple 2 may be enclosed with columns. But at the same time the rule universally prevails, that columns may stand inside of walls, but not outside around the walls; when they are placed ex- ternally, they are united with stone parapets (glutei), and thus supply the place of a wall; hence even at the corners walls usually come instead of columns. The door-jambs are then also built against the shafts of the central columns, in 3 the same way as on other occasions against pylons. In other words, the Egyptians have no such thing as a peripteral temple. The colonnade is not to them as to the Greeks a free expansion of the temple, it is merely the wall with aper- tures. 2. See for instance the temple of Tentyra which, although late, shows the Egyptian temple in great perfection. (The sculpture is bad.) The portico round the cell of the temple in the ruin at Me9aurah is accord- ingly a proof of later origin, Cailliaud i. pi. 29. comp. 13. ARCHITECTURE, WALLS, COLUMNS. 219 222. The walls, wliicli are composed of square blocks, 1 chiefly of sandstone, are only perpendicular on the inside, and bevelled externally, whereby the thickness at the bottom some- times amounts to 24 feet, and the buildings on the whole as- sume a pyramidal form — the fundamental form of Egyptian architecture. The plane surface of the walls on the outside 2 is in all sorts of edifices bounded framelike by a torus. Above 3 this moulding rises the cornice with a flat corona having an inconsiderable projection, and a cavetto beneath, which over the entrance is always ornamented with the winged globe. 4 The corona is also often found double; the surface between the upper and the lower is then generally hewn out into the form of small serpents (/^ac/X/cxo/, ura^i). The cornice forms 5 at the same time a parapet to the flat roof, which very simply consists of stone beams laid across, and slabs (often of enor- mous size) fitted in between. 1. The walls are isodomous or pseudisodomous, often also with oblique joints. That the blocks for the most part were not dressed and polished on the outside until they were put in their place can be seen in the unfinished portions. The same remark applies to the capitals of the columns. 223. The columns are in general somewhat more slender 1 than the elder Doric; they are placed close, and are provided with bases of circular plinths, the edges of which are often cut away obliquely, the shaft either diminished in a right line or pulvinated, frequently ornamented with perpendicular and oblique furrows, but strictly speaking not fluted. The capi- 2 tals fall into two principal orders. 1. Those of the bell-form, ornamented with all kinds of foliage, and having a narrow but often very high abacus; 2. Those bulging out below and contracted above with low but projecting abacus. — There is a 3 strange collateral form — a composition of four masks (the temple of Athor at Tentyra), with fa9ades of temples above them, which serves as an ornament both to the abacus and the entire capital. These fundamental forms of the capitals 4 receive a great variety of modifications, even in one and the same portico of a temple, by a lavish richness of sculptured decorations which are almost always borrowed from the vege- tation of the country, especially the plants of the Nile. Besides 5 columns, pillars also are common, against which figures often stand leaning, but which are seldom real supporters of a por- tion of the entablature. On the columns is superimposed the 6 architrave with the torus, by which members unity with the walls is restored and everything is placed in uniform subordi- nation to the cornice, which is invariably the same. 1. The height of the columns in the temple at Luxor and the so- called Osmandyeion is, according to the Descrijption, 5| times the greatest 220 EGYPTIAN ART. diameter. Lepsius in the Annali d. Inst, ix, 2. p. 65. 99. tav. d'agg. (be- fore the Hyksos 1), Mon. ii. 45., on the original similarity of the Doric and the Egyptian columns, with little knowledge of architecture [a chan- nelled pillar also in Indian architecture, §. 249]. 2. Athena3us v. p. 206 (comp. §. 150, 2) describes the first sort very accurately : 0/ yd^ yiyouoreg ocvToBi Ktoueg clvi]yo!/ro ar^ayyvl^oi, ^loOChnr- rovTSs rolg aTrovhvTvoig (cylinders), rov f^eu f^k'hotyog rov Bs 7^ivx,ov, 'TCcx.^a.'Khr^cc ri^sjiisvau. ILlai S' otvrZu x,cci cci x,s(pcc7\.xl ra ay;/^(/^ct,Ti 'TTS^itpsQelg, au vj fiiif o'hYi '7rs^iyQcic.(p7J '7rx^ce,'7r7\.yiatcc, pohoig lirl f^iK^ov a.vtx^TCZ'Trrct^kvoig kariv. 'tts^I Be roi/ 'TT^Qaocyo^ivof^vjO'j x.a,Xot^ov ov)c i^i^t-igt icoc^oiTre^ sttI rau ^XhriyiKuu, x,oti (pii'K'ha. r^ot)c^oi TrsQtKSiroti, T^urau Bg •yroroif^iav KocT^VKSg kocI (poiviKuv d^i^T^ota- rau KX^og' sari B' ors x,xl ttT^siovcov oiXhav du^iau yiyTiVTrrxi yiv/\. ro ^ VTTO TTjv pi^ccu, B'/j T4) avpuTrTOUTi -T^Qog rviu KsCpcx.'h'/i-j i'KiKiircti a'TTou'hvT^a, x,i^a- qic>)'j oiv^iai Kxi (pv7\.'hoig uxrecuii Kccroc^iTr'hsyfiivoig o/zoixv gfptjg rvju Zioc^eatu.^ The capital of the second kind is, according to Ritter, Erdkunde i. s. 715, an imitation of the lotus-fruit. 3. The Egyptian elevation of such a capital designed through squares is interesting, Descr. iv. pi. 62. 5. See such Atlantes, which however carry nothing, Descr. iii. pi. 29. Belzoni, pi. 43. Diodorus describes them, not accurately, by : vTrrt^fia^iat B' cIutI rZiv Kioi/cj!/ ^wB/os 7rri)c^v sKKxi^eKoc (jt.ovohi'ha,, i, 47. There are found once only, near Mount Barkal, figures of dwarfs which actually support a portion of the pillar, Cailliaud i. pi. 67 sq. 1 224 Obelisks must be regarded as accessories of sacred architecture: they are four-sided pillars on a low base, which 2 diminish upwards and end in a pyramidion, usually of granite, the pyrrhopoecilus or Syenite of the ancients, with 3 beautifully sculptured figures and hieroglyphics. The use of the obelisk as a gnomon, and the erection of it on a high base in the centre of an open space, were only introduced on the 4 removal of single obelisks to Rome; in Egypt they belonged to the class of steles (commemorative pillars), and contained a record stating the honours and titles which the king who erected, enlarged, or gave rich presents to a temple, had re- ceived in return from the priesthood, and setting forth for instance that Ramesses was honoured like Aroeris whom Re 5 and all the gods love. The most famous obelisks were in Heliopolis and Thebes; from thence also are the most consid- erable of those we find at Rome. 1. The diminution usually amounts to \ ; the proportion of the breadth below to the height 1 : 9 to 12. *o* 2. The process of raising obelisks is still distinctly to be seen in the quarries of Syene. Rozi^re, Descr. i. App. i. Hittorff", Precis sur les py- ramidions en bronze dore, employes par les anc. Eg. comme couronne- ment de quelques uns de leurs obelisques. P. 1836. 4. The interpretation of an obelisk by Hermapion in Ammian xvii, OBELISKS. 221 4 (one of the most valuable fragments of all Egyptian antiquity), which has unhappily suffered much from the excerpting hand of Ammian must perhaps be arranged nearly as follows ; ' A.^X'^" "-"^^ "^^^ voTiov ^{e^/it,nvsvf/,£voi txtt arixog 'jcqanog ruhe' Asyg/^HX/oj fixaiTisvsiu, Qv "Hkiog (pt'hil. This stood at the top of the three columns which begin with the hawks or falcons by which Aroeris is denoted on many obelisks, above each row. ATToAAii)* xgetT£^oV (Pi7\.cc7\9]^yis viog"'H.^auog, ^soyeuvYirog xriarvig rvjg oixov- ^kvng, ov "HA/oj -tt^osk^ivsu' a,}^>n/it,og " A^iug fiuatXsvg ' FxfciarYig, ^ 'jra.aot, VTrtyriroCKToti ^ yvj fisroi d7<.Kyjg kuI ^xQaovg' (ixai'hsvg ' P»fi.£(nrY]g 'HA/oy Traig xia)u6j3(og. ^rixog ^svrs^og. ' Axo'h'Kau K^xre^og 6 earag S'tt xhri^ilxg ^saTroTYig htxl^- fixrog, rvju AiyvTrrou "ho^xaxg Kix,rY^f/.iuog, xyTiXOTrottiaxg 'Ha/oi/ Tiohiv, Kxi KTiaxg rviv T^oitt'^u oiKovf^suriv, 'Tro'^vrifitjaxg roiig sv ' Ha/oi/ TroAg/ Beovg xut^pv- fiiVQvg,. ou "HA;of (p/Ag?. 1ri-)(,og T^tTog. 'A^roAAfiJi/ K^xrs^og HA/oy "Trxlg "rxf^npsyy^g, ou "PlA/Of 'TTQosK^iusu, X.XI "A^Yig xhKtfAog ihu^yiaxro, ov rx xyx'hx \u 'kxvtX htxfiiuei kxi^u' [/Sosff/Agyj-] ov " A[ye.[/,o)v xyX'KX \_Vx(jt.kary\g\ ir'Kfi^uaxg rov usav rov oiviKog xyxBicjv' l_j3x(Ti'hsvg 'Fx/Liiarrig'] a oi ^iol i^arig x,^6vov i^a^yitrxuro. The sym- metric disposition of all obelisks requires the additions within brackets. ['E(p' 5jA/oy Zva/^Zv.^ ['^ri'xog 'TTQurog.'] The superscription of all the three columns : "HA/of ^iog f/,iyxg ^scTrorvig ov^xuov \_(ixai7jf ^iaTroTYig x^ovav, [ov] kxi "IKpxiarog 6 ruv ^eZv ttxt^q TT^oiK^iviv lix r6u"A^ix' (ixaiT^ivg [' Pot^g(rr»)f] •^otyj(;ag;j? ' HA/oy vxlg kxI v'Tro'H'hiov (piTiOVfcsuog' [fixai'hsvg 'Yxf^iorvig . * • . . I 'A(p)jA/&>T)Jf. ^rixog '^QcJrog. Superscription: 'O «« Thebes dans les tomb, des Rois 1805. 4, Men reddish (a peculiar flesh-colour), women yellowish; quad- rupeds generally red, birds for the most part green or blue, in like man- ner water, hence also Ammon. Blue was obtained by copper- and brown by iron-oxide. Costaz sur la Peinture des Egyptiens, Mem. T. iii. p. 134. Bottiger Archaeol. der Mahl. s. 25 — 100. Creuzer Commentationes Herodoteae, p. 385. John, Beilagen zu Minutoli's Reisen 3. 4. 5. Minu- toli's Abhandlungen verm. Inhalts, zweiter Cyclus, i, s. 49. Baillif and Merimee in Passalacqua's Catalogue, p. 242. 258. B. SUBJECTS. 232. The fundamental idea clearly resulting from the new discoveries as to the significance of Egyptian works of art, and which must henceforward be adhered to as the basis, is 232 EGYPTIAN ART. this: the Egyptians were completely without the Greek repre- sentative impulse which constrains to represent what inwardly fills and agitates the soul, because it is beautiful and exalting. 2 [§. 233, 6.] Their representation is invariably guided by ex- ternal aims ; it seeks to authenticate particular events, actions, services; it is altogether of an historical, monumental nature, as it were, an embodied inscription. Writing and image are here, so to speak, still unsevered and concrete ; hence also the work of art is almost always accompanied by hieroglyphic characters, the import of which is only carried out and pre- 3 sented bodily to the view on a larger scale. The gods are not exhibited by themselves, but only in relation to their festival ; hence there are no purely mythological scenes; the design is always to declare the acts of homage which the deity received 4 in a certain modification or situation. All religious scenes of Egyptian art are definite acts of homage by particular indi- viduals, commemorative monuments of the services performed to the deity. Here countless varieties of ofierings and modes 5 of testifying piety are scrupulously distinguished. In like manner life in the infernal world is constantly represented as the destiny of a particular person, as the judgment upon him 6 by the tribunal of the dead. In fine, the presumed purely scientific representation of the heavens degenerated in later times into horoscopes of individuals. 3. On representations from Egyptian religion and worship, Hirt iiber die Bildung der ^Egyptischen Gottheiten 1821 (from Grecian accounts). Champollion's Pantheon Egyptien (from hieroglyphic and other inscrip- tions). Plates to Creuzer's Symbolik, especially to Guigniaut's edition of it (Religions de I'Antiquite, Planches, i. cah.). [K. Schwenk, die Mythol. der ^gypter mit 13 lithogr. Tafeln 1846, discussed with pene- trating acumen and great mythological insight.] The coins of the Nomi, which extend from Trajan down to M. Aurelius as Caesar, are an impor- tant source of Egyptian symbolism, and are also interesting on account of peculiar combinations. See Zoega Numi ^g. Imper. R. 1786. Tochon d'Annocy Rech. sur les Med. des Homes de I'Egypte. P. 1822. 4. Descr. v, pi. 58. The following seem to be undoubted personages of Egyptian artistic mythology : A. AMONG THE GODS. I- Phthas, the inscription in phonetic hieroplyphs Ftah, in close- fitting dress, with the feet joined together, leaning on the platform con- sisting of four steps (which is called rot rsrrcc^x ^if^iT^iu, and perhaps de- notes the four elements, Reuvens Lettres k Mr. Letronne, i. p. 28 sq.). Also dwarfish and ithyphallic as in the temple at Memphis, comp. Tolken in MinutoH s. 426. Likewise with a scarabaeus as a head, inscription Ptah-Tore {<\)a(>ii, Reuvens, ibid. p. 14). Cynocephalus, the ape, his sym- bol. II. Ammon, inscription Amn, with a ram's or a human head, and a double variegated feather upon it, artificial beard and the sceptre. Mo- SUBJECTS. 233 difications 1. Ithyphallic, brandishing the scourge, with close feet, the in- scription Amn, is held to be the Pan-Mendes of Chemmis, who has not yet been discovered in his goat form mentioned by Herodotus. 2. As Am- mon-Chnubis or Knuphis (comp. Tolken in Minutoli s. 374). Inscription Nef, Nuf (with gutteral n, therefore in Greek Kvovcpig, but in composition \U'riuvou(pig), with goat's horns. Also in form of a serpent, called by the Greeks Agathodaemon. As a Nile-pitcher in Canobus §. 230, 1. 3. United with the sun as Amonra, Amonrasonter. III. The Sun-god called Re, Phre, with the head of a hawk {li^a,K6ft,oq(pog Horapollo) with the sun's disc, upon it an urasus. Mandu seems to be a kindred deity, — Maz/BoyA/? on an inscription at Talmis; — his image is often scratched out. IV. Thoyt, the ibis-headed, represented as grammateus among the gods. Also hawk-headed according to Champollion, as Hermes-Trismegistus, his em- blem the winged discus (Tat). V. Sochus or Suchus, So-uk, with croco- dile head ; also denoted by a crocodile with tail curled round, on coins of the nomos of Omboi. Zoega 10. Tochon d'Ann. p. 130. VI. The moon- god. Pooh or Pioh (p is the article) with close feet, one lock of hair, the crescent moon. Also as a hermaphrodite, impregnating the air. VII. Osiris, Ousri, in human shape with crook and scourge (see Macrob. Sat. i. 23) recognizable especially by his high hat. The eye a chief symbol. VIII. Aroeris, Horus, Harpocrates, Arori, often as a boy, with a single lock of hair, suckled by Isis, sitting on a lotus. Also hawk-headed. The hawk as a suckling of Isis is seen on a basalt torso in the Borgia collection, fuU of interesting, but in the highest degree fantastic and monstrous conceptions. IX. Anubis, Anbo, with the head of the wild dog (jackal?). X. Bebon, Babys or Seth (commonly Typhon), with the body of a hippopotamus, the head of a crocodile, and a sword in his hands. As the constellation of the Great Bear in the zodiac of Tentyra. B. GODDESSES. I. Neith, denoted by the vulture. With human head or that of a vulture or lion (then with the inscription Tafnet). Also as a herma- phrodite according to HorapoUo. Comp. W. von Humboldt in the Schriften der Berl. Acad. 1825. s. 145. II. Athor (' Acp^oS/ry;), the goddess of Tentyra, also at Philae, with the head of a cow, but also as human with a vulture as head ornament. Her hieroglyphic name, a hawk in a square. III. Isis, human, with cow horns and a discus between them^ often diffi- cult to distinguish from Athor. The figure with the feather, which Champollion formerly called Hera-Sate, is now considered by him as weU as Tolken to be Aletheia or Truth (at Egyptian judgments on the dead). — The four genii of Amenthes, the human-, the jackal-, the ape-, and the hawk-headed often stand together in mummy-like forms, or as canobi. 4. The following are frequent scenes from the worship: Sacrifices^ the animal dismembered ; legs of animals, fowls with fruits and flowers laid upon the sacrificial table ; censers held out in artificial hands ; en- tire trains of animals brought by the king as sacrifice to the gods. Ili- erogl. pi. 61. Adorations of gods and sacred animals (for example, a sacred cow, Minutoli, Tf. 30, 2). Consecrations of Pharaohs by sprinkling with sacred water, by placing sacred hats upon them. Processions (such as Appuleius Met. xi. describes them), in which the god is also carried al)out (vchitur fcrculo, Macrob. Sat. i, 23), in a small temple {j^m-voz^ -jaog 234 EGYPTIAN ART. X^vaovg), such as were even brought in late times from Philae to Nubia (Letronne, Christ, en Egypte, p. 77). Especially the great procession or yM^a,aia, with the ship of Ammon across to the Memnonia on the Libyan side (Peyron, Mem. di Torino xxxi. p. 48). See the relief of Carnac, Descr. iii. pi. 32. 33, comp. that of Philse, i. pi. 11. Minutoli, Tf. 20, (fee. — There are often represented very numerous assemblies of the gods, as Hierogl. pL 66. 67. — Now in these scenes the adoring and sacrificing individuals are conventional portraits, and denote particular historical personages. Hence, for example, in a temple at Little Diospolis, dedi- cated by Cleopatra as guardian of Ptolemy V., who was a minor, in these reliefs the queen constantly goes before the king (Salt, Essay, p. 7). These oblations do not always relate to the consecration of the temple, but are mostly mere acts of homage {Tr^oaKvyvj^^otTo, in numerous Egyp- tian and Nubian inscriptions, see Niebuhr and Letronne in the appendix to Gau's Antiq. de la Nubie), at which for sacrifices and gifts sacerdotal titles are received (see particularly the inscription of Gartasse, Niebuhr, p. 13), which are doubtless denoted in the representations by the head- ornaments of those offering. See Heeren Ideen ii, 1. s. 388. The celebrated relief of Carnac appears to be a mythological scene (Descr. iii. pi. 64, Hirt, Tf. 8, 61, Guigniaut, pi. 32), where the member torn from Osiris by Typhon is brought back to him by Ammon, and Ty- phon is at the same time punished by Horus for the act ; but even here there is a Pharaoh present with offerings. Comp. the representation from Philae, Hierogl. 68. In like manner, when Isis is introduced suck- ling Horus, when Horus or his hawk is represented on the lotus flower between the hostile Typhon and the protecting Kneph, this certainly always is because Isis is the object of an adoration and offering as mo- ther, and Horus as being attacked and defended. 5. To the DESTINY OP THE DEAD belong : The embalming by Anubis. The conveying of the mummy to the necropolis on the opposite bank of the Nile, in a ship (wooden models of such ships in the tomb opened by Passalacqua, now in Berlin). Various consecrations of mummies, some- times difficult to explain. The judgment on the dead, and the weighing of their souls ; Aroeris and Anubis weigh the good deeds, Thoyt marks a number on the year-sceptre (according to Guigniaut), perhaps that of the years during which the souls wander; a propitiatory sacrifice is offered to Osiris as the ruler of the lower world (Petempamentes in the inscr. of Philae) ; there are present 42 or 43 judges of the dead, who sit armless, as in the Thebaic statues of judges (Plut. de Is. 10), as an em- blem of truth. These scenes are on steles (the most interesting are those at Carpentras with the Phoenician or Aramaeic inscription beneath), on the walls of sepulchral monuments. Descr. ii. pi. 35 and very frequent especially on mummy wrappers, Descr. ii. pi. 60. 64. 67. 72 ; Hierogl. pi. 5 ; Fundgruben des Orients v. s. 273 ; Mai Catalogo, Death ritual of Ne- simandu). Sacrifices to the dead ; a sacerdotal family brings oblations to their dead father Ptahmes, on a stele at Florence, Rosellini Di un basso-rilievo Egiz. F. 1826. The reliefs of the king's tomb in Belzoni in particular, pi. 5. 18 sqq. represent how the king at his apotheosis is re- ceived by the gods, embraces them, and receives gifts. We see in the Ramesseion how the gods write the name of Ramses the Great on the leaves of the Persea. Cailliaud ii. pi. 72. Minutoli, Tf. 22, 2. SUBJECTS. 235 6. The so-called astronomical representations, according to the au- thors of the Descr. — Jollois, Devilliers, Jomard, Fourier : the planisphere of Tentyra, now at Paris (probably of the time of Nero), the zodiac of Tentyra (of the time of Tiberius), two at Esneh, one at Hermonthis, one at Thebes. Nowhere does the zodiac here form a circle, always either a spiral or parallels; so that one sign always leads the series. In the mummy of Petemenon from the hypogeum of a Hellenizing family, at Kurnah (see S. Quintino Lezioni v. and Mem. d. Ace. di Torino xxix. p. 255), engraved in Cailliaud ii. pi. 69, Capricorn under which Petemenon was born (2d June, 116 a. d.), steps quite out from the row. See Le- tronne. Observations critiques et archeologiques sur I'objet des repre- sentations Zodiacales. 1824. This explanation, however, cannot be applied to another mummy of the same family. Reuvens, Lettres h, M. Letr. ii, 2. It is evident that the zodiacal figures were origin- ally foreign to Egyptian mythology and science; they are quite dis- tinct and different in kind from the other really native tracings of con- stellations. 233. A heroic mythology, that great lever of Greek art, 1 was, according to Herodotus, altogether wanting in Egypt; there gods and human princes meet at the same boundary. Kings and priests were from the earliest times honoured with 2 statues which are scarcely to be distinguished from those of the gods by a general attribute; and the pylons and walls of 3 the palaces, the royal tombs and monuments, perpetuate on countless sculptures and pictures the principal actions of the public, military and sacerdotal life of the sovereigns. In like 4 manner the walls of the sepulchres of the people everywhere give evidence of the particular business and special calling of those who occupy them. Considering this close relation of 5 art to reality, it is not to be wondered at that the Egyptian artists, even from a very early period, endeavoured to com- municate to the representations of the kings a kind of por- trait-resemblance. In this art the design of preserving the 6 memory of particular events and circumstances everywhere prevails, so much so that even the most minute details, the number of enemies slain, of birds and fishes caught, are ad- mitted into the artistic representation, and it therefore supplies the place of a register on such matters. — And thus, as in all 7 Egyptian life, so there was also formed in the plastic art, — on the basis of a marvellous intuition of nature and the world, which was expressed in the religion, — a cold and insipid in- tellectuality which employed those strange symbols, generated by the fancy of earlier ages, as given formulae, in order there- with to denote the numerous distinctions of an artificially cultivated civil condition and a sacerdotal science; it ob- tained indeed thereby a great abundance of figured repre- sentations, but at the same time remained far as the poles from that warmth and liveliness of contemplation to which llie real significance of natural forms is revealed, from that 236 EGYPTIAN ART. healthy medium between the intellectual and the sensible from which alone true art can spring. 2. Statues of the kings, particularly colossal ones, are more numerous than those of the gods. The so-called Memnon, about 50 feet high, hewn out of a breccia resembling granite (it was, as it appears, merely called by the Greeks after the son of Aurora, on account of the accidental ring- ing at sunrise), Descr, ii. pi. 22. Hierogl. 13. is Amenophis the Second ; it is the statue which became early a ruin, and was still half broken away in Hadrian's time (Juven. xv, 5), and was not restored till afterwards, whereby the ringing of the stone probably ceased ; beside it stands the more complete colossus of Ramses the Great. Comp. Jacobs on the Memnonia, Leben und Kunst der Alters, iii, 1, and on the history of the statue, especially Letronne, La Statue vocale de Memnon. P. 1833. The ringing stone which Wilkinson found in it was only inserted after the natural ringing ceased. Letronne in the Archiv. f. die Philol. Leipz. 1834. iii. s. 254 — 57. sur les moyens artificiels employes pour produire la voix de Memnon selon Mr. Wilkinson. L. supposes that the sounding stone is a restored part. Wilkinson in the Transactions of the Soc. of Literature, ii, 2. p. 451. See on the numerous statues of Amenophis, Thutmosis, and Ramses in the Turin Museum Champollion Lettres a Blacas, Cost. Gaz- zera Descr. dei Monumenti Egizii del R. Museo Egizio. Tor. 1824. with 12 lithographed plates. [The Ramses the finest work of Egyptian art.] On the very antique colossus of Ptah men Manduei (according to Cham- pollion Figeac 2272 before Christ ?) also S. Quintino Lezioni iii. Mem. d. Ace. di Torino xxix. p. 230. Lepsius on the statues of the mother of Ramses-Sesostris and those of Amasis. Mon. d. I. ii, 40. Annaliix. p. 167. Besides, in later times Egypt erected such statues not only in honour of foreign kings, but also of their distinguished men, for instance Callima- chus in the time of Cleopatra, according to the decree of the Thebaic priests of Amonrasonter, at Turin. 3. We now find the actions of the kings on the monuments such as they were explained to Germanicus, according to Tacitus, Ann. ii, 60 : Manebant structis molibus litterse jEgyptiae, priorem opulentiam com- plexa3: jussusque e senioribus sacerdotum, patrium sermonem interpre- tari, referebat: habitasse quondam DCC milia estate militari, atque eo cum exercitu regem Rhamsen Libya, ^Ethiopia, Medisque et Persis et Bactriano ac Scytha potitum etc. Legebantur et indicta gentibus tri- buta, pondus argenti et auri, numerus armorum equorumque, et dona templis, ebur atque odores, quasque copias frumenti et omnium utensi- lium quasque natio penderet. Col. Mure Sopra i popoli stranieri intro- dotti nolle rappr. storiche dei mon. egiz. Annali d. I. viii. p. 333. Land- battles of Ramses Meiamun on the palaces at Medinet-Abou ; of Ram- ses the Great at Carnac, Denon pi. 133; also in the Ramesseion (Descr. ii. pi. 32) ; of Amenophis II. and Ramses the Great at Luxor. The tak- ing of a fortress by Ramses the Great, on the Ramesseion, Descr. ii. pi. 31. Hamilton, pi. 9. CaiUiaud ii. pi. 73. Comp. Dureau de la MaUe, Poliorcetique des Anciens avec un Atlas de 7 planches. Combat of the GENERALS, the Egyptian with the Hycsos ?, Descr. iii. pi. 38. Hamilton, pi. 8. On the use of war-chariots, Minutoli Abhandl. zw. Cyklus i. s. 128. Sea-battleS; and generally battles on land at the same time, probably SUBJECTS. 237 fought on the coast of the Red Sea, at Carnac and Medinet-Abou, Descr. ii. pi. 10. Hamilton, pi. 9. The opinion that the opponents of the Egyptians in these naval engagements were the Ethiopians of Meroe is favoured by the head-dress, consisting apparently of feathers standing upright, in which I tliink I recognise what Lucian, De salt. 18, states regarding the Ethiopians, viz. that they employ their head as a quiver, inasmuch as they bind their arrows around it in the forms of rays. Sec, however, Rosellini. Triumph of the conqueror changing into a sacred procession of Ammon-Mendes, in which the king also appears as first husbandman, in the interior of the palace of Medinet-Abou, Descr. ii. pi. 11. The heaping up of the severed hands before the triumphal car of the king, in order to count the dead, Descr. ii. pi. 12. Hamilton, pi. 8. Processions of prisoners before the triumphal cars of the king, in the palace at Me- dinet-Abou in the Ramesseion, Descr. ii. pi. 12. Hierogl. 15. The present- ing of the Ethiopian spoils before the throne of Ramses the Great in the monument in the rocks at Talmis, Gau, tf 14. 15. Embassies of the sub- jugated nations (Negroes, Libyans, Syrians?) to the king in very charac- teristic representation, in the royal tomb of Akencheres, Belzoni, pi. 6. 7. 8. Minutoli Nachtr. Tf 3. Executions or sacrifices (?) of black men in the royal sepulchres, Descr. ii. pi. 86. The king seizing by the hair-tuft find putting to death (sacrificing, executing ?) many persons, sometimes evidently not Egyptians, occasionally also women, in numerous sculp- tures. In like manner the queen in Meroe, Cailliaud i. pi. 46. Mon. dell' Egitto e delle Nubie disegnati dalla spedizione scientifico letter. Tosca- nica, distrib. in ordine di materie, interpretati ed iKustr. dal Dott. Ippol. Rosellini P. ii. mon. civili T. i. 1834. 4. Private life is principally represented in the catacombs, especially at Eleithyia (Costaz, Mem. T. i. p. 49) ; scenes of husbandry, ploughing, reaping corn, reaping a nelumbo field, gathering and pressing the grapes, pressing olives, beating hemp, Descr. i. pi. 68 — 71. ii. pi. 90. v. pi. 17. 18. Hamilton, pi. 23. comp. Mongez Sur les Instrumens d'agric. chez les anciens, Mem. de I'lnst. Roy. T. ii. p. 616. iii. p. 1. A shepherd counting his cattle, in the catacombs of Memphis, Cailliaud ii. pl. 73. Weaving (Minutoli, pl. 24. 2). Navigation (Descr. i. pl. 68 sqq. Hamilt. 2.3). Trade and commerce, weighing goods and the like. Weapon and wrestling exercises (Descr. iv. pl. 66. uncertain of what time). Banquets dancing and music (splendidly decorated instruments in the so-called grotto of the harp (Descr. ii. pl. 91). The most interesting representa- tion is that of the king's recreations in the chase, duck-catching (hawk- ing ?), and fishing, from the hypogaea at Kurnah. Here also everything killed is immediately registered. CaiUiaud ii, 74. 75. Lion-chase of the king, Descr. ii. pl. 9. Hamilton, pl. 8. [Wilkinson §. 230. R. 3.] 5. An iconography of the kings of Egypt from the time of Ameno- phis I. in Rosellini's Monum. dell' Eg., Atlas i. Some doubt, however, is raised by the circumstance that these portraits cease precisely at the time when they could be verified by comparison. For in the Ptolemies there is scarcely any resemblance to the Greek coins observable, in the emperors none lolmtever^ even according to Rosellini. Comp. Rosell. i. p. 461 sqq. The Sesostris especially tv. vi. f. 22 does not resemble the young Memnon of the British Museum. In opposition to Rosellini's 238 ART AMONG THE SYRIAN RACES. Iconogr. See R. Rochette Journ. des. Sav. 1834. p. 457. 521. Rosellini P. I. T. 1. 2. Mon. Storici 1832. 33. Investigations on Chronology and History. Heads of Amenophis I., the first of the 18th dynasty down to the Ptolemies. II. THE SYRIAN RACES. 234 The Syrian or so-called Semitic nations, who in- habited the whole of Anterior Asia, between the Halys and the Tigris, Armenia and the Red Sea, and who, in like man- ner with the Egyptians, exhibited certain fundamental fea- tures of the national character in their religion, constitution, and customs, produced, particularly in two races, works of art of a peculiar description, of which we still possess some accu- rate knowledge, — in Babylon and in Phoenicia. On them Asia Minor appears to have been dependent ; for, inhabited in one half of its extent by Semites, it also in the other, through the immemorial sovereignty of Assyria over Lydia, adopted the early developed civilization of that race. A. BABYLONIANS. 1. ARCHITECTONICS. 1 235. The Babylonians, like other nations of this region, collected together by an internal impulse into large masses, — - a circumstance wherewith is connected the development of a stern monarchy, — and compelled at the same time, by the situation of their flat river-country, to adopt architectural de- 2 fences, undertook great works even in the earliest ages ; on these little wood (almost only palm-trees) and stone (which must be brought all the way from Armenia) could be employed 3 as materials ; on the contrary, bricks of a most excellent qua- lity were manufactured from the finer clay of the soil. These were dried in the sun for the interior portions of the build- ings, and burnt for the exterior; they were then united by asphalt (which was brought from Is (now Hit) on the Eu- phrates) and gypsum, with intervening layers of reeds, into 4 a firmly cohering mass. But, alas ! this very choice of mate- rials, — particularly as new cities of great size, especially the stupendous Seleucia which was founded for the destruction of Babylon, here sought wherewith to build, — has produced this effect that it has hitherto been quite impossible to recognise the precise forms of Babylonian architecture amid the con- fused heaps of ruins. BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURAL WORKS. 239 1. Canals of the Euphrates; embankments along the river; lakes for relieving the river enclosed with stone walls ; sluices on the canal Palla- copas. 2. Only the large bridge over the Euphrates at Babylon consisted of square blocks of stone (according to Herod, i, 186. Diodor. ii, 8. Curtius V, 4), which were bound together with iron cramps and lead, and formed pillars with acute angles against the stream. Over these were laid beams of palm-tree, cedar and cypress, which could be speedily removed. — The fabulous tunnel indeed is described by Diodorus as a vault composed of bricks with a great quantity of asphalt ; but according to Rich and Por- ter there is no trace of vaulting among the ruins. 3. K«< syivsro ctvroig ^ 'ir'Kiv^og sig TiiBou' kxi oia(poi,7^rog yju ctvrolg 6 TrriKog, Genesis ii, 3. More minute details Herod, i, 179. Ctesias in Diod. ii, 7. • 10. Berosus in Josephus against Apion i, 19. comp. also Phlegon De mulieribus, Gottinger Bibl. St. vi. Ined. p. 10. Schol. Aristoph. Birds, 552. The ruins of Nineveh of the same kind of bricks as those of Baby- lon, A. J. Rich, Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan and of the site of Ancient Nineveh, ii. vol. 1836. 8vo. 236. The Babylonian architectural works are divided into 1 two classes. First, The earlier structures, those of the first dynasties. To these belonged the buildings on the west side, 2 where old Babylon was spread out into streets of immense length crossing each other at right angles, where the elder palace of the kings can still be recognised in a mound of bricks, and where also stood the great temple of Baal, — the tower at Babel, — which we can recognise with certainty in Birs Nimrod by its magnitude and terraced construction. Secondly, 3 The works of the Chaldean princes (beginning from 627 years before Christ) especially of Nebuchadnezzar, who added to the ancient city, on the west of the Euphrates, a new one on the east of the stream for the defence of this side, sur- rounded both with several lines of fortification, and adorned 4 the new city especially with magnificent works, of which an imitation of a Persian pleasure-ground {paradeisos) is best 5 known to us. 2. Birs Nimrod, about seven English miles from the Euphrates, and yet according to Herodotus and Diodorus in the middle of the city. Below, an immense U^oy, 1,200 feet square, but which however is not to be considered as a connected building; in the middle of it the temple of Baal with the golden statue, enclosed by a round tower which was 600 feet in diameter at the base, and arose in eight terraces. In the uppermost story the most sacred temple, without image, only with a golden table and a couch for the god. Herod, i, 181 sqq. The tower was COO feet high according to Strabo. 3. We decidedly prefer the accounts of Berosus preserved by Josephus of the origin of these structures, as they were derived from archives (Berosi quae supersunt, ed. Richter p. 65), and can even perhaps be re- 240 ART AMONG THE SYRIAN RACES." conciled with Herodotus, to the fables in Ctesias and Diodorus, which partly rest on the popular appellation of " Semiramis' Works" given to all great structures in the East. Heeren has shown how perfectly Berosus' statements agree with the existing remains. Ideen i, 2. s. 172 ff. 4. On the walls of Babylon, the builders, size and so forth, see the commentators to Diod. ii, 7., especially Tzetzes Chil. ix, 568. 5. According to Berosus, Nebuchadnezzar built this artificial para- deisos for his Median spouse Amuhia (Nitocris ? comp. Niebuhr Kleine Schriften, s. 208 f.). A very accurate plan may be made of it from Diod. ii, 10; Strabo xvi. p. 738, who speaks of vaults, is not so exact. The entire building measured 400 feet square, and consisted of parallel brick walls 22 feet thick and separated by passages {(rv^iyyig) of 10 feet. (In Gurtius V, 5. read : quippe xx. pedes lati parietes sustinent, xi. pedum intervallo distantes ; for there could be only 13 walls and 12 syringes.) Across these lay stone beams 16 feet long (for 2 X 16 =: 22 + 10) ; then 4 layers, viz. reeds in asphalt, bricks in gypsum, lead, and garden earth ; the lower of which were designed to prevent the water from getting through and the walls from being burst by the force of the vegetation. The highest terrace, 50 feet in height, was nearest to the Euphrates ; in the first syrinx there was a pumping apparatus. We still see in the heaps of ruins called el Khasr parallel walls and passages between them, with blocks of sandstone laid across. Ruins of Babylon. Sources: Niebuhr Reisebeschreibung nach Ara- bien ii. s. 290. Maurice Rich, Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon, in Von Hammer's Fundgruben Bd. iii, and afterwards separately at L. 8vo. By the same : Observations on the Ruins of Babylon. L. 1816, and On the Topography of ancient Babylon in the Archaeol. Brit, xviii, 243. Capt. Keppel's Travels from India to England, see Kunstblatt 1827. N. 43. Sir Robert Ker Porter's Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia V. ii. pi. 69 — 76. Treatises: Rennel's Geogr. System of Herodotus. Ste Croix Sur les Ruines de Bab., Mem. de I'Acc. des Inscr. xlviii. p. 1. Beauchamp, Mem. sur les Antiquites Babyloniennes, Journal des Sav. 1790. p. 797 sqq. Heeren Ideen i, 2. s. 157 ff. with a plan. 2. THE PLASTIC ART. 237. The plastic art displayed itself partly in reliefs which were impressed on the still unburnt bricks, and covered with a coat of coloured varnish; partly in statues of the gods and colossi, which consisted of a kernel of wood which was over- laid with beaten metal, either gold or silver (comp. §. 71. 84), and to which were attached, in order to heighten their splen- dour, attributes composed of precious stones ; costly draperies also, in the manufacture and dyeing of which the Babylonians were particularly distinguished, served these statues as a de- coration which dazzled the eye, and by the wonderful figures upon them gave employment to the fancy. BABYLONIAN IDOLS. 241 1. Of the reliefs on the innermost and second wall of the western palace of the kings, which represented all manner of animals and royal chases, Diodorus says: 'Ei/ uf^ccig 'in roils TrT^iuBotg Ztsrsrv'Traro ^n^ioc 'tvo.v- rohofTroi rri rZv ^Qcofixrau (pi'Ko'zi-fC'jioc, rv^v dT^vj^sicty i/ v(pctG (octree brought to Greece r^a,ytKa.cccBolog vTToysog Paus., is^oc, uaohog in the Inscr.), to which a sacrificial procession is just approaching with the ram. — We also become acquainted with temples at Troezen and Patrse by means of coins. Olympia's sacred enclosure, Altis, contained several temples, the high altar, a theatre, buleuterion, prytaneion, stadion, gymnasion, numerous thesauri, several porticoes, and numberless dyec'hfioirct, dvlQidtursg, and ccuct^'/},uotTx ; the hippodrome was outside. On the locality : J. Spencer Stanhope, Olympia or Topogr. illustrative of the actual state of the Plain of Olympia. L. 1824. Leake, Morea V. I. ch. 1. Expedition Sclent, de la Moree. Archit. Livr. 10 — 13. Pindari Carm. iUustr. L. Dissenius, Sect. ii. p. 630. Encyclopoedie, Art. Olympia. [Le Bas Mon. de Fantiq. fig. recueillis en Gr^ce par la commission de Moree 1 cah. Basrel. de Phigalie, 2 cah. Argolide et Laconic. P. 1835. 37. 8vo.] Delphi was in the form of a theatre ; on the highest terrace Pytho, the iernenos with the temple (on reliefs and coins, Millingen Med. Ined. pi. 2, 12), high altar, sanctuary of the Earth, buleuterion, several porti- coes and the thesauri. Below these the middle and the lower town. The place of the agones was beneath the city towards the plain and Cir- rha. Pindari Carm. p. 628. (On the treasures of art, comp. Sainte Croix, Gouvern. Federatifs, p. 274.) [Ground plan by Ulrichs in his Rei- sen in Griechenland 1840. By the same Topographic von Theben. Abhdl. der Miinch. Akad. iii, 2. S. 413. J. Spencer Stanhope, Topographical Sketches of Megalopolis, Tanagra, Aulis and Eretria. L. 1831 fo. Carthsea in Brondsted, Travels Th. 1. Argos in Gell.] 253. Althougli the ruins of temples and other architec- tural works scattered over the districts of Greece are even now very considerable in amount, it is to be hoped, however, that under favourable circumstances, excavations undertaken with care and circumspection will bring to light the plan and architectonic details of a much greater number. The search for sculptures also, notwithstanding the Venetian and more modern acquisitions, will still find in many a region an almost virgin soil; and we may look forward to a time when native museums will surpass all out of Greece in genuine remains of Greek art. 1. Architectural remains mentioned in the historical portion of the work: at Tiryns §. 45. Mycenae 45. 49. Argos 45. Epidaurus 106. Corinth 53. Nemea 109. Phigalia 109. Tegea 109. Mantinea 111. Lycosura 45. Olympia 109. Messene 111. near Amy else 48. in ^gina 80. at Athens 80. 101. 109. 153. 190. 191. in Attica 53. 109. inDelos 109. comp. 279. in Euboea 53. in Orchomenus 48. Delphi 80. in Ithaca 47. Ephyra and other Cyclopean walls in Epirus 45. A Doric temple of GREECE. 285 peculiar construction at Cardacchio in Corfu, Railton, Antiq. of Athens Suppl. Ruins of Theatres, §. 289. 2. Sculptures found and collected in Greece : Venetian acquisitions from the Peloponnesus and Corfu, collected chiefly by Antonio and Paolo Nani (about 1700) and later members of the same family (§, 261, 2). Paciaudi, Mon. Peloponnesiaca 1761. Many things came to Venice from Athens through Morosini (1687), for instance the two lions in front of the arsenal (with Runic characters) §. 434. The Elgin collection, from Athens, and other places also, in the British Museum ; the Phiga- lian marbles (§. 119, 3) also there; the jEginetan statues at Munich (§. 90, 3). Excavations in Ceos, Brondsted, Voyages et Recherches dans la Gr^ce. Livr. i. 1826, Many objects at Cambridge, through Clarke (Clarke, Greek Marbles, comp. §. 357), in the M. Worsleyanum, in the M. Royal at Paris (through Choiseul GouflSier and Forbin), especially the Venus obtained from the neighbourhood of the theatre of Milo, and more recently the fragments from Olympia, §. 119, and the Messenian basre- lief (Leake, Morea i. p. 379. Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 131. iv. p. 184). Exca- vations by Veli-Pasha near Argos, Magazin Encycl. 1811. ii. p. 142. Numerous fragments of sculpture at Lucu (Thyrea). Leake ii. p. 488. Ann. i. p. 133. Gerhard sur les monumens figures existant actuellement en Gr^ce, Annali dell' Inst, ix, 2. p. 103 — 150, statues, bas-reliefs, terracottas, painted vases, bronzes, mirrors, scarabaei. On vases and reliefs while the museum was still in jEgina Biblot. Ital. xli. p. 105. (1838). Basrelief. A Bacchian sarcophagus from Mistra, Descr. de la Moree. pi. 43. fig. 1. 2. 3. 3. A COLLECTION of Athenian remains of art [formerly] in Fauvel's Consulate ; another founded since by Psyllas an Athenian (according to Stanhope's Letters), probably dispersed again. A National Museum in ^gina, mostly consisting of vases, bronze works and inscriptions, under Mustoxydi. [Removed to Athens where the museum has been hitherto distributed in the Theseion, Hadrian's Stoa, the Propylaea and other places on the Acropolis. Athenian collection of antiquities in A. SchoU's Archaol. Mittheilungen aus Griechenland nach K. 0. Miiller's hinterlas- senen Papieren. Frankf. 1843, not a few are engraved in Pittaki's 'ABvjVTjfft 1837 — 41. 2 vols. 4to. F. de Saulcy Musee d'Ath^nes in the Revue Archeol. ii. p. 257 — 77.] In Corfu, the museum of Signer Pros- salendi. Important descriptive travels for the archaeology of art, after Cyri- acus of Ancona (§. 46), especially Spon and Wheler, Chandler, Choiseul GouflSer, Voy. Pittor. de la Gr^ce, Dodwell's Classical and Topographical Tour, with which Pomardi's Viaggio nella Grecia may be here and there compared, Gell's Itinerary of Greece (1818, in 4to., merely i. Argolis), Itin. of the Morea 1817, 8vo [Peloponnesiaca, a Suppl, to Trav. in the Morea. L. 1846.], Itin. of Greece 1819, 8vo, Narrative of a Journey in the Mo- rea 1823, 8vo ; the articles collected in Walpole's Memoirs and Travels, Hobhouse, Holland, Hughes, Bartholdy, Pouqueville. Leake, Travels in the Morea, 3 vols. L. 1830. Scharnhorst on^gina, Ann. d. Inst, i. p. 201. [Brondsted's Reise i Griikenland i Aarene 1810 — 13, 1. 2 Deel. Kiobenh. 1844. 1st part, Magna Grecia, Epirus. 2nd part Boeotia, Thcssaly, Asia 266 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART. Minor, iEgina, Ceos, Peloponnesus, lectures under fresh impressions not hastily written down. Christ. Wordsworth Residence at Athens and Attica L. 1836 (many passages in authors, ingeniously explained by the locali- ties) and Greece pictorial, descriptive and historical, 1839. 2nd ed. 1844. Klenze Aphorist. Bern. B. 1838 fol. Aldenhoven Itineraire descriptif de I'Attique et du Peloponnese avec cartes et plans topogr. Athenes 1841. Col. W. Mure of Caldwell, Journal of a Tour in Greece and the Ionian Islands, 2 vols. Edinb. and L, 1842. full of knowledge and sagacity. Ul- richs Reisen in Griechenland 1 Th. Travels from Delphi to Thebes. Bremen 1840. From the papers of the same by Henzen Viaggi ed investigazione neUa Grecia, Annali xviii. p. 1. and on Euboea in the Rhein. Mus. Bd. 5. L. Ross Reisen durch Griechenland 1 Th. Peloponn. B. 1841. and Reisen auf den Griech. Inseln 1. 2. 3. Bd. 1841-^3. Rob. Pashley Trav. in Crete, 2 v. Cambr. and L. 1837. very learned and accurate. Henzen on the present state of antiquities in Greece, AUegem. Zeit. 1843 N. 28 ff. E. Curtius The more recent excavations in Greece, Preuss. Staatszeit. 1843. 9 Jan.] Akchitectural Works, Le Roy's (of little use), Stuart (copied in Le Grand's Mon. de la Gr^ce P. 1808), the Dilettanti Society's. (Careful engravings after these English works, with German text, Darm- stadt, Leske.) Exped. de la Moree, §. 252. La Grece ; Vues pittor. et topogr. dess. par 0. M. Bar. de Stackelberg. P. 1832. 254. Macedonia, Thrace, and Illyria seem to be very poor in architectural ruins and mines of Greek art; there are only found in these countries remains of the later Roman period. On the other hand, the ruins of cities along the northern coast of the Black Sea are very important monuments of Grecian civilization, regarding which we must look forward earnestly for more connected communications. 1. Portico (of the Circus ?) at Thessalonica, §. 192. R. 5. Byzantium, 193. R. 8. There are drawings of the Col. istor., the Guglia giroglifica, &c., in the Cabinet d'Estampes at Paris. Constantino the Great's marble column on the promontory of the Bosphorus. A so-called Pompey's pillar on the Black Sea. Voy. Pitt, de Constantinople et des Rives du Bosphore d'apres les dessins de Mr. Melling. P. 1807. fo. Choiseul, Voy. T. ii. P. iv. Remains at Salona 193. R. 6. (even of amphitheatres and baths) ; Jadera (a gate or arch) ; Pola, §. 190 (T. Augustus' amphitheatre, arch of the Sergii), Stuart's Ant. iv, 1 — 3. Allason, Pictur. Views of the Antiq. of Pola. L. 1819. fo. Dell' amfiteatro di Pola — e di alcuni epigrafi e figuline inedite deU' Istria con vii. tav. Saggio del Can. P. Stamowich, Venezia 1802. 8vo. Gianrinaldo Carli Antichit^ di Capodistria in the Archeografo triestino. vol. iii. Trieste 1831. Cassas, Voy. Pitt, de I'lstrie et de la Dalmatie P. 1797 sqq. Rubbi, Antichita Rom. dell' Istria. 4to. 2. Most of the treatises on the subject (by Kohler, R. Rochette and Stempowsky, P. v. Koppen, v. Blaremberg, comp. C. I. ii. p. 80,) refer to inscriptions and coins. Waxel, Recueil de quelques antiquites trouvees sur les bords de la Mer-Noire. B. 1803. 4to. Travels of PaUas, Clarke and others. Collections. Museum at Odessa, in which there are fine sculptures from Kcrtsch (Panticapaoon), Cabinet of Blaremberg and Stempowsky also ASIA AND AFRICA. 267 there ; others at Nicolaef, Kertsch and Theodosia. Notice sur un tombeau decouvert aux environs de Kertsch, I'anc. Panticapee (1830), in the Journ. des Sav. 1835. p. 333. [Discoveries at Kertsch, Bull. 1830. p. 255. 1841. p. 109. 1842. p. 164. 1844. p. 82. Annali xii. p. 5—22. Voyage au Cau- case — et en Crimee par Fr. Dubois de Montperoux iv. Sect. P. et Neu- chatel 1843.] ASIA AND AFRICA. 255. Asia Minor abounded as much as Greece itself in 1 works of Greek art, on the western coasts from ancient times, and in particular tracts stretching far inland, from the Mace- donian period; and is even now perhaps richer in ruins, at 2 least in several kinds (for instance, we find the theatres in Greece more ruinous and difficult to make out than in Asia Minor and Sicily). 1. On the richness of the coast of Asia Minor, especially Ionia, in works of art, Jacobs, s, 424. Meyer, s. 209 ff. On works of art at Ephesus some details in the context, Tzez. Chil. viii, 1 98 ; Aspendus also was full of excellent sculptures, Cic. Verr. ii, 1, 20. On Cilician works of art, from coins, Tolken Kunstbl. i. H. 6. We become acquainted with many sacred structures through coins of the emperors, from which Belley especially treats of the monuments of Pergamon, Ancyra, Tarsus, and Caesarea in Cappadocia, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxvii — xl. 2. Architectural Remains mentioned above, at Sipylus §. 42. Sardis 80. 241.* Teos 109. Ephesus 192. Magnesia on the Macander 109. Samos 80. Priene 109. Miletus 109. Labranda 192. HaUcarnassus 111. 151. 153. Cyzicus 153. Mylasa 192. Telmissus 245. Nacoleia 245. Many theatres (§. 289), also aqueducts and baths of the Roman period. Many remains likewise at New Ilion, Alexandria Troas (many ruins constructed with arches), Assos (where the entire city can still be re- cognised, and remarkable metope -reliefs have been found in the early Greek style, with sphinxes, wild animals and centaurs, [in Paris since 1838, M. d. I. iii, 34. Annali xiii. p. 317: besides the pieces there engraved Prokesch gives also Wiener Jahrb. 1832. ii. S. 59 des Anzeigers a sitting Amor with his hand resting on the bow : they are of granite. Terier Voy. en Asie Mineure pi. 112. Clarac pi. 116. A. B.] and beautiful sarcophagi), Cyme, Smyrna, Heraclea on the Latmian lake (ruins of many buildings situated in an interesting manner among the rocks), (theatre in Hera- clea, Beda ap. Philon. Orellii p. 149) Myndos, Myus, Cnidos (where are very considerable ruins especially of Doric architecture ; investigated by a mission of Dilettanti), Xanthus, Phaselis, Perge, Claudiopolis, Celenderis, and in other cities of the south coast ; in the interior, ruins especially of the towns in the valley of the Mseander and Laodicea Catacecaumcne ; in Cyprus ruins of Cition. Travels of P. Lucas, Tournefort, Pococke, Dallaway, Chandler, Choiseul Gouffier, Kinneir, for the south coast Beaufort's Caramania, for some northern regions Von Hammer's Umblick auf einer Reisc von Epel nach Brussa, Pesth 1818, and for the whole W. M. Leake, Juurnal of a Tour 268 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART. in Asia Minor with comparative remarks on the ancient and modern geography of that country, L. 1824., 8vo. with a map which gives an excellent survey of former travels. A. v. Prokesch, Erinnerungen aus ^gypten und Kleinasien iii. s. 271 fo. Comp. Wiener Jahrb. Iviii. lix. Anz. The " Antiquities of Ionia" are enriched in the new edition with excellent plans (of Priene, the valley of the Maeander, the neighbourhood of the Didymgeon, and the city of Samos) and architectural drawings. There are also excellent designs by Huyot in the portfolio. Discoveries by Terier in Asia Minor, Azani (Tschafder), large Grecian temple, thea- tre, basreliefs, (Bull. 1834, p. 238.) Pessinus, Synnada, Phrygian nekro- polis with Greek and Phrygian inscriptions, between Synnada and Ancyra. Amasia, 10 leagues from the Halys, on the borders of Galatia, a Cyclopian city, full of splendid works, a gate with lion-heads. Tavia ? relief on the ^ rocks, of the Persian and Paphlagonian kings. Phrygian discoveries, ' Archffiol. Intell. Bl. 1835. n. 20. Journ. des Sav. 1835. p. 365. Travels of the English in Asia Minor and Syria, Berghaus Annalen 1835, n. 123. S. 245. Prokesch on ancient Smyrna, Wiener Jahrb. 1834. iv. s. 55 of the Anzeigen, and on a necropolis not far from Thyatira, and the earliest mines of Ida, Ann. d, I. vi. p. 192. Phrygian monuments in Steuart §. 341*, R. 3. partly drawn for the first time, 17 pi. [Sir Ch. Fellows, A Journal writ- ten during an excursion in Asia Minor L. 1839, and an account of Discov. in Lycia during a 2nd excursion L. 1841. Comp. Journ. des Sav. 1842. p. 366, 385. W. Hamilton Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Arme- nia L. 1842. 2 vols. Spratt and Forbes Trav. in Lycia, Milyas and the Cibyrate L. 1846. 2 vols. Col. Rottier's descr. des Mon. de Rhodes 1828. 4to.] 1 256. In monuments of Greek art Syria and Arabia seem only to possess architectural works of the florid Roman style, 2 or a mixed Greco- Oriental. Monuments of this later period also extend through Egypt, the kingdom of Meroe and the 3 Oases. In the rest of Africa the towns of Cyrenaica have more recently become pretty well known, and the plan of Cyrene especially lies distinctly before our view ; but at the same time very little has been brought to light in detail of 4. the early genuine Hellenic period. In western Africa there are extant numerous and considerable remains of Roman structures. 1. Existing monuments of Antioch, § 149. 192. (Justinian's walls ; triumphal arch on the road to Aleppo, Cassas i, 15), Sidon (tomb in the rocks, Cassas ii, 82), Tyre (aqueduct, ibid. 85), [aqueduct at Beirout, Revue Archeol. iii. pi. 57. p. 489.] between Tyre and Ptolemais (Ionic temple, ibid. 87), at Jerusalem §. 192, Emesa (Cenotaph of C. Caesar, Cas- sas i, 21), Heliopolis, Palmyra, Gerasa, Gadara (the cities of the basalt country Trachonitis, in which many structures were built after the time of Solomon, Ritter, Erdk. ii. s. 362), and Petra §. 392. At Seleucia on the Tigris (or Ctesiphon) ruins of a palace of the Roman period, accord- ing to della Valle. Cassas, Voy. Pitt, de la Syrie, de la Phoenicie, de la Palsestine et de la Basse jEgypte, P. an. vii (incomplete). Earlier Travels by Belon, Maundrell, della VaUe, Pococke. Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land. L. 1822. Trav. in Arabia. L. 1829. Buck- SYRIA, AFRICA, ITALY. 269 ingham, Trav. among the Arabian Tribes. L. 1825. 0. Fr. v. Richtcr Wallfahrten im Morgenlande. B. 1822. Count Bertou, Voy. dans les plaines du Haouran en Syrie in the Bull. ii. 1837. p. 161 — 171. Monu- ments of Beirout, Mon. d. I. ii. tv. 51. Ann. x, p. 12. 2. Alexandria §. 149. 193. 224. Antinoe §. 191. Roman towers and walls near Taposiris, at Babylon near Cairo, at Syene. Greco- JSgyptian structures in Meroe §. 192, on the oasis of Amnion near Zeytun (Cail- liaud, pi. 3. 5. 6). Romo-Christian buildings in Lower Nubia, on the northern and southern oases of Egypt (in the latter there are often sepulchral monuments with arches on columns, Cailliaud, pi. 21. comp. §. 218). Cosmas Indopleustes describes the marble throne of Ares near Adule, with the inscription of an Ethiopian King (Zoscales according to Niebuhr), in late Roman style, resting on a spiral column. 3. Considerable Remains at Ptolemais (an amphitheatre, two thea- tres) ; at Cyrene (an amphitheatre, two theatres ; scanty ruins of two temples, numberless tombs on the streets, sometimes in the rocks and sometimes built up, with frontispieces, partly painted) ; some remains at Naustathmus, ApoUonia, and different places further east. Delia CeUa, Viaggio da Tripoli alle frontieri occidental! dell' Egitto. Gen. 1819. F. W. and H. W. Beechy, Proceedings of the Expedition to explore the North coast of Africa from Tripoli eastward in 1821 and 1822. 1828. 4to. Pacho, Relation d'un Voyage dans la Marmarique, la Cyrenaique, et les Oases d'Audelah, et de Macadeh. 1827. 1828. 4to and fo. Comp. on the plan of Cyrene Gott. G. A. 1829. St. 42. 4. Amphitheatre at Tripolis (now Zavia), marble triumphal arch of M. Aurelius and L. Verus at Garapha (now Tripoli). Count Castiglioni, Mem. Geograph. sur la Partie Orientale de la Barbaric. Milan 1826. Large amphitheatre 429 X 368 ft. Arena 238 X 182, height 96, at Tys- derad el Deshemm. Sir Harville Temple's Travels into the Beylik of Tunis, Ausland 1835. no. 102. Ruins of Leptis Myra by Delaporte, Journ. Asiat. iii. S. T. I. no. 4. p. 315. Cisterns of Carthage, excellent composite vaults. Semilasso's Africa iii. S. 214. [Falbe, Rech. sur I'emplacement de Car- thage, see Letronne. J. des Sav. 1837. p. 641,] Excavations by GrenviUe Temple and Falbe Zeitschr. A. "W. 1839. S. 7 f. Aqueduct near Tunis, amphitheatre at Tisdra (el Jemme), Ruins of Cirta or Constantina (Ves- tiges d'un anc. Tombeau dans le Royaume d'Algier aupr^s de Constantine, dess. par Bellicard), of Lambesa, Sufetula, &c. Shaw, Travels in Barbary and the Levant. Hebenstreit, De Antiq. Rom. per Africam repertis. 1733. 4to. 4. ITALY. 257. Italy unites in itself in the most interesting manner districts of the most different kinds for the topography of art. I. The district of a Grecian artistic world which had been naturalized in Italy by means of colonies. The shores of Lower Italy and Sicily belong to it, as well as many portions of the interior of these countries. The splendour of art in these lands is exhibited in their peculiar architectural works 270 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART. 4 There are comparatively few sculptures in marMe and metal, yet many objects have been found of distinguished excellence, 5 and in the purest and finest Greek style ; on the other hand, the necropolises of the Greek and semi-Greek cities of this region are the principal mines of the different sorts of Greek vases, from whose more or less tasteful form and elegant painting we can, with tolerable certainty, estimate the degree to which Grecian civilization had penetrated even among the rural in- habitants of Campania, Lucania, and Apulia (§. 163, 7), and at the same time learn of many places which were Hellenized and devoted to art, although this would not have otherwise been expected. 11. The circle of inland nations who by their 6 own activity naturalized Greek art among themselves. To this division belongs especially the country of the Etrus- cans from Pisas to Caere, together with Felsina and Adria; the Volscian Velitrae and the Latin Proeneste, as well as a part of Umbria, are connected therewith by means of individual monuments or classes of them (terracotta reliefs, mirrors). 7 The places where vase paintings have been found are limited to the southernmost portion of Etruria, particularly the tract of coast opened to Grecian commerce, and Adria, the great 8 emporium on the upper sea (comp. §. 99. 143. 177). The riches of this region in native monuments have found an abiding place in numerous collections in the country. 1. General helps to the artistic topography of Italy : Bern. Montfau- con, Diarium Italicum. P. 1702. 4to. Travels especially of Don Juan Andres, de la Lande and Volkman, Keyssler, Petit-Radel, Eustace and Colt Hoare, Fr. v. der Recke (edited by Bottiger), Morgenstern, Kepha- lides, v, d. Hagen, Thiersch and Schorn, K. Fr. SchoUer (Baudelot de Dairval, De TUtilite des Voyages). Neigebauer's Handbuch fiir Reisende in Italien. Hase, Nachweisungen fiir Reisende in Italien. Lpz. 1821. Fr. Blume Iter Italicum. Bd. i — iii. 1824-1830, also gives by the way valu- able notices of museums. Chr. Kopp Italien. 1837. 3. Remains of akchitectural works in Magna Gbecia : Poseidonia, §. 80. Scanty ruins of Elea (Hunter's Velia. 1818). Doric ruins of a hexastyle temple, and beautiful terracotta fragments at Metapontum, Due de Luynes, Metapontum. 1833. There is hardly any thing remain- ing of all the Greek structures at Tarentum, Thurii, Crotona (Paw, Mem. concernant le temple de Junon Lacinienne, Mem. de. la Soc. de Cassel, p. 67). On some ruins at Locri, Luynes, Ann, d. Inst. ii. p. 3. [Velia, Idem, Annali i. p. 381 — 86.] Ughelli, Italia Sacra ix. gives some information as to the ruins of these cities. On ruins of the towns in Basilicata Lom- bardi, Bull. d. Inst. 1830. p. 17. D. A. Lombard! sulla topogr. e sugli avanzi delle ant. citta Italo-greche, Lucane, Daune, e Peucezie dell' odierna Basilicata Memorie deU' Inst. Archeol. iii. p. 195. Ruins of temples in Sicily : Syracuse §. 80 (two columns of the Olympieion remained stand- ing to a recent period). Acragas and Selinus, 80. 109. Egesta 109. [Gela, a large column of a temple extant, Pizolanti Mem. Istor. dell' ant. citta ITALY. 271 di Gela, in Palermo 1753, 4to. Romano Antichitb. Jerraitane (Himera), Palermo 1838. 8vo.] Catana, ruins of a temple, two theatres, an amphi- theatre, and a circus. At Solus, near Panormus, interesting fragments of architecture, and sculptures. Duke of Serradifalco, Cenni su gli avanzi dell' Antico Solunto. Pal. 1831. comp. Bull. d. Inst. 1830. p. 229. 1831. p. 171. Ruins of theatres, §. 289. Vito Capialbi suUe mura d'Hipponio, Mem. d. Inst. Archeol. ii, 159. tav. 4. 5. [Ground plan of Sehnus by Gottling in the Hermes xxxvii, 2, and the chief cities of the island in Serradifalco.] Cyclopean structures of Cefalu, §. 166. R. 3. Catacombs of Syracuse. — Of Sardinia (also tombs in the rocks) and Gozzo, §. 166. R. 3. [Onor. Bres Malta illustr. co' monum. 1817.] 4. The baptismal vase at Gaeta (now at Naples) from Salpion, Welcker Zeitschr. s. 500. The splendid shoulder-plates of a suit of armour with Amazonian battles from Locri, in Brondsted's possession, [now in the Brit. Mus. The place of discovery is a fiction, as the seller at Naples himself confesses. P. 0. Brondsted Die Bronzen von Siris Kopenh. 1837. 4to.] The beautiful sarcophagus in the cathedral of Agrigentum (Pigonati, tb. 47. Ilouel iv. pi. 238. St. Non iv. p. 82. A stucco cast in the British Museum). Several in Sicilian churches, Hirt Berl. Kunstblatt ii. s. 73. Landolina has excavated many excellent articles at Syracuse. 5. Jorio's Metodo per invenire e frugare i sepolcri degli antichi, N. 1824, extracts in the Kunstblatt 1826. N. 46-53. It is observed that the necropoleis of the Greek cities always lie facing the north. Places in Magna Grecia, where vases have been found (see especially Gerhard's Cenni topogr. BuUet. 1829. p. 161). In Campania, Nola (beautiful vases in varnish and design; also antique vases of the light yellow sort), Cumae (still too little investigated), Avella (vases of a pale colour), Capua (dull varnish; antique also), Nocera (Nolan), Eboli (more in the Lu- cano-Apulian manner ; comp. Ann. iii. p. 406. iv. p. 295) ; in Samnium, particularly Agata de Goti in the Beneventine (careless in design, red and white colour) ; in Lucania, Paestum (beautiful vases of the best kind), Tombs of Paestum, Bull. 1834. p. 50., Castelluccio, Anzi [Antia, not a few vases of a peculiarly grandiose style, and exquisite myths, the great majo- rity usually Bacchian or so-called toilette vases, in 1842 a collection at the place, called the Fattibaldi, consisting of 400 articles,] and Armento in the interior of the Basilicata (places where were found the ornamental vases of slender form, and richly ornamented with mythological scenes, bad in varnish and colours, the design mannered) ; busts, vases, brazen accoutrements, Galateo, lapygia, p. 97 ed. Basil. ; in Apulia, Bari, Ruvo, Ceglia, Canosa (where, together with the language of the country, a cor- rupt Greek was spoken, Horace S. i, 10, 30. §. 163, 7) ; Ruvo, Bull. 1834. p. 36. 164. 228. [Giov. Jatta suU' ant. cittk di Ruvo, in Nap. 1844. 4to. p. 56 sqq., his great excavations and collection of vases; Avellino's Rubustinorum numorum catal. appended. Tombs of Ruvo, Bull. 1836. p. 69. 113. 1837. p. 81. 97.]; in Bruttii, Locri (vases of antique descrip- tion, others of exquisite beauty). In Sicily especially Agrigentum (antique vases of the red yellow kind, but others also, very grandly and beautifully designed, of the more perfect style of technics; Panettieri Collection ; Memoirs by Raff. Politi) ; in the interior Acrae, now Palaz- zuola, rich in tombs, vases, and terracottas. Le antich. di Acre scoperte, 272 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART. descritte ed. illustr. dal Bar, G. Judica. Messina, 1819. fo. Comp, Ger- hard and Panofka Hyperb. Rom. Stud. s. 155 ff. (Kunstb. 1825. 26) and the preface to Neapel's Antiken, [also Bibl. Ital. 1820. Febr. s. 222 sqq.] Tombs at Palermo, BuU. 1834. p. 209. Martorelli, Antichita Neapolitane. Travels of Riedesel, Swinburne, and others. De St. Non, Voy. Pittoresque de Naples et de Sicile, Miinter, Nachrichten von Neapel u. Sicilien. 1790. Bartel's Briefe iiber Calabrien u. Sicilien, 1791-93. — Fazellus, De rebus Siculis. 1558. fo. Andr. Pigonati, Stato presente degli Ant. Monumenti SiciUani, a. 1767. Viaggio per tutte le Antich. della Sicilia descr. da Ign, Paterno Pr. di Biscari. N. 1781. 4to. Houel, Voy. Pitt. des. lies de Sicile, de Malthe et de Lipari. P. 1782. 4 vols. fo. Bern. Olivieri, Vedute degli Avanzi dei Mon. Antich. deUe due SiciUe. R. 1795. Pancrazi, d'Orville, Wilkins, HittorfF (see §, 80. 109). Raf. Politi II viaggiatore di Girgenti e il Cicerone di piazza ovvere guida agli avanzi di Agrigento, Girgenti 1826. [1842 by the Same, Antichita e mon. per servire all' opera intit. il viagg. 40 tav. 8vo.] 6. On Etrurian monuments of art in general, §. 168 — 178. Volaterrse, §. 168. 70. 71. 74, 76. Pyrgos, Cyclopean foundations of the temple of Eileithyia, J. Mellingen Archaol. Intell. Bl. 1836. No. 11. [Canina An- nali d. Inst. xii. p. 34. ant, Castello di Pirgi.] Faesulee 168, 70. Arre- tium 170. 71. 72. Vetulonium 168. Inghirami Memor. d. Inst. ii. p. 95. Ambrosch p. 137. Rusellae 168. Populonia 168. 76. Cosa 168. Tela- mon 176. Cortona 168. 70. Perusia 168. 73, 74. 75. Saturnia 168. Volci 169. 70. 73. 74. 75. 77. BuUett. 1835. p. 177. Clusium 170. 71. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. Falerii 168. 70. Tarquinii 170. 72. 73. 74. 77. Axia 170. Orchia 170. Bomarzo 169. 70. Viterbo 170. Tuscania 170. Veil 168. Adria on the Po 170. 77. Prseneste 173. Alba Longa 168. 70. Velitrse 171. TJmbria 176. Ameria 168. Spoletium 168. 7. Places where vases have been found in Etruria : Necropolis of Volci on the river Arminia (Flora) near Ponte della Badia ; excavations since 1828, on the estates of Prince Lucian of Canino, the Candelori and Feoli, The Dorow-Magnus Collection in the Royal Museum at Berlin. On the kinds of vases §, 99, 2, 143, 2, On the localities, Westphal, To- pogr, dei cont. di Tarquinii e Vulci, Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 12. tv. agg. a. b. Lenoir, Ann. iv. p. 254. M, I, 40, Works of Pr, Lucian: Museum Etrusque de L. Bonaparte. 1829. Catalogo di scelte antichita (Estratto, Ann. i. p. 188). Vases Etrusques de L. Bonaparte Livr. i. ii. (Bullet. 1830. p. 143. 222). Candelori vases : BuU. d. Inst. 1829, p. 75 fF. The splendid collection described by Second. Campanari Rome 1837. Idem Intorno i vasi fitt. rinvenuti ne 'sep. d'Etruria R. 1836. 4to. Brondsted. A brief descr. of 32 anc. Gr. vases lately found by M. Campanari, L. 1832. C. Fea Storia de' vasi dipinti che da quattre anni si trovano R. 1832. Ne- cropolis of Tarquinii, chiefly vases of the archaic sorts, v. Gerhard, Hy- perb. Rom. Studien. s. 134. Caere, a very promising mine. Bull. 1834, p. 49. 97. 1836. p. 159. Bomarzo, fine vases and bronzes. Clusium, numerous antique vases. Bull, 1837. p. 192. [A great number of black vases only to be met with here and in the neighbourhood, of various forms and with ornaments and figures in relief.] Adria on the Po, fragments of vases found in the burying-place on the Tartaro, strikingly similar to those of Volci in forms, paintings, and inscriptions, also terracottas, mosaics, -marble fragments, and intaglios collected in the Bocchi Museum. See ITALY. 273 Filiasi, Giorni. dell' Ital. Letter. Padova. T. xiv. p. 253. [Kramer Ueber den Styl u. die Herkunft der bemalten Griech, Thongefasse s. 198 — 206.] A manuscript work in the Vienna cabinet of antiquities. Steinbiichel Wiener Jahrb. 1830. ii. s. 182, 'stlvania. Severini Pannonia vetus monum. iUustr. Lips. 1771. 8vo. V. Hohenhausen, Alterthiimer Daciens, Wien. 1775. 4to. Ruins of Sabaria (Stein am Anger), Caryophilus, De thermis Herculanis nuper in Dacia detectis. Mantua 1739. 4to. Schonwisner, De ruderibus Laconici etc. in solo Budensi. Budse 1778. fo. Kunstbl. 1824, N. 59. New Excavations in Hermanstadt (Walsh's Journey). — Hungarian national museum at Pesth, founded in 1807. Account in Cat- taneo, Equejade. Milano 1819. 4to. Prefaz. ; and in the Acta M. Nat. Hungar. T. i. Collection of Count Wiczay at Schloss Hedervar near Raab (gems, bronzes, especially coins). On the Wiczay coll. and Bestini's writings thereon, H. Hase, Zeitgenossen dritte Reihe N. xix. s. 79 ff. M. Hedervarii numos ant. descr. C. Mich, a Wiczay. Vindob. 1814. 2 bde 4to. [The Hungarian Museums have received many things from Ehrenreich a dealer in antiquities, Cattaneo Oss. sopra un framm. ant. di bronzo, • Milano 1810. p. 2.] FIRST MAIN DIVISION. TECTONICS. 266. Among the arts which represent In space we distin- 1 guish (according to §. 22.), in the first place, those that are suhservient to purposes of utility, and which fashion and pro- duce vessels, utensils and buildings in conformity to the wants and purposes of external life, but at the same time in accordance with the internal requirements of the human mind. It is by 2 this latter feature that they belong to art, and it therefore must be here especially kept in view. I. BUILDINGS. ARCHITECTONICS. 267. The endless diversity of architectural structures can 1 only be comprehended in the idea that by means of materials of an inanimate nature inorganic forms are presented, which, occupying, designating or demarcating in an immediate man- ner the area of the earth, bear in themselves a character of fixity and solidity. Here we can always distinguish 1. the 2 materials furnished by nature, and the manner of applying them; 2. the forms which the hand of man impresses on them; and 3. the particular purposes and occasions of the construction, which determine the particular kinds of build- ings. 1. Is there any other definition that will not exclude tumuli, chrora- lechs, causeways, aqueducts, syrinxes, and even ships (buildings that are destined to occupy the unstable surface, in such a way as it will admit of) ] The notion habitation, monument, place of abode, and the like, certainly must not be included. 2. The summary presented in the sequel can for the most part be nothing more than nomenclature which oral exposition must supply with the illustrations. At the same time are to be made use of the numerous commentators on Vitruvius, especially Schneider, with the plates to Vitr. Bauk. by A. Rhode. B. 1801 ; C. L. Stieglitz, Baukunst der Alton. Leipz. 1796. 8vo. with 11 copperplate engravings. The same, Arch- aologie der Baukunst der Griechen und Romer. 2 thle. 1801. 8vo. with plates and vignettes, and Gesch. der Baukunst. Niirnb. 1827 ; his Bcitr. zur Gesch. der Ausbildung der Baukunst. Th. 1. Leipz. 1834, with 25 lithogr. pi. especially A. Hirt's Baukunst nach den Grundsiitzon der Al- ton. B. 1809. fo. j in the latter pt. 3. the election of building, also Wie- 300 ARCHITECTONICS. beking biirgerl. Baukunst. 1821. Hiibsch iiber Gr. Archit. 1822. 2 Ed. with defence against Hirt. 1824. Durand, Recueil et paralleles d'edifices de tout genre (text by Le Grand). P. a. viii. Rondelot, L'Art de batir. 1802 — 1817. 4 vols. 4to. Le Brun, Theorie de I'architecture Grecque et Rom. P. 1807. fo. Canina, L'Architettura [antica descritta e dimostr. coi mon. Opera divisa in tre sezioni riguardanti la storia, la teoria e le pratiche dell' archit. Egiz. Greca e Rom. R. 1839 — 44. 6 vols. fol. K. Botticher, die Tektonik der Hellenen. Introduction and Dorika, with 21 pi. Potsdam 1844. 4tp. and fol. J 1. BUILDING MATERIALS. 268. First: Stones. In Greece there was a great quan- tity of marble made use of, from the quarries of Hymettus, Penthelicon, Paros, Ephesus, and Proconnesus ; but tufa and calc-sinter from different districts were also employed. In Rome there was originally used for the most part volcanic tufa of a blackish colour, lapis Albanus, now called peperino, and afterwards the harder calcareous tufa or sinter of Tibur, lapis Tiburtinus, now travertino, until the taste for marble gained ground; besides the white kind from Greece or Luna (Carara), the green, yellow and variegated sorts were preferred. 1. KSLz is a common field-stone, x/Bo? a better kind of stone. Marble ?v/^oj TisvKog, more rarely fiix,^/^.a.^ivog. UZoor, vra^iuog 'hiBog porus lapis in Pliny is a light but solid calcareous tufa which was employed in the Delphian and Olympian temples. Many speak erroneously of a marmo porino. KoyxiTrig T^Bog, muschel-kalk or marble (lumachella bianca an- tica), was common especially at Megara, Paus. i, 44, 9 ; Xenoph. Anab. iii, 4, 10. seems to call it x^oyyju'hia.Tfig. 2. Similar to the lapis Albanus was the Gabinus, Fidenas and the harder Volsiniensis. The earthy tufa (lapis ruber in Vitruv.) was of less utility. There are distinguished from each other structurce moUes (1. Al- banus), temperatm (1. Tiburtinus), durce (silex in which basalt was es- pecially included). 3. Comp. below §. 309. particularly on white marble. On the later appearance of variegated marble (Menander etiam diligentissimus luxu- riae interpres primus et raro attigit) Plin. xxxvi, 5. The favourite col- purs of marble in Roman architecture were : Numidicum, giallo antico, golden yellow with reddish veins ; rosso antico, of bright red colour (the ancient name is unknown) ; Phrygium s. Synnadicum, white with blood- red stripes, paonazzo (Leake has discovered the quarries of Synnada, Asia Minor, p. 36. 54) ; Carystium, undulated, with veins of green talc (cipoUino) ; Proconnesium, which is held to be bianco e nero ; Luculle- um and Alabandicum, nero antico; Chium, spotted different colours, marmo Africano. Asafiiog X/Bo? }ca,rn(pvig kxI fcsTioig Philost. v. Soph, ii, 8. isidor. XV, 8, 13. bases (perhaps basanites) nomen est petras fortissimae Syro sermone. Egyptian basalt is in general a combination similar to the modern Syenite. The LacedaDmonium marmor is (according to BUILDING MATERIALS. 301 Corsi) a green porphyry which vTorkers in marble call serpentine ; the lapis ophites a real serpentine called verde ranocchia. The clear trans- parent phengites, of which Nero built a temple, does not seem to be yet accurately determined. Besides, breccias, different kinds of porphyry, basalts (lapis basanites, comp. Buttmann, Mus. der Alterthums-W. ii. s. 67 sq.), and granites (from Ilva and IgiHum ; there was also a great deal quarried near Philse as late as a. d. 200, Letronne, Recherches, p. 360) wera also much employed in architecture at Rome. [Catalogo della Col- lezione di pietre usate degli ant. per costruire ed. adornare le loro fab- briche dell' Aw. Fr. Belli. R. 1842. 8vo.] 269. The treatment of this material was in general three- 1 fold. 1. The solid rocky ground was, among the Greeks and Romans, hewn into catacombs, and in some instances into Panea and Nymphaea. 2. Single detached stones, just as 2 they were found or quarried, were put together and united {Xoyddsg X/^o/, csementa, opus incertum). 8. The stones were 3 hewn either in irregular and polygonal forms, as in the My- cenaean and other walls and the Appian Way, or into a regu- lar and rectangular shape (ffuvvojuoi x^oi, crX/v^o/), from whence resulted the isodomum, pseudisodomum and reticulatum opus (dixTvo^BTov, with diagonal lines running throughout). Early 4 architecture preferred great masses and also employed on all occasions a precious material when it could be commanded; the later style generally incrusted works of brick or rubble with slabs of costly marble. The earlier did not join at all 5 by external means, or only by wooden pins and iron clamps and dovetails ; in uniting the later employed mortar in great • abundance. Together with the usual hewing of the stone, q the turning of column-cylinders (turbines) on a sort of turn- ing bench, an operation especially applicable to softer mate- rials, was practised even in early times; marble was also sawn with the aid of Naxian (§. 314) or Ethiopian sand. 2. These a/^o/ AoyaSs?, of which Thucyd. makes frequent mention, were collected by the A/SoAoyo; (Valken. Opusc. T. ii. p. 288. Ruhnken ad. Tim. p. 175). The opus incertum in its widest sense embraces the primitive Cyclopean architecture, §. 45. Comp. Klenze, Amalthea iii. s. 104 ff. 3. On TTA/ySof especially the inscription from the temple of M. Polias, Bockh. C. I. i. p. 273, Isodomum is explained by the signification of l6/x,o;, corium, a horizontal layer of stones. Theemplectum is a conjunc- tion of the isodomum in the frontes and diatoni (facing and tye walls) with the incertum as filling up. 4. See above §. 46. 49. 80. 153. The stones of the architrave in the temple of Cybebe at Sardis are 17§ f. to 23 J f. in length, 4^ f. high. Leake, Asia Minor p. 344 sq. In the Propylsea of Athens, stone beams of 17 and 22 feet in length. Topogr. of Athens, p. 180 sq. The lintel of the door of the opisthodomos of the Parthenon 25 ft. 6 in. A ^/7xoc, from the covering and protecting cornice. Dwarf walls were first employed indepen- dently by themselves as enclosing fences (maceria, a/'/xaff/a) ; but afterwards as supports of the main walls, in order to elevate these above the level of the ground, and also to make their base visible. Such under-walls which advanced a little beyond the main wall, with or without steps, are called zirirrTdic, crepi- dines, plinths ; higher and more elegantly treated basements of columnar structures are called stereobata), stylobata (iu 3i0 ARCHITECTONICS. Vitruvlus), podia; they have a base (quadra, spira), die (trun- 5 cus) and corona. The steps likewise in many cases serve chiefly to raise a building higher above the ground; then stairs and entrances were obtained by inserting intermediate steps. 6 To the dwarf walls belongs also a stone or wooden parapet (pluteus or pluteum) fixed in between pillars and columns ; metal railings (clatri, cancelli, reticula) might also occupy its place. 2. These B^tyKol as enclosures of temples and palaces with large court- gates {ex.v'Kiioi Bvpai) in the centre, and the prospect of the main building over them, formed usually the principal portion of the tragic scene. 4. The numerous investigations on the scamilli impares of Vitruvius in the stereobate and the entablature (see among others Meister, N. Commentar. Soc. Gott. vi. p. 171. Guattani, Mem. encicl. 1817. p. 109. Hirt, Baukunst, s. 57. Stieglitz Archaol. Unterh. i. s. 48) seem to lead to the conclusion that they do not designate any observable member of the architecture, but merely a contrivance used in the building in order to give to the stylobate and entablature the pulvinated appearance which (according to Vitruvius) was optically necessary. The lysis above the corona of a short pillar, of which there is mention made twice, was probably a small echinus. On theatre-steps, §. 289. R. 6. Stieglitz treats of stairs, Arch. Unt. i. s. 121. Graecae scalae . . . omni ex parte tabularum compagine clausae. Serv. ad ^n. iv, 646. Gellius N. A. x, 15, 29. 6. On the plutei especially Vitruv. iv, 5. comp. v, 1. 7. 10. Such parapets or railings, inasmuch as they are fitted in betw^een anta) and columns, and occupy the place of a wall, often form a pronaos, as §. 109. R. 1. 9. In the Palmyrenian temple §. 192. R. 5. the door is placed in the centre of the colonnade on account of the plutei, as in Egypt §. 221. Railings and rail-doors (KtyKKtosg C. I. 481, clatri, clatrata) fores) between the columns of a monopteral and peripteral tholus are to be seen on the relief in Winckelm. W. i. tf. 15. 16. Wooden fences or hoarding d^v(^tx.Krot were usual at Athens for enclosing fore-courts, see especially Schol. Aris- toph. Wasps. 405. 1 281. The wall is modified in its destination to enclose, by the necessity of admission for persons as well as air and light The forms of the door-frame imitate those of the en- 2 tablature in the difi*erent orders (§. 282). There are distin- guished: A. Doric doors; these consist of 1. antepagamenta, jambs, which together with 2. supercilium, the lintel (^y/a), inclose the aperture of the door (lumen ostii) and are framed Avith cymatia and astragals. To these are added over the lintel S. hyperthyrum, the cornice, consisting of cymatia, 3 astragals and the projecting and protecting corona. B. Ionic doors; here also 1. antepagamenta (c^ocro^a/a/a?) and 2. super- cilium both Avhich are divided into faces, corsse, by astragals in the manner of the Ionic architrave; 3. the hyperthyrum from THE ENTABLATURE. 311 "wliicli hang on the right and left 4. the ancones or parotides (called wra at Athens), the trusses or consoles. C. Attic door, 4 similar to the Doric, only that it borrows tlie fasciae from the Ionic. The windows, '^^vptdig, had similar but simpler frames. 5 In both, but especially the doors, the panels contributed very 6 much to the splendour of the ancient temples, and in attempts at restoration must be taken into account as an essential ele- ment for the general effect. 1. However, Vitruvius has not here any part corresponding to the frieze ; while the supercilium is similar to the architrave, and the hy- perthyrum to the cornice. And yet friezes are also found on doors some- times running round altogether as on the grand door of the temple of Pallas Polias, sometimes only under the cornice as in Roman edifices. The numerous doors of tombs at Gyrene have always merely the lintel and cornice, together with consoles of simple but very pecuUar form. The shade-giving dsp^y^ over a house-door in Liban. Antioch. p. 239. R. is rather a hyperthyrum than supercilium. [Donaldson, A Collection of the most improved examples of Doorways. London 1833. 4to. One belonging to the time of the tombs of Bournabat near Smyrna.] 6, The door-leaves (valvae, with scapi, stiles, impages, rails and tym- pana, panels) were often gilded {5iv^Zrrxt ■x^ovaotlai ^v^aig, Aristoph. Birds 613), often also chryselephantine, like the famous doors in the temple of Pallas at Syracuse (Cic. Verr. iv, 56), where the Gorgon heads from the mythology of Pallas were used in place of the lion heads generally em- ployed. Similar doors are described by Propert. ii, 31, 11. and Virgil G. iii, 26. Regarding the contrivances for shutting, see especially Salmas. Exerc. Plin. p. 649. sq. Bottiger, Kunstmythologie, s. 258. Becker, Cal- lus ii. s. 253. The circumstance that the hinges, as in the Cyclopean doors §. 46. R. 2, were also at a later period placed in the sill of the door serves to explain Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 1261. Eurip. Her. Fur. 1002. Theocr. 24, 15. The closing of windows was effected sometimes by shutters (comp. the angusta3 rimae in Pers. iii, 2) sometimes by transparent materials, lapis specularis, lapis phengites (especially from the time of Nero ; men moved about within tanquam inclusa luce, non transmissa), glass, vitrum {vxT^og), either candidum (xgyx'^), or varium, also versicolor {dTOKuaaovaa). Comp. Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst iii. s. QQ. §. 316. 282. The entablature, that portion of the building which 1 reconciles the supporting members properly so-called with those which immediately serve as a covering, is naturally divided into three parts: 1. that which unites the supports into rows, the architrave ; 2. that which spans the walls form- ed thereby, the frieze, which was conceived at least originally in conformity to this destination ; and o. the overhanging and covering portion which belongs to the roof, the cornice, I. 2 Architrave, epistylium, main beam. A. Doric, plain, Avith the taenia above to which are attached, underneath, the triglyphs, and the regula with the guttse, drops. B. Ionic, consisting 312 ARCHITECTONICS. of two or usually of three fasciae, and above these the cyma- tium cum astragalo et quadra. The same is also placed above 4 Corinthian columns. II. Frieze, ^ojvri, hia^u[j.a. A. Doric: 1. triglyphs over all the columns and intercolumniations (accord- ing to Eustratius ad Aristot. Ethic, ad Nicom. x, 4, 2. Zell. IMovrXov)) in these are to be distinguished the femora {mpoi, fillets), canaliculi, channels, semicanaliculi and a capitulum; 5 2. metopse, metopes. B. Ionic and Corinthian, called zophorus from the reliefs of metal or marble attached to the plain sur- face (rows of figures, bucrania with wreaths of flowers or other 6 arabesque - like ornaments) with a cymatium above. The Doric frieze by its composition recals the original destination of that member (§. 52); at the same time the triglyphs, by their upright position and separation, continue the vertical tendency of the columns, and impart an enlivening contrast to the entablature, which is only at length completely resolved into horizontal extension in the cornice. In the Ionic archi- tecture the frieze is more an ornament of the building, with- 7 out the essential significance of the Doric. III. Cornice. A. Doric: 1. Cymatium Doric. 2. Corona, yiTaov, projecting oblique- ly on all sides, but terminating perpendicularly, and beneath it, over all the triglyphs and metopes, the mutules (mutuli) from which hang the guttse; o. a second cymatium; 4. the 8 sima with the lion-heads above the columns. B. Ionic: 1. denticuli, dentels with the intersectio, /xsro;/?^, the interdentels ; 2. a cymatium; 3. corona, with concave under profile; 4. cymatium; 5. sima. C. Corinthian, similar to the Ionic, only that under the corona the modillions, ancones or mutuli, whose form is a composition of volutes and acanthus leaves, 9 act as supports. In each order proportionate height, strength and simplicity are signs of early antiquity ; contraction of the plain surfaces, a narrower and thinner form, as well as richer decoration, are indications of a later period. 2. Guttae in a continued row without triglyphs were not perfectly rare in antiquity — in the pronaos of Rhamnus, the tower of Cyrrhestes, the Cyrensean tombs (Pacho, pi. 19. 40. 46.). 4. Triglyphs were also employed as ornaments of castle-walls, as on the acropolis of Athens ; see §. 52. R. 3. 272. R. 1. and Epicharmus in Athenaeus vi. p. 236 b. When they are above columns, the corner tri- glyphs must be advanced beyond the axis of the column — an irregularity in a great measure compensated by the contraction of the last inter- columniation, which is grounded in static and optical laws ; but with many Roman arcliitects it was a reason for rejecting the whole order. In early times the triglyphs were always painted blue (caerulea cera, Vitruv.). Brondsted, Voy. ii. p. 145. 5. The oldest Ionic architecture had certainly the dentels immedi- ately above the architrave, for instead of the heavy cross-beams of the CEILING, ROOF. ' 313 Doric roof only light joists were laid upon the slender columns, forming the dentels on the outside. This arrangement is first found in the ori- ental form of Ionic architecture (comp. §. 54. 244), at Persepolis, at Tel- missus and in Phrygia (§. 241.* R. 3), and then in the hall of the Cary- atides at Athens. 'E-TnaTv'Kiov xcti 6 l-r' ocvrov Koa/^o; specially consecrated C. I. n. 2751. 52. 53. 7. 8. Vitruvius derives the mutules from the projection of the rafters, the dentels from the jutting out of the laths (comp. §. 270) ; against this just objections have often been made. The mutuli in the Corin- thian order appear to have been with him a sort of modilUon. 1 Modil- lions are very appropriately called 'K^o^oy^oi C. I. 2297. ^83. The simplest ceiling, a stone laid across, is only met 1 with in monuments of the most unpretending kind. Temples and other sumptuous edifices had sunken panels, lacunaria, ^arvw/xara, which were transferred from wood -work, which was also inlaid with gold and ivory, to stone (§. 53.) The 2 ancients distinguish: 1. the beams lying immediately over the architrave {hoY.ol dovoodoxoi) ; 2. the narrower joists placed above these and mortised into one another (called oTPwr^psj collec- tively, singly probably (rf tjx/cxo/ and i/xuvTsc) ; 3. the covers or caps filling the openings, xaXj/x/xar/a : which parts were also imitated in stone-building, but then wrought more as a whole. 1. 'O^otp^ (p»ruoci; 'hiaysy'Kvufckvvi Diodor. i, 66. Chryselephantine lacunaria are even described by Ennius, Androm. p. 35. Bothe, as a part of the ancient kingly magnificence. In Diod. iii, 47. (piocKcci "hi^oKoKKriTot are mentioned as an ornament of the cassoons. Laquearii as a distinct class of artists in the Theodos. Cod. xiii. t. 4, 2. — The space between the lacunaria and the roof often occurs as a place of concealment. Comp. Appian de B. C. iv, 44. Tacit. A. iv, 68. Valer. Max. vi, 7, 2. 2. See especially Pollux x, 173. and the investigations in Bockh C. I. p. 281, comp. p. 341. The more accurate view which the lined. Ant. of Attica give of the lacunaria of Attic temples must be considered in connexion therewith. In the Eleusinian propylsea the ookoI are placed over the Ionic architrave of the interior, and the stone flags with their depressed panels are mortised directly into these. But in Rhamnus and Sunium these stone flags are so cut out as to leave square holes into which the xaAv^^ar/a exhibiting the inner panels are fitted. It is pre- cisely the same in the Selinuntine temple, the lacunaria of which with their coloured ornaments are given by Hittorff", pi. 40. 284. In private buildings the roof was either laid on flat 1 (that is with slight inclination), or inclined on all sides, slanting; in public buildings, on the other hand, especially temples, it was provided with pediments at the ends, which among the Greeks were generally an eighth of their breadth in height, but were more elevated among the Romans. To 2 the pediment or fronton, fastigium, asroj, asrw/xa (comp. §. 53) belong 1. the tympanum ; 2. corona and sima above the tym- 314 • ARCHITECTONICS. panum; 3. antefixa, ornaments at the corners, and on the summit; 4. acroteria, angularia et medianum, pedestals for statues at the corners and in the middle. The sloping sides of the roof consist of 1. tegulae, flat tiles, xaXucr^pgc, and 2. imbrices, hollow tiles— of marble, clay or bronze — which were ingeniously fitted into one another. The rows of the latter closed with upright elegantly ornamented eave-tiles, frontati, imbrices extremi, which in Grecian temples were not only placed above the cornice but even ran along the top of the ridge as an elegant ornament. 1. In 930a oc (on vase-paintings) the favourite practice was to change the dsro; of the is^d (comp. Aristoph. Birds, 1109) into a low arch ornamented with fleurons stuck upon it. Perhaps these are Vitruvius' semifastigia. 2. The sima as well as the obliquely overhanging corona are not, if we look to their destined object, suitable for the side of the pediment, but are applied throughout for the sake of the agreement of forms. In the small temple of Artemis at Eleusis, where the sima has a very fine profile, it stands more upright over the fronton and inclines forward more above the side-walls, which is not less fitting than agreeable. Beautiful aetoma in a sepulchral monument at Epidauros, with two different kinds of eave-tiles, hewn out in marble. The antefixa (the author's Etrusker ii. p. 247) we become acquainted with especially from vase-paintings where temples and heroa are seldom without them. For example, Millingen, Vases de div. coll. pi. 12. 19. Millin, Vases ii. pi. 32. 33. Tombeaux de Canosa, pi. 3. 4. 7. 8. 11. 14. Antefixa of steles, resembling eave-tiles with the usual flower ornament. Stackelberg Graber Tf. 3. 4. Pretty stele of Theron with painted ante- fixum thereon, in Attica, ibid. Tf. 6. 2. Painted sarcophagus tiles ibid. 5, 2. 6, 1. The acroteria were for the most part narrower in Greece than in Rome where the pediments of the temples were often ornamented above with numerous statues. See for example the coins of the Tiber with the temple of Concordia, Pedrusi, vi, 4, 1. C. I. n. 2388, 5. xotl vvjov S' iTrl The conflict into which the front tiles over the cornice come with the sima was settled by the Attic architects generally in this way, that they merely placed a part of the sima with a lion's head at the corner beside the acroterium, and more rarely by carrying the front tiles further back behind the sima, as in the temple of Artemis at Eleusis, or by leaving them away altogether. - 285. Vaults, according to the development which this part of architecture received, especially in the Macedonian and Roman period (comp. §. 48. 49. 107. 109. R. 5. 110. 149. R. 3. 168. 170. R. 3. 190. sqq.), are divided into the leading kinds which lie in the nature of the thing, only that the pointed arch must have always remained foreign to ancient architecture (§. 195), whose character does not affect a tower- like striving upwards and a mutual conflict ^ of buttresses. KINDS OF BUILDINGS. 315 arches and vaults, but a predominating horizontal expansion, a secure position on the extended surface. Vaults are called fornicationes (cuneorum divisionibus), concainera- tiones (hypogeorum), Vitruv. vi, 11. Among the Greeks a-^ip, i^aAoth ends. Leake, Asia Minor, p. 244. 2. [The hippodrome at Aphrodisias Ion. Antiq. iii. ch. 2. pi. 10 sqq. That at Perga is also well preserved. On the j^hiale (of the fountains) of the hippodrome at Constantinople, Texier Revue Archeol. ii. p. 142.] The ornaments of the spina of the Roman Circus, among others the pulvinar, the scaffolds with eggs and dolphins, conic pyramids on a base, are partly derived from decursiones funebres, also from the worship of Poseidon [the pulvinar was for distinguished personages, the mgenia- num, a stair to the different stories ; the Euripus prevented the runners from approaching the podium]. The Euripus as well as the basin (lacus) of the spina (distinctly to be seen in the circus of Caracalla and in mo- saics) served to moisten the sand. — The Circus Max. at Rome was 2,100 feet long, 400 broad, and surrounded by galleries in three stories {arooci T^iaTsyoi, Dion. Hal.) the lowest of which had stone, and the upper wooden seat-rows ; in Trajan's time it contained about 300,000 spectators. G. L. Bianconi's work, §. 258. R. 4. Mosaics, §. 424. R. 2. 3. The Greeks sometimes converted stadia into amphitheatres, Hirt, Gesch. ii. s. 345. Lipsius de amphith., Thes. Ant. Rom. ix. p. 1269. Maffei degli Amfiteatri. Carli d. Anfiteatri (the Flavian, that of Italica and of Pola). Mil. 1788. Fontana Anfit. Flavio (§. 190. R. 3). 1725. fo. Ruins of amphitheatres in Italy, §. 258. 260. R. Bibliot. Ital. xli. p. 100. Comp. §. 254. 256. 262. 4. The recent excavations in the Coliseum have shown the subterra- nean passages of the Arena. See Lor. Re, Atti d. Ace. archeol. ii. p. 125 (for Bianchi, against Fea). [The amphitheatre of Syracuse, Cavallari in Serradifalco iv. tv. 13-15, of Catania v. tv. 7-9 ; there is a large work on that of Capua prepared.] The sight of the amphitheatrical games in their strange combinations must have been wonderful, surprising and exciting to a degree which we cannot adequately imagine. The splendid decorations, the moveable ivory cylinders and gold nets for the protec- tion of the podium, the gems on the balteus, i. e. the prsecinctiones, and the gilding of the porticoes are described especially by Calpurnius, Eel. vii, 47 sqq. 5. In the Naumachia of Augustus the longer axis amounted to 1,800 (basin) and 100 feet (seats), the shorter 1,200 and 100 f. 291. Another class of buildings consist? of porticoes des- tined for public social intercourse, which the ancients loved so much, for commerce and all sorts of assemblies, in which a 324 ARCHITECTONICS. roof resting on columns and affording a shelter against wind and rain was the main object, Avhereas in temples it was 2 merely an external appendage. To these belong first, entirely open porticoes of two or more rows of columns (tetrastichoe, pentastichoe), such as sometimes traversed cities in the form of streets, like the great colonnades of the Syrian towns (§. 149. R 4. 192. R 5), sometimes surrounded quadrangular mar- ket-places and other squares; sometimes also they constituted 3 distinct buildings by themselves. But then walls were also added to the colonnades on one or both sides, and thus were developed the halls which Rome borrowed from Greece under the name of basilicas {^roat ^a^iXixai §. 180. R 8. 188. 4 R 3. 191. R 1. 194.) Here we distinguish: three or five aisles running along parallel to one another, together with the galleries over the side-aisles, which were formed by columns disposed in pairs, the chalcidicum in front, and the tribunal in the posterior part of the building, frequently in a semicircular 5 recess {-x-oyyji)- — We shall content ourselves with merely men- tioning other public edifices, as we can scarcely say anything general as to their construction, such as the Buleuteria or Cu- riae ; the Prytaneia of the Greeks with the Tholi or circular buildings which were destined for the state-sacrifices of the Prytanes; [the Ship-houses, vsw^/a (Bockh Urkunden des At- tischen Seewesens s. 64 ff.) and Skeuothecae, the celebrated one of Philo in the Peirasus Olymp. 112. (Ibid. s. 71.)]; the pri- sons, which were often very strong and resembled donjons ; the thesauri (aeraria), in which subterranean cellar-like vaults seem even in later times to have been the principal thing [?]. 6 The numerous groups of Thesauri, which stood on platforms {yi^ri'xTbig) in the temples of Delphi and Olympia, were also pro- bably for the most part circular structures. 2. Thus for example there stood at Athens, according to Paus. i, 2, 4. several temples, a gymnasium and Polytion's house in a stoa, that is to say in a square enclosed by it. Of the same description was the portico of Metellus, §. 180. R. 2. 190. R. 1, i. The portico of Thoricus (§. 109. R. 8.) shows no trace of walls, and was therefore perhaps a mere structure of columns ; so also for the most part the portico of Diocletian at Palmyra, Cassas i. pi. 93 sqq. — Comp. Hirt. Gesch. iii. s. 265. 3. The Corcyraean Hall at Elis contained a wall between two rows of columns, Paus. vi, 24, 4. A Cryptoporticus had walls with windows on both sides, and probably only engaged columns between. On iianginq porticoes §. 149. R. 2. comp. §. 279. R. Forcellini s. v. mcenianum, sola- ria, Maeniana, ij'hiuaryi^iu, Salmasius Hist. Aug. i. p. 676. [Portico of the Agora at Aphrodisias, Ion. Ant. iii. ch. 2. pi. 6 sqq.] 4. We obtain a knowledge of the BasilicjE especially from that of Vitruvius at Fanum (in the description of which however there are still many obscurities,) that at Pompeii (Mazois iii, pi. 15. sqq. Gell, Pomp. GYMNASIA, THERM.^. 325 • New Ser. ch. 2.), the one at Ocriculum and those of the Christians. On the vestibule, which was called Chalcidicum, and was therefore derived from Chalcis, see Hirt ii. s. 266. Sachse's Stadt Rom. ii. s. 7. The Pom- peian Chalcidicum however formed a separate peristyle with a crypto- porticus behind it. Becchi, del Calcidico e d. Cripta di Eumachia. N. 1820. Malalas has often the expression Koy/,^. [oUicci -TroKvo^oCpQi. Ja- cobs ad Philostr. Imag. 4, 23.] 5. The Tholus of Athens was also called Skias (Suidas s. v. Sx/a^, C. I. p. 326.), and was therefore one and the same sort of building with the skias of Theodorus at Sparta, §. 55. R,, only that the latter was large enough to contain assemblies of the people. Was the tholus qui est Delphis (de 80 scripsit Theodorus Phocseus, Vitruv. vii. Praef.) the buleuterion of that place or a thesaurus 1 Travellers frequently speak of a circular building there. — Welcker, Rhein. Mus. ii, 3. s. 469 IF., throws doubt on the idea brought forward §. 48. regarding the ancient thesauri ; but, in the first place, native tradition certainly designates distinctly the well known buildings as the treasuries of Minyas and Atreus (the latter of which is even yet a Ko-ruyoctou ohyifisc, as Pausanias calls it), and secondly, analogies are too much wanting in Greece to explain such domes contrary to tra- dition to be sepulchres. See on these Dodwell, Views of Cyclop. Remains, pi. 9. 10. 11. 13. 6. These buildings (on the position of which see Pans. vi. 19, 1.) are called by Polemon Athen. xi. p. 479. vxol, in Eurip. Androm. 1096. pigy^oy yifioyra yvscXx. The small buildings also which were designed to sup- port prize-tripods were called uxoi (§. 108. R. 4), Plut. Nic. 3. Comp. also §. 232. R. 4. 292. Among the public buildings wbich were erected for \ the general care of the body, the Gymnasia were in Greece, and the Therms in Rome, and probably even in the Mace- donian East, the most important. They stand in close con- nexion with one another, for, as in Greece the warm bath was attached to athletic exercises as a remedy for exhaustion, so in Rome some corporeal exercise was connected with the use of the bath. The Greek Gymnasia, in their complete- 2 ness, contained the following spaces and apartments: A. as parts of the main portion, the palaestra: 1. the stadion; 2. the ephebeion, the exercise-hall for the youths; 3. sphaeris- terion, for ball-playing; 4. apodyterion, for undressing; 5. elaeothesion, aleipterion, for anointing; 6. konisterion, for rubbing with dust; 7. the swimming-bath (xoXu/x/3?;^pa) with other bathing accommodations; 8. covered promenades (^^uaroi, in Rome, portions stadiatae, stadia tecta); 9. open promen- ades (•moid^o/Jdsg, in Rome, hypaethrae, ambulationes or xysti). B. as surrounding portions: all sorts of rooms (oeci), open halls 3 (exedras), porticoes (portions, also cryptoporticus), by means of which the gymnasium was also fitted to become a place of intellectual gymnastics. Now, in Thermae, we distinguish in 4 a similar way: A. The main edifice, in which were, 1. the ephe- beum, the large circular hall in the centre of the whole; 2. k 320 ARCHITECTONICS. ♦ the cold bath (balneum frigidarium) ; *S. the tepid (tepldar- ium); 4 the hot (caldarium) ; 5. the sweating-room often connected therewith (Laconicum seu sudatio concamerata, in which were the clypeus and the labrum, and the hypocaustum with the suspensura beneath) ; 6. the anointing-room (unctu- arium) ; 7. sphseristerium or coryceum ; 8. apody terium ; 9. elaeothesium; 10. conisterium; 11. the swimming-bath (pis- cina); 12. xysti; 13. all sorts of apartments for attendants; 14 the vestibulum (all these chambers, except the vestibulum, 5 ephebeum and piscina, are usually found double). B. sur- rounding and enclosing structures such as otherwise belong especially to museums — porticoes, exedr^e, apartments for learned intercourse (scholse) and libraries, also buildings in the form of theatres. 2. The best preserved ruins of gymnasia are at Ephesus (the most magnificent in Asia, built by Adrian, Philostr. Vit. Soph. 1. Polemo), Alexandria Troas and Hierapolis (drawings of the last by Cockerell). For carrying out into detail the above data from Vitruvius see Hirt. iii. s. 233 fif. Kruse Theagenes S, 131 IF, [Plan of the palaestra, Leake Tour in Asia, Appendix Note 3.] 4. In elder Greece and Rome the baths, ^oChaviiix.^ were insignificant edifices and probably in general private undertakings. (Public Mvr^aues however are mentioned by Xenophon, RP. Ath. 2, 10). In these a round and vaulted form was the usual one at Athens, Athen. xi. p. 501. But this form always continued to be that of the bath-halls ; large windows in the dome admitted the light. Comp. Lucian's Hippias 5. Seneca Ep. 86. Statins Silv. i, 5, 45. Plin. Ep. ii, 17. Sueton. de ill. gramm. 9. 11. Comp. §, 194. R. 3. [Baths at Cnidos Ion. Ant. iii. ch. 1. pi. 12 sqq.] We know the construction of baths and thermae especially from the picture found in the baths of Titus (Winckelm. W. ii. Tf. 4. Hirt, Tf. 24, 2.), the thermae of Badenweiler (§. 264. R. 2.) and Pompeii (M. Borb. . ii, 49 sqq. Gell, Pomp. New Ser. i. pi. 23 sqq.), which are restricted to the necessary parts, and Palladio's plans of the baths of Agrippa, which however are not altogether to be relied on, the Nerono -Alexandrine, those of Titus (or Trajan?), of Caracalla, Philip (?), Diocletian and Constantine, which in general present very distinctly the lavacra in modum provinci- arum extructa (Ammian). Palladio, Terme de' Rom. dis. con giunte di Ott. Barotti Scamozzi. Vic. 1783 fo. [Vicence 1797. 4to.] Ch. Cameron, The Baths of the Romans. L. 1772 fo. comp. §. 192. R. 1. 193. R. 6. Becker Gallus ii. S. 19. Kruse Theagenes S. 138. distinguishes the coryceum from the sphacristerium. — Allied to the baths were the nymph^a, halls with high cupolas and fountains (Dissert. Antioch. i, 22.). 5. The x\lexandrine museum (§. 149. R. 3) was a large peristyle with library and other rooms behind, and having a large dining-hall. Strab. xvii. p. 793. Aphthonius, p. 106, ed. Walz. Comp. J. Fr. Gronov and Neocorus, Thes. Ant. Grace, viii. p. 2742 sqq. On the cxedrae of the museums com- bined with stoae, Gothofred. ad Theod. Cod. xv, 1, 53. But artificial sta- lactitic grottoes were likewise called museums, Plin. xxxvi, 42. Comp. Malalas, p. 282. ed. Bonn. [Large ruins at Sardes point at public granaries.] PRIVATE HOUSES. 3'Z7 293. The design of private houses was of course at all I times dependent on the various wants of different ranks and trades, as well as the particular inclinations of the owners, and therefore less regulated by pervading rules than the public buildings; however, there are even here certain easily distin- guishable leading forms. I. The primitive Greek house of 2 the anaktes (§. 47), to which may have corresponded in gen- eral, even in later times, the designs of houses among those tribes of Greece who more faithfully adhered to the ancient customs. II. The design described by Vitruvius, which pro- 3 bably emanated from the lonians, and which was perfected in the Alexandrine times: A. the front porch for the door-keeper {^^•jpojsiTo^J). B. The division for the men (ai/^povTr/;), a peri- style (with the Rhodian stoa towards the south), surrounded by apartments of all kinds, dining-rooms, rooms for the men's meals {avhoung)^ exedrae, libraries, cells for slaves, stables. C 4 Division for the women (/ym/xcov/r/r), also in connexion with the front porch, with a small prostyle to itself and adjoining porch (vT^ooTas or -ya^a^rrag), rooms of all sorts, bed-chambers (the ^ocXa/xog and d/Mipi^dXa,(Mog), cells and so forth. D. Cham- bers for guests {^svuvsg, hospitalia), as separate dwellings; in- termediate courts (fzsffavXoi) separated them from the main building. III. The Roman house, a combination of the later 5 Greek with the primitive Italian (§. 168. K 5), which always continued to be pretty generally retained in the habitations of plain citizens; its parts: 1. Vestibulum; 2. atrium or cavse- dium, either Tuscan (without columns), or tetrastyle, or Corinthian, or vaulted (testudinatum) ; S. Side-rooms of atrium (aloe, tablina, fauces) ; 4. the peristyle ; 5. dining- rooms (triclinia, ccenationes, aastivae, hibernae) ; 6. halls (oeci, tetrastyli, Corinthii, ^gyptii, Cyziceni) ; 7. conversa- tion-saloons (exedrae); 8. pinacothecae and bibliothecae ; 9. the bath with the palaestra; 10. closets, bed-chambers . (conclavia, cubicula, dormitoria); 11. store-rooms and work- rooms for the slaves (cellae familiae) ; 12. the upper story called coenacula; 13. cellars (hypogea concamerata; 14. gar- den buildings (viridaria, ambulationes). To the character of 6 the ancient house in general belongs external seclusion (hence few and high windows), and the open communication of the apartments of the house with one another, as they were built around inner courts from which they were immediately acces- sible, often lighted merely through the open doors, and some- times separated only by moveable wooden partitions (hence the tablinum) or curtains (vela). As to the country houses, 7 it is sufficient to remark that they are di\dded into villca rus- tics, really designed in a way suitable to the life of a coun- try gentleman, and urhancB^ which transferred the luxurious 323 ARCHITECTONICS. construction of the city into rural environment (of sucli there are not wanting minute descriptions). 1. A leading circumstance in the explanation of these structures is the little necessity for carrying off smoke ; hence the want of chimneys. On the means of compensation comp. Stieglitz Arch. i. s. 124. Remains of ancient chimneys, Fea in Winckelm. W. ii. s. 347. Such were most usual in Gaul. Elsewhere heating by means of pipes in the wall and floor was a favourite method. 2. Comp. Dorians ii. p. 271 sq. At Athens an ayAjj before the house was usual even in later times; the women lived mostly in the upper story, y^s^Moy, h7)9sg (Lysias Ap. for the murder of Eratosth. 9.), the maids in 'Trv^yot (Demosth. agt. Euerg. p. 1156.). Hence the ^tanyloc on the stage, Pollux iv, 127, Antigone appears on the balcony over the Par- thenon in the liariyix. The data of Vitruvius on the whole are evidently inapplicable here. Comp. Schneider, Epim. ad Xen. M. S. iii, 8. ad Vitruv. vi, 7. 5. These data of Vitruvius agree on the whole extremely well with the more stately houses in Pompeii (§. 190. R. 4.) and in the Capitoline plan of Rome. Mazois, Essai sur les habitations des anc. Remains, Ru- ines de Pompei, P. ii. p. 3 sqq. [A monument erected to science. The most accurate and complete work is Descriz. di una casa Pompeiana Nap. 1837. 4to, a 2nd ed. 1840, a third 1843 by Avellino, who says that there is nothing for which he admires Winckelmann more than his accounts of Pompeii, as he anticipated so much that has been confirmed by later discoveries. P. Marquez Delle case di citta d. ant. Romani secondo la dottrina di Vitr. R. 1795. 8vo. F. Schiassi Degli edifizi di R. ant. Bo- logna 1817. 8vo. C. Gr. Zumpt Ueber die bauliche Einrichtung des Rom. Wohnhauses. B. 1844. 8vo.] 7. Pliny's description of his Laurentinura and Tuscum, Statins Silv. i, 3. are main sources ; [Felibien des Avaux Les plans et les descr. de deux maisons de camp, de Pline. L. 1707. 8vo.] among the moderns, Sca- mozzi, Felibien, Rob. Castell, The Villas of the Ancients illustrated. L. 1728 fo. The plans of Hadrian's villa by Ligorio, Peyre, and Pirancsi are in the main imaginary. — Ks to inns we know especially the great Kocrctyuytov of Plataea which resembled a caravanserai, Thucyd. iii. 68. 1 294 In SEPULCHRAL STRUCTURES onc of two objects com- monly predominated, — either to have a chamber for deposit- ing the body or the ashes of the deceased, or to erect to him 2 publicly a monument of commemoration (comp. §. 286). The former was the only object in sepulchral chambers constructed subterraneously or hewn out of the rock, if a frontispiece in the rocky wall did not even here announce the situation of a 3 sepulchral chamber (§. 170, 2. 241,* 3. 256. R 3). In Greek districts, as the colonies of Lower Italy, the form of coffin-like chambers, or stone-receptacles, recalling the original burying 4 of corpses, prevailed. Labyrinthine chambers and galleries in the rocky ground were also from early times a favourite SEPULCHRAL STRUCTURES. 329 form of necropolis (§. 50, R. 2). The other object, on the 5 contrary, was a necessary ingredient in monuments which are raised above the ground, although these also must still have contained a chamber, in which the immediate receptacle of the relics of the dead was deposited. A vaulted chamber, with niches for the different urns, if the monument (as colum- barium) was intended for several, satisfied this want in the simplest manner; to this corresponded externally, and in a natural way, the form of a round towerlike building, which frequently occurs at Rome and Pompeii. Other forms arose 6 inasmuch as the ancient tumuli (x^,u.ccTaj xoXumi §. 50, 2) had sometimes circular foundations (§. 170, 2. 241,* 2), and were sometimes of a quadrangular form, from whence resulted a pyramid; which again placed on a cubic basement gave the wide-spread form of the mausoleum (§. 151. R. 1). The ter- 7 race-form of the tombs of Roman emperors {§. 190. R. 1. 191. K 1. 192. R. 1) was perhaps indebted for itS/ origin to the analogy of the ro^us^ where it is the most natural. Other 8 forms were produced by the analogy of altars on which liba- tions were made to the dead, as well as of temples, with which sepulchral monuments were so much the more closely connected as they were even regarded as heroa. — Connected 9 herewith are the honorary monuments, which certainly had no reference to concealment of the dead, and furnished a place for honorary statues, sometimes under a roof supported by columns (such as the Tetrakionia §. 158. R. 5), sometimes in niches (such as the monument of Philopappus §. 192). Triumphal arches combine in an ingenious manner the twofold destination, to commemorate a victorious return from war, and to elevate curule statues high above the ground. 3. In Attica stone-coffins are often found hewn out of the rocks and covered with a stone slab (Leake, Topogr. p. 318) ; similar ones also on the road to Delphi. Annali d. I. vii. p. 186. On the Attic tombs (S^xa/) Cic. de legg. ii. 26. Tile sarcophagus (x£^«,m£o? aoQog) Stackelberg Graber Tf. 7, an earthen sarcoph. ibid. 8. There are stone-coffins found in niches in the rocks near Ephesus, in Melos and elsewhere. [Numerous and peculiar in character are the tombs at Chalcis, which are hewn out in the gently acclivous rocky ground. Sepulchral chambers in Melos Ross Hall. A. L. Z. 1838. No. 40. Tombs of Thera Idem Annali d. I. xiii. p. 13.] At Assos, Thasos and other places there are many large sarcophagi standing free on pedestals [also before the gate of Plataea along the road to Thebes]. On the tombs of Rhenea, Bull, d, Inst. 1830. p. 9. Kunstbl. 1836. N. 17. In Magna Grecia according to Jorio (§. 257. R. 5) tombs composed of large blocks and covered with small stones or earth prevail (see the frontispiece to Tischbein's Vasengemalden), and along with these are found tombs hollowed out of the tufa, or even in the mere earth. The tufa-sepulchres especially are often richly orna- mented with painting, stucco-work and reliefs. An elegant tomb dis- covered at Canosa in 1826, M. I. d. Inst. 43. Lombardi, Ann. iv. p. 285. 330 ARCHITECTONICS, Comp. Gerhard, Bull. 1829. p. 181. Burial of the dead, Becker Gallus ii. S. 271. 291. 4. The grottoes near Gortyna are given in Lapie's map of Crete. Irregularly planned catacombs at Rome, Naples, and Paris; more systematic at Syracuse, Wilkins M. Gr. p. 50. Hirt ii, s. 88. Similar to these are the Alexandrine (Minutoli, Abhandl. verm. Inhalts, zw. Cycl. i. s. 1.) and the Cyrensean (Pacho, pi. 61.). [E. Braun II laberinto di Por- senna comparato coi sepolcri di Poggio-Gozella nell' agro Clusino. R. 1840 fol.] 5. [In Lycia four kinds of sepulchral architecture ; Fellows Lycia, p. 104. 128., one with Gothic arch in the roof, comp. p. 112. 142. 186. Asia Minor (by the same), p. 219, 231. 228 ; others imitate the timber con- struction in the rock, especially at Xanthos, Telmessos and Pinara, comp. Asia Minor, p. 228, an idea which betrays itself also in several of the facades of Phrygian tombs. No part of Asia Minor is so rich in sepul- chres as Lycia. Tomb at Mylasa with an open chamber above the grave- chamber, resting on 12 Corinthian columns, Fellows Lycia, p. 76. Re- markable tumuh, walled within at Kertsch (Panticapaeon). Dubois Voy. in Crim6e iv. Sect. pi. 18. Tombs in Phrygia in Steuart Descr. of some anc. mon. with Inscriptions, still existing in Lydia and Phrygia L. 1842. comp. Bull. 1843. p. 64. Tombs on the north peak of the citadel of Smyrna (one of Tantalus, according to the false supposition that this was the site of Sipylos), Hamilton Researches in Asia Minor i. p. 47 sqq. comp. Prokesch Wiener Jahrb. 1834. iv. s. 55. of the Anz., tombs hewn out of the rock, sometimes with column fagades, at Cagliari in Sardinia, see Delia Marmora Voy. de la Sardaigne.] Comp. the Rom. tombs in Bartoli (§. 210. R. 4.), H. Moses' Collection of ant. vases, pi. 110 — 118 and others. — [Uhden in Wolf and Buttman's Mus. i. s. 586 ff. on temples to the dead with gardens, arbours, choirs, in which were the portrait statues in the form of deities. One of the finest sepul. mon. is that at Weyden near Cologne, Alterth. Verein zu Bonn iii. Tf. 5 — 8. s. 134.] — The Palmyrenian monuments are very peculiar, — quadrangular towers with balconies, on which the occupiers of the monument are represented resting. 6. A PYRAMIDAL monumcut near Argos is mentioned by Pausanias ii, 25, 6., a similar one, of polygonal stones but with mortar, with a sepulchral chamber, is to be seen on the river Pontinus near Argos. Leake, Morea ' ii. p. 339. With the mausoleum is to be compared the monument of Constantina, in which a pyramid rises over the entablature of a circular building surrounded with columns, §. 256. R. 4. [Comp. §. 48. R. 3.] 7. Hephaestion's pyre (§. 151. R. 2) was perhaps itself an imitation of older Babylonian pyres, such as that of Sardanapalus. [See Gerhard Archiiol. Zeit. 1848. s. 73 ] The pyre on the Tarsian coins, on which Hercules-Sandon is burnt (§. 238. R. 4.), has the form of a pyramid on a cubic substruction. 8. Bu,uonlyig ra,(Pog, Paus. ; ftuf^oi on tombs, Welcker, Syll. Epigr. p. 45. To this class belong the Pompeian sepulchral monuments, which consist of a low pillar with a capping and Ionic cushion ornaments. The Sicyonian tombs were in the form of temples according to Paus. ii, 7, 3. comp. Leake, Morea iii. p. 358. Restoration of an aiJtos of this kind SANCTUARIES, MARKET-PLACES. 331 found at Epidauros. Stackclb. Graber Tf. 4. Sepul. mon. of Asia Minor C. I. n. 2824 6 ■Tr'hurxg (hypobathrum), thereon a f/,uYi,uihv = fioif*,6g^ therein ao^og and damrui, columbaria, doo(f6^og between the (io)(/,6g and sarcophagus, with the figure. The vases, especially those of Lucania and Apulia, also the clay-lamps (Passeri iii, 44.) give numerous representa- tions of tomb-temples. Nothing is more common than engaged columns, temple-pediments and antefixa on tombs and cippi. See the examples in Hirt, Tf. 40, 5. 6. 8. 9. and the Mylasenian monument n. 24. Antefixa §. 284. R. 2. 9. One of these destinations of the triumphal arch is described by Pliny xxxiv, 12 : columnarum ratio erat attolli supra ceteros mortales, quod et arcus significent, novitio invento (however fornices and signa aurata upon them occur in Liv. xxxiii, 27. as early as the year 556 of the city). L. Rossini Gli archi trionfali onorarii e funebri degli ant. Rom. sparsi per tutta I'ltalia R. fol. max. Bull. 1837. p. 30. Similar to the triumphal arch were the Tetrapyla at Antioch (§. 149. R. 4), Cajsa- rea, Palmyra, Constantinople, wherewith especially the crossings of colon- nade-streets were arched over. In a gymnasium at Aphrodisias 'hiVKo- "hiSiot "TTX^xaruhsg k»1 to kxt etvrcou sihrif^ec f^iroi rvjg y7^v(pvig uvrau xotl Kiousg fiixoi ra)u ficofioa'TrsiQCJU (stylobates) x,oii Ki(pctKuv. C. I. n. 2782. 295. From these single edifices Ave now extend our view 1 to such structures as contained several buildings destined for different purposes, but yet conceived as a whole and calcu- lated for one architectonic effect. To this class belong the 2 SANCTUARIES (/s^a) of the Greeks which, with their high-altars, temples and heroa, prytanea, theatres, stadia and hippodromes, sacred groves, fountains and grottoes, are to be conceived as a manifold assemblage of edifices, sometimes calculated to produce a solemn, and sometimes an agreeable effect (comp. §. 252. K 8). Further, the market-places (dyooai, fora), whose 3 regular design emanated from Ionia (§. Ill, 2), and was after- wards very much perfected at Rome: — squares surrounded with open colonnades, and, behind these, temples, basilicae, curias, triumphal arches and other honorary monuments, also booths and shops; it was intended that in these above all the spirit of political life should prevail, and recollections of a patriotic nature be kept alive; whilst, on the contrary, other markets (fora olitoria and macella) were destined to provide for the nourishment and necessities of life. Lastly, 4 the most extensive problem — the laying out of entire cities — which since the time of Hippodamus (§. Ill, 1.) was often assigned in Greece to distinguished architects. Even the earliest founders of cities and colonies in Greece were com- mended for choosing the site of the city with reference to pleasing view, and in reality many Greek cities present, especially from the theatres, prospects of enchanting beauty; nor were the later architects so carried away by the striving after regularity, as not on all occasions to observe and adopt with nice perception the advantages of a picturesque situa- 332 ARCHITECTONICS. tion. The theatre-form in especial was a favourite mode of construction, which in the rock-encircled Delphi must have produced an awfully sublime impression, and a gayer and more brilliant effect in maritime towns such as Rhodes and Halicarnassus. These cities in particular, with their large public edifices and well distributed colossi, must have even in the distance appeared to the traveller as splendidly decorated theatres. 3. The design of a forum is rendered quite clear particularly by the Gabinian discovered in 1792 (Visconti, Mon. Gab. tv. 1.), and that of Pompeii (see the splendid restoration in Gell, Pomp. pi. 48. 51). — ^A cov- ered forum §. 191. R. 1. 4. On the fine situation of Greek towns, Strabo v. p. 235. Assos in Asia Minor is a striking example, Choiseul Gouffier Voy. Pitt. ii. pi. 10. Together with this a skilful use of, and defence from, wind and sun was from early times a grand aim with founders of cities. Arist. Polit. vii, 10. Vitruv. i, 4, 6. Of aU the Grecian cities, with the exception of Athens, perhaps Syracuse is the one of which we possess the most accurate knowledge as regards its plan ; here also the more modem portions were more regular than the ancient. Plan in Levesque, GoUer, Letronne. The improvements at Ephesus by Damianus, Philostr. v. Soph, ii, 23. 1 296. As architecture does not reject any phase of human life as unsusceptible of artistic forms, any more than it is capable of providing itself with forms elsewhere than from the wants of life, the mention of land and water buildings must not be here omitted, by means of which the people put their place of habitation in a firm and secure manner in con- nexion with others, procured for themselves the necessary wants of life from a distance, and on the other hand conveyed 2 away what was unprofitable. We here refer in the first place to the ROADS, in the construction of which the Romans were so distinguished (§. 180. R. 1), on account of which rocks were quarried through, and wide valleys and marshes spanned by 3 long arches; then to the vast bridges, canals, outlets of 4 LAKES and cloaca of the same people; further, to the entire magnificent system of water-supply for Rome which Fronti- nus not without reason ranks above the pyramids of Egypt and other wonders of the world, and to which, besides canals, aqueducts and conduits, belonged reservoirs, wells and foun- tains, which, ornamented with columns, basins and statues, were very numerous in Rome from the time of Agrippa. 5 Although indeed the lofty arcades of the aqueducts might sometimes be spared by means of cheaper contrivances, their architectonic feeling however, besides other considerations, determined the ancients to prefer to such unostentatious sub- stitutes, those gigantic rows of arches which hasten from the mountains over valley and plain to the well-peopled city, ROADS, AQUEDUCTS, &c. 333 and already announce it from afar. In like manner, too, the G HARBOURS of the ancients, although smaller than ours, never- theless presented with their moles, pharoses, outer bays and inner basins, arsenals, wharfs and docks, together with enclos- ing quays and colonnades, temples and statues, a far more complete and significant general effect ; and even here archi- tectonic feeling was intimately combined with fulfilment of the external object. Ships also, the round and unwieldy one 7 of the merchant as well as the light and menacing one of the fleet, the latter of which might rather be compared to an adroit warrior than a floating bulwark, presented a significant aspect and peculiar physiognomy; and in the Alexandrine period these as well as chariots (§. 150. 152) were magnificent struc- tures of colossal dimensions. Only where mechanics takes possession of a building so entirely that its complicated fitness does not exhibit itself in a connected view, architecture as an art yields to a mere calculating activity of the intellect not warmed and animated by any feeling. 2. The Roman streets were partly silice strata^ (the Appian way best), sometimes glarea; the footpath alongside lapide, with softer stones: mile-stones (comp. §. 67) on all the high roads. Bergier, Hist, des grands chemins de I'emp. Romain (Thes. Ant. Rom. x.). Hirt ii. s. 198. iii, s. 407. In Greece particular care was bestowed on roads for festal processions, — at the Didymaeon, at Mylasa. On the axvocjTx o'^os in Cyrene, Bockh. ad Find. P. v. p. 191. 4. A map of the Roman aqueducts in Piranesi, Antich. Rom. tv. 38. Fabretti in the Thes. Ant. Rom. iv. p. 1677. The splendid monolith vases of porphyry, granite, marble, having even 20 — 30 feet in diameter, which adorn the museums, are mostly to be regarded as basins of fountains. Hirt. iii. s. 401. The most celebrated fountains (kq^oci, comp. Leake, Morea ii. p. 373.) of Greece, §. 81. R. 1. comp. 99. R. 3, 13. Cisterns of Byzantium, §. 193. R. 8. 6. A main constituent of the ancient harbours were the arcades on the moles, which had for their object the cleansing of the inside by pouring in a stream of water. They are found in mural paintings (Pitt, di Ercol. ii, 55. Gell, Pomp. New S. pi. 57.) and in ruins. Giuliano di Fazio Intorno il miglior sistema di costruzione dei porti, Nap. 1828 and enlarged Obss. sur les precedes architect, des anciens dans la constr. des ports 1832 (the harbours with arcades in order that the courants lito- raux might pass through). Bullett. 1833. p. 28. On the harbour at Cenchreae, above §. 252. R. 3. That of Carthage also was enclosed with Ionic columns, behind which were the usasotKot. Appian viii, 96. Pharos §. 149. R. 3. 190. R. 2.— Ships, see below Stieglitz Beitrage, s. 205. 334 FURNITURE AND VESSELS. 11. FURNITURE AND VESSELS. 1 297. However much the moveable house-furniture might be distinguished from the buildings, by the relation to the soil, it was not the less related to these as regards the union of utility and beauty, which the Greek taste always knew how to attain equally and in the shortest way, and also in respect of the geometric forms which it employed therein as the leading 2 forms. However, furniture and vessels, precisely because they are moveable objects, admit in their supports, feet, handles and decorative portions, not merely of the forms of vegetable, but also of animal, life to a much greater extent than the rigidity of architecture will bear; as we see for example on 3 THRONES and other kinds of seats. These kinds of furniture, which have been often mentioned already (§. 56. R. 2. 85. R. 2. 115. R. 1. 239. R. 5), as well as the coffers (%»?ao/, Xaoi/axs?, §. 56. 57), chests and casquets {-/.ilSuroi xi(3u>ria), tables and din- ing sofas of the ancients, in like manner made of wood, are in general known to us but mediately, on account of the perish- ableness of their material ; however, there are also thrones of marble, which are decorated with great taste, (comp. §. 358. towards the end). 1. Comp. Winck. W. ii. s. 93. Weinbrenner is therefore right in ascribing (Architect. Lehxbuch Th. iii. s. 29.) the ancient forms of vessels to the exercise of architectural taste. 3. The jcifiaroi are often distinctly to be seen as receptacles for clothes (Pollux X. 137.) on vase-paintings, Millingen, Uned. Mon. 35, V. de Cogh. 30. Div. coll. 18. But similar chests also occur filled with oil- flasks, Div. coU. 17. 58. as well as at sacrifices, 51. We often see on vases very elegant sacrificial tables, r^a-Trs^a/ (Polyb. iv, 35, Osann, Syll. i, 74. C. I. p. 751), for example Millingen Div. coll. 58. T^a-rs^a/ for the prizes at the games (a chryselephantine one at Olympia, Q. de Quincy, p. 360) are often to be met with on coins. Tables of bronze likewise were nu- merous ; the tables of Rhenea (Athen. xi, 486 e.) are connected with the triclinia aerata of Delos (PHn. xxxiv, 4. xxxiii, 51) and the banquetings of the gluttonous Delians (Athen. ix, 172). 1 298. Vessels foe fluids are more accurately known, and more important for the knowledge of ancient art. Wood only occurs as a material for country use ; the most common were burnt earth and metal (Corinthian brass, enchased silver), which often, according to the measure of wealth, took the place 2 of one another alternately in the same vessel. The forms are conditioned by the particular object of the vessel; we distin- VESSELS FOR FLUIDS. 335 guish the following leading destinations: 1. Vessels which were to receive considerable quantities for a short time, to be taken out of it in small quantities, and arranged to stand fast in the central point of a banquet ; whence resulted the high, capacious form, expanding upwards, of the mixing- vase, JcsarT^c. 2. Small vessels for drawing out of the crater and pouring into the cup, consisting of small goblets with long handles, ladles, called aphsn-^og., dpvraiva, do-jarriS, xva^og, similar to the primitive Italic simpulum, also trulla. 3. Small cans for pour- ing from with slender neck, broad ear, pointed mouth, cr^op/owc, T^o^vrrig. 4. Vessels without handles, sometimes longish, sometimes round, but always with slender neck, in order to let oil or other such fluid drop, x?jx-jSo?, oXcrjj, uXd(3a(fTPov, am- pulla, guttus. 5. Flat shield-like goblets, especially for mak- ing libations directly from, ^idXrj, (d^yvp/g, xfi^J/3?5c, pelvis, ahenum, of course only elegantly WTought when not to be used for that purpose. The favourite kind of lebes in both cases, especially the latter, was the tripod (a£|S?5; T^iTovc, ifji.'rvPilS7irr,g or d'-rvpog), the much-boasted master- piece of ancient workers in metal No. 6. a. Athen. xi, 471 e. Macrob. v, 21. Dionysus trTrivlav Ik ko.^- pcmlov Athen. v, 198 c. The carchesion is often to be seen on vase-paint- ings, Millingen, Cogh. 23. 26. 31. 44. 45. 51. Millin i, 9. 30. It often appears likewise in connexion with the prochus, Millingen Un. Mon. i, 34. The form on reliefs is less defined, Zoega, Bassir. 77. Bouill. iii, 70.- It is not rare among vases, Cogh. 32. b. Athen. p. 473. Macr. in loco. Schol. to Clem. p. 121. In the hands of the Centaurs, in Athen., of Dionysus, according to Plin. xxxiii, 53. Macr. Gruter, Inscr. p. 67, 2. Comp. §. 163. R. 6. and Lenormant, Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 311. c. Athen. p. 483. Plut. Lye. 9. Pollux x, 66. vi, 96. 97. j>oi) the wine escaped by these. Boissonade Anecd. i. p. 425. Works on vessels and furniture : Lor. Fil. di Rossi, Raccolta di vasi diversi, 1713. G. B. Piranesi, Vasi candelabri, cippi, sarcofagi, tripodi, lucerne ed ornament! ant. 1778. 2 vols. fo. H. Moses, Collection of ant. vases, altars, paterae, tripods, candelabra, sarcophagi from various Mu- seums engr. on 150 pi. L. 1814. [mostly from the Hope collection.] Causeus, Caylus, Barbault and other general collections. PCI. vii, 34 sqq. Comp. Laz. Baifius, De vasculis, Thes. Ant. Gr. ix, 177. De la Chausse, De vasis etc. Thes. Rom. xii, 949. Caylus, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. XXX. p. 344, VermigUoli, Del vasellame degli antichi, Lezioni ii, 231., [C. Antonini Manuale di vari ornamenti componenti la serie de' vasi ant. si di marmo che di bronzo esistenti in Roma e fuori. Vol. i. I vasi esistenti nel M. Pio-Clem. e Chiaramonti. R. 1821 fo. 71 tv.] 802. Next to vases, utensils destined for lighting were 1 those with which even excellent artists were most occupied in antiquity; partly simple lamps {\'oyjoi^ Xuy^via), which, some- 2 times of bronze, mostly of terra-cotta, constitute an important branch of ancient monuments of art, with their unpretending elegant form and their ingenious ornaments ; partly candela- bra (kvy^vsTa, X'oyjcTjyjii)^ which were made sometimes of burnt 3 earth, very elegantly of bronze in the bloom of art, in later times often of precious metals and gems, but also of marble, of which many works, almost too richly and fantastically ornamented, have been preserved. Mirrors also, which were 4 usually nothing more than round hand-mirrors with handles. 342 FURNITURE AND VESSELS. were fashioned and decorated In an artistic spirit, before the costliness of the material came to be here considered as the grand object. 2. The lamps have a hole for pouring in, o^fpaAo; in Heron, one for the wick (ffT&>«) and a small one for the needle by which it was raised. Heron, p. 187., among other works of art, describes a lamp which raised the wick itself. Often with several wicks, lucerna dimyxos, triiiiyxos. Lamps furnish of themselves an almost complete artistic mythology, and many representations which refer to human destiny and a future state of existence. Licetus, De lucernis ant. reconditis 1. vi. 1652. Bartoli and Bellori's Lucernse sepulcrales. 1691 (a new edition recently published in Germany by Beger). Lucernse fictiles M. Passerii. Pisaur. 1739. 3 vols. Montfaucon, Ant. expl. T. v. Ant. di Ercolano, T. viii. Moses, pi. 78 sq. Dissertations by De la Chausse and Ferrarius, Thes. Ant. Rom. T. xii. Becker's GtaUus ii. s. 302. [Bottiger's Amalthea iii. s. 168 IF. and Kl. Schr. iii. s. 307 ff.] 3. Names of candelabra, Athen. xv, 699 sq. Tarentine, jEginetan, Tyrrhenian, Plin. xxxiv, 6. §. 173, 1. 2. Candelabrarii in inscriptions. The parts of the candelabrum are the foot, jSxai;, the shaft, Kuv?^6g, and top, KxT^oi^og. Heron, p. 222. The calathos is supported by an Amor in two bronze candelabra (ceriolaria), Gruter Inscr. p. 175, 4. Many-branched ones in the temple of the Ismenian ApoUo, afterwards in Cyme, Plin. xxxiv, 8., in the prytaneum at Tarentum (Athen. 700 d,), comp. Callim. Epigr. 59. Magnificent ones of marble, PCI. iv, 1, 5. vii, 37. sqq. Bouill. iii. pi. 72. 73. (those on pi. 74. have sometimes more of the slender and simple form of Greek candelabra) and Clarac, pi. 142. 257. ; bronze and marble ones in Moses, pi. 83 — 93., comp. §. 301. At^ox.6xhriroi §. 161, 1. [Trapezophora, Becker's Gallus ii. s. 113.] Marble throne seats, the Samo- thracian with very high relief, those of Themis and Nemesis in the tem- ple at Rhamnus, of Dionysus and Demeter, of Poseidon. y^ct\yjid d'A^iccg', [Soph. Ai)i^f/^cc?^ar. da'Trlg /aiu vif^i'hi'yhog ug ttvk'j o^y.a.r{i cf. F. G. Welcker Griech. Trag. S. 172.] Coins were also sometimes cast in the ligdos. Seiz sur Fart de fonte des anciens, Mag. encycl. 1806. vi. p. 280. Clarac, M. de Sculpt, ii. p. 9 sqq. It is doubtful whether they also made the movie a hon creux over the model as is now done, and then furnished the pieces of it inside with wax after which the kernel, noyau, was poured in. A statue by Onassimedes was solid, Paus. ix, 12 ; smaller bronzes are so commonly. An du^qtccg cost, in the time of Diogenes the Cynic, 3,000 drachms {\ talent, about 50 guineas), Diog. Laert. vi, 2, 35. [A brass- casting is represented on a remarkable kylix, Gerhard Neuerworbene Denkmaler N. 1608 and Trinkschalen Tf. 12, wherewith G. Braun in the BuUett. 1835. p. 167 compared the vase explained in the^schyl. Trilogy, in which Feuerbach afterwards in the Kunstbl. 1844. N. 87. pointed out the kernel and coating of a cast-model. Cf. besides an archaistic vase with a brass-foundry, in Campanari, at London ; which is to be published. BuU. 1846, p. 67. Bergk gives a different explanation of the vase in the Tri- logy Archaol. Zeit. 1847, S. 48. On the low price of bronze statues see Kohler Ehre des Bildnisses S. 127.] 6. On partial casting in the case of colossi, Philo vii. mir. 4; the horses of S. Marco likewise were probably cast each in two moulds. On soldering, §. 61. Ferruminatio per eandem materiam facit confusionem, plumbatura non idem efficit. Digest, vi, 1, 23. See, however, Plin. xxxiii, 29 sq. Locks of hair soldered on, Winck. W. v. 133. On the in- sertion of the eyes, ihid. v. 133. 435 sq. Bottiger's Andeutungen, s. 87., comp, also Gori, M. E. ii. p. 208. To this is referred the faber oculariarius in inscriptions, see ForceUini. The beautiful Nike of Brescia (§. 260. R. 3.) has a silver fillet ; according to an inscription in Gruter, p. 67, 2. there was a Bacchus cum redimiculo aurific. et thyrso et cantharo arg. Preserved bronzes, §. 127. R. 7. 172. R. 3. 204. R. 4. 205. R. 2. 207. R. 6. 261. R. 2. 380. 385. 422. 423. 427. The most of them from Hercu- lanum. Colossal head with a hand in the Capitol. [The fine statue from Volci at Munich, Kunstbl. 1838. St. 86.] 1 fS07. The mode of executing statues by hammering and embossing, which prevailed before the Samian school (§. 59. 60. 71. comp. 237, 2. 240, 2.), continued to be even in later 2 times the usual one for gold and silver ; but statues of pre- cious metals, large ones especially, were more in conformity STATUES OF SILVER AND GOLD. 349 to the Asiatic than the Greek taste. The gilding of entire 3 statues, likewise, did not come into favour until the art of giving a fine colour to brass by mixing had been forgotten; in ancient art particular portions, even in the naked body, were distinguished by gilding with silver or gold. Too many 4 experiments were made with iron to admit of its successful and permanent application to works of sculpture, as raAv iron adapted for casting w^as unusual in antiquity. With regard 5 to what may be called works of art in lead, there occur tickets for public games and distribution of corn, as well as for hang- ing on vessels, marks on building stones resembling seals, bulls, amulets and the like; many of which were evidently cast in moulds. 1. The golden Pallas of Aristodicus was a a(pv^y]'Kccrov, Brunck's Anal. ii. p. 488 ; the silver figures from Bernay (comp. §. 311. R. 5.) were cer- tainly embossed, the separate parts very finely soldered with lead, or dovetailed into one another. 2. Silver statues of the Pontic kings, Pliny xxxiii, 54 ; golden ones especially of barbarian deities, Luc. Z. r^«y. Instead of the pretended golden statue of Gorgias, Pausanias only saw a gilded one. The dvlQixg •jc^vtTovg anoiog, solidus, is Opposed to the plated, sTrlx^vao;, inauratus, or slightly gilded, Kxra^pvaog in general only, subauratus ; however holo- sphyraton in Pliny xxxiii, 24. denotes a perfectly massive work. X^yo-o? a.-7rs0o; the same as aurum obryzum. [Schweigh. ad Herod, i, 50. otTrv^og, civrofcocrog, oe.vTo(pv7]g, Lennep ad Phalar. p. 365.] 3. Gold was laid upon brass generally with quicksilver, and in thick sheets, also with the aid of notches (Plin. xxxiii, 20. xxxiv, 19), on marble with the white of eggs. Winck. W. v. s. 135. 432. M. Acilius Glabrio erected at Rome the first statua aurata, Liv. xl, 34. Traces of gilding on the horses at Venice, M. Aurelius, a quadriga from the theatre of Herculanum, and the fine statue from Lillebonne, §. 262. R. 2. [most of all on the famous Hercules in the Capitol]. An antique head of an athlete at Munich, N. 296, has gilded lips, [the Orpheus of CaUistratus 7, with his chiton bound by a golden strap,] and the early Greek lampa- dephorus, §. 421. according to R. Rochette has the lips, nipples and eyebrows silvered, [not silvered, but inlaid with copper, see Letronne in the Annali d. I. vi. p. 230. The tiara of the Orpheus just referred to is XQycra KuraariKTog. The silver inlaid work on bronze figurettes in the museum at Naples is very fine, eyes and all sorts of ornaments ; a vase from Herculaneum with inlaid silver work is described by Martorelli De theca calam. cf. Fea ad Horat. T. ii. Epist. ad Pis. 435 &c.] 4. Iron statues by Theodorus of Samos (§. 60.), Pans. iii. 12. Her- cules' combat with the serpent by Tisagoras, x, 18. Alcon's iron Hercules, Plin. xxxiv, 40. The causes of the rareness of iron-casting in antiquity are investigated by Hausmann, Commentat. Soc. Gott. rec. iv. p. 51. The tempering, aro^uojatg, of iron (by water. Homer Od. ix, 393.) [Soph. Aj. 650, og roc Oii'S SKX^i^ovu t&t? (ictCpvi ai^rioog ag, cf. §. 311. R. 2.] for cutting instruments, was a native branch of industry on the Pontus, in Lydia 350 TECHNICS IN THE FORMATIVE ART. and Laconica. Eust. ad II. ii. p. 294, 6. R., comp. Hausmann, p. 45 sqq. Magnetic vault ? §. 149. R. 2. 6. Ficoroni Piombi antichi. R. 1740. 4to. Stieglitz Archaol. Unterh. ii. s. 133. 2. WORKING IN HARD MASSES. WOOD-CARVING. 1 SOS. Carving in wood is denoted by f ss/v and yXvpiv, the former of which indicates a more superficial, the latter a 2 deeper working, with pointed instruments; in early times a main branch of temple statuary (§. 68. 84), it continued through all ages to be employed in the images of field and 3 garden deities. Whilst the appropriate kinds of wood of the native soil were used for that purpose, frequently with some 4 reference to the significance of the image, foreign sorts, es- pecially cedar, which was reputed incorruptible, were still 5 employed in later times even by excellent artists. Turning was of more importance for vessels and implements of wood. 1. Both expressions occur in reference to wood and stone. Uitiu is scalpere, whence ^vvjKn, ^o't's (Troifi^sviscvj), scalprum, a carving-tool. Vav^hv, sculpere, approaches nearer to caelare, ro^svsn/. Instruments, yT^vupocvoi/, To^o;, caelum, chisel, burin. The o-,t«/A>j also served for ^snu, §. 70, 3 : comp. §. 56, 2. Quintil. i, 21, 9. Sculptura etiam lignum, ebur, marmor, vitrum, gemmas, prseter ea quae supra dixi, complectitur. 2. In Psyttaleia Uctuog ug tKxnrov 'irvy,^ ^oocvcc TriT^roini/.i'jot,, Paus. i, 36, 2. A Pan of beech-wood with the rhind, Anth. Pal. vi, 99. Images of Dio- nysus, Priapi of fig-tree. 3. Cypress, abundant in Crete, and used there by the Daedalidse (comp. Hermipp. Athen. i. p. 27.), beech {ayJ'hcc^), oak, pear-tree, maple, vine, olive, (fee. Paus. viii, 17, 2. Q. de Quincy, Jup. 01. p. 25 sq. Clarac, p. 41. Populus utraque et salix et tilia in scalpturis necessarian, Pallad. de R. R. xii, 15. 4. Of foreign woods ebony (§. 84. R. 2. 147. R. 3.), citron {Siiov 1 Mon- gez, Hist, de I'lnst, Roy. iii. p. 31. Thy on with cypress in the Olympian Zeus of Phidias, inside or on the throne, Dio Chrys. xii. p. 399. R.), lotus, above all cedar (comp. 52. R. 2. 57. R. 2). The Apollo of Sosius of Se- leucia was of cedar, Plin. xiii, 11, also the Esculapius of Eetion, Anth. Pal. vi. 337. Ke^oov ^cjltu -/.ovaa Itnu^iaf^iua, are described as round figures by Dontas, Paus. vi, 19, 9. More such in Siebelis ad Paus. v, 17, 2. Amalth. ii. s. 259. 5. Comp. §. 298. R. 2. Voss. ad Virg. vol. ii. p. 84. 443. Of turning in wood, Tooviviiy, ro^vov'j, tornare, see Schneider under rooiva. Tornus, To^vivrvj^iov, the turning iron, invented by Theodorus, §. 60. SCULPTURE. 351 B. SCULPTURE (SCULPTURA.) S09. The solid calcareous stone, susceptible of polish, which 1 was on account of its shining surface called marmor (//,a^,ac6^ok from /jba9/Ma/paj), white marble being thereby understood, was early recognised as the most fitting material for sculpture, and the Parian was sought above all others throughout Greece, as that of Luna was afterwards in request at Rome. However, 2 in Greece as well as Italy all sorts of tufa were employed for works of less careful art: on the other hand coloured mar- 3 ble, as well as other kinds of coloured stone, first came into favour in the Roman empire, especially for the representation of Egyptian deities and barbarian kings, and also for the ad- dition of accoutrements, drapery and the like. Wonderful is 4 the finish of the workmanship on the hard and brittle masses of porphyry, granite and basalt, in which pointed irons, which were sharpened ever and anon, must bore away to the requi- site depth, and afterwards laborious rubbing and polishing gradually bring the smooth surface to its proper state. 1. Garyophilus de marmoribus antiquis is not of much use ; of greater value are Ferber, Lettres mineralogiques sur I'ltalie, Mongez, Diction, de I'antiquite de I'Encyclopedie, especially Faustino Corsi, Delle pietre antiche, ed. sec. R. 1833. Comp. Hirt, Amalth. i. s. 225. Clarac, p. 165. Plainer, Beschr. Roms s. 335. The marble is either grained, to which belongs the Parian {'hi^og TLuQiog, "hvyliyog), which was mostly quarried in small blocks, sometimes in galleries, {y^vx^irrig), of a large shining grain [resembling salt], called marmo Greco duro, also salino, as well as that of Carrara, marmor Lunense (§. 174. R. 1. on its age the author's Etrusker), resembling fine sugar, often with bluish spots : or slaty with veins of talc, such as the Penthelic with greenish streaks (Dolomieu in Millin M. I. ii. p. 44) and the less precious Hymettian, marmo cipolla [or cipollino]. There were other well known kinds of statuary marble, the Thasian, of a pale white (the local situation of which was discovered by Cousinery), [as well as the verde antico in Macedonia], the Lesbian, of a more yellow- ish colour, the coralitic resembling ivory, from Asia Minor, marmo Fa- lomhino. De marmore viridi, Tafel in the Miinchner Abh. philol. CI. ii. 8. 131. The Megarian also (§. 268. R. 1.) was used for statues, Cic. ad Att. 1, 8. The lapis onyx or alabastrites of the ancients, called after the vases §. 298. is a fibrous calc-sinter (albatre calcaire oriental) which came from Arabia and Upper Egypt, Salmas. Exerc. PUn. p. 293. On the Vo- laterranian, §. 174. R. 3. Rumohr has given accounts of marble in Cala- bria. 2. A Silenus of pores (§. 268. R. 1) at Athens. Many municipal hon- orary statues in peperino ; five statuse togatae of the kind at Dresden. There were many works executed in calcareous stone in the provinces and in Germany. Etruscan sarcophagi of calcareous tufa §. 174. R. 3. 3. In black marble, nero antico, there are many statues of Isis, the 352 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. African fisherman, the two centaurs of the Capitol, the Nile, cf. Pausan. viii, 24, 6. In red marble, rosso antico, which was rare in architecture, there are numerous good sculptures, especially heads of Bacchus, satyrs in imitation of carved images painted red (§, 69) ; besides basins and baths. There also occur statues of particoloured marble, Caylus, Hist, de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxiv. p. 39. Statues of porphyry are found at Rome from the time of Claudius, comp. Visconti PCI. vi. p. 73, porphyry statues with bronze extremities Race. 53. Basalt was used for busts of Serapis, likewise granite and syenite (but which the moderns do not consider to be syenite) for sculptures in the Egyptian style. Comp. §. 228. 268. R. 3. 4. The auger guided by two bridles, Eurip. Cycl. 461. 1 310. Marble, on the otlier hand, bears the assault of in- struments of very different kinds, saws, drills, files, rasps, which, together with the chisel driven by the mallet, must do the 2 most and best. When the artist, — which was by no means always the case, — worked after an exact model, he made use, like the moderns, of points which mark the dimensions in all directions, and must be constantly renewed in the progress of 3 the work. For smoothing statues by rubbing, the dust of the Naxian whetstone, pumice and other means were employed ; however the shining polish so injurious to the effect was not introduced till later; and in some excellent statues we can 4: still see perfectly the traces of the iron. On the other hand, the soft and fatty appearance, which the surface of marble often has in itself, was enhanced by rubbing with melted wax, especially the Carthaginian (xaDir/s), with which an appro- 5 priate tone of colour (circumlitio) was easily combined. The painting of marble, in the antique and archaizing style, with glaring, and afterwards with softer colours, as well as the ad- dition of metal attributes and gilding of particular parts, was maintained throughout all antiquity; in the Roman period however there was a tendency to substitute the natural varie- 6 ty of colour in the stone for paint (comp. §. 309). The join- ing together of different blocks was managed with so much nicety, that the wish for monolith colossal statues was often satisfied, at least in appearance. 1. Ancient sculptures which represent workers in stone : the reliefs in Winck. W. i. tf. 11. M. Borb. i. 83, 3. with the grave-stone of Eutro- pus in Fabretti, Inscr. v, 102., and the engraved stones, Ficoroni Gem- mas ii, 5, 6. and Lippert. Suppl. ii. 388. Ancient instruments on various .monuments (in Muratori, p. 1335, 1., different compasses and others) ; also found in Pompeii ; those now in use in Clarac, pi. 1. On the saw, §. 269, 6., the auger, §. 123, 1. [Wagner discovered that on the statues of -ffigina were employed quite the same instruments as those now in use, auger, pointed, toothed and flat irons and file.] 2. Of Pasiteles it is something remarkable that he nihil unqiuxm fecit ante quam finxit, and many irregularities are explained by the free and bold procedure of the ancients. On the points see Clarac, p. 144 ; hence SCULPTURE. 353 the mammiform elevations on many ancient statues, see Weber on the colossi of Monte CavaUo in the Kunstbl. 1824. s. 374, and the discobolus in Guattani, M. I. 1784. p. 9. [Bullett. 1841. p. 128.] 3. On the Naxice cotes Dissen ad Pindar, I. 5, 70., comp. Hoeck, Grata 1. s. 417., where Naxos in Crete is rightly represented as an invention. The stones were called Naxian from whatever place they came, whether from Crete, Cyprus or elsewhere, "^fci^x^iv, art'hfiovu dy^^totuTocg. 'Exi- 'hix'iviiy X.XI yccvovv to, 'Tr'hYiyiuroi xxl '^e^iKOTriurcc raiu xycth^aTay. Plut. de adul. 52. 4. Q. de Quincy, Jup. 01. p. 44. Hirt, s. 236. Volkel Archaol. Nach- lass i, s. 79. The epidermis of the ancient statues is formed of the smearing with wax, which signa marmorea nuda received, according to Vitruv. vii, 9. [Hirt in Bottiger's Amalthea i. s. 237, remarks that it is only because this coating was so thin, that no traces of it are to be found. Fea found many, Miscell. filol. T. i. p. cc. But circumlitio is not tone of colour or " a rubbing of marble with wax, which communicated to the surface a greater apparent softness, and perhaps also a gentle gloss of col- our," as the present author asserts in the Wiener Jahrbiicher 1827, " a varnish" (of Nicias), according to Hirt, also ibid., " on which he not sel- dom relied too much." Neither is circumlitio a painting of the ground of statues in different tints, light and shade, §. 59. R. 2., xv,7^Kivii)i, excudere (Quint, ibid.). Isidore Orig. xx, 4. Caelata vasa signis eminentibus intus extrave expressis a caelo quod est genus ferramenti, quod vulgo cilionem vocant. Tritor argentarius (Spon. Misc. p. 219.), tritum argentum (Horace s. i, 3, 91. Phsedr. v, 1, 7.) appear to refer to embossing. Terere is ro^ih. 2. Comp. R, 3. 4. There were figures, insects, foliage enchased on Glaucus' crater-stand (§.61.). At Kibyra, in Asia Minor, iron was en- graved with ease, Strab. xiii, 631. Alexander's iron helmet, a work of Theophilus, gleamed like silver, Plut. 32. To this refers (ioc(pvi atlvi^ov in Soph. Aj. 651. cf. Lobeck, on the softening [Gotting. Anz. 1838. S. 1111: " But there must have been a similar, though less known process, whereby iron was made suitable for embossing and enchasing. — The ^«A«|/f of Glaucus was ^i» -ttv^os x,ccl voxrog fiocCpvii/, from which, indeed, one would rather expect the opposite effect." (Indeed.) In the Hall. ALZ. 1837. also, Apr. S. 634 f. s^r,\v>^Yiu is combined with (2x Letr. iii. p. 66. perhaps refer to this ? [Letronne Lettres d'un antiq. p. 517. dissents.] stKau "/^oct^tt] see C. I. Gr. ii, p. 662. s., iiKouav si/oTTTioig iTzix^vaoig dua^eaig ib. no. 2771. [Engraved work, Gerhard Etr. Spiegel. S. 80 Not. 63.] The barbicarii of later antiquity were also em- ployed in inlaying metal with threads of gold and other metals, see Lebeau, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxix. p. 444. In preserved armour with reliefs, the mail-plates from Locri §. 257. R. 4, and the bronze helmets (with military representations) and greaves from Pompeii are worthy of remark. Votive shield (?) of the Ardaburia family, see §. 424. R. 2. Massieu Sur les boucliers votifs, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. i. p. 177. Of work on chariots §. 173, 2. Carrucse ex argento cselatse, Plin. xxxiii, 49. Vopisc. Aurel. 46. [On bronze reliefs, as facing of wooden boxes, 332. p. 45), [other gold articles also from thence Dubois de Montpereur, oy. en Crimee au Caucaso cet. pi. 20. 21, and silver vessels pi. 23. 24, also v^ases of amber pi. 22.] These medallions were still in request in later antiquity (see that of Tetricus, Mongez Icon. Rom. pi. 58, 6) ; such were perhaps wrought by the hractearii aurifices. On the aurifices generally, Gori, Columb. Li v. n. 114 sqq. [Gold articles from a rich tomb in Melos, L. Ross Inselreise iii. S. 18. One of the finest golden chaplets in the possession of Barone at Naples in 1845, recently found at Fasano, de- scribed by Avellino. Bull. Napol. iii. 129. In inscriptions there are golden honorary garlands mentioned of 100 gold pieces, 500 drachmas, oioi> Kxl A. 'TTS^irrag h^ei^yoKT/iiiuoc. roug riy^i/dig, Athen. iv. p. 147 sq. A h^oi (piotKn hx, x,^v(Tov ^iKocruha.urog B;a?i/^o? made for the triumph of Paulus ^milius. Plut. -^mil. . P. 33. Pompey triumphed in a cLpf/.cc A. Appian. B. Mithrid. 117. Into his hands fell at Talaura, Mithridates' treasury of art {rot/^telov rvig KOiTXffy.svrjg)., besides 2,000 onyx vessels, (pioChcti Kod \j/VKrrj^£g ^oAAoi kocI puree. kxI yJhivoct xocl ^Qouoi xocrxKoafioi xocl 'iTCTrai/ y^cAhivol x,ui 'Tr^oan^vioia. xecl STrafiioiot, itavTO, of^oiag hiuTit^oc, x,xi KXTccxpvijci, which required 30 days to be delivered up, derived partly from the dominion of Darius Hystaspis, partly from that of the Ptolemies, — what had been deposited by Cleopatra with the Coans, and these had surren- dered, — ^partly collected zealously by himself, ib. 115. The \k-77u^.(x.toc }>ioi- 'hi.'hcc at the banquets of Mithridates are mentioned by Plut. LucuUus 37., and ^y^soV tig likhi'^og from him, which adorned Lucullus' triumph, ib. 40. Eratosth. in Macrob. Sat. v, 21. mentions a kqcht'/j^oc 'hi^ox,., pt^^y^oy:/ a. Menander iv HcttViu^ iK'7ra(^ct A. Poll, x, 187., phials Athen. ii. p. 48 sq. and Agatharchus in Phot. p. 459. Bekk., -TrsQixvx.ifix A. Heliod. vii, 27., neck-laces x'hiou'jotg A. Died, xviii, 27., x^vaovu kxi a. Koaf/^ov ki/ irT^ox.ioig xoti 'TTs^ih^oiiQig Plut. Phoc. 19. and Eunap. Aedes. p. 30. Wyttenb. x^rai- uxg (read xi^i'^Zvocg) liocx,Qvaovg A. rau 'Tcohvriy.vjrav Callix. in Athen. v. p. 200 b, a mask ha.x(ivaov kxI a. Luciau Tim. 27, dagger belt and golden garlands Heliod, ix, 23. x, 32. Plin. xxxiii, 2 turba gemmarum potamus et smaragdis teximus calices. Juv. v, 43. Also an iron helmet-band, 'TTs^iTQxx.'yi'^iov A. occurs Plut. Alex. 32.] Die Edelsteine der II. drei Konige herausg. Bonn 1781. [The best were taken away at the flight in the time of the French revolution.] .Gems injibulis (Spart. Hadr. 10,, in busts likewise we find the buckles hollowed out for them, PioCl. vi. p. WORKING IN PRECIOUS STONES. 363 74.), on sword-hilts, belts, [shoes, like those significantly presented by Trajan to Adrian,] Cameos often on garlands and crowns of antique heads, PioCl. vi. p. 56. Comp. §. 131. R. 1. 207. R. 7. 5, §. 161, 3. Gemma bihere, Virg. G. ii, 506. Propert. iii. 5, 4. The oVy| [^iyct; roa,yi\a.(^ov 'TTQiecTri^ouroc, Bockh C. I. 150. Staatsh. ii. s. 304.^ is perhaps to be understood according to §. 298. 309. R. 1. Celebrated VASES : The Mantuan in Brunswick, §. 264. R. 1. Farnesian goblet of sardonyx, [from the tomb of Adrian] with representations of Egyptian na- tural productions, Neapel's Antiken. s. 391. Millingen LTn. Mon. ii, 17. [A. Gargiulo Intorno la tazza di pietra sard, orientale del M. Borb. Nap. 1835. 4to. B. Quaranta in the Mus. Borb. xii. tv. 47. Uhden in the Schr. der Berl. Akad. for 1835, s. 487 — 497. Zoega in an unpublished explana- tion understood " la spedizione di Perseo" on account of the " closed knife and the sack" of the centre figure. The sack, and the plough above, are also explained by Quaranta who, amid a heap of the most untenable obser- vations, with Millingen sees Alexander in this figure, but the knife, which in Uhden's drawing according to the microscope is curved downwards, he took for a dagger. Uhden's explanation of the incomparable, and ex- tremely difficult work is a model. He recognises Egypt in the array of fertility after the overflow. Isis resting on the sphinx, holds aloft the ripened corn-ears, the Nile sits tranquilly on the accustomed bank, two of his daughters, the nymphs of the streams which form the Delta, have drawn the drinking water clarified there, the winds hover peacefully, the peasant lays aside the plough which has done its work, the bag of seed- corn is emptied, he has taken up the knife for pruning in the garden and vineyard.] Coupe des Ptolemees or Vase de Mithridate, in the Cabinet du Roi at Paris, adorned with very highly raised sculpture, representing side-boards and Bacchian masks. Montfaucon i, 167. (Kohler) Descr. d'un vase de sardonyx antique grave en relief. St. Petersb. 1800. (mar- riage subjects). The Beuth onyx vase at Berlin, see Tolken, Staatzeit. 1832. N. 334. Hirt, Gesch. der bild. Kiinste s. 343. SUlig, Kunstblatt 1833. N. 3 f. Thiersch Miinchner Abhdl. der philol. Kl. ii. s. 63. Birth of Commodus, of Augustus, Sillig, of L. Caesar, Tolken. A balsamario of onyx in the Vienna cabinet, with Bacchian attributes on the foreside, is seen, from the inscription on the back, to have been a present to a hetaira: ^viaoctg tv dya^oig, (piy\./i y«g si ^ivoig, iocaov Bs [/.& ^i\pa>!nec -Tnslu. The verse from Anacreon Fr. 56. ed. Bergk. — [Arneth, Explanation of the 12 largest engraved stones of the Royal Cabinet of Coins, Weiner Jahrb. 1839. i Anz. s. 28. The gems with Germanicus and Agrippina, Giitt. Anz. 1847. s. 456.] Large cameos §. 161, 4. 200, 2. 207, 7. The Vatican cameo in four layers is still larger than that of Paris ; it repre- sents Dionysus and Ariadne drawn by four centaurs. Buonarroti, Me- dagl. p. 427. comp. Hirt ibid., s. 342. — Statue of Nero in jasper, of Ar- sinoe in emerald, Plin. ; figurettes in plasma di smeraldo are oftener to be met with. The LITERATURE of glyptography is given by Millin, Introd. (very in- complete) and Murr, Biblioth. Dactyliograph. Dresd. 1804. 8vo. Gen- eral collections of gems by Domen. de Rubeis (Mn.ea.s Vicus inc.). Pet. Stephanonius (1627), Agostini (1657. 69), de la Chausse (1700), [Rome 1805 in 2 vols. 8vo.] P. A. MalFei and Domen. de Rossi (1707-9. 4 vols.), 364 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. [Nov. Thesaur. vet. gemmarum 4 vols, fol.] Gravelle (1732. 37), Ogle (1741), Worlidge (1778), Monaldini and Cassini (1781-97. 4 vols, fo.), Spilsbury (1785), Raponi (1786) and others. Paeticular cabinets by Gorlaeus (first 1601), Wilde (1703), Ebermayer (1720-22), Marlborough (1730), [Choix de pierres ant. gr. du Cab. du Due de Marlborough fol. 2 vols., each of 50 pi., very rare,] Odescalchi §. 262, R.4., Stosch §. 264. R. 1., Zanetti (ed. by A. Fr. Gori. 1750), Smith (Dactyliotheca Smithiana with commentary by Gori. V. 1767. 2 vols. fo.). From the Cabinet du Roi, Caylus Recueil de 300 tetes and Mariette's Recueil 1750. comp. §. 262. R. 3. Those of Florence in Gori, Wicar, Zannoni, §. 261. R. 2. Those of Vienna, §. 264. R. 1. The Imperial Russian, §. 265. R. 2. Those of the Netherlands, §. 265. R. 1. [The Royal at Naples.] Catalogues of the Crozat collection (by Mariette 1741 ; it has gone to Russia with the Orleans collection), the de France §. 264, 1., the Praun at Niirnberg (by Murr, 1797), [now in the possession of Mad. Mertens-Schaaf hausen at Bonn,] the collection of Prince Stanis- las Poniatowsky, which is full of counterfeits. [Catal. des p. gr. ant. du prince Stan. Poniatowsky 4to. Fir. 1831.] L. Rossi Spiegaz. diuna Race. di gemme vol. i. Mil. 1795. Svo. [Dubois Descr. des p. gr. ant. et mod. de feu M. Grivaud de la Vincelle P. 1820.] Creuzer zur Gemmenkunde; ant. geschn. St. vom Grabmal der h. Elizabeth 1834, cf. Feuerbach im Kunstbl. Visconti Esposiz. delle impr, di ant, gemme raccolte per uso del Princ. Chigi in his Op. Div. T, 2, his most important work on engraved stones. Schlichtegooll's Answahl 1798. 4to.] Vivenzio, Gemme antiche in- edite. R. 1809. 4to. Millin, Pierres gravees ined. (an opus postumum). P. 1817. Svo. [Gemme incise dal Cav. Gius. Girometti publ. con le illustr. di. P. E. Visconti R. 1836. fol. 10 pi. Ed, of only 100 copies.] Impressions by Lippert in a peculiar mass (two collections, a Latin catalogue by Christ and Lippert for the first, a German one by Thierbach for the second) ; by Dehn in brimstone, descr, by Fr, M. Dolce (E, Qu, Visconti?) 1772; by Tassie, in something like enamel (Catalogue des empreintes de Tassie by Raspe, 1792) ; of the Berlin collection §, 264, R. 1. ; Impronte gemmarie dell' Institute, comp. Bull. 1830. p. 49. Cent. i. ii. Bull. 1831. p. 105. iii. iv. BuU. 1834. p. 113, [v, vi, 1839, p, 97.] Archaol. Intell. 1835. No. 64- 66. [Th. Cades has collected 5,000 carefully selected impressions in Rome, among them 400 stones of Etrurian origin.] Much on particular gems in Montfaucon, Caylus, Visconti, Iconographie, &c. Victorius, Dissert, glyptogr. R, 1739. 4to. Gori's Hist, glyptographi- ca, [praestantiorum gemmariorum nomina com pi. Ven. 1767 fol. together with an App. in the Memorie d, Accad. di Cortona ix. p. 146.] in the second vol. of the Dact. Smith. Caylus, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xix. p. 239. Christ, Super signis, in quibus manus agnosci antiquas in signis possint, Commtr. Lips, litter i. p. 64 sq. The same author's treatise by Zeune, p. 263. and preface to the Dactyliothek of the Richter cabinet, Klotz, Ueber den Nutzen und Gebrauch der alten geschnittenen Steine. Altenb. 1768. G. A. Aldini, Instituzioni glittografiche, Cesena 1785. [Millin Introd. a I'etude des p, gr. 1797. 8vo. Caylus, sur les p, gr. in the Mem, de I'Acad. xix. p. 239,] Gerhard zur Gemmenkunde, Kunstbl. 1827. N. 73-75. E. Braun liber die neuesten Fortschritte der Gemmenkunde Archaol, Intell. Bl. 1833. St. 7. 8. WORKING IN GLASS. 365 E. WORKING IN GLASS. 316. Glass is the more fittingly mentioned in this place, 1 as it was used among the poorer classes as a substitute for the precious stone of the signet-ring, and, for that reason, the imi- tation of gems and cameos in glass-pastes was very widely dif- fused in antiquity, whereby many very interesting representa- tions have been preserved to us in this class of monuments. According to Pliny, it was wrought in a threefold manner, 2 sometimes blown, sometimes turned, and sometimes engraved ; of which processes the first and third are also found united. Although perfectly clear and white glass was far from being 3 unknown to the ancients, they everywhere manifested a pre- ference for other colours (especially purple, dark blue and green), and for an iridescent splendour. They had also beau- 4 tiful cups and goblets of coloured glass, which were sometimes made of pieces of variegated glass, and sometimes ingeniously composed of glass and gold. The murrhina, which we must 5 mention by the way, can only be considered as articles of luxury, not as works of art. 1. 2ipgay?S£c va,7^ivu,i at Athens, about 01. 95. C. I. n. 150. Vitreae gemmae ex vulgi annulis, Plin. comp. Salmas. Exerc. Plin. p. 769. As counterfeits in Trebell. Gallien. 12, and often in Pliny. Comp. §. 313. R. 3. The largest glass-paste is the cameo 16 X 10 inches in the Vatican (Winck. W. iii. s. 44 ff.), Dionysus lying in Ariadne's lap. Buonarroti, Medagl. p. 437. 2. Plin. xxxvi, 66. Toreumata vitri, Mart, xii, 74. xiv, 94. 'TotKo-d/og or vocT^i-d/rig, vitri coctor, see Stephani Lex. ed, Brit. ; opifex artis vitrise, Donati Inscr. ii, 335, 2. [vi'Ktyo'Troiog, Spartan inscr. BuUett. d. Inst. 1844. p. 149. S. vocT^ore^cvYig, vcthov^yog. Achilles Tat. ii, 3. x^arij^ot — voihov f4.su ro 'Tza.y SQyou o^a^vy/^eutig, KvyJXa "hi avrov u./H'TreXoi 'Tti^iian^ov, Appulei Meta- morph. ii. vitrum fabre sigillatum.] The Barberini, now the Portland vase, exhibited in the British museum, [wantonly broken in pieces in 1845 and successfully restored,] from the so-called tomb of Alexander Se- verus, consists of blue, transparent glass, and over it a white opaque glass-fusion, the latter sculptured. Gr. Veltheim Aufsatze i. s. 175. Wedg- wood, Descr. du Vase de Barberini. L. 1790. Archseol. Brit. viii. p. 307. 316. Millingen Un. Mon. i. p. 27. [St. Piale Dissert. T. i. The fact that the nymph does not seem to ward oflf the god, but to draw him towards her, is opposed to Millingen's explanation. The fine amphora from Pom- peii, of a similar style of art, M. d. I. iii, 5. Annali xi. p. 84., and a pa- tera, M. Borbon. xi. tv. 28. 29.] 3. Same glass articles in Stackelb. Graber Tf. 55. Beautiful pure plates of glass found in Velloia and Pompeii, called also specidaria accord- ing to Hirt, Gesch. iii. s. 74. On variegated windows §. 281. R. 5. Walls were faced with vitrioe quadraiurce, Vopiscus Firm. 3. There were parti- coloured glass seals in Athens. Colour-changing glass, uKhaaaov, see Ha- 366 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. drian in Vopisc. Saturn. 8. The Alexandrine glass-wares, §. 230, 4., were very celebrated in the time of the emperors, comp. §. 240, 6. On the ancient art of colouring glass, Beckman, Beytrage zur Gesch. der Erfind. i. s. 373 sqq. Works in glass, Becker Gallus i. s. 145. 4. Lesbian cups of purple glass, Athen. xi, 486. Lesbium vas caela- tum, Fest. 'Ta.'hivoc liay^ovaa. y. 199. Vasa vitrea diatreta Salmas. ad Vopisc. 1. 1. ; such were wrought by the diatretarii. Fine goblet from the Novarese, of moveable colours, encompassed with a sky-blue net, with an inscr. in green glass. Winck. W. iii. s. 293. [in possession of the Marquis Trivulzi at Milan; perfect in its technical execution,] A similar drinking glass of the Emperor Maximian, white in a pui-ple net, found at Strasburg. Kunstbl. 1826. s. 358. [Two others at Cologne, Jahrb. des Alterth. Vereins at Bonn Tf. 11. 12. s. 377. by Urlichs. On a vase from Populonia on which a villa maritima is represented, a memoir by Dom. Sestini. On a glass vase from Genoa, a memoir by Bossi. Frag- ments in the catacombs, Bosio i. p. 509. Buonarroti Osservazioni sopra ale. frammenti di vasi ant. di vetro ornati di figure, trov. ne' cimiteri di Roma, F. 1716. — Ach. Tat. ii, 3. describes a crater of rock-crystal with grapes which appear to ripen through the pouring in of the wine.] 5. On the murrhina vasa (from the East, known to the Greeks, but little however, from the time of Nearchus, at Rome from the time of Pompey, not gems according to the legal acceptation, Dig. xxxiv, 2, 19) : [N. Guisbert De murrhinis, Francof. 1597. 8vo.] : Christ, De murrinis vet. Lips. 1743. 4to. V. Veltheim on the vasa murrh. (Aufs. i. s. 191). Le Blond and Larcher, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xliii, 217 sq. 228 sq. Mon- gez, Mem. de I'lnst. Nat. ii. Litt. p. 133. Schneider Lex. s. v. f^vppivoi,. Roloff and Buttmann Mus. der Alterth. TV. ii. s. 509. (Porcelain ; Schnei- der opposed, Programm von Mich. [Brieg] 1830.) Mag. encycl. 1808 Juill. Ruperti's collection to Juv. vi, 156. ot(piiu £ix,6ycc, Arist. Poet. 6. denotes monochromata ex albo, like those of Zeuxis, Plin. (corap. Apellis monochromon ? Petron. 84. [rather monocnemon §. 141. R. 3.; Zeuxis goes immediately before in Petronius, but monochromes by Apelles are not otherwise known. Fronto ad Verum i. : quid si quis Parrhasium versicolora pingere juberet, aut Apellem unicolora?]; a sort of camayeu, comp. Bottiger, s. 170. Lucil. in Nonius, p. 37. calls figures merely shaded monogrammi, comp. Philostr. Apoll. ii, 22. Above §. 210, 6. B. PAINTDfG IN WATER-COLOUES. 1 819. From the superior importance attached to design, great soberness in the use of colours prevailed for a long time in antiquity, and in so much the higher degree, as the design 2 was sharper and more accurate. Even the Ionic school, Avhich loved florid colouring (§. 137. 141, 1.), adhered to the so-called four colours even down to the time of Apelles ; that is, four principal colouring materials, which, however, had not only natural varieties themselves, but also produced such by mixing; for the pure application of a few colours only belonged to the imperfect painting of the architectural works of Egypt (§. 231.), the Etruscan hypogea (§. 174, 4.) and the Grecian earthen- 3 ware. Along with these leading colours, which appeared stern and harsh {colores austeri) to a later age, brighter and dearer colouring materials {col. floridi) were gradually introduced. 4 These were dissolved in water, with an addition of glue or gum (neither the application of the white of eggs nor of oil is discoverable in ancient pictures), in order to lay them on 5 from the palette with the brush. Painting on panels (for which larch-wood was preferred) was according to Pliny held in high esteem, at the most flourishing period of art ; however, PAINTING IN WATER-COLOURS. 3CD the primitive practice of painting temples with ornaments (§. 27-i. R. 2.) naturally led to mural painiing properly so-called, Avhich was also employed in Grecian temples and tombs, in like manner as in Italy, but was chiefly applied, from the time of Agatharchus (§. 135.), to the decoration of rooms, until it seems in the Roman period to have absorbed all art (§. 209.). The surface was prepared for it in the most careful manner, and the advantages of painting on the fresh plaster {al fresco) were very well known; canvass paintings also occur in the Roman period. Not only did the ancients anxiously strive to discover and observe the harmonic proportions of colours (Jiarmoge), but they also had a fine eye for the quantity of light which the picture should on the whole maintain, for unity in the general effect of light; this was the rovog or splen- dor, which Apelles promoted by a thinly dissolved black (teniie atrame?itum), therefore an azure colour, which at the same time protected the picture and mellowed the sharpness of the colours. On the whole, the climate and views of life were equally influential in causing the ancients to prefer sprightly colouring, with decided tones which resolved themselves into a pleasing fundamental tone. 1. This regular proportion is distinctly stated by Dionysius De Isaeo 4 ; the earlier pictures were xouf^ccai f^h dqyccafiivxi otirT^ug xtal ovli- f^ctccv iv TOi; [Aiyy.ot,Giv lyfivacti '7roix,i7^ia,v, ecK^iSslg Ze reels y^u/^f^xig and SO forth; the later were ivy^tx.y.fcot f4.h y^rroi/, or had variety in light and shade, and lu ra ttA^^e; rau f/,tyf/,a,ru'j t'/jv iaxvy. We must not however stretch the former too far ; in the time of Empedocles, and therefore of Polygnotus, the blending of colours was already greatly perfected. See Simplicius ad Aristot. Phys. i. f. 34. a. 2. The four colours (according to Pliny xxxv, 32. Plut. de def. orac. 47. comp. Cic. Brut. 18, 70.) ; 1. White, the earth of Melos, ^U>.ia.g. More rarely white lead, cerussa. In mural paintings especially the Paraeto- nium. 2. Bed, the ruhrica from Cappadocia, called l^ivuTri;. MIt^toc, minium, has various significations. M/ato?, of burnt ux^x, was acci- dentally discovered by Cydias, 01. 104., according to Theophr. de lap. 53 ; according to Pliny, who calls it usta, it was first used by Nicias about 01. 115. 3. Yellow, sil, ux^ct, from Attic silver mines (Bockh, Schriften der Berl, Akad. 1815. s. 99.), in later times used chiefly for lights, besides, the reddish yellow auri-pigmetUum, accuhetoa.y^/i, arsenical ore. 4. Black (together with blue), atramenta, (/.iXuv, of burnt plants, for example the r^vyrjov, of the skins of pressed grapes. Elepliantinon, of burnt ivory, was used by Apelles. 3. Col. floridi (furnished by those who ordered pictures, and often stolen by the painters, Plin. xxxv, 12.) were: chrysocolla, green from .copper-mines: purpurissum, a chalk mixed with the juice of the purple- rfish ; Jndicum, indigo, known at Rome from the time of the emperors (Beckmann, Beytrage zur Gesch. der Erfind. iv. St. 4.). Cceruleum, blue fimalt, of sand, saltpetre and copper (?), was invented in Alexandria. Cin- 2 A MO TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART, nahari (in Sanscrit, chinavari) denotes actual cinnabar, sometimes natural, sometimes artificial (Bockh. ibid. s. 97.), but also another Indian drug, probably from Dragon's blood. The artificial was first prepared by the Athenian Callias about 01. 93, 4.— On colouring materials : Hirt (§. 74.) Mem. iv. 1801. p. 171. Landerer on the Colours of the Ancients in Buch- ner's Repertorium f. Pharmacie Bd. 16. 1839. S. 204. yQcc(pls Ix^mKoKha, in gilding S. 210. Gothe, Farbenlehre, ii. s. 54. on the ancient names of colours ; s. 69 ff. hypothetical history of colouring by H. M. Davy (chemical researches) Transact, of the Royal Society. 1815., extracted in Gilbert's Annalen der Physik. 1816. St. i. 1. Stieglitz Arch. Unter- haltungen. St. 1. Minutoli in Erdmann's Journ. fiir Chemie viii, 2. Abhandlungen, zw. Cykl. i. s. 49. J. F. John Die Malerei der Alten, B. 1836. 8vo. see Knierim Die Harzmalerie der Alten Lpz. 1839. [Idem Die endlich entdeckte wahre Malertechnik des Alterth. u. des Mittel- alters 1845. Roux Die Farben, ein Versuch iiber Technik alter u. neuer Malerei, Heidelb. 1824.] 4. A female painter with palette and brush, copying a Dionysus- Herma, M. Borb. vii, 3. comp. the figure of the painting in Pompeii, on which see Welcker Hyp. Rom. Studien, s. 307. [A painter working at the portrait of a person sitting to him, playfuUy treated. Archaol. Zeit. iv. S. 312, copied as a vignette in Mazois R. de P. ii. p. 63.] The easel OK^tfiocg, KiXki^ug. 5. On tabular paintings, likewise on whole series of tablets (his in- teriores templi parietes vestiebantur, Cic. Verr. iv, 55. tabulae pictse pro tectorio includuntur, Digest, xix, 1, 17, 3. comp. Plin. xxxv, 9. 10. Jacobs ad Philostr. p. 198.), Bottiger, s. 280, and on the prevalence of these R. Rochette Journ. des Savans 1833. p. 363 sqq. G. Hermann De pictura parietum, Opusc. v. p. 207. Letronne Lettres d'un Antiquaire sur I'emploi de la peinture hist, murale P. 1836. 8vo. Appendice aux Lettres d'un Antiq. 1836. R. Rochette Peint. Ant. precedees de rech. sur I'emploi de la peint. dans la decoration des edif. P. 1836. 4to. Welcker in the Hall. L. Z. 1837. N. 173 ff". R. Rochette, Lett. Archeol. i. P. 1840, 8vo.] • However, there is no doubt about the stucco in the interior of the Theseion (Semper ueber Vielfarb. Arch. s. 47.) ; the battle pieces of Micon must have been painted on it. In like manner doubtless Panaenus painted on the tectorium laid on by him in the temple of Pallas at Elis. Pliny xxxvi, 55. comp. xxxv, 49. Of this kind are temples which vTro rav uyxBcjv y^»(piuu yccvrex.'TCZ'KoUChra.i, Plat. Euthyphr. p. 6. comp. Luc. de conscr. hist. 29. [R. Rochette Peint. ined. p. 198, remarks that the tes- timony of Lucian does not apply here.] Solon already forbade sepulchres (Cic. de legg. ii, 26.) ojpere tectorio exornari, that is evidently to be deco- rated with paintings. A tomb painted by Nicias, Pans, viii, 22, 4. comp. 25, 7. ii, 7, 4. Mural paintings by Polygnotus and Pausias at ThespisB, Plin. xxxv, 40. On the wall-paintings in Italy §. 177, 3; these were used by the Greeks Damophilus and Gorgasus in the temple of Ceres, as well as by Fabius in the temple of Salus (above §. 182. R. 2. comp. Niebuhr Rom. Hist. iii. p. 356). 6. In Herculaneum the ground is generally alfresco, the rest a tem- pera. On that manner of painting {i(p' iiy^oig) Plut. Amator. 16. Letronne Peint. Mur. p. 373. Vitruv. vii, 3. Plin. xxxv, 31. Pictura in textili, Cic. Verr. iv, 1. comp. §. 209, 5. Technical processes of wall-painting in Pom- ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. 371 peii, G. Bevilacqua Aldobrandini, Progresso delle Scienze vii. p. 279 sqq. (not encaustic, water colours on smoothed plaster, no animal and vege- table colours, merely in gouache.) R. Wiegmann, Die Malerei der Alten in ihrer Anwendung u. Technik. Hannover 1836. 8vo. cf. Klenze Apho- rist. Bemerk. 1838. S. 586 IF. (Only the first kind of fresco painting, applying the colours to the fresh plaster, was practised in antiquity, never the second, wetting with lime-water, or the third, a gradual laying on of the uppermost lime-ground). 7. Plin. XXXV, 11. 36, 18. On the azure colour (from asphalt?) Go- the's Farbenl. ii. s. 87. In the painting of light we can neither deny to the ancients powerful fire-scenes (as the burning of the Scamander, Phi- lostr. i, 1.) [the lightning birth of Semele i, 14.], nor milder effects (thus for instance the Pompeian picture, in R. Rochette M. I. i, 9., presents an agreeable twilight in the background). However, such are rare in ancient pictures. If very carefully analyzed, the so-called Aldobrandini marriage (§. 140, R. 3.), dug up in the Esquiline in 1606, is painted in a slight and thin manner, but with a very fine feeling of harmony and the significance of colours, now in the Vatican Museum. — Die Aldobrandinische Hochzeit, by Bottiger (in an antiquarian point of view) and H. Meyer (artisti- cally). Dresden 1810. L. Biondi, Diss, dell' Ace. Rom. i. p. 133. G. A. Guattani, I piu celebri quadri riuniti nelF apartem. Borgia del Vaticano. R. 1220 f. [tv. 1. with some differences by Meyer.] Gerhard, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 11. For the literature of ancient painting: Dati, Delia pittura ant. F. 1667. 4to. Jo. Scheffer, Graphice. Norimb. 1669. H. Junius, De pictura veterum. Rotorod. 1694. fo. and the works mentioned §. 74. R. Diirand, Turnbull, [A treatise of anc. painting L. 1740. fol. important on account of the 18 paintings, now mostly unknown, of which it contains engravings,] Requeno, Riem. [G. Scholer Die Malerei b. den Griechen, Lissa 1842. 4to. Idem iiber Farbenanstrich und Farbigkeit plastischer Bildw. Danzig 1826. 4to. full of insight. Fr. Portal Des couleurs symboliques dans I'antiq., le moyen age et les temps mod. P. 1837. The Iliad painted red, the Odyssey sea-green, Eustath. ad II. v, 9.] C. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. 320. Encaustic painting was a very extensive branch of 1 ancient art (§. 139. 140.), and was employed especially in ani- mal and flower pieces [?], where illusion was more the prin- cipal aim than in paintings of gods and heroes. Three kinds 2 were exercised: 1. The mere burning in of outlines on ivory tables with the style. 2. The applying of coloured wax, 3 all kinds of which were kept arranged in boxes, commonly on wooden tablets (but also in l)arnt clay), with the aid of hot pencils, which was followed by complete blending and softening down (ceris pingere et picturam inurere). 3. The 4 painting of ships with brushes which were dipped in a kind of fluid wax mixed with pitch, which not merely provided their external surface with an ornament, but, at the same time, 372 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. 5 -witli a protection against the sea-water. We must rest satis- fied with these slender data, gathered from passages in the ancients, as the attempts to revive the lost art of encaustic painting have not hitherto yielded any satisfactory result. [A very important application of painting, from an early period, was that for which in our times the term lithochromy has been formed, and which served to ornament the various architectural members, employing different, but always un- mixed colours, which were either applied to the marble or the plastered limestone, poros or Xf^og '^rdopmg ; tfr/jXc/ga^/a was a particular branch of it (a term, like Toixoysa(pia, which does not refer to writing ;) the dXa^ccar^oy^cKpiTg were also of a similar class.] 2. Encausta pingendi duo fuisse genera antiquitus constat, cera, et in ebore (therefore without cera) [?] cestro, i. e. veruculo, donee classes pingi coepere. Plin. xxxv, 41. Letronne Journ. des Sav. 1835. p. 540. connects cera, et in ebore cestro (vericulo), not correctly : if cera is not cestro, the opposition to what follows falls to the ground. 3. Tablets, those of Pausias for instance, were painted in the encaus- tic manner, also doors (C. I. 2297, walls and ceilings, on the contrary, in another way), triglyphs, that is those of wood {ce-ra cceriUea, Vitruv. iv, 2.), lacunaria, in earlier times perhaps with simple ornaments (as in the Athenian temples), since the time of Pausias with figures, Plin. xxxv, 40. (such pictures xov^oig, syKov^xs, Hesych., comp. Salmas. ad Vopisc. Aur.46.). Figlinum opus encausto pictum, Plin. xxxvi, 64. On the loculatae arculae ubi discolores sunt cerae, Varro de R. R. iii, 17., the poc/S^tou oia,7rv()Qu Plut. de num. vind. 22., KccvrTjotoy Digest, xxxiii, 7, 17. Tertull. adv. Herm. 1. Xoocrjsiu is, according to Timaeus, Lex. Plat, laying on, d.'Trox^ociiiitv, the softening down of colours ; however in Plato, Resp, ix. p. 586,, d'Tro^^octi/iii/ rather signifies the reflection of colour on bodies. ' Eyxai/,44o6T« d.uix,7F7\.vrov 'y^a,(pvjg. Plat. Tim. p. 26. Kyi^ox^^og y^ecOvi aS late as the Byzantine empire, Du Cange, Lex. Graec. p. 647 sq., comp. Euseb. V. Const, iii, 3. G. Hermann supposes with Letronne that encaustic painting was, according to Pliny, without brush. yioa,(psiu B/« 9ry^oV, colores urere. According to Letronne Lettres d'un Antiq. p. 385. pccfiliov, brush, hxTrvpou, on account of hell, where it figures in Plutarch ; evi- dently false. [Comp. also Appendice aux Lettres d'un ant. p. 104 sqq. Schneider's explanation, on the other hand, is defended also by C. Jahn Acta Societ. Graec. i. p. 341.] Idem in opposition to Welcker's Encaustik in Gerhard's Hyperbor. Studien. S. 307. Encaustic with the brush ac- cording to Klenze Aphorist. Bem. S. 606; obviously false, contrary to the story of Pausias at Thespiae. [The last of these manuscript additions would scarcely have been allowed to remain, if the author had more closely examined the matter. What Klenze asserts cannot be otherwise conceived, and the story of Pausias can be so explained as to agree there- with. The higher art of encaustic which was exercised by Polygnotus, Nicanor and Archelaus, along with their chief branch of art, and exclu- sively by a number of famous artists whom Pliny separates from the great temple painters, in order to give afterwards a mixed list of the in- VASE-PAINTING. 373 ferior artists in both departments, was, as is certainly shown in the Hall. A. L. Z. 183G. Oct. S. 149 — 160, (if the agreement of all text-passages after unbiassed explanation proves anything), brush-painting with wet, cold colours kept in numerous small compartments of a large box, in the laying on of which wax was used, in what oily dissolving combination is unknown, on which followed the burning in, and at the same the blend- ing of the colours, the x^ociuuv kxi ccTro^cQctiusiv, the deepening and softening of the tone, the regulating of the bright and dark tones, by means of a small rod, hot at the lower end, and held over and passed along the surface (Jx/ihtou 'hia.'Trv^ov, KxvTVj^tov). Tim. Lex. v. x^otiunu — ro x^a^siu h» Tou pxfihlov. A glowing rod could not surely be used for laying on colours, and the cestrum which Hirt mixed up, referred merely to the ivory. Thus by the encaustic process, following on the painting itself (like the enchasing of the toreutes on the embossing or casting of figures), blending of colours, transparency, and depth of shadow were promoted, and effect and illusion attained. The same process was rudely exempli- fied, when wax candles were employed for retouching and equalizing the melted wax which was laid on with thick brushes on walls and naked marble statues, Plin. xxxiii, 40.] 4. Painting of ships §. 73. Inceramentum navium, Li v. xxviii, 45. Kyioo; among the materials for ship-building, Xenoph. RP. Athen. 2, 11. On pitch. Plin. xvi, 23. Kr,Qoy^x(^i» on Ptolemy the Fourth's ship, Athen. V. p. 204. [^schylus in the Myrmidons probably referring to the hippalek- tryon on Hector's ship Kr,Po[^x>Q'^^^^'''^^''' (po(,^(^a,Kuv -TroKvg ttovo;, like Kri^oxvTsa. jLn like manner, Hipponax of the ship-painter Mimnes : gVe/rot fid'hSiYi rr.u TooV/y 'TTXPux^iGctg.'] — Painting on a gold ground derived from antiquity. Letronne p. 556, Navis extrinsecus eleganter depicta, Appulei. Flor. p. 149. On the fleets Pliny xxxvi, 31. The same cerae, but the mode different. 5. Caylus, Mem. de I'Ac. des. Inscr. xxviii. p. 179. Walter, Die wie- derhergestellte IMahlerkunst der Alten. Die Farben, ein Versuch ueber .Technik alter und neuer Mahlerei, von Roux. Heidelb. 1824, 8vo., corap. Kunstblatt. 1831. N. 69 sq. Montabert, Traite complet de la peinture. P. 1829. T. viii. [6. Some remarks on the kind of colours, and the mode of laying them on in Volkel Archiiol. Nachl. s. 81 f. Hall. L. Z. s. 150, Klenze Aphorist. Bemerk. s. 556. 560. 587. In the inscription found in 1836 referring to the works in the temple of Pallas Polias at Athens : ivKuvrri ro Kvf/,ccTtov IvKYiccyTi TO g7r< T&I k-Triarv'Kia ra ivrog x,. r. X. In this way also were figures painted on the metopes and frieze, and such, not of marble, on the frieze of the Erechtheum, seem to be referred to in the same inscription : 6 ' EXivaiutxKo; "hi^og 'tt^o; a roc ^uot (although ^ao'j by no means signifies usually or by preference, a painting), comp. Wiegmann Die Malerei der Alten s. 134 ff. Letronne in the Journ. des Sav. 1837. p. 369. Painted steles in Stackelberg Graber Tf. 6. 6., three from the Peirgeus engraved in the Kunstbl. 1838. N. 59. There is a stele on a vase from Volci, on which the painter represents yellowish palmettes on a white ground, Gerhard Festgedanken an Winckelmann B. 1841. Tf, ii, 1, and Mus. Gregor. ii, 16, 1.] 374 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. D. VASE-PALKTING. T 1 321. The peculiar technical processes of vase-painting, which stood in so close a connexion with Greek manners and customs that it could not pass over to the Roman world, did not however among the Greeks themselves rank as a separate branch of art, as there is nowhere mention made of vase-paint- ers with the specific notice of any individual; but this only exhibits the more clearly the artistic genius of the Grecian na- tion, which unfolded its splendour even in articles of so little 2 value. In painting vases the process, when performed in a careful manner, was as follows: the vases, after being once slightly burnt, received, with rapid strokes from the brush, a coating of the dark-brown colour commonly employed, and 3 were then exposed again to a gentle heat. This dark-brown, faintly reflecting principal colour, appears to have been prepared from oxide of iron; a thinner solution of the same material yielded, as it appears, the faintly shining reddish yellow varnish which alone covers the colour of the clay, in the places not at all, or sparingly, painted; variegated colours, in chequered drapery, flower- arabesques and the like, were " not laid on till 4 after the burning was completed, as opaque colours. This seemed to the Greeks the most suitable technics for vase-paint- ing; the ruder process in the so-called Egyptian vases was only kept up as an antiquity; and the placing of black figures on a white ground (as on some vases found here and there in Greece, and also at Volci) appears to have been the fashion 5 only for a short time. There are also vases occasionally found, especially in Africa, which are painted exactly in the manner of the walls, with bright colours on a white ground, and others which exhibit on the same ground mere outlines. 1. See above in reference to this §. 75. 99. 143. 163. 177. 257. That vases for use were also painted, is seen from vase-paintings themselves, in which painted bowls and pitchers are borne (comp. Alcaeus, fragm. 31. Kv\ix,'Joci 'TroiKiKa.i, Demosth. de f. leg. p. 464. Bekk. oi rd; ccT^xiScca- roo^TiKus •yQa(pQ'jTsg) ] their use however seems to have been gradually confined to prizes, gifts, chamber ornaments and tombs (§. 301). The cycle of subjects therefore was restricted more and more even in Lower Italy to the Bacchian. See Lanzi, De' vasi ant. dipinti diss. 3., the second on the bacchanals, Opuscoli raccolti da Accad. Italiani i. F. 1806. — A catalogue of painters' name from the vases (especially those of Volci) is given by R. Rochette, Lettre h. Mr. Schorn, Bulletin des sc. hist. 1831. Juin. [2d ed. 1845. p. 1 — 83, enlarged by Welcker, N. Rhein. Mus. vi St. 2.] Comp. Comment. Soc. Gott. rec. vii. p. 92. 117. 2. That the vases were not soft when they were painted, is proved especially by the appearance of the scratched lines which frequently VASE-PAINTING. 376 occur, and by which the painter guided his hand when he proceeded carefully to work (see de Rossi in Millingen's V. de Cogh. p. ix.), as well as by the substance of the paint being raised above the surface of the vase. There are many grounds for opposing the notion that patterns were used in the drawing of the outlines. 3. See Luynes, Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 142 sqq. Comp. Hausmann de con- fectione vasorura, Comment. Soc. Gott. rec. V. cl. Phys. p. 113 (where naphtha and asphalt are assumed as colouring materials ; however the present author is now decided also for the use of iron). Jorio, Sul metodo degli ant. nel depingere i vasi. [Nap. 1813.] Brocchi, Sulle vernici, Bibl. Ital. vi. p. 433. [Haus Dei Vasi Greci, Palermo 1823, de Rossi in Millin- gen Vases de Coghill. p. i — xx. Kramer iiber den Styl u. die Ilerkunft der Griech. bemalten Thongefasse. B. 1837. F. Thiersch iiberdie Hellenischen bemalten Vasen, Miinchner Denkschr. iv, 1. of the 1st class. Lenor- mant Introduction a I'etude des vases peints. 1 Partie P. 1845. 4to., from the Elite des mon. ceramogr. thrown off separately. A vase manu- facturer in the work, Cylix from Tarquinii, Gerhard Festgedanken an Winck. B. 1841. Tf. ii, 3. Archiiol. Zeit. 1848. s. 108. N. 5.] 5. On very beautiful vases with variegated figures, Bull. d. Inst. 1829. p. 127. Variegated vases from Centorbi Bull. d. I. 1833. p. 5. [R. Rochette Point. Ant. pi. 8 — 10.] Specimens of vases with linear designs in Maisonneuve, Introd. pi. 18. 19. Cab. Pourtal^s pi. 25. Vase paintings with different parts in relief. Cab. Pourtal^s pi. 33. (from Athens), Mus. Blacas pi. 3., [not rare also in Naples and Sicily]. Athen. v, 200 b. speaks likewise of vases at Alexandria painted with variegated wax -colours. Minutoli gives an account of painted vases from a catacomb at Alexan- dria, Abhandl. zw. Cykl. i. s. 184. Works on vases: Picturae Etr. in vas- cuUs nunc primum in unum coll. illustr. a J. B. Passerio. 1767. 1770. 3 vols. fo. Antiquites Etrusques, Grecques et Rom., tirees du cabinet de M. Hamilton a N. 1766. 67. 4 vols. fo. Text by Hancarville, also in English. Coll. of Engravings from anc. vases mostly of pure Greek workmanship discovered in sepulchres in the kingdom of the two Sicilies — now in the possession of Sir W. Hamilton, published by W. Tischbein, from 1791 downwards, 4 vols. fo. Text by Italinsky, also in French. [99 plates for a 5th vol. were taken in 1843 to London by H. Steuart, toge- ther with a number of plates already engraved for the Tischbein Odyssey.] Many single plates or smaller collections by Tischbein (Reiner's Vases). Peintures de vases antiques vulg. app. Etrusques tirees de diff. collections et grav. par A. Clener, ace. d' expl. par. A. L. Millin, publ. par Dubois Maisonneuve. P. 1808. 2 vols. fo. Descr. des Tombeaux de Canosa par Millin. P. 1816. fo. Millingen, Peintures ant. et ined. de vases Grecs, tirees de diverses collections. R. 1813. The same, Peint. ant. de v. Gr. de la coll. de Sir J. Coghill. R. 1817. Al. de Laborde §. 264. R. 1. Coll. of fine Gr. vases of James Edwards. 1815. 8vo. [Moses,] Vases from the collec- tion of Sir H. Englefield. L. 1819. 4to. Inghirami, Mon. Etr. (§, 178.) Ser. V. Vasi tittili. [4 vols. 1837. 400 articles.] G. H. Rossi, Vasi Greci nella copiosa raccolta di — Duca di Blacas d'Aulps, descr. e brevemente illustr. R. 1823. Panofka §. 262. R. 3. A work promised by Stackelberg on Attic vases [merged into the Graber der Hellenen]. Works on par- ticular vases published by Remondini, Arditi, Visconti, &c. [Vases Etrusques du prince de Canino R. 1830. f. m. 5 pi. Mus. Greg. ii» 376 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. tv. 1 — 100. Raf. Politi Esposiz. di sette vasi Sicoli-Agrigent. Palermo' 1832. 8vo., Cinque vasi di premio — nel Mus. di Palermo 1841. 4to. and a series of vases published separately at Girgenti and Palermo, N. Maggiore Mon. Sicil. ined. fasc. 1. 1833 fo. Gerhard Auserles. Griech. Vasenbilder, hauptsachlich aus Etrurien, I. Bd. Gotterbilder 1840. II. Heroenbilder 1843. III. not yet completed. Trinkschalen des K. Museums 1840. Mysterienvasen 1839. Etr. u. Campan. Vasen des k. Mus. 1843. Apu- lische Vasenbilder des k. Mus. zu. B. 1845 f. m. Vases peints du Due de Luynes. P. 1840. fo. (Ann. d. Inst. xii. p. 247.) Le Normant and de Witte EKte des mon. ceramographiques P. since 1844. T. i. ii. iii. 0. Jahn Vasenbilder Hamburg 1839. 4to. By Prof. Roulez at Ghent since 1840. Melanges de philol. d'hist. et d'antiquites, chiefly vases, extracted from the Bulletins de I'Acad. de Bruxelles T. v — xiii, fasc. 2 — 5. down to 1846. Descr. dei vasi rinvenuti nelle escavaz. fatte neU' Isola Farnese per or- dine di S. M. Maria Cristina — di Second. Campanari. R. 1839 4to., BuU. 1840. p. 12. Vases from the tombs of Panticapaeon (Kertsch) in Dubois Voy. en Crimee iv. Sect. pi. 7—15., one with SEN0ANT02 EHOIH- 2EN A0HN. (Bull. 1841. p. 109.) and one pi. 13. with the torch race round an altar, therefore perhaps xi^xfiog ' Att/xoV-] 2. DESIGNING BY THE JUNCTION OF SOLID MATERIALS, MOSAIC- WORK. 1 822. Mosaic, in the widest sense of the word, any work which produces a design or painting on a surface by the join- ing together of hard bodies, comprises the following kinds: 1. Floors formed of pieces of stone of different colours, geometri- 2 cally cut and cemented together, pavimenta sectilia. 2. Win- dows, composed of glass -panes of different colours, which 3 appear to have been known at least to later antiquity. 3. Floors inlaid with small cubes of stone forming a coloured design, such as were usual in antiquity, not merely in rooms but also in courts and terraces, instead of pavement, pav. tesse-. 4 lata, lithostrota, hd-TTiha zv aSax/cxo/g. 4. The finer mosaic, which tried to come as near as possible to pictures properly so- called, and usually employed coloured pieces of clay or rather glass, but also the very costly material of actual stones, where the imitation of numerous local colours was required, called crusta? vermiculatce, also lithostrota. Splendid works of this description were made of stone as well as clay cubes, as early as the Alexandrine period (§. 163. 6.). The employ- ment of glass cubes in the decoration of apartments, first made its appearance in the time of the emperors, when this kind of mosaic, which came more and more into request (§. 190. R. 4. 212, 4.), was even transferred to the walls and ceiling, and was used in all the provinces (§. 262, 2. 263, 1.) ; hence there is even now by no means any want of monuments of this kindj among which there are some that may be pronounced MOSAIC. 377 excellent. 5. Glass threads molten together, -which in section 5 always give the same extremely tender and brilliant image. 6. Contours and depressed surfaces were engraved in metal or 6 some other hard material, and another metal or enamel melted into it, so that figures resulted from the process — the so-called Qiielto. As this kind of work leads immediately to copper-en- 7 graving, so even a certain description of the latter, — an easily multiplied impression of figures, — seems to have been not un- known to antiquity as a transient appearance. 1. On the pictum de musivo (the name borrowed from museums, first in Spart. Pescenn. 6. Trebell. Trig. 25), comp. Gurlitt, s. 162 ff. Ciampini, Furietti (§. 212. R. 4.), Paciaudi De sacris Christian, balneis, Cam. Spreti Compendio istor. dell' arte di comporre i musaici. Rav. 1804. L. Bossi, Lett, sui cubi di vetro opalizzanti degli ant. musaici. Mil. 1809. Vermiglioli, Lezioni i. p. 107. ii. p. 280. Gurlitt Ueber die Mosaik (1798), Archiiol. Schr. s. 159. Hirt, Mem. de Berlin 1801. p. 151. To the first kind belong also the Lacedaemonii orbes, on which the haughty rich man sprinkles the tasted wine, Juv. xi, 172., the parietes pretiosis orbibus refulgentes, Senec. Ep. 86. and often, the macvZce inserted contrary to the nature of the stone, Plin. xxxv, 1. Probably the Alex- andrinum marmorandi genus, Lamprid. Al, Sev. 25, belongs to these. The pav. sectilia were often similar to the modern Florentine mosaic lavoro di commesso. 2. Prudent. Peristeph. hymn. 12, 45. The passage however is not quite clear. Comp. R. iv. [3. A brick column covered with coloured glass mosaic found in Pom- peii in 1837, see Zahn's Ornamente alter class. Kunstepochen Tf. 60.] 4. Everything here bears reference to floors, hence the imitations of sweepings (asaroti oeci, §. 163, 6., comp. Statius S. i, 3, 55 ; asarotici lapilli, Sidon. Apoll. C. xxiii, 57 ; a fine asarotum by Heraclitus found in 1533 at Rome, §. 209. R. 1) ; the labyrinths originating in meander-ornaments (Salzburg mosaic §. 412. R. 1.) and the like. "AvBivee, rav thetcp&iv in the palace of Demetrius Phalercus, Athen. xii, 542. The mosaic of glass cubes is designated in Pliny xxxvi, 64. by vitrece camerce; to this refers Statius, S. i, 5, 42 : eifulgent cameras vario fastigia vitro, comp. Seneca, Ep. 90. Noted workers in mosaic (musivarii ; in the Theodos. codex dis- tinguished from the tesselarii) besides Sosus, Dioscurides and Heraclitus (§. 209. R. 1.) [on the fine asaroton from Villa Lupi in the Lateran .... irog Yi^yitauro, and the other portion of the name is said to be still with the restorer, §. 209. R. 1.], Proclus and J. Soter (Welcker, Rhein. Mus. fiir Phil, i, 2. s. 289.), Fuscus at Smyrna (? Marm. Oxon. ii, 48.), Prostatius? (Schmidt Antiq. de la Suisse, p. 19.). Celebrated mosaics besides those mentioned §. 163: 1. The Praenestine, from a tribunal (comp. Johannes Ev. 19, 13.), which can scarcely be that of Sulla (Plin. xxxvi, 64.), a na- tural-historical and ethnographic representation of Egypt. Del. Jos. Sincerus, sc. Hieron. Frezza. 1721. Bartoli Peint. ant. 34. comp. ]\Iem. de I'Acc. des Inscr. xxviii. p. 591. xxx. p. 503. L. Cecconi, Del pavimento in mus. rinv. ncl tempio d. Fortuna Prienest. R. 1827, opposite views in 378 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. C. Fea, L'Egitto conqiiistato dall' Imp. Cesare Ott. Aug. sopra Cleopatra e M. Ant. rappr. nel musaico di Palestvina. [R. 1828. 4to. A striking explanation, which is confirmed on all sides. In like manner is the re- ception of lo by Egypt represented in Pompeian pictures §. 351. R. 4» Visconti also conjectured it to be Octavian as conqueror of Egypt M. PioCl. vii. p. 92., Idem in Laborde Mos. d'ltalica p. 90. The best coloured copy is that of Barthelemy in the 2nd ed. of his Treatise, of which only 30 copies were printed ; a new one is a necessity for the history of paint- ing. There is an antique copy of a small portion at Berlin, according to Uhden in the Schriften der Berl. Akad. fiir 1825. S. 70 f.] Comp. §. 435. 2. The Capitoline mosaic with the spinning Hercules from Antium, M. Cap. iv, 19. 3. That in the Villa Albani, executed in a particularly fine manner, Hercules as the deliverer of Hesione, Winck. M. I. 66. 4. The one from Hadrian's Tiburtine villa with the battle of the panthers and centaurs, in aed. M. Marefusci, Savorelli del. Capellani sc. [in execution the finest of all, now in Berlin, Bull. 1845, p. 225. ; it appeared in the M. 1. I. for 1847. Two important pieces also in the Quirinal palace from V^illa Hadriana, — a youthful colossal head and a great number of birds, separated by trellis-work]. 5. That from Prssneste in Villa Barberini, the rape of Europa, Agincourt, Peint. pi. 13, 8. 6. The large mosaic from Otricoli, in difierent compartments (Medusa's head, centaurs, ne- reids, &c.), PCI. vii, 46. (others 47-50.). 7. Scenes from tragedy and the satiric drama in the PioClem. Millin, Descr. d'une mosaique antique du M. PCI. 1819. fo. 8. The large mosaic from Italica (38 X 27^ feet. Muses* heads and circus games) of which a minute account has been given espe- cially by Laborde §. 262. R. 4. Comp. §. 424. R. 2. Mosaic of Toulouse. §. 402. R. 3. Theseus and Minotaur &o. in Pompeii, Bull. 1836. p. 7. Mosaic work in relief, Welcker, Zeitschr. fiir a. K. S. 290 fi". [The Pem- broke mosaic relief here referred to No. 1. (Winck. W. 3. S. xxxiii.) is described and praised by Waagen Kunstw. in England ii. S. 279 f. The Hesperid is not wanting along with Hercules. R. Rochette Peint. ined. p. 393 — 96. 427 — 30., where Spes is given in pi. 12. Besides the repetition of this one in Caylus, I saw the upper part of another in the Mus. at Lyons 1841. There are pastes and stones combined, in the two figures from Metapontum, formerly in the possession of the archbishop of Ta- rentum, now in the St. Angelo coll. at Naples. In the mus. at Naples there now hung up 28 pieces of smaller mosaics ; there are several such specimens in the Vatican in Appart. Borgia, engraved in Guattani 1784. p. xxxiii. tv. 3., one of the best in Santa Maria in Trastevere, a pair of ducks and other aquatic fowls, one in Vienna, about 2 feet high, five warriors, the foremost of whom hurls a torch, the symbol of war (Eurip. Phoen. 1836. c. Schol.), as '7rv^(p6^os, Arneth Beschr. der zum k. k. Antiken- Cab. gehorigen Statuen u. s. w. S. 15. The floors in the Vatican in 9 pi. fol. m. by different designers and engravers ; one from Sentino at Munich in the furthest back vase-room, Apollo in the oval Zodiac, the four sea- sons underneath: Mosaic Lupi, Bull. 1833. p. 81. Achilles dragging Hector, found in 1845 at Rome before the Porta S. Lorenzo, with another floor, entirely of small stones ; Poseidon and Amphitrite drawn by sea- horses in Algiers, Bull. 1846. p. 69. Artaud Hist, abregee de la peint. en mosaique Lyon 1835. 4to. gives a list of the mosaics in Lyons and the south of France j that of Avenches in Schmitt, Rec. d'antiquites de la OPTICAL TECHNICS. 379 Suisse 1771. 4to. Secclii II mus. Antoniano rappres. la scuola degli Atleti 11. 1843. 4to. (in the Lateran) ; W. Henzen Explic. musivi in villa Bur- ghesia asservati, quo certamina amphiteatri repraesentantur, R. 1845. 4to., discovered in Tusculum in 1834. On a floor found in London, in the East India House, Bacchus on the panther, fine workmanship. A large floor at Cologne, found in 1844, seven busts of wise men, among whom are Socrates and Sophocles, Diogenes in the centre, see Urlichs in the N. Rhein Mus. iv. S. 611. Juvavienische Antiken, Salzburg 1816. 4to. In Salzburg Theseus and the Minotaur, who frequently occurs in mosaics, see 0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. S. 268 f. — Statins Silv. i, 3, 55. — Varias ubi picta per artes Gaudet humus superare novis asarota figuris.] 5. Winck. W. ii. s. 40. Klaproth and Minutoli Ueber antike Glas- mosaik. B. 1815. 6. On Egyptian metal-painting §. 230, 4. On draperies of statues §. 115. R. 2. 306. R. 3. Bronze tablets with pictures in difierent metals in India ? PhUostr. V. ApoU. ii, 20. Remains of ancient enamel-work, Vol- kel's Nachlass, s. 33. On niello works (f^sv^otu, Ducange, p. 898.), Fiorillo Kunstbl. 1825. N. 85 IF. Bottiger Archaol. der Mahl. s. 35. [Creuzer, Zeitschr. f, AW. 1843. S. 1076, in his Schriften zur Archiiologie iii. s. 552. 556 fi:] On the agemina work of the barbaricarii (who besides made draperies of gold or with gold) §. 311. R. 3. Ant. di Ercol. viii. p. 324. [alia gemina or damaschina the so-called Vase of Mithridates in the Capitol.] 7. The much commented on passage in Plin. xxxv, 2. regarding Varro's iconography (munus etiam diis invidiosum), which was pictorially mul- tiplied and sent everywhere, will scarcely allow us to imagine anything else than impressed figures. Comp. Martial xiv, 186. Becker's Gallus i. s. 192 fi". [Comp. §. 421. R, 4. Kunstmus. zu Bonn S. 8 or 2nd ed. S. 5 £ Creuzer in the Zeitschr. f. AW. 1843. N. 133 flf.] II. OPTICAL TECHNICS. 323. The artist endeavours, by moulding the given mate- rial, or by laying on colours, to furnish the eye and the mind of the beholder with the appearance and representation of bodies, such as they are to be found in nature. He attains this in the simplest way by a complete imitation of the body in a round form (rondo bosso): at the same time with the great advantage that the eye is not confined to the enjoy- ment of one, but receives mant/ images or views, among which however, and that still more in groups than individual sta- tues, one will always be the most important to the artist. However, alterations in the form are rendered necessary, sometimes by the elevated position, sometimes by the colossal size of the statue; these are conditioned by the point of view 380 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. from which they are seen by the beholder, whose eye should receive the impression of a natural and well -fashioned form. 4 The problem becomes more complicated when the natural forms, pressed down as it were on a surface (a process which has always its cause in the subordination of the plastic art to tectonic aims), are to be exhibited in a weaker play of light and shade than round work admits of, such as is the 5 case in the different kinds of relief. But the task becomes a complete optical problem, when a view of the object is to be attained by applying colours on a plane surface, as the impression of reality can only be produced by the repre- sentation of the surfaces of the body as they appear from a definite point of view, for the most part foreshortened and displaced, and principally by imitation of the effects of light on them, that is, only by observation of the laws of perspec- tive and OPTICS. 4. The ancients do not appear to have had any perfectly settled ter- minology, in applying names to the different kinds of relief (§, 27). Zmv a work of sculpture in general, figure ; see for instance Plat, Pol. p. 277. Comp. Walpole, Memoirs, p. 601. [Welcker Theogn. p. Ixxxix. not. 627.] ZZxx. Ti^iCpxy^ distinctly denotes round figures in Athen. v, 199 e. (like |t/?va '7riQi(pccvyj, Clem. Protr. p. 13) ; on the other hand, in the same author, v, 205 c. 7rs^i(pu!/ij i^aZioc are alti relievi. IlQ6TV7ra, (-Tr^oarvTrot, Athen. v, 199 e.) and sKrvTrx. are in Plin. xxxv, 43. opposed to one an- other as alto and basso relievo, and yet gWvrot in Plin. xxxvii, 63. and Seneca, De benef iii, 26. is relief generally [in Pliny better manuscripts have prostypa as relief generally, or flatter than ectypon.] On other occa- sions, rvTTog, ^totrsrvTrafcivcc, §. 237. R. 1., i)crsTV7ro)7rivcc sttI (jrvfhyj Paus. viii, 48, 3. and iTrsi^yxaf^hoc are used as expressions for relief Projecting animal-heads are 'Tr^oK^oaaoi, Tr^orof^cci. Comp. §. 324. R. 2. 1 324. Now, although ancient art did not set out from the conception of the single optical image, but rather invariably from corporeal imitation, and this always remained a principle with it, so that the relief was treated in a statuesque manner, and painting for the most part in the style of relief; yet, in . the period of its perfection, it was by no means deficient in the observance of the laws of perspective, which were already 2 put greatly in requisition for colossal statues. In the relief, . art originally followed the principle of representing every part of the body in the fullest and broadest possible view; the development of art, however, introduced a greater variety of 3 phases, and a generally moderate use of foreshortening. Per- spective was, from the time of the elder Cimon (§. 99, 1.), of more importance to painting, and this even gave rise to a separate branch of perspective painting, scenography or scia- graphy, in which, notwithstanding the resistance of enlight- ened artistic criticism, more careful and delicate design was sacrificed to the attainment of illusive effects for distant OPTICAL TECHNICS, PERSPECTIVE. 381 beholders unskilled in art. But, in general, the complete" 4 representation of forms in their beauty and significance, was more highly regarded by the ancients, than the illusion re- sulting from the perspectively accurate foreshortening and contracting of figures; and the prevailing taste conditioned and limited the exercise and development of those optical laws and artistic dexterities, diiferently, indeed, according to the periods and branches of art, in easel-pictures less than in reliefs and vase-monochromes, in a later and luxurious age less than in earlier times, but on the whole, however, in a far higher degree than in the modern development of art, which takes quite the opposite direction. From that feeling of forms 5 which desires to perceive with clearness, and to enjoy in their refinements, eurhythmy and graceful purity of contour, resulted also the slight attention of the ancients to aerial perspective, — judging at least from the mural paintings preserved, — that is, the faintness of outlines and blending of colours produced by the greater or smaller stratum of air which the optical image of the object pervades, as it is evident that the ancient jminters were generally accustomed to hold the objects near the eye, or to •conceive a clear atmosphere as the medium. Hence also light 6 and shade appeared to the ancient painters more calculated for modelling single figures, than for contrasts of masses and similar general efiects. 1. Phidias' Olympian Zeus is one of the chief examples, §. 115, 1. General evidences. Plat. Soph. p. 235 sq. (who on this account considers colossal formations as belonging to the tpuvrccarnc^, not to the iiKotariK'ii). Tzetz. Chil. xi, 381. Comp. Meister, De optice fictorum, N. Comment. Soc. Gott. rec. vi. cl. phys. p. 154. 2. The principle here laid down occasioned the strange posture of the Egyptian (§. 229.), as well as the Selinuntine relief-figures (§. 90.), only that the heads in the latter appear in front view, in the former in pro- file. On the other hand, the relief-figures on the Attic tombstones (0/ iv rcci; (Tr'/;7^cci; KotToi '/^»(p^sf fKTSTVT^af^ivoi, Plat. Symp. p. 193.) appear en- tirely in profile, as if sawn through the middle of the nose. (Here y^a(p)} is a delicate relief; for to connect KotTcc-/^oi(P'^v, is untenable for this reason alone, that catagrapha in Plin. xxxv, 34. denotes quite the reverse, namely foreshortenings). In the bas-reliefs likewise of the Parthenon by far the greatest number of the figures are seen in profile ; violent foreshortenings are avoided, and even many foreshortenings which to us seem necessary, for example in the legs of riding figures, are sacrificed to the striving after eurhythmy of forms, §. 118, 3. In the alti relievi of Phigalia, on the contrary, very great foreshortenings are ventured on, comp. §. 119, 3. — In painting habet speciem tota fades. Quint, ii, 13., comp. PI. xxxv, 36, 14. 3. On scenography and sciagraphy §. 107, 3. 136, 2. 163, 5. 184. R. 2. 209, 3. On the perspective of the ancients generally, Heliod. Opt. i, 14. (who describes the (7K-nvoy^a,(piK6u as the third part of optics, which 382 TECHNICS OF THE PLASTIC ART. architects, and sculptors of colossi could not do without), of the moderns Sallier, Sur la perspect. de I'anc. peinture ou sculpt., Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. viii. p. 97. (in opposition to Perrault), Caylus, ibid, xxiii. p. 320., Meister, de optice vet. pictor., N. Commentr. Soc. Gott. v. cl. phys. p. 175. (incorrect in many points), Schneider Eclog. phys. p. 407. Ann. p. 262. Bottiger Archaol. der Mahlerei, s. 310. That the architectural views of the Herculanean mural paintings contain faults (Meister, p. 162.), proves almost nothing against the studies of real artists. 6. In tabular painting there were many works treated otherwise. Here was displayed from the time of Parrhasius the ambire se of the out- lines. This denotes probably the floating and flickering character of the contours, which arises in nature from the undulated and stripy nature of light (or from the parallax of the eyes 1 Berlin Kunstbl. ii. s. 94 flf.). 6. See above, §. 133. R. 2., but also 319. R. 7. The delicacy with which shade was marked among the ancients (lenis, levis, &c.) is noticed by Beckmann, Vorrath n. A. i. s. 245. 3o^« oKiSig perhaps denotes chiaro- oscuro ; oLTrox^aaig oKtocg, cast-shadow, §. 136. R. 1. — Much attention was also paid in antiquity to the proper hanging of pictures (tabulas bene pictas collocare in bono lumine, Cic. Brut. 75, 261.) and the right point of view for looking at them (the painter himself, often stepped back when at work, Eurip. Hec. 802, comp. Schafer.). Horace Epist. ad Pis. 361 ff. SECOND PART. ON THE FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. §. 324* The forms of art are of two kinds. First, the mere artistic form, of which nature does not furnish a type, the frame as it were which art puts around a piece of nature, in order to obtain a defined and separate representation; this form, because it does not in itself represent spirit and life, will receive its destination more from mathematical forms, and constitute, so to speak, the connecting link between archi- tecture and the plastic art. Secondly, the forms presented by nature and experience, on which rests the internal life of the work of art — the representation of spiritual existence. We shall begin with the latter. FORM OF THE PLASTIC ART. 383 I. FORMS OF NATURE AND LIFE A. OF THE HUMAN BODY. 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 325. The principal form of ancient art was the human 1 body, which appeared to the ancient Greeks as the necessary- correlative of the mind, as the natural and only expression for it. If the conception of natural events and localities, 2 human relations and properties, as divine persons, originally belonged to the religion, and emanated from the deepest foun- dation of the religious notions of antiquity, so afterwards, when this religious manner of thinking had lost its power, the representation of all these objects as human forms became a pure necessity of art; and even independently of worship and belief, art, in following its internal laws, created for itself an immense number of forms of this description. Down to 3 the latest period, even to that in which a foreign religion had completely put an end to the earlier manner of contemplating the world (§. 213. R. 2.), it remained a principle and charac- teristic of Greek art to introduce personally in human form the place of an action, the internal motives to it,- and the promoting or obstructing circumstances, and, on the other hand, to treat the external appearance of nature as compen- diously as possible, almost only as the attribute of these forms. 1. Sentimental lingering with nature in general, a romantic concep- tion of the landscape (§. 436.) was unknown to the Greek mind ; it pressed on impatiently to the apex of corporeal formation, the human figure. Schiller iiber naive und sentimentalische Dichtung, Werke Bd. xviii. 8. 232. 326. If this, as the nature of the thing requires, is not 1 conceived as an individual expedient of the artist, but as a general and pervading principle of ancient art, we may thereby acquire a knowledge of the main principle of Greek art and genuine fundamental law of the artistic activity in antiquity. This was not certainly a rendering and immediate 2 imitation of what was externally experienced, beheld, the so- called Real, but a creating from within outwards, a seizing of the spiritual life and impression of it in the form naturally connected therewith. [§. 3. 41 9, 1.] Even this of course can- 3 not take place without a love-inspired imitation of what is presented to the senses; nay, only to the most intimate and ardent conception of this form, the human body, does it ap- pear as the general and lofty expression of an all-pervading 384 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. life. But the aim of this imitation was not a reproducing of the individual appearance presented to experience, but the expression of inward vitality, power and spiritual existence. 4 For this reason the formations of Greek art bear from the beginning a certain character of generality, and the portrait properly so-called did not make its appearance until a com- paratively late period. 4. In this respect the East is comprehended under quite the same law with Grecian antiquity, and there art stands still further from indi- vidual imitation, the character of the forms is still more general, more architectonic. 1 327. Now, however little Greek art, in its best and most genuine times, considered itself entitled to devise forms tran- scending the body furnished by nature, it just as little thought that, in its main tendency, — for at all times there were also subordinate paths (§. 123, 2. 129, 5. 135, 3.), — it w^as bound to adopt from the figure w^hat appears to us unessential in relation to the internal life, and as a pure accident, although it is true that even this, in its dark connexion with the whole, may have a particular charm and peculiar value (that of in- 2 dividualizing). On the other hand, there were developed in the Greek schools of art, forms which appeared to the national sense and feeling as those which the undisturbed development of the perfected organism would produce, as the truly healthy, ■and were therefore in general laid as the basis of the repre- 3 mentation of a higher life, — the so-called ideal forms. Sim- plicity and grandeur are the chief peculiarities of these forms, from which arose, indeed, no neglect of details, but a subjec- tion of the subordinate parts to the leading forms, which lends 4 to the whole representation a higher degree of clearness. The different characters by which life is artistically represented in its manifold phases and tendencies, appeared sometimes as modifications of these fundamental forms, and sometimes also 5 as intentional deformities. Hence, if it is necessary, on the one hand, to become acquainted with the forms which ap- peared to the Greek sense to be generally correct, it is of not less importance to learn the significance which the Greeks observed in the separate form of each part. 3. On this principle Winck. "W. iv. 63., Emeric David more definite, Rech. sur Tart statuaire considere chez les anciens et chez les modernes. P. 1805. Besides the requirements of the work of art in general which have clear intelligibility and harmonious co-operation for their object, the particular requirements of the material (§. 25, 2.) must also be here taken into account. The dead material admits of less variety of detail than the living body exhibits ; transferred to a rigid brittle mass many things offend and repel which in life operate advantageously for the whole. Different materials also have certainly different laws ; it seems STUDIES OF ANCIENT ARTISTS. 385 from some fragments that th6 ancients gave more of the veins and other slight elevations and depressions of the surface in bronze than in marble. 2. CHARACTER AND BEAUTY OF THE INDIVIDUAL FORMS. A. STUDIES OF THE ANCIENT ARTISTS. 328. Although in Greece even surgeons, and much more 1 artists, were restrained from the dissection of bodies by an invincible horror; on the other hand, by the opportunity 2 ■which ordinary life presented, especially in gymnastic schools and games (although models strictly so-called were not want- ing), the Greek artists, who possessed in a remarkable degree the talent of apprehension, which was improved by practice to a wonderful degree, acquired an infinitely more accurate knowledge of the living human form in action or preparing for action, than can ever be obtained by means of anatomical studies. And if, in individual instances, some irregularities 3 are observable in their productions, yet the works of Greek art in general are more correct and faithful in the represen- tation of nature in proportion as they come nearer to the best times. The statues of the Parthenon exhibit the highest per- 4 fection in this respect, but all that is of genuine Greek crea- tion participated in this freshness and truth; while, in many works of the Alexandrine period, art became ostentatious and, as it were, obtrusive, and among the Romans marmorarii a certain school, which was only attached to generalities, dispensed with the Avarmth and immediateness produced by the direct study of nature. The most accurate study of ana- 5 tomical science, also, is too weak to appreciate, thoroughly to understand, those masterworks, because it must ever be denied the contemplation of the body unfolding its splendour in the fulness of life and the fire of action. 1. [K, F. Hermann iiber die Studien der Griechischen Kiinstler, Gott. 1847. 8vo.] Kurt Sprengel, Gesch. der Arzneikunde i, 456. (1821) supposes the first attempts at dissection to be indicated in Aristotle, and assumes as a certainty (p. 524.) that there were such under the Ptolemies. Ac- cording to others even Galen himself only dissected apes and dogs, and drew conclusions from them to man (according to Vesalius' observa- tion on the OS interrnaxillare). Comp. Blumenbach's lecture de veterum artificum anatomicas peritise laude liraitanda, celebranda vero eorum charactere gentilitio exprimendo accuratione, Gott. G. A. 1823. s. 1241. On the other hand Hirt, Schriften der Berl. Akad. 1820. Hist. CI. s. 296. attempts to prove a synchronistic relation between the development of the art of dissection (from the time of Alcmaeon 01. 70. ?) and the plastic art. Studies of the Ancients in Osteology, Olfers Ueber ein Grab bei Kumae s. 43. 2B 386 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. 2. Many authors mention the Agrigentine virgins (Crotonian, say others, because the picture was at Crotona) as models of the Helena of Zeuxis. (The combination of separate beauties did not appear to the ancient connoisseurs a thing by any means impossible, see Xenoph. M, Socr. iii, 10. Arist. Pol. iii, 6. Cic. de inv. ii, 1.) Of Theodote, -^ to xaAAoj sctvrvjg sTTihi^iu, [and was emulously painted by artists,] Xenoph. iii, 11. The bosom of Lais was copied by the painters, Athen. xiii, 588 d., comp. Aristsenet. i, 1. The passage Plut. Pericl. 13. also points at female models which Phidias used. Male models indeed never occur ; gymnas- tics of course furnished much finer developments of masculine strength and beauty than the formal postures of an academy. Collection of passages in the ancients on beauty in Junius De pict. vet. iii, 9, of little use. 3. Winckelmann iv, 7 AT. has collected from the ancients the principal passages in reference to the vivacity and enthusiasm with which the Greeks conceived corporeal beauty, and pursued this enjoyment ; he has made a few oversights which can be easily rectified. 5. There is no work better calculated to communicate such informa- tion in osteology and myology as is most essential to the archaeologist than Jean-Galbert Salvage's Anatomie du Gladiateur combattant. P. 1812. fol. In the characterizing and detailed description of statues the forms that come most into consideration are those of the musculus mag- nus, pectoralis, rectus ventris,.m. serrati (denteles), magni obliqui, magni dorsales, rhomboides, magni and medii glutaji in the trunk, the sterno- cleido-mastoides and trapezii in the neck and shoulders, the deltoides, biceps, triceps, longus supinator in the arm, and the rectus anterior, in- ternus et externus femoralis, biceps, the gemelli and tendo Achilles in the leg. B. TREATMENT OF THE COUNTENANCE. 1 329. The principle of carrying out the contours in as simple a sweep as possible, whereby that high simplicity and grandeur were produced which especially belonged to ancient art, is shown most distinctly in the Grecian profile of the forms of gods and heroes, by the uninterrupted extension of the line of the forehead and nose, and, on the other hand, the greatly retreating surface which is prolonged from the chin 2 over the cheek in simple and softly rounded swell. Although this profile is certainly borrowed from the beautiful in nature, and is not an arbitrary invention or combination of hetero- geneous ingredients, it is not, however, to be denied that plastic necessities influenced its adoption and development; for instance, the sharp arch of the eye-brows and -the deep sunk eyes and cheeks, which were carried to excess in the Alexandrine period, were employed in order to produce an 3 effect of light to compensate for the life of the eye. To the FOREHEAD, which is bouudcd by the hair in an unbroken arch, but small height was assigned by the Greek national TREATMENT OF THE COUNTENANCE. 387 taste; hence it was often even shortened intentionally by fil- lets. Advancing generally in a gently vaulted elevation, it only in characters of remarkable force swells out into large protuberances over the inner corner of the eye. The finely traced arch over the eye, even in statues in which no eye- brows are given, expresses the fine form of these. The normal NOSE, which has the straight direction and a sharply defined flat ridge, occupies the medium between the eagle-nose, the yiuroi/, and the turned-up, snub nose, the (si>i,()v. The latter was on the whole considered ugly, and regarded as a barbarous form; as the Greeks, however, also recognised it as a general ])eculiarity of children, they fancied that it possessed a nditje grace and roguish petulance; hence the race of satyrs and sileni exhibit this nose sometimes in graceful, sometimes in caricatured development. To the eyes, that luminous point of the countenance, the ancient artists communicated a living play of light, by a sharp projection of the upper eye-lid and deep depression of the pupil, size, by greater opening and arch- ing, and the tender and languishing air which was usually called -ooyh^ by drawn-up and peculiarly formed eye-lids. We may also mention the shortness of the upper lip, its fine form, the gentle opening of the mouth, which, in all statues of the gods that were the products of finished art, enlivens the coun- tenance with a powerful shadow and is often very expressive, and above all, — the most essential sign of genuine Greek for- mation, — the round and grandly formed chin, to which a dimple in a few instances communicates a subordinate charm. The fine and delicate form of the ears is met with universally except where, as in athletes, they are represented as swollen by frequent blows (wra xargayws). 1. See Winck. W. iv, 182. On the other hand Lavater (at that time not without reason) entreated his friends " to wean themselves from the so-called Grecian profiles; they made all faces stupid," and so forth. Meusel, Miscell. xiii, 568. 2. On the relation of the Grecian profile (especially the so-called an- gulus facialis) to nature, P. Camper, Ueber den natiirl, Unterschied der Gesichtsziige des Menschen, s. 63. who denies the reality of that profile. The opposite view taken by Emeric David, Recherches, p. 469. Blumen- bach. Specimen historiae nat. ant. artis opp. illustratae, Commentt. Soc, Gott. xvi. p. 179. Sir Charles Bell, Essays on the Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression, 2d ed. (1824.) Ess. 7. Pacster, Versuch einer Griechen- Symmetrie des menschl. Angesichts in Daub and Creuzer's Studien ii. S. 359. — The principal passage on the Greek national form, in which the Greek profile is also recognised, is Adamanteos Physiogn. c. 24. p. 412. Franz: E/ Vi nai to ' Kh'Krivtx.ov x.xt Iuvikov yivo; i(pv7^a.x^Yi KocBocQug, ovroi daiv etvruqKac f/.iyu'Koi oiuh^eg, tv^vn^oij o^^toi, svTrctyslg, T^iVKors^Oi r^u x^^'^"* ^otv^ol' aocQKog x.^oujiv 'iy,^vrig fisr^ietu, ev'Tsrotynnkqetv, aKt'kyi oQ^ci, oLxqcc iv(pv^' KiipcAKv^v fcsaviu ro f^eys^og, TrsQtccyvi' r^eixri'hov svooxttos/' r^ixuf^* vtto^xu^qi/. 388 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. 6(p^ethfiovg vyqovg. xa.fiO'Trovg, yo^yovg, (fag 'tto^.v 'iyfiyrccg h ccvroig' ivo3V'/5 ac 2«ry^«6 est, Lucret. iv, 1165. The lover, according to Plato (Plutarch, Aristaenetus), calls the aif^og i'Tcixot^i? as well as the y^vTrog (iudi'KiKog. As resembling the satyrs the aif/,o\ are also 'hxyuoi, Arist. Physiogn. p. 123. Comp. Winck, v, 251. 579. vii, 93. 5. [Beauty of connected eye-brows, Jacobs and Philostr. Im. p. 60, 29. Blue eyes {yT^uvKol) ugly, Lucian Dial, meretr. 2.] On the vyi^ov Winck. iv, 114. vii, 120. Aphrodite has it, §. 127. R, 4. ; but also Alexander, see §. 129, 4., likewise Plut. Pomp. 2. The Romans put for it partus, sup- pactulus, of which strabus, squint-eyed, is the excess. In the execution of the eyes in later times (§. 204. R. 2. Winck. iv, 201.), the true prin- ciples of the plastic art were sacrificed to a trivial imitation of nature. 6. To the xi'ihri XfTcroe, was opposed the Tr^ox^'hou, which was usually united with the aif<.6u. The gentle opening, x''^^'^ yjQe^cc liTjo^/aiuoi, was also considered beautiful in nature. [^g/Aw hyi^nfAivcc, Aristajn. p. 213, TQaxny^i^tec Poll, ii, tt^ox^i'^o;, labrosus, T^sTrroxsi'hog.] On the vv/:c(p7i in the chin, Winck. iv, 208. Varro Uof^iotg Tra^Tro?, p. 297. Bip. and Appul. Flor. p. 128. commend the modica mento lacuna as a beauty. The gela- sinus in the cheeks also only becomes satyresk beauties. 7. Winck. has first thrown light on this subject ii, 432. iv, 210. M. I. n. 62., comp. Visconti PCI. vi. tv. 11. p. 20. Comp. the representation of such ears from a bust of Hercules in the M. Napoleon iv, 70., and in the engravings to Winck. iv. tf. D. ' ilroKccroc^ig, uro^T^ccliag, ichuarog (Reuvens, Lettres \ Letr. iii. p. 6.). 330. In Greek art even tlie hair was characteristic and significant. For although thick and long hair was usual in Greece (from the time of the xa^rixofMouvng 'A^aio'i), on the other hand the custom of wearing it cut short prevailed among the ephebi and athletes, and a close-lying, slightly TREATMENT OF THE HAIR. 389 curled head of hair denotes in art figures of this kind. In 2 very masculine and powerful shapes this short-locked hair assumes a stiffer and more crisped form; on the contrary, 3 more expanding hair, curling down over the cheeks and neck in long curved lines, was regarded as the sign of a more soft and delicate character. A proud and lofty feeling of inde- 4 pendence seems to have had as a symbol among the Greeks, hair which reared itself as it were from the middle of the forehead and fell down on both sides in large arches and waves. The particular fashion of the hair, in individual gods 5 and heroes, which is in general very simple, was sometimes determined by the costume of diiferent tribes, ages and ranks, but, in the genuine Greek period, the hair was always arranged with care and elegance, and, at the same time, in a simple and pleasing manner. The shaving of the beard, which was 6 first introduced in the time of Alexander, and even then met with much resistance, very clearly distinguishes later from earlier figures. The artistic treatment of the hair, which in 7 sculpture has always something conventional, resulted, in earlier times, from the general striving after regularity and elegance, and, afterwards, from the endeavour to produce, by the sharp separation of the masses, eifects of light similar to those observable in the natural hair. 1. The short hair of the ephebi has its natural reason in this, that the hair cherished in boyhood was then first cut off (often in honour of deities and rivers). Symbolism of the cutting of the hair, Soph. Aj. 1179 (1158). Instead of the elegant knots (xowog, okoTCKv;, in general kvit^oc), the simple mode of wearing the hair, ax,oi(piou, was then used (comp. Lucian Lexiph. 5. with Thuc. ii, 62. Schol. Aristot. Birds 806. Athen. xi, 494.). Add to this the gymnastic advantages of short hair ; hence Palaestra in Philostr. Imagg. ii, 32. has short hair. Comp. §. 380. (Hermes). 'Ev x^V ot'^oKs- Kx^f<.hos affTTS^ oi cipoBga d'AQa^etg rau u^T^rnrav, Luc. Dial. Mer. 5, 3. 2. OyAof, /3Aofft/goV TO illog, Pollux iv, 136. Comp. §. 372 (Ares). 410 (Heracles). 3. See §. 383 (Dionysus). Especially Eurip. Bacch. 448 : TrAo'xa^oV re ya,^ (xov Tocvoc.6$ ov 'TrxT^mg vto (it is not made so long and slack in the game of wrestling), yhw ntat,^ ctvr'^v KS^vf^iuog, tto^ov 'TrT^iag. T^ixoil^a-riov ^a.'Kax.ou as a sign of the SsAoV, Arist. Physiogn. 3. p. 38. (p. 807. Bekker) 4. Thus in Zeus, §. 349. This kind of hair is called dyuai(/.o'j or dva,- atKKov r(nxuy.a,, Pollux iv, 138. Schneider Lex. s. v. [Hemsterh. Anecd. p. 206.], and is a feature which belongs to the lion, Arist. Physiogn. 5. p. 81 ; in men it denotes the iXsvBi^iou, ibid. 6. p. 151. On the duuxoi'irl^itv r^u xof^ny, Poll, ii, 25, and below §. 413 (Achilles). Of Alexander §. 129. R. 4. The opposite is k'TriasiaTos, like Thraso according to Poll, iv, 147. 5. The early Ionic fashion of the Koovfii^o;. K^oijivT^og or axo^'Trlog (Winck. vii. s. 129. Naeke, Choeril. p. 74. Thiersch, Act. Phil. Mon. iii, 2. p. 273. Gottling, Arist. Pol. p. 326) was a bow of hair fastened aboye 330 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. the forehead, which is perhaps most distinctly seen in the antique ar- rangement of the hair in the ;c&?«/ in the temple of Minerva Polias (§. 109. R. 4). In general use among the earlier Athenians, and even a favourite mode in male statues (see §. 421. R. 1. and Serv. ad ^n. x, 832.), it was afterwards kept up especially among the young, hence in art it is found in Apollo, Artemis and Eros. The rows of curls above the forehead in statues of the old style seem to be the 'T^^ox.vrra,, which was probably Doric, Pollux ii, 29. Photius s. v. {ii6ar^vy^ot, Ann. d. Inst. vi. p. 205.] On the Doric knot of hair on the crown of the head, see Dorians ii. p. 288. The Hectorian hair was copious in front and fell down upon the neck (Poll. ibid. ; the Thesean or Abantic was cut away short in front, Plut. Thes. 5. Schol. II. ii, 11. Very ingenious braids of hair on female heads are to be seen on Sicilian coins. On the want of taste in later times §. 204, 2. 205, 3. Hadr. Junius de coma. Roterod. 1708. [6. Plut. Lysand. 1. Avootu^^ov Se ianu sIkovikos, tv f^xKoc ko/^cuutos 7. See especially Winck. W. iv, 219. C. TREATMENT OF THE REST OF THE BODY. 1 331. From the head downwards, the throat, neck, and SHOULDERS are particularly adapted to distinguish powerful figures, and gymnastically developed, from more delicate forms ; 2 in the former the sternocleidomastoides, trapezius and del- toides musculus are of considerable size and a swelling shape, as in the bull-necked Hercules most especially ; in the latter, on the contrar}', the neck is longer, more languid, and has a 3 certain slackness and flexibility. The breast in men is not in general particularly broad in ancient statues; in the form of the female breast we can distinguish, irrespectively of the forms of different ages and characters, the youthfully vigor- ous, more pointed than expanded form of early art, from the fuller and rounder shape which afterwards became general. 4 The three intersections of the musculus rectus on the waist, as well as the line of the hips below the rectus ventris and the magni obliqui, are in male figures usually marked with 5 particular sharpness. The remarkable size of the musculi glutaei in early Greek reliefs [especially in the oldest metopes of Selinunte,] and vase-paintings, recals Aristophanes' repre- 6 scntation of the youths of the good old stamp. The great lead- ing muscles are everywhere rendered especially prominent, and ' presented in all their strength, as, for example, in the magnus internus {s'Triyowig) of the thighs, the large development of 7 which is characteristic of masculine forms. In the knees is especially displayed the talent of finding the just medium be- tween too sharp indication of the separate bones and parts, and a superficial and ignorant treatment of them. PROPORTIONS. 391 1. Excellent remarks, for that diagnosis of art, which gathers the character from the particular muscles, are to be found in the ancient physiognomists, especially the Aristotelian treatise, which, however, is not altogether Aristotle's. Hercules is admirably described in the dul^ehg, p. 35; T^ix,^fAot aK'hri^ou (§. 330, 2.) — ufAO'TrT^uree.i 'jrT^ccruoci kocI Zi£(ttyix,vioh, T^a,)^Yi'ho; ippufisvos, ov a(p6^^oc axQKohvig, to (TTVi^og ax^Ko^kg re kocI nr'hct.rv (comp. 0.1:0 ark^vuv 'K'Kctrvg ^^a; Theocr. 24, 78). ia^c'iov ir^oasaTocT^fisvou' yxar^OKVYi/icioti (musculi gemelli) Kara Tr^oaearTrocaf^ivott. 6[u,/^cc y^u^O'Tirov ovr& "hietu dus-^rvyfiivou, ovrs irccncfKOLai avf^[/.vov. The comparison attempted by modern writers, not without ingenuity, of different characters with animals (Zeus with the lion, Hercules with the bull, cxg ^^ctf^vlccg kuI ruv d'JoCKu-Kau yjrco'AayMu. Plut. de mul. virtut. HENOKPITH, p. 366, ed. Hutten. The short miUtary chiton, reaching to the middle of the thigh, of linen, is the KVTrccaalg (Pollux) ; it is often met with on vase paintings, but also elsewhere, for instance in the ^ginetan statues, on the stele of Aristion at Athens, on a metope from Selinunte, on the Xanthian monument §. 90.* It occurs in Alcteus.] GRECIAN MALE COSTUME. 401 SviTTi; was a long, parti-coloured, striped chiton, richly adorned, sec Schneider ad Plat. RP. i. p. 335. Schone, De i)ers. in Eurip. Bacchabus, p. 41. The ^{(p^iou of dressed hide, the criavQa. of goat-skin, the fouhyi of similar material, the KxraudK/i with the eke or joint-piece of skin, are peasants or shepherds' apparel, comp. §. 418. R. 3. 427. — The cinctura of the tunica, without latus clavus, is defined by Quintil. xi, 3- so far as that it reached in front somewhat over the knee, and behind ad medios pop- lites ; nam infra mulierum est, supra centurionum. The Greeks thought exactly in this manner. The boy cincticulo praecintus— apud magistrum. Plant. Bacch. iii, 3, 28. 4. The ifixr;ou, i/x.aTiou'E'h?^nuiKou (Lucian de mere. cond. 25.), pallium Gra3canicum (Suet. Dom. 4.), is called in contradistinction to the toga nr^xycjuou, quadratum. See esp. Athen. v. p. 213 b., comp. the Ed. Winck. V. S. 342. The short coarse r^i^amg, r^t^auioc, fiQcax^^oci oiua/Bo'Xccl of the Spartans (Amalth. iii, 37), the poorer class of Athenians, Laconizing Greeks, and philosophers (Jacobs ad Philostr. Imagg. i, 16. p. 304) ; and the chlsena, which was a kind of himation, also four-cornered (see Dor. ii. p. 283. and Schol. II. ii, 183.), but particularly soft, woolly and warm. The xhavlg was still more delicate. The Persian jcocvjukyi was likewise, according to Aristoph., a sort of chlgena. The Punic pallium was also quadrangular, but was fastened around the shoulders by a fibula (Ter- tull. de pall. 1.) ; the same garment is to be seen on Babylonian cyUnders. At home the pallium, on a journey the chlamys, Plautus Mercat. v, 2, 70 sq. together with zona, machsera ampulla, cf. Pseud, ii, 4, 26. Pers. i, 3, 77. the parasite uses ampullam, strigilem, scaphium, soccos, pallium, marsupium, Pers. i, 3, 44. 6. The Greeks oii^'TTiayjjovyra.i g-r? Ssf/flf, that is, in the manner describ- ed in the text, the Thracians It' ao/o-rg^a, Arist. Birds 1568. with the schol. The latter is also said of the parasites, see Beck in loco. ' A;/ot/3aA- ■hiG^ui sTTili^icx, iXsv^s^icj; Plat. Theaet. p. 165 e. Athen. i. p. 21. Here the garment must have reached at least to the knee; this belongs to the iva)cyi/^ojr/>ca m'hi'Ka, the kausia, a high-girded exomis, and a chlamys gathered round the left arm {i(poe,'7rrig §. 337). According to the vase, Milhngen Div. coll. 33., narrow chitons of skins appear to have been common there. The Thes- salian, as well as the Armenian costume, a chiton reaching far down, which is called in tragedy the ^tolian, a girdle around the breast, and an i(pctxrig which tragedy likewise adopts. Strabo xi. p. 530. 3. FEMALE COSTUME. 839. Among the chitons of the women, the Doric and 1 Ionic are easily distinguished. The former^ the old Hellenic, consisted of a piece of woollen cloth, not very large, without sleeves and fastened on the shoulders by clasps, usually sewed together on the left side in the middle, but left open down- wards according to the genuine Doric custom (as ayj^rhg ^/rwi/), so that both skirts (Trs^vysg) either met and were held together by points, or else fell apart and were pinned up for freer movement. The latter, on the contrary, which the lonians 2 received from the Carians, and the Athenians again borrowed from them, was of linen, all sewed, provided with sleeves (xd- ga/), very long and in many folds. Both are frequent in works of art and easily recognised. In both, for the ordinary 3 costume, the girdle {^ojvr^ is essential; it lies around the loins, and by the gathering up of the garment forms the '/.oX'TTog. It is perhaps to be distinguished from the breast- belt, which was usually worn under the dress, but sometimes also above it, as well as from the broader girdle under the breast (^wcr?;^) which is met with particularly in warlike forms. The double chiton arises most simply, when the upper 4 portion of the stuff which is to form the chiton is folded over, so that this fold with its border reaches down beneath the bosom and towards the hips, wh(?re, in works of early Greek art, it usually forms a parallel arch with the xoX'rog before mentioned. As the cloth reaches further down on the left 5 side than on the right, a portion here hangs over in folds (uTO'Trvy/Moc), which was regarded as a principal ornament of Grecian female costume; it was formed as ornately and re^- 404 FORMS OP THE PLASTIC ART. larly by early art, as it was gracefully and agreeably by art in its highest development. 1. Female costume, Becker's Gallus i. s. 318. On the dilFerence of the two chitons, Bottiger Raub der Cassandra, s. 60. The author's ^ginetica, p. 72. Dor. ii. p. 280 sq. The Doric is frequently found in art (Schol. ad Clem. p. 129), in Artemis, Nike, Hebe, Iris (of the Parthe- non), and the MaDnads. The Spartan virgins, as distinguished from wives, were usually f^ouoxirausg (Dor. ii. p. 282., also Plut. Pyrrh. 17), and in this light dress served as cupbearers (Pythsen. kc. ibid.) ; Hebe was formed after them. Therefore also were the statues of Cleino the cup- bearer at Alexandria (Athen. x. p. 425) /^ovoxiraueg, pm-ou k^xtovptss iv ruts x-^'^'"' 2. The Ionic costume is seen especially in the muses; it does not appear altogether pure in the Attic virgins of the Parthenon ; these have mostly half- sleeves with clasps (comp. ^lian V. H. i, 18). The x^'^^" GToT^iharog has a puckered border, flounces ; av^i^a., av^rdg is the tragic dress of stage queens, with the nrct^ccKfiyj^, projecting sleeves of a different colour, and trains which were variously adorned in antiquity, especially with gold spangles. 3. TjOiVfi, and '7ri^i^o){/,oi,, -Trs^i^aar^cc, PoUux. On ^au^u "hmoct Schrader ad Musaeus v. 272. The large y.oh'Kog is in Homer characteristic of Asiatic women (/Sa^yxoAcro/), afterwards of the Ionic costume. The girdle round the bosom is called dTrohiaf/^og, (^uarohixa,, y^ir^ot., yriKovy/ig, 5i/ iTri ffipy^^j/.— The inscription quoted C. I. 155. is rich in names for female apparel. In respect of colour, it appears that garments were here ttv^ FEMALE COSTUME. 405 yarol (perhaps striped, comp. Athen. v. p. 196 e.), also with particoloured borders, nr'hocrvoLhwqyiig, 'TTSQiTroiKi'hoi, both of which are very frequent on. vase-paintings. 'Efc 'Tz'hociatu refer perhaps to the scutulatus textus in Pliny. S40. The himation of women Q/j.driov yvvaixsm) had in 1 general the same form as that worn by men ; a common use therefore might have existed. The mode of wearing it like- wise followed mostly the same fundamental rule; only the en- velopment was generally more complete, and the arrangement of the folds richer. The peplos, which was very much worn 2 in early times, but which in the flourishing period of Athens had gone out of use, and was only to be seen on the tragic stage, is recognised with certainty, in the statues of Pallas in the early style, as a regularly folded, somewhat closely fitting upper garment (§. 96. No. 7.) ; we see from other works of Greek 3 art where no aggis conceals the upper part, that it was twisted across round the chest, and was there pinned together; it has often also a kind of cape in the manner of the diploidion. Women, for whom the himation generally speaking was more 4 essential than for maidens, often drew it over the head, al- though there were also separate veils for the head ((pds^iov, xaX-j-rr^a, x^7ids/j.vov, rica), as well as various kinds of fillets {/MiToa, (fT^6(piov, dvads(f/j^ri, vitta) and NETS (xsx^'j^aXog, reticulum) for the hair. 1. ' Ifiuriov is perhaps less usual than stt IfiT^Yifix, -Trs^IfiT^Yifcoc, and espe- cially d/^TTs^ov^, a,/^7:£x,6viov, hence oivoi7rix,ovos is synonymous with ^tioz/o- xircov. The Herculanean matron §. 199. R. 7. is a model of fine duxfto'A'^ ; but many terracottas even from Greece are still more nobly and brilliantly draped. 3. The figures of the Corinthian relief, §. 96. No. 15. especially, and in particular Pallas, Artemis and the first Charis, are to be compared with one another in order to learn the mode of putting on the peplos. Accordingly, in what is said in the Minerv. Poliad. p. 25 sqq. there are some things that require more accurate determination. The tragic wri- ters seem to employ the word very indefinitely ; in Soph. Trach. 921. the peplos is a Doric chiton, and also elsewhere. 4. Here are also to be mentioned the fillets for the forehead and hair, with reference for information to Gerhard, Prodromus, s. 20 fF. Berlin's Antike Denkm. S. 371 fF. Special dress of a matron Kof^ug Ku^daot, Aristoph, Thesm. 841., on the contrary aK»(ptov d'TroxsKOQ/xsvn 838. '12Ts(pocvYi is the metal plate rising high in the middle over the forehead, on the contrary arkcpocvog denotes the crown equally broad throughout the circumference, as in the Argive Hera §. 120. R. 2. StpgySo^jj is similar in form to the sUng, arT^iyyi; to the strigil. " Af/,'7rv^ seems to be rather a metal ring which confines the hair, especially at the back of the head, comp. Bottiger, Vasengemahlde ii, 87, Aiochnf^a, is a fillet which ia placed among the hair and of equal breadth all round the head ; to be seen with especial distinctness on the heads of the Macedonian kings. 406 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. Tuiutct is usually a broader fillet with two narrower ones at each end^ well known from representations of Nike (volans de caslo cum corona et tajniis Ennius ap. Festum) [comp. Welcker Griech. Trag. S. 467. 1582.] as a gymnastic honorary ornament, also as an erotic ornament (Athen. xv. p. 668 d. Welcker Schulzeit. 1831. N. 84), lastly as a decoration of tombs (CtBcilius ap. Fest.), known especially from vase-paintings. Comp. Welcker Ann. d. Inst. 1832. p. 380 sq. The twisted fillet of the athletes and of Hercules consists of several taeniae of diflferent colours, [ruivioi >.ivKvi Trs^i T^ ^£T6)-r 418 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. who were themselves only organs of the general voice, gradual- ly developed these ideas in a more individual and stable man- ner, although indeed Homer had not in this way attained the sensible definiteness which existed in the times when the 5 plastic art was in full splendour (§. 65.). Now, when sculp- ture, on its part, had improved so far as to seize the external forms of life, in their truth and fulness of significance, there was nothing more required than to express those already in- dividualized ideas in corresponding grandiose forms. Although this could never take place without an altogether peculiar conception, without inspiration and an effort of genius on the part of the artists; the general national idea of the deity, however, existed, and served as a touchstone of the correctness 6 of the representation. Now, if this established and definite idea of the god, in connexion with the exquisite sense of the Greeks for the character of forms, felt itself completely satisfied, NORMAL IMAGES resulted, to which succeeding artists adhered with lively freedom, and with that correct taste, peculiar to the Hellenic nation, which was equally removed from Oriental stiffness and modern egotism. There arose images of gods and heroes, which possessed not less internal truth and stability, 7 than if the gods themselves had sat to the artists. All this could take place in such a way only among the Greeks, be- cause in Greece only was art to such an extent a national activity, the Greek nation only a great artist. 3. Therefore the images of the gods seemed to the Greeks, as it were, a peculiar nation of nobler nature ; if they had made their appearance in life, all others, says Arist. Pol. i, 2., would have looked like slaves be- side them, as the barbarians beside the Greeks. 5. The way in which the ideals of the gods were gradually estab- lished by faithful adherence to the popular notion, is not ill detailed by Dion. Chrysost. xii. p. 210. 6. Therefore the images of the gods, especially those which by fre- quent imitation had become canonical, are also monuments of the reli- gious notions prevailing at the time when they arose, and, on the other hand, the knowledge of the latter assists in determining the time of the former. Heyne's treatise De auctoribus formarum quibus dii in prisc96 artis operibus efficti sunt, Commentat. Gott. viii. p. xvi., is based on an excellent idea, which must be again taken up in a. more enlarged appli- cation. Schorn Umrisse s. 20 : <' These gods are human persons, but an innocence exalted above all opposition pervades their essence and their actions." Griineisen ueber das Sittliche der bild. Kunst bei den Griechen in lUgen's Zeitschr. fiir die hist. Theol. iii, 2. s. 1. (a healthy corporeal organisation bears in itself elements of morality.) Comp. Tholuck Litt. Anzeiger 1834. No. 69. Griineisen Ueber bildliche Darstellung der Gottheit, comp. Tholuck ibid. No. 68. 1 348. This activity was on the whole most completely devel- IDEAL FORMS OF THE GODS. 419 oped In those gods who had been most idealized, that is, whose whole essence could be least reduced to a fundamental notion. We can certainly say of them: they do not signify, they are; but this has not its foundation in that they had ever been objects of external experience, but only in the circumstance that these ideal beings had so to speak lived through the entire history of the Greek tribes which worshipped them, and bore in their character the most diversified impressions thereof Hence they are in art corporeal in the highest de- gree, they have the most energetic personality. These are the Olympian gods, supreme Zeus with his brothers, sisters and children. 1. For what follows we have to mention as general aids : Montfau- con, Antiq. expl. i. (an extremely rude, but still indispensable collection). A. Hirt's Bilderbuch fiir Mythologie, Archaologie und Kunst. 2 Hefte text, the same quantity of engravings. B. 1805 and 1816 in 4to. A. L. Millin, Galerie Mythologique. P. 1811. 2 vols, text, 2 vols, engravings (190 plates), published in German at Berlin. Spence's Polymetis (a com- parison of works of art with passages in poets). L. 1774. fo. "We pass by the frivolous and uncritically prepared collections of mythological figures, with which the public is always imposed upon from time to time. 3. Groups of the Twelve Gods of Olympus (not always of the same) in the old style, have been mentioned above, §. 96. N. 16 ; the most im- portant monument is the Borghese ara. A Borghese vase (Mon. Gab. 16. 17; now in the L. 381. Clarac, pi. 171.) exhibits the heads of the twelve gods, arbitrarily arranged as it appears, and their attributes as signs of the months combined with zodiacal constellations. Aphrodite April, Apollo May, Hermes June, Zeus July, Demeter August, Hephaestus September, Ares October, Artemis November, Hestia December, Hera January, Poseidon February, Athena March. Eleven deities assembled round Zeus, M. Cap. iv, 8. G. M. pi. 5, 19. [comp. Lersch, Jalirb. des Vereins im Rheinlande iv. s. 150.] A Pompeian picture of the twelve deities, in a row, above two genii loci, Gell. pi. 76. Heads of many gods in medallions, Pitt. Ere. iii, 50. [Gerhard Ueber die zwolf Gotter Griech- enlands with 4 pi. B. 1842.] A. THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN DEITIES. 1. ZEUS. 349. Zeus, the god of heaven, was regarded by the ancient 1 Greeks as the father of all life in nature. According to the legend of the Argives he solemnized, in the genial rain of spring, the sacred nuptials with Hera ; the nourishing oak and the fruitful dove symbolized him at Dodona as a god of benign influence ; and in Crete his youthful history was related pretty nearly in the same way as that of Bacchus in other places. 420 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 2 111 ancient symbolical representations, he was interpreted as a god having dominion in three kingdoms at the same time, in heaven, on earth, and under the earth. Zeus, however, did not receive his artistic form, as a god of nature, but, in ethic development, as the not less gracious than powerful sovereign 3 and governor of the worlds of gods and men. This union of attributes, after many less profoundly conceived notions of 4 early art, was advanced by Phidias to the most intimate com- bination (§. 115.), and undoubtedly it was he also that estab- lished the' external features which all succeeding artists, in proportion to their artistic skill, endeavoured to reproduce 5 (comp. §. 140. R 3. 158. R. 1.). To these belonged the arrange- ment of the hair, which rose up from the centre of the fore- head, and then fell down on both sides like a mane (§. 330, 4), the brow clear and bright above, but greatly arching forward beneath, the deep-sunk but wide-opened and rounded eyes, the delicate, mild lineaments round the upper lip and cheeks, the full rich beard descending in large wavy tresses, the noble, ample and open chest, as well as a powerful, but not unduly enlarged muscular development of the whole body. 6 From this character, which is stamped on the most and best of the statues of Zeus, there are the following deviations : on the one hand, the more youthful and softer form, with less beard and masculine vigour in the countenance, which is usually called, but without any sure ground, Zeus Meilichios; 7 on the other, there are heads of Zeus to be met with, which bear a certain, though still very softened, expression of anger and martial vehemence, in the more violently waving locks and more excited features, and which represent the battling, aveng- ing, punishing god. According to Pausanias, Zeus Horkios, the oath- avenger at Olympia, with a thunderbolt in each hand, appeared the most terrible. 1. See for general information Bottiger's Kunstmythologie, s. 290 ff. and the continuation in the sketch only circulated in manuscript among his friends. On the isQog yu/aog of the Argives, Welcker, Appendix to Schwenk's Etymol-Mythol. Andeutungen, s. 267. On the Dodonajan Zeus, especially Vaicker, Mythol. des Japet. Geschlechts, s. 83 ff., on the Cretan, Hoeck's Kreta i. s. 234 ff. 2. On the ancient Z. r^io^^cfh/no;, Paus. ii, 24, 5., who certainly ex- plains him correctly. The Triopian Zeus, who plays such a significant part in the worship of the Chthonian gods, is probably the same [taken from the same Zeus]. 3. Ageladas' Zeus of Ithome is supposed by Millingen (Anc. Coins 4, 20., comp. Mionnet, Suppl. iv. pi. 6, 22.) to be the standing, naked figure, with the thunderbolt in the right hand, and the eagle in the left, on Messenian coins. In the Borghese relief Zeus appears with sceptre and thunderbolt, the elegantly folded himation thrown around his breast OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ZEUS. 421 and loins, the beard pointed, and tresses falling on the shoulders. On the antique relief in Wilton house (Muratori Inscr. i. p. 35. Bockh. C. I. 34.) Zeus, sedent and half-draped, bears an eagle on his left hand. In the ancient vase-style, sitting, with pointed beard, holding the thunderbolt, for ex- ample §. 99. R. 3, 11., comp. the birth of Pallas §. 371.,. of Dionysus 384. 5. The most important statue — not a work however of the first rank — is the Verospi Jupiter Race. 135. PCI. i, 1. [new article in the Opere div. ii. p. 423 — 25.] comp. Gerhard, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 193. [The Verospi Z. is according to Payne Knight far surpassed by a statue in the possession of Mr. Smith Barry, Marbrook Hall, Cheshire.] Colossus at lldefonso unknown. Colossal biists from Otricoli calculated for being looked at from below. PCI. vi, 1. M. Fran9. iii, 1. Still more sublime the colossal, but much mutilated bust in the Boboli garden at Florence, Winck. iv. Tf. 1 a. Another in the Florentine Gallery, Winck. iv, 316. A fine bust at Naples, M. Borb. v. 9. A fine mask of Zeus, Bouillon i. pL 67. Statue of Zeus, Clarac pi. 665—694. 6. A fine bust of this description from the Townley collection, in the British Museum, Spec. 31. The fine head also which stands on a trunk composed of fragments, at Dresden 142., Augusteum 39., presents similar youthful forms. 7. For instance, the torso which formerly belonged to the Medicean collection, and which has been at Paris, L. 682 [p. 3.], since the time of Louis XIV. M. Nap. i, 3. Bouill. i, 1. Clarac, pi. 312. [A torso in the Mus. del princ. Biscari p. 5. is highly praised by Sestini, Bartel's Br. iiber Sicilien ii. S. 135. Body of a colossal Jupiter without head, Millin Voy. au Midi de la France pi. 69, 11. Colossal herma of Zeus, of the time of the Cesars, in Sarskoezelo, Kohler in the Journal von Russland i. S. 342. Upper half figure of Zeus, Mus. Brescian. tv. 35.] The celebrated, but also doubtful cameo in the Lib. of St. Mark with the head of Z. jEgiochus (Treatises by Visconti and Bianconi, G. M. 11, 36.) exhibits love of battle, pride of victory and clemency finely blended together. A life-size statue of Z. ^giochus in Leyden, Archaol. Intell, Bl. 1836. N. 47. The head of Z. 2T^5tr>37oc from Amastris, shows a similar bold disposition of the hair, Combe N. M. Brit. 9, 9. 10. On deviations in the form of the hair and beard of Z. Visconti PCI. vi. p. 1. 2. 350. The sitting posture of the statues of Zeus, in which 1 the himation, which is sunk down to the loins, forms the usual drapery, is connected with the idea of tranquil power, victo- rious rest ; the standing posture (d/aX/xara op^a)^ in which the 2 himation is often entirely discarded, or only the back is cov- ered, carries with it the idea of activity ; Zeus is then conceived as protector, patron of political activity, or as the god who punishes and guards with thunderbolts. Here also there is 3 sometimes found a youthful form, in regard to which we must conceive Zeus as still contending, and not yet come to the dominion of the world. However, there is much calm even in the standing figures of Zeus ; violent striding is not suited to the form of this god. The patera as a sign of worship, 4 the sceptre as a symbol of sway, the goddess of victory in 422 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. his hand, the eagle, his messenger, and the thunderbolt, his 5 weapon, are his principal attributes. The wreath of wild olive (xoTivog) distinguishes the Olympian from the Dodonaean Jupiter, who has the crown of oak-leaves, and much also that is peculiar in the disposition of the hair as well as in configu- 6 ration. Representations in which his significance as a god of nature, a mystical reference, or his relation to the system of the universe appear prominently, are comparatively rare, and, for the most part, not earlier than the times of declining art, or else they are borrowed from Asiatic regions. Essential 7 deviations are presented by the barbarian deities which were merely Hellenized as Zeus. 1. A sedent Zeus at Olympia, also in other places, as '^iK^^oQog, Victor (Combe N. Brit. 6, 24. G. M. 10, 43. 177 b, 673.) ; marble statuette at Lyons, Zeus as Olympius, Clarac pi. 397. no. 665. [Annali d. Inst. xiii. p. 52. tv. D.]; Z. Bphesius, Mionnet Suppl. vi. pi. 4. no. 1. comp, T. iii. p. 98. no. 282. Zeus Idseus, with Pallas on bis left, on coins of Ilion, M. I. d. Inst. 57. ; moreover the Zeus with the eagle on his hand, who, according to the coins, belonged to a Macedonian sanctuary (probably Dion) ; likewise the Capitoline Zeus with the thunderbolt in his right hand, the left on the sceptre, Morelli N. Fam. Inc. tb. 1, 1. Impp. Vitell. tb. 2, 8. The sitting Zeus has often, as the appeased thunderer, the thunderbolt in his lap, Tassie, Cat. i. p. 86. 87. no. 941. 942. also a victor's crown, G. M. 9, 44. An enthroned Zeus, which also expresses rest by leaning his head on his right hand, in a Pompeian picture, Zahn 26. Gell, N. Pomp, pi, 66. M. Borb. vi, 52. The colossal statue of Zeus from Solus completely draped, with elegant footstool, Serradifalco Cenni sugli avanzi di Solunto tv. 3. [Antich. d. Sicilia T. v. tv. 38.] ; Z. sitting on the eagle, bronze from Oberndorf, hist. Abhdl. der Miinchner Akad. Bd. V. tf. 7. 2. Standing (as the Z. Nemeios, Paus. ii, 20, 3.) and wrapped in the himation, for example that of Laodicea having the sceptre in the left and the eagle in the right hand, on coins of concord. Less enveloped the statues of Jupiter, M. Cap. iii, 2. 3. Bouill. iii, 1, 1. Clarac, pi. 311. The hierat. relief PCI. iv, 2. Zeus ^tna)us on coins. Bull. d. Inst. 1831. p. 199. The standing Z. Homagyrios of the Achaeans entirely undraped, with a Nike on the right, the sceptre in the left hand. N. M. Brit. 7, 15. 8, 6. A standing Jupiter, with little drapery, with thunderbolt and sceptre, bronze from Besan9on. Cab. Pourtales pi. 3. Often on Roman coins, un- draped in front ; as J. Stator ; as Conservator hurling the thunderbolt, with sceptre G. M. 9, 45. J. Imperator, with the right hand resting on a lance, the thunderbolt in the left, with the left foot planted higher, on coins of Coramodus, Pedrusi v, 17. (comp. however Levezow Jupiter Im- per. B. 1826. s. 13.). [J. Imperator or Urius on a coin of Syracuse and in a statue from Tyndaris, Abeken in the Annali xi. tv. A. p. 62. comp. 0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 31. Cavedoni Bull. 1840. p. 69. 110.] On the gem of the supposed Onesimus, Millin P. gr. 2., with sceptre, patera, and an eagle beside him carrying a garland in its beak. Fine bronze from Paramythia, entirely without drapery, with patera, Spec, i, 32. [another from the same place, also naked, with chlamys however on the arm, ib^d. ZEUS, DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS. 423 52. 53.] ; such bronze figures are frequent; the thunderbolt is more usual than the patera, Ant. Ere. vi, 1, 2. Athenian coins on which Zeus, with thunderbolt and patera, steps slightly forward, N. Brit. 7, 1. Statue M. Cap. iii, 4. Bouill. iii, 1, 3. 3. An unbearded Zeus standing , with thunderbolt and aegis girded round his left arm, with the inscription ^uaov, Gerame SchUchtegroll Pierr. grav. 20. G. M. 11, 38., comp. Winck. W. v. s. 213. A youthful Z. (Tinia) with the thunderbolt on the Ficoroni Etruscan mirror, Etrus- ker ii. s. 44. Unbearded statues of Zeus in Pans, vii, 24. v, 24. Zeus HeUenius without beard on Syracusan coins ; on Roman (Stieglitz Distr. num. fam. p. 35.) ; gems of this sort, Tassie, p. 84. no. 886. 4. On coins of Elis (Millingen, Anc. coins, pi. 4, 21.) Z. lets the eagle fly as his augury. On gems (Lippert ii, 4. 5. Tassie i. p. 87.) which treat the subject sportively the eagle receives from Z. the garland which he is to carry to a favourite ; he is also seen bearing the thunderbolt, with garland or palm in his beak. The eagle killing the hare or the serpent,, on gems and coins, is an ancient augury of victory. Zeus as Kccrccifiarvig holds the thunderbolt in his right, sitting on a rock, the eagle at his feet, on coins of the Cyrrhestians, of the time of the Antonines, Mionnet Descr. v. p. 135 sq. Burmann de Jove Kocrui^otrvj. The thunderbolt lies on a throne as an idol of worship on coins of Seleucia in Syria, comp. Norisius, Ann. Syromac. p. 267. The thunderbolt is mostly formed as Ks^ocv'jog ccixfioc-Tx;, often also with wings. 5. On Elean coins the head of Z. Olympius with the Kotinos garland, on the reverse the eagle with the serpent or the hare. N. Brit. 7, 17 sqq. Stanhope Olympia, pi. 17. Descr. de I'Egypte v. pi. 59. The Olympian Z. is also characterized by the sphinxes at the arms of the throne (Pans. v,. 11, 2.), on the Parthenon, in the reUef in Zoega, Bass, i, 1. Hirt, Bild. ii. s. 121. Tf. 14, 1. (Zeus, Alpheus as man, JSlian V. H. ii, 33., Olympias, Poseidon, Isthmias). The Dodonaean Z. on coins of Pyrrhus in Mionnet, Descr. pi. 71, 8. [E. Braun recognises him Dekaden i, 4, in a herma at Berlin, crowned with oak-leaves] ; the female figure enthroned, with polos and sceptre, with her drapery drawn over the shoulder in the manner of Aphrodite, is certainly the Dodonsean Dione. Heads of Zeus and Dione are seen to- gether on coins of the Epirotes; behind, an Epirote (iovg Bov^iog 'Kot^tnog, N. Brit. 5, 14., comp. 15. Mionnet Suppl. iii. pi. 13. Allier de Haute- roche 5, 18. The Capitoline Jove is without a wreath on the denarii of the gens Petilia. 6. Z. tI>/A;oc, as Dionysus, but with the eagle on the thyrsos, sculptur- ed by Polyclitus, Paus. viii, 31, 2. On coins of Tarsus with sceptre or thunderbolt in the right hand, ears of corn and grapes or a cup in the left, Tolken, Berl. Kunstbl. i. s. 175. On Pergamenian coins, under this name, with a goblet in the right and sceptre in the left, Eckhel Sylloge, p. 36. Z. ithyphallic Boissard vi, 127. Clarac pi. 404. n. 692 c. ; Z. with spring flowers in his crown, Panofka Z. und ^gina s. 6. Z. "O/icfi^tog showering upon the earth from a cornucopia, on an Ephesian coin of Antoninus Pius, Seguin, Sel. Num. p. 154., Eckhel D. N. ii. p. 514. J. Plu- vius from the Col. Anton. G. M. 9, 41. Z. with cornucopia often on later coins. The Zeus Apomyios on gems (Winck. M. I. no. 13.) is now ex-- plained more correctly by Kohler, Masken, s. 13. 424 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. Zeus as central point of the universe, sitting with the thunderbolt, sur- rounded by the sun and moon, earth and sea and the zodiac, beautiful coin max. mod. of Nicsea, under Anton. Pius, Mionnet Suppl. v. p. 78. Similar coins of Alex. Severus, Pedrusi v, 21, 1. Zeus Serapis surround- ed by planets and the zodiac, on Egyptian coins under Antoninus Pius, Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xli. p. 522. pi. 1, 11. Gem in Lippert i, 5. Of Zeus as planet §. 399. J. Exsuperaniius richly draped, with cornucopia and patera on later reliefs; on a gem of the archaising style, Millin Pierr. grav. 3. Here a butterfly sits upon the patera. Comp. Winck. v. s. 229. Veiled (as a hidden deity 1) in the Samian terracotta, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 1. ; PCI. V, 2. ; Lippert i, 9. ; at the same time with chaplet of oak-leaves and winged thunderbolt 1 M. Odesc. 33. Winded, Winck. iii. s. 180. Of Zeus Hades §. 397. 7. Z. Ir^ariog, Aufi^xuhvg, of Mylasa and the neighbouring towns, an antique idol with double axe and lance, entirely draped, see for example Buonarroti, Medagl. tv. 10, 10. Z. Ammon on coins of Cyrene, Aphytis and other Greek cities, Alexandria, and Rome, on gems. J. Axur or Anr- WW of Terracina, without beard, crowned with rays, enthroned, on coins, G. M. pi. 9—11. J. Dolichenus §. 241. R. 2. Z. Casius §. 240. R. 1. 1 851. In larger compositions Zeus sometimes appears re- presented as a child, in accordance with the Cretan mythus, which Hesiod had already blended and reconciled with the usual 2 Greek notions; sometimes as securing to himself the domi- nion of the world by his combat with the giants (the war with the Titans, which was much earlier and much more frequently sung, not being a subject for the plastic art), whom he usually 3 smites down with thunderbolts from his battle-chariot. Now, since Zeus, after having attained sovereign sway, seldom in- terferes in the perplexities of life, there only remain as greater representations his various amours, which sprang for the 4 most part from early natural religion. In lo, who sometimes appears as a cow, and sometimes as a virgin Avith the horns of a cow, and in the figure of Europa carried by the bull, with her drapery fluttering round her in the form of an arch, art adhered pretty faithfully to the ancient symbolical ideas; however it brings Europa to Zeus in eagle's form, in a more lascivious relation, which, in the love of Zeus as a swan for Leda (a favourite subject of art, now become luxurious, in the Macedono-Roman period), degenerates into an almost un- 5 disguised representation of drunken voluptuousness. The in- trigues of Zeus also furnished poetry and painting with materi- 6 als for comical representations. The rape of the beautiful boy Ganymede forms a kind of counterpart to the story of Leda. — Among the collocations of Zeus with other deities, the Capi- toline group, Juno on the left and Minerva on the right of Jupiter, is of especial importance. Figures of Victories, Fates, Graces and Hours, as parerga of figures of Zeus, are as it were ZEUS, DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS. 425 expositions of his sublime attributes and the different phases of his being. 1. The infant Zeus under the goat Amalthea, Rhea present, the Cu- retes making a din, on the four-sided altar, M. Cap. iv, 7. G. M. 5, 17. [The child in the lap of the nymph, and the child lying on the ground between and among the noisy Curetes M. d. I. iii, 17. Ann. xii, tv. k, p. 141. and Campana Opere di plastica tv. 1. 2.] The child beside the mo- ther in a grotto, Curetes (Corybantes) around, on coins of Apamea, Mion- net no. 270. (Bossi^re Med. du Roi, pi. 29.) ; the infant surrounded by noisy Curetes on Imperial coins of Magnesia and Mseonia (Mon. d. Inst. 49 A 2.; comp. §. 395.). J. Crescens on Amalthea G. M. 10, 18. J. and Juno as sucklings of Fortuna at Praeneste, Cic. de div. ii, 41. comp. Ger- hard Ant. Bildw. Tf. 2. Z. as a boy at jEgion. 2. Z. Oigantomaclios in his chariot, on the famous cameo of Athenion, in the Royal collection at Naples (Bracci, Mem. degli ant. Incisori i, 30. Tassie, pi. 19, 986. Lipp. iii, 10. M. Borb. i, 53, 1. G. M. 9, 33.), of which there is a copy at Vienna (Eckhel Pierr. Grav. 13, comp. Lipp. i, 13.) ; on a coin of Cornelius Sisenna (Morelli Corn. tb. 5, 6.) ; in a line vase-painting, Tischb. i, 31. [EKte ceramogr. i, 13.; Zeus with a hawk on his left hand, advances against Porphyrion, with a thunderbolt in his uplifted right hand, a vase from Vulci, engraved in Dubois Antiq. de M. le C. Pourtal^s no. 123. p. 27.] ; on the peplos of the Dresden Pallas. Z. hand to hand with a giant, on a paste, Schlichtegroll 23. ; thus also on a coin of Diocletian, Walsh, Essay on Anc. Coins, p. 87. no. 19. On the giants, from whom Typhoeus is scarcely to be distinguished, comp. §. 396. 4. Zeus's love for lo the Argive priestess of Hera, and originally god- dess of the moon, interestingly represented in the vase-painting, Millin- gen. Coll. de Cogh. pi. 46. ; we see the wooden image of Hera, lo as Trun- Beuog fiovKSQCjg (Herod. ii, 41.), Z. still beardless, with the eagle-sceptre. Comp. §. 363, 2. The lo-cow guarded by Argus, on gems, M. Flor. i, 57, 3. Lipp. ii, 18. Schlichtegroll 30. comp. Moschos ii, 44. and §. 381. An in- teresting mural painting from Pompeii, M. Borb. x, 2. lo (as Tra^^ivo; ftovKs^ag) borne by the Nile and greeted by Egypt, who holds the Urseus- serpent in the hand, and Egyptians, brandishing sistra. Near them sits the new-born Epaphus as Horus. [Harpocrates according to Quaranta. The same representation repeated there.] Interesting Apulian vase-paint- ing, Argus covered all over with eyes. [Now in Panof ka Argos Panoptes B. 1835. Tf. 3. Large vase-painting from Ruvo, with many other monu- ments. M. d. I. ii, 59. Ann. x. p. 253 — 66. by Cav. Gargallo Grimaldi, together with a list of the monuments referring to the subject p. 328., comp. also p. 312 ss. and Minervini in the Bull. Napol. iii. p. 42 — 46., who also gives p. 73. tv. 4. an Argos bifrons, who was only known from the .^gimius, with eyes over his whole body. This subject appears twice on archaic vases in the Revue Archeol. 1846. iii. with explanation by Vi- net p. 309 — 20. The slaying of Argos also on a plate now in England, Gerhard Archaol. Zeit. 1847. Tf. 2. s. 18. See §. 381. R. 7.] Love for Europa, a Cretan goddess of night and the moon (Bottiger Kunstmythol. s. 328. Hoeck, Kreta i. s. 83. Welcker, Kret. Kolonie, s. 1 fF.). Europa on Zeus as the Bull, ancient bronze statue by Pythago- ras (Varro de L. L. v, 6. §. 31.) On coins of Gortyna we see Europa 426 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. borne by the bull (N. Brit. 8, 12. Bottiger Tf. 4, 8.), then sitting on the plane on the banks of the Lethaeus, whose withered branches seem to bud afresh, Z. as eagle beside her (N. Brit. 8, 10. 11.) ; the eagle also presses close to her bosom (Mionnet Suppl. iv. pi. 10. 1.) : the so-called Hebe, Lipp. ii, 16. Schlichtegroll 38., is perhaps to be explained from this. E. stroking the bull, ancient coins of Phaestus, Streber Miinchner Denkschr. Philol. i. Tf. 2, "5 ; E. on the plane, coins of Myrine (V. M.), Streber ibid. 6. 7. She is seen also on the bull with fluttering drapery, on later coins of Sidon (SanClem. 15, 152. 153. 36, 6. 7. N. Brit. 12, 6.), and denarii of the gens Volteia, Morelli no. 6. Comp. the [fictitious] picture (Achil. Tat. i, 1.) in the sepulchre of the Nasones in Bartoli 17.; the vase-paintings, Millin- gen Div. coll. 25. [Elite ceramogr. i, 27. ; an unedited one, ibid. pi. 28.] ; Millin, Vas. ii, 6. ; Ann. d. Inst. iii. p 142. [Gerhard Auserl. Vas. ii, 90, Vasi FeoK no. 3. E. on the bull repeated on both sides, one from ^gi- na, now in Munich, an amphora from Ruvo very fine, Bull. 1844. p. 94. The Barberini mosaic in Turnbull pi. 11, and in d'Agincourt pi. 13, 8, one from Luceria, Finati M. Borbon. p. 334. The Vatican group in Clarac pi. 406. no. 695. is a Nike fiovBvTomot. E. on the bull, Eros crowns her, a dog leaps before her, a youth with a garland, one with a lance, and a satyr at each side. Small amphora in E. Braun. In Turnbull's Treatise on anc. painting 1740. pL 8. a painting in a large style, E. carried off, with eight beholders, mostly maidens.] Gems, Beger, Thes. Brand, p. 195.; Lipp. i, 14. (15.?); Schlichtegroll 29. Zeus as the swan embracing Zeda. C. Fea, Osserv. suUa Leda. 1802. [ed. 2. 1821.], in which six similar statues are engraved. M. Flor. iii, 3. 4. [MilHn Mag. encycl. 1803. v. p. 404.] In these statues the swan is often more like a goose, perhaps not without allusion to Priapian sacra (Bot- tiger Here, in bivio, p. 48.). Ad. Fabroni on this account referred these statues to Lamia Glaucia who was beloved by a gander. Grandly con- ceived group St. di S. Marco ii, 5. ; a perfectly similar relief, from Argos,. is preserved in the Brit. Museum. [0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. Tf. 1. s. 6. To the statues of Leda with the swan ibid. s. 2. must be added three more, — a pretty good copy in London in Lansdowne House, in the statue gallery, another at Oxford, and one from Spain Antiq. Pourtales, no. 37.] Clarac pi. 411 — 13. [An injured mosaic floor at Xanthus contains the finest composition, of which there is a drawing in Sir C. Fellows, Leda stands surprised by feeling and shame, stretching out her arms, the swan picks at her blue peplos.] On gems in very different postures (Veneris figurae) Tassie, pi. 21.; Lipp. i, 16 ff. ii, 8 ff. ; Eckhel P. gr. 34. —Pitt. Ere. iii, 89. M. Borbon. x, 3. Zeus enclasping Antiope on an Etruscan mirror, Inghir. ii, 17. ; the satyr in whose form he stole upon her stands by. Z. himself also as a satyr, on gems, Lippert. i, 11. 12. Zeus as eagle carrying away ^Eghia (?), Vaseng. Tischb. i, 26. Panofka Zeus und ^gina B. 1836. On the Ber- lin vase Tf. i, 1. [Elite ceramogr. i, 17.] -^gina is confounded with Hebe Ganymeda and cosmically interpreted, completely without foundation. Tf. ii, 6. [Elite i, 16.] from Tischbein i. 26. Panofka also refers thereto the figure sitting on the floor with an eagle, " Sun and Fire eagles," above ; these gems belong to the last period of antiquity, before the body-re- solving Psyche ; but see Tf. ii, 4 ; Europa on coins of Gortys D. A. K. i, 41, 186. is Thalia--<3Egina, mere sports. [Vase in the Mus. Gregor. with ZEUS, DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS. 427 the names by Melchiorri in the Atti dell' Accad. Rom. di Archeol. viii. p. 389 — i34, also in E. Braun Ant. Marmorwerke i, 6, together with a simi- lar one from the Durand collection. Zeus in person, and together with the fragment of a relief of peculiar composition.] The golden shower of Danae in a Pompeian picture, Zahn 68. M. Borb. ii, 36. [Vase of Cav. Campana from Caere, of grand design, Danae under the golden shower, Rv. D. enclosed in the chest, the child in her lap, Dictys and Polydectes standing before her, to whom she speaks of the feelings of a mother in a fragment of Euripides. Bull. 1845. p. 214—18.] On Semele §. 384. 5. Zeus and Hermes entering the house of Alcmeim, after a farce of Lower Italy, Winck. M. I. 190. Hancarville iv. 105. Comp. the author's Dorians ii, 367. The same scene, but without the attributes of the gods, on the variegated vase M. Pourtales pi. 10., Zeus mounting the ladder. On the coiFer of Cypselus was to be seen the winning of Alcmena by means of a cup. 6. On GanyTnedes §. 128. 1. Separate statues PCI. ii, 35. Piranesi 21. ; M. Flor. 5. (much restored). The rape, St. di S. Marco ii, 7. Caylus ii, 47, 3. SchlichtegroU Pierr. grav. 31. Giving drink to the eagle, PGl. V, 16., frequently on gems, Lipp. i, 21 ff. Thes. Ant. Grec. i, v. Zeus kissing Ganymede on a Herculanean painting (or one substituted by Mengs), Winck. v, Tf. 7., comp. Luc. Dial. Deor. 5. Gan. instructed by Aphrodite, G. M. 146, 533. Clarac pi. 107—110. M. Borbon. v, 37. Impr. d. Inst. Cent, iii, 4. [0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 12 — 45. Statue of Ganymede or Paris, leaning, with thick staff, Bouill. ii, 13. The ravish- ing eagle of colossal size, d'Agincourt Fragm. en t. cuite pi. 6. Vase- painting, M. Gregor. ii, 14, 2. from Passeri in the Elite ceramogr. i, 18, G. with trochus, as in the fine judgment of Paris an amphora in Berlin and on the vase with Pelops and (Enomaus in Naples, Zeus running after him ; Bull. Napol. v, tv. 2. p. 17. Vase from Guathia, Zeus seizing G. with trochus. Eros, Hermes, crowning the un winged Nike ; other vase-paint- ings are also there referred to ; Gerhard Auserles. Vasen i, 7. G. winged pouring out, Zeus and Hera enthroned, Athena, Poseidon, Hermes ; Bull. 1847. p. 90. G. serving as cupbearer on a cylix. On a large and beautiful amphora in the possession of Baron Lotzbeck [now of the Cav. Campana in Rome], Zeus, who is striding after G. has, like an Asiatic monarch, a sceptre and a broad magnificent talar. G. with trochus and a favourite bird half concealed under his cloak, is restored after another vase. On a large crater at Rome the boy fleeing, a swan eagerly pursuing him, the father with warning finger opposite ; above them Zeus, Eros, Aphrodite (Rv. Dionysus. A small fragment contains TANTMH AH2 and the neck of a swan.] 7. The three Cap. gods on coins of Trajan, Vaillant Med. de Camps, p. 13. In a pediment (after a relief?) Piranesi, Magnificenza, p. cxcviii. On lamps in Bartoli ii, 9. (where the Capitoline deities are conceived as governors of the universe) ; Passeri, i, 29. Gems in Tassie i. p. 83. The relief Bouill. iii, 62. exhibits a sacrifice before the Capitoline temple in its later Corinthian architecture. The symbols of the three gods together on gems, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 66. 8. The throne of the Olympian Zeus was supported by Victories, tho 428 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. benign head surrounded by Graces and Hours placed on the back ; in the Megarian Z. (Paus, i, 40, 3.) the Hours and Fates stood in the same place. [Zeus andNike Stackelb. Graber tf. 18. 'Elite ceramogr. i, 15. 23, or Hebe 20. 21. Z. and Hera enthroned, Hermes and Dionysus be- hind. Hestia and Ariadne standing before them, ibid. pi. 22. Childhood of Z. terracotta in Canina Tusculo tv. 53.] 2. HERA. 1 852. In several sanctuaries of Greece, which all however seem to have been derived from Argos, Hera was the female being corresponding to Zeus, the spouse of the god of heaven. 2 The MARRIAGE with him, which is the source of nature's bounty, constitutes her essence ; in reference to it, Hera is conceived in the legends as in different stages, as virgin, bride, and spouse, also as separated from her consort and resisting him ; the god- 3 dess even becomes thereby the goddess of marriage. As a genuine married wife {zovoid/n ukoyj)c) in contrast to concubines, and, at the same time, as powerful queen of the gods, she re- ceived a proud and stern character in the ancient poets; this the formative art, which did not venture to adopt the harsher features of antique poesy, retained only so far as was recon- 4 cileable with the noblest idea of the consort of Zeus. The principal attribute of Hera, from the earliest times, was the VEIL which the betrothed virgin (vu/x^tuo^asi/Tj) draws around her as the symbol of her separation from the rest of the world ; in old wooden statues it often concealed the entire figure ; Phidias also characterizes Hera in the frieze of the Parthenon, by the 5 throwing back of the veil (the bridal avaxctXucrrTJp/a). Add to this the disc, more circular in ancient idols, afterwards cut away more deeply at the sides; the former was called po/o5, the latter stephane; the colossal statue by Polyclitus and other older temple-statues had, instead, a sort of crown called Stephanos, with figures of the Hours and Graces in relief This statue held, in the one hand, a pomegranate, as an indication of the great deity of nature, in the other, a sceptre with a cuckoo on 6 the point. The countenance of Hera, as it was established probably by Polyclitus, presents forms of unfading bloom and ripened beauty, softly rounded without too niuch plumpness, awe-inspiring, but free from ruggedness. The forehead, en- compassed with hair flowing obliquely down, forms a gently- arched triangle; the rounded and open eyes look straight for- 7 ward. The figure is blooming, completely developed, altoge- ther without defect, that of a matron who always continues to bathe, as is related of Hera, in the fountain of virginity. 8 The costume is a chiton, which merely leaves the neck and arms bare, and an himation, which lies around the middle of OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HERA. 429 the figure ; in statues of improved art the veil is for the most part thrown towards the back of the head, or omitted alto- gether. 1. Bottiger, Grundriss der Kunstmythol. Abschn. 2. ['Elite ceramogr. i, 29 — 36, wherein most of the ideas are doubtful or undefined.] 4. Homer, II. xiv, 175., besides the braided hair and the sccuov with the (cjvYi, specially mentions also the Argive idol §. 68. R. 2. 351. R, 3. and the white, sun-bright Kredemnon of Hera. Of the Samian Hera of SmiUs §. 69. ; according to the early Greek form, Hera is a well enveloped figure, whose himation at the same time covers the head, and is elegantly held and drawn close with the hands. Thus also in the hieratic style (with Zeus and Aphrodite) on the rehef in the L. 324. M. Frang. ii, 1. M. Nap. i, 4. Clarac, pi. 200. Libanius also "Ey.(p^. 22. (comp. Petersen, De Libanio ii. p. 8.) speaks of the veil of a statue of Hera, in reference to the goddess of marriage. [The Hera of the Capitoline well with the 12 gods, Mus. iv, 22. Meyer and Winck. W. iii. Tf. 4.] The Sirens which the ancient image of Hera of Coronea, by Pythodorus, held in its hand (Pans, ix, 34. 2,), had also perhaps reference to Hymena^us. Hera car- ries a lion on her hand on a Nolan vase, probably after a religious idol, Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. i, 33. In other instances she has an apple or a pomegranate in her hand (on vases from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 147.), also on the sceptre, on the vase §. 99. No. 5. 5. The stepJtane of Hera, Athen. v, 201 c. ; whence perhaps svffziipocyo; in TyrtaDus ; on the form comp. above §. 340. R. 4. It has always a re- semblance to the front-plate of the helmet which was likewise so called. The polos in the Samian terracotta figure in Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 1. On the Stephanos of the Polyclitan Hera §. 120. R. 2. 6. Here the colossal head of the villa Ludovisi especially constitutes the basis ; see Winck. iv. tf. 7 b. Meyer tf. 20. Hirt 2, 5. Similar the bust at Versailles, M. Nap. T. i. pi. 5. A head in a more pleasing style from pal. Pal. Pontini now in the Vatican M. d. Inst. ii. tav. 52. Abeken, Ann. x. p. 20. A colossal head at Florence in a sterner manner (probably for distant view) with very prominent sharp-angled eyelids, Winck. iv. s. 336. The stephane has here the round excisions and knobs on the points, as is often the case ; it is adorned with roses. Head of Hera from Prseneste with high stephane, similar to the polos in GuattaniM. 1. 1787. p. xxxiii. Two fine busts at Naples, M. Borb. v, 9. [On one of these, extremely beautiful, see H. Brunn in the BuUett. 1846. p. 122— 28.J A bust in Sarsko-Selo, [colossal, is placed above the Ludovisi one by Kohler in the Journal von Russland i. s. 342 sq. probably the head, which was found at PantaneUo and was sent to Russia, Dallaway Anecdotes of the Arts in Engl. p. 370. Two other heads in ViUa Ludovisi, Meyer on Winck. iv. s. 334. One with the sphendone Spec, i, 24, taken for Atys in the Prelim. Dissert, s. 73. Heads of Hera from coins, Clarac pi. 1002.] 7. As to statiies there are none of the highest order of excellence. In Clarac pi. 414 — 423, there are many things that have no relation to Hera. The Barberini statue, PCI. i, 2. [Opere div. ii. p. 426.] Piranesi, Statue 22. (the head in Morghen tv. 2. 3.), has a mild expression, and a striking freedom of costume. Similar that of Otricoli PCI. ii, 20. From the ruins 430 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. of Lorium, with stcphane and veil PCI. i, 3. M. Chiaram. i, 7, with crown on the forehead, veil behind. A head Impr. gemmar. Cent, iv, 5. The Capitoline, not perfectly certain, from the villa Cesi, in Maffei Race. 129. M. Cap. iii, 8. M. Frang. ii. 3. Bouill. i, 2. The Farnesian, M. Borb. ii, 61. [A colossal statue, not perfectly preserved, completely corresponding with this one, found in the neighbourhood of Ephesus. It was taken to Vienna, Kunstbl. 1838. no. 35.] That in the M. Flor. is very much re- stored. Bronze figure with the pomegranate and the indented stephane, Ant. Ere. vi, 3. (no. 67. can hardly be Juno). A relief figure noble in style PCI. iv, 3. A sedent Juno on coins of Chalcis under L. Verus, HPA. Eckhel N. Anecd. tb. x, 20. 1 353. The representation of Hera exercising the duties of a mother is very rare; the queenly matron has banished the 2 mother in the conception of the goddess. In Italy the idea of Juno passed over into that of the genius of marriageable 3 women, which Juno was likewise called. Altogether Juno was a leading personage in the Italian mythology; a quite peculiar mode of representing her, the Lanuvian or Sospita, could not be expelled even among the Romans by Greek art 4 and mythology. In representations of human life, Hera ap- pears constantly interfering as the protectress of the marriage bond, as Zeuxia or Pronuba giving away the wife to the husband. 1. A Hera giving suck (she is recognised by the stephane) in Winck. M. I. 14. PCI. i, 4. ; according to Visconti her suckling is Mars, as on a coin of Julia Mammaea. [Vase with Hera suckling Hercules, Bull. Na- pol. i. p. 6.] 2. Thus the bronze. Ant. Ere. vi, 4. with high stephane, patera and cornucopia, of a certain individual expression, appears to represent the Juno of a particular matron. On this account also the peacock, which was perhaps first consecrated to Hera in Samos, bears the empresses (Ju- no Augustse) up to heaven on Roman Imperial coins, as the eagle does the emperors. 3. The costume of Juno Sospita is a goat skin around the body, a double tunica, calceoli repandi, lance and shield. The form was very well known to the Romans, Cic. N. D. i, 29., and frequently occurs on family corns, see above §. 196. R. 4. and Stieglitz N. fam. Rom. p. 39., often with the virgin feeding the Lanuvian serpent. Statue PCI. ii, 21. G. M. 12, 50. comp. Gerhard Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 229. [Mus. Capit. iii, 6,, Lor. R^, Scult. del Mus. Capit. Scala tv. 2. T. i. p. 207. where the in- scription on the socle, left out by Bottari, and the goat skin converted by him into a veil, are restored. Also on the large round ara in Villa PamfiU,^ Winck. W. v. S. 283.] Head of J. Moneta, with the instruments for coining on the reverse, on denarii of the gens Carisia. — H. as queen of heaven encircled with stars, sitting on a throne, Lipp. i, 25. Tassie, pi. 21. So-called heads of Juno on gems are rarely so in reaUty. 4. Hera as goddess of marriage on vases from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 38. On Roman monuments J, Pronuba stands frequently in the back- POSEIDON; DIFFERENT FORMS. 431 ground between the bride and bridegroom, bringing them together, §. 429. Groupings with other deities: beautiful relief from Chios which represents Zeus and Hera enthroned, together with a third figure (Se- mele?). Ant. of Ionia i. p. iv. With Zeus and Athena §. 351. R. 7. My- thic collocations §. 367. R. 3. 378. R. 4. Dione, the goddess of Dodona, ? Specim, ii, 23., bronze figure, with a bird, which rather resembles a Nu- midiau hen than a dove, on her head. 8. POSEIDON. 854. Poseidon was originally the god of water in general, 1 in so far as it could be conceived as a masculine, active prin- ciple ; he was also the god of rivers and fountains, and, there- fore, the horse, which from the earliest times stood among the Greeks in close relation to fountains, was his symbol. This 2 idea of the god, however, although it gave rise to individual representations in art, did not become the basis of the artistic form of Poseidon in general; for even in the Homeric poesy, 3 in regard to him the idea of sea-god prevails, and therefore, that of a deity who, although lofty and powerful, yet wants the tranquil majesty of Zeus, has rather something abrupt and violent both in his mental and corporeal movements, and is accustomed to manifest a certain wilfulness and ill-humour, which sometimes degenerate in his sons (Neptuni filii) into insolence and rage. Art however, from its dependence on 4 the religious worship, must necessarily revert to the common fundamental character of all gods, and soften and moderate the poetical conception accordingly: in earlier times especially, Poseidon was for the most part represented in lofty repose, and carefully draped even in combat; although, however, he was even at that time also sculptured entirely naked, and in violent action. The flourishing period of Greek art unfolded 5 the idea more characteristically (by what artists is unknown, probably in- an especial manner at Corinth); it gave to Po- 6 seidon, with a somewhat more slender structure of body, a stronger muscular development than to Zeus, which is gen- erally rendered very prominent by the posture, and to the countenance more angular forms, and less clearness and repose in the features; his hair also is less flowing, more bristling and disordered, and the pine-wreath forms for it a fitting, al- though not frequently used, ornament. A dark-blue, black- 7 ish colour (zvavsov) is usually ascribed to his hair, often even to the entire form of Poseidon. 2. A Poseidon ysco^yo?, standing with a plough, yoke and prora in a picture in Philostr. ii, 17. 4. P. draped, very similar to Zeus, on the altar of the twelve gods; 432 MYTnOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. on the vase from Volci §. 356. R. 4. ; also in the combat with Ephialtes §. 143, 1.; on the contrary the Poseidon of Poseidonia was naked §. 355, 3. 6. The grandest figure in the west pediment of the Parthenon, from the studio of Phidias, standing, according to Carrey's drawing, with out- spread feet, with swelling veins on the breast, §. 118. [Marbr, du C. Elgin p. 20 sq.] Of two Corinthian figures of P. on the Isthmus and at Cenchreaj §. 252. R. 3. A P. found together with a Hera at Corinth, Winck. vi. s. 199., at Ildefonso, according to Heyne's Vorles. s. 202. In Tenos there were statues of P. and Amphi trite nine cubits high, by Te- lesias the Athenian, according to Philochorus p. 96. 6. A head of P. which shows the disordered hair, perhaps from Ostia, M. Chiar. 24. The P. on the arch of Augustus at Ariminum of distin- guished merit (§. 190, 1, ii.). The bronze of a P. standing and leaning on a kontos, of a particularly savage appearance, has very raised and wildly disordered hair. Ant. Ere. vi, 9. The head of a Medicean statue has also a very fierce character, Winck. W. iv. s. 324. Tf. 8 a. On the other hand most of the heads on coins, for example that of the Bruttii (Nohden 1.), where P. has a diadem as often occurs (Tassie, p. 180.), have a milder expression (placidum caput, in the beautifijl and expressive pas- sage in Virgil). [Looking over the sea on coins of Solus.] The head on the coin of Antigonus has the sublimest form, D. A. K. 52, 231. [Clarac pi. 1002. no. 2723. A mask in variegated alabaster at Parma, resembling Zeus, haughty, with reed-leaves in his hair, M. d. I. iii. tv. 15, 4. Ann. xii. p. 120. Head of P. d'Agincourt Fragm. en terre cuite pi. 3., Guattani 1784. p. xiv. tv. 3. A herma of the M. Borbonico Clarac pi, 749. B.] 855. Yet tlie modifications of the fundamental character, are in Poseidon of all others so considerable, even in works of early Greek art, that it is not always easy to hold fast what is general. They are in close connexion with the different postures of the body. The following are the principal forms, besides the general attitudes usual in all gods: 1st, that of the god standing erect; 2d, enthroned; 3d, the naked, vio- lently striding Poseidon, with brandished trident, the rock- splitter and earth-shaker, hvoffh/aiog, 6ii6iyjSo)v; 4th, the deity draped, and swiftly but softly striding over the surface of the sea, a peaceful ruler of the realm of billows; 5th, naked, planting the right leg on a rock, a prora or a dolphin, leaning thereon and looking abroad, a victor in combat and ruling over the vanquished; 6th, half-draped, with slighter elevation of the foot, standing in tranquil dignity inclined backwards a little, perhaps an establisher and tranquillizer, a7j, '^lec/isiiyiKag rol; 'Troatu aa'Tve^ ^iau. A. as the Swift god was also the patron of runners in Crete and Sparta, Plut. Qu. Symp. viii, 4. [Very youthful and of somewhat girlish countenance, the bow-bend- ing A. A bronze figurette from Epirus, Spec, i, 43. comp. 64.] 3. See Hirt Tf. 3. The mosaic, PCI. vii, 49., gives the difference of the hair very well in a mask of Apollo and Dionysus. Comp. Passeri Luc. i, 69 sqq. Christod. 73. mentions an A. which has the hair dgoTriaa a(piy^ctg like the statue §. 361. R. 5. The hair flowing down upon the shoulders {i^X^ y*? dfi(poTi^ot(ri ko/xyis f^sfiSQifffisvou a[/.oig /S6(Tr^vx,oy xvroiT^ix.- rou, ibid. 268, and 284.), belongs more to earlier statues. [TibuU. ii, 3, 25. Quisquis inornatumque caput crinesque solutos Adspiceret, Phoebi quaereret ille comas.] 361. In entire conformity to the original character of Apollo, 1 the artistic representations of the deity which have a peculiar significance in art, are also divided into those of the contend- ing and of the appeased and reposing god. We distinguish: 1st, an Apollo Callinicos striding away from his subdued ad- versary (Python, Tityos or whomsoever it may be) with anger not altogether subsided from the strife, and noble pride of conquest; 2d, the god reposing from battle, his right arm 2 resting on his head, and the quiver with closed lid hanging beside him. As he has already taken in his left hand the lyre, the symbol of peaceful serenity, while the right still rests from the bow upon his head, this class of statues of Apollo forms the transition to ; 3d, the lyre-playing Apollo who appears 3 variously costumed ; although a complete envelopment in the chlamys here prevails. In (4th) the Pythian Agonistes this 4 drapery is perfected into the solemn and gorgeous costume of the Pythian stola; at the same time there was here in use a particularly soft, roundish, almost feminine form which ren- dered it possible to take such statues of Apollo for a Bathyl- lus or a Muse ; from the time of Scopas art combined there- with a dreamy exaltation in the countenance and a dance- like movement of the person. Other attitudes of Apollo 5 have less that is significant and characteristic, and therefore exercise less influence on the formation of the entire figure. 1. Apollo in the cortile di Belvedere, drawing of M. Anton engraved by Agostino Veneto. Race. 2. PCI. i. t. 14. 15. M. Fran^. iv, 6. Bouill. i, 17. Discovered near the harbour of Antium (comp. §. 259.). Is it of Luna marble ] According to Dolomieu, M. Nap, i. p. 44. it is ; Visconti expresses himself otherwise in the PCI., BouiUon also difiers. According 446 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. to Hirt and "Wagner it belongs to the Niobids ; according to Visconti an imitation of A. Alexikakos by Calamis at Athens ; according to Winck. the slayer of Python ; according to Missirini (Diss. d. Ace. Rom. ii. p. 201.) an Apollo -Augustus. According to A. Feuerbach (Der Vaticanische Apollo. Niirnberg 1833.) Apollo driving away the Furies. Certain it is that he is after the achievement of a victory, and his anger excited by the combat (comp. §. 335. R. 2.) is just passing into happy serenity. Probably the copy of a cast work ; the chlamys is decidedly adjusted for a metal statue. However the original was certainly not ante-Lysippian, see §. 332. R. 2. Winckelmann's love for the statue is expressed most ardently vi, 1. s. 259. The left arm is restored (by Montorsoli) almost to the elbow, and the fingers of the right hand ; other parts were bro- ken, hence some places on the legs appear awkward. — On a bronze found at Argos in the attitude and form of the A. Belvedere, PouqueviUe Voy. iv. p. 161. Heads of the same description sometimes still more grandly and finely formed, at Venice (according to Vise.) ; in the Giustiniani palace (Hirt 4, 1.), now in Count Pourtales' possession, M. Pourt. pi. 14. (very noble and refined in expression) ; [Bust in the M. Chiaram. ii, 6.] ; in the possession of Prince Poniatowsky. — At Naples a youthful Apollo in bronze from Herculanum, drawing the string of his bow, of great grace and naivete of form, engraved M. Borb. viii, 60. 2. To this class belongs the A. in the Lyceum at Athens, who, placing his right hand upon his head, held down the bow in his left, and re- clined against a column, Lucian Anach. 7.; hence this figure is called A. Lycien. But the same is found on coins of Thessalonica as Pythius, Dor. L p. 382. Statues of this kind : the Apollino at Florence, slender but soft in forms, which accords well with the notion of rest. Maffei Race. 39. Piranesi St. 1. Morghen Princ. del disegno tv. 12 — 17. The statue in the L. 188. (M. Nap. i, 16. Fran9. iv, 13. Bouill. i, 18. comp. iii, 3, 1.) and the more hardly executed one no. 197. exhibit broad pow- erful forms. A similar statue from the Giustiniani collection in Wilton house (Creed 36.) ; St. di S. Marco ii, 22. ; Maffei Race. 102. [also Villa Borgh. ix, 6, Maffei St. di Roma 39.] — The powerful and energetically formed A. M. Cap. iii, 13. M. Nap. i, 17. Bouill. iii, 3, 2. which has the griffin beside it, holds the lyre in his left while the right hand is placed over his head. On gems, laying the right hand on his head, he leans the left, which holds a lyre, on a pillar, or instead of it on a small antique statue of doubtful interpretation (Nike, Moera, 'A(pgoS/T)i «^x;«''«f^)- Caylus, Rec. V, 52, 1. 56, 1. Lipp. i, 55. 57. In the same posture in the picture, Gell, N. Pomp. pi. 72. The supporting the lyre on a pillar or tree perhaps indicates, according to the inscription of the relief in Stuart i. p. 25. C. I. 465., the Agyieus and Prostaterius, the peaceful protector. — The holding down the arrow, likewise in the Apollo on the coins of the Seleucidae, appears to be a sign of appeased wrath. An antique gem which formerly adorned the reliquary of Saint Elisabeth at Marburg, exhibits a head of Apollo crowned wdth laurel, with a laurel branch before it, and a cygnet behind, together with the inscription IIAIAN, which characterizes the victorious and appeased god. See Creu- zer Zur Gemmenkunde ; Ant. geschnittene Steine vom Grabmal der H. Elis. zu Marb. Lpz. 1834. S. 105. Tf. 5, 31. 3. The lyre-playing A. [after Pythagoras and Tiraarchides] with the OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APOLLO. 447 swan, M. Cap. iii, 15. is most tenderly and gracefully formed, with very expressive features, the hair arranged almost in a feminine fashion. The chlamys, loosened as it seems from the right shoulder, is here fallen down on the left arm, and covered the trunk of a tree or a pillar, on which A. placed the lyre. Three similar Medic, statues, Winck. W. iv. s. 307. ; another M. Borb, iv, 22. The A. Citharodos of the Delphian coins is wrapped in a long and stately chlamys (not yvfivog ex, y^T^ocy.vhiov^ Millin- gen, Med. Ined. pi. 2, 10. 11., exactly so likewise in the excellent statue in Lord Egremont's possession. Spec, i, 62. ii, 45. comp. Cavaler. ii, 35. The countenance is here serious and reflecting, not inspired. A. sitting, playing on the lute, in the Pythian stola, early Greek statue in the Vatican Mu- seum, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 84. A. playing on the lyre with the Muses Stackelb. Graber Tf. 19. A. engaged in a contest of skill, Tf. 20, vases from Athens. 4. A. in the Pythian stola (ima videbatur talis illudere paUa, Tibull. iii, 4, 35.) : 1. In the earlier tranquil manner, the so-called Bathyllus of Samos, §. 96. N. 23., and the anathematic reliefs there mentioned. Very similar, only more grandly treated, the so-called Barberini muse, now recognised as an A. Citharodos, of which the unfinished back points at a temple image, in Munich 82. Bracci, Mem. i, 24. Winck. W, vii, 5 A. 2. In the more excited, animated manner, the model of which was esta- blished by Scopas in the A. which was afterwards worshipped as Palati- nus, see §. 125, 4. (On the coins of Commodus however the A. Palatinus leans the lyre on a pillar or a Victory.) Copy in the Vatican, see §. 1 25. R. 4. Similar the A. of the Stockholm group of muses, Guattani M. I. 1784. p. xlix. A. Kitharodos in stola Pythia sitting before the tripod, Impr. Cent, iv, 21. 3. In exaggerated movement the Berlin Musagetes (Levezow Fam. des Lykom. Tf. 1.) and the entirely corresponding figure restored as Dionysus PCI. vii, 2. Daphnaean A. §. 158. R. 1. ; the latter is also caUed on coins of Antioch A. Sanctus. Mionnet Descr. v. p. 214. 5. I would call the statue PCI. vii, 1. Apollo marching at the Paean (as in the Homeric Hymn to the Pyth. Ap.). A. in the Pythian costume, sitting, a porphyry statue, M. Borb. iii, 8. A. with the lyre, sitting, badly restored, in the pal. Mattei. A. sitting, coins of Colophon, Rv. Ar- temis and Nemesis (?), Streber Miinchner Denkschr. Philol. i. Tf. 3, 10. A. supporting the lyre on his left knee, St. di S. Marco ii, 12. A. with the lyre, in a reclining posture, a very graceful picture, Gell. N. Pomp. i. p. 130. A. with the syrinx, (?), formerly in Villa Medicis. A. dancing round the tripod, coins of Cos. Mionnet Suppl. vi. pi. 8. no. 2. A Curetes ? kutu- X,6qsvaig according to Brondsted Reise ii. s. 315. Vign. 56. Streber, Munch. Denkschr. Philol. i. Tf. 4, 7. Cavedoni Ann. vii. p. 259. A. as possessor of the Pythian tripod (§. 299.), sitting between the arx, in a vase-painting from Volci (§. 143, 2.). He sits in the same man- ner, R. Rochette M. I. 35. comp. 37. A. sitting on the tripod and with his feet on the omphalos, a sacrificial hide is spread over both, in a statue, Mafiei Ricerche sopra un Apolline d. V. Albani. 1772. fo. Ville de Rome i- pi. 49. [D. A. K. ii. no. 137.] The same, it appears, Gerh. Neapels Ant. S. 29. [Clarac pi. 485. no. 937, from which the difference between the two statues is proved. The former is still in V. Albani.] A. placing the cithern on the omphalos, M. Borbon. x, 20. A. sitting on the omphalos on coins of the Seleucidae. A. on the omphalos, playing on the lyre, coins 448 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. of Chersonesus in Crete, Landon 65. On the omphalos, Brondsted Voy. i. p. 120. Passow, Archiiol. u. Kunst. s. 158. R. Rochette M. I. p. 188. Zander, Encycl. i, xxxiii. p. 401. The author's Eumenides, p. 89. He is for the most part enwreathed in a net of infulae, perhaps the ciy^nvov. Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 84, 3. He is seen on Etr. sarcophagi (Gori M. i, 170.) encoiled by a serpent, in the Pythian adytum. A. standing beside the tripod, resting his hand on his haunch, Lipp. i, 54. Millin P. gr. 4., probably after a Delphian statue, comp. Tischbein, Vasen. i, 33. A. and Artemis as deities of pestilence, purification of Selinus, the author on coins of Selinus Ann. vii. p. 265. A. Smintheus with the mouse under his foot, by Scopas ; with the mouse in his hand, on coins of Alexandria Troas, Chois. Gouflf. Voy. ii. pi. 67. Ibid, an A. Smintheus clad in the himation, with the arrow in his bow. A. Sauroctonus §. 127, 7. A. Nomius with the pedum, in Villa Ludovisi, Hirt 4, 6. G, M. 14, 97. Winck. iv. s. 82. A. si}iYi,u/zsuog rm lAatpoy, Paus. X, 13, 3. Millin P. gr. 6. 7. — A. as guardian of ships on coins of Antigonus, Winck. vi. s. 127. Mionn. Suppl. iii. pi. 11, 2. 'Ex/3«(r/o?, 'Axr«?o?, Dorians i. p. 255. — A. enthroned, with bow in his right hand, on coins of the Acarnanians, Mionn. Suppl. iii. pi. 14, 4. Landon i, 33. A. supporting himself on a pillar with the left hand which holds a bow, Lipp. i, 48. Altars of Apollo with his attributes, Bouill. iii. pi. 68. Tripods (§. 299. No. 12.) pi. 67. A painted one M. Borb. vi, 13. 14., which finely ex- plains Eurip. Ion. 221. u!^(pi Is Vo^yovig, Laurel boughs growing from Apollo's arrows, M. Chiaram. i, 18. A. in the worship of Cybele, Gerh. Ant. BUdw. i, 82, 2. A. playing on the lyre, a panther under him, two women with sacred vessels, relief in V. Panfili, Gerh. ibid. Tf. 82, 1. [Text s. 321. The relief in Boissard v. tb. 83, Montfaucon i. pi. 13, 1. Winck. Mon. Ined. 50. Zoega understood it to be Orpheus teaching the Thracian women the Bacchian mysteries, which the panther typi- fied ; Bottiger de Anagl. in fronte Longini clxii. Apollo Citharoedus, to whom two women are bringing a libation. The reference to Orpheus is also rejected Philostr. Imag. p. 611. In the same semicircle of the V. Panfili an Apollo among the shepherds has also a panther beside him. This still unpublished composition is in a similar spirit to that with the satyr child drinking §. 385. R. 6. ; a panisca at the music of A. opens her mouth wide and lays her hand on a short branch of a tree ; a rabbit under her rock-seat, and a dragon coiled round the tree beside her.] Griffins, on coins (often very beautiful, Mionn. Suppl. ii. pi. 5.) of Abdera, Teos and Panticapaeon ; in later times often in arabesques ; comp. §. 362. R. 1. Griffin and cithern finely combined M. Borb. viii, 33. Griffin o^vtg d-KxaruQ with Nemesis Nonnus xlviii, 383. [Eckhel D. N. ii. p. 252.] A Siren? fighting with two griffins, Impr. d. Inst, iii, 50. ^ 362. The representations of the god in more important situations, may be divided into such as celebrate his appear- ance or epiphany at the places where he was worshipped, as when he^ comes to Delphi from the country of the Hyper- boreans in a chariot drawn by swans, or arrives at Delos borne by a swan ; and into the battle scenes with the dragon Typhon, which, however, were much less frequently treated than the subject of the contest for the tripod, which was so OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APOLLO. 449 early a favourite tlieme with sculptors. Next to these come 3 the expiations, wherein the laurel, which was originally alto- gether a symbol of propitiation and purification, must not be wanting; Apollo is here seen in an exceedingly dignified and solemn attitude, the upper part of his body uncovered, the lower enveloped in a himation. The musical supremacy of 4 the god is glorified by his contest with Marsyas, which was properly speaking nothing else than a competition of the Hel- lenic lyre with the Phrygian flute. At the contest itself we see him, in vase-paintings, robed in the costume of the Pythian agonistes, or else undraped; as stern victor and punisher, he appears on gems with proud bearing, advancing his beautiful body out of the drapery, and turning away his knee from Olympus, who endeavours to embrace it in humble interces- sion. He is similarly represented in several bas-reliefs, which in themselves possess little merit, but have enabled us to dis- cover the fragments of an excellent group of statues — not produced, however, until the Alexandrine period — in which are exhibited the preparations for the flaying of Marsyas, by the order of Apollo. 1. Apollo's sTrtlyjfii'oci, s'7ri(puusioii (on which Istros wrote). He returns to Delphi from the Hyperboreans at the beginning of harvest, hence with the corn-ear {x^vaovv ^s^og on coins of Metapontum) in his hand. In vase-paintings see §. 358, 5., especially Tischb. iv, 8,, where the tripod refers to this subject. Beside the Hyperboreans dwell the Arimaspians who fight, in Scytho-Phrygian costume, with the griffins about the gold (Tischb. ii, 9. Millin. M. I. ii. p. 129. Combe Terrac. 4. 6. d'Agincourt Fragm. en terre cuite, pi. 11, 2. comp. Bottiger N. Teutscher Mercur. 1792. ii, vi. s. 143.), and one of whom accompanies A. Daphnephorus, Millin, Vases i, 46. Battle with the Arimaspians ; a gem Impr. d. Inst, i, 13. Epiphany in Delos, on the swan (sTriusvasu 6 Ayfhio; vilv n tpoive^ 'E^ocTTii/Yig, 6 Be KVKvog iv vii^i kuT^o'j dslht, Callim. to Apoll. 4.) Tischb. ii, 12. A. on the swan, also resting and flying on a griffin, on coins of Chalcedon. Comp. Laborde Vases ii, 26. Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 149. 2. Combat with Python. First, Leto with the two children fleeing before Python, who rushes out of his cavern (Clearch. in Athen. xv, 701. Schol. Eur. Phon. 239.) in the Delphian j/a^Dj. The mother with the chil- dren in a metal group at Delphi (Clearch.) ; on coins of Ephesus, Neu- mann N. V. ii. tb. i. 14., Streber, Miinch. Denkschr. f. Philol. i. Tf. 3, 12. Tripolis in Caria, Mionn. Descr. No. 540. ; the entire scene Tischb, iii, 4. The slaying of Python at the tripod on a coin of Crotona, best in M. Borb. vi, 32. 6. The relief in Friedenheim M. Sueciae (if genuine) represents Augustus as an Apollo vanquishing the Bruti genius, comp. Schol. Horat. Ep. i, 3, 17. Propert. ii, 23, 5. A. slaying Tityus, vase from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 23. Ann. ii. p. 225., from Agrigentum, tv. agg. h. [Elite ceramogr. ii, 55 — 58.] A. as a griffin fighting with giants, gem G. M. 20, 52. P. gr. 8. [or Apollo's griffin, and §. 365. R. 5. Apollo's stag (instead of A. as stag) assisting him.] Niohids §. 126. 417. Combat with Hercules in an- cient groups of statues (§. 89. R. 3.) and in preserved reliefs, gems and "- — 2F 450 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. vase-paintings of the antique style, §. 96. No. 20. corap. 99. No. 6., also in Yolcentine (Micali tv. 88, 8.) and later vase-paintings. M. I. d. Inst. 9. Ann. ii. p. 205. The reconciliation on the Corinthian relief §. 96. No. 21. Millingen Cogh. 11. 3. A. as purifier on coins of Chalcedon, Perinthus, singeing a laurel over an altar. Planting (?) the laurel on coins of Metapontum, N. Brit. 3 14. On coins of Myrina, with a himation around the loins, a laurel branch with woollen fillets in his hand. Expiation of Orestes, who sits at the omphalos, vase-painting in Tischb. ii, 16. ; Millin Vases ii, 68. M. I. i 29. G. M. 171, 623.; a third published by Thorlacius, Programm von Kopenhagen, 1826. ; a fourth by R. Rochette M. I. pi. 35. (on the vase pi. 37. Apollo himself sits on the omphalos and Pythia on the tripod). 4. Apollo's contest with Marsyas (MaaaYig, Maavn;) a Phrygian demon (Silenus in Herodotus), whose symbol was a wine-skin (daKog) which the Hellenic legend transformed into a trophy of the victory in lyre-playing. Comp. Bottiger, Att. Mus. i. s. 285., and MiUin Yases i. at pi. 6. The co7itest on vase-paintings, Tischb. i, 33 (at Delphi) ; iii, 5. (A. in the Py- thian stola) 12. ; Millingen Cogh. 4. ; Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 27, 2. [The last is the judgment or the punishment.] In Tischb. i, 33. [Elite ceramogr. ii, 62, Inghirami. tv. 327.] the flute-player is called Mo'Ay.oc, as in Plut. Qu. Gr. 28. a hostile auletes occurs called Molpos ; comp. Welcker Ann. iv. p. 390. The punishment painted by Zeuxis ; Marsyas religatus, Plin., comp. Philostr. the yr. 2. After it perhaps the painting Ant. di Ercol. ii, 19. M. Borb. viii, 19. [Ternite i. pi. 7.; another Bull. 1841. p. 106.; a remarkable one in TurnbuU A treat, on anc. painting pi. 18, Ap. sitting with a lute on a rock, the vanquished Marsyas kneeling before him for mercy, an attendant dragging back by the neck, another standing ready, and lastly the Scythian with the knife waiting the decision. Yases from Palermo and Malta Gerh. Archaol. Zeit. iii. s. 87 — 93. Yase-painting in Inghirami Yasi fittili iv, 325—31, of which 326—329 from Tischbein, 330 from Millingen Peint. de Y. 4, and in the Elite ceramogr. ii, 62. 63. 65 — 71 the contest, 64 and 75 the punishment. The secchia pi. 63 is still uned., where M. listens to Ap. whom Nike crowns ; above sits Arte- mis, and Olympus, dejected, behind Ap. (Rv, Silenus as wineskin-bearer, a thyrsus-swinger and a Baccha). The text is still in arrear. On a vase from Ruvo in the Borbon. Mus. (Rv. theft of the palladium), mentioned Bull. 1841. p. 107. and in the Archaol. Intell. Bl. 1837. S. 52 f. BuUett. Napol. anno vi. p. 25 sq. Above, Zeus enthroned, Artemis standing beside him in long drapery, with bow and two spears. Towards Ap., who is seated beneath, a genius floating with a crown and accompanied by a female figure with a patera. MAP2TA2 supports his head, while a Muse reads the sentence to him ; two other Muses with flutes and lyre ; a youth with a goat. A vase Santangelo from Grumentum in the Rev. Archeol. 1845. ii. p. 631. pi. 42. Nike handing the crown to Ap., Marsyas seated. A email Nike also crowns the victorious god in the costume of the Citharoe- dus Elite pi. 65, and a larger one pi. 63. In the Elite i. p. 95. there is a vase referred to with Ap., Marsyas, Nike and Midas. Rv. Hera liberated by Hephaestus.] A. also in vase paintings as tortor, Tischb. iv, 6. G. M. 26, 79. Frequently on gems, Lipp. i, 66. ii, 51 — 53. iii, 48. Gemmas Flor. i. tb. 66, 9. Wicar ii, 7. of M. Anton. Pius, of Alexandria, Apollo sitting on a rock. Marsyas suspended, Olympus or the Scythian kneeling, Mionnet OLYMPIAN DEITIES; APOLLO. 451 Suppl. T. ix. at p. 24. Overcharged representations on sarcophagi, from Villa Borghese L. 769 b. Winck. M. I. 42. Buuill. iii, 34. Clarac pi. 123. p. 273. G. M. 25, 78. [D. A. K. ii. no. 152.] (similar fragment, R. Rochette M. i, 47, 3.) ; on the newly discovered sarcophagus of the Doria collection, Gerh. Hyp. Rom. Studien s. 110. and Ant. Bildw. Tf. 85, 1. [Bottiger's Amalth. iii. s. 364 — 371. 375. An engraving of it in the Mem. de belle arti Roma 1824. i, 49—77. Kunstblatt 1824. No. 38. A relief similar to the Borghese one in the court of the pal. Mattei (Mon. Matth. T. iv. tv. 13, as metropolis, cum diis tutelaribus] ; more simple from S. Paolo fuora di nuira (Heeren in Welcker's Zeitschr. i. s. 137. Historiche Werke iii. s. 185.). Barberini Sarcoph. in Gerh. A. B. Tf. 85, 2. Cardinali in the Mem. Rom. di Antich. vol. i. p. 401 (49), Minerva looking at herself in a shield and Mar. bound for flaying. [Earthen vase from Armento with relief, an important representation, Bull. 1824. p. 34. Bull. Napol. 1844. p. 75. A coarse fragment in the M. Chiaram., Gerh. Vatic. S. 64. Pecu- liiir treatment in a relief in the Mus. at Aries.] The idea on the base of a candelabra PCI. v, 4. is different. From those reliefs we recognise the pieces of a large group of statues, perhaps the same which adorned the Roman forum (Marsyas causidicus, A. juris peritus in Herat., Mart., Juv. ; was the tortor the same ?). To these belong the Marsyas suspended on the pine-tree, an anatomical study, twice in Florence (M. Flor. iii. 13. Maffei Race. 31. G. di Fir. iv, 35. 36. Wicar ii, 7. iv, 17.) and else- where (in the L. 230. Clarac pi. 313. ; G. Giust. i, 60 (?) to be met with. [In Villa Albani, the torso very good ; in the casino of Villa Pamfili, V. Pamphyl. tb 30, these two only half the size of those at Florence; in Berlin, Amalthea ii. s. 366 ; a torso of the best Greek workmanship, ex- cavated in 1844 by Vescovali in the Palatine, and purchased for Berlin, Cosmo di Medici received from Rome a very fine suspended Marsyas of white marble, Lorenzo had one much finer still of red marble, Vasari in the life of A. Verrochio.] Also on gems, Lipp. Suppl. i, 119. The figure of Marsyas was even in favour as a doll, Achill. Tat. iii, 15. Farther the knife-grinder recognised by Agostini, Arotino, M. Flor. iii, 95. 96. San- drart ii, 1, 9. Maff. 41. Piranesi St. 3. G. di Fir. 37. Clarac pi. 543., a Scy- thian servant of police. For Agostini's explanation Winck. M. I. in loco. Visconti PCI. v, 3. 4., Heeren in Welcker's Zeitschr. S. 136. ; opposed to it, (without suflficient groupds,) Fiorillo, Kl. Schriften i. s. 252. The skull si- milar to that of a Cossack, according to Blumenbach (Spec, histor. natur. p. 12.) ; the figure of ordinary build and expression, which Philostr. very well describes. The triumphant A. of this group still remains to be pointed out, as the group at Dresden (Le Plat. 65. August, ii. s. 89.) is very much patched. A. leaning his lyre on Marsyas in the Mus. Chiaram. Gerh. A. B. Tf. 84, 5. On an Apollo and Hyacinthus with discus found at Tivoli 1790, Effem. Rom. 1823. Maio. Schorn's Kunstbl. 1824. No. 23. A. and Hyacinthus in Hope's collection, Spec, ii, 51. The killing of Hyacinthus, Wall-paint- ing in Pompeii, Archaol. Int. Bl. 1834. no. 53. S. 453. [The Hope group, also in Clarac pi. 494 B. no. 966 A. and D. A. K. ii, 12, 139., is not essen- tially different from one at Berlin, Archaol. Zeit. ii. Tf. 16. S. 257. The poet Linus, who contended with A., could not be represented as a youth or a boy.] A. in the_ service of Admetus and Alcestis, §. 413. R. 1. [Apollo and Cyparissus, Pompeian wall-painting, Avellino II mito di Ciparisso, Nap. 1841. 4to. Also on a Barberini statue, now in the Sciarra palace. 452 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. Cyparissus with his dead stag in his arms, crowned with laurel. A. and Daphne, on vases, already made known and one uned. in the Mus. at Arezzo, from Valdichiana, of singular composition and beautiful style. A laurel tree, A. crowned with laurel, with streaming hair, guides a quadriga, in which he is carrying off a lofty and noble female form. The quadriga, over which two doves are billing, is met by a sister with out- stretched, arms, and another is speaking to the father, who stands looking away, as in other abductions. In Villa Borghese a statue of Daphne at the instant of her metamorphosis, found in Via Salona iii, 4, of the Cata- logue of 1840. Daphne was painted as half-tree, and still half-maiden, according to Lucian. Ver. Hist, i, 8. A. Idas and Marpessa, Gerhard Etr. Spiegel, i, 80, with the names. Idas is carrying off Marpessa, A. withdrawing, Gerhard Auserl. V. i, 46, recognised by 0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. S. 54, who also S. 47 ff. conjectures that the contest between A. and Idas and the settlement of it are represented on the famous Agrigen- tine Vase in Munich, wherein he agrees with the author §. 143. R. 2, although the latter also refers, Ann. iv. p. 393., to this explanation as doubtful. Thiersch on painted Vases, Miinchner Denschr. Philol. iv, 1. S. 41. prefers the explanation which assumes the contest, after Pindar, of Hercules with Apollo and two other gods.] 6. ARTEMIS. 1 863. The character of Artemis, like that of her brother Apollo, has two phases, inasmuch as she is sometimes con- ceived as a contending, slaying deity, although this agency- was in the ordinary conception limited more and more to the business of the chase ; sometimes as a life-giving, light-bring- ing goddess (notions which are very closely allied in Greek symbolism), as one who pours out for man and animals the fresh, blooming life of nature — a fundamental idea to which 2 even the name of the goddess alludes. The bow, and the torch, the symbol of light and life, were therefore the usual 3 attributes even among the most ancient religious idols. On further development of the Artemis ideal, art made the no- tion of youthful vigour and freshness of life the basis, and in the earlier style, in which the goddess invariably appears in long and elegant drapery (in stola), the principal aim was to exhibit the full, blooming, and powerful forms even through 4 the dress. In later times, when Scopas, Praxiteles, Timotheus and others had perfected the ideal, Artemis like Apollo was formed slender and light-footed, her hips and breast without the fulness of womanhood; the still undeveloped forms of both sexes before puberty, here seem as it were arrested, and 5 only unfolded into greater size. The countenance is that of Apollo, only with less prominent forms, more tender and rounded; the hair is often bound up over the forehead into a corymbos (crobylos), but still oftener gathered together into OLYMPIAN DEITIES ; ARTEMIS. 453 a bow at the back or on the crown of the head, in a fashion which was in use especially among the Dorians; not unfre- quently both are even found together. The dress is a Doric G chiton (§. 393, 1.), either girt high, or flowing down to the feet, often also turned over as a hemidiplo'idion ; the shoes of the huntress were those of Crete which protected the foot all round. 1. There is much useful matter on Artemis given in Voss Mythol. Br. iii, 1. [Vases in the Elite ceramogr. ii, 7 — 9. 17 — 19. 90. 92. and many others where she appears together with ApoUo and other gods.] 2. Old religious images §. 69. R. A. Lusia is also perhaps to be re- cognised in the idol with the polos and torch and bow on the vase-paint- ing at Berlin (Hirt, die Brautschau. B. 1825.). Melampus cures the Prcetides, especially his beloved Iphianassa ; the small cow-horns to be explained from Virgil E. 6, 48. [cf. Panofka Argos Panoptes, 1838. s. 26. Elite ceramogr. i, 25.] Others refer it to Ariadne [Hirt] and lo [Ger- hard, Zeus and lo. Ant. Bildw. Tf. 115 ; unmistakeable cf. Millingen Vases de CoghiU pi. 46, Peint. de V. pi. 52. Elite ceramogr. i. 26. Thoas and Ipliianassa according to Avellino Opuscoli div. ii. tv. 6.]. — A. winged, on the ark of Cypselus [cf. Rhein. Mus. vi. S. 587.], with panther and lion in her hands, Paus. v, 19, 1 ; similar figures on Clusinian and so- called Egyptian vases. With panther's skin at Volci, Ann. iii. p. 149. 3. In the anathematic reliefs §. 96. No. 23. A. carries torches in her hands, with the bow and quiver on her back. In other antique works she holds the bow and drags the stag after her, ihid. No. 21. comp. 22. and the vase of Sosibius L. 332. Bouill. iii, 79. Clarac pi. 126. Hercu- lanean A, §. 96. No. 15. A. in a griffin-car. No. 30. 4. An A. as an 'ioyov ^kottu^uov, Luc. Lex. 12. By Prax. §. 127c R. 7. Timoth. §. 125. R. 4. 5. On the hair, comp. §. 330. R. 5. Kofinu 'Trx^ocfiTrvKilhn/, Arist. Lys. 1350. [xQvaict a^TTt/f, Eurip. Hec. 467.] The sphendone surrounded with rays, Pompeian painting M. Borb. x, 20. comp. §. 340. R. 4. With the hair-bow on coins of Athens and ^gion (N. Brit. 7, 12. 14.), of Eretria (Landon 10.), Stymphalus (ibid. 45. Mionn. Descr. PI. 73, 8.), Syracuse (Nohden 18.), Capua (N. Brit. 2, 13.). On coins of Stymphalus as well as Sicilian coins the head is laurelled, with hair pinned up behind, Mionn. PI. 63, 2. [Clarac pi. 1006. 1007. nos. 2788—2793.] A. on vases of Volci with high fillet, Micali tv. 84. 6. Nuda genu nodoque sinus coUecta fluentis (as in the Versailles statue) ^n. i, 320. Crispatur gemino vestis Gortynia cinctu poplite fusa tenus, Claud. Rapt, Pros, ii, 33. comp. Cons. Stil. iii, 247. 'E^ youv fiixQi %iru)vcx, ^uyuvffBcti T^syuarou, Call. Art. 11. Comp. Christod. 308. The Anth. Plain, iv. 253. (App. Palat.) mentions the AvKuaniau evl^o/^is d^^v'hioco]) (the K^r,riKoc -TreoiTicc) and the -^^og oLkoyiv tyvvYju (poht^ TrsTrJ^-og iKiaa6[Aiyo;, ''Evh^of^ilig of Artemis, Pollux, [draped down to the feet, the quiver slung behind, A. Kvjnyirig according to the inscription, relief in Paciaudi Mon. Peloponn. i. p. 163., like the later statues Clarac pi. 571, 1220. 572, 1222. &c.]. 454 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 1 364. Artemis the huntress (ayporspa), but who may often, with equal justice, be conceived as a combating deity, is often represented, in excellent statues, in very animated movement, sometimes in the act of taking the arrow from the quiver in order to discharge it, sometimes on the point of shooting 2 it. When, in long drapery, she moves her hand towards the quiver, without any sign of violent action, and with mild and gracious mien, the idea is rather suggested that she will shut than open it, and we may probably apply the name of it^moa, 3 to this Artemis. We see the quiver shut, and the bow slung behind her, in reliefs where Artemis speeds along as life-lend- ing goddess of light ((pooff(p6pog, Ci'ka6(p6^og) with torches in both hands, which might also be supplied by restoration, in many 4 statues which have been preserved in a defective state. In temple-images, Artemis carried not unfrequently the bow as well as the torch in her hands, giving life and death at the 5 same time. The huntress Artemis is likewise a nourisher and cherisher of game; she often appears dragging a sacred doe along with her; her crown is even formed of roe-bucks in 6 an interesting statue. The following can only be discovered in small works of art: Artemis Upis, a deity demanding sa- crifices and propitiatory hymns, who is characterised by the 7 gesture of Nemesis; and the Syracusan Potamia, the river- goddess brought across by Alpheus, who indicates her relation to water by the reeds in her hair, and the fish that surround 8 her. The sea-ruling Artemis is known at least in the form which she had in Leucadia. 1. The first movement in the A. of Versailles, L. 178. Very slender and elegant, but still powerfully built. Beside her the 'i'ka,(pog ^aqpiaaa,. On the head a stephane. M. Fran9. i, 2. Nap. i, 51. Bouill. i, 20. Clarac pi. 284. G. M. 34, 115. Thus also, Millin P. gr. 10. Coins pf Philadel- phia, N. Brit. 11, 6, So also the A. at Phelloe, ^ihaq Ik (pct^ir^ccg 'K^^ilu- vovact. Pans, vii, 27, 4. So likewise as slayer of Niobe's daughters, PCI. iv, 17. [and Elite ceramogr. ii, 90.] The second is shown in the PCI. i, 31. (Hirt 5, 2. 5.) ; similar Bouill. iii, 5, 3. ; also the bronze, Ant. Ere. vi, 11. 12., the gem Lipp. i, 71., and lamp in Bartoli ii, 33. As huntress with a dog on Syracusan coins, Mionn. Descr. PI. 67, 6. &c. As repos- ing huntress, leaning on a column, Lipp, i, 63. &c. ; with outspread legs, at Paris, in the royal Library, Clarac 566, 1266. Fine torso at Mantua pi. 558 B. no. 1239 A. [cf. Clarac pi. 1561—1577. 1579. no. 1237. pi. 1580. A statue of Artemis in Lord Egremont's collection, diiFerent from Clarac pi. 564 D., no. 1248 B., is distinguished by the lynx-skin, which partially covers the garment gathered up round the loins with a girdle, as the author remarks Amalth. iii. s, 250. From a similar skin over the shoulder and breast the Artemis in E. Braun's Marmorwerke Tf 2. is pronounced to be A. Lukeias Zeitschr. f. A. W. 1844. s. 1070.] 2.. So in the beautiful, often recurring figure, at Dresden 147. Aug. 45. A similar one at Cassel ; also the fine one putting back the arrow. Spec, ii, 36. M. Cap. iii, 17. comp. Maflfei Race. 145, The closed quiver denotes "A. OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARTEMIS. 455 'S.aruocc on Syracusan coins, Nohden 16. Mionn. PI. 68. 4., where a lyre is also added, as in the case of Apollo on the other side. Probably struck at a time when the Syracusans, freed from great famine, sang paians to Apollo and Artemis. On the contrary the A., M. Flor. iii, 19., appears actually to draw out the arrow, as well as the Diana Sicula in violent ac- tion and long drapery on coins of Augustus. (Here there occurs also a high- girded A., as Sicula, standing, with lance and bow, Morelli tb. 11, 33 — 39. Eckhel vi. p. 93. 108. The Capuan A. has likewise a lance [a hunting spear] in the relief Winck. W. i. Tf. 11, G. M. 38, 139.), [as well as perhaps also the statue Stoppani-Vidoni, in tranquil attitude, E. Braun Ant. Marmorwerke i, 2. and certainly the one in the battle of Amazons G. M. 136, 499.] A. holding down the arrow — also a sign of being ap- peased — a torch as sceptre, beside her a stag, on coins of Bizya. SClem. 33, 355. Comp. the gem Impr. d. Inst, ii, 9. 3. The Pythian A. also carried torches, as is shown by the reliefs mentioned §. 96. No. 23. and Heliodorus' beautiful description (iii, 3.) of the Delphian priestess in the Artemis costume, who held a torch in the right hand and a bow in the left. One of the principal statues from Villa Paiifili PCI. i, 30. Hirt 5, 6. Similar Bouill. iii, 5, 1. Comp. Cap. iii, 16. [18.] ; Mon. Matth. i, 44. A. from the Colonna palace, in Berlin 31. with tine head, probably with torches in both hands, hastening along. Also the supposed Terpsichore, Clarac pi. 354. I consider the so-called Zin- garella in the L. 462. (Winck. W. iii, xlv. Race. 79. V. Borgh. 8. 5. Bouill. iii, 5, 4. Clarac pi. 287.) and the statue putting on a sort of peplos, from Gabii in the L. (Mon. Gab. 32. M. Roy. ii, 17. Bouill. i. 21. Clarac pi. 285.) to be nymphs of Artemis. 4. A. Laphria on coins, high -girt, with torch and bow, N. Brit. 5, 23. (The same, but as huntress, without torch, on coins of Domitian, MorelU tb. 20, 7.). So also the A. of Segesta, cum stola, Cic. Verr. iv. 34. A. with two torches as sceptres, the quiver at her back, in long drapery, Morelli G. Claudia tb. 2, 1. 5. So in the archaising statue from Gabii, in Munich 85. Sickler's Almanach ii. s. 141. Tf. 12. Clarac pi. 566. no. 124. [The crown alter- nately of stags and quivers, as that of the goddess of Rhamnus is of stags and victories, Paus. i, 33, 3, the crown of Pandora of all sorts of animals, Theogn. 578, that of Hera of Horae and Charites Paus. ii, 17, 4.] A. as religious idol with a roe on her shoulder and roe-skin, in the relief in Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. i, 42, 1. A. often holds a stag by the horns or fore- feet, on coins and gems, for example the antique one, Lipp. i, 70. ii, 60. iii, 59 s. ; on the relief in Bartoli Adm. 33. (with Hippolytus) and others, §. 383. R. 3. Kneeling on the doe, coins of Ephesus SClem. 23, 193., Cherson. Taur., Allier de Haut. 2, 3 — 9. In a chariot drawn by stags, Claud. Cons. Stil. iii, 286., on denarii of the gentes ^lia and Axia, comp» §. 119. R. 2. Artemis with torches, borne by a stag, coins of Faustina, Pedrusi v, 13, 3. Vaillant De Camps, p. 35. On the denarii of the gens Hostilia, her head encircled with rays, holding in her right hand a stag, in her left a spear. Diana Planciana, Eckhel D. N. v, 275., with a hat ; a chamois on the reverse. Head of A., surrounded by goats, silver me- dallion from Herculanum. M. I. d. Inst. 14 a. Ann. ii. p. 176. 456 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 6. So I explain the gem Millin P. gr. 11. Comp. Hirt Tf. 12, 10. 7. I am of opinion that the head surrounded with fish and having hair interwoven with reeds, simply arranged and pinned up behind, on Syracusan medallions (§. 132. R. 1. Nohden Frontisp., comp. 13. Mionn. Descr. PI. 67, 3. 5. Empr. 317. 318.), is Artemis Potamia, and distinguish from it the one likewise encircled with fish, having a hair-net and ele- gantly disposed hair, of less noble and divine forms of countenance which we sometimes see in profile (Empr. 316.) and sometimes in front view (302. 303.), in which the inscription A^s^oo-a (Descr. PI. 67, 4.) leaves no doubt as to the signification. — This A. Potamia was, like all water dei- ties, also a goddess of horses, Pind. P. iii, 7., therefore we see her also, on Syracusan coins (Nohden 15.) guiding a quadriga and provided with quiver and torch. Beside a water-spouting lion-head, on the obverse a female head crowned with sea-weed. Streber Miinch. Denkschr. Philol. i. Tf. 2, 1. s. 134. on the Water- Artemis in detail. A. riding with torches on coins of Pheras, Eckhel ii. p. 147. Voss ihid. s. 71. On coins of Selinus, Empr. 295., she guides the horses for Apollo who is shooting. Artemis-Silene with horses. Pan sitting on a rock, on coins of the Col. Patrensis, Streber Tf. 2, 3. s. 155. On a relief from Crannon in Thessaly, Millingen Un. Mon. ii, 16., A. stands torch-bearing between a horse and a greyhound. 8. Antique statue of Leucadian Artemis on a pedestal with a moon on her head, aplustre in her hand, and a stag beside her, N. Brit. 5, 21. Allier de Haut. pi. 5, 21. A ship on the reverse. — Artemis Bendis Virhim of Aricia as a male Diana, see on a statue of this description found near Aricia, Uhden, Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1818. s. 189. Of like significance is the archaising statue in Guattani M. I. 1786. p. Ixxvi. PCI. iii, 39. comp. Zoega Bass. i. p. 236. An antique relief was found with the former statue which is explained by Uhden and Sickler (Alma- nach i. s. 85. Tf.) as the bloody choice of rex Nemorensis, and by Hirt, Gesch. s. 123. as the murder of Pyrrhus by Orestes. [So also by Zoega who declares this relief to be the oldest hitherto discovered in Italy, of greater hardness and originality than any other, in a letter of 7th May 1791. It was already shown in the Heidelb. Jahrb. 1810. ii. s. 5. that the murder of -ffigisthus by Orestes was represented: Trporl o7 o'gAa/3' sinrs^ec x^^ai J^teca^sls II. xx, 418. Quint. Sm. xiii, 91. This very important monument was taken by the possessor Despuig to Majorca. Noticia de Ids Museos del Cardenal Despuig por J. M. Bover, Palma 1846. p. 107. no. 77.] 1 S65. As protectress of the Ephesian temple, which was founded by the Amazons, according to the legend, Artemis 2 herself appears in an Asiatic Amazon-costume. Her widely- diffused religious image, which was indefinitely multiplied on coins and in statues during the later period of the emperors, is not connected by any visible bond with the Hellenic notions of Artemis ; but the Artemis Leucophryne of Magnesia was similar in form, and the Pergaic Artemis in Pamphylia was 3 still more rude and unsightly. Altogether, Asia Minor was OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARTEMIS. 457 full of strange and peculiar representations of this deity, -which came nearer to the Anaitis of the East than to the Grecian Artemis. The little image of the Taurian or Orthic Artemis, 4 the same that the Spartan priestess carried in her hand at the ceremony of boy-scourging, appears in the mythus of Iphi- genia (§. 41 6. K) in the form of an ordinary antique idol ; Artemis Tauropolos borne by a bull presents itself in a more widely different shape. In her more important relations we 5 are accustomed to see Artemis with her mother and her brother, in whose love of music she also participates, then in the fight with the giants, and also in the representation of the mythus of Actoeon, which however was first employed as a bathing- scene by later art. 1. See the vase painting, Millin, Vases ii, 25. Gr. M. 136, 499,, where Athena and Heracles seem to conclude an agreement regarding the Ephesian temple (Pans, vii, 2, 5.). [In like manner on a vase with Apol- lo, Hermes and a youth with a lance, Elite ceramogr. ii. pi. 88 A.] A. in Phrygian costume on the vase Tischb. iv, 6. [with Marsyas and Apollo.] 2. Above §. 69. R. Menetreius, Diana Ephesia. PCI. i, .32. M. Borb. vii, 11. G. M. 30, 108. 109. 111. [August, i, 13. Clarac pi. 561. 562 B. 563. 564 C] Lipp. ii, 62 — 68. Impr. d. Inst, ii, 1. 2. Often on coins of con- cord and lamps. These figures resembling the Ephesian Artemis are also to be found on Syrian coins ; on the coins of Demetrius III. sur- rounded with ears of corn. — Leucophryne G. M. 112. 3. Of A. Priapine on Cilician coins of Mallos, Tolken, Kunstbl. i. s. 174. 4. See §. 416. R. 2. The TxvQOTro'hog on coins of Icaria and Amphi- polis (where she appears with a modius and a half-moon at the back of her head, Sestini, Fontana tv. 2, 11.), Bottiger, Kunstmythol. s. 330. Tf. 4. Diptycha G. M. 34, 121. A. riding in a car with cattle, Tassie, pi. 28, 2039. Comp. Voss s. 56. 5. A. pours out a libation to her brother, vase-p. Gerh. Ant. Bildw. i, 9. A. with the lyre on vases from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 24 ; and frequent- ly as taking part in the Hymenaeus. Comp. Ann. v. p. 149. Artemis and Apollo at the leading in of the bride. Vaseng. Panofka sur les verit. noms des Vases pi. 8. no. 1. The Delian A. with her arrows on her back, and with phial and prochus, stands beside Apollo, on the beautiful vase- painting Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 59., comp. §. 384. A. Angelos? Ann. v. p. 172. — A. as a stag fighting with giants, Lipp. ii. 111. G. M. 20, 114. As an archer, Hecate at the same time with torches, relief, M. Chiaram. i, 17. Mon. Matth. iii, 19. G. M. 35, 113. — Actceo^i, metope from Selinus, §. 119. R. 4. Vases from Volci, Micali tv, 100, 1., and Eboli, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 407. tv. agg. d. A. devoured by his dogs, vase-painting. M. Pourtales pi. 21, Panofka p. 53. on the mythus (defective) and the artis- tic representations, Etr. vase-painting. M. d. I. ii, 8. Ann. vi. p. 265 — 273. [Elite ceramogr. ii, 99 — 103. Vase in the possession of S. Angelo at Naples, Archaol. Zeit. 1848. s. 231. engraved in Revue Archeol. 1848. p. 4(50 — 65, by Viret.] Etr. mirror, Inghir. ii, 46., and sarcophagi, Inghir. 458 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. i, 65. 70. [M. Gregor. i, 94, 2. Campana Opere di plastica tv. v.] Accord- ing to later conception, the fable in four acts, sarcophagus in the L. 315. Bouill, iii, 49. Clarac pi. 113 sq. G. M. 100, 405 sq. Gems in Lipp. i. 72. (fee. Picture from Pompeii, Goro pi. 11. comp. Appulei. Met. ii. p. 27. Statue of Actseon, Brit. M. ii. 45. [Clarac pi. 579. 580.] On coins of Orchomenus (comp. Orch. s. 348.) Sestini Lett. iv. tv. 1, 27. (1818.) Altar of the A. of Laconico-Tegeatic Caryse, L. 523. (comp. 531.) V. Borgh. 4, 21 sqq. Bouill. iii, 70. Clarac pi. 168. (comp. Zoega Bass, i, 20.) with the figures of the Dymsense and Caryatides (Pratinas), or Thyades and Caryatides, which Praxiteles sculptured according to Pliny. Comp. Meineke ad Euphor. Fr. 42. Dorians i. p. 391. ii. p. 353. with Bottiger Amalth. iii. s. 144. 154. and Welcker Ann. v. p. 151., who see here hiero- dulfB of Aphrodite. On that altar, and likewise on the archaising relief of Sosibius, there is a mixture of the worships of Artemis and Dionysus. A female Spartan of the same description with similar head-dress and torch, Impr. d. I. iv, 48. — Altar of A. Phosphorus with a fine head of Ar- temis resting on that of Oceanus ; beside them the heads of Phosphorus and Hesperus, Bouill. iii, 69. (A. Phosphorus, before Eos, Vase-painting, G. M. 30. 93.). Altar of Diana with symbols of the chase [and others], Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 83. Chariot of Artemis with her insignia, M. Cap. iv, 30. G. M. 2, 32. 7. HEPH^STUS. 1 366. The god of fire, a powerfully creative being in the ancient faith of the Greeks, the companion of Artemis in the Attic worship, and, therefore, also in this twelve-god system, has had the fate of being able to maintain the high dignity here assigned him, neither in the poetry nor in the plastic art 2 of the Greeks. The former represents him on the Avhole as an active and ingenious smith, but interweaves therewith features of a strange symbolism, inasmuch as it depicts him monstrous, misshapen, limping, and in his whole character ridiculous, as 3 a cuckold at home and a buffoon in Olympus. The formative art seems in earlier times to have represented him in the shape of a dwarf; from the tendency, which has its foundation deep in human nature, to conceive precisely that which pos- 4 sesses innate power as dwarfish in form. When perfected, however, it was satisfied with exhibiting him as a vigorous and industrious man, who, unlike other gods, was in early times for the most part conceived as youthful, and afterwards 5 as a bearded and mature man. Yet there is sometimes united therewith, as in the celebrated statue by Alcamenes, an indi- cation of his lameness, which did not deform the powerful 6 figure, but only made it more interesting. He is more clearly recognised in the few works of art which remain of him, by the exomis of the artisan (§. 337. K 3.), the semi-oval cap, OLYMriAN DEITIES. HEPILESTUS. 459 Avhich he probably received at Lemnos (§. 338. R. 2), and the implements of the smith. 1. On the Attico-Lemnian fire-worship, Welcker Prometh. s. 277 ff. 3. Comp. Schelling, Gottheiten von Samothrace s. 33. 93. 4. H. hearcUess on coins of Lemnos, Lipara, -^sernia (VOLKANOM, M. SCI. 6, 5.), on the Capitoline puteal, on Etruscan paterae and a relief, at the birth of Athena, and vase-paintings. Grouped with Hermes 1 §. 381. Already hearded however on vases from Volci, as in those referred to §. 367. R. 3., even on archaistic ones. So on a herma head, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. Tf. i, 81, 3. The liead mostly bearded on coins of the gens Aurelia, Morelli 3., also without beard however, ibid. 4. 5. On Alcamenes' H., in quo stante in utroque vestigio atque vestito leviter apparet claudicatio non deformis, Cic. N. D. i, 30. Val. Max. viii, 11. ext. 3. I also think I recognise H. on the frieze of the Parthenon (comp. §. 118, 2 b.) by the attitude and the supporting of the knee with the skeptron. Euphranor's H. without lameness, Dion Chrys. Or. 37. p. 566 c. Mor. 125. R. caqtittovs. 6. Bronze in Hirt 6, 1. 2. ; Borghese statue. Gem in Millin P. gr. 48. Also on coins of Methana, on account of the volcanic nature of the peninsula. [Coins of Lipari and -)j/ d^avocrvi; x-^^'^'-^ 'ixovau. The A. in Hope's coll. with Nike on her right hand Spec, i, 25, Clarac pi. 459. no. 850. the helmet after Phidias.] A. Nike, winged, Ulp. ad Demosth. ag. Tim. p. 738. C. I. 150. Eurip. Ion 460. 1545. comp. Cic. N. D. iii, 23. and §. 334, 2., is also to be found on old Etruscan gems, Impr. d. Inst, i, 1. 4., likewise on coins of Domitian, Morelli tb. 7, 37. According to Heliodorus, in Photius' Lex., the wooden statute of A. Nike was not winged, and held in the right hand a pomegra- nate, in the left a helmet (read tc^uvog). A. as a sovereign, with her foot on a globe, bronze in Grivaud de la Vine. Ant. Gaul. pi. 24. A. as goddess of navigation spreading her aegis as a sail, on coins of Phaselis, Eckhel SyU. 4, 11. A. in a quadriga, coins of the gens Vibia, &c. A. Arche- getis (of Athens), with the owl in her hand, Schol. Arist, Birds 515., as well as in a bronze at Vienna, also Ant. Ere. vi, 7, 8. Comp. M. Chiar. p. 38. So also the Attic A. on vases, Tischb. iii, 33. [Gerhard Trinkscha- len xiii, 1. M. Gregor, i, 43, 1. M. d. I. ii, 35. Gerh. Prodr. s. 147.] A. as Ergmie with the owl in her hand, borne by a ram, Miilin P. gr. 18. Tassie 2G 46G MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. pi. 26, 1762. [B. A. K. ii, 21, 223.] Impr. d. Inst, ii, 6. Pallas with a goat beside her in a peculiar style, on coins of Cleomenes of Lacedaemon, Mionn. Suppl. iv. pi. 6, 3. [A bronze figure 8 inches high in Florence, the helmet flat, instead of the aegis a sort of under- vest with leather-apron, in her hands a kind of small ship and skeins of wool, explained as Ergane also by AVicar Gal. de Florence Cah, x. The three Charites made by A. for Cyzi- cus as first work of art, according to an epigram, see N. Rhein. Mus. iii. p. 273. Ergane builds the first ship §. 371. R. 6, helps Daedalus to make wings and Epeus the horse.] With panther, roe, on vases from Volci. A. Polias feeding her sacred serpent, in the relief PCI. iv, 6. Hirt 6, 9. G. M. 36, 134. A. Hygieia (doubtful) G. M. 36, 140. Paciaudi Mon. Pe- lop. ii, 155. [A. Hygieia had a temple on the acropolis of Athens. A. Paeonia Paus. i, 2, 4. 34, 2.] A. enveiled in a small statue in Villa Al- bani, as the statue of the city-goddess was veiled at Athens on one of the days of the Plunteria, Clarac pi. 457. no. 903. 1 371. Several mythi of Pallas occupied advancing art more 2 than can be indicated in the extant works of a later period. The issuing of the virgin in complete armour from the head of Zeus, must have been a favourite subject of elder art, whose groups of statues we can figure to ourselves from vase-paintings and a 3 design on an Etruscan mirror. A view of the battle with the giants, represented on the Panathenaic peplos, wherein the goddess rode in the quadriga invented by her, as well as of the contest of Athena with Poseidon for the tutelar sovereignty of 4 Athens, is now almost only furnished by coins and gems. By her mystical relation to Erichthonius, the goddess receives a trait of maternal character, which forms a very interesting and attractive combination with her virgin severity ; probably genial creations of an Athenian artist form the basis of what 5 has been preserved thereof in works of art. The destruction of her terrific antitype, the Gorgon, by means of Perseus, a closely allied daemon, belongs to the first mythic subjects, in which, art, still rude and delighting in the grotesque, tried its skill ; the gift of Gorgonian locks or drops of blood, by which Athena communicated to her proteges the poAver of life and death, could not be so easily expressed in a plastic manner. 6 She is more frequently seen in actions where she is per- sonally less interested, as Ergane in ship-building and other architectonic undertakings, as well as advising and aiding in female occupations ; the invention also, as w^ll as her disdain 7 of the flute, is the subject of thoughtful compositions. As the general helper of heroes she has her place everywhere in the 8 representations from these cycles of mythi. Besides the much- adored Attic Athena, the Athena Chryse, a Lemno-Dardanian goddess, especially occurs as an object of worship. Like the goddess of Athens she has also a serpent for the protection of her 9 sanctuary. Of more importance however than these serpents for the symbolism of art, are the owl and the cock, the former of which, without regard to its original reference to nature, OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ATHENA. 4G7 denotes the serious meditation, the latter the stirring activity and combative energy of the goddess. 2. Birth of A. On the ancient works of art referring to the ' K^YiuAg yovKi Welcker ad Philostr. ii, 27. p. 543. [Vase-painting M. d. I. iii, 44. 45. Ann. xiv. p. 90 — 103 by W. Henzen. Gerhard Auserl. V. i, 1 — 4. Elite ceramogr. i, 54 — 66., where a second mirror is also described p. 222, mentioned Bull. 1841. p. 177.], a group on the acropolis of Athens, Pans, i, 34, 2., probably archaic. Comp. §. 118. R. 2 c. Very rude representa- tion on a Clusinian vase, Dorow Notizie tv. 10. Micali tv. 79, The Vol- centine vase §. 99. No. 3. The infant A. on the knees of Zeus, Micali tv. 80. Quite similar in Laborde pi. 83. Etruscan patera in Schiassi De patera Cospiana. R. 1818. and Inghir. ii, 10. with Zeus (Tina), Ilephses- tus (Sethlans), Aphrodite (? Thalna), and Eileithyia. (Thana seems to me to stand here for AS«i/ot, others however interpret differently.) [Ger- hard Etr, Spieg. i, 66.] Gem, Millin P. gr. 56. Lamp, Passeri i, 52. Rondanini relief, Winck. M. I. ii. vign. G. M. 36, 125. Picture by Cleanthes of Corinth, §. 356. R. 5. Large historical tableau, Philostr. ii, 27. [Philodemos ■rsgi svaeiieiotg: Kxi rau d^-^catoiv rrAg ^rif^ciovQycou rovrou (rou E^,i4^y) '^oc^soTrourct ra Aa Troiovaiu "TiriKiKw 'sx,Quroc Koi^ocm^ sy raJ t^j XocT^KioUou (of Gitiadas), in Avellino Casa Pompeiana 1837. p. 58, who also p. 78. refers to the Berlin vase no. 586., where, behind Zeus sitting, Gerhard perceives Hephaestus, but Levezow Hermes with petasus, cadu- ceus and chlamys.] 3. A.'s battle loith the giants on the Dresden statue §. 96. No. 13. comp, Schol. Aristid. p. 115. Fr. Relief on the bronze helmet, M. Borb. x, 31. Gem, MilUn P. gr. 19. G. M. 36, 128. ; Tassie pi. 26. No. 1753. Coins of Seleucia in Cilicia G. M. 37, 129. Statuette with the vanquished giant at her feet, M. Fran9. iv, 8. Bouill. iii, 3, 7. [M. Nap. i, 12. §. 396. R. 1. Pallas slaying a giant, Stackelberg Tf. 13. A. and Typhoeus, a group in the French Mus. Visconti Op. Var. iv. p. 14. A. and Enceladus with the names, Elite ceramogr. pi. 8, the same pi. 9 and many others, also Antiq. Pourtal^s, no. 131, A. against two giants ibid. no. 132. 133. Judica Antich. d. Acre tv. 22. Elite pi. 11. A. and Enceladus, Gerhard, Etr. Spiegel i, 67. A. and Acraos Tf. 68. — Also contest of A. with Marsyas ibid. Tf. 69. 70. A. and Enceladus with three names, amphora from Vulci, Gerhard Auserl. Vas. i, 6. Elite ceramogr. i, 8. Another representation ibid. 9. A. against two giants 10, in her chariot against one 11.] Co7i~ test with Poseidon §. 118. R. 2 c. The group of statues at Athens, Paus. i, 24, 3., probably occurs again on coins of Athens, Stuart ii, 2. vign. G. M. 37, 127. N. Brit. 6, 11. Cameo in Paris, Cabinet pi. 15., in Naples, Tassie pi. 26. 1768. Relief on a fibula from Pompeii, M. Borb. vii, 48. The sacred olive-tree {sT^uU 'ttcc'/kv^o;) N. Brit. 6, 12, 13. 15. 4. A. warding off Hephaestus, fragment of a painted clay-plinth from Athens, Brondsted Voy. ii. p. 299. pi. 62. comp. Luc. de domo 27. (otherwise explained by Panofka, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 292.) A. receiving in her aegis the infant Erichthonius whom Gaca holds up to her, He- phaestus standing by, vase-painting from Volci M. I. d. Inst. 10. [Two from Clusiura, M. d. I. iii, 30. Ann. xiii. p. 91. and Gerhard Auserl. V. iii, 151, Elite ceramogr. i, 85. with interesting variations. 0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 60 ff,] Relief representations of the same subject 1 M. 468 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. I. 12. Ann. i. p. 298. corap. Clarac, Melanges p. 43. Statue of A. with Ericth. in the segis, in Berlin, Rot. 12. S. Lange Ilgenio. 1831. [Hirt's Bilderbuch, Tf. 22. no. 236. Clarac pi. 462 C. no. 888 E. Bottiger's Amal- thea iii, 367.] Erichthonius with the shield of A. on coins of Magnesia M. d. I. i. i. pi. 49 A. no. 1. R. Rochette, Tantalus according to Panofka. Ann. V. p. 117—125. 5. On the Gorgoneia §. 397, 6. Perseus §. 414. R. 2. A, delivering to Cepheus the protecting hairs of the Gorgon which Cepheus' daughter Sterope receives in a vase (see Pans, viii, 47, 4, Apollod. ii, 7, 3.), on coins of Tegea, Mionnet, Empr. 666. M. SClem. 12, 120. Millingen Med. In. 3, 9. comp. Cadalvene Rec. p. 209. Correctly explained in EckheFs N. V. anecd. p. 142. D. N. ii, 298. Millingen refers the representation to A. and Orestes. 6. A. at the building of the Argo, Winck. M. I. vign. G. M. 130. 417. ; Terrac. of the Br. M. 16.; G. M. 105, 418. [D. A. K. ii, 21, 238. Cam- pana Ant. opere di plastica tv. 5, who understands it to be A. Ergane as inventress of the ship at the voyage of Danaus Mann. Par. ep. 9. Plin. Epist. vii, 56. Hyg. 168.] At the building of the theatre of Capua, Winck. W. i. Tf 11. With Hephsestus §. 367. G. M. 82, 338**, Daeda- lus §, 418. As patroness of female work, in the forum Nervae §. 198. R. 3. Invention of the flute, a picture, Winck. M. I. 8. G. M. 83, 130. Myron fecit Satyrum admirantem tibias et Minervam, Plin. comp. Pans. i, 24, 1. The relief in Stuart ii, 3. vign., and the Athen. coin, Brondsted Voy. ii. p. 189. agree therewith. 7. A. fighting with Ares? a vase-painting, Inghir. G. Omer. 197. Often beside heroes in their chariot, or at the equipment, Ann. d. Inst, iii. p. 135. A. with Hercules §. 410. 411., Theseus 412., Bellerophon 414. (G. M. 92, 393.), the battle of the Amazons 417., before Paris 378., at the Trojan battles 415., with Odysseus, Orestes, 416 (on Asiatic coins, Artemis giving the voting-stone is a symbol of the xo/;/o,;3oyA/ov, Heyne Virg. T. vi. p. 785. (1800.) ; also at the rape of Cora 358., the punishment of Marsyas 362., Cadmus' and Peleus' marriage 412. 413. ; with Prometheus giving life to man 396. 8. A. Chryse preventing Philoctetes, by her oUovqog 6'(pig, from cap- turing Troy before the time (a fundamental idea of the Philoctetes of Sophocles), on the vase-painting Millingen Div. pi. 50. comp. Philostr. the younger 17. Earlier sacrifice of the Argonauts, ibid. pi. 51. Laborde pi. 23. Comp. Uhden in the Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1815. Phil. CI. s. 63. Welcker in Dissen Expl. Pind. p. 512. [Sacrifice to the goddess Chryse, four vase-pictures, Gerhard's Archaol. Zeit. iii. Tf. 35.] Panathenaic sa- crifice on vases from Volci, Levezow, Verz. 626. Scenes from the Attic worship of Pallas, as it seems, on metopes from the Parthenon. Sacrifice of a cow to Pallas on vases from Volci, also processions of lyre and flute players, Gerhard, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 134. comp. Prodr. s. 137. A. re- ceiving the peplos [as at Troy in Homer], on coins of Tegea, as on vases from Volci according to Gerhard. Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 134. The rt^»7ri^oi, with the prizes of the Panathenasa, coins in Stuart ii, 1. vign. On the seat iii, 3. There are still to be mentioned A. Itonia, sitting beside Hades (Strab. ix, 411.), Florent. gem in Gori ii, 72, 1. Wicar iv, 3. The Capito- Une Minerva §. 351. R. 7. Combination of A. with Hermes §. 345. R. 2. OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARES. 469 ■ 9. Minerva's oiol (strix passerina, Blumenbach Specim. i. p. 20. Bottiger Amalth. iii. s. 263.), the ancient emblem of the T'hctvKU'Trig, given to her also by Phidias together with the serpent (to which likewise re- fers Demosthenes' witticism in Plut. 26. see however Gerh. Prodr. s. 147.), sometimes on Minerva's helmet (on denarii of Cordius), as well as in her hand §. 370. R. 7., on the pole of her chariot M. Borbon. viii, 14. On the owl as mouse-killer (comp. Batrachomyom. 185 sqq.). Bottiger Amalth. iii. s. 260. Gott. G. A. 1831. s. 554. comp. Tassie pi. 23, 1585. Often on gems (M. Odesc. 30,, Tassie p. 137.) the owl itself with the head and at- tributes of Minerva; also A. drawn by owls (Tassie pi. 26, 1756.). The cock, as an emblem of contest for honour, is to be found almost always, and that too in pairs, on the Attic prize-vases, §. 99. No. 1. Also on coins of Himera, Cales, Suessa. Comp. Pausan. vi, 26, 2. [Peculiar to these works of art is an amatory relation of A. to Hercules, which has been gradually brought more clearly out. Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 479. E. Braun Tages und des Heracles und der Minerva heilige Hochzeit, Miinchen 1839 f. Gerhard Trinkschalen s. 11. 30. Tf. C, especially the Fontana vase Gerh. Auserl. V. ii, 149. s. 182. 0. Jahn Archiiol. Aufs. s. 83 — 127. H. Brunn Berl. Jahrb. 1845. i. s. 692—96. There is, exactly like the Fauvel jug in Stackelb. Graber Tf. 13, 2. 3. another in the Brit. Mus. in the Burgon collection from Athens, if indeed it be not the same, which only seems to be not the case, from the form of the opening.] 9. ARES. 872. Ares, the god of battle, who is in a significant man- 1 ner placed along with Aphrodite in the twelve-god system, was, however, in his essence, too much a mere idea to become a leading subject of the plastic art. Neither did any Hellenic state worship him as a cardinal and tutelar deity, which he became in later times at Rome. Hence it is, that although a 2 few remarkable statues of the god by Alcamenes and Scopas are mentioned, yet many doubts still prevail as to his plastic character. However, a compact and muscular development, 3 a thick fleshy neck, and short, disordered hair (§. 3o0, 2.) seem to belong universally to the conception of the god. Ares has smaller eyes, somewhat more widely distended nostrils (§. 335, 2.), a less serene forehead than other sons of Zeus. Witli 4 regard to age, he appears more manly than Apollo, the melle- phebos, and even than Hermes, the ephebos among the gods, — ^as a youthful man, whom, like almost all heroes, early art formed with a beard, improved art, on the contrary, without beard ; the former representation, however, was also preserved in many districts and for many purposes. The drapery of 5 Ares, where he does not appear entirely undraped, is a chlamys (a sagum). On reliefs in the archaic style he is seen in armour, in later times he retained merely the helmet. He 6 usually stands; a vigorous stride marks the Gradivus on Ro- 470 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. man coins ; the legionary eagle and other signa the Stator and Ultor (who recovered them) ; victories, trophies, and the olive- 7 branch the Victor and Pacifer. Scopas sculptured a sitting Ares; he was doubtless conceived as reposing in a mild mood, which seems also to be the meaning of one of the chief sta- tues extant, in which a copy after Scopas is perhaps preserved to us. 3. 4. Beautiful head of Ares on the gem, Millin P. gr. 20. Lipp. i, 32. Bust of basalt in Villa Giustiniani, see Hirt s. 52. Ares is often assumed on coins without foundation ; for instance the helmeted and bearded head on coins of Metapontum (G. M. 40, 150. Magnani Misc. Num. iii, 25 — 28.) is, according to an inscription, Leucippus, an Achaian founder of the city (Strabo). §. 418. R. 2. [Coins of Metapontum and a Campanian one, Clarac pi. 1007. no. 2795. 2796. Mars bearded on coins of the Romans in Sicily, Neumann N. Ined. i. p. 67 ss. tb. 2, 12.] On the coins of the Mamertines an unbearded laurel-crowned head has the inscription " A^so^, Torremuzza 48, 12 — 14. A bearded head of A. on coins of the Bruttii, Magnani ii, 4 — 10., if it also is not a tribe-hero. Ares' head unbearded on the Ro- man coins, only on those of the gentes Fonteia and Junia with sprouting beard, Patinus p. 114. 144. [Eckhel, D. N. i, 224.] A. bearded, crowned by a Nike, Aphrodite beside him with Eros on her shoulder, on the cor- responding altar the three Graces 1 Serradifalco gli avanzi dell' ant. Sol- ionto tv. 4. 5. A. bearded and in armour on the Borghese altar. A. as a young man, with the chlamys, on the relief PCI. iv, 7 ; [with armour, helmet and shield on the CapitoUne ara, Winck. Mon. Ined. Tf. 5.] Bearded and in armour among the eight gods of the ara, M. Chiar. 19. A bearded Mars- Hadrianus, statue in the M. Cap. iii, 21. Other statues, such as that in the M. Cap. iii, 48., Race. 130. cf. Clarac pi. 636. no. 1440. from M. Bor- bon., which many call A. are more than doubtful. The statue of Hera- cleides (§. 157.* No. 3.) and Harmatius also, BouiU. i, 7., is only an A. by restoration. On the Mars Borghese §. 413. (Achilles); a statue found near Ostia in 1800 with the inscription Marti is said to be very like this one. Hirt s. 62. Eight statues Clarac 634 A. 635. [A Mars 15 pahni high, brought to Villa d'Este in Tivoli, is mentioned Flam. Vacca b. Fea Miscell. p. 56. 6. See the collocation in Millin G. M. pi. 39. 40. M. Ultor appears very characteristic, Morelli N. Impp. 4, 18. Fine A. with Nike and laurel branch, MUlm P. gr. 21. As Poliorcetes G. M. 39, 152. Passeri Luc. ii, 29. [Mars Gradivus, bearing trophies on his shoulder, Hirt Bilderb. s. 50.] 7. Ludovisi Mars, Perrier 38. Maffei Race. 66. 67. Piranesi Stat. 10. R. Rochette M. I. pi. 11. According to R. R. p. 37. 413. a mourning Achilles; according to Hirt Bilderbuch s. 51. a hero [on the canon s. 31, Theseus]. If an A. it is one peacefully reposing, wherein the posture, the want of the helmet, and the Amor beneath his feet agree. [From traces of something having been broken off from the left shoulder a figure seems to have stood beside it, Meyer in Winck. iv. s. 301.] 1 373. In groups the god of war seldom figures as a com- OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARES. 471 batant ; precisely because lie is himself nothing else than war and strife, he gave no opportunity for the celebration of par- ticular exploits by him. He only figures on gems as giant-slayer. On the other hand we see him together with Aphrodite in 2 groups of statues, which, in the posture of the bodies and dis- position of the drapery, indicate a famous original. As this union of war and love was not always taken as a frivolous adultery, but Avas viewed in the more serious sense, Roman imperial consorts could also be glorified by such groups in statues and coins. The Romans liked to see the love of ^ Ares for Ilia or Rea Silvia represented. In the treatment, Greek representations, especially the surprisal of Ariadne by Dionysus, were often laid as the ground- work. 1. A. Gigantomachos, Millin P. gr. 22. G. M. 36, 143. [Elite ceramogr. i, 7, vase of the prince of Canino.] 2. A. and Aphrodite^ a statue-group M. Flor. iii, 36. Wicar iii, 12. Clarac Venus de Milo pi. 2. Draped, with the heads of Marcus Aurelius (?) and Faustina the younger in the Louvre 272. V. Borgh. 6, 3. Bouill. i, 8. Clarac pi. 326. Similar group M. Cap. iii, 20. Reliefs, R. Rochette, M. I. 7, 2. G. Giust. ii, 103. Gems also in the old style, Millin P. gr. 24 sqq. Lipp. i, 89. 91. ii, 79. Painting from Pompeii, M. Borb. iii, 35. (A, in the himation) ; M. Borb. ix, 9. ; Gell N. Pomp. pi. 82. (Eros takes off his helmet). The surprisal of the lovers by Hephaestus §. 367. R. 2. An A. in the net, drawing his sword, on a coin of archaic style, Winck. M. I. 166. Raponi 21, 15. 36, 1. Tassie pi. 53, 10127. A. as defender of Hera against Hephaestus §. 367. R. 3. 3. Mars descending to Rea Silvia (pendens as in Juvenal) on the pediment of the T. Urbis, §. 191. R. 1. Similar the picture, Terme di Tito 31. Mars appearing to Ilia, Impr. d. Inst, iv, 87. on a medallion of Anton. Pius and other imperial coins. Also the Ara of Claudius Faventinus, Bartoli Adm. 5, 1. Vase in Bonn. [Crater of bronze, found in the neigh- bourhood in the best style ; on the reverse Mars fighting with Hercules over the dead body of Cycnus, Alterthumsverein Bonn i. Tf. 1. s. 45. Wieseler Zeitschr. f. A. W. 1843. s. 484 ff.] The two chief figures in the relief in R. Rochette M. I. 7, 2. and on a Roman vase, G. M. 178, 653., also Ficoroni Gemmae 3, 6. Mars leading Rea as his bride, entirely draped. Relief PCI. v, 25. G. M. 180, 654. The relief, Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 40., also seems to make A. and Rea correspond to Selene with Endymion. [Wieseler Die Ara Casali 1844. s. 57 f. In Guattani 1788. Febr. tv. 2. On a sarcophagus at Amalfi in the church of S. Andrea there is the same representation as in two in the pal. Mattel, one of which is in Winck. M. Ined. tv. 110. Gal. Mythol 133, 550. Inghir. Gal. Omer. tv. 225. 231. ^ Winckelman explained it as Peleus and Thetis, but Zoega (correctly) as Mars and Rea, so also Lessing in the Laocoon §. 7. s. 86. and R. Rochette Mon. Ined. p. 31 sqq.] A.'s throne. Ant. Ere. i. 29. G. M. 42, 147. A.'s arms borne by boys, on a three-sided ara, S. Marco ii, 33, M. Nap. iv, 15. G. M. 40., corre- sponding to one very similar Brit. M. i, 6, and others. 472 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 10. APHRODITE. 1 874. The Syrian worship of Astarte, by meeting in Greece indigenous beginnings, seems to have produced the wide- 2 spread and important worship of Aphrodite. The fundamen- tal notion of the great goddess of nature was never entirely lost ; the watery element, her peculiar dominion in the East (§. 241. R. 2.), always remained under the sway of this deity, who was worshipped on coasts and harbours; the calm sea, re- flecting the heavens in the smooth mirror of its waves, seemed 3 in particular an expression of her nature. When art, in the cycle of Aphrodite, soared above rude stones and shapeless idols, it suggested the idea of a goddess powerfully swaying and everywhere prevailing ; it was usual to represent her enthroned, 4 with symbols of blooming nature and luxuriant fertility ; her drapery was complete, only that perhaps the chiton partly dis- closed her left breast, and elegant, as an affected grace in drapery and motion belonged of all others to the character of Aphro- 5 dite. Art, in the Phidian period, also represented in Aphrodite the sexual relation in its sacredness and dignity, and, in refer- ence thereto, thought more on permanent unions for the pur- poses of public weal, than on transient connections entered C into for sensual enjoyment. Later Attic art (§. 127) first treated the idea of Aphrodite with a purely sensual enthusi- asm, and deified in her no longer a world-swaying poAver, but the individual embodiment of the most charming womanhood ; hay it even placed this ideal, released from moral relations, in decided contrast therewith. 1. Corap. Larcher, Mem. sur Venus. P. 1775. Manso Versuche iiber einige Gegenstande der Mythol. Leipz. 1794. De la Chau Sur les At- tributs de Venus. P. 1776. Heyne, Antiq. Aufs. i. s. 115 ff. [Gerhard Venusidole B. 1845. with 5 Tf. in the Schriften der Akad.] — On the Pa- phian worship, §. 239. R. 2., 240. R. 1. 3. Xoanon of an Aphrodite-Hera in Sparta, to which mothers offered sacrifice at the marriage of their daughters. A. of gold and ivory at Si- cyon by Canachus, enthroned, with polos, poppy-stalk and apple. A, on mount Eryx, enthroned, with dove, Eros beside her, on coins. G. M. 44, 181. cf. 47, 182. A. enthroned, with a hare under the seat, Eros beside her, on coins of Nagidos, Neumann N. V. ii. tb. 2, 8. N. Brit. 10, 16. Very similar in Zoega Bass, ii, 112. — A. standing, with a dove in her hand, on the Borgh. Ara, with a flower (afterwards used as Spes §. 406. R. 5.) M. Cap. iv. 22. ; PCI iv. 8. ; Chiar. i, 20. Similar on vases from Volci. In the archaic style, a shell in her hand, in the relief M. Borb. vi, 10. A. with Proserpine as a support (according to Gerhard), a small marble statue from Pompeii, M. Borb. iv, 54. An archaic A. whose hair is arranged by an Eros on wing, among Maenads. M. Chiar. i, 36. Gerhard, Venere Proserpina, 1826. 8 (comp. Kunstbl. 1825. No. 16 OLYiAIPIAN DEITIES. APHRODITE. 473 ff. 1827. No. 42 f.) mentions by this name the archaic idol with the mo- dius, which often occurs especially as a support, having the one hand on the breast and tucking up the drapery with the other. Maffei Race. 121. comp. 134., above §. 361. R. 4. ApoUon. Rh. i, 743. describes this as the main feature in an Aphrodite, and Visconti, PCI. iii. p. 7. has caused it to be adopted as an important criterion of the statues of Venus. Thus A. has in the beauti- ful relief at Naples §. 378. R. 4. a veil over the head, and yet one breast is uncovered. 6. 6. Phidias' A. Urania at Elis, with her foot on the tortoise, as cUov^og according to Plutarch ; and A. Urania at Athens. A. by Alcame- nes §. 117. Scopas' Aphrodites, among which the Pandemos on the goat §. 125. R. 3. Praxiteles' 127, 4. Others by Cephissodorus, son of Praxi- teles, Philiscus and others. A. Anadyomene by Apelles §. 141, 3. 375. The forms which improved art gave to Aphrodite are 1 mostly those natural to the sex. She is altogether a woman, in a much fuller sense of the word than Athena and Artemis. The ripened bloom of the virgin is, in many modifications, the stage of physical advancement which is adhered to in the forms of the body. The shoulders are narrow, the bosom has 2 a maidenly development, the fulness of the hips tapers away into elegantly shaped feet, which, little adapted for standing or treading firmly, seem to betray a hurried and tender gait {a^oov (Sddia/xa). The countenance, of Junonian fulness and 3 grand development of features, in the elder representations, appears afterwards more delicate and lengthened; the lan- guishing eye {rh uyfov §. 829, 6.) and smiling mouth (ro cstf/jasi/a/ §. 335. R. 2.) are combined with the general expression of grace and sweetness. The hair is arranged with elegance, 4 usually encircled by a diadem and gathered into it in the earlier representations, but knotted together into a krobylos in the undraped statues of Venus produced by later art. 3. Not a few of the busts to be met with singly exhibit the more lofty character. Thus the svar£(pxvog in the L. 221. V. Borgh. .5, 17. Bouill. i, 69, 2. ; the head in Lord Egremont's, Specim. 1, 45. 46. ; the Dresden head (Wacker s. 163. ; also that s. 203. according to the Ed. Winck. iv. s. 332.). On a head at Mantua and Cassel, Winck. iv. s. 331. 332, 439. The fine head, M. Chiar. i, 27. Sickler Alman. ii. Tf. 11., is in conformity with the later Ideal. On coins it is often difl&cult to recognise the head of A. ; the female head on Cnidian coins is certainly an A., it has a fillet twisted round the hair like the copies of the Praxitelian statue §. 127. R. 4. On coins of the gens Considia (which have Mount Eryx on the reverse) the head of A. has a laurel wreath over the diadem, perhaps as victrix. Mo- relli Cons. 5. comp. Vibia 2. 376. Here also the essential modifications of the form are 1 closely connected with the drapery. The entirely draped 2 Aphrodite, who, however, for the most part wears only a thin 474 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. chiton whicli but slightly conceals the body, and with a graceful movement of the left arm merely draws forward a little the upper garment, which is falling down behind, is derived from the Urania of the early artists ; she was worshipped in Roman times as Mother-Aphrodite, Venus Genitrix, and honoured by numerous representations, partly as the progenitrix of the Julian family, partly as the goddess, of lawful, wedded love, founded on desire for offspring, in times when there was a ne- 3 cessity for such a stimulus. The style of the period in which this manner of representation originated, and the purpose itself, combined to give to this class of statues of Aphrodite, rounder and stronger forms, shorter proportions of figure, and a more matronly character than was otherwise the custom in regard 4 to this goddess. Very clearly distinguished from these is a second class of statues of Venus, which, without the chiton, have only an upper garment thrown round the lower portion of the body, and are characterized at the same time by the 5 placing of one foot on a slight elevation. In these the god- dess approaches a heroine in aspect; the forms of the body are remarkably firm, and, though slender, powerful, the bosom less rounded than in others, and the countenance furnished with more prominent features, not without the expression of 6 pride and self-consciousness. Early wooden images at Sparta exhibited Aphrodite in armour as a deity triumphant over all might and strength; in this class of statues, therefore, we must recognise a Venus victorious, whether she embraced Ares himself, or held in her hands his helmet and shield, or a palm, or the apple [?] as a sign of victory. 1. Clarac pi. 591. [—632 H. 634. 634 B. 640.] 2. The movement of the left arm is well described in Aristaen. i, 15. by rvig dfiTre^QVYis ccK^pig '^ccktvT^ois eCpXTrro/neuYj rav K^oaaau, and is given aS a sign of shame. 3. Probably of this description was the Venus Genitrix of Arcesilaus (§. 196. R. 2.) in Caesar's forum. A. with the disposition of drapery here described on coins of Sabina, Pedrusi vi, 29, 6. comp. PCI. iii, 8. On other coins more richly draped, with sceptre and ball, a child before her, with legend. G. M. 44, 185. V. Felix in like costume, a child in her arms, 186, ; however, she also appears half-draped, girding herself with the cestus on coins of Domitian, Pedrusi vii, 27, 4. [A. girding herself with the cestus, a beautiful little bronze Ann. d. I. xiv. tv. F. p. 50. The V. Genitrix "hvovau ^uuxu Pindar 0. vi, 39, /^citqyiu dvoi'Avera.i, CaUim. in Delum 222.] She often also carries the apple, likewise a spear, as mother of the Romans, and a Victory when she passes over into the victrix. But the V. coelestis of coins has also the same attributes, see the examples from Gessner and Pedrusi in Gerh. Neap. Ant. s. 5 ff. ' A(p^. '!rccuuyot%s draped Boissard iv, 116. JStatues : That of Versailles in the Louvre 46. proportions, handling of hair and drapery archaic, with bored ears, M. Fran?, ii, 6. Bouill. i, 12. M. Kap. i, 61. Clarac pi. 339. In the Louvre OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APHRODITE. 475 185. clothed in a thin chiton with zone, an Amor beside her, formerly the name of Praxiteles was on it. M. Nap. i, 62. Bouill. iii, 7, 3. Clarac pi. 341. In Florence, Galleria iv, 1, 18. Clarac pi. 592, 1288, like the Gius- tiniani one 594, 1288 A., that in the Coke collection 594, 1449 A., and that in the PioCl. 592, 1289. In Lord Egremont's possession, doubtful, Cavac. i. 5. Winck. W. iv. s. 115. v. s. 24. Dancing and crowned witli ivy, PCI. iii, 30. (according to Hirt). [Gerhard Vat. Mus. s. 203.] In the L. 420. V. Borgh. 4, 1. M. Roy. i, 18. BouiU. iii, 8, 3. In England, Specimens ii. pi. 54. The counterpart to her, her foe, the lewd miscarry- ing Venus, L. 427. V. Borgh. 4, 13. Bouill. iii, 8, 1. Clarac pi. 341. [Visconti Mon. scelti Borghes. 1821. tv. 30, as Peribasia, very erroneously explained by Zannoni in the Giorn. de' letterati, Pisa 1823. iv. p. 19. Ovid Amor ii, 14.] The statuette at Dresden 119., Aug. 6G., beside the Priapus, seems to be an ex voto for fruitfulness in marriage ; the drapery always remains in such circumstances. In Lipp. ii, 94. A. leans on a column on which there is a Priapus, and at the same time singes a butterfly with the torch taken from Cupid, therefore a goddess of life and death, V. Libitina. Comp. Gerhard, Ueber Venus Libitina on gems and glass-pastes, Kunstbl. 1827. No. 69 f. A. in the Coan drapery, at Dresden 245. Aug. 105. ; Marm. Oxon. 5. Archaic Venus and Juno, Fama between them ? Collect, de Peintures ant. qui ornaient lepalais, &c. 1781. pi. 10. — On vase-paintings A. always appears at Volci (Ann. iii. p. 44.) and elsewhere perhaps always draped, as naked figures can only be regarded as women bathing, as in Hancar, iii. pi. 123. Often also sitting, with the mirror, drawing her garment over the shoulder, Millingen Un. Mon. i, 10. Comp. §. 374. R. 3. — On the other hand the Etruscan mirror-drawings represent A. naked under the name of Turan, Dempster Etr. reg. 4., but also half-draped, M. I. d. Inst, ii, 6., draped likewise, Inghir. Etr. Mon. ii, 15 sq. 47. On an inedited mirror Turan, undraped, embraces Eros as a youth. Thalna also, who appears half-naked and with a dove, was perhaps related to A. Inghir ii, 10. 4. An A. of this description in bronze, similar to the marble one of Aries, with the (pcc^og around the thigh, x^^^'h ^?to>:o6^?Bi3Sf vTroaCpiy^a-aoc KoCKv-Ttroyi, is described by Christod. v, 78. ; the kind of drapery also Ar- temid, On. ii. 37. 5. 6. On the A. in armour. Pans. Plut. Nonnus and others. A victori- ous and martial-looking Venus, a consecrated gift of the sophist Hero- des, is described by Damascius ap. Photius 242. p. 342. Bekk. ; one look- ing at her reflection in the shield of Ares, Apollon, Rh. i, 745. A figure of this kind is to be found on coins of the colony of Corinth, probably of the time of Julius Caesar, who worshipped V. victrix. The statue from the amphitheatre of Capua, which has the left foot placed on a helmet, agrees exactly therewith. Clarac pi. 595. 596. 598. Millingen, Un. Mon. ii. 4, 5. M. Borb. iii, 54. Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 10. comp. Winck. W. iv. s. 114. (The torso called Psyche, found in the same place, presents a similar character of forms, Millingen ii, 8. Gerhard 62. comp. E. Wolf, Bull. d. Inst. 1833. p. 132.). The Venus of Melos in the L. 232 b. (§. 253. R. 2.) approaches this one in drapery ; it is the work of an artist of Antioch on the Mseander, if the inscription belongs to it. Restored in antiquity twice (if the hand with the ^v^hay is also later), the second time barba- rously. The A. in Dresden draped, Le Plat pi. 124, Clarac pi. 595, 1301. 476 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS, Of majestic beauty, although not without defects. M. Roy. i, 19. BouilL i, 11. Clarac pi. 340. Attempts at explanation : Qu. de Quincy, Sur la statue antique de V. decouverte dans Tile de Milos en 1820. 1821. Clarac, Sur la St. ant. de V. victrix etc. 1821. Millingen ihid. The same figure of Venus, exactly in the same posture and drapery, is also grouped with Area (as his conqueror) §. 373. R. 2. At the same time she often, as governor of the world, has her foot on a globe, M. Flor. i, 73, 5. Lipp. Suppl. 175. A. looking down on a helmet, which she holds in her right hand, while she holds a palm or a weapon with the left arm which is supported, on gems, Millin P. gr. 23. Hirt 11. Lipp. i, 93—95. ii, 80—84. M. Flor. i, 72, 2—6, (instead of the helmet also an apple or a dove). Perhaps the yXy^.^«' Aj|, in the Hippodrome, Anth. Pal. vi, 259. Cassiod. Var. iii, 51. Schol. Juven. viii, 53. Suidas s. v. va^'h. Mosaic in Laborde, Mos. d'ltal. pi. 9. 15, 7. Two bearded Hermae in Berlin seem to have had exactly this destination. Statues Clarac pi. 656 — 666. 2. That Praxiteles sculptured Hermes in young and graceful form is clear from the sculptures quoted §. 127. R. 2. at the end. The Etruscan mirrors regularly present H. under the name of Turms in this phase. See 484 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. especially that in which a youthful Zeus, Tinia, stands between Hermes and Apollo, Dempster Etr. reg. i, 3. H. archaic, of a good period, carrying a ram round his neck, Clarac pi. 658. no. 1545 B. from the Pembroke collection. 3. H. as discobolus, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 12., as a runner R. 7. — Beautiful descriptions of the Hermes-costume in Ovid M. ii, 734. (chlamydemque ut pendeat apte, collocat, ut limbus totumque appareat aurum) and Appul. de Magia p. 68. Bip. (facies palsestrici succi plena — ^in capite crispatus capillus sub imo pilei umbraculo apparet — festive circa humeros vestis constricta). On the petasos of H. Arnob. adv. gent, vi, 12. H. with chlamys hanging down, on gems, Lipp. i, 137. 138. 142. 143. ii, 127. G. M. 51, 206. 4. [Galen Protr. ad litt. addisc. 3. sari Ii (pxiOQoc fiiy roig o-^ng, SsBo^xs Sg S^;^y.] H.-head with the petasus (which has an arched form and no brim) on the coin (of Siris?) N. Brit. 3, 18., and those of jEnos, ibid. 4, 15. Mionn. Suppl. ii. pi. 5, 4., of Catana, with ears of corn around the pe- tasus, Torremuzza 22, 15., of the gentes Mamilia, Papia, Sepullia. Fine head of H., of youthful softness, in Lord Lansdowne's collection, Spec. 51. Riper, of a particularly shrewd appearance, Brit. M. ii, 21. On another head in England, comp. Winck. W. iv. Tf. 7 a. Hirt 8, 1. Heads on gems, Lipp, i, 129—132. M. Flor. i, 69. 5. For example the so-called Antinous of Belvedere (Lantin), recog- nised by Visconti to be Hermes, from the Farnesian statue and the gem- figure, Lipp. i, 133. Hirt 8, 4. See Race. 3. PCI. i, 7. comp. tv. agg. M. Frang. iv, 15. Nap. i, 52. Bouill. i, 27. Very similar a H. from Tor-Co- lombaro in Lord Lansdowne's ; also the one from the Richelieu collection L. 297., M, Fran9. ii, 8. Nap. i, 53. Bouill. i, 26. ; also the torso in Dres- den 97. Aug. 54., (fee, comp. Gerhard, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 142. In like manner on coins of Adana, N. Brit. 10, 14. Comp. also PCI. i, 6. G. M, 88, 209. [Four repetitions have been recently sent to England according to Petit Radel in the Mus. Napol. i, p. 123, the discovery of two is testi- fied by the Mus. PioCl. vi, 29. Visconti confirms his explanation, in op- position to Zoega Bassir. tv, 2. not. 30. (comp, the Uebers. by Welcker s. 38 f ) PioCl. vii. p. 92. and in the Mus. Frang. where he also refers to a gem copied from the statue, in Fr, Dolce no. 34. There is also a bronze figurette like it in Caylus i. pi. 68.] H. as athlete, according to others Meleager Spec, ii, pi. 37. H. bringing in haste palm and garland. Impr, d, Inst. Cent, iv, 17. 6. So the Ludovisi H., Maffei 58. 59., similar to the so-called Germa- nicus, on which §, 160. R, 4. The bronze H, of the Vienna cabinet, from Klagenfurt, raises the right hand, of heroic size ; it is indeed without attributes (which were perhaps superadded of silver), but has quite the figure of the god. Comp, the Ed. Winck. v, s. 451. On gems H. often raises the hand significantly towards his face, M. Flor. i, 70, 2. Lipp. i, 134. He also holds a roll, M, Flor. i, 69, 4. 7. Of the first kind is the excellent statue. Ant. Ere. vi, 29—32. M. Borb. iii, 41. G, M, 51, 207,, with very long thighs, as indeed oi l^of^iKol ruv 'E^fccj'j (Philostr, Her, ii, 2.) were generally formed. H. sits in a si- milar way often in bronzes as if just about to spring up. [comp. Facius OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HERMES. 486 Collect, s. 183. The fine statue also in Piroli v, 14. 15. Clarac pi. C65, 1522. D. A. K. ii. Tf. 28 (" in expectation of a commission"), Winck. W. v. 8. 142. Rathgeber Notte Napolit. Gotha 1842 refers the statue to fishing as on the vase §. 356. R. 5, to which 0, Jahn Ztschr. f. A. W. 1844. s. 183. too rashly assents. The movement of both hands has the expression of rest, not of angling ; and the composition is often repeated, as in the bronze figurette from Paramythia Spec, ii, 21, in one in the Collegium Romanum at Rome, in one with attributes, Bull. Napol. 1844. p. 121. wherein Miner- vini dissents from Rathgeber's explanation, in one in the Mus. Bresc. tv. 41, 1. p. 142 s. also in engraved stones, for example, three in the posses- sion of Mr. Herz, London. On a vase in Munich H. receives sitting, the draught, as speedy messenger.] II. sitting on a rock, with his usual at- tributes, beside him a he-goat and a ram with a winged genius upon it, who holds a bunch of grapes, a tortoise and a lizard, god of dreams ; bronze figurette, published by Orti, Verona 1834. Bull. 1835. p. 13. Christod. 297. describes a H. with the right foot raised, and drawing on his sandal with the right hand, while the left rests on his knee, his look turned upwards, in order to catch the commands of Zeus ; therefore en- tirely in the posture of the so-called Jasou. A very slender H. of an extraordinary description, swinging through the air, in Dorow, Denkm. der Rhenish-Westph. Pr. 7. [in the Bonn mu- seum ; but it is evidently modern.] A running H. very completely draped as servant of Fortuna, wall-painting M. Borb. vi, 2. comp. Petron. 29. A reposing H. of delicate form, standing and leaning with the legs crossed, M. Flor. iii, 38. Galler. 130. Amalth. iii. s. 206. Thiersch Vet. artif. opera cet. tb. 6, p. 28 ; a fine satyr Ampelos, the hat is modern. H. in the same posture, of boyish form, in the Magazine of the Louvre. Clarac pi. 349. 8. See Ant. Ere. vi, 33. 34. and especially the exquisitely beautiful (and certainly genuine) bronze with the chlamys hanging down on the leit, in Payne Knight's Spec, i, 33. [Hirt merely doubted whether it reached back as far as the Polycleitan age.] Statue in the Louvre 263. V. Borgh. i, 2. Clarac pi. 317. Lipp. i, 135. ii, 123. 124. H. similar to Poseidon standing on a prora, Lipp. ii, 125. 126. Suppl. 200., is perhaps the god of maritime commerce. 881. Hermes, the performer of sacrifices (which also be- 1 longed to the ancient oifice of the Kerykes) ; the protector of 2 cattle, and especially of sheep, an office closely connected with the former; the inventor of the lyre, to whom therefore the 3 tortoise is sacred; lastly the guide of souls and restorer of 4 the dead to life, is seen chiefly in works of slighter compass. But a sculptor has succeeded in enduing the thievish child 5 with the same roguery, and mischievous delight in his own cunning, which the Homeric hymn so matchlessly describes. In his amorous intrigues, of which some remarkable represen- 6 tations, which are difficult to explain, have come down to us, Hermes displays much of that strong sensuality of nature which was always peculiar to him. Everywhere serviceable 7 and always obliging, Hermes is also, in larger compositions. 486 . MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. althougn he seldom plays a leading part, a very usual and always agreeable appearance, as guide, attendant, messenger, (especially intrusted with babes for their nurses,) sometimes also as a playful and comical companion. 1. H. as institutor of sacrifices, bringing the ram along, with allusion to the 'E. »^io(p6^os, at the same time holding a patera (as in Aristoph. Peace 431. and Cic. de div. i, 23. as aTriulav), Relief PCI. iv, 4. The up- per part of this figure in lapis lazuli with the legend, bonus Eventus, in the cabinet of coins Brit. Mus. (is it antique ?). Similarly conceived is the vase-painting, Millin, Vases i, 51 a. G. M. 50, 212. comp. §. 300. No. 1. H. with caduceus and a roe? Scarabaeus, Impr. d. Inst. Cent, iii, 6. H. also leads a ram on the Capitoline puteal, Winck. M. I. 5., he carries it on the goblet of Sosias, §. 143, No. 3. Fine H. carrying a ram's head on a goblet, Lipp. ii, 122. As god of sacrifice H. precedes the train of other deities and stands nearest to the altar, in the reliefs in Zoega ii, 100. M. Cap. iv, 56. Bouill. iii, 79. At sacrifices also on vases from Volci, Ann. iii. p. 140. 2. H. sitting on a ram, a beautiful statue, Guattani M. I. 1786. p. xlv. Clarac pi. 656, 1529.; Lipp. i, 140. M. Flor. i, 71, 8. (where ears of corn rise before H.). Drawn by rams, Lipp. i, 139. II. lying, a ram at his feet, on Volcian vases, Ann, iii. p. 147. II. with goats' horns, a goat beside him, in a silver work, Dorow Rom. Denkm. von Neuwicd Tf. 14. 3. Constructing the lyre on a bronze mirror, Mazois Pompeii ii. p. 2. With the tortoise, as inventor of the lyre, M. Nap. i, 54. Mercury, in the same character, a statue, sitting with lute and plectrum, Nibby Mon. scelti di V. Borgh. tv. 38. p. 128. Doubtful? Bearing the tortoise on a patera, P. M. Paciaudi, On a Statuette in the Cabinet of the Marchese dell' Ospital. N. 1747.; Impr. d, Inst, ii, 11. Contest with Apollo about the lyre ?, vase-painting. Panof ka Ann, ii. p. 185. [II. with lute and a satyr '0^£/,i4«;^oj, amphora from Volci, Gerhard Etr. u. Campan. V. Tf. 8. H. playing on the lute between dancing Pans, M. d. I. iv, 34. comp, Ann. xviii. tv. N. a cylix. H. with the lute ibid. tv. 33. with tv. d'agg. L. M. H. playing on the lute, Ternite Pompei. Gem. (Reimcr) II eft 3. Tf. 3.] 4. Psychopompus, carrying Psyche over the Styx, Millin P. gr. 30. G. M. 51, 211., and bringing her up from the nether world, Winck. M. I. 39. (where a tortoise forms the petasus), also M. Flor. i, 69, 1.; H. evoking a shade Impr. d. Inst, iii, 7. 8. with the skeleton issuing from the earth or from an urn, Impr. d. Inst, i, 12. 36. Lipp. Suppl. 204-6. Wicar G. de Flor. ii, 19. M, Flor. i, 70, 6. Tassiepl. 30, 2398-2402. Comp. G. M. 343. 561. There is a peculiar representation of Hermes Psycho- pompus on a Grecian grave-stele, M. Veron. 51, 9., in which EPMII2 hands the purse, which is here taken as a symbol of vital power, to the enveloped figure of PH. The Pomp, painting M. Borb. ix, 38. represents precisely the same transaction. H. gives the purse to Fortuna (I. M. I. r. d. I. iv, 14. cf. Petron. 2 a.) ; similar a Hermes-purse, Panofka M. Blacas p. 77. Guiding Persephone, §. 358. Among the deities of the lower world, §. 397. In the representation of the destinies of men, §. 396. 5. Finely designed but not so well executed statue of H. as a boy, PCI. i, 5. Clarac pi. 655, 1507. A repetition L. 284. V. Borgh. Port. 7. OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HESTIA. 487 Clarac pi. 317. Similar on a gem, Lipp. Suppl. i, 186. For the explana- tion Philostr. i, 26. [H. as a child, wrapped in swaddling clothes, de- fending himself on account of the theft, according to the H. in Mercur. 305, statue in the Spada palace at Rome. H. as cattle stealer in the cradle, cylix in the Mus. Greg, ii, 81, 1. 2. Gerhard Archaol. Zeit. iii. Tf. 20.] H. with Maia on a Volcian vase, Ann. iii. p. 143. 6. H. caressing a young maiden (perhaps Herse) in the manner al- luded to, a beautiful group of statues, Cavaler ii, 30. Guattani Mem. v. p. 65. comp. Winck. iv. 8. 84. The group in Clarac pi. 667, 1545 A. hardly represents H. II. unveiling a beautiful nymph in a wild rocky region, a wall-painting, Pitt, di Ere. iii, 12. Guattani p. 67. H. approach- ing a half-naked maiden beside a Priapus-herma, a Pompeian picture, M. Borb. i, 32. (Mercuric et Venere). [0. Jahn Spec, epigraph, p. 64 sq.] H. pursuing a maiden, on vases, Millin Vases i, 70., also from Volci, Ann. iii. p. 143. Comp. the relief L. 338. Clarac pi. 202. 7. H. grouped with Hephaestus (according to Visconti) L. 488. Y. Borgh. 6, 6. Bouill. i, 22. Clarac pi. 317. G. M. 84. 338.* Very doubt- ful; according to R. Rochette M. I. p. 173. pi. 33, 2. Orestes and Pylades. H. with the infant Dionysus (after Praxiteles), §. 384. R. 2. ; with the in- fant Hercules in an interesting vase-painting from Volci, Micali tv. 76, 2., Relief, PCI. iv, 37. ; with the young Areas on coins of Pheneus, Landon pi. 44. Steinbiichel, Alterthumskunde s. 105. Welcker Zeitschr. f. a. K. S. 518. In a Pompei. wall-painting, H. gives to Argus? the syrinx, lo present in the form of a cow ? [without doubt], M. Borbon. viii, 25. See §. 351. R. 4. H. as slayer of Argus on a vase from Volci, Brondsted Vases found by Campanary 1. Argos IIAN0112. comp. Moschus ii, 44. Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 366. comp. iii. p. 44. At the adultery of Ares, as a jester, §. 367, 2. With Paris, §. 378, 4. With Alcmene, §. 351. R. 5. As 7ro^97a?of, with Apollo, Hercules, Orestes, Odysseus, &c. At the -tj/v^coaTxaiXj §. 415» R. 1. In larger groups of deities. H.*s insignia drawn and carried by Erotes, relief in ivory, Buonarroti Medagl. ant. 1. G. M. 51, 214. (The cock denotes the ivccyauiog, Lipp. i, 135. ii, 123. Bartoli Luc. ii, 18.). United on the altar in Griv. de la Vine. Antiq. Gaul. pi. 35., where also the phallus is not wanting. Her- mes' sacrifices, Passeri Luc. i, 101. 12. HESTIA. 382. The hearth, with which are connected settled resi- dence, domestic life, and regular worship of the gods [§. 286, 6.1, was among the ancients a symbol of the peaceful central point round which life moves hither and thither in its mani- fold forms and vicissitudes. It is represented by Hestia, the necessary key-stone of the twelve-god system, in which she was very fittingly grouped Avith Hermes, the god of sacrifice. The form of this goddess, who was sculptured by excellent artists [such as Scopas], is that of a woman in matronly cos- 488 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. tume, yet without the character of motherliness, standing at rest or enthroned, with broad, powerful forms, and a serious expression in her clear and simple features. 1. ISUva oiyM Kur oi^ e^ero, Horn. Hymn to Aplirod. 30. United with Hermes, Hymn to Hest. 7. comp. Pans, v, 11, 3. 2. The statue, G. Giust. i. 17., with the drapery treated in a pillar-like manner, has been rightly called Hestia by Hirt. Comp. Ed. Winck. vii. Tf. 4 a. [by Zoega Hera : Basrel. Synopsis of the contents of the Brit. Mus. p. 120, a young man crowned by Hestia and Athene. Among sev- eral statues found at Velleia in June 1816, there were according to the Journals two of Vesta. Hestia among the twelve gods on the large three -sided Borghese candelabrum -base, and on the Capitolian altar.] Bust of the M. Capit. Hirt 8, 9. Two hermae in the Casino Rospigliosi, Gerh. A. Bildw. i, 81, 1. 2. On the goblet of Sosias §. 143. she sits veiled beside Amphitrite; besides at Volci, Ann. iii. p. 141. On Roman coins with Palladium and simpulum, Pedrusi vi, 29, 7. 8. Hirt 8, 11. 12. The VESTALIS Claudia is also represented in the same manner, Morelli Claud. 3. Head of Vesta on coins of the gens Cassia, Morelli 1. 3 sqq. G. M. 334., ax.ihig) ex- DIONYSIAN CYCLE. CENTAURS. 505 plained as a sleeping nymph PCI. iii, 43. G. M. 56. 325. [Hence the pro- verbial expressions Bxkx,/!; t^otqu, eTri ruv atWTrr.T^civ' 'Tra.^oaov oti BotK^xi aiyaiai. Diogenian.] A similar figure of a Msenad in the relief G. Giust. ii, 104. ; perhaps also the one in R. Rochette M. I. 5. (Thetis according to R. R.), although a figure perfectly similar occurs among the furies sur- rounding Orestes and sunk in sleep. A favourite figure on gems is a lying one half seen behind, uncovered down to the legs, with an extreme- ly graceful bend in her flexible back, for example Guattani M. I. 1785. p. Ixxiii. Lipp. i, 183. M. Flor. 1, 92, 6. Impr. d, Inst, iv, 49. 52. A Maenad of this description M. Worsl. ii. p. 49. 50. This figure also occurs suck- ling a lynx (Marlbor. 50.), a subject which is explained by Eurip. Bacch. 692. Maenads likewise press out the milk from their teeming breasts into Bacchian drinking-horns, M. Flor. i, 48, 10. Lipp. iii, 165. 5. The following appear as Bacchian women : — 0«a/os, TuTirju/i, 'Evllcc (the y^iKiroiijua, ivhioc of Pindar, which I would prefer to the Eyo;a of Vis- conti, Hist, de I'lnst. iii. p. 41.), FJ^tivyi, 'Ottcjocc (with fruit), Ohouon; see Tischb. ii, 44. (comp. 50.) ; Millingen Cogh. 19. ; Laborde 65. (comp. Millin Vases i, 5.). Comp. Welcker ad Philostr. p. 213. Xo^sUg, Neapels Ant. s. 365. Pans, ii, 20. Aiaun as priestess of Dionysus, Neap. Ant. s. 363., beside a Moavag. KocTrvfKn, similar to the Virgilian copa, attacked by thirsty satyrs, Laborde 64. R. Rochette Journ. des Sav. 1826. p. 95 sqq. Oon/oV?) and 'E^/