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UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 IN THE 
 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 GAYLEY and BRADLEY 
 
 " BERKELEY: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
 1894 
 
ERR A TA. 
 
 The authors of this pamphlet regret that their distance 
 from the printer and the haste attending its issue have 
 prevented efficient supervision on their part, and have 
 made necessary the following unusual list of corrections : 
 
 Page 5, line 9, for insistence read insistence. 
 
 Page 9, line 10, for Coverly read Coverley.   
 
 Page 17, line 27, for finalty read finality. 
 
 Page 17, line 34, for all that is wise read all that it is wise. 
 
 Page 20, lines 13 and 14, strike out the marks of parenthe- 
 sis and substitute commas. 
 
 Page 21, line 15, for tenor read terror. 
 
 Page 21, line 33, strike out the period and capital, and 
 insert a dash with small t. 
 
 Page 24, line 1, for composition read compositions. 
 
 Page 24, line 20, strike out and, and make the comma a 
 semicolon. 
 
 Page 26, line 31, for result read neglect. 
 
 Page 27, line 20, for naivete read na'iveti. 
 
 Page 43, line 5, for Length read The length. 
 
SUGGESTIONS 
 
 TO 
 
 TEACHERS OF ENGLISH 
 
 IN THE 
 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY 
 
 C. M. Gayley, 
 Professor of the English language and Literature, 
 
 AND 
 
 C. B. Bradley, 
 Associate Professor of the English Language and Literature. 
 
 BERKELEY: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. 
 1894. 
 

 Printed at the State Printing Office, Sacramento. 
 A. J. Johnston, Superintendent. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introduction - - - 5 
 
 I. Sequence of Studies 8 
 
 II. Suggestions to Teachers 12 
 
 Introductory: Topics and Periods 12 
 
 A. Language. 
 
 § 1. The Elements of Grammar 15 
 
 §2. The Science of Grammar 16 
 
 §3. Word-Study . 20 
 
 §4. Composition 21 
 
 §5. Rhetoric 25 
 
 B. Literature. 
 
 Introduction to Poetry _ 26 
 
 §6. Mythology in Literature _ 28 
 
 § 7. Poetry: Other than the Drama 30 
 
 § 8. Poetry: The Drama— Shakespeare in the 
 
 Schools. 36 
 
 §9. Prose: The Essay . 41 
 
 §10. Prose : Orations and Arguments 42 
 
 § 11. Prose v : Narrative— The Novel 43 
 
 III. Advanced Study for Teachers. _ _ 45 
 
 § 12. The Critical Study of Shakespeare (for 
 
 Teachers' Classes and Literary Clubs) ... 45 
 
 § 13. References on Six Shakespearian Tragedies 58 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS OF ENGLISH 
 
 IN THE 
 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Attention has been directed of late to the lament- 
 able condition of English instruction in the secondary- 
 schools. It is discovered not only that English has 
 been neglected for other subjects, but that English is, 
 itself, especially difficult to teach. That English has 
 been neglected is the fault of parents and the general 
 public more than of teachers. In the majority of 
 American homes little or no reading of the English 
 classics obtains; and insistance upon the use of pure 
 English in speaking and writing is left generally to the 
 schools. That English is difficult to teach follows from 
 the ease with which both teacher and pupil may shirk 
 the English lesson. The instructor has a smattering 
 of the subject; the pupil thinks that he knows all 
 about it. Each is prone to contemn what appears to 
 be easy. 
 
 But the community in general is awakening to the 
 fact that the young do not speak, write, and read their 
 mother-tongue correctly; that they neither know nor 
 appreciate English literature: and the Universities are 
 convinced that better training in secondary English 
 studies is demanded by the interests of higher educa- 
 
 2 
 
6 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 tion. Especially to be noted, moreover, is the emphasis 
 laid by the English Conference of the National Council 
 of Education (Report of Committee of Ten to the 
 National Council, Bureau of Education, Washington, 
 1893) on the pivotal character of English in the school 
 curriculum: "It is a fundamental idea in this report 
 that the study of every other subject should contribute 
 to the pupil's training in English; and that the pupil's 
 capacity to write English should be made available, 
 and be developed, in every other requirement. * * * 
 The Conference claim for English as much time as the 
 Latin Conference claim for Latin in secondary schools; 
 and it is clear that they intend that the study shall be 
 in all respects as serious and informing as the study of 
 Latin." 
 
 For years the University of California has made 
 similar claims for the English course in High Schools. 
 It is for the purpose of showing how such requirements 
 may be satisfied that the following suggestions for 
 teachers have been prepared; not, however, with any 
 thought of prescription, nor in the vain belief that any 
 scheme can obviate the need of independent method 
 and attack. These suggestions are the embodiment of 
 experience and observation gleaned from many sources, 
 as well as of the conviction of instructors intimately 
 concerned in both secondary and higher departments 
 of education. As such they are offered, in the hope 
 that they may be of assistance in the introduction and 
 organization of English studies in the secondary schools 
 not only of California, but of other States. 
 
 It is not presumed that the particular sequence of 
 topics and texts (see Sequence of Studies), which has 
 been adopted as the basis of these suggestions, is the 
 best that can be devised. It has been chosen partly 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 7 
 
 because it was not conceived solely with a view to the 
 preparation of students for the University, but with 
 the conviction that it offered an indispensable training 
 for those who never see the University — who, at the 
 end of their High School course, enter upon the disci- 
 pline of life; partly because it has stood the test of 
 actual practice during a number of years in the High 
 Schools of California, as a requirement for entrance to 
 the University of California. It is, generally speak- 
 ing, more stringent and more comprehensive than the 
 courses pursued in other parts of the country; and it 
 has, moreover, the advantage of presenting an unbroken 
 view of the subject. The scheme contemplates five reci- 
 tations a week during a three years' course; but the 
 best schools accord to it a four years' course, beginning 
 with the ninth grammar grade. It is thought that for 
 the proper assimilation of collateral reading and for 
 fitting practice in English composition, a four years' 
 course is indispensable; it is certain that less than a 
 three years' course will be inadequate to secure the 
 permanent efficiency of the curriculum. 
 
 In the consideration of method of instruction, ques- 
 tions of aim, scope, topics, and time are, of course, i 
 involved. As to the first, it is the opinion of the writers 
 that the aim of secondary instruction in English is to 
 enable the pupil to write and speak with clearness, 
 vigor, and grace; to acquaint him, at first hand, with a 
 few of the best literary products of English and Ameri- 
 can thought; to cultivate a sense of literary style, 
 and to inculcate a love for the best literature. This J 
 aim, in general, underlies the Sequence of Studies that 
 follows. The consideration of special aims, of scope of 
 study, and of periods allotted to individual topics, will 
 be found under the Suggestions to Teachers. 
 
8 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 I. SEQUENCE OF STUDIES.* 
 
 1. Grammar, Word-Study, Composition, and Rhetoric. 
 In such manner, and at such periods during the 
 
 course, as indicated under Suggestions to Teachers, 
 §§ 1-5. 
 
 2. Simple Narrative Poetry: The Lady of the Lake, 
 or The Lay of the Last Minstrel. 
 
 In connection with this study the composition exer- 
 cise, beginning with the single direct narrative para- 
 graph, should gradually grow in comprehensiveness 
 and length. Further points to be noted are the princi- 
 ples of good paragraph-structure, and the elementary 
 apparatus of rhetoric: figures of speech, prosodical 
 forms, as far as brought out in the poem, and the most 
 obvious differences between the prose manner and the 
 poetic. 
 
 3. Classic Myths in English Literature. 
 
 The main purpose of this study is to familiarize the 
 pupil at the outset with such commonplaces of tradi- 
 tion, reference, and allusion as are continually used by 
 English authors. With this should go training in 
 accurate oral re-statement, in imaginative thought, 
 and in healthy poetic appreciation. The Commen- 
 tary appended to the myths will suggest to teachers 
 additional illustrations of the myths from poetry, 
 painting, and sculpture, and some standard interpre- 
 tations of them. The study should be accompanied 
 by constant exercise in composition, both written and 
 
 * The following is a general statement of the requirements for 
 entrance in English to the University of California. But for the 
 particular items as required from year to year, and for substitu- 
 tions allowed to accredited High Schools, see the Register, or the 
 Admission Circular of each year, which may be obtained from the 
 Recorder of the Faculties, Berkeley. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 9 
 
 oral, with special emphasis upon good sentence-struct- 
 ure and punctuation. For details concerning the 
 method of study, see Preface and Introduction to 
 Gayley's Classic Myths in English Literature, and 
 Suggestions to Teachers, § 6, below. 
 
 4. Simple Prose: 
 
 The Alhambra, touched with the romance of a dis- 
 tant age; or 
 
 Tom Brown, touched with the romance of boyhood; 
 
 Sir Roger de Coverly, touched with quaint humor 
 and satire.* See Suggestions to Teachers, § 9. 
 
 5. Short Poems, mostly narrative, descriptive, or 
 idyllic: 
 
 (a) English: Some twelve, of the scope and charac- 
 ter of the following: Milton's L' Allegro and II Pense- 
 roso; Goldsmith's Deserted Village and The Traveller; 
 Cowper's Winter Morning's Walk; Burns' Cotter's 
 Saturday Night and Tarn O'Shanter; Coleridge's Rime 
 of the Ancient Mariner; Byron's Prisoner of Chillon; 
 Macaulay's Horatius; Tennyson's Morte D' Arthur. 
 
 These and similar poems may be found, with anno- 
 tation, in Hales' Longer English Poems (Macmillan), 
 or Syle's From Milton to Tennyson (Allyn & Bacon, 
 Boston). 
 
 (b) American: Snow-Bound. 
 
 It is presupposed that Evangeline has been read in 
 one of the grammar grades. 
 
 These poems are to be studied comparatively, as 
 illustrating the characteristics of the authors and re- 
 flecting the thought of their times. Prosody should 
 be extended pari passu with the varying forms of metre. 
 
 * Not a meagre selection of the papers, but the complete series 
 from the Spectator (thirty-three essays, by Addison, Steele, and 
 Budgell): Allyn & Bacon, American Book Co., or Cassell. 
 
10 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 Grammatical and rhetorical apparatus should subserve 
 the purposes of interpretation and of criticism. 
 
 6. The Shakespearian Drama: Two plays, preferably 
 The Merchant of Venice, and Julius Csesar or Macbeth. 
 
 7. Prose, the Historical Essay: Macaulay's Warren 
 Hastings. 
 
 Here is the natural line of demarcation between the 
 more elementary and the advanced work of the High 
 School course in English. For the remainder of the 
 course (listed in the Register as English 14) a foreign 
 modern language may be substituted on entrance to 
 the University of California. But it is believed that 
 the following subjects (8, 9, 10) admirably supplement 
 the preceding; and it is noteworthy that in the best 
 High Schools the whole course is pursued by all pupils. 
 
 8. Orations and Arguments: Three orations, includ- 
 ing one by Burke, from Bradley's Orations and Argu- 
 ments (Allyn & Bacon, Boston: 1894), or Three of 
 Burke's American speeches (Payne's Burke's Select 
 Works, Vol. 1; George's Burke's American Orations). 
 
 The chief value of these selections lies, first, in their 
 treatment of great and far-reaching questions in the 
 light of universal ideas; and, second, in their masterly 
 handling of argument. 
 
 For further remarks, see Suggestions to Teachers, § 10. 
 
 9. Poems * mostly lyric, reflective, didactic, and 
 satirical: — 
 
 *The poems to be prepared for entrance examination (University 
 of California) are, in general, taken from lists 2, 5, 6, 9, as indicated, 
 but for the items as required from year to year, and for the substi- 
 tutions allowed in accredited schools, see the University Register, 
 or the Admission Circular. In 1894, lists 5 and 9 consisted of 
 Hales' Longer English Poems (except MacFlecknoe, Laodamia, 
 and the selections from Johnson, Scott, and Shelley), Whittier's 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 11 
 
 (a) English: Some fifteen poems of the scope and 
 character of the following: Spenser's Prothalamion; 
 Milton's Lycidas, Hymn on the Nativity, and Comus; 
 Dry den's Alexander's Feast, Song for St. Cecilia's Day, 
 and Epistle to Congreve; Collins' The Passions; Pope's 
 The Rape of the Lock, or Three of the Epistles; Thom- 
 son's Winter; Johnson's Vanity of Human Wishes; 
 Gray's Elegy, The Progress of Poesy, and The Bard; 
 Cowper's Heroism, Lines on my Mother's Picture; 
 Burns' Twa Dogs; Byron's Childe Harold (selections); 
 Keat's The Eve of St. Agnes; Shelley's Euganean 
 Hills, The Cloud, and The Skylark; Wordsworth's 
 Laodamia, Ode on the Intimations of Immortality, 
 and Tintern Abbey; Matthew Arnold's Scholar-Gypsy; 
 Browning's Transcript from Euripides (Balaustion's 
 Adventure); Tennyson's Oenone. 
 
 These poems may best be chosen from Hales' Longer 
 English Poems (Macmillan) or Syle's From Milton 
 to Tennyson (Allyn & Bacon). 
 
 (b) American: Lowell's The Vision of Sir Launfal.* 
 To be so studied as to develop the great facts of 
 
 chronological sequence and relationship in English lit- 
 erature, the distinct types and schools of poetry, and 
 the characteristics of the great epochs and groups. To 
 this end all prose and poetry previously read in the 
 course is to be brought once more within the field of 
 this comprehensive view. No history of English lit- 
 erature need be used for recitation in class. A wise 
 
 Snow-Bound, Longfellow's Evangeline, Lowell's Sir Launfal, and 
 Milton's Comus. But the following substitutions were allowed in 
 accredited schools : For Comus, Milton's Paradise Lost, Book 1 or 
 2, or 5 or 6 (Books 1 and 2, edited by Macmillan ; Books 5 and 6, by- 
 Verity; Macmillan & Co.); for Sir Launfal, Tennyson's Enid, or 
 Gareth and Lynette (edited by G. C. Macaulay, Macmillan & Co.) 
 For (10) The Newcomes, George Eliot's Silas Marner was allowed 
 to be substituted. 
 
12 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 instructor may, in a few hours, convey to the class an 
 outline of the salient facts, features, and periods of 
 English literature, that will suffice to correlate the 
 authors and masterpieces required in the preparatory 
 course. Only those dates should be given that are of 
 evident import; they should be given in their sequence, 
 and should find a permanent abode in the memory of 
 the pupil. 
 
 X 10. Prose, the Novel: Thackeray's The Newcomes.* 
 
 For objects and methods of study, see Suggestions to 
 Teachers, § 11. 
 
 II. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 Introductory. On the general distribution of 
 studies and the periods to be allotted to each, the 
 following paragraphs from the recommendation made 
 by the English Conference to the Committee on Second- 
 ary School Studies of the National Council of Educa- 
 tion (1893, pp. 90-91 ) should be especially noted: 
 
 "The Conference is of opinion that the study of 
 English should be pursued in the High School for five 
 hours a week during the entire course of four years. 
 This would make the total amount of available time 
 not far from eight hundred hours (or periods). 
 
 "The study of literature and training in the expres- 
 sion of thought, taken together, are the fundamental 
 elements in any proper High School course in English, 
 and demand not merely the largest share of time and 
 attention, but continuous and concurrent treatment 
 throughout the four years. The Conference therefore 
 recommends the assignment of three hours a week for 
 
 * See footnote on page 10. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers.   13 
 
 four years (or four hundred and eighty hours in the 
 total) to the study of literature, and the assignment of 
 two hours a week for the first two years, and one hour 
 a week for the last two years (or two hundred and 
 forty hours in the total) to training in composition. 
 By the study of literature the Conference means the 
 study of the works of good authors, not the study of 
 a manual of literary history. 
 
 " Rhetoric, during the earlier part of the High School 
 course, connects itself directly, on the one hand, with 
 the study of literature, furnishing the student with 
 apparatus for analysis and criticism, and, on the other 
 hand, with practice in composition, acquainting the 
 student with principles and maxims relating to effect- 
 ive discourse. For this earlier stage, therefore, extend- 
 ing through the first two years, no assignment of hours 
 to rhetoric has been deemed advisable, and an assign- 
 ment of one hour a week in the third year (a total of 
 forty hours) is thought sufficient for any systematic 
 view of rhetoric that should be attempted in the High 
 School. It will be observed, however, that if the 
 teacher has borne in mind the practical uses of rhet- 
 oric in the first two years, he will have conveyed the 
 essentials of the art (with or without references to a 
 text-book) before the systematic view begins, so that 
 this view will be a kind of codification of principles 
 already applied in practice. . 
 
 "The history of English literature should be taught * 
 incidentally, in connection with the pupil's study of 
 particular authors and works; the mechanical use of 
 manuals of literature should be avoided, and the com- 
 mitting to memory of names and dates should not be 
 mistaken for culture. In the fourth year, however, an 
 attempt may be made, by means of lectures or other- 
 
 2* 
 
14 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 wise, to give the pupil a view of our literature as a 
 whole and to acquaint him with the relations between 
 periods. This instruction should accompany — not 
 supersede — a chronologically arranged sequence of 
 authors. In connection with it a syllabus or brief 
 primer may be used. 
 
 "To the subject of Historical and Systematic (or 
 Formal) Grammar, one hour a week in the fourth 
 year (a total of forty hours) may be assigned. 
 
 "In the present state of text-books and teachers, 
 the study of the History of English Language cannot, 
 perhaps, be generally, or even extensively, introduced 
 into the High Schools. It is the opinion of the Con- 
 ference, however, that certain parts of that study may 
 be profitably undertaken during the last year of the 
 High School course, and that some systematic knowl- 
 edge of the history of the language is of value to the 
 student who goes no farther than the High School, as 
 well as to the student preparing for college." 
 
 With this outline of subjects and periods the Eng- 
 lish Department of the University of California 
 heartily concurs. It would also call attention to, and 
 emphasize, the opinion expressed by the Conference, 
 that "the best results in the teaching of English in 
 High Schools cannot be secured without the aid given 
 by the study of some other language, and that Latin 
 and German, by reason of their fuller inflectional 
 system, are especially suited to this end." Not only 
 is it impossible for a pupil, without the study of Latin, 
 to obtain the discipline and the culture pertaining to 
 an English education, but it is vain for a teacher, 
 without a fair acquaintance with Latin or Greek, and 
 at least one modern foreign language, to attempt 
 instruction in English. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 15 
 
 A. Language. 
 
 § 1. Grammar. The knowledge of Grammar 
 which a pupil entering the High School must be 
 presumed to have, maybe stated as follows: (1) A 
 thorough, practical acquaintance with the elements of 
 English Grammar, its Parts of Speech, its few re- 
 maining Inflections, its necessary classifications and 
 terminology; and (2) such insight into structural and 
 syntactical relations as will enable the pupil to analyze* 
 any sentence involving no special or idiomatic diffi- 
 culties. With these there should go (3) the correct 
 spelling and pronunciation of words actually in the 
 pupil's use, and especially the habit of noting the 
 spelling and ascertaining the pronunciation of new 
 words as they come to him. This last, it must be 
 remembered, is a piece of work which is never finished, 
 and so can never be dismissed; but the other two rep- 
 resent a definite and limited attainment, quite within 
 grammar-school possibilities, and that attainment 
 should be rigorously exacted. 
 
 This elementary grammatical knowledge and this 
 logical power of analysis presupposed upon entrance, 
 should be kept in constant growth and exercise through- 
 out the High School course. In the study of literature 
 they should ever be the familiar instruments of investi- 
 gation, of interpretation, and of criticism — means for 
 unfolding the variety and resources of literary art and 
 expression. In the composition exercise they should 
 
 * It seems necessary to remark in passing that the device known 
 as a "diagram" is no analysis, as some suppose it to be, but only a 
 swift and convenient — though very inadequate — scheme of nota- 
 tion. The only true analysis is a mental process; and any teach- 
 ing which confounds a tangle of lines with that process, or makes 
 the thinking dependent upon the lines, or substitutes for mental 
 effort and insight some superficial and readily-acquired knack, is 
 simply pernicious. 
 
16 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 be constantly appealed to, as the only sure means 
 whereby correction may be made generic — applicable 
 to whole groups of errors — instead of specific, or limited 
 to the particular case in hand; and thus they should 
 lead up to self-correction and self-criticism. Such 
 instruments can, with a little skill, be made to grow 
 stronger and more efficient by their very use, and 
 withouT special study to that end. It may be well, 
 however, from time to time to devote an hour to some 
 limited grammatical topic, and to insure thus a fresh 
 survey and a consideration of points unnoticed before. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
 § 2. It will be noticed that the science of Grammar, 
 or Grammar as a system, taught for its own sake 
 and as a discipline of the mind, has not yet been 
 mentioned in this scheme. The purpose is not to omit 
 it altogether, but to defer it to a period of the pupil's 
 development when his powers of abstracting and 
 generalizing have gained sufficient strength and play 
 to make the study both interesting and profitable. The 
 lamentable results of the earlier plan of forcing this 
 science upon immature minds, and the equally lament- 
 able results of the present plan of leaving Grammar 
 out altogether, have led to the suggestion that a proper 
 place for such a comprehensive survey may be formed 
 somewhere near the end of the High School course. 
 This suggestion was warmly taken up by the recent 
 Conference on English held at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 
 and is made the subject of special recommendation in 
 its report.* In this recommendation the English 
 
 * Embodied in the Report of the Committee on Secondary School 
 Studies, recently issued by the United States Bureau of Education. 
 This publication, already twice referred to, is earnestly commended 
 to the attention of all interested in the work of High Schools. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 17 
 
 Department of this University joins, and bespeaks for 
 the experiment the kind cooperation of teachers in all 
 our preparatory schools. The subject is, no doubt, 
 beset with difficulties growing out of the novelty of 
 treatment called for, and the lack of satisfactory text- 
 books. Such difficulties, however, will but enhance the 
 glory of success. The treatment should be scientific,! 
 historical, comparative. It should deal not with tradi- 
 tions and doctrines and rules, but steadily and only 
 with the actual facts of language, carefully ascertained 
 and so systematized as to exhibit their true bearing 
 and relations. It should accept heartily the great fact 
 of variety in speech. It should recognize without 
 reprobation or reserve not merely the standard English 
 of books and its equally noble brother, the spoken 
 English of daily life, but dialects as well, and even the 
 familiar patois of childhood. It should avail itself 
 freely of analogies and differences not merely between 
 these, but between English and any other tongues the 
 pupils may chance to be studying. And, lastly, it 
 must accept and use that other great fact of growth 
 and change; must show in some clear way how things 
 have come to be as they are, and must defend us 
 against such error as that of supposing, for example, 
 that Shakespeare must be wrong when his usage does 
 not coincide with our own; or that good usage at any 
 stage is a finalty. 
 
 It must not be supposed from the length of these 
 remarks that this general survey need occupy any great 
 length of time. On the contrary, rapidity is in some 
 measure essential to its success as a comprehensive 
 view. It is thought that five weeks of concentrated 
 effort upon text-book and lectures will suffice to accom- 
 plish all that is wise to attempt in the High School. 
 
18 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 In spite of some drawbacks, Whitney's Essentials of 
 English Grammar (Ginn & Co.) is still, perhaps, the 
 best single text-book available for the general subject. 
 A little book just published, A Method of English, by- 
 James Gow (Macmillan), seems likely to prove a 
 valuable acquisition, and we should be glad to see it 
 thoroughly tested by competent teachers in the school- 
 room. Whitney's work is specially valuable for its 
 discipline in the scientific spirit and method, for^its 
 ( clear presentation of grammatical form, and for its 
 systematic views. Gow's work is professedly for junior 
 classes, and has a certain air of easiness, yet it treats 
 of such subjects as Phonetics, Dialect, and the bearing 
 of grammar upon Rhetoric and Poetics. On the 
 analytical side, Greene's Analysis of the English Lan- 
 guage (Cowperthwaite & Co.) is probably unsurpassed 
 as a masterly discussion within school-book limits of 
 the logical relations which subsist between the elements 
 of sentences. Its arbitrary system of notation and 
 its numerical designations may be disregarded without 
 serious loss. But to have mastered, for example, its 
 discussion of the various aspects of the causal rela- 
 tion, is to have the cobwebs swept out of one's brain, 
 and to experience the sensation of clear vision. This 
 work is specially adapted to such topical reviews as 
 have been suggested above. 
 
 For the teacher's own study, and for occasional 
 reference by the pupils, the following works are recom- 
 mended: Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar (Macmil- 
 lan), — formless, unreadable, and unteachable, yet a 
 mine of valuable information to those who will dig for 
 it. It is furthermore rendered indispensable by the 
 constant reference to it in annotated texts of Shake- 
 speare. Morris' Historical Outlines of English Acci- 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 19 
 
 dence, and its companion volume, Kellner's Historical 
 Outlines of English Syntax (both by Macmillan), are 
 works constructed on the general plan of the Shake- 
 spearian Grammar, but deal with the development of 
 our Accidence and Syntax throughout the whole 
 English period. Skeat's Primer of English Etymol- 
 ogy (Macmillan) should, perhaps, have been mentioned 
 first in this list as the proper introduction to much 
 that is treated of in these other works, and in general, 
 to the newer side of grammar. Sweet's New English 
 Grammar, Part I (Macmillan), is a treatise — still 
 incomplete — by one of the foremost students of the 
 N time. Its General Introduction, though acute and 
 original, is almost hopelessly obscured by the writer's 
 isolation in thought, and by his preference of an arbi- 
 trary, and at times whimsical, terminology of his own 
 invention, to one which would be generally intelligi- 
 ble. The rest of the book deals with the important 
 subjects of Phonology and Accidence; it suffers less 
 from the faults just named; and is a storehouse of the 
 results attained by recent scholarship. The book is 
 by no means easy reading, but is well-nigh indis- 
 pensable to a teacher who would attain the sure basis 
 of knowledge and the true point of view for the 
 conduct of such a general survey as has been outlined 
 above. 
 
 For the history of our language, Professor Louns- 
 bury's little book, The English Language, still keeps 
 its place as one of the best short and comprehensive 
 sketches we have. A recent study by Champneys, 
 The History of English (Macmillan, 1893), has the 
 advantage of fuller treatment of some topics — notably 
 Dialect — and a fuller illustration by examples. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
1 
 
 20 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 y § 3. Word-Study. Words are the sole elements of 
 all literary expression; upon their weight and color 
 depend all possible literary effects. Therefore they 
 must never be neglected in a study of Literature. The 
 study of them begins empirically in infancy, and, in 
 one way and another, they take up a large share of 
 the child's attention in all the lower schools. What 
 remains for the High School to do, is to concentrate 
 and crystallize these efforts into a habit of looking 
 keenly at words — of recognizing their kinship and 
 groupings — and to teach the pupil how to ascertain for 
 himself whatever he needs to know about them. He 
 is to be trained (that is, in the use of standard diction- 
 aries, both general and etymological) so that all the 
 information they afford may be within his easy reach; 
 and, further, is to be trained to apply this information 
 to a word in any given context, with a view to deter- 
 mine its precise value and force in that context. It is 
 thought that this training can be better accomplished 
 in connection with opportunities as they naturally 
 come in one's way, than by perfunctory study of any 
 list of words or of any text-book of Word-Analysis. 
 And attainment may be best shown, not by direct 
 appeal to the memory, but by testing the pupil's power 
 to find, and intelligently to use in actual cases, the 
 information accessible in works of reference. One 
 caution seems still to need repetition. Questions con- 
 cerning the derivation and the history of words are 
 questions as to what the facts were. In seeking the 
 answers to such questions, therefore, it is idle to ap- 
 peal — as many nevertheless do — to some inner light 
 of reason, to some ready conjecture, or even to the ap- 
 parently learned etymologies of Webster or Worcester. 
 Guess-work is no knowledge. If neither the Century 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 21 
 
 Dictionary nor that of the Philological Society is 
 within reach, the best available authority is probably 
 the complete edition of Skeat's Etymological Diction- 
 ary. And even in using this work one should not fail 
 to distinguish between what is stated as fact and what 
 
 is stated as conjecture. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
 § 4. Composition. The object of this training is 
 three-fold: (1) To develop the sense of Form, Order, 
 and Coherence through habitual practice of the related 
 virtues in composition — good mechanical form, general 
 legibility and neatness, correct spelling, punctuation, 
 and paragraphing, orderly structure and arrangement 
 of parts; (2) to emancipate the deliberate expression 
 of thought from the tenor and constraint which usually 
 invest it in the minds of children; and (3) to stimu- 
 late into vivid action the mental powers of perception, 
 invention, synthesis, and the organization of thought 
 and experience. As for the first object, eternal vigi- 
 lance is the price of attaining it; and this fact cannot 
 be urged upon teachers too often. The most common 
 form of deficiency among students who apply to enter 
 a university — and not a few of these actually get in — 
 is that they can neither read nor write. The discour- 
 aging feature in all such cases is that the ghosts of 
 these deficiencies forever block the student's way to 
 better things. This is not the place to discuss means 
 which may be used in aggravated instances; but insist- 
 ence that no scribbling be done, that all writing — even 
 of first drafts — be done with full attention to spelling 
 and punctuation, that errors be not found for the pupil, 
 but by him, and that rewriting of the page be the only 
 correction allowed. These are measures which may 
 transform the delinquent, if they do not first translate 
 
20 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 J § 3. Word-Study. Words are the sole elements of 
 all literary expression; upon their weight and color 
 depend all possible literary effects. Therefore they 
 must never be neglected in a study of Literature. The 
 study of them begins empirically in infancy, and, in 
 one way and another, they take up a large share of 
 the child's attention in all the lower schools. What 
 remains for the High School to do, is to concentrate 
 and crystallize these efforts into a habit of looking 
 keenly at words — of recognizing their kinship and 
 groupings — and to teach the pupil how to ascertain for 
 himself whatever he needs to know about them. He 
 is to be trained (that is, in the use of standard diction- 
 aries, both general and etymological) so that all the 
 information they afford may be within his easy reach; 
 and, further, is to be trained to apply this information 
 to a word in any given context, with a view to deter- 
 mine its precise value and force in that context. It is 
 thought that this training can be better accomplished 
 in connection with opportunities as they naturally 
 come in one's way, than by perfunctory study of any 
 list of words or of any text-book of Word-Analysis. 
 And attainment may be best shown, not by direct 
 appeal to the memory, but by testing the pupil's power 
 to find, and intelligently to use in actual cases, the 
 information accessible in works of reference. One 
 caution seems still to need repetition. Questions con- 
 cerning the derivation and the history of words are 
 questions as to what the facts were. In seeking the 
 answers to such questions, therefore, it is idle to ap- 
 peal — as many nevertheless do — to some inner light 
 of reason, to some ready conjecture, or even to the ap- 
 parently learned etymologies of Webster or Worcester. 
 Guess-work is no knowledge. If neither the Century 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 21 
 
 Dictionary nor that of the Philological Society is 
 within reach, the best available authority is probably 
 the complete edition of Skeat's Etymological Diction- 
 ary. And even in using this work one should not fail 
 to distinguish between what is stated as fact and what 
 
 is stated as conjecture. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
 § 4. Composition. The object of this training is 
 three-fold: (1) To develop the sense of Form, Order, 
 and Coherence through habitual practice of the related 
 virtues in composition — good mechanical form, general 
 legibility and neatness, correct spelling, punctuation, 
 and paragraphing, orderly structure and arrangement 
 of parts; (2) to emancipate the deliberate expression 
 of thought from the tenor and constraint which usually 
 invest it in the minds of children; and (3) to stimu- 
 late into vivid action the mental powers of perception, 
 invention, synthesis, and the organization of thought 
 and experience. As for the first object, eternal vigi- 
 lance is the price of attaining it; and this fact cannot 
 be urged upon teachers too often. The most common 
 form of deficiency among students who apply to enter 
 a university — and not a few of these actually get in — 
 is that they can neither read nor write. The discour- 
 aging feature in all such cases is that the ghosts of 
 these deficiencies forever block the student's way to 
 better things. This is not the place to discuss means 
 which may be used in aggravated instances; but insist- 
 ence that no scribbling be done, that all writing — even 
 of first drafts — be done with full attention to spelling 
 and punctuation, that errors be not found for the pupil, 
 but by him, and that rewriting of the page be the only 
 correction allowed. These are measures which may 
 transform the delinquent, if they do not first translate 
 
24 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 as well. Such composition should have careful super- 
 vision before they are written out, with reference to 
 material and arrangement of parts; they should be 
 carefully criticised when finished, and, if they need it, 
 should be rewritten, the pupil making his own correc- 
 tions after the nature of the faults has been made clear 
 to him. Work of this sort should grow in power and 
 interest to the very end of the course. 
 
 For detailed suggestion the teacher is referred to 
 such works as the following: Miss Irene Hardy's Com- 
 position Exercises (Henry Holt & Co.) — an admirable 
 discussion, by a veteran teacher, of the fields of thought 
 which naturally attract young minds, and the variety 
 of topics which may be found in them suitable to this 
 purpose; Misses Keeler and Davis' Studies in English 
 Composition (Allyn & Bacon) — a text-book intended 
 for High School classes, outlining a definite course, and 
 presenting models; Scott and Denny's Paragraph- 
 Writing (Allyn & Bacon); Newcomer's English Com- 
 position, and Genung's Outlines of Rhetoric (Ginn & 
 Co.) ; Fletcher and Carpenter's Introduction to 
 Theme- Writing (Allyn & Bacon) — all written with 
 students of college grade more immediately in view, 
 but suggestive also for work at a lower stage. For a 
 wider view over this field the teacher may well read 
 Professor Wendell's English Composition (Charles 
 Scribner's Sons). 
 
 Opportunity should be found for oral composition, 
 not only in set debates and talks appointed for this 
 purpose, but far more in the daily recitations. Too 
 rarely in the recitation is sufficient importance attached 
 to the formation of the habit of complete and finished 
 utterance — without prompting — of all that the pupil 
 has to say upon the topic proposed. The sharp and 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 25 
 
 rattling volley of question and answer has its function 
 and place as a general quickener of thought through- 
 out a class; while keen and skillful cross-questioning 
 in the Socratic form is a wonderful revealer of the 
 gaps and shallows of individual knowledge. But no 
 careful teacher will allow his skill in either of these, 
 nor yet his own nervousness in the face of flagrant 
 misstatement, nor the impatient dissent of others in 
 the class, to stand in the way of complete utterance 
 on the part of the speaker. For the habit of thus 
 expressing one's self implies a habit of thought whose 
 value in the intellectual life can scarcely be esti- 
 mated — the habit of grasping things as wholes. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
 § 5. Rhetoric. The science of Rhetoric is closely 
 allied to Logic, and demands for its proper exposition 
 a power of subtle analysis and a wide acquaintance 
 with literary forms. It has, therefore, no proper place 
 in the High School. But, as in the case of Grammar, 
 many of its forms and elements are inevitably encoun- 
 tered at an early stage; and if these be mastered thus 
 objectively, they form a valuable apparatus of investi- 
 gation and criticism, which blends with the similar 
 apparatus derived from the grammatical side. (See 
 above, under Grammar, § 1.) Nearly all the points in 
 Rhetoric which seem important at this stage and for 
 these uses, may be grouped under the Materials and 
 the Mechanics of Expression; i. e., Words, in their 
 effective use and combination, Figures of Speech, and 
 effective Structure, whether of the sentence, of the para- 
 graph, or of complete compositions. Besides these, 
 there should be a good, practical understanding of 
 those qualities of style which lie within the pupil's 
 
26 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 own attainment, viz.: Simplicity and Clearness, and a 
 speaking acquaintance with the more obvious aspects 
 of Energy, Pathos, and Humor. 
 
 Nearly all text-books in the field far transcend these 
 simple limits, and most of them are so arranged that 
 it is difficult to separate the desirable elements from 
 the undesirable. Some are books of literary etiquette, 
 and their interminable "don'ts" are enlivened by 
 startling parade of the horrible example — which, after 
 all, has few terrors for those for whom it is specially 
 designed. Some, on the other hand, benevolently at- 
 tempt a combination of all useful things — reminding 
 one of the universal jack-knife. The materials for this 
 elementary study may, no doubt, be gleaned from any 
 one of them, or may be taught without any text-book 
 whatever. But if a text-book must be put into the 
 hands of the pupils, we know of no better one for this 
 purpose than Kellogg's new Text-Book on Rhetoric — 
 omitting the paragraph-puzzles in the earlier chapters, 
 and certainly everything beyond Lesson 71. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
 B. Literature. 
 
 y Introduction to Poetry. The study of poetry must 
 be approached not only from the imaginative but from 
 the historical side; for the material of much of our 
 poetry is to be found in the traditions of the ancients. 
 Unfortunately the "utilitarian" protest against the 
 cultivation of " dead " languages has to a lamentable 
 degree cut us off from these sources of our literature. 
 An evident, though inadequate, means of tempering the 
 consequence of this result of the classics is the study 
 of them through translations and summaries. This 
 means is less inadequate if the imaginative products 
 of antiquity be studied in a garb somewhat resembling 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 27 
 
 the original — the garb of modern poetry and art. For 
 these reasons an acquaintance with the myths of the 
 Greeks, the Romans, the Norsemen, and the Germans, 
 as they are reproduced in the best English literature, 
 is an excellent introduction to the detailed study of 
 poetry. 
 
 The benefits accruing from such a study of the classic 
 myths are both general and specific. 
 
 In general, classic mythology has been for poets a 
 treasure-house replete with jewels. It has been for 
 readers a clue to the labyrinth of art, not merely a 
 thread of tradition but of sympathy. It has led men 
 to appreciate the motives and conditions of ancient art 
 and literature, and the uniform and ordered evolution 
 of the aesthetic sense. It has also quickened the imagi- 
 native and emotional faculties of the moderns in no 
 inappreciable degree. Long familiarity w T ith the sim- 
 plicity, the restraint, the severe regard, the filial awe 
 that pervade the myths of Greece and Rome, or with 
 the newness of life, the naivete and the romance of 
 Norse and Old German lore, cannot but graciously 
 temper our modern estimate of artistic worth. It must 
 furthermore be borne in mind that the myths of the 
 ancients are the earliest literary crystallization of social 
 order and religious fear, and are consequently of 
 incalculable value to us as recording the incipient 
 history of religious ideals and of moral conduct. 
 
 In special, the study of the classic myths, when 
 illustrated by masterpieces of literature and art, 
 should lead to the appreciation of concrete artistic 
 productions of both these kinds. For, a previous 
 acquaintance with the material of literary tradition 
 heightens the appreciation of each allusive passage 
 as it is encountered; it enables the reader to sympa- 
 
28 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 thize with the mood of the poet, and to breathe the 
 atmosphere in which the poet breathes. And to the 
 understanding of painting and sculpture, a knowledge 
 of the myths is equally indispensable. 
 
 Finally, this study quickens the aesthetic judgment 
 and heightens the enjoyment of such works of liter- 
 ature and art as not treating of mythical or classical 
 subjects still possess the characteristics of the classic: 
 the unconscious simplicity, the inevitable and per- 
 ennial charm, and the noble ideality. Most of the 
 poems included in an English course, whether they 
 deal with classic mythology or not, mean little to one 
 
 who is devoid of the spirit of classicism. 
 
 C. M. G. 
 
 § 6. Mythology in Literature. The following 
 suggestions are prepared with reference to the volume 
 named The Classic Myths in English Literature (Ginn 
 & Co.): 
 
 1. The book may be well assigned for regular recita- 
 tion to the Junior Classes in High Schools. 
 
 2. To a satisfactory study of the text, and of the 
 poetical illustrations and references, about sixty exer- 
 cises will be necessary. Thus, in the Junior Class, 
 The Classic Myths might be taken, during the first 
 term, five times a week until completed, — or, preferably 
 three times a week, Monday, Wednesday, Friday, for 
 twenty weeks, alternating with some other English 
 work, such as the Lady of the Lake, which would fall 
 on the intervening days. 
 
 3. The Introduction is intended for teachers and 
 general readers; not for pupils, unless it be accom- 
 panied by explanation. 
 
 4. With a class of young pupils, the teacher may 
 find it wise to begin at the fourth chapter (" Greek 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 29 
 
 Myths of the Creation"), deferring the first three chap- 
 ters until the class is better able to appreciate them; 
 but, if the pupils are not too young, he should begin 
 with short lessons in the first chapters, assisting the 
 class by explanation and further illustration to an 
 understanding of the origin, the meaning, and the 
 importance of mythology. Pupils will experience no 
 difficulty in mastering these chapters when they 
 return to them, or review them. ' 
 
 5. The myths should be recited topically; and since 
 they are here presented in a logical and genealogical 
 arrangement, they should be recited in this order, — 
 none being omitted or left to the careless reading of 
 the pupil. Otherwise, a confused and . insufficient 
 knowledge will ensue. 
 
 6. The poems quoted in the text should be studied, 
 not only as illustrations of mythological subjects, but, 
 when they deserve it, as masterpieces; and many of 
 them should be committed to memory. 
 
 7. The Commentary is divided into sections corre- 
 sponding to those of the text. The Textual and 
 Interpretative Notes should be studied by the pupil in 
 connection with each lesson. Such notes as the pupil 
 does not understand in the advance lesson, he should 
 be required to master in the general review. The 
 Illustrative Notes may be used by the teacher in vari- 
 ous ways: for instance, as suggesting poems to be read 
 or studied in class, or photographs to be displayed, or 
 as furnishing material for oral reports on reading done 
 outside, or as affording subjects for exercises in Eng- 
 lish Composition. In the last case, pupils might well 
 be required to collate, and compare, the conceptions of 
 a deity or a hero presented in two or more poems, or 
 
 3 
 
/ 
 
 30 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 works of art; and to state carefully the conclusions 
 obtained. 
 
 8. The genealogical tables should be used at the 
 discretion of the teacher. They will aid in making 
 realistic not only the relationships, but also the 
 inherited qualities and conditions of gods and heroes. 
 
 9. Since the table of contents and the indexes are 
 fairly exhaustive, it will be well to train the pupil 
 in the use of them from the outset. Most pupils on 
 entering a High School do not know how to find in- 
 formation in a book of reference. 
 
 10. It might be well for each school to possess, for 
 purposes of reference and illustration, a copy of the 
 edition of this work, interleaved for photographs of 
 paintings and sculptures, published by the Soule 
 Photograph Co., 338 Washington Street, Boston. [Or 
 apply to W. C. Vickery, 224 Post Street, San Francisco.] 
 A list of suitable photographs has been prepared for 
 Soule's catalogue. 
 
 11. For other suggestions with regard to the pur- 
 pose and method of teaching this subject, see Intro- 
 duction to The Classic Myths. For a list of the 
 engravings, and the source of each, see pp. xxii-xxvii. 
 For a list of the Genealogical Tables, see xx-xxi. For 
 a Synopsis of Rules Governing Pronunciation of 
 Names (to be studied by all pupils), see pp. 493, 494. 
 
 C. M. G. 
 
 § 7. Poetry (other than the drama): Lyric, Narra- 
 tive, Descriptive, and Reflective. 
 
 1. Purpose. The aim of the teacher in dealing with 
 masterpieces of poetry should be to develop in his 
 pupils the habit -of observing closely and keenly the 
 phenomena of natural and human existence, with a 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 31 
 
 view to the sympathetic understanding of their sig- 
 nificance as parts of an organized and living whole; 
 to supply, by a study of the poetic habit of mind, the 
 material of imaginative knowledge, and the stimulus 
 to healthy imaginative power; to cultivate a love for 
 the expressive in nature and in literature, and an 
 appreciation of fitting form as the beautiful and true 
 expression of its content; and, finally, to emphasize 
 the verities of life and the laws of conduct. 
 
 2. Method. As in all study of English Classics, the 
 lessons assigned should be not arbitrary and inconse- 
 quential fragments of the book, but integral parts of 
 the poem ; and the interest of the pupil should be so 
 aroused as to insure his reading the whole poem out of 
 school before its analysis in the class-room is completed, 
 
 (a) Introductory: The study of the poem proper 
 should be prefaced by investigation into the life and 
 times of the poet; his place, and the position of the 
 poem in the development of English literature; the 
 social and historical features of the times and persons 
 that the poem characterizes; and the geography of the 
 scenes that serve as a background. These items of 
 information may be supplied in two ways: by informal 
 but carefully prepared talks, in which the instructor 
 imparts the results of his reading on the subject; and, 
 by gradual and more detailed work in the way of re- 
 ports prepared by members of the class. 
 
 As general guides, may be mentioned: Stopford 
 Brooke's Primer of English Literature (Appleton & 
 Co., N. Y.), Pancoast's Representative English Litera- 
 ture (Henry Holt & Co.), and Thomas Arnold's Man- 
 ual of English Literature, American edition (Ginn & 
 Co.). Such works as Morley & Tyler's Manual of 
 English Literature (Sheldon & Co.),Taine's History of 
 
32 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 English Literature (Trans, by H. Van Laun, London), 
 Morley's exhaustive work, English Writers (Cassell 
 Publ. Co.), now published as far as the eighth volume, 
 and the English Men of Letters series (Harpers), 
 should be in the High School library for purposes of 
 reference. Chronological outlines and lists of collateral 
 reading will often be of value in orienting the teacher; 
 such, for instance, as Emery's Notes on English Lit- 
 erature, Smith's Synopsis of English and American 
 Literature (Ginn & Co.), and Ryland's Chronological 
 Outlines of English Literature (Macmillan & Co.). 
 But it must be remembered that text-book informa- 
 tion about authors or masterpieces, if unaccompanied 
 by acquaintance with the works themselves, is worth 
 little to the learner. It is better that the teacher should 
 furnish, in the informal manner already suggested, 
 such preliminary information concerning the life and 
 times of the poet as shall serve to exhibit his relation 
 to preceding contemporary authors and stages of liter- 
 ary development. As was said, above, under Sequence 
 of Studies, a wise instructor may in a few hours convey 
 to his class an outline of the salient facts, features, and 
 periods of English literature sufficient to correlate the 
 authors and masterpieces studied in the course. Only 
 those dates should be given that are of evident import; 
 they should be given in their sequence, and should find 
 a permanent abode in the memory of the pupil. 
 
 (b) General View: Considerable parts of the mas- 
 terpiece, or, if possible, the whole masterpiece, having 
 been assigned for study at home, pupils should, in 
 recitation, reproduce orally the preliminary informa- 
 tion described under (a), and outline clearly and con- 
 cisely the argument or narrative of the poem. Each 
 should, then, indicate and explain, in a general way, 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 33 
 
 the passages that he found difficult to understand, 
 referring to the class what he cannot explain. Finally, 
 each having pointed out the lines and stanzas that he 
 most likes, the passages preferred by consensus of 
 opinion (of teacher as well as of class) should be 
 marked to be committed to memory and recited in 
 class. The instructor should encourage such recitation, 
 even to the extent of making it optional with certain 
 other desirable work. 
 
 ^ (c) Analysis: Next, taking up the poem in detail, 
 the class must examine minutely the obsolete and 
 unusual words, phrases, and constructions, and ex- 
 plain the literary and historical allusions, noting the 
 poetic charm and significance of each. The pupils 
 should, also, be required to elucidate and classify the 
 more important figures of speech, and to comment 
 upon their force, clearness, and suitability. 
 
 From images, the transition will be natural to the 
 rhythmic expression of the imaginative product. 
 First, the rhythm should be discussed, its nature, swift 
 or slow, heavy or light, involved or simple, monotonous 
 or varied; secondly, the appropriateness of the rhythm 
 or rhythms to the movement of the thought, emotion, 
 or action; thirdly, the style and technical designation 
 of the metre, and of the stanza ; and the fitness of the 
 metrical form. Many lines should be scanned at 
 home; many read in class to illustrate irregularities 
 or peculiarities of verse, and to cultivate the sense of 
 rhythm. 
 
 It is wise that as a mere matter of option for work 
 out of school, or for occasional class-work, pupils be 
 encouraged to prepare verses of their own on simple 
 subjects, in the metre of the poem under consideration. 
 The feeling of rhythmic sequence and the appreciation 
 
34 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 of verse-forms can in no other way, so surely, be 
 developed. 
 
 For the instructor, a handy but elementary guide to 
 English versification is Tom Hood's Rhymester, edited 
 by Arthur Penn (Appleton & Co.). 
 
 See also Abbott & Seeley's English Lessons for Eng- 
 lish People (Boston, pp. 145-221); Corson's Primer of 
 English Verse (Ginn & Co.), and Mayor, Schipper, and 
 Guest as mentioned in § 13, Macbeth (Literary Criti- 
 cism, paragraph 3). 
 / The pupils familiar with both thought and form of 
 the masterpiece may occasionally be required to repro- 
 duce in their own language the passages in which poetic 
 diction most differs from that of prose. This exercise 
 may be conducted both orally and by means of care- 
 fully written paraphrases of the original. It may, at 
 times, consist of an accurate representation of the 
 thought, description, or narrative, and, at times, of an 
 expansion of the poet's ideas according to the best 
 judgment and taste of the pupil. But the teacher 
 must always remember that there cannot be more than 
 one sympathetic expression of a poetic thought; or, in 
 other words, that each shade of imaginative thought, 
 feeling, and action has its appropriate literary garb. 
 If you destroy or vary the garb, you destroy or vary 
 the impression conveyed. Paraphrasing, therefore, 
 should be employed in the schools not as an insult 
 to the poet's intelligence, formative skill, and inspira- 
 tion, but as a necessary, though unfortunate, conces- 
 sion to the inexperience of the pupil, as a means to the 
 removal of that necessity, and as an exercise in trans- 
 lation, which, when pupils study Greek and Latin, has 
 little reason for existence. In general, therefore, the 
 advanced pupil should be called upon to paraphrase 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 35 
 
 only when he does not grasp the thought or appreciate 
 the figure. Rather than alter the poet's language, and 
 mutilate the conception, he should commit the language 
 to memory, understanding that to change the original 
 is a crime against the laws of art and of common sense. 
 
 These remarks are by no means a protest against the 
 paraphrase as a method of studying grammar, but as 
 a method of studying poetry. In the composition-class 
 the practice of paraphrasing prose and verse is a sure 
 and invaluable aid in enforcing the laws of syntax, and 
 in fixing the interpretation of words. In the class that 
 studies poetry, paraphrase is permissible only as a 
 means of exposition, or as a stimulus to invention. 
 
 Parallel with this labor of interpretation goes that of 
 criticism, which is always necessary to the appreciation 
 of art. There are three attitudes which the pupil 
 should not be permitted to assume in respect of classical 
 poems: first, that of regarding them with apathy; 
 second, that of reverencing them without discrimina- : 
 tion; third, that of attacking them in a supercilious 
 manner, and with a carping or Philistine spirit. 
 
 Patient deliberation and a regard for authority are 
 requisite to criticism; and while the pupil may not be 
 sufficiently mature to impugn the verdict by which the 
 poem is declared a classic, he may still be called upon 
 to consider carefully the emotions which the poem has 
 awakened in him, and to inquire into the manner of 
 their awakening. He should, in other words, study 
 the means by which the poet has fried to translate us 
 for a season, from the dust of this world to the liberal 
 atmosphere of art. He should ask whether the poet 
 has reproduced nature with fidelity, has planned 
 probable situations, described reasonable characters, 
 portrayed true emotions, exercised wisdom, generosity, 
 
36 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 and justice in his conception of conduct, chosen the 
 fitting imagery and the inevitable rhythm, welded the 
 parts into a flawless unity, and transfigured the whole 
 with a light that is not of every day but enduring. 
 
 (d) Review: During the study of the poem the 
 pupil should keep a note-book, in which are entered, 
 under appropriate headings, passages illustrating 
 qualities of style and of thought, as well as informa- 
 tion gathered concerning the social, historical, and 
 literary relations of the poem and the poet. This 
 information will be useful in the final characterization 
 of the poem and in composition of essays on special 
 features of the work. After several poems have been 
 read, the note-book should be used as affording ma- 
 terials for comparative study of subjects, methods, 
 and styles. 
 
 Upon the instructor devolves the task of weaving 
 the strands of investigation into something of a web. 
 He may well conclude the study of each poem with a 
 brief summary of its qualities from his point of view, 
 a comparison with other poems of the same kind, and 
 a statement of its historical and literary importance. 
 
 C. M. G. 
 
 § 8. Poetry (the Drama): Shakespeare's Plays 
 in the Schools. 
 
 1. Introductory. These plays should be used not as 
 text-books but as works of art. The pupil should be 
 led to understand and enjoy them. With regard to 
 methods of reading, discussion, and composition, the 
 suggestions made in § 7 concerning the study of non- 
 dramatic poetry may safely be adopted here. The 
 drama should be read, first, in natural divisions of 
 considerable length. The inquiry into plot, character, 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 37 
 
 and moral sentiment should not be undertaken before 
 several acts are in the minds of the pupils. The study 
 of language, of figures, and of diction in general should 
 be deferred until the second reading. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the pupil has not the 
 knowledge of other Shakespearian plays, or of the 
 drama in general, which would warrant his attempting 
 broad conclusions concerning dramatic principles and 
 canons. The teacher, however, should make himself 
 familiar with the best dramas and the best dramatic 
 criticism. He should make a study of the dramatic 
 works not only of Shakespeare but of such men as 
 Marlowe, Beaumont, and Fletcher, Ben Jonson, Mas- 
 singer, Sheridan,- and Goldsmith. [Thayer's Best 
 Elizabethan Plays (Ginn & Co.\ Boston) will be found 
 useful.] He should also read the greater Greek drama- 
 tists, using Plumptre's translations of iEschylus and 
 Sophocles, and the translation of Euripides (by Wood- 
 hull and others) in Morley's Universal Library (Rout- 
 ledge, London), in case the originals are not available.* 
 Few teachers know the comic as exemplified in plays 
 other than the English. An acquaintance with Aris- 
 tophanes, Plautus, Terence, and Moliere, even through 
 translations, would be productive of salutary results. 
 But whatever information the teacher may acquire and 
 impart he should be solicitous lest the pupil adopt, as 
 definite conclusions, opinions based upon unsure prin- 
 ciples or insufficient data. 
 
 A method of critical study applicable not to school 
 use, but to more advanced and independent effort, will 
 be found in g 12, The Critical Study of Shakespeare. It 
 
 *A list of other translations will be found in Classic Myths in 
 Engl. Lit., p. 408. 
 
 3* 
 
38 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 is hoped that it may serve as a stimulus to teachers 
 who desire a broader knowledge of the subject. 
 
 2. Special Suggestions. The plan of study sug- 
 gested for non- dramatic poetry will, in many respects, 
 be available in the study of Shakespeare; but in addi- 
 tion the following remarks may be useful: 
 
 (a) The pupil must, of course, acquaint himself 
 with the date of composition, the materials (traditional 
 and imaginative), and the historical background of 
 the play, as set forth in his text-book, and in such 
 books of reference as may be at hand. 
 
 (b) He should be encouraged to read at home not 
 only the play in question, but other plays of Shake- 
 speare; to commit to memory passages from the plays, 
 and to institute comparisons between the plays in 
 respect of plot and character. 
 
 (c) In class the exercise should consist largely of 
 reading and of comment. The pupil should read with 
 simplicity and sympathy; not as striving for effect, but 
 as expressing the thought while preserving its rhyth- 
 mic form. The teacher should encourage informal 
 questions, and give such explanation as may be neces- 
 sary concerning the significant in poetic expression, 
 in character, and in action. 
 
 (d) The appearance that the principal characters 
 and scenes make or should make upon the stage, and 
 the effect that on the stage, and, more particularly, in 
 real life, the incidents of the play would have upon 
 the emotions, should be kept before the mind of the 
 reader. 
 
 (e) In every play there must be an impulse to action, 
 a complication of individual interest, a climax of the 
 plot, and a more or less rapid disentanglement of the 
 complication leading either to a catastrophe or a happy 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 39 
 
 close. Without doubt, the pupil should understand 
 and apply these evident principles of construction; 
 but the teacher should beware of emphasizing any 
 elaborate system of dramatic technique as universally 
 applicable or conclusive. The pupil possesses neither 
 dramatic information sufficient to judge of such sys- 
 tems by experience, nor philosophical insight to appre- 
 ciate them a priori. This remark is, however, not, by 
 any means, intended to daunt the teacher or to limit 
 his research. [See § 12, B. Technical Criticism .] His 
 study should enable him, without yielding allegiance 
 to any maker of critical systems, to guide his pupils 
 in the study of the artistic development of the play, — 
 of the interests involved, the threads of action, the 
 grouping of characters, the successive divisions of the 
 plot, the instants of vital importance to the complica- 
 tion, to the hero, and to the spectator. 
 
 (/) The pupil should prepare outlines of the scenes 
 and acts, showing the significance of each incident and 
 its relation to those that precede and follow. 
 
 (g) It is important that the pupil be taught to esti- 
 mate the dramatic evidence under consideration — to 
 give their due weight to actions, speech, and hearsay 
 before coming to a decision upon the motives and the 
 personality of any character. It is, however, just as 
 important that the pupil be not permitted to indulge 
 in platitudes or to wander far afield in search of 
 motives that the author could not have dreamed of 
 attributing to his dramatis personse. Under judicious 
 direction the study of characters should be available 
 for exercises in composition. 
 
 (h) With regard to the outcome of the plot, two 
 questions only need be put to the pupil: Is it inevit- 
 able? Is it artistic? The answer to the former will 
 
40 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 demand review of characters and events, discrimina- 
 tion between concrete right and concrete wrong, and a 
 decision as to whether justice lay in mercy or in retri- 
 bution. The answer to the latter will involve these 
 inquiries: Is the play single in purpose; probable in 
 circumstance; cumulative in interest; direct in move- 
 ment? Does it awaken healthy emotions, and stimu- 
 late noble thought? Does it leave us convinced of 
 eternal fitness in the outcome? 
 
 (i) The pupil, in estimating the play as a true, 
 rounded, and artistic presentation of a sufficient phase 
 of life, must be led to distinguish between the selfish 
 and ephemeral sensation that the experiences of every- 
 day life excite, or that the photographic and unideal- 
 ized drama may awaken, and the elevated, impersonal 
 sympathy that a noble life, or the transfiguration of 
 life presented by the great drama, is capable of in- 
 spiring. 
 
 (j) Attention should be paid, at the appropriate 
 time (generally during the second reading of the 
 play), to the study of words, of sentences, of rhetorical 
 figures, and of poetic invention. For suggestions, see 
 §§ 1-5, on Grammar, Rhetoric, and Composition, and 
 § 7, on Non-Dramatic Poetry. 
 
 Texts: Clarendon Press, Hudson's, Rolf e's, American 
 Book Co. 
 
 Language and Versification: Abbott's Shakespearian 
 Grammar (Macmillan); Abbott & Seeley's English 
 Lessons for English People, pp. 145-221, Metre (Boston: 
 1872) ; Fleay's Shakespeare Manual; Schmidt's Shake- 
 speare Lexicon; and references in § 13, under Macbeth. 
 
 General References: Dowden's Shakespeare Primer; 
 Shakespeare, His Mind and Art (Harpers, N. Y.); 
 Hudson's Shakespeare's Life, Art, and Character, 
 
Suggestions to \TeacTiers. OF J   41 
 
 and his Essays on Education, English Studies, and 
 Shakespeare (Ginn & Co.); Moulton's Shakespeare as 
 a Dramatic Artist (Macmillan); Ward's English Dra- 
 matic Literature (2 v. Macmillan); Collier's English 
 Dramatic Poetry (3 v. London); Taine's Ehgftsh Lit- 
 erature; and see § 13, References on Six Shakespearian 
 
 Tragedies. 
 
 C. M. G. 
 
 § 9. Simple Prose: The Essay. Most obviously 
 within the field of this study, of course, are the strik- 
 ing aspects of character and of society presented in 
 Addison's Essays. Intimately connected with these 
 is the author's subtle and solvent humor, whose quiet 
 play is apt at first to escape the notice of readers ac- 
 customed only to humor of the native sort. Another 
 interest, moreover, attaches to these papers in the place 
 they hold among the beginnings of English periodical 
 literature and in the long development of the essay. 
 Collateral reading upon these points might include 
 selections from Bacon, De Foe, Pope, Johnson, and 
 Macaulay, as well as from more recent writers. The 
 best text-book available for this study is probably 
 Thurber's Select Essays of Addison (Allyn & Bacon). 
 Deighton's Selections from the Spectator (Macmillan) 
 contains the best De Coverley papers and other essays 
 by Addison and Steele. If a very cheap text must be 
 used, Cassell's Sir Roger De Coverley and the Spec- 
 tator Club is preferable to the very meagre edition of 
 Effingham, Maynard & Co. in use in some schools. 
 This last has not scope and variety enough to answer 
 the requirement under this head. Another available 
 edition is the Roger De Coverley Papers, issued by 
 the American Book Company, which contains the 
 
42 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 whole series (thirty- three papers by Addison, Steele, 
 and Budgell). 
 
 Such an essay as Macaulay's Warren Hastings is 
 valuable in the class-room, not only as an introduc- 
 tion to the more modern style of direct and emphatic 
 narration and description, but as a stimulus to the 
 study of character, morals, political problems, and 
 history. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
 § 10. Prose: The Oration and Argument. The 
 
 chief value of Burke's Speeches — as well as of those 
 others that may be found in the volume entitled Ora- 
 tions and Arguments, published by Allyn & Bacon 
 (Boston: 1894) — lies, first, in their treatment of great 
 and far-reaching questions in the light of universal 
 principles; and, second, in their masterly handling of 
 argument. On both these lines they should furnish 
 much-needed stimulus and discipline to the young 
 American, especially because they deal with questions 
 which since Burke's day have been decided in the great 
 tribunal of history, and those decisions are now incor- 
 porate in the life and institutions of our country. The 
 language of Burke offers, to be sure, some difficulty in 
 that it is not quite remote enough from our own to 
 make the reader constantly aware of the gap, and 
 therefore on the alert to bridge it and make sure of 
 the sense; nor yet near enough to make such effort 
 unnecessary. This difficulty, however, is not wholly 
 a disadvantage, in that it gives opportunity for 
 enforcing careful and intelligent reading, and for 
 practice in the important art of making the context 
 
 elucidate doubtful points. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 43 
 
 § 11. Prose: The Novel. 
 
 1. Purpose. In the study of such a novel as the 
 Newcomes, or Silas Marner, the objects to be kept in 
 view are: 
 
 (a) Training in careful, open-eyed reading. Length 
 of the work and the fact that it is a story appeal to 
 the pupil's tendency to slight and to skip. But he 
 must hiow this novel thoroughly. 
 
 (b) Acquaintance with a world of life, of motive, of 
 action outside of our own narrow and provincial round. 
 
 (c) Arrest of attention upon matters of greater im- 
 port than the mere a story," in order that — as in noble 
 tragedy — our crude interest and frothy excitement may 
 be " purified through pity and fear." 
 
 (d) A quickening of the ethical sense, and its eman- 
 cipation from bondage to conventionality. 
 
 These points are roughly arranged in an ascending 
 series; the earlier terms are means to the later ones, 
 and these last are the more vital — are the real ends of 
 all culture. They cannot be directly imparted, but 
 they must not be neglected. Another way of putting 
 the matter would be to say: Let this novel be so treated 
 and handled as to bring to these pupils some revela- 
 tion of the dignity and the lasting joy of such a work 
 of art, and of the gap which exists between finding in 
 it such pleasure and finding in it only pastime for an 
 idle hour. 
 
 C. B. B. 
 
 2. Method. The following suggestions are offered: 
 (a) The class should treat the work as a novel, not 
 
 as a text-book. Pupils should be encouraged to read 
 and finish the story at home long before they have 
 completed the study of it in class. Consequently the 
 teacher should assign for lessons not scraps of the 
 
44 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 book but natural divisions of the story, of consider- 
 able length. 
 
 (b) In recitation, the class should be prepared to 
 give an outline of the part of the novel assigned for the 
 day, and to show its connection with what has pre- 
 ceded; to discuss the characters as they are brought 
 upon the scene, showing how they affect the reader's 
 conception of other characters and of the plot in 
 general; to follow the development of each character 
 as an actual personality, and to estimate the influ- 
 ence of circumstances upon character; to weigh care- 
 fully, in judging motive, impulse, conduct, and 
 character, not only the professions of individuals, but 
 their actions and the opinions of their fellows in the 
 world of the novel. 
 
 (c) The class should study the novelist in connec- 
 tion with the novel; first, his life and character, as 
 found elsewhere; secondly, his personality, as revealed 
 in this work — his purpose in the development of plot 
 and character, his insight into things, his wisdom in 
 the choice of subjects, his accuracy in the portrayal 
 of the subjects chosen, and his emotional manner 
 (pathos, sublimity, humor, irony, etc.). 
 
 (d). The class should observe throughout the novel 
 the sequence of movement and the unity of interests 
 and parts; in selected passages it may study the rhe- 
 torical qualities of style. 
 
 (e) The creations of the novelist ought to be com- 
 pared with things as they are in life, as they might 
 be. or as they should be. In other words, the novelist 
 may present a picture that is realistic, romantic, or 
 idealistic. If his picture combines naturally all these 
 characteristics, it is the highest art; if it possesses none 
 of them, it is not worthy to exist. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 45 
 
 (/) The pupils must understand the difference (if 
 there be any) between the domestic, social, political, 
 and religious conditions of the story and those that 
 obtain in their own environment. 
 
 (g) The recitation should cover oral and written 
 reports, rapid questioning, informal discussion, and 
 (in proof of assertions made in discussion or report) 
 the reading aloud of passages from the novel. 
 
 (h) The written reports or compositions should be 
 prepared at home, except when the exercise is brief 
 and of frequent recurrence, as is usual in paragraph- 
 writing. The subjects should always be definite in 
 meaning and scope and within the pupil's capability. 
 
 (i) Pupils should be referred by the teacher to 
 parallel reading — historical, biographical, imagina- 
 tive — and encouraged to do it at home. 
 
 (j) Finally, as primarily, the pupils must review 
 the novel as a work of art to be enjoyed and estimated 
 in its entirety. They and their teacher should remem- 
 ber that the purpose of art is not to teach English or 
 anything else, but to edify by a presentation of the 
 truths of life that, appealing to the emotions and the 
 imagination, shall interest. Indirectly, and as an after- 
 effect, they may convince. CMC 
 
 III. ADVANCED STUDY FOR TEACHERS. 
 
 § 12. The Critical Study of Shakespeare. (For 
 teachers 1 classes, and literary clubs.) 
 
 In view of the numerous inquiries made of the writer 
 concerning the best methods of studying Shakespeare's 
 dramas in teachers' classes and in literary clubs, it 
 has seemed wise to publish here a few suggestions, not 
 by way of formulating a method, but by way of present- 
 
46 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 ing to the student a classified statement of what may 
 be worthy of attention. The student is referred also 
 to what has . been said above, § 8, on Shakespeare's 
 plays in the schools. 
 
 In clubs meeting once a week it is well first to read 
 the play aloud by roles assigned to the Various mem- 
 bers. The next two or more sessions may be devoted 
 to the detailed interpretation of difficult passages in 
 the text. Then will follow the reading of papers pre- 
 pared by members of the club, and discussion should 
 accompany these papers. 
 
 In the preparation for papers and discussions the 
 play may be considered from the historical, the tech- 
 nical, and the literary points of view. Historical 
 criticism deals with the external conditions, with the 
 materials and the growth of the literary production; 
 technical criticism, with its characteristic as a type, 
 (here, as a dramatic type: a plot for acting); literary 
 criticism, with the theoretic, moral, and emotive quali- 
 ties which give the work an abiding artistic value. 
 ^ A. Historical Criticism. In this division fall the 
 inquiry into the sources of the play, the determination 
 of dates of composition and publication, and the study 
 of social and literary background. With regard to 
 Sources, such information as the best texts and com- 
 mentaries afford (e. g. Furness' Variorum) should be 
 carefully sifted. Notes should also be made of the 
 degree and the manner in which the dramatic plot and 
 its characters diverge from their originals. Material 
 will thus, be collected for a study of the author's cre- 
 ative power. The determination of Dates is, of course, 
 the first step toward an estimation of the author's 
 literary development; and in studying this develop- 
 ment we study the history of dramatic art and of 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 47 
 
 national thought. For no play of Shakespeare can be 
 examined alone; it must be appreciated in the sequence 
 of his plays, and in relation to the works of contem- 
 porary dramatists. Concerning the Background of the 
 play, two matters demand consideration: the environ- 
 ment of the dramatis personam, and the circumstances 
 of the author. In each case, geographic, historical, 
 personal, and social conditions must be ascertained. 
 No reasonable work in dramatic or literary criticism 
 can be achieved unless the student possess a vivid 
 mental picture of the place, the setting, and the atmos- 
 phere of the dramatic action, and as clear an under- 
 standing of the conditions, inherited, adventitious, or 
 acquired, of the poet. 
 
 Since verification of the text demands advanced 
 critical training and first-class libraries, the general 
 reader would better trust for his Textual Criticism to 
 the authority of the best editors. 
 
 Bibliography. The most available and trustworthy 
 authorities, beside the schoo] editions mentioned at the 
 end of § 8, are the general editions of Richard Grant 
 White, Hudson (Harvard ed.), Clarke, Knight, Malone, 
 Henry Irving, the Leopold Shakespeare, and the Bank- 
 side edition. Moulton's Shakespeare as a Dramatic 
 Artist (Chaps. I, II), Guizot's Shakespeare and his 
 Times, Halliwell-Phillips' Outlines of the Life of Shake- 
 speare, and his Memoranda, Hazlitt's Shakespeare 
 Library, Furness' Variorum, and Fleay, Abbott, Ward, 
 Dowden, and Collier, as mentioned at the end of § 8, 
 will be useful. See also Historical Criticism under 
 Macbeth, Richard III, Hamlet, etc., in § 13, References 
 on Six Shakespearian Tragedies. 
 
 B. Technical Criticism. Here should be considered 
 the technique of the plot, its histrionic qualities, and 
 
48 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 its stage history. Since it is wise to profit by experi- 
 ence, the Stage History should be studied first. Actors 
 have given us no insignificant clue to the criticism of 
 plot in their interpretations of dramatic characters, 
 their methods of stage-setting, and their conduct of 
 scenes. Their practice makes the dramatis personse 
 more human and the dramatic situations more real. 
 Important works on the traditions of the stage are 
 Irving's Shakespeare, Furness' Variorum, Doran's 
 Annals of the Play (2 v. N. Y.: 1880), Dutton Cook's 
 Book of the Play, Genest's English Stage from the 
 Restoration to 1830 (10 v. Lond.: 1832), Betterton's 
 History of the Stage (Lond.: 1741), Gait's Lives of 
 the Actors (2 v. Lond.: 1831), Baker's English Actors 
 (2 v. Lond.: 1879), and his London Stage (2 v. Lond.: 
 1889.) 
 
 In estimating the Histrionic Qualities of the play — 
 its fitness for stage-presentation — attention must be 
 paid, not only to the personal " note " of each character, 
 but to the grouping of characters; and dramatic means 
 and effects must be tested by probability. For though 
 not necessarily possible, a plot must be probable: 
 the conception must be imaginatively reasonable, 
 the purpose appreciable, the artistic assumptions of 
 person, place, and period consistent, the premises 
 ordered, the conclusion logical. If such probability 
 of means be observed, the emotional eflects will be 
 both natural and ideal; and on such emotional effects 
 the histrionic quality of the play depends. A vivid 
 realization of the play as acted, or as it should be 
 acted, assists materially in the study of the impulses, 
 the conflicting motives, and interests that necessitate 
 the action of the drama, and in the investigation of 
 plot-construction: the growth of the complication, the 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 49 
 
 knotting of the entanglement, the unraveling of the 
 dramatic strands. On Dramatic Technique or Plot- 
 Construction many treatises have been written, some 
 by philosophers like Aristotle, some by playwrights like 
 Freytag, some by professional critics. While acquaint- 
 ing himself with the more important theories, the stu- 
 dent should beware of adopting one scheme as a key to 
 every lock. Some elaborate systems are constructed 
 with reference to but one or two kinds of drama, and 
 are inapplicable to other kinds. Aristotle's analysis of 
 plot, based upon the study of the Greek tragic drama- 
 tists (Poetics, Wharton's transl., Parker & Co., London), 
 is the simplest, and with reference to it all others of 
 importance have been constructed. He divides the 
 tragedy into its natural parts, Complication and Solu- 
 tion. The Complication extends from the beginning of 
 the action to the Revolution (or Climax) — a reverse of 
 fortune, or the discovery of a secret, or both. The Solu- 
 tion extends from the Revolution to the Catastrophe, or 
 close, of the play. Freytag (Die Technik des Dramas, 
 Leipzig: 1881) finds in the tragedy three important 
 Moments or Crises, and five Stages of action or develop- 
 ment. The introductory scenes of the play constitute 
 the first stage of action. They prepare the audience 
 for the first crisis, the Moment of Impulse or Excita- 
 tion, in which the purpose of the story, the nature of 
 the coming conflict, is made manifest in speech or deed. 
 The second stage is one of thickening plot and cumula- 
 tive interest. It is the Complication. It includes an 
 ascending series of situations, the last of which conducts 
 the action to its Climax. Thus, the Climax of the play 
 is, in a certain sense, the conclusion of the Complica- 
 tion, but it is also preparatory to the Solution, and is 
 therefore a stage in itself — the third stage of action. 
 
50 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 It may consist of one scene or of several scenes. It con- 
 ducts the Complication through the period of keenest 
 excitement to the second crisis of the play. During 
 the Climax one party or individual has triumphed; 
 but the action is not complete, the Complication is still 
 unsolved. In the second crisis the element of Solution 
 is introduced. This crisis is therefore called the Tragic 
 Moment, and it consists of some misstep of the victors 
 or some decisive " push " of the vanquished. The way 
 is now prepared for the Solution — the fourth stage of 
 the action. But since the rapid and hopeless fall of 
 the hero would lack interest, as savoring too much of 
 a foregone conclusion, there is generally held out a 
 hope of his salvation, if not of his renewed success. 
 This hope is, however, blasted in the Moment of Final 
 Suspense, which is the third crisis of the play. From 
 that moment to the close of the action is the fifth stage 
 of action, the Catastrophe. 
 
 Freytag's analysis of technique does not apply, with- 
 out modification, to comedy, for reasons which will be 
 evident to the reader. 
 
 This outline of Freytag's scheme of analysis is given 
 because no translation of his Technik des Dramas has 
 yet been published. The scheme is but a small part 
 of his essay, and by no means the only suggestive 
 part. Examples of the various stages and crises are 
 not given, because the reader may find a somewhat 
 similar method of analysis, with copious illustrations, 
 in Hennequin's Art of Play- Writing (Houghton, Mif- 
 flin & Co., Boston: 1890), Chaps. XVII-XXI. See also, 
 for general theory, Price's Technique of the Drama 
 (Brentano's, N. Y.: 1892). 
 
 Moulton, in his Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist 
 (Macmillan & Co., N. Y.: 1893), deals cleverly with 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 51 
 
 Mechanical Construction and Plot. The latter he 
 discusses under the heads of Single Action, Complex 
 Action, Motive Form, and Motive Force. For a clear 
 idea of his method of criticism (principally inductive), 
 reference should be made to Chaps. Ill, V-XI, XIX, 
 XX, and the Appendix (Technical Analysis of Plots). 
 Snider J s System of the Shakespearian Drama (Trage- 
 dies, Comedies, Histories, 3 v. St. Louis) develops in 
 a suggestive, but too exclusively a priori, manner the 
 subject of Threads, Groups, and Movements. The 
 work is stronger in ethical than in technical criticism. 
 Ransome's Short Studies of Shakespeare's Plots (Mac- 
 millan & Co.) may also be consulted. 
 
 It will be evident that, in the study of dramatic 
 plot, more than analysis of mechanical construction 
 is involved. For the plot, by means of action, dis- 
 plays humanity. To determine instants of vital im- 
 portance to the complication and solution, to the hero, 
 and to the audience, to appreciate the value of rapid 
 or of suspended action, and the histrionic quality of 
 dramatic effects, the student must penetrate the form 
 of the action. He must inquire into the principles 
 involved; must decipher character in its complexity 
 and its growth; must recognize persons as members of 
 dramatic groups, and must unravel the threads of in- 
 terest and action pursued by these characters and 
 groups. In other words, he must study plot in its 
 sources. 
 
 ,/ Plot is the synthesis of Action; and Action is in 
 turn dependent upon Character and Impulse. Not 
 upon character fashioned by precedent alone. Char- 
 acter is the "accent" of the individual as determined 
 by previous conduct. In ordinary circumstances, the 
 accent or "note" of the individual may be surmised 
 
52 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 by those who know him; it will be the resultant of his 
 individuality and his conduct as they have known 
 them. But if circumstances were always ordinary, 
 character would never prompt a significant action. 
 To a significant action a new influence is necessary. 
 This is both furnished and guided by Impulse. It is 
 furnished by an impulse (born of emergency) which, 
 working in an unprecedented manner upon the desires 
 and judgment of the individual, determines a motive 
 of action, a step of self-realization. This motive, 
 adopted by the individual, is now his Ideal, and urged 
 or guided by impulse, passes into deed. So from the 
 impact of impulse upon character (as it was) an 
 action springs which may confirm, modify, or subvert 
 previous principles of conduct. 
 
 Now, it is just such action; such transition of im- 
 pulse by way of conduct into more mature character, 
 that the dramatist selects and builds with similar 
 significant actions into a plot. Consequently, not only 
 in its sequence, but in its factors, so far as they con- 
 tribute directly to the construction of the story, does 
 action fall within the realm of technical criticism. It 
 must, however, be remembered that Character and 
 Impulse are not here subjects of study coordinate with 
 dramatic Action, but subordinate to it. The detailed 
 and independent investigation of personality, not for 
 dramatic purposes, but for its own sake, the analysis 
 of character into its primary impulses, passions, judg- 
 ments, and motives, in their psychological aspect, falls 
 under the head of Literary Criticism, in the manner 
 and to the degree there set forth. 
 
 C. Literary Criticism. As Technical Criticism con- 
 siders the characteristic of the masterpiece as a drama: 
 a plot by means of action, so Literary Criticism con- 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 53 
 
 siders its characteristic as a work of art: the appropriate 
 expression of the significant in humanity. Three sub- 
 divisions of the question call, therefore, for attention: 
 the Ethical, the Psychological, and the ^Esthetic. 
 
 1 . Ethical Criticism seeks to discover the vital forces, 
 or principles, that manifest themselves in the person- 
 alities and institutions presented by the play. These 
 forces are positive or negative: good or evil, right or 
 wrong, unselfish or vulturous, permanent or ephemeral. 
 They underlie character and impulse in human experi- 
 ence. They are, consequently, manifest in the various 
 characters and groups of the drama; and they are 
 implied in the institutions of property, of the family, 
 of society, of the church, or of the state with which the 
 characters and groups of characters may be identified 
 by duty, interest, or the mere momentum of habit. 
 The clash of institution with institution, or, inside the 
 institution, of interest with interest, may array man 
 against man. The clash of institution with institu- 
 tion may take place in the heart of the person: it 
 may arouse conflicting interests, suggest contradictory 
 ideals, and enlist the person against himself. These 
 forces coming thus into collision, precipitate the action 
 of the plot. Ethical Criticism considers the course and 
 outcome of this conflict, and passes judgment upon the 
 wisdom and the honesty with which the playwright 
 has ordered the destiny of the ethical encounter. 
 
 So far these remarks are more particularly appro- 
 priate to the conditions of tragedy. Since, however, 
 many plays do not, like Julius Caesar and Macbeth, 
 present a duel a Voutrance between institutions, indi- 
 viduals, or interests, it will be wise for the student to 
 consider, here, the various subdivisions of which the 
 drama is capable. 
 4 
 
54 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 ' Subdivisions of the Drama: The broadest division of 
 the drama is into Nor ma I and Abnormal. The Normal 
 Drama treats of life as embodying positive principles 
 and active forces; in short, as realizing a purpose; the 
 Abnormal Drama looks on life as unprincipled, un- 
 regulated, or purposeless. The former subdivides itself 
 into the Drama of Tragic and the Drama of Poetic 
 Justice. 
 
 Tragic justice recognizes nothing but uncompromis- 
 ing Ideas. They are the inspiration of character and 
 the birth of impulse; they, in the emergency, compel 
 to action; they pass as right and wrong into conduct; 
 they precipitate the conflict of heroes, and they perse- 
 vere till by death, physical or moral, the exponent of 
 the false idea is quelled. Death, sometimes, too, befalls 
 the protagonist of the right, but defeat does not befall 
 the right for which he has done battle. Such is the 
 justice that rules the realm of Tragedy. In such a 
 realm Macbeth moves, and Richard III, and Coriolanus. 
 
 Poetic justice, on the other hand, while still it recog- 
 nizes ideas as motive powers of life, does not regard 
 them as uncompromising. It adjusts idea to idea, idea 
 to situation,. or situation to situation. In any case the 
 forces in conflict are not irreconcilable; in every case 
 the individuals impelled by ideas are mercifully dealt 
 with. To the good falls good, to the evil, evil; but the 
 .punishment is tempered by mercy. On the stage of 
 poetic justice may be found the Serious Play, the 
 Romantic Play, the Play of Caprice. In the Serious 
 Play, such as the Merchant of Venice, the ideas ani- 
 mating the central characters are still vital, and the 
 interest of the spectator is enlisted fully as much for 
 the success of this or that idea or principle, as for the 
 fortune of the individual identified therewith. But 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 55 
 
 though the alarum is sounded, though parties are ranged 
 for conflict, and the outcome should be fatal, — though, 
 even, injustice or inhumanity seem to triumph, — un- 
 compromising individuals are thwarted of their pur- 
 poses, disarmed in the nick of time: the catastrophe, 
 in short, is averted by mediation. Right triumphs, 
 wrong is rebuked; the virtuous are rewarded, the 
 vicious punished and set in the way of repentance. In 
 the Romantic Play, serious ideas still prevail, but it is 
 no longer for an idea or principle, but for the fortune of 
 a hero or a heroine, that interest is claimed. This is a 
 " smooth tale, generally of love." It may avail itself of 
 a villain, but he is artfully and opportunely eliminated; 
 and the deserving lovers reap the fruition of their 
 patience. Such a play is the Tempest. In the Play of 
 Caprice, ideas or principles may exist, but they consort 
 with whims, and they sometimes become whimsical 
 themselves. The Play of Caprice is both humorous and 
 witty; its truest and most genial humor is displayed 
 in the comedy of character; its most elementary wit in 
 the comedy of situation; a less genial humor and a 
 more elegant wit are combined in the comedy of man- 
 ners. Of course, there are characters worthy of remark 
 in the comedy of manners, and there are manners 
 worthy of consideration in the comedy of situation; 
 but each sort is here designated by the element that 
 is in the preponderance. As You Like It is a comedy 
 of character; The School for Scandal, of manners; The 
 Comedy of Errors, of situation. 
 
 Of the Abnormal Drama little need here be said. It 
 is negative in thought, morbid in feeling, or chaotic in 
 action. It occupies the realm of perversion, exaggera- 
 tion, and nonsense: a realm in which the aims of life 
 are parodied, the emotions distorted, or the relations 
 
56 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 of things ignored. Its classes are, accordingly, the 
 Burlesque, the Melodrama, and the Farce. The Bur- 
 lesque may be satirical or sensational. In either case 
 it works by negative means; but, in the former, it has 
 a serious purpose; in the latter, it would merely pro- 
 voke animal laughter. The satirical burlesque is the 
 only excusable kind of abnormal drama. For even 
 though its diadactic aim overpass the bound of art, 
 still it has a value. By inflating the trivial or ex- 
 hausting the pretentious it ridicules and sometimes 
 remedies abuses, literary, social, and political. Such 
 satirical dramas are Beaumont & Fletcher's Knight of 
 the Burning Pestle, Middleton's Game of Chess, Buck- 
 ingham's Rehearsal, and Sheridan's Critic. But in 
 Shakespeare we find no satirical drama — merely an 
 occasional trace of the burlesque in character. 
 
 The other kinds of the abnormal drama are beneath 
 consideration. In so far as they lack idea, form, or 
 perspective, they may be called negative. The sensa- 
 tional burlesque indulges in purposeless and inartistic 
 caricature. The Melodrama may intend to inculcate 
 moral principles, but relying, as it does, upon exag- 
 gerated situations, irrational pathos, and vacant sen- 
 sations, it is distorted in form and ephemeral in result. 
 The Farce (not the short comedy, which may be 
 rational and artistic) is stuffed with sporadic situa- 
 tions, improbable whims, and inconsistent compli- 
 cations. The abnormal, or negative, drama is the 
 reductio ad absurdum of life. 
 
 For Ethical Criticism of Shakespeare's dramas, see 
 Coleridge, Schlegel, Ulrici, Gervinus, Snider, and others, 
 as indicated in § 13, References on Six Shakespearian 
 Tragedies. 
 
 2. Psychological Criticism considers the individuals 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 57 
 
 in whom these ethical forces are manifest. That is to 
 say, it considers ethical forces not in the abstract, but 
 in the concrete, after they have passed through human 
 impulse and desire into motive or ideal, conduct and 
 character. It is the investigation of human personality 
 as the resultant of a universal purpose and an indi- 
 vidual will. It has, therefore, a double outlook: on 
 the one hand, toward the ethical purpose or principle of 
 action; on the other, toward the character in and after 
 action. It judges of the action in the light of the 
 principle, and of the character in the light of the 
 action. Personality it studies as organic; character 
 as dynamic. It determines personality in the out- 
 come; it investigates character in the complexity of 
 its factors, of its growth, and of its relation to circum- 
 stances, personal and impersonal. 
 
 In analysis of motive and character-study the Ger- 
 mans have excelled — Gervinus (Shakespeare's Com- 
 mentaries), Schlegel (Dramatic Literature), and Ulrici 
 (Shakespeare's Dramatic Art), in particular. Some 
 of the best English critics of the Shakespearian char- 
 acters are Coleridge (Lectures on Shakespeare and 
 other Dramatists); Dowden (Shakespeare, His Mind 
 and Art), Harpers, N. Y.; Hudson's Shakespeare's 
 Life, Art, and Character, 2 v., Boston; Mrs. Jameson's 
 Characteristics of Shakespeare's Women; Hazlitt's 
 Characters of Shakespeare's Plays. See also § 13. 
 
 3. ^Esthetic Criticism deals with the form in which 
 the dramatist conveys his thought, and with the effect 
 produced thereby upon the imagination and the emo- 
 tions of the reader or spectator. It considers the 
 aesthetic values of the work of art — the tragic and the 
 comic, the pathetic, sublime, and beautiful; and the 
 elements that go to produce these results in diverse 
 
58 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 situations, characters, and incidents. It considers the 
 diction, the imagery, the prose, and the verse of the 
 masterpiece, and the suitableness of each to the pur- 
 pose of the author. It considers the unity of the 
 drama, and of each part as a necessary component. 
 It distinguishes between the selfish sensation excited 
 by the experiences of everyday life, or awakened by 
 the photographic and unidealized drama, and the 
 elevated sympathy inspired by a noble transfiguration 
 of life. It asks whether the drama is a true, rounded 
 and artistic presentation of a sufficient phase of human 
 action. 
 
 On the Tragic and the Comic, see Professor C. C. Ever- 
 ett's Poetry, Comedy, and Duty (Boston: 1888)-; on 
 these and other ^Esthetic values, see Schopenhauer's 
 World as Will and as Idea (transl. Seth and Haldane, 
 3 v. Lond.: 1883), Kedney's Hegel's ^Esthetics, and 
 other references in Gayley & Scott's Guide to the 
 Literature of ^Esthetics (Berkeley: 1890). On M$- 
 thetic Criticism, see § 13, under Literary Criticism, 
 and on Versification, see § 13, Macbeth, under Literary 
 
 Criticism. 
 
 C. M. G. 
 
 § 13. References on Six Shakespearian Trage- 
 dies. 
 
 I. 
 
 MACBETH. 
 
 A. Historical Criticism. 
 
 Date, Text, Sources. — Holinshed's Chronicle. Clar- 
 endon Press Series (Clark and Wright), Macbeth. 
 Editions of R. G. White, Knight, and Clarke. Fur- 
 ness, Variorum, 2:352-380. Rolfe, Macbeth, 13-15. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 59 
 
 Hudson, Shakespeare, 17: 5-10. Fleay, Anglia, 7: 128 
 (Davenant's Macbeth). Snider, Shakespearian Drama, 
 1:210-219. Gervinus, Shakespeare's Commentaries, 
 583. Hazlitt, Shakespeare's Library, vol. 2. 
 
 B. Technical Criticism. 
 
 Plot, Histrionic Qualities, Stage History. — Freytag, 
 Die Technik des Dramas. Moulton (see below). Sni- 
 der (see below). Ransome, Shakespeare's Plots. The 
 Henry Irving ed. of S., vol. 5. For Stage History, see 
 authorities under Othello, etc. 
 
 C. Literary Criticism. 
 
 Ethical, Psychological, JEsthetic. — Hazlitt, Characters 
 of Shakespeare's Plays, 17. Mrs. Jameson, Character- 
 istics of Women (American edition), 443. Furness, 
 Macbeth. George Fletcher, Studies of Shakespeare, 
 109. Joseph Hunter, New Illustrations of the Life, 
 Studies, and Writings of Shakespeare, 2: 160. Buck- 
 nill, The Mad Folk of Shakespeare, 7, 10, 44. Ger- 
 vinus (translated by Mr. Furness), Shakespeare's Com- 
 mentaries. Edward Dowden, Shakespeare; a Critical 
 Study of his Mind and Art, 244. Coleridge, Lectures 
 on Shakespeare, 237. Snider, Shakespearian Drama, 
 219-285. Moulton, Shakespeare as a Dramatic 
 Artist, 125-168. DeQuincey, Miscellaneous Essays 
 (The Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth). Gayley, 
 Shahespeariana, Jan. 1884 (Macbeth). John Weiss, 
 Wit and Humor of Shakespeare, 363-395; also (Lady 
 Macbeth) 400-428. Lamb, Works, 4:78. Schlegel, 
 Dramatic Literature. Ulrici, Shakespeare's Dramatic 
 Art; Elze's Notes on Elizabethan Dramatists. Cor- 
 son, Introduction to Shakespeare (The Witch Agency 
 in Macbeth and Lady Macbeth's Relations to Macbeth). 
 
60 English in Secondary Schools, 
 
 Macmillan's Magazine, Feb., 1868 (Motive in Mac- 
 beth). Nineteenth Century, 1877 (The Third Mur- 
 derer in Macbeth). The Century, Nov., 1881. 
 
 On Shakespeare's Versification and Language, in 
 this and in other plays, see J. B. Mayor, On English 
 Metres; Schipper, Englische Metrik; F. G. Fleay, 
 Shakespeare Manual; E. A. Abbott, A Shakespeare 
 Grammar; C. L. Craik, The English of Shakespeare; 
 W. S. Walker, Shakespeare's Versification; Guest's 
 History of English Rhythms (2 vols. Ed. by Skeat. 
 Lond., 1882). See also, General Note after refer- 
 ences on Coriolanus, below. 
 
 II. 
 
 KING RICHARD III. 
 
 A. Historical Criticism. 
 
 Date, Text, Sources. — Editions: Clarendon Press, 
 White, Furness, Rolfe, Hudson, Clarke, etc. Sir 
 Thomas More's Life of Richard III; Holinshed's 
 Chronicle. Hazlitt, Shakespeare's Library, 5: 43-220. 
 Gervinus, 259-263. Tegg, Shakespeare and His Con- 
 temporaries, 49-52. Guizot, Shakespeare and His 
 Time, 336. Hudson, Shakespeare, His Life, Art, and 
 Characters, 2: 134-143. Lloyd, Essays, 285-292. 
 
 B. Technical Criticism. 
 
 Plot, Histrionic Qualities, Stage History. — Lamb's 
 Works, 4:92-93 (On the Tragedies of S.). Henry 
 Irving ed., 3:10-11, and notes. Moulton, 105-124. 
 Snider (see below). Freytag, Die Technik, 103, 105. 
 Dutton Cook, Nights at the Play, 34-36, 38, 326-328. 
 Murdoch, The Stage, 188, 215, 315, 411. Archer, About 
 the Theatre, 110, 244, 253. Doran (ed. R. H. Stod- 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 61 
 
 dard), Annals of the Stage, 2: 390. On Stage History, 
 see other authorities cited under Othello, etc. 
 
 C. Literary Criticism. 
 
 Ethical, Psychological, ^Esthetic. — Hudson (Harvard 
 ed.), 137-141. Ulrici, Dramatic Art, 2: 274. Moulton, 
 S. as a Dramatic Artist, 90-105. Gervinus, S. Com- 
 mentaries, 263-278. Snider, Shakespearian Drama, 
 Histories, 456-484. Dowden, S. Mind and Art, 180- 
 193. Guizot, Shakespeare and His Times, 334-339. 
 Coleridge, Works, 4: 133 (S. and other Dramatists). 
 Whitman, Critic, 2:145 ("What Lurks behind His- 
 toric Plays"). Hudson, 2:143-169 (see above). 
 Henry Irving ed., 3: 11-14. Lloyd, Essays, 292- 
 299. Hazlitt, Characters of Shakespeare's Plays, 160- 
 167. Schlegel, Dramatic Literature, 435-438. Jame- 
 son, Mrs., Characteristics of Women, 396-407. 
 
 Hebbel, Werke, 11:165. Herrig's Archiv, 65, 383. 
 Kreyssig, Vorlesungen iiber S., 1 : 326-349. 
 
 III. 
 
 THE TRAGEDY OF HAMLET, 
 Prince of Denmark. 
 
 A . Historical Criticism. 
 
 Date, Text, Sources. — Furness, The Variorum Shake- 
 speare, 1 : notes; 2: 142. Hazlitt, Shakespeare Library, 
 2: 5, 87. Hudson (Harvard ed.), 13, 14: 139. Ward, 
 English Dramatic Lit., 1 : 409. White (R. G.), Shake- 
 speare's Works, 11:5; additions. Elze, Notes on 
 Elizabethan Dramatists, 224-255; and his William 
 Shakespeare (Trans. Schmitz), 352. Snider, Shake- 
 spearian Drama (Trag.), 343. Clarke, Aldis Wright, 
 and other editions. 
 4* 
 
62 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 B. Technical Criticism. 
 
 Plot, Histrionic Qualities, Stage History. — Halliwell- 
 Phillips, Memoranda on Hamlet. Phelps (H. P.), 
 Stage History of Hamlet. Freytag, Die Technik, 101- 
 120. Snider, Tragedies. Dutton Cook, Nights at the 
 Play, 260-263, 373, 454; Book of the Play, 1 (Ghosts 
 on the Stage). Lamb, Works, 4: 78, Tragedies of 
 Shakespeare. Russell, Representative Actors, 14, 16, 
 310, 326. Murdock, The Stage, 36, 67, 115, 123, 305-7, 
 313, etc. G. H. Lewes, Actors and the Art of Acting. 
 Baker, English Actors. Collier, English Dram. Poetry, 
 1:272; 3:273. Doran, Annals of the Stage. Hutton, 
 Plays and Players. Henry Irving ed., 8. 
 
 C. Literary Criticism. 
 
 Ethical, Psychological, ^Esthetic. — Bucknill, Mad 
 Folk of Shakespeare. Coleridge, Lectures on Shake- 
 speare, 1: 145. Coleridge (H.), Essays, 1: 151. Con- 
 oily (Dr. J.), A Study of Hamlet. Corson, Introduc- 
 tion to Shakespeare, 194. Dowden, Shakespeare, His 
 Mind and Art, 111-143. Fleay, Neglected Facts on 
 Hamlet (Eng. Stud.), 7: 87. Furness, Variorum 
 Shakespeare, 2: 143. Gervinus, Shakespeare's Com- 
 mentaries, 548. Guizot, Shakespeare and His Times, 
 174. Halliwell-Phillips, Mem. on the Tragedy of 
 Hamlet, 10. Hazlitt, Elizabethan Literature, 73. 
 Hudson, Life, Art, and Characters of Shakespeare, 
 1: 243. Ingleby, The Man and the Book, Pt. 1: 120. 
 Lowell, Among My Books (Shakespeare Once More), 
 209. Maudsley, Body and Mind, 145-195. Snider, 
 The Shakespearian Drama (Tragedies), 286. Schlegel, 
 Dramatic Literature (Lecture XXV), 404. Strachey 
 (Sir E.), Shakespeare's Hamlet. Ulrici, Dramatic Art, 
 1:279. Weiss, Wit, Humor, and Shakespeare, 153- 
 
Suggestions to Teachers, 63 
 
 339. Lady Martin, Some of Shakespeare's Female 
 Characters. Zim, A Throw for a Throne. William 
 Preston Johnston, The Prototype of Hamlet (The Bel- 
 ford Co., N. Y.). 
 
 Friesen (H. von), Briefe liber Shakespeare's Hamlet. 
 Goethe, Wilhelm Meister, bk. 4, ch. 3; bk. 5, ch. 4. 
 Kreyssig, Vorlesungen uber Shakespeare, 2: 42. Wer- 
 ner (H. A.), Jahrb. der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesell- 
 schaft, vol. 5. See same Jahrb., 2: 16-36. Werder, 
 Vorlesungen uber Hamlet, Preuss Jahrb., 32: 531, 664; 
 33, 3-8. 
 
 In Herrig's Archiv, the following: 60:267 (Deetz). 
 31: 93 (Eckardt). 37: 255, Die Ideale und das Leben 
 (Humbert). 4: 328, Monolog (ffiiser). 27: 269, Ham- 
 let, eine Schicksalstragodie (Jung). 59: 237, Tragodie 
 der Pessimismus (Rundschau). 6: 1; 8: 65 (Sievers). 
 3: 1 (Zeil). 
 
 Periodical Literature. — Atlantic Monthly, 49: 388. 
 Blackwood, 37: 236; 2: 504; 24: 585; 46: 449. Boston 
 Review, 6:519. Fraser, 14:1; 32:350. Jour. Spec. 
 Phil., 7: 71. North Amer. Review, 106: 629. Nation, 
 10:170. Nineteenth Century, 1:513. Macmillan's 
 Magazine, 34:351. Pop. Science Monthly, 17:60. 
 Saturday Review, 59: 246. Westminster, 83: 65. Lip- 
 pincott, April, 1890. 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE TRAGEDY OF OTHELLO, 
 The Moor of Venice. 
 
 A. Historical Criticism. 
 
 Date, Text, Sources. — F. G. Fleay, Shakesp. Manual, 
 47. Guizot, Shakespeare and His Times, 217-227. 
 Hazlitt, Shakespeare Library, 2:282-308. Hudson 
 
64 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 (Harvard ed.), Othello, 157-160. Furness, Variorum 
 Othello, 339-389. Simrock, Quellen des Shakespeare, 
 3: 181. Klein, Geschichte des Dramas, 2: 384. Halli- 
 well-Phillips, Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare, 1 : 
 213; 2:302-3. A. W. Ward, English Dram. Lit., 1: 
 418-19. Editions of White, Clarke, Aldis Wright, 
 Knight, Malone, Rolfe. Irving ed., 6:3-8. The 
 original and translation of Cinthio's Hecatommithi, 
 Deca Terza, Nov. 7. See Hazlitt and Furness. 
 
 B. Technical Criticism. 
 
 Plot, Histrionic Qualities, Stage History. — Furness, 
 Variorum, 358-372 (Duration of the Action). John 
 Wilson, Black. Maga., Nov., 1849; April and May, 
 1850 (Reprint in Trans. New S. Society, 1875-76, 
 1877-79). Freytag, Die Technik, 105, 112. Snider, 
 Tragedies, 79-125. Lamb, Tragedies of S., 96-7. Leigh 
 Hunt, Critical Essays on the Performers of the Lon- 
 don Theatres, 40, 183. Lewes (G. H.), Actors and 
 Acting, 266-276 (First Impressions of Salvini). Fitz- 
 gerald (Percy), New History of the English Stage 
 (2 v.), 1:61. Russell, Repres. Actors, 14. Dutton 
 Cook, Nights at the Play, 306-307, 442, 445-456, 461. 
 Mowbray Morris, Essays in Theatrical Criticism, 91- 
 118. Archer, About the Theatre, 239, 244, 253, 330. 
 Also under Betterton, Garrich, Kemble, Edmund Kean, 
 etc., in Doran, Baker, Gait — Lives of the Players. 
 Henry Irving ed., 6: 8-13. 
 
 C. Literary Criticism. 
 
 Ethical, Psychological, ^Esthetic. — Coleridge, Works 
 (Shakespeare and Other Dramatists), 4:177-185. 
 Dowden, Shakespeare, His Mind and Art, 230-244. 
 Gervinus, Shakespeare's Commentaries, 505-547. Hud- 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 65 
 
 son, Shakespeare's Life, Art, and Character, 2: 423-460. 
 Mrs. Jameson, Characteristics of Women, 240-253. 
 Lloyd, Essays, 453-466. Rymer, Tragedies of the Last 
 Age, 86-146. Schlegel, Dramatic Literature, 401-404. 
 Snider, Shakespearian Drama (Tragedies), 79-124. Ul- 
 rici, Shakespeare's Dramatic Art, 1 : 398-432. Hazlitt, 
 Characters of S. Plays, 30-44. 
 
 Herrig's Archiv., 55; 297; 5:234, 9:77, 137, 256. 
 Kreyssig, Vorlesungen iiber S., 2: 78-101. Living Age, 
 149: 206. Temple Bar, 48: 506. Century, 23: 117. 
 
 V. 
 
 KING LEAR. 
 
 A. Historical Criticism. 
 
 Date, Text, Sources. — Holinshed's Chronicle. Fur- 
 ness, Variorum, 5:353-408. White, Shakespeare's 
 Works, 11: 201-205. Rolfe, King Lear, 11-14. Hud- 
 son, Shakespeare's Life, Art, and Character, 2:320. 
 Hazlitt, Shakespeare's Library, 2: 313-353, and 6: 307- 
 387. Gervinus, Shakespeare's Commentaries, 611-13. 
 Ward, English Dramatic Art, 1:416. Guizot, Shake- 
 speare and His Times, 185-8. Doran, Annals of the 
 Stage (Tate's Improvement), 1:151. Elze, William 
 Shakespeare, 353. Henry Irving ed., 6: 321-4. 
 
 B. Technical Criticism. 
 
 Plot, Histrionic Qualities, Stage History. — Moulton, 
 Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist, 203-25. Snider, 
 Shakespearian Drama (Tragedies), 126-209. Ran- 
 some, Short Studies of Shakespeare's Plots, 118-61. 
 Dutton Cook, Nights at the Play (Booth), 449. Baker, 
 English Actors, 1:159 (Garrick); 2:159 (Edmund 
 Kean). Murdock, The Stage (Kean), 131, (Forest) 
 
66 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 296, (Adams) 357. Dutton Cook, A Book of the Play 
 (Storm in Lear), 2:86. Doran, Annals of the Stage 
 (Garrick and Barry), 1:409. Freytae, Die Technik, 
 111. Henry Irving ed., 6: 325-32. ' 
 
 C. Literary Criticism. 
 
 Ethical, Psychological, Msthetic. — Dowden, Shake- 
 speare, His Mind and Art, 257-75. Furness, Variorum, 
 5: 412-78. Gervinus, Shakespeare's Commentaries, 
 613-44. Hazlitt, Characters of Shakespeare's Plays 
 (Elizabethan Literature), 108-26. Hudson, Shake- 
 speare's Life, Art, and Characters, 2 : 324-58. Lamb, 
 Works, 4: 94. Lloyd, Shakespearian Essays, 437-52. 
 Moulton, Shakespeare as a Dramatist and Artist (as 
 above). Snider, Shakespearian Drama (Tragedies), 
 (as above). Schlegel, Dram. Literature, 411. Cole- 
 ridge, Shakespeare and Other Dramatists, 133-43. 
 Conington, Miscellaneous Writings, 1:74-104. Mrs. 
 Jameson, Characteristics of Women, 280. Kreyssig, 
 Vorlesungen liber Shakespeare, 2: 102-30. Rumelin, 
 Shakespeare Studien, 71-77. Ulrici, Shakespeare's 
 Dramatic Art, 1:433-59. White, Atlantic, Lear, 46: 
 111. Salvini, Century, Impressions of Shakespeare's 
 Lear, 27: 363. Hales, Fortnightly Review, Lear, 23: 83. 
 Wise, Shakespeare and His Birthplace, 124, 127. Elze, 
 William Shakespeare, 402, 471. Rolfe, King Lear, 14. 
 
 VI. 
 
 CORIOLANUS. 
 
 A. Historical Criticism. 
 
 Date, Text, Sources. — Hudson, Life, Art, and Char- 
 acter, 2:460-80. Hazlitt, Shakespeare Library, 257- 
 311. Tegg, Shakespeare and His Contemporaries, 56. 
 Llovd. Shakesneare Essavs. 333-4. Gervinus. 746. 
 
Suggestions to Teachers. 67 
 
 Dowden, Shakespeare's Mind and Art, 276-280. Ward, 
 
 English Dramatic Literature, 1:433-35. Sir Thomas 
 
 North, Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, 
 
 compared together by that learned philosopher and 
 
 historiographer, Plutarch of Chaeronea (Coriolanus). 
 
 Ulrici, Shakesp. Dramatic Art, 1: 226; 2: 410. Snider 
 
 (Histories), 98-106. Editions of White, Clarendon 
 
 Press, Hudson, Knight, etc. Henry Irving ed., 6: 
 
 219-20. 
 
 B. Technical Criticism. 
 
 Plot, Histrionic Qualities, Stage History. — Freytag, 
 117. Ransome, Short Studies of Shakespeare's Plots, 
 239-268. Snider (Histories), 107. Archer, About 
 the Theatre, 274. Fleay, Manual, 52. On Stage 
 History, see Henry Irving ed., 6:220-226, and under 
 Coriolanus, Tate, John Dennis, James Thomson, J. P. 
 Kemble, Mrs. Siddons, Kean, Macready, Vandenhoff, 
 in Baker's English Actors, Murdock's Stage, Collier's 
 Dramatic Poetry, Dutton Cook's Book of the Play, 
 Doran's Annals of the Stage, Gait's Lives of the 
 Players. Introductions to the Rolfe, Hudson, Claren- 
 don Press, White, Knight, and other editions. 
 
 C. Literary Criticism. 
 
 ■4 
 
 Ethical, Psychological, ^Esthetic. — Hudson, Life, Art, 
 etc., 2:408-88. Coleridge, Lectures on Shakespeare, 
 4:100-101. Snider (Histories), 107-143. Gervinus, 
 746-68. Lloyd, Shakespeare's Essays, 334-48. Schle- 
 gel, Dramatic Literature, 414. Ulrici, Shakespeare's 
 Dramatic Art, 2: 188-94. Hazlitt, Characters of 
 Shakespeare's Plays, 49-58. Stapfer, Shakespeare and 
 Classical Antiquity, c. 23-24. Dowden, Mind and 
 Art, 317-36. Mrs. Jameson, Char. S. Women, 345-57. 
 Irving ed., 6: 226-29. Kreyssig,Vorlesungen, 1 :464-95. 
 
68 English in Secondary Schools. 
 
 General Note. 
 
 For a fairly complete bibliography of Shakespearian literature, 
 see the Appendix to Max Koch's valuable manual "Shakespeare " 
 of the Cotta-'sche Bibliothek der Welt-Litteratur, published in 
 Stuttgart, and to be had of the J. G. Cotta-'sche Buchhandlung 
 (price, about 50 cents). 
 
 For Historical Criticism, Koch furnishes, pp. 307-10, classified lists 
 of the old quartos, and of the general editions (besides those cited 
 above), N. Rowe's (1709; 1864), Theobald's (1772), Sir T. Hanmer's 
 (1744), Dr. Johnson's (1765), Capell's (1767-8), Johnson & Steevens' 
 (1773), revised, J. Reed (1813), Edm. Malone's (1790), K. F. C. Wag- 
 ner's (1799), J. Boswell's (1821), J. P. Collier's (1842-4), The Works, 
 and (1853) the Plays, Dyce's (1874-6), the Leopold ed. (1877). Lists 
 of Translations of S. and of the doubtful plays are given, pp. 312-14. 
 Biographical material, pp. 316-20. The Sources of the Plays, p. 321 ; 
 note especially Simrock's Die Quellen der S., Bonn: 1872; J. P. 
 Collier's Shakespeare's Library, 2 v., Lond.: 1843 ; G. Steevens' Six 
 old plays on which S. founded his own plays, Lond.: 1779. 
 
 For Technical Criticism, see Koch, pp. 321-24. Notice Delius' Die 
 Buhnenweisungen in den alten Shaksp. — Ausgaben (1879), and 
 the other Shakespearian studies by Delius ; H. Ulrici Ueber 
 Shakespeare's Fehler und Mangel (1868); Meissner's Ueber die 
 innere Einheit in Shakespeare's Stiicken. 
 
 For Literary Criticism in general, see, in addition to references 
 given above, Lessing's Letters concerning Recent Literature, and 
 his Dramatic Notes; Goethe's Rede Zum " Shakespears-Tag " 
 (Bd. 2 des " Jungen Goethe," Leipz.: 1875), his remarks in Wilhelm 
 Meister, and the three articles collected under the title, Shakesp. 
 and Kein Ende ; A.W. von Schlegel's Etwas von W. Shakespeare 
 bei Gelegenheit Wilhelm Meisters (1796); L. Tieck's Letters on 
 Shakespeare, etc., in Kritische Schriften (Leipz.: 1848) ; Hugo's 
 William Shakespeare (Paris : 1864); Papers of the Shakesp. Society, 
 38 v. (Lond.: 1841-52); Publications of the New Shakespeare So- 
 ciety (Furnival ed., 1874-). Heller's Shakespeare und die Philo- 
 sophie ( Aufsatzen uber S.); Hertzberg's Metrisches,Grammatisches, 
 Chronologisches zu Shakespeare's Dramen (1878); Hilgers' Der 
 dram. Vers Shakespeare's (Aachen 1868-9) ; Delius' Die Prosa in 
 Shakespeare's Dramen (1870). Many of these German articles will 
 be found in the Jahrbuch d. deutschen Shakespeare — Gesellschaft 
 (Berlin u. Weimar, 1865-84). 
 
 a m. g. 
 
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