Mr 
 
 Ijj j I 
 
 ' '" '   
 Ml ! 1 lit 
 
 : 
 
   'IB 
 
 ! !..i : : iilill 111 !!l!l
 
 ( k 0GD1 N 
 
 uX RUSSJ \ VND Til \K. 
 
 
 K 
 
 Pai 
 
 W ith I 
 
 u the 
 
 SI 
 
 
 >H\ 
 
   
 
 
 l 
 
 
 I ( 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 [( IH»1.\ 
 
 i \l<n<i 
 
 
 
 
 S 

 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 THE 
 
 RISE, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT STRUCTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 TV 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 BY THE 
 
 REV. MATTHEW HARRISON, A.M. 
 
 RECTOR OF CHURCH OAKLEV, HANTS. 
 LATE FELLOW OF U> 1 1 s's COLLEGE, OXFORD. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMAN"--. 
 i \ i i:km.mi;r-ho\v. 
 
 1848.
 
   

 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The following work was begun some years ago. In 
 the course of his occasional reading, the author was 
 forcibly struck with the numerous grammatical errors 
 scattered over every department of English literature 
 Avith which he happened to be acquainted. For the 
 purpose of private instruction, he noted down, from 
 time to time, such errors as he considered liable to a 
 marked and decisive condemnation. In doin^ this, 
 he found that examples rapidly accumulated ; and 
 he felt that a systematic arrangement of those ex- 
 amples, accompanied by critical observations, would 
 prove advantgeous, to himself at least, in an intel- 
 lectual point of view. Before he entertained any 
 serious thoughts of publication, the remarks of others 
 were sometimes embodied with his own, without any 
 stringent references to the sources from which they 
 were derived. To seek to remedy this afterwards 
 would have been a hopeless task. When instances of 
 this kind occur, more particularly in a work in which 
 authors spread over so wide a space of time were to be 
 consulted, he must crave the reader's indulgence. In 
 the case of any historical fact, he ventures to affirm, 
 that no single assertion has been made which is nol 
 founded on recognized authority, lie must big also 
 to observe, that, where quotations are necessarily so 
 
 A 2 
 
 i :
 
 IV PREFA< E, 
 
 numerous and so varied, he has occasionally availed 
 himself of the labours of others, and taken Buch 
 quotations at second-hand. In snoh cases he can only 
 claim the merit of compilation. To itad book after 
 
 hook, lor the express purpose of finding the misappli- 
 cation of -(.me particular term, would be tedious indeed, 
 and very often nnSUCCessfuL The purpose of utility 
 U fully answered by the production of such an example 
 BG may hear directly upon the point at L88U6. It would 
 
 have been an easy matter for the author, to Bel op men 
 
 Straw, and to knock them down; hut he thought it 
 
 better, that examples of error should he brought forward 
 plainly and indubitably existing, even though he might 
 sometimes be indebted to others for the discovery. 
 Candour, he hopes, will allow that such a Liberty is 
 pardonable, when it i- generally acknowledged and 
 I by a great variety of examples which, ae far 
 at the author know-, ha\e never before been noticed. 
 
 \ his attention had thu- been directed to ;> crram- 
 
 matical anal; such pat in English authors 
 
 :i- be considered of Faulty construction, it occurred to 
 
 him, thai an Introductory Discussion mi tin Hist 
 
 and Prog f English Language, and another 
 
 it- Genius and Character, would at leasl '_ r i\e a eon- 
 
 sistencj to the work as   whole, however imperfeel 
 
 the execution. On the R and Progress of the English 
 
 I nguagc, he acknowli . himself infinitely indebted 
 
 the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, and the Anglo-Saxon 
 
 mmar of tb B r. J, Bosworth, also to Thwaite'i 
 
 Delation of Lappenburg's " History of England under 
 
 Anglo-Saxons," books upon these subjects of the
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 highest value. With respect to the early migrations 
 of our forefathers on the continent of Europe, as 
 affecting our language, he is under obligations to Laing's 
 translation of the « Heymskringlia, or Chronicles of the 
 Kings of Norway," and often to comparatively obscure, 
 and sometimes anonymous, tracts and dissertations, 
 pointing to higher authorities. 
 
 In accordance with these views, he has given a 
 Dissertation on the Rise and Progress of the English 
 Language, and the Changes which it has undergone, 
 confining himself, as much as possible, to strongly 
 marked and leading features. This is followed by a 
 Dissertation on the Genius and Character of the Language, 
 and on the Sources of its Corruption. He has then 
 brought under consideration all the separate parts of 
 speech consecutively ; examined the application and mis- 
 application of each ; and has also given a variety of 
 examples, in which the repetition or the omission of 
 connecting particles has been judiciously and effectively 
 exercised ; and he cherishes a hope, that his very 
 failures may call forth the attention of abler heads to 
 the still fluctuating and unsettled idioms of our language. 
 In this last department he begs to acknowledge the 
 assistance which he has occasionally derived from the 
 subtle genius of Harris, and the sound judgement of 
 Lowth. 
 
 It is notorious, that, at our public schools, every boy 
 has been left to pick up his English where and how he 
 could ; and many of the old exercise books, put into hi- 
 hands to be translated into Latin, would often serve 
 the equally useful purpose of exercises t<> be turned into 
 
 A 3
 
 VI PRE] ii i • 
 
 English, though the authors themselves have either 
 been insensible of this doable advantage, or too modi b1 
 to hold it forth to the [ml-lic. The rigid, and aim 
 
 dusive, attention which has hitherto, with fevi ex- 
 ceptions, been paid to classical Literature, at our public 
 schools, diverts the attention <>f the student from the 
 construction <>f his own Language ; and it is surprising, 
 that he should ultimately succeed as well as he di 
 No man can, however, be conversant with th 
 tematic construction of the Latin and Greek langiuu: 
 without gaining a general knowledge of the principles 
 of grammar, and a habil of grammatical analysis, which 
 he carries with him into languages of Looser texture. 
 Bui Let no one natter himself thai the mere knowledge 
 of Latin and Greek will serve him, as an unerring 
 guide, in the structure of the English language. Let 
 the example of Bentley, great in his generation, and 
 really great ac a classical critic, serve as a warning 
 
 iin.-t the admission <>! bucIi a fallacy. Let him place 
 Bentlej and Cobbet in juxta-position, and he must, 
 in < \< r\ page I"- convinced, how far superior the Latter 
 i- to the former, in clearness and precision of terms, 
 in grammatical accuracy and the construction of his 
 Let him take care, L< -t, while he is wandi 1- 
 in imagination on the banks of the Tiber, the 
 
 I ] \ - - 1 1 - . or the Meander, while he is gathering the 
 
 ILUa, or drinking at the fountains of 
 
 II . on, he maj be recklessly and profanely trampling 
 under fool the vigorous, tli<- rich, and the varied 
 i luctions "I In- iiu n soil. 
 
 In the following work, the author has been sparing
 
 PREFACE. vii 
 
 of reference to classical illustrations, because he had 
 principally in view the English reader. Where classical 
 illustrations have been introduced, it is when they 
 bore immediately, either by forcible parallelism, or by 
 contrast, upon the cpjestion under consideration. 
 
 Nothing, however, would give him greater pleasure 
 than to find that this work, notwithstanding all its 
 imperfections, should still prove useful in our public 
 schools. His feelings, sympathies, and early asso- 
 ciations are there ; and he cannot but think, that a more 
 decided and systematic attention to the structure of 
 the English language would form an advantageous 
 appendage to the course of education pursued in those 
 great and national establishments. 
 
 In presuming to criticise the works of others, the 
 author is well aware that he may have laid himself 
 open, perhaps on too many occasions, to the taunts, 
 " Physician, heal thyself; " " Take the beam out of thine 
 own eye." He is prepared to submit to them with decent 
 resignation, whenever the chastisement shall be inflicted, 
 not from a malignant instinct for punishment, but with 
 the view of correcting the offender. In the lanrniajre 
 
 O DO 
 
 of Erasmus : " Nos ad utrumque juxta parati sumus, ut 
 vel rationcm reddamus, si quid recto monuiinus, vel 
 ingenue confiteamur errorem, sicubi lapsi deprehen- 
 dimur." — Praefatio ad JS^ovian Testament)/ m. 
 
 With this feeling he casts his mite into the treasury 
 of English literature. 
 
 Church Oakley, Basingstoke, Ham-. 
 Nov. 17. 1848.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 Page 
 
 Chap. I. — Introduction - - - - 1 
 
 II. — Original Seats of our Forefathers - - 3 
 
 III. — Comparison of the Tartaric, Saxon, Gothic, 
 
 and English Language - - - 6 
 
 IV. — Migration of Odin and his Followers "West- 
 
 ward - - - - 8 
 
 V. — Reciprocal Migrations - - - 12 
 
 VI. — Character of the Northmen or Norsemen - 13 
 VII. — The Amalgamation of the German and 
 
 Scandinavian Tribes - - - 15 
 
 VIII. — Accession of the Normans under William 
 
 the Conqueror • - - - 18 
 
 IX. — Social Distinctions of the Tribes that settled 
 
 in Britain - - - 19 
 
 X. — Reasons why the Anglo-Saxon Language 
 
 was neglected - - - - 21 
 
 XI. — Similarity between the German and Scandi- 
 navian Languages - - 24 
 XII. — Migrations - - - - 29 
 
 XIII. — The Changes that the Anglo-Saxon lia- 
 
 undergone in England - - - 30 
 
 XIV. — Simplification of Inflexions - - 33 
 XV. — Summary of Changes • - 37
 
 ►NT] KTfl. 
 
 ( 
 
 XVI. — Nam-- "t" Things in common Use generally 
 
 Anglo-Saxon - - - -41 
 
 \\ II. — Names ol Places - - - - *' ; 
 
 PART 11. 
 I'll [LOLOGICAL. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 OK 1111. i;i;mi> and < ii m:acti:h of the ENGLISH 
 
 LAV. i LGB. 
 
 Chap. I. — The Principles on which Languages are 
 
 formed - - - - -54 
 
 II. —The Language oi Greece - - - <>i 
 
 III. — — — "I'll.- Anglo-Saxon Language - -64 
 
 IV. — Monosyllabic Character <■!' thi I lish 
 
 Langufl - - - - ii."> 
 
 V. — Flexibility of the English Langui - 7 s 
 
 \ I. - A Principle of Ec my observed in tin' 
 
 Formation of onr very Monosj Uables them- 
 
 - 7s 
 
 \ II 1' intraction and Simplification - BO 
 
 \ ill. Want of [nfiexion a Cause "t greater \ 
 
 ri< ' I ermination - - - 82 
 
 1\. — Modification ol u Terms by Modern 
 
 Langu 
 \ Rflccts of tin- ( ulti\ ation "i < l Lite- 
 
 rature - - - - -87 
 
 XI. — '   < - : 1 1 i - i 1 1 -_' from tli<- .JudicioUH lu- 
 
 ll | i
 
 CONTEXTS. XI 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 SOURCES OF CORRUPTION. 
 
 Page 
 
 Chap. I.— Introduction of Foreign Terms, Phrases, 
 
 and Idioms - - - - 94 
 
 II. — Unauthorised Terms - - - 97 
 
 III. — Inflated Terms - - - - 98 
 
 IV. — Incongruity of Terms ... nx) 
 
 Y. — Talkee-talkee - - - - 102 
 
 VI. — Corruption arising from Voids altogether 
 
 extraneous - 103 
 
 VII. — Effects of Colonisation - ... I0o 
 
 VIII. — Summary - 107 
 
 PART III. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE PRESENT STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH 
 
 i. \m,i'.\i;k. 
 
 Chap. I. — Introduction - - - - 110 
 
 II. — Origin of the Parts of Speech - -114 
 
 III. — Grammar regards Construction only - 1 1' I 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL CON8TRU* M<>\ OF \or\s. 
 
 Chap. I. — Number of Nouns - 122 
 
 II. — Cases of Nouns - - - 127
 
 xi i CONTENTS. 
 
 ( hap. 
 
 III. — Nominative Case » l.'il 
 
 I V. — The Genitive, or Possessive Case of Nouns 136 
 Y. — Compound Terms joined by Hyphen - 1 11 
 
 VI. — Objective Case - 146 
 
 VJLL — Genders of Nouns - - - - l : 
 
 \ III. — Principle of Genders in the English Noun - 1 19 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 GRAM MAT!' A I. ( < > N - I I: I < I l"N OP PBONOUN8. 
 
 Chap. I. — Iheir Irregulariti - 153 
 
 II. — Persona] Pronoun ... i,-,,-, 
 
 III. — [nconsistency of Number ami Gender •• 165 
 
 I\'. — Proper Use of the Personal Pronoun - 167 
 
 V.— On the Use of Ye, You, and Thou - 169 
 
 VI. —Pronouns Enclitic and Emphatic - , - IT-'! 
 
 VII. — Tin- Relative Pronoun — Who and Which 17'. 
 
 VIII. — Relative Pronoun omitted idiomatically - 188 
 
 IX. — Ambiguity arising from tin' Plurality of 
 
 Am. cedents - - - - I 8 1 
 
 X. — Pronominal Adjectives ... im; 
 
 \l. — Repetition of the Pronoun — its Effect - 192 
 
 SECTION [V. 
 
 ai: I li i.i. 
 
 Chap. L — Anglo-Saxon Article ... : 
 
 [I.— Distinction of Articles - - - L'ni 
 
 III. -English Article compared with the Greek 
 
 Article - - - - -204 
 
 l\. Irregular Use of the Definite Article - •■ 
 
 Y. English Article compared vritfa the German 
 
 icle ----- • 
 \ [. — The Definite Article improperly omitted - -Mo
 
 CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 Chap. l'age 
 
 VII. — The Definite Article, not only Superfluous, 
 
 but Mischievous - - - - 214 
 
 VIII. — The Definite Article properly repeated - 215 
 
 IX. — The Indefinite Article properly repeated - 221 
 
 X. — The Indefinite Article improperly omitted - 222 
 
 XL — Confusion of Articles - 223 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Chap. I. — The Adjectives — its Properties - - 225 
 
 II. — Confusion of Pronominal Adjectives - 227 
 
 III. — Adjective in the Place of the Adverb - 231 
 
 IV,. — Adjective in the Place of the Noun - 235 
 
 V. — Preventive — Particular — Peculiar - 23G 
 
 VI. — Comparison of Adjectives - 237 
 
 VII. — Adjectives not admitting Comparison - 239 
 
 VIII. — Confusion of Comparatives - - 242 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 Chap. I. — Its Moods and Tenses ... 245 
 
 II. — The Auxiliary Verbs - - -248 
 
 III. — General Remarks on the Auxiliaries - 264 
 
 IV. — The Neuter Verb - - - -266 
 V. — Irregular Verba ... - 270 
 
 VI The Subjunctive Mood - - - '27[) 
 
 VII. — Examples of the proper Use of the Subjunc- 
 tive -Mood - - - -287 
 VIII. — Examples of the proper Use of the Indica- 
 tive Mood - - - • 2 
 a
 
 
 CON! I.N I 5. 
 
 Chap. 
 IX. — Improper and confused Use of the Indica- 
 tive and Subjunctive M 1- - - 295 
 
 X. — Promiscuous Errors in the Uee of the Verb 301 
 
 SECTION VTL 
 
 I ill. I'Ai; l n I I'll . 
 
 ( h \i: I. — It- ( lharacfc r 
 
 II. — Verb in the Place of the Participle 
 [II. —Proper Usi in the Participle 
 I V. — Confusion of Nouns ami Participles 
 V. — Prefix before the ParticipL 
 \ [.—Participles ending in < n. ing, <</. i 
 
 - ;;i.-, 
 
 - ;;iii 
 
 - 319 
 
 - 820 
 
 ( live. I. 
 
 II. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 AI-VI.KI-.. 
 
 Its Nature - 
 Exampli - "i A.di erbs 
 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 ri:i i*( -i i [ON. 
 
 Cii \' - I- — If- Nature 
 
 II. — Adoption "t Latin, Greek, and French 
 Preposition 
 1 1 1 - i i , Preposition 
 
 IV.- I touble Prepositions 
 V. — Compound and simple Prepositioi 
 \ I l m in compound) '1 \\ itli Prcpo lition 
 VII.— I in tin I • l ' fion 
 
 \ I i I. I     ; :itii>n of thi I'reposil ion 
 
 345 
 
 15 i 
 152
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 Page 
 
 Chap. I— Its Nature - - - - -361 
 
 II. — Correlative Conjunctions - 362 
 
 III. — Conjunctions Copulative and Disjunctive - 363 
 
 IV. — Omission of Conjunction ... 369 
 V. — Repetition of the Conjunction - - 373 
 
 SECTION XL 
 The Interjection - - 376 
 
 Concluding Remarks - - - 378
 
 ON 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 PART I. 
 
 HISTORICAL, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It seems natural to suppose, that the early history of 
 our ancestors would be one of the most interesting- 
 studies, in which we could engage. Yet, even in the 
 case of great and powerful tribes, the subject is often 
 involved in mystery, and it is upon incidental circum- 
 stances and discoveries that we must depend, rather 
 than on any authentic records or creditable traditions. 
 Such at least is the case, with respect to the original 
 seats of many of the scattered tribes and nations, thai 
 now people the different quarters of the globe. The 
 want of written records, in the early period of the 
 world, the strong and absorbing influence of present 
 circumstances and occupations, the novelties springing 
 
 B
 
 2 in I B0D1 I I [ON, 
 
 out of migratory and roving habits, would all tend t<> 
 produce thai uncertainty, which, even at tins distance 
 of time, we ourselvee are more anxious to clear up 
 than those, who lived much nearer to the sources ol 
 
 rrect information. Within the memory of living man, 
 the human mind has been turned to the investigation of 
 subjects, which seemed doomed to everlasting sleep in 
 the lap of time. On every side, we see an energy and 
 a perseverance, which is big with unseen and unknown 
 
 suits. We feel ourselves individually hurried along 
 with the Btream to regions dark, mysterious, and un- 
 developed, and if we do not take pari in the Btirring 
 lies and business of life, wc must -till suffer our- 
 selves to he cast in a .-tatf of helpless resignation, into 
 tli.- vast and fermenting cauldron of human passions. 
 In this race to an unknown goal our countrymen are 
 taking a de sided part, and when wc contrast the present 
 % . I 1 «   1 n extended power and influence of Great Britain 
 
 with her -tali- in the palmy day- of Rome, when we 
 
 w en- described a- 
 
 " penittu toto divisot orbe BritannoB,* 1 
 
 (the Britons cut oil' from intercourse with the whole 
 
 world.) WC would fain lift the \<il of futurity, and 
 
 anticipate those changes, which, as \<t. remain hidden 
 in the counsel! of I > i n 1 i i «   Providence. In the days of 
 her greatness, Koine had clutched within her grasp a 
 larcre portion of the civilised world: 1 »u t when her 
 power gave way, under the ferocious assaults of the 
 Gothic- nations, she was obliged to call home her le- 
 ns from Britain, for her own defence. The Britons,
 
 ORIGINAL SEATS OF OUR FOREFATHERS. 3 
 
 then unable to cope with the Picts, were induced to 
 call in the assistance of the Saxons. From that moment 
 their independence received a fatal blow, and, with the 
 exception of a comparatively small part, Britain fell 
 into the hands of a different race, under which she has 
 arrived at her present giddy height of political and 
 moral greatness. The Saxon and Scandinavian races, 
 originally one and the same, have occupied the whole of 
 Great Britain, with the exception of the Highlands of 
 Scotland and Wales, the Highlanders being of Irish 
 and Celtic extraction. The history of a people is in 
 fact the history of their language. The scenes, the cir- 
 cumstances, the occupations, through which they pass, 
 will ever form the materials, from which their language 
 must be drawn. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 ORIGINAL SEATS OF OUR FOREFATHERS. 
 
 It must, therefore, be interesting to us not merely to 
 know that we are Saxons, Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, 
 Icelanders — that we are members of the Gothic or 
 Teutonic family — we are desirous of pushing our re- 
 searches beyond this point, and of penetrating, as nearly 
 as we can, to the original seats of the fair-skinned, light- 
 haired race, that is now playing so conspicuous a part, 
 on the theatre of the world. In former times the em- 
 pire of Rome crumbled before them into dust : and, in 
 the present day, mighty nations are springing from
 
 i OUK.INAI. SLATS OF nil; FOBEFATHJ 
 
 them in regions whose existence, l>ut :i few igo, 
 
 wen beyond the reach of conjecture, Now :i Bin 
 glance at any individual of this great Northern family, 
 who bears the characteristica of the race, will convince 
 that he is not a child of tin sun — of climes " that 
 breathe of the swei I South." Hi- stature, his fair com- 
 plexion, the rigidity and massiveness of his frame, all 
 indicate the absence of those causes, which gradually 
 give a darker tinge to the Bkm, and a delicacy ami 
 Buppleness to tin- Limbs. He must, for ages prior to hie 
 migration to the British isles, have been the child of 
 cloud} . and of a rigorous climate. Can we then 
 
 tix upon any region, from which it is probable that a 
 of men possessing these characteristics mighl 
 migrate westward, till Btopped by the Atlantic Ocean? 
 Can we anywhere discover a region, which would be 
 likely to ite those tastes, and occupations, and 
 
 propensities, which distinguish the race to which we 
 belong? But above all. can we find any traces of cm 
 language amongst those horde-, which, issuing from the 
 
 East, carried their conquering arm- we-tward, and pos- 
 
 i d themselves of a targe portion of Europe? It' we 
 look to the nautical -kill, and the reckless daring of the 
 piratical Bea-kings of the north, we should at onoe point 
 to the Black Sea a- the place, in which this spirit had 
 been generated and cursed amongst their fori lather- ; 
 uid a- indeed the onlj place, excepl the Caspian, in 
 which it could have been nursed. I n< n, ag tin, the 
 con and Scandinavian population have always been 
 
 "(cultural, and 001 lioinadic, wandering t ril •< - ; and il 
 
 on the borders of the Black Sea, more particularly
 
 ORIGINAL SEATS OF OUR FOREFATHERS. 5 
 
 about the Crimea, that we find one of the finest corn 
 countries in the world. Again, the English population 
 have always been remarkable for their attachment to 
 horses. The first Saxon chiefs that landed in England, 
 the brothers Hengist and Horsa, bore on their banners 
 a white horse, on a red field. The Cossacks of the 
 Tanais or Don, which falls into the Black Sea, on the 
 northern side, are noted as possessing a breed of horses 
 distinguished for their speed and hardihood. It is said 
 that the Cossacks, in cases of no very pressing emer- 
 gency, do not scruple to eat horse-flesh. The eating of 
 horse-flesh formed a part of the religious festivals of 
 our forefathers, and was never abolished till the intro- 
 duction of Christianity. This is so decidedly a Tartar 
 custom, that it would be difficult to trace it to any 
 other source. These considerations, independent of any 
 historic records, are certainly very strong grounds for 
 supposing the neighbourhood of the Black Sea to have 
 been the more remote locality of our forefathers. 
 
 If, however, we can discover a similarity of terms, 
 in the Saxon, the Gothic, and the language of Crim- 
 Tartary, bordering on the Black Sea, and if those 
 terms are household words, or words of every day 
 occurrence, the supposition amounts to a certainty. 
 Now Busbequius, who was ambassador at the Porte, 
 from Ferdinand Emperor of Germany, and who paid 
 great attention to the subject, has the following pas- 
 sage : — 
 
 " Non possum hoc loco practcrirc, quse de gcnt>' accepi, quae 
 
 etiamnum incolit Tauricam Chersonesum, quam Bsepe audiveram 
 
 sermone, moribus, ore denique ipso, ct corporis liabilu, origin) m 
 
 Germanicam refcrrc."' 
 
 B 3
 
 6 
 
 COMPARISON OF Tin. ialtawu, ETC, 
 
 " I cannot omit, in this place, what I have heard of • nation, 
 that a- \.t inhabits th<' Tauric Chersonese ; and which, I had often 
 heard, indicated a German origin, in language, in manners, in 
 countenance, and habit of body." 
 
 He thou proceeds to give a list of these Tartaric 
 words, which he took from the mouth of this Tartar 
 envoy, al Constantinople. Most of them, with Blighl 
 variations, are common to the Tartar, Gothic, Saxon, 
 and the English language, of the presenl day. The 
 resemblance is minute and indisputable, and leai 
 oodoubl of the more remote locality, both of ourselves, 
 and of out language. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 COMPARISON "I 'Mil TARTARIC, SAXON, GOTHIC, 4NB 
 ENG1 [SB I LNG1 LGE. 
 
 Tin (arte. 
 
 Sa: 
 
 i :'.ic. 
 
 /iiA. 
 
 1 1 
 
 Breod. 
 
 
 B ead. 
 
 1*1.11. 
 
 Blod. 
 
 Bloth. 
 
 Blood. 
 
 Stul. 
 
 Btole. 
 
 Stols. 
 
 Stool. 
 
 Bus. 
 
 Hua. 
 
 Hub. 
 
 1 i lUBt . 
 
 Wingart 
 
 Wingard. 
 
 Weinagards. 
 
 Vineyard 
 
 hen. 
 
 1 1 »gn. 
 
 l: gn. 
 
 l':iin. 
 
 ler. 
 
 B der. 
 
 Brothr. 
 
 Brotl 
 
 Schwesteis 
 
 ter. 
 
 Swister. 
 
 B ter. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 1 ,M. 
 
 A 1-1. 
 
 Old. 
 
 Wintch. 
 
 Wind. 
 
 Winds, 
 
 Wind. 
 
 Silvir. 
 
 Ifer. 
 
 SiU In-. 
 
 Sil\ 
 
 Golta. 
 
 G ild. 
 
 
 Id. 
 
 Kor. 
 
 1 11. 
 
 Kaurn. 
 
 • rn. 
 
 
 B . t » 
 
 Salt. 
 
 Bait 
 
 1 .   t. 
 
 i .-. 
 
 I IcbytheD 
 
 I l..
 
 AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Tartaric. 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 ' Gothic. 
 
 English. 
 
 Hoef. 
 
 Heafod. 
 
 
 Head. 
 
 Sune. 
 
 Sunna. 
 
 Sunno. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Mine. 
 
 Mona. 
 
 Mene. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Tag. 
 
 Dage. 
 
 Tags. 
 
 Day. 
 
 (Eghene. 
 
 Eaghen. 
 
 Augon. 
 
 Eyes. 
 
 Handa. 
 
 Hond. 
 
 Ilandus. 
 
 Hand. 
 
 Brunne. 
 
 Byrne. 
 
 Brunna. 
 
 Bourne. 
 
 Schliper. 
 
 Sclaper. 
 
 Zlepar. 
 
 Sleep. 
 
 Singhen. 
 
 Singar. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Lachen. 
 
 Lohan. 
 
 Hlaghan. 
 
 Laugh. 
 
 Criten. 
 
 
 
 Cry. 
 
 To greet, in the Northern counties, signifies to cry. 
 The numerals are still more remarkable. 
 
 Tartaric. 
 
 English. 
 
 Itt. 
 
 One. Not a whit, a tittle 
 
 Twa. 
 
 Two. Scottice, twa. 
 
 Tria. 
 
 Three. 
 
 Fyder. 
 
 Four. 
 
 Fiuf. 
 
 Five. 
 
 Seis. 
 
 Six. 
 
 Sevene. 
 
 Seven. 
 
 Athe. 
 
 Eight. 
 
 Nyne. 
 
 Nine. 
 
 Tune. 
 
 Ten. 
 
 So striking a coincidence of terms seems amply- 
 sufficient to establish a common origin, but a remark, 
 with which Busbequius prefaces his observation, in 
 making this comparison of the Tartaric, Gothic, and 
 Saxon languages, establishes a still more remarkable 
 affinity. 
 
 " Omnibus vero dictionibus pra?ponebat articuluin tho, aut the, 
 nostratia, aut parum differentia." 
 
 " Before all his words he placed the article tlto, or the, like those 
 of our country, or differing from them but little."
 
 MIGRATION OF ODIN AND 
 
 The envoy probably meant nominibus, and not die- 
 tionibus. We cannot suppose, that the article tliu or 
 tin was prefixed to every word. It is more likely, that 
 he did so before every noun, or before so many of hie 
 nouns, as to strike the attention of the envoy, just as 
 the Germans say, der Mann, die Fran, or we, the man. 
 the woman. If we join this tho or the to the Tartaric 
 noun- just mentioned, we have, the broe, the bread; 
 the plut, the blood; the stul, the stool; the hus, the 
 house, &c. 
 
 In Looking at these extraordinary coincidences, we 
 are reduced to the necessity of concluding, either that a 
 portion of the Saxons migrated eastward, towards the 
 Tauric ( hersonese, or that they originally came from 
 those regions, and that some of their forefathers .^till 
 remained in some of their former habitations, about the 
 
 shores of the Black Sea. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Mi'.kAM'.N <>i <>!>i\ ami ins FOLLOWERS WBSTWJJBX 
 
 \'>iiii\<. certain is known of the Gothic langus 
 till a short time before the Christian era. Odin or 
 Wodin, with In- followers, migrated from the eastern 
 side "I' the Lake Maeotis, being driven out. as j- sup- 
 posed, l>y the fear of tin- Roman arm-. Pompey had 
 Bubducd Mithridates, king of Pontus, in the imme- 
 diate vicinity. T'» avoid them, Odin retired toward-
 
 HIS FOLLOWERS WESTWARD. 9 
 
 the north-west, and ultimately reached Saxland and 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 " Unicarn gentium Asiaticarum immigrationem in orbem Arctoum 
 factara nostra? antiquitates comraemorant, sed earn tamen non pri- 
 mani, verum circa annum tandem, xxrv. ante Christum, Romania 
 exercitibus auspiciis Pompeii Magni, in Asia? parte Phrygia, Minoris 
 grassantibus : ilia enim epocha, ad hanc rem, nostri chronologi 
 utuntur." — Arngrim Jonas : " Crymogcea" 
 
 The Gothic tribes possessed themselves of a large part of 
 Europe, and in the end subverted the Roman Empire. 
 Odin and his countrymen were not the first that migrated 
 in a westerly direction. He and his followers were kindly 
 received by the then existing inhabitants. He introduced 
 amongst them many useful arts, and also that of letters, 
 which form what is termed the Runic alphabet. He was 
 reputed to be a great magician, and we have the coin- 
 cidence, that he came from the neighbourhood of Colchis, 
 the seat of sorcery and magic incantations, according to 
 Grecian story. This migration took place twenty-four 
 years before the Christian era, when Gylfe was king 
 of Sweden. 
 
 " In eujus tempore incidit Odinus Asiatics immigrationis, 
 facts anno vicesshno quarto ante natum Christum." — Arngrim 
 Jonas : " Crymogcea." 
 
 This account agrees exactly with that given in the 
 " Heymskringlia, or Chronicles of the Kings of Nor- 
 way," translated from the Icelandic of Snorro Sturle- 
 son, by Samuel Laing : — 
 
 " There goes a great mountain barrier from north-east to south- 
 west, which divides the Great Sweden from the other kingdom*.
 
 10 MIGRATION OS" ODIN AM) 
 
 South of thi> mountain ridge it is no1 far to Turkland *, where 
 Oilin had great possessions. lint Odin, having fore-knowledge 
 and magic-sight, knew that his posterity would come to w ttle, and 
 dwell in the northern half of the world. In those days, the Roman 
 chiefs went wide round th<' world, Bubduing n> themselyea all 
 people, and on this account many chiefs fled from their domains. 
 Odin set his brothers, Ve and Viter, over Asgaard, the capital of 
 the country east of the Tanais ; and he himself, with all the L r "d~. 
 and a great many other people, wandered <>ut first westward to 
 Gardaridge, (Russia,) and then smith to Saxland. He had man} 
 sons, and after having subdued an extensive kingdom in Saxland. 
 he set his sons to defend the country, lie himself went northward 
 to the sea, and took up his abode in an island, which is tailed 
 Odinso in Fyen. Then be Bent Gefyon across the Bound to the 
 north, to discover new countries, and she earne to king Gylfe, who 
 her a plough-gate of land." 
 
 It appears from this, that Scandinavia was inhabited, 
 at the time thai Odin arrived in those regions, by a 
 prior immigration, the elder Asi, and that, at the 
 head <>!' the warlike Asi, he settled amongst them, and 
 drove northwards the Fins and Laps, the earliest in- 
 habitants of those regions, and a comparativelj diminu- 
 tive race. This latter immigration <>!' the Asi thus 
 amalgamated with the former. Previous to the irrup- 
 tion of the latter Asi from the East, Thor, and not 
 Odin, was the principal god of the Scandinavian Goths. 
 ( ) I'm ami bis followers became the dominant part) , and, 
 in some degree, supplanted the former religion, ( 'din 
 now taking precedence over Thor, and. as it is said, over 
 a more ancient < ►din, deified by the first 1 roths, that took 
 possession of Scandinai ia. 
 
   ot Turkland, in the time <>!' < Klin, but which bjore the name, 
 i the conquests of tl" 1 Turk
 
 HIS FOLLOWERS WESTWARD. 11 
 
 This Odin, with his gods and followers, settled in the 
 regions, about the Malar Sea, or Lake Logur, at 
 Sigtun : on this lake Odin built a temple, and insti- 
 tuted sacrifices, introducing fresh religious rites. He 
 assigned their respective places to the chief priests. 
 This was the last and most complete state of the Scan- 
 dinavian mythology, and in this state it was professed 
 by our forefathers, amongst the Norsemen, as late as 
 the eleventh century, and amongst the Anglo-Saxons 
 till their conversion to Christianity in this country. 
 The following observations on this subject appear in 
 Mr. Urquhart's " Revelations of Russia : " — 
 
 " But however this may be, and whether we see reason to look upon 
 the Caucasus as the cradle of mankind or not, to us, men of the 
 north, these mountains ought to inspire that feeling of veneration, 
 which is naturally inspired by contemplating the tombs of our 
 progenitors, the hallowed soil, where the race which gave rise to 
 our own mingled its dust with the earth from which it sprang, 
 for successive generations, when the spirit which animated it had 
 passed away ; for it is from these mountains that the Teutonic and 
 Scandinavian families, to which we owe our origin, are as clearly 
 made out to have spread over Europe, as any fact concerning the 
 early history has ever been established. It is a fact abundantly 
 confirmed by the similitude of feature to the descendants of t lie 
 German and Scandinavian off-shoot of their parent tree, which 
 the Therkessian and Ossetinian nations, at present inhabiting the 
 Caucasus, continue to exhibit — retaining in its purity and beauty. 
 in remarkable contrast to the races which surround them, the 
 original type, from which we have far degenerated." — Vol. ii. 
 p. 281. 
 
 d G
 
 12 BECIPB04 AI. UI6BA1 10KB. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 BXI 1 1 - 1 ; - •» \i. mk.kai IONS. 
 
 \< i obding to Jornandes, the hostile tribes which in- 
 habited Scanzia or Scandinavia, under their king Filmier, 
 the fifth in descent from Berich, under whom the Goths 
 first took possession of thai country, made their \\a\ 
 conquerors — 
 
   Acl extremam Scythia? partem, quae Pontico mari \ icina eat," — 
 
 to the extreme part of Scythia, which borders on 
 the Pontic Sea. So that, in Pact, we have reciprocal 
 migrations between the Pontic and the Baltic Seas, 
 that is, we firsl have :i migration from the East to 
 the Baltic, under Bench, the first Leader of the A.-i 
 westward; then from Scandinavia back again, under 
 their leader Filimer, to the Black or Pontic Sea; then, 
 in the year 2 1 before the ( Shristian era, from the bordi 
 of tin- Black Sea, east of the Tanais, back to Scandi- 
 navia, under the conduct of Odin, where he and his fol- 
 lowers again amalgamated with their kindred, repre- 
 senting themselves, as was really the case, a- of the 
 family of the elder A-h who first took possession "f 
 Scandinavia, under Bench. We find a connexion kept 
 up between Scandinavia and the regions of tin- Black 
 S i, even a- fit. a the lith century; and it i- this 
 
 inexion, and these reciprocal migrations, which have 
 in some degre< perplexed this pari of Gothic history. 
 In the 1 1 1 1 1 century, Barald Elardrade, Barald the 
 
 ni, reigned from L046 to 1066. He was son of
 
 NORTHMEN OR NORSEMEN. 13 
 
 Sigurd Syr, brother of Olaf the Saint, king of Norway. 
 He entered into the military service of Zoe the Great, 
 at that time empress of Greece. In her service 
 Harald, with his Norsemen, fought no less than eighteen 
 pitched battles. 
 
 " In eighteen battles fought and won, 
 The valour of the Norsemen shone." 
 
 He fought against the Saracens, in Africa. He fought 
 in Sicily, and various parts of the Grecian seas. He 
 marched to Jerusalem, destroying bands of robbers, 
 and disturbers of the peace. He also passed through 
 Ellepalta, or the Hellespont, into the Black Sea. 
 After all these services, he returned home to Scandi- 
 navia. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE NORTHMEN OR NORSEMEN. 
 
 THESE Norsemen were very extraordinary men, pos- 
 sessing great physical strength, reckless, during, and 
 ferocious ; before the discovery of gunpowder, when 
 much depended upon personal prowess, they were ir- 
 resistible. They were in a state of perpetual warfare, 
 either against one another, or along the coasts of Europe, 
 and were therefore always practised, and experienced in 
 arms. Being thoroughly acquainted with the harbour-. 
 and creeks, and rivers, on the coast of Norway, tin 
 Baltic, and the English Channel, their attacks w<r.
 
 14 NORTHMEN OB NOBSElf] tf. 
 
 often made under the cover of night. They, at such 
 times, left their ships, advanced to a given point, 
 surrounded a house or village, plundered, burned, 
 butchered, and committed the most dreadful atrociti 
 
 Such was the terror excited by them, along the northern 
 
 coast of France, in that part which they afterwards 
 
 Subdued, and which ha- since gone under the name of 
 
 Normandy, (a name derived from these Northmt 
 that it formed a part of the liturgy, or public daily 
 
 prayer- t<> <i<>d. that they might he delivered from the 
 fury of the Northmen, — 
 
 41 A furore Xorinannoruin libera nos, Domine." 
 
 A horrible mode of death was practised by these 
 Northmen, called cutting the spread eagle "at vista 
 
 oro a hah ei ii." t«> describe an eagle, on ihe back of 
 
 any one, from the supposed resemblance of the sufferer 
 i   a spread eagle. Snorro thus describes it :— 
 
 • A'l speciem aquilsa, dorsum it:i ei Laniabat, ut, adacf 
 spinam gladio, coetisque omnibus ad lumboa, usque a tergo ilm^i-, 
 pulmonet extraheret." — Lappenberg's note, Anglo- Scu 
 Thorpe't Translation, vl. ii. p. 84. 
 
 They divided the ribs, from the -pine down to the 
 Loins, and then dragged out the Lung 
 
 These men of violence delighted in frightful names 
 such as were synonymous with Bloody-axe, Skull-cleaver, 
 8ms. 
 
 Mere handfuls of them, comparatively -peaking. 
 possessed themselves of populous kingdoms, and Kept 
 th- in. The work- of their Scald- breathe nothing but
 
 GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN TRIBES. 15 
 
 blood and slaughter. Sigvat the Scald writes of king 
 Olaf:— 
 
 " On with the king — his banner's waving, 
 On with the king — the spears he's braving ; 
 On, steel-clad men, and storm the deck, 
 Slippery with blood, and strew'd with wreck." 
 
 A sain 
 
 D 
 
 " Into the ship our brave lads spring, 
 
 On shield and helm their red blades ring: ; 
 The air resounds with stroke on stroke, 
 The shields are cleft, the helms are broke ; 
 The wounded bonder o'er the side, 
 Falls shrieking in the blood-stain'd tide; 
 The deck is clear'd with wild uproar, 
 The dead crew lie about the shore." 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 THE AMALGAMATION OF THE GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN 
 
 TIJIIiES. 
 
 Let us now see how the blood of the Gothic nations 
 and the dialects of the Gothic language became amalga- 
 mated, on the soil of Britain. 
 
 The first Saxons landed in England about the year 
 450. Their religion was identical with that of tin- 
 Northmen, who afterwards landed in England about 
 the year 787. In 550, i. e. a century from the time 
 that Ilengist and Horsa landed on the Isle of Thanet, 
 the Heptarchy was in existence. In 640, Christianity 
 was generally established. In 787 the pagan North-
 
 16 AM. Y I.i.AM A I [ON "1" 1 IN". 
 
 men made a complete conquest of the kingdom of 
 Northumberland, thai is, of England north of the rivei 
 Humber, which they continued to hold under the inde- 
 pendent Danish kings until 953. In Domesday-Book, 
 made under the direction of William the Conqueror, 
 the lands of Northumberland, which then comprehended 
 the northern counties, arc omitted, as it' not forming a 
 part of the conqu Tiny were in fad already in | 
 
 don of Scandinavians, the kinsmen of William, Duke 
 
 of Normandy, who waa descended within a short inter- 
 val from 1 1 rolf Granger, the Norwegian pirate — this 
 Hrolf Ganger falling upon the coast of Normandy, aa 
 it was afterwards called, at the same time that other 
 
 pirated were ravaging and occupying different parte 
 of the coasl of England So late aa the eleventh 
 century, the Northmen weir -till Pagans. In 1"17, 
 Canute the Dane became role monarch of England. 
 The kingdom of Northumberland comprehended tin 
 present Northumberland Proper, Durham, Yorkshire, 
 Cumberland, Westmoreland, and part of Lancashire. 
 East A n-lia comprehending the Isle of Ely, Cam- 
 bridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, together with Essex, 
 Middlesex, part of Hertfordshire, and the extremiti 
 of tin- Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bkfercia were 
 entirely occupied bj hams or people of Danish de- 
 scent, that tiny wire under Danish and not under 
 Anglo-Saxon law.-. From 7 s 7. to the Norman Con- 
 quest, 1066, or nearly 300 years, the laws of the North- 
 men prevailed over thu large portion of the island 
 The Northmen, immediately previous t" the Norman 
 Conquest, had conquered tic whole of England, ami
 
 GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN TRIBES. 17 
 
 held it from 1003 to 1041, for four successive reigns; 
 viz., that of Swein, Canute the Great, Harold Harefoot, 
 and Hardicanute. The Saxon line was restored in 
 1042, and continued to 1066, when Harold fell before 
 William, Duke of Normandy, at the battle of Hastings. 
 Here the Saxon line ceased, and the Anglo-Saxon 
 language underwent some change by the mixture of 
 Norman terms, and the rejection of many of its in- 
 flexions. Hrolf Ganger, the conqueror of Normandy, 
 was the son of Rognvald, Earl of More. The first in 
 descent from him was William : yet in his time the 
 language of the Northmen was not spoken at Rouen, 
 for he sent his son Richard to learn the lan<niari;e of 
 his forefathers at Bayeux ; so soon had the language 
 of these Northmen fallen into disuse at the court — 
 Normandy being a conquest, and not a colony. The 
 fourth in descent was also Richard ; the fifth, Richard ; 
 the sixth, Robert ; the seventh, William the Conqueror. 
 The third Richard was the father of Emma, wife of 
 Ethelred, King of England, aunt to William the Con- 
 queror. The battle of Hastings, by which William 
 gained the kingdom of England, was, in fact, a family 
 quarrel, decided by an accidental shot, resulting in the 
 death of the then King of England.
 
 18 LCC1 B8I0N OF Tin: NORMANS. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 A. 'i--i<-N mi mi NOBHANfl i npi.k WILLIAM THE 
 
 « ONQUEROB. 
 
 Here, then, are united under William various branches 
 of one and the Bame family: — let, the Jutes who came 
 into Kent in 449; 2d, the South Saxons, who came 
 into Sussex in 491 — the Wesl Saxons, into Hamp- 
 shire in 519- the East Saxons, into Essex in 527, — 
 the Angles, into Anglia, Norfolk, in 527; into Berni- 
 cia, Northumberland, in 547: into Deira, Yorkshire, 
 in 55U ; and into Mercia, Derbyshire, in 586. Added 
 to these, we have the repeated incursions of the Norse 
 pirates, ami their conquest, lir.-t, of all tin- country 
 north of the Humber and the Mersey; ami thru tin 
 tquesl of tin- whole kingdom, under Canute the 
 (ircit : ami then, again, the conquest "!' England under 
 William, Duke of Normandy, From tin-.- various 
 sources, we mighl naturally expect a mixed ami un- 
 settled language, ami a Btrange jumble of dialects — 
 the dialects which we now have in differenl parts i I 
 England having, in all probability, been partly intro- 
 duced by the various tribes, which thus from time to 
 time settled in England, and entirely dispossessed the 
 ancient Britons from that, which we now .all England, 
 '. '. the land of the Angles or Angles-land.
 
 SOCIAL DISTINCTIONS OF TRIBES. Ill 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 SOCIAL DISTINCTIONS OF THE TRIBES THAT SETTLED IN 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 The names of their social boundaries warrant the sup- 
 position of the existence of different dialects amongst 
 the tribes, that settled in Britain. According to Lap- 
 penberg, the whole of England, north of Hartford, 
 Northampton, and Warwick, was first occupied by the 
 Angles. The counties, under the Angles, were divided 
 into Wappentakes. Amongst the Saxons, they were 
 divided into Hundreds. The term Ward, met with in 
 Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northumberland, and Dur- 
 ham, is probably of later origin. The Jutes occupied 
 Kent, the Isle of Wight, and a part of Wessex. They 
 had the law of Gavelkind. Kent is not divided into 
 Hundreds or Wappentakes, but into Lathes. Sussex is 
 divided into Rapes. From this it would appear, that 
 distinctions in their social regulations existed amongst 
 these tribes, before they landed in Britain. These dis- 
 tinctions still continue. 
 
 The whole of Britain was comprehended under the 
 term Anglia, for the first time, by Ecgberht, with the 
 sanction of a Witenagemot, held at Winchester, in the 
 year 800. 
 
 " Egbertus, rex totius Britannia in Parliamento, apud Wento- 
 niam, mutavit nomen regni do consensu [>'>|nili Bui, et ju^it illud, 
 de caetero, vocari Angliam." — Lappenberg's Quotation from Hist. 
 Fundatiords Hospit. L. Leonardi, vol. vi. i>. 608., Thorpe's Trans- 
 lation,
 
 20 SOCIAL DI8T12N HON8 OF TBIBE8 
 
 M The compound word 'Anglo-Saxons' occurs firsl in Paul 
 WarnefHd, lib. 6. c. I ■'>. " Cedoaldus, rex Auglorum Saxonum? — con- 
 sequently before the time of Ecgberht." — Note from Lappenberg, 
 
 T i these dialects must be added words taken from the 
 Nbnnanno-Franco-Celtic language of Normandy, and, 
 
 in later ages, terms, in great abundance, introduced from 
 the Latin and Greek. It is out <>t' this chaos, this 
 
 fermentation of speech, this chemical amalgamation of 
 
 elements, that the English language ia formed. In it- 
 
 * DO 
 
 early and unsettled Btate, for some centuries alter the 
 
 ibliahment of the Saxons in this island, no langua 
 was ever more barren of every species of composition, 
 and of all recognised principles of orthography and 
 grammar ; the written language, w hene\ er distinguished 
 by such an honour, being such as a labourer of the pre- 
 -ent day would write, who could do little more than 
 write hie name and place of abode, he being, at the 
 same time, perfectly and blissfully ignorant, that, in 
 
 miliar and spelling, there ifl BUCh a thing Bfl a right 
 and a \vn»ng. The language, in the meantime, was 
 
 full of t < i -- . bold, and Q( rvous expressions, occasionally 
 rugged; but the limbs were the limbs of a young giant, 
 requiring only time and discipline, in order to cover 
 them with manly beauty. As an example of the un- 
 settled Btate of spelling, the word Bignifyinj 
 i- found spelt in eleven different waj b, a . if, j ef, if, 
 yf, yeve, yeoven, given, giflfe, geive (gin ye will) (gi'n 
 The reason why Anglo-Saxon literature, or rather 
 language, for do literature 1 ted, remained unculti- 
 vated and unheeded during many centuries, was the 
 perpetual state of war, in which the country was en-
 
 TIIAT SETTLED IN BRITAIN. 21 
 
 gaged, and because Christianity had been introduced 
 by foreign missionaries, totally ignorant of the language 
 of the people at large. While, however, the Anglo- 
 Saxon tongue was neglected, the Churchmen, in many 
 instances, were well versed in the Latin language. 
 The verses of Wulstan, bishop of Winchester, on the 
 punishment of a parricide, show a perfect command of 
 that language : — 
 
 " Nam occidit proprium crudeli morte parentein, 
 Unde reo statim prascepit episcopus urbis 
 Ferreus ut ventrem constringeret acriter oninem 
 Circulus, et similem paterentur brachia nsenam. 
 Continuosque novem semel cruciando per annos 
 Atria sacrorum lustraret sa?pe locorum, 
 Viseret et saeri pulcherrima limina Petri, 
 Quo veniam tantae mereretur sumere culpa;." 
 
 Acta Benedicti: note from Lappenberg, vol. ii. p. 21. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 SEASON WHY THE ANGO-SAXON LANGUAGE WAS NEGLECTED. 
 
 But as the services of the Church were conducted 
 entirely in Latin, and all communication with the Sec 
 of Rome, the then head of the Church, was held 
 through the medium of the same tongue, the Saxon 
 Churl was left to grovel in ignorance and abject, un- 
 reasoning, superstition. The fierce spirit of independ- 
 ence and of conquest, which characterised the Saxons 
 as Pagans, when they first landed on the coast of
 
 22 REASON why THE ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 Britain, liail been crushed under a load of ceremoni 
 and an unbounded spiritual domination. Large por- 
 tions of the country had passed into the hands of the 
 emissaries of Rome, and the revenues of church pro- 
 perty were, from time- t<> time, sent out of the kingdom. 
 When, therefore, England was invaded by the Pagan 
 Norsemen, the Saxons had little to lose, as a people, 
 
 • jit their lues: that hardihood and daring, on ac- 
 count <>t' which some of the German tribes were .-aid 
 to he a match for the \ ery gods themselves ', Buccumbed 
 t" tin- ferocity of the followers of Odin, <\. r practised 
 in bloodshed, and eager for conquest. Into the highi r 
 ranks of the Saxons, Christianity had diffused a milder 
 and more peaceful disposition. Sigeberht, king of the 
 
 Bast-Angles, gave the first instance of an Ajlglo- 
 
 Sazou roj al monk. 
 
 8 i deep-rooted was the conviction that led ili<- East-Anglian 
 to a renunciation of earthly sway, that no! even the danger of In- 
 native land, :it thai time Buffering under the cruel - of 
 Penda, King ol Mercia, could induce him t" forsake the quiel "t 
 lii- cloister. When forcibly brought forth bj bis subjects in the 
 hope, thai the Bighl of a leader, once honoured for his valour, 
 mi-lit cheer and stimulate lii- warriors, he stood >till amidsl 1 1 1« - 
 raging battle, with a -tall' in hi> hand, until he was Blain, tog< ther 
 with his brother Ecgric.' 1 — Thorpe's Translation of Lappenberg's 
 I!   ! land under //■ I i-Saxon Kings. 
 
 •u had the time passed away, when the son ol Woden 
 knew no greater disgrace, than i" 'li'' in ;i bed. J Jot to tl>" nation 
 the then increasing longing after the cowl was more pernicious 
 than the dm of harness/ 1 • -Idem. 
 
 Prom these causes, the cultivation <>f the Anglo- 
 
 * *• S 8u iris concedere, quibus ne Dii quidem immortalea 
 
 ; | | I'll II, > Oallico, lib. i\ . i 7
 
 LANGUAGE WAS NEGLECTED. 23 
 
 Saxon tongue was entirely neglected, and we have the 
 extraordinary fact, that whilst not a single fragment of 
 Anglo-Saxon literature existed, or even had been called 
 into existence, a Scandinavian literature had existed for 
 ages in Iceland — the remotest habitation of man ; and 
 that literature full of a fiery and poetic daring. Under 
 its influence, the Norse warrior was stimulated to court 
 every extremity of danger, and to despise every ex- 
 tremity of suffering. He lived in the alternations of 
 drunkenness and slaughter, gloating with a diabolical 
 satisfaction over the bodies of his enemies, given as food 
 to the wolf and the raven, or floating, in bloated putre- 
 faction, the sport of wind and wave. 
 
 AVlien these Norsemen took possession, therefore, of 
 various portions of the kingdom, we might naturally 
 expect that their language, originally of the same 
 family with the Anglo-Saxon, though now diversified 
 by time and circumstances, would mix itself with the 
 language of the more ancient inhabitants of the soil. 
 That a considerable similarity existed between the 
 Anglo-Saxon and the Scandinavian, both originallv, 
 and by subsequent amalgamation, is proved by the fact, 
 that, about the time of the conversion of the followers 
 of Odin, in later ages, a Saxon priest was sent from 
 England to assist in the conversion of the Scandina- 
 vians, as being sufficiently acquainted with the Scandi- 
 navian language. 
 
 Mr. Bosworth has given various examples, which 
 perfectly establish the similarity, that existed amongst 
 all the Germanic languages. The Dutch V, it may be 
 premised, is sounded like the English I".
 
 
 SIMILARITY r.1.1 WEEN I 111 GERMAN 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 BDHLABrn BETWEEN THE GERMAN ANP B< WMNWiAN 
 
 I. AN'. I A'.i 
 
 .lish. 
 
 Anglo-Sai, 
 
 hutch. 
 
 
 Go. 
 
 
 Dan. 
 
 
 
 \ r»b. 
 
 1 
 
 Yiscll. 
 
 Fisk. 
 
 Fiseh. 
 
 l'ixks. 
 
 Fisk. 
 
 Fisk. 
 
 I'iskr 
 
 A Fislfs. 
 
 1 
 
 Visches. 
 
 Fisk 
 
 Fisebes. 
 
 Fixkix. 
 
 Fisks. 
 
 Kisk a. 
 
 1 .sks 
 
 To   Fish. 
 
 Fise-e> 
 
 \ .lie. 
 
 I'ixk-U. 
 
 Fisch-e. 
 
 Fiska. 
 
 Fisk. 
 
 risk. 
 
 lisk-O. 
 
 A lish. 
 
 Fue, 
 
 Viseb. 
 
 risk. 
 
 Fiseh. 
 
 Fisk. 
 
 risk. 
 
 risk. 
 
 Fisk. 
 
 Piahi 
 
 Fis« 
 
 \ htii. 
 
 I'ixkar. 
 
 Fiscbe. 
 
 Fiskos. 
 
 Fisk. 
 
 Fiskean. 
 
 Fisksx. 
 
 Fish 
 
 r 'i-t i. 
 
 Vischen. 
 
 Fiska. 
 
 Fische. 
 
 Fixki. 
 
 Fiskes. 
 
 Fiskars. 
 
 Fiska! 
 
 l i Fishes, 
 
 , Fiscum. 
 
 \ i'lhen. 
 
 Fiskum. 
 
 Fischen. 
 
 Fisker. 
 
 Fiske. 
 
 Fisksx. 
 
 Fiskum 
 
 Pishes. 
 
 Pi -Lis. 
 
 Vischen. 
 
 Fisk ii. 
 
 l'i che. 
 
 Fiskans. 
 
 Fiske. 
 
 I'isk.ir. 
 
 Fiska. 
 
 UsM. 
 
 '•Sax 
 
 , Dutch. 
 
 / 
 
 (,., 
 
 
 Dam. 
 
 Strcii. 
 
 
 1 
 
 le. 
 
 [c. 
 
 Ik. 
 
 K-h. 
 
 Ik. 
 
 •' 
 
 
 Ek. 
 
 
 Mia, 
 
 Minx. 
 
 Min. 
 
 M.in. 
 
 M. ina. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Mm 
 
 To 
 
 Me. 
 
 
 Mi. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 
 M.I. 
 
 Mai. 
 
 M 
 
 Mo. 
 
 Mig. 
 
 Miscb 
 
 Mieh. 
 
 Mile 
 
 
 
 Mik. 
 
 We 
 
 We 
 
 
 Wl 
 
 Wii. 
 
 W.is. 
 
 Mi. 
 
 WL 
 
 Wer. 
 
 Our. 
 
 
 ( Inzer. 
 
 I 
 
 1 OSes'. 
 
 1'iis.ir.i. 
 
 Y..,-. 
 
 w ,.. 
 
 W u. 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 ns. 
 
 (» 
 
 " 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ons. 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 
 O 
 
 < > 
 
 1 
 
 Irregular Verbs, 
 
 lint perhaps the Btrongesl proof of an identity <•! 
 origin, in :ill the German languages, is t.> 1m- found in 
 tin" case "l' irregular verba and comparisons. Take, for 
 instance, the verb come, English; present, come ; perfi 
 came ; past-participle, come. Anglo-Saxon, cume, com, 
 cumen. Pris. kern, kom, kemen. Low Dutch, kom, 
 kwam, gekomomen. M i • quina, quam, quiman. 
 < h rman, komme, kam, | L r -- 1 komi [eel. kem, kom,
 
 AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. 25 
 
 komnien. Dan. komnien, kam, kummen. Swed. kom- 
 men, kom, kommen. 
 
 Irregular Comparisons. 
 
 English, good, better, best. Anglo-Saxon, god, betra, 
 betst. Fris. god, bettre (betere), beste. Dutch, goed, 
 beter, best. Msee. goths, batiza, batist. Ger. gut, 
 besser, beste. Icel. god, bettri, bestr. Dan. god, bedre, 
 beste Swed. god, battre, bast. 
 
 Many nouns may be traced through all these lan- 
 guages, with very insignificant variations. For example : 
 Anglo-Saxon, meolc. Plat. Dutch, melk. Ger. milch. 
 Icel. meolk. Danish, malk. Swed. mjolk. English, 
 milk. 
 
 Anglo- Saxon, rec. Plat. Dutch, rook. Fris. rec. Ger. 
 rauch. Icel. reykr. Dan. rog. Swed. rok. English, 
 reck. 
 
 A Dalccarnian boy, brought over by the Swedish 
 ambassador, is said to have easily understood the lan- 
 guage spoken by the peasantry of the north of England. 
 The Dalecarnian is the mountain dialect of Norway. 
 It is also said that some Scotch farmers, Avho have taken 
 up their abode in Norway, have little difficulty in 
 understanding the Norwegians, or being understood by 
 them. In making the comparison we must not look to 
 the spelling, but to the general sound of the word. A> 
 a proof of the strong similarity between the English 
 and the Danish languages, we cannot perhaps have a 
 better specimen than the following quotation, taken 
 from the beginning of a national song, which is to the 
 Danes what " God save the King" is to the English: — 
 
 C
 
 26 SIMILARITY BETWEEN I Hi: GERM 
 
 English. 
 
 King Christian stood by the 1< >Ay mast, 
 
 In ini-t and smoke ; 
 HU sword was hammering bo fast, 
 Through Gothic helm, and brain it paas'd; 
 Then sank each hostile hulk and mast 
 
 In ini-t and smoke. 
 Fly. shriek'd they, fly In' who can ; 
 Who braves of Denmark's Christian 
 ike P " 
 
 l> ,ish. 
 
   Cong Christian stod \ i 'I hoien mast, 
 
 11; l lamp ; 
 
 Han V J- hamrede saa fast, 
 At Gothens EUelm, og Hierne bra 
 Da ^ank hver Gendligl Speil >>^ Masl 
 
 I 1 1 Damp. 
 
 Flye skreyde flye, boad flye can, 
 1 1   ir for 1 tanmark's Christian 
 
 I Kain]>." 
 
 - Mir of these nvorda resemble the Anglo-Saxon more 
 than tiny d,. the English of tin- presenl daj : as, fiend- 
 . tin' Anglo-Saxon being feondlic, signifying l»>>~iil» . 
 hver, in Anglo-Saxon, esghweeher, each. 
 
 In the saint- Bong the following worde occur in one 
 
 line : — 
 
 •■ I Ian beisede del rod i! 
 • II.' hoisted the red da 
 
 Modern 
 
   [Ian mad var grasshopper, og \il«l honnii 
 Hi- in. -ai was i locust inl n ild bom 
 
 " 1 1. m laid til dem, folger efter mi 
 ■• I !■ laid to them, follow after me." 
 
 In the national song we see, nol onlj a close similarity
 
 AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. 27 
 
 of terms, but a capability of mutual translation, almost 
 word for word, with the same metrical arrangement. 
 
 Some stanzas by the Countess of Blessington on Life 
 and Death, which appeared in the " Book of Beauty," in 
 1834, have been translated by Mr. Bos worth into the 
 present Fricsic language, and resemble the Anglo- 
 Saxon so closely, that the mere English scholar may at 
 once comprehend the greater part of it : — 
 
 " Dead hwat bist dou, 
 Ta hwaeni alien buisgje, 
 
 Fen de scepterde kening ta da slave? 
 De hvtste basste freon, 
 Oin uns soargen to eingjen, 
 
 Dyn gebiet is in t' grasf." 
 
 " Death what art thou, 
 To whom all bow, 
 
 From sceptred king to slave ? 
 The last best friend, 
 Our cares to end, 
 
 Thy empire is in the grave." 
 
 " When Wilfrith, Bishop of York, was accidentally thrown upon 
 the coast of Friesland, he preached to them the Gospel of Christ, 
 in the intelligible dialect of the Anglo-Saxons, and baptized 
 nearly all the princes, with many thousands of the people." — 
 Lappenberg. 
 
 The Friesians, from the earliest ages, have occupied 
 the same country, bordering on the Ems, and stretch- 
 ing into Jutland. They were neighbours of the Angles, 
 from whom we derive our name of Anp-lesmen or 
 Englishmen, and being a maritime people, most pro- 
 bably joined the Angles in their irruptions into Britain. 
 We have then all these various stream-, issuing from 
 the great Gothic reservoir, again collected on the -<>il 
 
 c 2
 
 28 GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN LAN01 LGE& 
 
 of Britain, receiving an accession from the Norman, 
 and, ae the progress of arts, and sciences, and literature 
 require, admitting various additions from the Latin and 
 Greek, and occasionally from the modern languages of 
 
 Europe. In the northern counties of England, the 
 language of the common people is to this day Dano- 
 Sazon, and differs very materially from the language of 
 the South, both in terms and pronunciation. There is 
 in the North a striking peculiarity in the use of the de- 
 finite article. The Southern imagines thai it ifl dropped 
 altogether, before words beginning with a consonant. 
 This, however, is not the cose. It ifl always mentally, 
 and to a certain extent audibly, pronounced in such cast -. 
 In the South it would be said, for example, fetch mm 
 cows: in the North, fetch f cows. Even in words be- 
 ginning with a vowd the same principle is adopted, as, 
 
 drive f au out of t' orchard. 
 
 The origin of thifl OUStom we find in the phi 
 which occurs in the stanzas on Death, already quoted, 
 in t graft '" ? grave, in the grave. In the Eiindelopian 
 Calendar for seamen, we find the dialect of Westmore- 
 land -o clearly marked, that whole line- would lie un- 
 derstood there without difficulty, whether spoken or 
 written. For example : — 
 
 • A- we tommelje awer ( matter." 
 A ire tumble orer the water." 
 Westmoreland. *• A- ire tummd owe* t' wetter." 
 
 A- a general summary, then, we have these results.
 
 MIGRATIONS. 
 
 29 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 MIGRATIONS. 
 
 First Migration. 
 
 The Gomerian or Celtic race, migrating from the 
 East, and occupying a considerable portion of Europe. 
 These were the first occupants, and from these are de- 
 rived the following languages. 
 
 Celtic. 
 
 I I 
 
 Anc'. Gaul ,h . Anc'. British. 
 
 I I I 
 
 Welch. Arm c . Cernist. 
 
 Anc'. Irish. 
 
 J I I 
 
 Irish. Erse. Manks. 
 
 Highland Scotch. 
 
 Second Migration. 
 
 The next migration from the East took place about 
 700 years before the Christian rcra, and this consisted 
 of the Gothic or Teutonic tribes. The bulk of Euro- 
 peans are descended from these. From the Gothic are 
 derived the following languages. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Anglo 
 
 1 
 -Saxon. 
 
 1 
 Fran-cic. 
 
 1 
 Ger-man. 
 
 1 
 Maeso- Gothic 
 
 . 1 . 
 Cim-bric 
 
 or 
 
 Old Icelandic. 
 
 Modern English. 
 
 Sue-vian, 
 
 
 I 
 
 Lowland Scotch. 
 
 or 
 
 
 Modern Icelandic. 
 
 Belgic 
 
 Swabian 
 
 
 Norse or Norwegian 
 
 or 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Low Dutch. 
 
 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Frisic or Holland. 
 
 
 
 Orknevan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bosworth. 
 
 c 3
 
 CHANGES LNGLO8AX0N HAS 
 
 /. ' Migration. 
 
 The last stream <>l' population from the Easl was the 
 avonic, which overflowed Russia, Poland, Eastern 
 Prussia, Moravia, ;m<l Bohemia. With the Celtic and 
 S lavonie the English language baa very little, it' any, 
 affinity. The blood of all the Gothic tribes Bowe in Its 
 vein The bone, and Binew, and muscle is Gothic : its 
 filling up and polish, and adaptation t<> the pi rive 
 
 exigencies of the times, are from the Roman and ( rrecian 
 mod sis. 
 
 ( HAP. XIII. 
 
 mi CHANGES iii\r Mil LNGLO-8AXON BAS UNDERGONE IN 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The First Change that took place was from the par- 
 tial introduction <•! Scandinavian terms from Norway, 
 den, and I Denmark. 
 
 Winn s of I 'In 1 1 s. 
 
 It i- almosl a general rule, thai the names of towns 
 and villages ending in by are of Scandinavian originj 
 Derby, Whitby. Such names abound in the northern 
 parts of England, whilst f< n, if any town or village in 
 the south of England, has a name i ading in by, Rugby 
 
 pted. Bye, in Danish, signifies a town or villa 
 Thus By, combin< <l with a term descriptive of som<
 
 UNDERGONE IN ENGLAND. 31 
 
 local feature or peculiarity, would form the proper name 
 of a town or village ; as, Whitby, White-Z?y, White- 
 Town ; Deor-Z?y, the habitation or place of Deer, Deer- 
 By, Derby. 
 
 Names of Persons. 
 
 The proportion of names ending in son preponderate 
 greatly among the Dano-Saxon population of the North. 
 Such names were originally of Scandinavian origin, 
 though the principle was afterwards extended to Anglo- 
 Saxon names, and obviously must have been so in the 
 case of names derived from Scripture, as, Johnson, 
 John son. The names Arneson, Arason, Haraldson, 
 Harald-Sigurdsow, Ilarald son of Sigurd, were common 
 in Scandinavia, before we hear of such terminations 
 in England. Swein still exists in the present name, 
 Swainson. Swend was born of Alfila, a daughter of 
 Earl Alfrim, and was also called Swend Alfilasow. 
 Olafson, son of Olaf the Saint. Eric, Ericson. Ulf, 
 Ulfson. 
 
 Iny was the Anglo-Saxon termination denoting son; 
 as, Ethel wulf Ecbright?'«y, Ethelwulf the son of Ecbert 
 or Ecbright ; Brynmy, Bryn's son. 
 
 Amongst the Northmen, who took possession of that 
 region, which is now called Normandy, such names as 
 ended in son generally took the prefix Fits or Fits, a 
 contraction of Filius, in the place of son; thus Gerald- 
 son would become Fitz or Fits-Gerald. 
 
 The Second Change commenced with the accession '1 
 William the Coiupicror, and progressed t<> about the 
 time of Henry the Third. 
 
 c »
 
 32 CHAHGES IN ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 •• 'The foundation indeed of Norman influence, in England, was 
 laid in the reign of Edward t h.- Confessor, who, baying paased his 
 youth, and having received his education, at the court <>t liis uncle 
 Duke Richard, returned to liis native country with   train of Nor- 
 man fuvnurites. 'I'hi- Norman faction was opposed by the Saxons, 
 under Karl Godwin; but the battle of Eastings put an end to the 
 Struggle, and the French ascendancy became complete." — Hip- 
 pesky; Chapter* on English Literature, ]>.!». 
 
 Property and official dignities were occupied by the 
 Normans. The language of the Court and of public 
 
 business waa Norman; and a knowledge of that lan- 
 guage luranie a necessary qualification for the discharge 
 of public duties. It consequently became a part of 
 
 school and university education to translate Latin into 
 French. 
 
 •• In the reign of Edward the Third 1 1 • »   fate of French, u   
 national language, was sealed. Boon after the plague in 1848, the 
 practice of translating into French was discontinued by school* 
 masteri." ..." lly a statute of 1882, all plea- in courts of jusl 
 arc directed to be carried on in English.* 1 — Hippesley, j>. 11. 
 
 The Third Change came on about the reign of Eliza- 
 beth. 
 
 The Fourth, from that time had been, and is now 
 in progress; consisting chiefly of the application of 
 numerous classical terms to the literature, and the arts 
 and sciences of the day. 
 
 Chaucer, Spencer, Shakespeare are the great land- 
 marks of Bnglish poetry, each exercising do inconsider- 
 able influence over the age, in which he lived. 
 
 The most important change wai begun bj the Dai 
 b cause it iras a structural change: they disregarded 
 inflexions. According to Hicks, Henley, and Rask,
 
 SIMPLIFICATION OP INFLEXIONS. 33 
 
 the Anglo-Saxon had six declensions: according to 
 Thwaites seven, Manning four, Lye three, which lasl 
 number is also adopted by Bosworth. Judging from 
 so wide a diversity of opinion, there must have been 
 multitudes of exceptions to any general rule, on the 
 subject of declensions. The Anglo-Saxon had four 
 cases, in each number, nominative, genitive, dative, and 
 accusative, determined by the ending of the word. As, 
 
 Si7igular. Plural. 
 
 N. Smith, a smith. N. Smith-as, smiths. 
 
 G. Smith-es, of a smith. G. Smith-a, of smiths. 
 
 D. Smith-e, to a smith. D. Smith-um, to smiths. 
 
 A. Smith, a smith. A. Smith-as. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 SIMPLIFICATION OF INFLEXIONS. 
 
 In the time of Chaucer, about the year 1350, the six 
 declensions of Anglo-Saxon nouns were reduced to one, 
 and the cases from four to two — the genitive case being 
 formed from the nominative, by the addition of es s in 
 the singular number; and, in the plural, all the cas 
 being invariable. In the plural number of nouns we 
 have some exceptions to the general rule ; as, ox, oxen . 
 and, in some parts of the country, amongst the common 
 people, we still hear house, housen. From the present 
 structure of our own lano;uan;e we know, that the re- 
 lation of words to each other may be expressed by tin 
 use of prepositions, without the assistance of these varia- 
 ble and complex terminations. The Normans also, find-
 
 34 -IMIM.III. LTION OF INFLEXIONS. 
 
 the cases and the remaining inflexions of nonna 
 inconvenient, dispensed with them altogether, except in 
 the expression <>I* the genitive ease; and this is often 
 Formed by the nse of the preposition of before the n mn. 
 instead of the abbreviated Saxon genitive; as, Christ 
 Christ's, of Christ. In dispensing with these variable 
 terminations, the language was returning to the prin- 
 ciples of the Hebrew language, which expressed the re- 
 lation of words by prefixes, the Bame prefix being 
 applicable to any noun, and each nmin remaining in- 
 variabl . ipt in the difference between the singular 
 and the plural numb 
 The Hebrew aaj - — 
 
 s grdar. Plural. 
 
 &eq, :i sack. ks. 
 
 le-seq, <'t'a Back. le-sequim, of sacks, 
 
 me-seq, from a sack. me-sequim, from Backs. 
 
 . in a Back, bc-sequim, in sa 
 
 II' re the noun itself is invariable] excepl at far as it 
 is requisite to distinguish the plural from the angular 
 number, by the addition of tm, as we do by the addition 
 of .%■ ; -c(|, scijuini, sack, Backs. The Northmen, there- 
 fore, in avoiding trouble, by simplifying, were in Tact 
 returning to an old and philosophical principle, which 
 has been adopted to a certain extent in modern (inch. 
 and in the Italian Language. 
 
 \ ain, the Anglo-Saxon had it- arbitral*} genders, 
 like the Greek, Latin, Frenoh, and German of the pre- 
 jenl day; than which nothing can be more unphiloso- 
 phical, or gratuitously troublesome, Why, for instance, 
 should ^/fn be of the masculine gender in Latin, water 
 
 »r
 
 SIMPLIFICATION OF INFLEXION B. 35 
 
 in the feminine, air in the masculine, earth in the femi- 
 nine, and heaven in the neuter? As a principle, the 
 English lantmao;c has discarded these absurdities, and, 
 except in the case of figurative personification, all crea- 
 tures of the male sex are of the masculine gender, those 
 of the female sex of the feminine, and things without 
 life are of neither gender, or neuter. The English lan- 
 guage determines the gender by the signification of the 
 term, without any respect to the termination. The 
 ancient languages, except the Hebrew, determined the 
 gender by the termination, without respect to the signifi- 
 cation, but with innumerable exceptions and inconsis- 
 tencies ; and it would be a bold assertion to say, that in 
 Latin and Greek, or in many modern languages, there 
 is any such thing as a general rule, on the subject of 
 genders. 
 
 Again, in the Anglo-Saxon, adjectives had their sin- 
 gular and plural numbers, and their musculine, feminine, 
 and neuter genders distinguished by the termination, 
 and agreeing with their respective nouns ; but as the 
 adjective, both in the Anglo-Saxon and modern English, 
 is in juxta-position with its noun, of which it expresses 
 the quality, there would be no necessity for any varia- 
 tion at all, AVe can say a tall man, a tall woman, a 
 tall spire, or tall men, tall women, tall spires. It is nol 
 necessary to alter the word tall, cither as to number, 
 case, or gender. This useless variation was also dis- 
 carded. 
 
 Again, in Anglo-Saxon, adjective-pronouns were de- 
 clined like nouns adjective, and varied in Dumber, ease, 
 and gender. Mine, for example, in English has no 
 
 c 6
 
 36 
 
 -lMI'I.lFICATIOX OF INFLEXIONS. 
 
 variation whatever. \Vc say the house is mine, the 
 field is mine, the horse is mine, or the houses are mine, 
 the fields are mine, the horses arc mine. The word 
 mine, however applied, has no variable termination. It 
 is true we Bay, my house, using my before a noun; but 
 the word my is in a different position, and though mine 
 in the position of my would now be Bomewhal antiquated, 
 still there is no impropriety in using mine, as mint host, 
 mine arm. 
 
 But in the An^lo-Saxon we had 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Mate. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Nom. Min. 
 
 Mine. 
 
 Gen. Mil' 
 
 .Minrc. 
 
 Pat. Milium. 
 
 Minii'. 
 
 Ace-. Minne. 
 
 Mine. 
 
 Ba, both. 
 
 
 N" < on. B 
 
 
 Gen. B 
 
 
 Dat Bam. 
 
 
 ACC. l>a. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 Blue, i ~.-iii- Ncut. 
 Num. Mine. 
 Gen Min-a. 
 Dat Miii-iun. 
 
 A.00. Miu-e. 
 
 Tig, twenty. 
 Num. Tig. 
 1 n. rigra. 
 Dat 
 
 A . . 
 
 -uiu. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon verbs had a greater variety of ter- 
 minations than the presenl English verb. Abou1 the 
 
 time of Chancer they had assumed muofa of their pre- 
 
 Benl simplicity. The final n of verbs was dropped aboul 
 
 the time of Henry VTIL; as, we loven, ye Loven, they 
 
 Loven, '.'. we love, ye love, they love. Ben Jonson 
 
 regrets the I"-- of the final //.• — 
 
 \iii. -it (in nil \i.ii mv opinion), I am persuaded thai the lack 
 hereof, well considered, -will !).■ found i great blemish t<> our
 
 SUMMARY OF CHANGES. 37 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CHANGES. 
 
 The first material change, then, that took place in the 
 Anglo-Saxon, was by the introduction of the Dano- 
 Saxon, operating, more or less, according to the regions 
 occupied by the Northmen. This Danish influence 
 was felt, chiefly from the year 900 to 1070. They in- 
 troduced new terms, and dealt with inflexions, at their 
 own will and pleasure. After the Conquest, the parti- 
 coloured Norman-French, a mixture of the Gallic and 
 the language of the Northern adventurers, mingled 
 itself, more or less, with the already altered language 
 of the country, again gradually casting aside what re- 
 mained of inflexions and variable terminations. This 
 process went on from two to three centuries ; the or- 
 thography of the language long after this date remain- 
 ing very different from its present state. From the 
 period of the translation of the Scriptures into English? 
 no very material alteration has taken place. Verbs end- 
 ing in eth, as lovcth, hateth, have been changed into 
 loves, hates, at the same time that the termination ed 
 has, in many cases, been contracted, so as to coalesce 
 with the root of the verb, as lov'd. In some cases, such 
 a coalition would be cacophonous ; in others, as in words 
 ending in t, impossible ; we cannot pronounce hate, 
 hated, hat'd. Both these changes, as far as the euphony 
 of the language is concerned, are to be lamented The 
 th, almost peculiar to the English, in modern European
 
 38 -i UMABT or CHANG] 3. 
 
 languages, and lost to its affinities, is the gentlest and 
 moei pleasing of all sounds. Take the following pas- 
 ge: ""Whoso love/// father or moiAer more than me, is 
 not worthy of me." The M occurs five times in this 
 short sentence, and the whole is peculiarly soft and 
 tender. Change the Hi of loveth into loves, and we at 
 once pass from the note of the dove to the hiss of the ser- 
 pent. Take again, the following beautiful description 
 of the Pelican and her young, from Rossewell's " Ar- 
 mourie of Honour," quoted by Mr. Lower: — 
 
 " Tlx- Pelicane fervently loveth her young byrdes, yet, when thei 
 ben haughtie, and beginne to wax hotte, they smite her in the i 
 tad wounde her, and she nniteth then againe, and aleoeth them. 
 And after thi ee days, Bhe mounu th for them, and then Btriking her- 
 self in the Bide, till the bloude runne out, she tpctrpleth it upon 
 theire bodyea, and by virtue thereof thei quicken agaim 
 
 The word byrdes should !»■ lure pronounced as a 
 word of two syllables — a pronunciation -till found 
 among our Southern peasantry. 
 
 I here wm there a dragon grete, and grimme, 
 Pull of fyre, and also verj oime, 
 With a tride throte and tusk* ^ grete." — Wartoria Poetry. 
 
 Tin- Lord"- Prayer, now dating hark more than eleven 
 hundred years, give.- M- a j ml epeeimi Qof early Saxon. 
 It is valuable, as affording us a subject for comparison 
 with the different modes of expressing the same senti- 
 ments, at different periods : — 
 
 i pen Fader, thic arth i" beofi 
 Sir gehalqud thin noma, to cymeth 
 thin ii'-. si.- thin will in 
 
 heol I in eorthoi Vrenhlaf
 
 SUMMARY OF CHANGES. 39 
 
 ofer wirtlic * sel us to daeg, and 
 forgef us scylda urna, sue we for- 
 gefan seyldgum urum, and do inlead f 
 usith in custnung. An gefrig vrich 
 from iue." 
 
 Of the date of 890 : — 
 
 " Faeder ure thu whe eart in heofenum. 
 Si thin nama gehalgod. 
 To be-cume then rice 
 Gefurtbe thin willa on eorthan, swa Bwa 
 on beofenum. 
 
 Urne dffigranilican hlaf syle us to dffig, 
 And forgif us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgifath 
 urum gyltendum. 
 
 And ne gelasdde thu us on costenunge, 
 Ac alys us of yfell. Sothlice." 
 
 Takino- intermediate ground between the Saxon of 
 
 890 and the present day, Ave have the following form of 
 
 words : — 
 
 " Our fadir that art in bevenys. 
 Ilalewid be tin name, 
 Thy kingdom come to, 
 Be thi wil in erthe, as in bevene. 
 Give to us this day our breed ovir other substance, 
 Ami forgive to us our dettis, as we forgive our dettouris, 
 And lede us not into temptacioun, 
 lint delyvere us from yvel. Amen." 
 
 In 1611, the only difference between the Lord's 
 Prayer of that date and of the present day, is in the 
 sentence " and forgive us our dcttcs, as we forgive our 
 detters," some of the other words also being differently 
 spelled. 
 
 * " Ofer wirtlic," translated Biiper-substantiaL 
 f " Inlead," not Lead.
 
 40 9UMMABY OF CHANGES. 
 
 We come then to the conclusion, that the Gothic is 
 the rout from which branched out a variety of dialects, 
 i ach undergoing certain changes in the course of time, 
 
 according to eirenin-taiiees : that Kngland having be- 
 come the battle-field of the Gothic tribes, in after 
 age-, these dialects became amalgamated; and that out 
 of that amalgamation was formed the English langua 
 modified and simplified in its construction, according 
 to the genius of the people, and enriched from the 
 Copious stores of Latin and Greek, in term- of art, 
 science, and philosophy, according to the rising wants 
 of the age. It ia apparent also, that the English lan- 
 ige has lost its declensions, its variable termination 
 of nouns, in a great degree, its arbitrary genders, it- 
 inflexion of adjectives, both in gender, case, and num- 
 ber. It- \« rba also have been simplified, in their tens 
 
 by the general adoption of the auxiliary verb, in the 
 
 place of variable terminations. These are important 
 
 change-, and render the language much easier of acqui- 
 sition. No uneducated man OOuld have written a line 
 
 of verse in Latin or Greek: accurate composition 
 
 could only he the result of rule and discipline, from 
 the comparative absence of variable termination- and in- 
 flexions, and the substitution of accent for quantity 
 in the English language, verse is frequently written. 
 
 and that of no ordinary merit, by those who poSSeSG 
 
 but a very -light knowledge of the grammatical struc- 
 ture of the language. 
 
 A knowledge of tin- English language, :( - if exists 
 at tin' presenl time, would therefore embrace a know- 
 ledge of the Anglo-Saxon t" a certain extent, .,| ( n, , I,
 
 NAMES IN COMMON USE. 41 
 
 and Latin, and such French terms as have established 
 themselves in our literature; the Anglo-Saxon terms 
 forming the bulk of the language, in about the pro- 
 portion of ^ths, and still constituting, in a very great 
 degree, the language of the common people. The pro- 
 gress of discovery is every day demanding new terms, 
 in addition to our vocabulary. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 NAMES OF THINGS IN COMMON USE GENERALLY ANGLO- 
 SAXON. 
 
 The names of things in common use are almost 
 universally Anglo-Saxon. The names of the days of 
 the week are still Pagan, and, with a slight difference in 
 orthography, are the same as they existed amongst our 
 forefathers before they were converted to Christianity. 
 Thus we have Sunday, the day sacred to the sun ; 
 MoondsLj, or Monday ; Tuisco-dny, or Tuesday ; 
 JVodens-day, or Wednesday ; Thors-day, or Thursday ; 
 Friga-day, or Friday ; Seater-day, or Saturday. 
 
 The idols, to which these days were sacred, were 
 all represented under appropriate emblems. The figures 
 are all given by Verstcgan, and described in the follow- 
 ing beautiful language : — 
 
 " IdoUofthe Sun. 
 
 " It was made, as here appeareth, like half a naked man, set 
 upon a piller, his luce, as it were, brightened with gleamcs of lire,
 
 12 N wn> OF rHINGS 
 
 and li'ilciin^ with both his arms Btretched out a burning wheele 
 apon 1 t, the wheele being to Bignify the course which li>' 
 
 runneth round :i I >« >n t the world, and the fiery gleames and bright- 
 . the light and heat wherewith he warmeth and comforteth the 
 tilings that live and grew." 
 
 • The IdoUofthe Moone. 
 
 " The form of tliis idoll Beemeth very Btrange and ridiculous ; for, 
 being made for a woman, Bhee hath a Bhort coat, lik<- :i man, but 
 more Btrange it is U with Buch twoli Hie 
 
 holding of a a ne, before her breast, may seem to have I 
 
 to expres8e what Bhe is, but the reason of her chapron, with Long 
 can--, as also her Bhort coat, and pyked Bhooes, I '1" not find." 
 
 '• The J <loIl Tuuco. 
 
 •• The next onto the idolls of the two mosl apparent planets, was 
 the idol! of Tuisco, the most ancient and peculiar l""I «>t" iill tl»«- 
 Germans, here described in lii- garment of a Bkinne, according to 
 tlir most antient manner of the < remans' clothing, < >i' this Tuisco, 
 the first and chiefest man of name among the Germans, and after 
 whom they do call themselvi luytchen, thai is, Duytches or 
 Dnytch-people, I have already spoken, in the first chapter, 
 
 how the 'lay, which yd amongst ui retaineth the nan 
 I -'lav. v. tally dedicated unto the adoration and service 
 
 of tlii> idoll." 
 
 'I hia Tuisco ia Baid i" have been the bob of Assei 
 the bod of Gomer, the bod of Japhet, :m<l to have been 
 the lir.-t who conducted the Germans: into Trritchland. 
 i'lii Netherlanders changing T into 1> have made if 
 Duytchlandj and we n<>w call 1 1 1 * - Duytch, Dutch. 
 Prom Tuisco we have Tuisco-day, or Tuesday. 
 
 The TdoQ Woden, 
 
 Woden n i the military god of the Saxoni 1 1 n , while 
   mi.- he lived amongsl them, a most valiant and victorii 
 prince, and captaine, and lii- idoll was, after bi
 
 IN COMMON USE. 43 
 
 prayed, and sacrificed unto, that, by his ayde and furtherance, they 
 might obtaine victory over their enemies ; which, when they had 
 obtained, they sacrificed unto him such prisoners, as in battell they 
 had taken. The name Woden signifies furious, and in like sence 
 we yet retaine it, saying, when one is in a great rage, that he is 
 wood, or taketh on as if he were wood;" from ivedan, to rage, 
 wod, mad. 
 
 Chaucer uses the word in this sense : 
 
 " He loved to drinke strong wine, as rede as blood, 
 Then wolde he speke and crie as he were wood." 
 
 An abjuration of Woden preceded baptism in Ger- 
 many, on conversion to Christianity. 
 
 " Ek forsakno diabole, ende Woden." 
 " I forsake the Devil, and Woden." 
 
 " The Idoll TJwr. 
 
 " This great reputed god, being of more estimation than many 
 of the rest of like sort, though as little worth as any of the 
 meanest of that rabble, was majestically placed in a very large and 
 spacious hall, and there set, as if he had reposed himself upon a 
 covered bed. 
 
 " On his head he wore a crowne of gold, and round in com] 
 above, and about the same, were set or fixed twelve bright, bur- 
 nished, golden Btars, and in his right hand he held a kingly scepter. 
 
 •' lie was of the seduced Pagans beleeved to be of most mar- 
 vellous power and might, yea, and that there were no people, 
 throughout the whole world, that were not subjected unto him, 
 ami did not owe him divine honour and service. 
 
 " That there was no puissance comparable to his ; his dominion, 
 of all others, most farthest extending itselfe, both in heaven and 
 earth. 
 
 "That in the air he govern. sd the winds, and the clouds; and 
 being displeased did cause lightening, thunder, and tempests, with 
 excessive raine, haile, and all ill weather. Bui being well pleased 
 with the adoration, sacrifice, and Bervice of his suppliants, he then
 
 -44 NAMES OF THINGS 
 
 bestowed upon them most fair and seasonable weather, and caused 
 corn abundantly to grow, as also all sorts of fruits, See., and kept 
 awaj from them the plague, and all other evil, and infections dis- 
 eases. Of the weekly day, which was dedicated to 1 * i — peculiar 
 
 rice, we yd retain the name of Thursday, the which the Di 
 
 and Bwediani doe yet call Thorsdny. Iii the Netherlands it is 
 
 called Tfonders-dagh, which being written according to "ur 
 
 liafa orthography is Thunders-day, whereby it may appear that 
 
 they antiently therein intended the day of the god of thunder; 
 
 ami in some of our <>ld Baxon 1 kes, 1 find it to have been written 
 
 Thunres-de S . as it seemeth, that the name of Thor, ot Tkur, 
 was abbreviated of '/'/mure, which we now write thunder." 
 
 In the North of England, the old term still remains 
 — ihunre t and not thunder. 
 
 " The Idol Friga. 
 
 " The idol Frigs represented both sexes. In her right hand 
 she held a drawne sword, and in her left a bow, signifying thereby 
 that women, ai well a-- men. should, in time of neede, be ready to 
 fight Borne honoured her for a god, and some for a goddesse, but 
 she was ordinarily taken, rather for a goddesse than a god, and 
 was reputed the giver of peace and plenty, as also the causer and 
 maker ol love and amity, and of the day of her special adora- 
 tion we yet retain the name of Friday : and as, in the order 
 of the 'lave- of the week, Thursday commeth betweene Wednesday 
 and Friday, so (as Olaus Magnus aoteth), in the septentrional 
 regions, where they made the idol! Thor sitting or lying, in a 
 
 great hall, upon a covered bed, Ihej also placed, on th ie side 
 
 of him. the i'l"ll Woden, and on the other side the idol! Friga ; 
 and her day our Saxon anceston called Friga-deag, from wh 
 our name oow of Friday in deed commeth.' 1 
 
 •' The Idol Sealer. 
 ■• The last, to make up the Dumber seven, was the idol] Beater, 
 fondly of some supposed t" lie Saturn. 
 
 " First, "ii a pillar WSJ pUced a pemvli. OB the -harpe prickled 
 
 backe whereof stood this idoll. He was les I 
 
 longhaire and a long beard, and was bare-headed and ted
 
 IN COMMON USE. 45 
 
 In his left hand he held up a wheele, and in his right he carried a 
 paile of water, wherein were flowers and fruites. His long coat 
 was girded unto him, with a towel of white linnen. His standing 
 on the sharpe finnes of this fish, was to signify, that the Saxons 
 for their serving him should passe stedfastly and without harm in 
 dangerous and difficult places. By the wheele was belikened the 
 knit unity and conjoined concord of the Saxons, and their con- 
 curring together in running one course. By the girdle, which 
 with the wind streamed from him, was signified the Saxon's free- 
 dome. By the paile with flowers and fruits was declared, that 
 with kindly rain he would nourish the earth, to bring forth much 
 fruites and flowers. And the day, unto which we yet give the 
 name of Sater-day, did first receive, by being unto him celebrated, 
 the same appellation." 
 
 Out of seven days in the week, three correspond, in 
 the origin of their names, with the Roman calendar : 
 Diessolis, Sun-day; Dies lunae, Moon-day; Dies Saturni, 
 Sat urn- day, Seater-day, Saturday. 
 
 We have, however, discarded all the Anglo-Saxon de- 
 signations of the months, and adopted the Roman. The 
 origin of some of the latter may be found in the Fasti of 
 Ovid. Different explanations are given of the names of 
 the Anglo-Saxon months, which probably arises from the 
 different periods, to which they have reference. In a 
 comparatively unsettled social system, different names 
 might also prevail in different districts, as in the social 
 partitions of hundreds, wapentakes, lathes, &c, already 
 noticed. 
 
 The Saxons had many other idols, which it is not 
 necessary to particularise, as no trace of them is left 
 in the language. Of the fearful reality, which entered 
 into the belief of our forefathers in these false gods, 
 we have a proof in the fact of their offering human 
 sacrifices to them for particular purposes. Harold the
 
 NAMES «-I ri..\. I 5, 
 
 First, King of Norway, sacrificed two of his own sons, 
 in order to obtain such a tempeel at ?-ea. as might dis- 
   the fleet of Elarald, King of Denmark. 
 There U a peculiarity, also, in our mode of reckoning 
 time, which has come down to us from our Saxon fore- 
 fathi We reckon time, in some cases, by nights, 
 
 and not by day-. We say, for instance, this day ><"//- 
 >i>i//if, that i-. thi- day seven nights. We also say, this 
 day, or to-morrow fortnight thai is, this day or to- 
 morrow fourteen nights. 
 
 ( HAP. XVIT. 
 
 \ \mi - 01 ia \' i -. 
 
 Tin. oamee of places arc generally t" be Looked tor in 
 Anglo-Saxon. In our researches here \\>- musl pay 
 little regard to the spelling. The sound, deducible from 
 the Letters, musl be our guide. It ha- already been 
 I, thai the word give i- spelled in thirteen differenl 
 wa Even Later than the time of Elizabeth there 
 
 was no settled orthography. The differenl members of 
 the same family would spell the family name in differenl 
 ways. Dr. Chandler, as quoted bj Lower, states thai 
 Waynflete had seventeen modi- of orthography, and 
 Dugdale in In- collections respecting the family of 
 Mainwaring of Peover, in Cheshire, has the extraor- 
 dinary number of 131 variations of thai Binglename. — 
 Lower.) Th< un< uncertainty prevailed in the nam
 
 NAMES OP PL AC ES 47 
 
 of places, and frequently they are only to be dimly per- 
 ceived. There are a few general terms, however, which 
 will always be found useful in discovering the origin of 
 the names of places. 
 
 The names of places ending in Chester, or caster, 
 denote, that a Roman camp has been situated there, 
 being derived from the Latin castra ; as, Silchester, in 
 Hants; Colnchester, in Essex; Lancaster, corrupted from 
 Lunecaster, a camp on the river Lune, as Colnchester is 
 a camp on the river Colne ; Winchester. The Roman 
 term was Vindonia. The V has been changed into W, 
 as in the case of vinum into wine. From this we get 
 Win, which with the addition of Chester, indicating a 
 camp, makes Winchester. 
 
 Burg, Burh, Byrig, Bury, a town, a fort, a city ; as, 
 Canterbury, Salisbury, Scarborough, a town on a rock 
 or Scar. Bourne, a brook ; as, Selbourne, Titchbourne, 
 Sherbourne, &c. " Ofer tha bur-nan Cedron," ov* 1 
 the brook Cedron, John, xviii. 1. Places, into the 
 names of which this word enters, under different mo- 
 difications, are situated on brook-. The secondary 
 signification of this word is a boundary, because streams 
 form the natural boundaries of a region. 
 
 Butts. When the bow formed the chief weapon in 
 war, many towns and villages had a field set apart for 
 practice, usually called the butts or butt-cloee ; the butt 
 being the object at which the arrow was discharged. 
 Hence we say, that a man is made the butt of the 
 company, that is, an object or mark for the discharge 
 of pointed jokes.
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 
 
 Bi/y hye, Danish, a town, or village, or habitation, aa 
 already observed 
 
 Bottom, a deep valley : a depression of the ground 
 Mr. Lower, on the authority of "an intelligent cor- 
 respondent," supposes the personal name Ranubottom to 
 he a corruption of the word Ronubottom. Ronu, in 
 Lancashire, signifies a kind of wild onion, which is 
 produced in two bottoms or dale-, near Bury, in Lan- 
 cashire, in great abundance; hence Ronubottomt cor- 
 rupted to Ranubottom, Humps is the term applied to 
 tin- filthj pasture-weed, in the northern counties. Ram, 
 however, enters into the composition ol* other names of 
 
 places; as,i&rmsdale in Hants, ffamsgate in Kent, where 
 the same etymology would not perhaps apply. 
 Cur, a marshy place, where alders grow. 
 
 Cam or Cairn, a Druidical heap of -tone-. 
 
 Coombi . Combe, a wooded valley. Coombe Sunt, a 
 
 wooded valley in Surrey. 
 
 Sylvan Combes.* 1 — Wordsworth. 
 
 Croft, a small inclosure. A poor man described pro- 
 
 \ erbially — 
 
 '• He had ne /•;/'. oe croft? 
 
 >.   . homestead or field. 
 
 Crou had reference to places, al which a cross was 
 erected, on the junction of different way.-, to point out 
 the proper road Crosses were in use in &f exioo for 
 this purpose, before th<- introduction <>f Christianity, 
 
 and are in UBS in China. V» 6 also :'pply tin- term to 
 
 road-, that ei ioh other. The erection of a cross, 
 
 in any particular locality, would be sufficient to give
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 49 
 
 a name to a place ; as, Waltham Cross, Charing Cross, 
 a cross having been erected at the village of Charing. 
 
 Crosby -Raccnsu-orth, that is, Cross-by Ravensworth ; 
 worth, according to Mr. Bosworth, signifying land, a 
 farm, street, public way, hall, palace. According to 
 Mr. Lower, some etymologists have given it the con- 
 venient signification of place ; if so, Crosby-Ravens- 
 worth would signify the Cross by the Raven's Place. 
 
 Dale, a valley; as, Kendal, a corruption of Kent dale ; 
 the river Kent running down the valley, and dividing 
 the town Kendal ; Ravenstonedale, the dale of the 
 Raven's Stone ; Sleddel, Slate-dale ; Kirby Lonsdale, 
 Kirk by Lune's dale. 
 
 Dene, Deane, and Den, have all the same origin, and 
 signify a valley or low place : — 
 
 " Ale denu byth gefylled." 
 
 " Every valley shall be filled." — Luke, iii. 5. 
 
 Singly, it is generally spelled deane or dean, as Dean, 
 in Hants, also Bramdean ; in composition, sometime s 
 den, as, Arden, Ardean, in Warwiekshire. 
 
 Donne, Don, Dun, Dane, and Down, as we now 
 write it, are all the same. The term signifies a hill, 
 stretching out in a gentle slope. Sand-banks in Hol- 
 land are called dunes. Dunkirk had its name from 
 its situation on the dunes or sand-banks. ^Ve still 
 have the term downs in the South Downs. 
 
 Fell, in the northern counties, a term applied to 
 mountains ; as, Stainmore, Stan, Stone-moor Fells. 
 
 Ford, the passage of a river, as, Oxford, Hartford; 
 not to be confounded with fort, as, Kochfort. 
 
 D
 
 50 N \M1.S OF PLACES. 
 
 Frith, from /return. In England, :i plain amidst 
 woods: in Scotland, a strait between two land-. 
 
 Grange, According to Lower, a large (arm, kept in 
 hand by a religions fraternity, with buildings, and oo- 
 
 nonally a chapel attached. Nicothu interprets it a 
 barn. It is usually applied to B lone (arm-house. 
 
 (7///. a Btony watercourse or ravine. 
 
 Ham, a very e. Hon termination to the names of 
 
 places, signifies home; in the Southern counties pro- 
 nounced hoiif , but in the North retaining mueh of 
 it- original pronunciation, as it' written /iniiit. The 
 original form still remains in ///////let. and in the various 
 compounds <>1 hum, as, DenAam, DedAam, EligAam, 
 Lang//'////, ami also in Southampton or SouthAam-ton, 
 South-home-town, compared with Winchester, the seal 
 
 of some of the Anglo-Saxon king-, or compared with 
 England at large; bo also ffamtunscire abbreviated to 
 Hampshire. In Swedish, it is written//'///.- Danish, 
 hiem; German, fieim, from h<tm<n, to cover; originally 
 aifying a place of shelter. 
 
 Hatch, a flood-gate, BUch a- used in the irrigation of 
 meadow.-, a gate, or door, on :i game-warren. 
 
 Hide, as much land as one plough can plough, in a 
 \ ear, w ith one team. 
 
 Hough, a green plof in a \ all. 
 
 H ""•, according to Lye and Bosworth, a mountain; 
 
 from the Anglo-Saxon h,»r. 
 
 Holm, plain grassy ground, by the lide of a river. 
 
 Unit, a hanging wood, a gHH 
 
 " Abraham plantode aim.' bolt." - G \i. -'i.'t.
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 51 
 
 Holt-hana, a wood-cock. 
 
 Hurst, or Hyrst, a wood ; as, Tycehwst, Crowhurst, 
 Hanghurst, Yew hurst 
 
 Ing, a meadow, field, tract of land ; as, Reading, Red- 
 ing, Birmingham, Brooin-^-ham or home, Godalming, 
 Basing: Danish, Anglo-Saxon, and German. 
 
 Knoll, the top of a hill. 
 
 Lee, leigh, lea, lye, all have the same signification, and 
 denote pasture-ground. We say pasture-ley, clover-lea, 
 sainfoin-lea. It meets us under various combinations ; 
 as, Bramley, Bramble-ley, Oakley, Oak-ley, Bromley, 
 Broom-ley, Nutley, Nut-ley. This word so frequently 
 forms a surname in Cheshire, that Mr. Lower, on the 
 authority of a correspondent, gives the following pro- 
 verb — 
 
 " As many Leighs as fleas, Massies as asses, and Davenports as 
 dogs' tails." 
 
 Ness, a promontory projecting like a nose. 
 
 Pen, the top of a hill. British. 
 
 Slack, a depression between two hills ; the form as- 
 sumed by a slack rope. 
 
 Scar, a word common in the North, to denote a 
 cra ggy eminence or precipice. Scarborough, a town 
 upon a scar. 
 
 Shaw, a small wood or coppice; applied often to 
 signify a broad hedge-row. 
 
 Shot, a keep. ' 
 
 Slow, slough, a miry place. 
 
 Spital. Spital Inn, on the wildest part of Stainmore 
 Fells : an abbreviation of hospital, a place for the rcccp- 
 
 D 2
 
 52 N LME8 OF PI \> I.-. 
 
 tion of Btrangers. Hospitium, Lat. Such a place was 
 necessary i'<>r the shelter of travellers in thai stormy 
 
 s d, Dutch, Stad, a station. Homestead. 
 Strand, the bank <>f;i river. as the Strand in London. 
 Staple, as Barnstable, Barnstaple, a place, a mart for 
 merchandise, where i_ r " ode were placed under the King's 
 pie. See « Halle of John Hall," by the II. \. Mr. 
 
 l)..ke. 
 
 .sVe/,, signifies in itself a place, and is generally com- 
 bined with some other description, or distinctive word: 
 
 as W Istock, Wode-etoc, a woody place. Laverstoke, 
 
 Alverstoke, Basingstoke. 
 
 In the word Basingstoke we have stoke as a generic 
 term, and Basing as a distinctive term. I'«\ Basing- 
 stoke is meant a place Qear Basing; as, in other oa 
 
 it i- -aid Stuke-hy -Clare, Stoke-bj -\a viand. So, in 
 
 this case, it mighl have been said, Stoke-by-Basing, or 
 Basingstoke. Basing might perhaps derive it- name 
 tV- .in Baize-Ing, or Baize Meadow, supposing that p 
 ticular kind of cloth t<> have been exposed there. But 
 the word Baring occurs, as a whole term, in Joshua \ii. 
 21. in th>- sense of cloak or garment, as " Ee geeeah, 
 wnrm-readne basing, w I - >u a shell-fish-reddened cloak. 
 i purple cloak, dyed from the shell-fish, a Babylonish 
 garment, wurm signifying a shell-fish, the fish, from 
 which the celebrated purple of old ua- obtained. 
 
 Wurni-readne thread, a -earl, t thread. 
 
 Thorp, a village; a name pn vailing in various parts 
 • ■I the country, sometimes simply, sometimes with a 
 distinctive addition ; a- Bishope-fAorp, Mil-Morp, bj me-
 
 NAMES OF PLACES. 53 
 
 tathcsis Milthrop. Crackenthorp, by the same change 
 Crackenthrop. A. S. thorp, Dutch dorp, Ger. dorf, 
 Swedish and Danish torp, Fris. therp. We need not 
 be surprised that this word should have established 
 itself over various parts of England, as it prevailed in 
 all the countries of our progenitors. 
 
 Thioaite, used in the North, supposed to be derived 
 from the Dutch lncoit, a pasture. 
 
 Tor, a rock, having a castellated form. In this sense 
 it occurs in Derbyshire, where we meet with so many 
 heights having the form of towers, or castles. This word 
 occurs in fifteen different languages in the same sense, 
 though with variations in spelling. Turris in Latin, in 
 English tower. 
 
 Ton, tun, a garden, or small inclosure, a town, a 
 number of habitations, within prescribed limits. Wyrt- 
 tun, a garden of worts, or herbs. Luke xiii. 19. 
 
 Wick, wich. Dan. vig, and Swedish vig, a bay, 
 Dutch wyk. A creek formed by the curve of a river, a 
 station or place of retreat. Its meaning will therefore 
 vary with attendant circumstances ; as A\n-wick, a dwell- 
 ing on the Aln ; Green-WHC, or wich, the green village ; 
 Gypes-?r/c, Ips-wich, the curve of the river Gipping; 
 Nor-wich, nortli village ; Sand-wick, sand village ; Ifere- 
 wic, Her-wic, the army station Ilar-w ich, from here, 
 an army ; Ing-here, In-hcrc, native troops ; Ut-herc, 
 Out-here, foreign troops ; Gangcnd-here, walking troops, 
 infantry ; Ridendc-here, riding troops, cavalry. 
 
 » 3
 
 54 
 
 PART II. 
 
 PHILOLOGICAL. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ON THE GENIUS AND CHARACTEB OF I BE 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Till. ri:i\CIPLES OH will' ii i \s>.\ LOSS ai:i rOBMXD. 
 
 On looking at a landscape, diversified as it may be 
 by trees and Bhrubs, ire are ool at the lir.-t impulse 
 disposed to go back in our researches, and to find fault 
 with it -imply because it may not consist of purely 
 indigenous productions. The poplar of Ontario or of 
 Lombardy, the oak of Africa, the cypress of the East, 
 
 the cedar of Leba i, bj the peculiarities of their 
 
 .\ ill and foliage when mixed with the natives of 
 the forest, may nil tend to produce one general and 
 harmonious effect To the i \ e of ih<- savage, <>r half-civil- 
 ised man, these additional ornaments were nol wanted | 
 hut thi uses, i he conveniences, and the taste of a 
 more refined age have adopted them, and thei con- 
 tinue to flourish in a ^   • i I congenial with their habits
 
 FORMATION OF LANGUAGES. 55 
 
 and properties. It is just so with language. All 
 languages must originally have been scanty ; in the 
 first place, simply expressive of visible objects. Gram- 
 matical inflexions, philosophical principles, and subtle 
 distinctions, must have been unknown. Language 
 would not outstrip the wants of a community. Words 
 would not be invented to express things, which did not 
 visibly exist, or combinations of ideas, which the human 
 mind had not yet formed. We must first, therefore, con- 
 template language in its skeleton condition, imperfectly 
 jointed, uncovered with the softer integuments, not 
 yet moulded into symmetry and just proportions, not 
 yet graced by the poet's fancy, warmed by the patriot's 
 ardour, enriched from the vast stores of nature and 
 of science, or regulated by logical and grammatical 
 criticism. If the word tree, or any equivalent term, 
 expressed that vegetable production which we now 
 understand by the term tree, a repetition of the word 
 (tree, tree, tree) would express a forest, till some ar- 
 bitrary word should be invented expressive of a number 
 of trees, as a whole. The Australian savage, sent 
 liack along the trail to recover a young man, who had 
 been left to perish in the bush, in giving an account of 
 his journey does not say that he proceeded so many 
 hours along the sea-shore, and so many hours through 
 the wood; but he travelled by the sea, by the sea, by 
 the sea, or through the wood, through the wood, on tin 
 plain, on the plain, leaving you to form an opinion of 
 the extent of each region, over which he travelled, by 
 the number of repetitions; the whole forming a simple 
 and interesting topographical description by this child 
 
 D i
 
 ■"»<; PRIM i plea on m nit ii 
 
 of the wilderness. Ajb mankind advanced in civilisa* 
 tion, convenience would dictate abbreviation, and the 
 adoption of arbitrary forms of speech; and language 
 would thus gradually become more artificial A- new 
 objects and new combinations <>l ideas presented them- 
 selves, new term- would be invented : and tin- Lanxrus 
 would thus become more copious and more connected. 
 The language <>!' a pastoral people would be confined to 
 the objects, with which they were surrounded : but if this 
 people, by conquest or any other cause, Bhould become 
 identified with a maritime people, the common langui 
 would be a mixture of both, hereafter to be modified 
 and amalgamated by time and circumstances. The 
 language of every people would thus be strongly tinc- 
 tured by the nature of the objects, with which they 
 wen- surrounded, [fthey were conversant with clouds 
 and storms, and those objects, which present the features 
 
 Of a rude and har.-h -iiMiiuit v, the language WOuld 
 
 be formed in accordance with those objects. If, on 
 the other hand, nature u:i> presented under a more 
 lovely aspect, with sunny skies and green and flowery 
 
 \alli y -. 
 
 \n'l rammer 
 B iuthern winds," 
 
 the language of the people would soon harmonise 
 with these gentler -|>ini- of nature. In obedience 
 to this principle, we find the Sclavonic, German, 
 and Scandinavian langua abounding in conso- 
 
 nants, so clustered and condensed, as i" be difficult 
 of enunciation, except t<> a native ; tic- Greek, Latin.
 
 LANGUAGES ARE FORMED. 57 
 
 and Italian, the Spanish and Portuguese, more flexible ; 
 the English and French holding a middle rank. Lan- 
 guages are thus subject to modification by climate and 
 circumstances. The Attic dialect was softer than the 
 Doric, or mountain Greek. The Ionic, the offspring 
 of the voluptuous regions of Asia Minor, was softer, 
 and more sinuous, than the Attic. Many of the South- 
 Sea Islands enjoy a heavenly climate, and are clothed 
 with the most beautiful natural vegetation. The lan- 
 guage is moulded accordingly ; and whole chapters of 
 the New Testament, translated into some of these lan- 
 guages, do not possess one word ending with a con- 
 sonant, except the proper names of the originals. The 
 English language, as spoken in the North of England, 
 is much harsher, and that by a gradual progression, 
 than that spoken in the Southern districts ; and the 
 mountainous regions of the North present us with a 
 still ruder and harsher dialect than the plains. The 
 republic of Tlascala was situated in the high volcanic 
 regions between Mexico and Vera Cruz. The Tlas- 
 calans were a race of hardy and independent moun- 
 taineers. They belonged to the same great family as 
 the Aztecs: they came on the great table-land of 
 Mexico about the same time. But " the Tlascalan 
 tongue," says the national historian, "simple as beseemed 
 that of a mountain-region, was rough compared with 
 the polished Tezucan, or the popular Aztec dialect, and 
 therefore not so well fitted for composition." * 
 
 In Norfolk and Suffolk the English language ie 
 
 * Prescott's Conquest of Mexico. 
 
 D 5
 
 58 1   K I N , 1ILES ON WHICH 
 
 spoken with :i wry peculiar, and an almost Loimitable, 
 attenuated whine. In Devonshire it is spoken with a 
 splutt* r. bb if the tongue were too large for the month, 
 and the organs of articulation generally and incon- 
 veniently turgid. These organs in man arc in Tact of 
 the most delicate construction, and are affected by the 
 most trifling circumstances. To the same effect is the 
 opinion of Benselius, for which he quotes Olaus Bori- 
 chiuS) in his Synopsis Universes Philologies, page 30, 
 and quoted by Parsons in his " Remains of Japhet:" — 
 
 "Instruments ordinaria (loquendi) com plan shit, pulmonee, 
 thorax, arteria, trachea, &&, fieri non potest, at (quin) hex ipsa 
 climatis variatione afficiantur, alibi ez frigore, alibi ex calore, 
 humore, Biccitan , :ili i-> j u<   l<>o.ruin j .rc.| iii.t ;it ii nj-- ft in peregrini- 
 tatem quandam degenerent. Diversitatis causa Don reside! in 
 Bolis parentibus, sed et in cibo, potu, acre, aquis, el locis, quod 
 crassiora base omnia obtusiorea plenunque reddanl sensus, lia- 
 betiora organa, impeditiorem Linguam, subtiliora, lii- contraria. 
 Iliii'- ezperimor populoe climatibus septemtrionis Bubjectos, ad 
 duriusculas, tardea, atqne asperas inclinare dialei toi : ez ■>]'|»'-ii<>. 
 am. 'in, alios, qui in meridiem vergunt, id molliora atque celeriora 
 loquendi genera magu propenso 
 
 Thai 1-. 
 
 "Tin- organs of speech being many, a- the lungs, thorax, 
 
 trachea, &c, it is impossible thai they should nol be affected by 
 
 tip' difference '>i climate, ami degenerate into some corruption ; in 
 
 some places from heat, in others from cold, moisture, dryness, and 
 
 other peculiarities "i situation. The cause "i tlii- diversity is nol 
 
 in parents alone, bul in meat, drink, water, and situation; for 
 
 when all tip—- are "t a more dense nature, they for tin' mosl pan 
 
 duller, the organs heavier, and the tongue more 
 
 ; w 1 1 < - 1 1 more refined, they produce contrary effects. II. 
 
 we find thai those people who are subjected i" the influenced "i 
 
 oorthern climates, incline !•> liar. I. slow, an. I rough dialects; and, 
 
 ..ii the other hand, thai others, «li" the south, have 
 
 to a it. r. and a more rapid way of speaking.''
 
 LANGUAGES ARE FORMED. 59 
 
 The impress given in early life to the organs of utter- 
 ance by these causes can never be totally obliterated. 
 Pain, pleasure, grief, joy, languor, energy, every bodily 
 and mental affection and modification, has its peculiar 
 and appropriate expression. The air we breathe, and 
 the temperature, in which we live, and the objects, with 
 which we are surrounded, acting from day to day upon 
 body and mind, necessarily produce an effect upon the 
 organs of utterance, and mould them for harsher or 
 softer expression. To imagine the daring sea-kings of 
 Scandinavia, cradled on the ocean and rocked by the 
 storm, speaking in melting accents adapted to the 
 Lydian lute, would be a monstrous and an unnatural 
 supposition : it would be as much out of place as if 
 Prometheus, riveted to the bleak Scythian rock, and 
 defying the vengeance of Jove, should express him- 
 self in the liquid melody of an Anacreontic love-song. 
 Whatever, therefore, might be the scanty vocabulary of 
 the early progenitors of mankind, it is obvious that it 
 would be amplified in some cases, and changed in 
 others, and that generally it would be modified in sub- 
 stance, form, and enunciation by the influences of ex- 
 ternal circumstances. 
 
 " To form a just notion of the formation of language," says Mr. 
 Ingram, " wc must consider man in the infancy of society, and in 
 the infancy of life. We must divest him of his eight parts of 
 speech, and hear him deliver his thoughts with little more assist- 
 ance than that of a noun and a verb only. We must tear from 
 him, however reluctantly, that gaudy plumage, those borrowed 
 wings, ema irrepoivra, composed of soft and beautiful feathers, 
 hermetically adjusted, by which he has been enabled to BOOT with 
 
 triumphant glory to the highest regions of human fancy. We 
 
 D 6
 
 GO i "KM \ lIoN <>i LANG1 LQ] 9. 
 
 must behold him   ]><»t defenceless creature, surrounded bj wants 
 which he struggles to express, and agitated bj sensations which he 
 
 labours to < imunicate. We shall then see how various causes 
 
 of a local and temporary nature hare influenced 1*1— ideas, and tl»- 
 Uuuruaee in which he has embodied them." 
 
 Thus, then, the language of a mere pastoral people 
 would differ widely From thai of a maritime people; 
 thai «»!' the mountaineer from thai of the inhabitanl ol 
 the plain; that of the wanderer of the burning deaerl 
 from that of the rude ami hanly barbarian <>t' tin cold, 
 dark, and damp German forest Language being the 
 spontaneous result of human organisation, wouldevery- 
 where he influenced hy geographical position. The 
 
 wants <»f a people merely pastoral would he lew, and 
 
 sily expressed ; hut a people whose territories mighl 
 branch oul into mountain, and plain, and forest, who 
 mighl have their flocks, and herds, and corn-fields, and 
 vineyards, their rivers, and lakes, and seas, and min 
 and minerals, and who might be dairj establishing 
 some interchange of productions with other communi- 
 ties, more or less remote, would hi' constantly incr< 
 i i » lt their stock of words by the introduction of new 
 commodities, and the adoption of their concuxTenl 
 name-. The language would thus not i .ill \- become 
 more copious, hut nmiv polished, divested of it- aspe- 
 rities, worn down and rounded by use, by collision, and 
 attrition, 1 i 1^ « • pebbles on the sea-shore, tossed by ev< rj 
 returning tide.
 
 LANGUAGE OF GREECE. 61 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THE LANGUAGE OP GREECE. 
 
 Hence, from the position of Greece, for example, we 
 should expect to find a language at once copious and 
 polished. Situated in the most favoured latitude, and 
 enjoying a beautiful climate — intersected by bays and 
 creeks, and possessing an extraordinary extent of sea- 
 coast, compared with her area — broken into great 
 diversities of surface — the sublimities of Olympus and 
 Pindus contrasting with the fens of Bocotia, — Greece 
 enjoyed every variety of natural scenery. Divided 
 again into various independent communities, each fol- 
 lowing the bent of its own policy, and influenced by 
 its own peculiar locality, she presents us with the 
 hardy mountaineer, the ponderous Tlieban, the volatile 
 and subtle Athenian, the luxurious Corinthian, and the 
 stern and frugal Spartan — in fact, with every variety 
 of human character. Her seas were studded with the 
 most beautiful islands, yielding the choicest gifts of na- 
 ture ; whilst she held an easy intercourse with the whole 
 southern coast of Europe, the northern coast of Africa, 
 and the soft and luxurious regions of Asia Minor. She 
 possessed a copious mythology, derivative and invented 
 — gods, and goddesses, and demigods, and nymphs, and 
 fawns, and satyrs, all favourable to the spirit of pot-try ; 
 while from all the scattered Grecian communities, and 
 their colonial dependencies, the most enterprising spirits 
 were collected periodically into one focus, at the < )lym- 
 pian and Pythian games. There they joined in bodily
 
 LANGUAGE OF GREECE. 
 
 ami mental conflict, not for filthy hags of gold, hut for 
 the simple olive crown, which, entwined round the 
 brows of the victor, made him at once the proudest 
 and the happieel man on earth. The Greek language 
 is therefore precisely what from the preceding prin- 
 ciples we ahould have expected — copious, as haying 
 been fed from various sources; subtle and complicated, 
 and intriguing, according to the genius of the people; 
 and harmonious, as haying received the last degree of 
 
 cultivation. 
 
 From the facility, with which it admit- of composi- 
 tion of noun with noun, and preposition with other 
 parts of speech, of combinations under the mosl diver- 
 sified aspects, it is capable of exprc.-.-iiiLr the most 
 delicate shades of meaning, the nicr.-t points <»f phy- 
 sical and metaphysical distinctions, impalpable to the 
 touch of ruder Bpeech. In the plenitude of its great- 
 ness, and the age of its purity, it was the language of 
 philosophy and science, of history, poetry, and oratory, 
 
 — of tin- Bublimesl productions of human genius. It 
 
 enters greatly into the composition of mosl European 
 languages. It is almosl exclusively the language of our 
 sciences; and so il will continue to be, till man -hall 
 again retrograde to the food of the beech-mast, and 
 the shelter of the wigwam. It is fortunate for man- 
 kind tliat a Ian should thui <\i-t, \\ hich IS the 
 
 common property of all, and peculiar to none: thai it 
 should enter, more or less, into the constitution of the 
 language of all civilised nations ; and thai the nomen- 
 clature of the mo-t important sciences, in which man- 
 kind have been engaged, should possess an identity
 
 LANGUAGE OF GREECE. 63 
 
 quite independent of a barbarous and a contracted pro- 
 vincialism. Take, for instance, the science of Geology, 
 which, half a century ago, had no word to express its 
 meaning, and yet it has already arrived at such a 
 pitch of copiousness and variety in its Grecian nomen- 
 clature, as to require a distinct glossary. We have 
 here a science springing up 2000 years after the Greek 
 language was spoken in its purity, and yet that lan- 
 guage, from its extraordinary capabilities of combina- 
 tion, has been adopted, as if it were a matter of course, 
 and by general consent, to express the varied con- 
 ditions of the organic and inorganic matter of ages 
 past and gone, and lost in the darkness of antiquity. 
 We need not, therefore, be surprised that a language 
 found so convenient in expressing the terms of philo- 
 sophy, of science, and of arts, should be adopted, not 
 only in those particular departments, but that it should 
 also enter materially into the composition of all lan- 
 guages, wherever Grecian literature has been culti- 
 vated. Yet Greek in its construction is not a practical 
 every-day language. It is the language of the scholar 
 rather than the language of the common people : it never 
 could be the language of an ordinary people. The 
 incalculable variety of its terminations, its lingular, 
 dual, and plural numbers, its declensions and cases, its 
 capricious irregularities, its arbitrary genders, its verb- 
 active, passive, and middle, barytons, contracted, end- 
 ing in fxi, and anomalous, many of them with their 
 participial terminations running through about twelve 
 hundred Protean changes and complexities, render it a 
 matter of astonishment that it Bhould ever have been
 
 64 LNGLO-flAXON LANG! LGE. 
 
 the spoken language of u mixed community. With 
 tour variations only in the English regular verb, and 
 with a pronoun far more simple, than that of the 
 Greek language, we seldom take up a book, even of 
 the la.-t century, without perpetually meeting with a 
 confusion of the preterite tense of the verb with the 
 passive participle, and of the nominative with the objec- 
 tive case of tli»- pronoun, — and tlii-. tun, amongst the 
 standard authors of English Literature, The frequent 
 occurrence "t 3uch errors constitutes them errors of 
 ignorance, ami not of inadvertence. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Till AN.. I 0-8 Wo\ I AV.I A.. I . 
 
 In tin formation <<\' the Greek language \\. the 
 
 principles here laid down fully borne out. It is the 
 language of an acute and ingenious people, framed, 
 enriched, polished, ami embellished under peculiar cir- 
 cumstances. 'Ill" language of our continental fore- 
 fathers was framed under circumstances the very re- 
 y.m It was the language of fierce and untamed bar- 
 
 barians, hemmed in bj tribes as barbarous as themseli 
 .lit oil' from foreign intercourse, or roving a- sea-woh 
 only to plunder and destroy. It was the language of 
 a people conversant only with gloom) forests and 
 itormy seas, and naturally prone to taciturnity: we 
 may therefore expect a language harsh and mono- 
 syllabic. ./ priori, we should It led to luppose that
 
 MONOSYLLABIC CHARACTER OF ENGLISH. 65 
 
 such would be the character of the Anglo-Saxon lan- 
 guage. Such it was, — a vigorous stock, destined to 
 receive the grafts of more sunny and softer climes, to 
 throw out its branches far and wide, and to blossom and 
 bear abundant fruit. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 MONOSYLLABIC CHARACTER OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 In the simple specimens of our written language, 
 and in common colloquial intercourse, it is computed 
 that the average of Anglo-Saxon words compared with 
 those of foreign origin, is as 15 to 5; and Dr. Hicks has 
 observed, that of 58 words, of which the Lord's Prayer 
 consists, 55 are derived from the Anglo-Saxon. In 
 the opening of the Gospel of St. John the proportion 
 is perhaps greater; and in the first sentence of Paradise 
 Lost, out of 41 consecutive words, there arc but 7 
 not of Saxon origin. 
 
 As a principle in the construction of language, we 
 can see no reason why the simple name of a thing 
 should not be expressed by a monosyllable, as tree, 
 except when the term is expressive of the thing itself, 
 as chatterer ; or why the action of a verb should not 
 be expressed in the same way, nsjly, riot, except when 
 the sound is an index to the sense, as to babble, to 
 prattle. Xow this monosyllabic principle is peculiarly 
 characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon language. In this 
 respect it differs widely from the Greek and Latin.
 
 66 
 
 MONOSYLLABIC CHARACTER 
 
 A few comparisons with the Latin of terms in common 
 use will fully establish tlii> point. Take, for instance, 
 the parts of the human body : — 
 
 EngUih. 
 
 II ,1. 
 Skull, 
 Hair, 
 Ear, 
 Ton. 
 Cheek, 
 8< dp, 
 B tin, 
 
 I 
 
 N ee, 
 Lip, 
 
 Chin. 
 
 \ ck, 
 B ast, 
 
 I. tin 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Inglish 
 
 Caput. 
 
 I [and, 
 
 Cranium. 
 
 Thumb, 
 
 Cruris. 
 
 Hip, 
 
 Auris. 
 
 Kiiiv. 
 
 Lingua. 
 
 Skin, 
 
 ( lena. 
 
 Throat) 
 
 Pericranium. 
 
 Back, 
 
 1 brum. 
 
 Ann, 
 
 ( >cul 
 
 Finger, 
 
 18. 
 
 Nail, 
 
 Labrum. 
 
 Thigh, 
 
 Mentum. 
 
 1 oe, 
 
 Cen be. 
 
 i:i l. 
 
 Pectus. 
 
 \ i\ e, 
 
 Pulmo. 
 
 39. 
 
 / iittn 
 
 Manus. 
 
 Pollex. 
 Coxendix. 
 
 1 nu. 
 Cutis. 
 Guttur. 
 i rum. 
 Lacerl a 
 Digitus. 
 Unguis. 
 I 1 1 ur. 
 1 digitus pedis, 
 Sanguis. 
 Nen us. 
 70. 
 
 Eye-brow, eye-lid, nostrils, ar impound words from 
 
 monosyllabic roots; the lasl derived from nose, and 
 thyrlian, to bore: thyrl-hus signifies a turner's shop, 
 oeedle-thyrel, a needle's eye, as In Mark LO. 28. 
 Take the senses : — 
 
 li$h. 
 
 / it in. 
 
 'ah. 
 
 / ntin 
 
 Bight, 
 
 Vi-u>. 
 
 Smell, 
 
 Olfactus. 
 
 Hearing, 
 
 AuditUS. 
 
 Taste, 
 
 ( rUStUS. 
 
 Tom h, 
 
 1 
 
 
 IS 
 
 litfti tttilti s 
 
 F.ngltth 
 
 1 .ame, 
 
 / .//hi 
 ( laud 
 
 ik, 
 
 11. 
 
 / .ii/m 
 
 Surd us. 
 
 Blind, 
 
 1 
 
 1 >uinl>, 
 
 Mutui 
 
 
 
 1 

 
 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 67 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 English . 
 
 Latin. 
 
 English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Dog, 
 
 Canis. 
 
 Cat, 
 
 Felis. 
 
 Rat, 
 
 Sorex. 
 
 Horse, 
 
 Equus. 
 
 Cow, 
 
 Vacca. 
 
 Pig, 
 
 Porcus. 
 
 Hen, 
 
 Gallina. 
 
 Duck, 
 
 Anas. 
 
 Goose, 
 
 Anser. 
 
 Bull, 
 
 Taurus. 
 
 
 
 10. 
 
 21 
 
 Elements and their Properties. 
 
 English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 English . 
 
 Latin 
 
 Fire, 
 
 Ignis. 
 
 Earth, 
 
 Terra. 
 
 Air, 
 
 Aer. 
 
 Clouds, 
 
 Nubes. 
 
 Water, 
 
 Aqua. 
 
 Bail, 
 
 Grando. 
 
 Rain, 
 
 Pluvia, 
 
 Frost, 
 
 Gelu. 
 
 Storm, 
 
 Procella. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Ventus. 
 
 Thaw, 
 
 Glaciei solutio. 
 
 Cold, 
 
 Frigus. 
 
 Heat, 
 
 Fervor. 
 
 14. 
 
 35 
 
 Hence it appears that in the name of certain things 
 constantly before us, or in common use, the Latin lan- 
 guage requires 146 syllables to express that, which is 
 expressed in English by 63. 
 
 The same monosyllabic principle is carried out in the 
 construction of our verbs. Take the exercise of our 
 faculties — to see, hear, tiiste, touch, smell — the exer- 
 cises of the body — to walk, run, leap, jump, hop, skip, 
 trip : in the water we swim, float, dive, sink, drown ; 
 in the air we soar, fly. With the hand in gentle 
 action, we touch, stroke, smoothe — in doubtful, we 
 strike, smite, pinch — in violent, we thump, bang, gripe, 
 fell, cuff. The fire is said to burn, glow, parch, dry, 
 scorch, blast, scathe. Water is said to flow, glide, run,
 
 68 MONOSYLLABIC < II LB \< ill: 
 
 roll, lash, dash, splash, gosh, rash, scathe, loam. To 
 mourn, sigh, groan, weep, moan, laugh, smile, smirk, 
 express affections of the mind. In the Bky we have 
 6un, moon, and stars. The earth yields grass, corn, 
 hay, straw, wheat, rye, oat.-. ( )ur ordinary food i- 
 bread, fowl, flesh, fish; our fuel coal, wood, peat, turf. 
 These, ami such like words as these, form the Btaple of 
 the English language, and more particularly of English 
 poetry. The language even of a semi-barbarous people 
 
 has more force and lire than the Language of a mincing 
 and fastidious refinement. The pompous march of 
 blank verse admits the accompaniment of rolling and 
 diffusive expressions; but energy, and condensation, 
 and tenderness must be Bought for in the pithy, mono- 
 syllabic Saxon of our forefathers. It would be easj 
 to multiply examples on these separate points; but it is 
 the monosyllabic principle, which is at present the 
 chief object of illustration; and under this principle we 
 find some of the most condensed and some of the 
 tenderesl passages in the English langui Take the 
 
 journey of the fallen Angels from Milton: — 
 
 \.\ win i B. 
 
 " Through many :i dark and dreary rale 
 'I'll. \ passed, ami many o region dolorous, 
 1 1 i- many a frozen, many   fiery Alp, 
 /,' ' . hogty din-, and thadet of death, — 
 
 A universe of death. 11 
 
 Where i-i the language that in the Bame number of 
 word- can present such a picture of — 
 
 " 'I'll' mil-. :il. \ .1-1, unbounded deep 
 ( >i' horrible confusion ! "
 
 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 69 
 
 " That is a step 
 On which I must fall down, or else o'erleap, 
 For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires, 
 Let not light see my black and deep desires. 
 The eye winks at the hand. Yet let that be 
 "Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see." 
 
 Shakspeahe's Macbeth. 
 
 Here we have fifty-two words, and but two dissyl- 
 lables, one of the two a compound Anglo-Saxon word, 
 o'erleap ; the other a derivative from the Latin, desire. 
 
 " Here lay Duncan, 
 Bis silver skin laced with his golden blood, 
 And his gasKd stabs looked like a breech in nature 
 For ruin's wasteful entrance. There the murderers 
 Steeped in the colours of their trade, their daggers 
 Unmannerly breeched with gore." Macbeth. 
 
 The silver skin laced with blood, the gashed stabs, the 
 murderers steeped in the colours of their trade, and 
 the dao-o-ers breeched ; that is, covered to the very hilt 
 
 CO * 
 
 with gore, place the mangled body of Duncan and his 
 blood-stained murderers before us in all their fearful 
 
 realities. 
 
 " And by his bloody side 
 
 The noble Earl of Suflblk also lies. 
 
 Suffolk first died, and York, all haggled over, 
 
 Comes to him, where in gore he lay insteeped, 
 
 And takes him by the beard, kisses the gashes 
 
 That bloodily did yawn upon his face." Henry V. 
 
 The field of battle also " sups full of horrors : " — 
 
 " Tor many of our princes, woe the while ! 
 Lie drowrid and soak'd in mercenary b/<><.</." 
 
 "Their wounded Bteeds 
 Fret fetlock deep in gore, and with foild rage, 
 Yerk out their armed heels at their dead mast< 
 Killing them twice." u ' nr y v -
 
 70 KONOSTLLABft CHARACTEB 
 
 Again: 
 
 H Pea el P eel 
 
 Do-t thou not see my baby nt my breast, 
 That tuck* tin nurae to Bleep." 
 
 Sb ikbpi \hi .'- < teopatro. 
 
 The gentle, monosyllabic language, and the tendt tih •— 
 of the imagery in whicb Cleopatra lure describee the 
 baby at her breast, the fatal asp in her bosom, con- 
 trasted with the deadlinese of purpose, makes the 
 very blood run cold. 
 
 Take the old man's song from Wordsworth, a beau- 
 tiful Bpecimen of smoothness, of versification, and sim- 
 plicity of language. lie is supposed to be reclining 
 by the side of a fountain on a Bummer's day. 
 
 •• Down to the Tale the water steers . 
 1 !n\v merrily it 
 'Twill murmur on a thousand years, 
 And flow ai now it il   •%% s. 
 
 And here, on this delightful day, 
 
 I iinmt choose, but think, 
 
 Bow oft a \ igorous man 1 lay 
 I : ide this fountain-brink. 
 
 u re dim with «liil*li~}i tears, 
 
 M ) bear! i idlj stirr'd, 
 I iund is in my ears 
 
 \\ bich in • I beard. 
 
 'Mm- {ares it ill in our decaj . 
 And yel the w iser mind 
 w bat it taki 
 
 'Mian what it !■ .i\   - behind.
 
 OF THE ENGLISn LANGUAGE. 71 
 
 The blackbird in the summer trees, 
 
 The lark upon the hill, 
 Let loose their carols when they please, 
 
 Are quiet when they will. 
 
 With nature never do they rage 
 
 A foolish strife ; they see 
 A happy youth, and their old age 
 
 Is beautiful and free. 
 
 But we are press'd by heavy laws, 
 
 And often glad no more : 
 We wear a face of joy, because 
 
 We have been glad of yore. 
 
 If there be one who need bemoan 
 
 His kindred laid in earth, 
 The household hearts that were his own, 
 
 It is the man of mirth." 
 
 Graceful, tender, thoughtful, melancholy. Contrast 
 this with the animated apostrophe of the same author 
 to Toussaint. 
 
 " Toussaint ! the most unhappy man of men ! 
 Whether the whistling rustic bend his plough, 
 Within thy hearing, or thy head be now 
 Pillow'd in some deep dungeon's earless den. 
 O miserable chieftain ! where and when 
 Wilt thou find patience ? Yet die not : do thou 
 Wear rather in thy bonds a cheerful brow, 
 Though fall'n thyself, never to rise again. 
 Live and take comfort. Thou hast left behind 
 Powers that will work for thee, air, earth, and skies 
 There's not a breathing of a common wind 
 That will forget thee. Thou hast great allies : 
 Thy friends are exultations, agonies, 
 And love, and man's unconquerable mind."
 
 72 MONOSTLI.Al-.lt CHABA4 I i.K 
 
 Here we have the expression of lofty and indignant 
 sympathies contrasted with the tender simplicity of 
 the preceding verses, each example bearing testi- 
 mony to the versatility and the capability of the 
 language. 
 
 The monusyllahic principle of the language pervades 
 those exquisitely beautiful stanzas composing the 
 "Adieu, adieu, my native Land," by Lord Byron. 
 
 •■ adieu ! adieu ! nay native shore 
 Fades o'er the waters blue, 
 The night-winds sigh, the breezes roar, 
 And shrieks the wild sea-mew. 
 
 Y"ii Mm thai sets upon the sea, 
 We follow in his flight ; 
 » Farewell awhile to him and thee, 
 
 M v naii\ e land, good night. 
 
 With thee, mj bark, I'll swifU} fly 
 
 Athwart the foaming brine ; 
 N"i- care what land thou bear's! me to, 
 
 So not again to mine. 
 
 Welcome, welcome, ye dark blue wavi 
 
 Ami when ye fail my sight, 
 \\ i l< ome, j   deserts and ye cai 
 
 M\ 1 1:1 1 i \ e land, good nighl ! " 
 
 Take out native and desert, which are Latin, and Adieu, 
 French, and w<- have English in it- purity. Welcome 
 i- .1 riiiii|iMiin<l l'.nL r li-li term. The third and fourth 
 lines are pure English, and paint the scene to the very 
 life j the soft sighing of the night-winds, the roaring of 
 the breakers, and the shrieks of the wild sea-mew, cannot 
 be surpassed. They fall on the ear like enchanting
 
 OF TUE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 73 
 
 melody ; and we Sympathise in the deep and tender 
 melancholy of the poet. 
 
 In the " Destruction of Sennacherib " we have the 
 animated anapaestic measure totally different from that 
 of the " Adieu," but still exhibiting the same principle 
 of diction : — 
 
 " For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast, 
 And breathed in the face of the foe. as he pass'd ; 
 And the eyes of the sleepers wax'd deadly and chill, 
 And their hearts beat but once, and for ever lay still. 
 
 ■• And there lay the steed with his nostrilif all wide, 
 And through them there roll'd not the breath of his pride; 
 And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, 
 And cold as the spray on the rock-beating surf." 
 
 Out of 89 consecutive words, 79 are monosyllables, and 
 the roots of all the others monosyllabic; and yet how 
 beautifully and harmoniously are all these monosyl- 
 lables linked into the majestic and animated movement 
 of the anapaestic measure ! With the exception of 
 angel and face, and those reduced in the number of 
 syllables, the materials are Saxon. 
 
 Surely Lord Byron, who has adhered to the Anglo- 
 Saxon terms so much in his various works, and with BO 
 much force and beauty, ought to be the last man to 
 compliment other tongues at the expense of his own: — 
 
 "I love the language, that soft bastard Latin, 
 Which melts like kisses in a female mouth, 
 And sounds as if it Bhould be writ Oil s;itin, 
 
 Willi syllables thai breathe of the street south, 
 And gentle li/juiils gliding all so pat in. 
 
 That uol a single aci   m seems uncouth, 
 Like our harsh, northern, whistling, grunting guttural, 
 Which we're obliged to hiss, and spit, and sputter all." 
 
 E
 
 7 1 MONOSYLLABIC CHARACTER 
 
 This very stanza alone is sufficient to rescue the Eng- 
 li.sh language from the charge His Lordship has en- 
 deavoured to fix upon it. If it is ezpn of hareh- 
 
 18 in one part, it is equally expressive of gent In 
 in another. The first live lines are full of liquids, the 
 tlest of all sounds. The " gentle liquids gliding," 
 and the repetition of "th M in "breathe of the sweet 
 south," are soft and beautifully descriptii The 
 Bmoothnese and Boftness of the words exactly n present 
 
 the poet's meaning. When we come to the word 
 uncouth, and the two following lin< -. Lord Byron would 
 have looked in vain to the " sweet BOUth " for term- 
 applicable to the purpose, which lie had in view, as 
 the terms harsh, northern, whistling, grunting, guttural, 
 hiss, spit, and sputter. The hand that r* - strength 
 
 and power may have as delicate a touch, when needed, 
 
 a- the hand of QerVOUS debility. Where the | 
 
 wished to represent the smooth, liquid, gentle, he find.- 
 in his own language terms perfectly adapted to his 
 
 purpose; where he wished to express harshness and 
 
 uncouthness he is equally fortunate. The materials of 
 tin; English language are abundant tor nil purpose 
 and only require a judicious application. It can drop 
 the honeyed words of peace and gentleness, and it can 
 \i->it with it- withering, scathing, burning, blasting <■>/, 
 W'lni. %. r it breaks forth through the foreign frip- 
 peries, with which it i- overlaid, it | dl the 
 Btrengtb of elemental nature. 
 
 I . • d to the language of contemptuous Boorn : — 
 
 " Tin. u Lett, thou thread, thou thimble, 
 i jrard, three quarters, half-yard, quarto r, oail,
 
 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 75 
 
 Thou flea, thou nit, thou winter-cricket, thou : — 
 Braved in mine own house with a skein of thread ! 
 Away thou rag, thou quantity, thou remnant." 
 
 Taming of the Shrew. 
 
 Hear the tender, the earnest, the irresistible appeal 
 of Eve, when she is imploring the forgiveness of Adam. 
 In its simplicity and feminine tenderness it descends to 
 the very fountain of human sympathies ; and if Adam 
 had remained obdurate under such an appeal, he must 
 have been more or less than man : — 
 
 " Forsake me not thus, Adam ! Witness, Heaven, 
 What love sincere, and reverence in my heart, 
 I bear thee, and unweeting have offended, 
 Unhappily deceived ! Thy suppliant, 
 I beg, and clasp thy knees ; bereave me not 
 Whereon I live, thy gentle looks, thy aid, 
 Thy counsel, in this uttermost distress, 
 My only strength and stay ! Forlorn of thee, 
 Whither shall I betake me ; where subsist? 
 While yet we live, scarce one short hour perhaps, 
 Between us two let there be peace ! " 
 
 Contrast this language of repentant, earnest, humble, 
 and affectionate supplication with the fiery indignation 
 of the Welsh Bard, as he stands upon a rock (his gray 
 hair streaming in the troubled air), and looks down 
 upon the invaders of his country : — 
 
 " Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 
 Confusion on thy banners wait ! 
 Though, fann'd by Conquest's crimson wing, 
 
 They mock the air with idle state. 
 Helm, nor hauberk's twisted mail. 
 Nor e'en thy virtues, tyrant, shall avail 
 To guard thy secret soul from nightly fears, 
 From Cumbria's curse, from Cambria's tears." 
 e 2
 
 76 MONOSYLLABIC CHABAt I ER 
 
 Read the tender and touching appeal of Joseph to 
 Pharaoh's chief butler: — 
 
   I !ut think on me when it shall be well with thee, and shew 
 kindness, I pray thee, unto me, and make mention of me onto 
 Pharaoh, and bring me onl of this house : for indeed I was stolen 
 :iw.iv .nit of the land of the Hebrews : and here also have I done 
 nothing that they should put me int<> the dungeon." — Gen. xl. 14, 
 15 
 
 Contrasl tin- humble and Buppliant appeal, with the 
 animated burst of the Chorus, in the opening of Shak- 
 speare'a " Henry V. w : — 
 
 " O. for a muse of fire, thai would ascend 
 The brightest heai en of invention ! 
 A kingdom for a Btage, princes to act, 
 And monarchs t<> behold the swelling scene! 
 Then Bhould the warlike Barry, like himself, 
 
 A -nine th>- port of Mar-, and nt his ht < fs. 
 
 Leash'd a, Wu funaids, thovldfamine^ sword, and fire 
 ( 'vouch for employnu nt." 
 
 How wide the contrast between these passages in 
 feeling and diction, yet how true to nature are all of 
 them ! 
 
 Listen to the aged Priam, begging the body of hu 
 son of the ruthless Aehilles : — 
 
 • Ali think, thoa t'a\ our'd <>f the powers divine ! 
 Think of thy father's age, and pity mine; 
 In hu that father's reverend image trai 
 Those silver bairs, thai v< nerable face. 
 Hi- trembling limbs, bis helple person 
 
 11 in v equal, bul in mi <\v ." Jl 2 i. 
 
 itr:i-t with this the Raid of Glen-Fruin, from"Thi 
 l.i of the Lake " i —
 
 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 77 
 
 " Proudly our pibroch has thrill' d in Glen-Fruin, 
 And Barocher's groans to our slogan replied, 
 Glen-Dup and Ross-Dhu, they are smoking in ruin, 
 And the best of Loch Lomond lie dead on her side. 
 Widow and Saxon maid 
 Soon shall lament our raid, 
 Think of Clan- Alpine with fear and with woe; 
 Lennox and Leven Glen 
 Shake when they hear again 
 Rhoderick Yich- Alpine Dhu, hi iero !" 
 
 Here we have the language of sorrow and supplication 
 contrasted with that of barbarous triumph. 
 
 Take the following passage from Pope's " Essay on 
 Man," and try to translate it into any other language, 
 so as to bring it into the same compass, preserving the 
 same variety of ideas, the force of expression, and the 
 spirit of the original : — 
 
 " Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine, 
 Earth for whose use ; Pride answers, 't is for mine. 
 For me kind Nature wakes her genial power, 
 Suckles each herb, ami spreads out every flower; 
 Annual for me the grape, the rose, renew 
 The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew; 
 For me the mine a thousand treasures brings; 
 For me health gushes from a thousand springs ; 
 Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise; 
 My footstool earth, my canopy the skies." 
 
 The whole passage is bursting with meaning, yet under 
 perfect control ; the rhymes all strictly legitimate, the 
 rhythm and the alternation of pauses all that tin 
 most fastidious ear could desire. 
 
 z 3
 
 78 FLEXIBILITY OF ENGLI8H. 
 
 CHAP. Y. 
 
 FLEXIBILITY OS Nil: ENGLISH i.AV.r.VGE. 
 
 For the purposes of versification, no language p 
 
 greater capability of adaptation t<» the infinite 
 forma of rhythm than the English. The man of 
 
 .in- Btampa upon it any impression that he pi 
 tenderness, passion, elegance, Bublimity, withering 
 )ach master mind gives to it his own colour- 
 ing, and developes its peculiar aptitudes. Milton, 
 Shakspeare, Thomson, Cowper, Potter, and many 
 others, cadi ha- his characteristic style in blank ven 
 Dryden, Pope, Byron, Southey, Wordsworth, Moore, 
 
 S tt. ami many others, in rhyme. At (Mir time, \\( 
 
 th< verse running like an impetuous torrent; at 
 another, falling gently Like the 'lews upon the green 
 slopes "i ELermon. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 \ ri;i\< iia.i 01 BC0N01C1 0B8XBVED in mm FORMATION 
 
 ..i <>i i; \ i i:v H0N08T i L LB] i - nn m-i i \ i -. 
 
 Bi i do! only is the principle of the Anglo-Saxon 
 monosyllabic, bul even in the construction of our 
 monosyllables a principle of economy is observed, and 
 w< produce words of a totally different meaning by the
 
 FORMATION OF MONOSYLLABLES. 79 
 
 simple change of a, e, i, o, u ; as, bat, bet, bit, bot, but ; 
 bag, beg, big, bog, bug; ball, bell, bill, boll, bull; far, 
 fir, for, fur : others by the change of the first letter ; as, 
 fight, light, might, night, right, tight ; clash, hash, lash, 
 gash, rash, wash, with many others that might be added. 
 The same effect is produced by the change of con- 
 sonants; as, bat, cat, fat, gat, hat, mat, pat, rat, sat, vat. 
 Voltaire is reported to have said that the English 
 gained two hours a day by clipping words, to which he 
 might have added two hours more by punctuality, and 
 something bv the I. O. U. of the commercial world. 
 The principle of clipping prevails to a very great extent 
 in proper names, more particularly in common conver- 
 sation. Foreign names must be satisfied to be reduced 
 to English proportions and to English estimate of utility. 
 How much valuable time would be lost in reading, 
 speaking, or thinking of such a string of titles as 
 Jenkin ap-Griffith ap-Rogers ap- William ap-Rees 
 ap-Evans. No: Ap-Rogers must be Prodgers; Ap- 
 Richard, Pritchard ; Ap-Rice, Price; Ap-Howdl. 
 Powell ; Ap-Robert, Probert. This is a quiet mode 
 of rebuking a useless parade of genealogy. An Eng- 
 lishman calls cheese cheese, and is satisfied ; a "Welsh- 
 man must give its genealogy : — 
 
 " Cheese, Adam's own cousin-german by its birth ; 
 Ap-curda ap-milk ap-cow ap-grass ap-earth." 
 
 Low i u. 
 
 " O, should this mincing fashion overspread 
 From names of living heroes t" the dead, 
 How would Ambition Bigb and bang her head, 
 As each loved syllable should melt away! 
 Her Alexander turn'd into greal \. 
 
 E 4
 
 BO ri:<>< BS8 "l < OS i i:.\< I [OM 
 
 k sing] I ber ( uur to 
 Her Scipio Bhronk into a Roman S, 
 \' I, nickM and dock'd to these new modes of speech, 
 .a Bannibal himself, a Mister II" 
 
 Prologue to tin- Faro oj Mr, If. 
 
 ( HAP. VII. 
 
 PBOCBS8 NTRA.CTIOH AND -IMl'l.li ic \ I i"\. 
 
 Bi i' independent of the monosyllabic principle of 
 the English language, ami even the economy of its 
 monosyllables, it has in other respects been undergoing 
 a perpetual process of simplification. Dissyllables 
 have in many cases been reduced to monosyllables, as in 
 the perfect tense and the past participle of verbs, and 
 all unnecessary variations in case have been abolished. 
 The articles, adjectives, participles have mi variation 
 in ca-r. gender, or number; an immense advantage com* 
 pared with many modern languages, ami humane when 
 compared with the twisting ami turning, the fantastic 
 ations ami the indefinite declensions of the German 
 noun. Ill" genders, again, are not arbitrary and capri- 
 cious, :i- in tin- Greek, Latin, ami most modern lan- 
 guages, l>nt founded on principle; things masculine 
 being of the masculine gender, things feminine of the 
 feminine, ami things withoul life "I the neuter. This 
 i- the genera] principle; and, as tl"' noun adjective, the 
 participle, ami tin- artiole have no variation in the ex- 
 pression of gender, it i- only the pron t, that can ever
 
 AND SIMPLIFICATION. 81 
 
 require to be marked by a distinction of gender at all. 
 In poetic diction, where strength or softness is required, 
 or when objects possess some natural and distinctive 
 peculiarities, as Sun, Moon, the masculine or feminine 
 gender is applied to things without life. It is this 
 simplicity of principle, which renders the English lan- 
 guage, though difficult of pronunciation to a foreigner, 
 yet easy of acquisition in many essential particulars, 
 and which causes it to be spoken with tolerable accuracy 
 by persons, who never had any grammatical education 
 at all ; the chief stumbling-blocks being in the varia- 
 tions of the verb to be, in the confusion of the preterite 
 tense of the verb with the passive participle, and in the 
 irregularities of the pronoun. Whilst the Gothic lan- 
 guages, therefore, and more particularly the Anglo- 
 Saxon, have borrowed liberally from the Greek and 
 Latin in the use of terms not needed in former times 
 by a comparatively barbarous people, these ancient 
 and complex languages have borrowed in simplicity of 
 construction from the Gothic and their derivatives. 
 Modern Greek and Italian have discarded much of 
 their former complexities ; the Italian having assumed 
 the prefix applicable to all nouns, instead of a variation 
 of case ; and the modern Greek having reduced it- 
 number of cases, and formed its verbs more after the 
 Italian model. 
 
 "Tli' abundant Latin then <>M Latium lastly left, 
 Both of her proper form, and elegancie reft, 
 Before her smoother tongue their speech thai did pref! 
 Ami in her tables fixt their ill Bhape'l character" 
 
 Dbai i"V Polyolbion, BOl 
 
 E 5
 
 VARIETY OF TERMINATION. 
 
 CHAT. VIII. 
 
 wan I .'I INFLEXION \ CAUSE OF GBEATEB VABXET1 
 
 "I NOMINATION. 
 
 Ii might be supposed, that, from the comparative 
 absence of inflexion and variation in the cases, genders, 
 and numbers of our nouns, and the simplicity thai 
 pn vails in the construction of our verbs, our language 
 
 would be monotonous and deficient in variety of ter- 
 mination. The very reverse, however, is the tact. In 
 Greek or Latin, the adjective very frequently ter- 
 minate- like the noun, with which it agrees j so do 
 the article and the participle in mam oases ; ;it the 
 same time that personal verbs, in the firsl person .-in- 
 ilar, all end in o or "/•. Take the following example 
 quoted by Cicero in his " De Nature* Deorum": — 
 
 I . mo, postulo, " ! ". ploro, atque imploro fidem." 
 
 Ii translated into English, all these words would h 
 differenl terminations. So also from the Greek. 
 
 Il.r. are -i.\ consecutive words ending in as, with 
 the slighl exception of the enclitic Be. Such a 
 incidence in English would 1"- impossible. In Italian. 
 a Language formed for -"nu". it is not uncommon t" 
 meet with a whole series ofwordfi ending in 0.
 
 MODIFICATION OF FOREIGN TERMS. B3 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 MODIFICATION OF FOREIGN TERMS BY MODERN LANGUAt ! 
 
 Even in modern languages, which are not so encum- 
 bered with inflexions as the ancient, strange liberties 
 have been taken with proper names, when they happen 
 not to harmonise with the genius of the language, into 
 which they have been adopted. From Cromwell, the 
 Spaniards have Caramuel ; from Oswald, Ossubaldo ; 
 from Ethelwalde, Etelubalde. From Oxford, Frois- 
 sart has Aquesufford. The term Welsh, applied by 
 the Saxons to the Ancient Britons, arises from a cor- 
 ruption of a similar kind. They rightly believed the 
 Welsh, or Ancient Britons, to be of Gallic, or, accord- 
 ing to the genius of their own language, of Gallish 
 extraction. This term, like many others, in which the 
 initial G was changed into W, became Wallish, and 
 was further contracted into Walsh and Welsh. The 
 ancient French writers, reversing this, called our Ed- 
 ward Prince of Wales, Edouard Prince de Gaulle-. 
 
 It is the very simplicity observed in the construction 
 of the English language, which enables it to adopt. 
 with perfect case, terms, which do not easily amalga- 
 mate with languages of more complexity. It' a term 
 be adopted into the English language, the addition of 
 5 or es in the plural number, and of s with tin- 
 apostrophe in the possessive case, comprises all the 
 modifications, which, with trifling exceptions, it is di -- 
 
 E 6
 
 -I MODIFN LTION OF FOBEIGS TERMS 
 
 tined to undergo. If a foreign word was admitted 
 into ill'- Greek language, it had to undergo a consider- 
 able alteration, in order to adapt it to the genius of 
 that language. It had t<> pass through the grammatical 
 crucible, from which it issued purified of what might 
 be considered its barbarism, but with modifications and 
 amalgamations, to which it had hitherto been a stranger. 
 A ludicrous instance of the change of words to ~ u i t 
 the genius of another language is related in the case of 
 Sir J. Hawkwood, a renowned English knight, who 
 died at Florence. Some Englishmen passing through 
 Florence observed an epitaph to .Johannes Anitas, 
 Eques. The Latin word acuttu signifying sharp, they 
 naturally enough translated the words John Sharp, 
 Knight, or, as we Bay, Sir John Sharp. Who this Sir 
 John Sharp could he they were at a 1"-- to tell; but, on 
 investigation, found that, as the Latin had neither h dot 
 ie and the initial aspirate II in Hawkwood did not 
 
 in of much importance, the Florentines had taken 
 the word most nearly resembling Hawkwood in Bound, 
 Acutus, which an Englishman would naturally translate 
 Sir John Sharp. 
 
 From the Hebrew, we have Jacob; in Greek, 
 I - in Spanish, Jago; in Italian, Giacomo; in 
 
 i och, Jacques; and in English, James. Where com- 
 pound transmutations have taken pla rcely any 
 trace of the original root ran sometimes be discerned. 
 
 From the Greek preposition, •£, from out, we have 
 the Latin ir, with the same meaning ; from tin- i- de- 
 rived extra, without: from extra the French have 
 etranger, from which we have the term stritn<i< r. \
 
 BY MODERN LANGUAGES. 85 
 
 sessing all the air of an Anglo-Saxon tci*m, though a 
 fourth remove from the Greek. It is thus that cor- 
 ruption added to corruption leaves little trace of 
 original parentage, and that words, which national 
 vanity may suppose to be the offspring of its own soil 
 may often be traced, through successive variations, to 
 some remote original. Thousands of languages might 
 thus branch out from one original stock, bearing an 
 affinity, more or less, to that stock in general ; but in 
 some cases losing, perhaps, all traces of their original 
 parentage. 
 
 Words in common use, and more particularly those, 
 which are expressive of domestic objects, would be more 
 likely than any others to be transmitted through succes- 
 sive generations of men, whether stationary or migratory. 
 In the Sanscrit, for instance, the most ancient, and, 
 according to high authorities, the most philosophical, 
 language in existence, we have, for example, Fitr ; 
 Greek, irar^p ; Latin, pater; Persian, padr; German, 
 vater ; Anglo-Saxon, faeder; Dutch, vader; Danish, 
 fader; English, father. Again, in Sanscrit, we have 
 Mdtre; Persian, madr ; Russian, mater; Celtic, mathair ; 
 ( rreek, /j.i)Tt]p; Latin, mater; German, mutter; Dutch, 
 moader ; Anglo-Saxon, modor; Danish and Swedish, 
 modcr ; English, mother. The word brother is still 
 more remarkable. Sanscrit, Bhratre; Iri-li. bratha; 
 Greek, cppaTijp ; French, fretre, frere ; Persian, bradr; 
 Tartaric, bruder; German, bruder; Russian, bratr; 
 Celtic, brawd ; Erse, brathair : Moesic, brothar ; Dutch, 
 breeder; Danishand Swedish, broder; [celandic, brodui ; 
 Armoric, breur; Anglo-Saxon, brodor; English, brother:
 
 *»; MODIFICATION OF FOREIGN TERMS. 
 
 the same word, with slight variations, in seventeen lan- 
 guages.* 
 
 These are household word.-, interwoven with our 
 earliesl and purest affections, the first to be Learned, the 
 last to be forgotten; at the same time, they beautifully 
 illustrate the continuous tide of human population, as 
 it rolls over the earth's surface with t lie progress »>t' 
 time. Words, which Bprang up a1 Agra, and Delhi, 
 and Benares, four thousand years ago, are hut now 
 scaling the Rocky Mountain-- of Western America. 
 
 At the Bame time, if from any peculiar circumstam 
 •i- from commercial intercourse or territorial occupation, 
 a term drawn from another language should be really 
 wanted, and should already harmonise, or be made to 
 harmonise, with the language, into which it may be 
 adopted, we cannol look upon it as b case of corruption. 
 It is a rupee melted down, and Btamped with the im- 
 press of the current ruin, h U an article of foreign 
 commerce, admitted into the general Btock of national 
 conveniences. With respect to the language, into which 
 it may have been adopted, 'n is often nothing more than 
 a matter of precedence, a question of time. [ts 
 novelty gradually wears oil', and its features become 
 more and more familiar. Over many accessions of this 
 kind time lias already spread a dark and impenetrable 
 mantle. In this way, a- commerce and foreign con- 
 quests have been continually adding to the riches of the 
 English nation, so the intercourse arising from com- 
 merce and conquest has been continually adding to the 
 li-li vocabulary. 
 
 * Bosworth't Prefacs to AngloSaxon Diction
 
 EFFECTS OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 87 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 EFFECTS OF THE CULTIVATION OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 Wiierever classical literature has been cultivated, 
 there we may expect to find numerous terms, which 
 have been adopted from necessity, convenience, or taste. 
 We must not look upon such adoptions as the result of 
 necessity only. Terms taken from the Latin and Greek 
 languages have been incorporated with those of our 
 own, and that too, in many cases, where the meaning 
 might have been expressed in the Anglo-Saxon. AW' 
 have, for instance, periphery from the Greek, and cir- 
 cumference from the Latin ; but have lost embegang, 
 from emb, about, and begang, to go, a going-about. 
 We have adopted hydrophobia, but have lost water- 
 fyrthnys, water-fright ; dropsy, but have lost luceter-adJ, 
 water-ill. We have lexicon and dictionary, one from 
 the Greek, the other from the Latin, which might have 
 been expressed by icord-bouh. From the Greek we 
 have geometry, but have lost eorth-gemet, earth-measure. 
 We have arithmetician from the Greek aptd/xos, number, 
 but have lost gerim-crceftiy, skilful in numbers. We 
 have lunatic, but have lost monath-seoc, month-sick. 
 For witcna-gemut, we have adopted the French term 
 parliament; "an assembly of the wise," fur u talkee- 
 talkee:" and in the place of the beautifully descriptive 
 word eorthling or yrthling, earthling, we have got agri- 
 culturist, and the unmeaning term farmer. Numerous 
 examples of this kind might of course be added.
 
 88 EFFECTS OK Till. CULTIVATION 
 
 It !~ not always necessity, therefore, thai has been 
 the cause of our introducing terms derived from the 
 classical languages. The capability of varied com- 
 bination is not wanting in the English language : but 
 the very fad of our having availed ourselves of classical 
 combinations in lieu of <>ur own, and often in con- 
 junction with them, has rendered it not only more 
 copious and more flexible, but more easy of acquisition 
 to other nations, with whom we may have territorial 
 or commercial intercourse, at Least, wherever classical 
 literature ha- been cultivated. We gain a technical 
 nomenclature easily recognised ami understood by all 
 nations conversant with those models of antiquity, 
 Greek ami Latin. Every Englishman know- what is 
 meant by the wonl net; no explanation would make 
 it better understood : hut a reticulated texture, English 
 words adopted from the Latin, makee the definition 
 perfectly intelligible at once to a classical Bcholar of 
 
 any country. It' it ie praiseworthy in B nation to 
 
 adopt useful discoveries in arts and sciences, though of 
 foreign origin, it is not only praiseworthy, but neo 
 sary, for that nation t«. enrich it- native tongue with 
 such terms, as the progress of arts and sciences maj 
 
 [uire. 
 
 VYhen our forefathers issued from the forests of 
 1 1. rmany or Scandinai ia, and quitted the shores of the 
 Baltic or the stormy coasts of Norway, they possessed 
 a languagi sufficient to express their want-, but not 
 sufficient for the exigencies of a refined and scientific 
 people. Their language »a- rude, harsh, and pithy, 
 with an air of savage independence, that regarded not
 
 OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 89 
 
 those nicer grammatical and syntactical discriminations, 
 which a more civilised state of society requires. The 
 alterations and additions, that have been introduced 
 have given copiousness and flexibility, without injuring 
 the original texture of our language. We have not 
 imitated the grammatical complications of the Greek or 
 Latin ; whilst those languages, in their modern con- 
 dition, have gradually approximated more closely to the 
 structure of the English language. 
 
 In the adoption of classical terms, the English lan- 
 guage has done nothing more than that, which has been 
 done by the other languages of Europe. It is not a 
 question of fact, but of degree. The Greek word \ivov, 
 for example, has been adopted into nine European lan- 
 guages. Greek, Xtvov; Latin, linum; French, lin; Italian, 
 lino ; Spanish, lino ; Portuguese, linho ; German, lein ; 
 Norwegian, lun ; Swedish, lin ; whilst every European 
 language except the Danish uses lin, when speaking of 
 the seed. From this word line, we have several se- 
 condary meanings. When we speak of direct extension 
 we call it a line, because line is the common material, 
 from which ropes or cords used in direct measurement 
 would be usually formed. From this term also we have 
 lining, — line, or linen being the material, from which 
 the under-garment was generally made, or with which 
 the outer-garment was internally covered. From the 
 term line we have also lineage, a direct succession : and 
 lineaments, the distinct characters or boundary lines of 
 the features.
 
 90 JUDICIOUS INTRODUCTION 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 ADVANTAGES ABIBDJG FROM Mir. JUDICIOUS INTEODUOTIOH 
 ci CI L88H AL m.km-. 
 
 The judicious admixture of Anglo-Saxon and classical 
 terms constitutes the Btyle of our best authors. It gives 
 i Legitimate variety of composition, formed upon pe- 
 culiar tastes and education. In this respect, Swift and 
 Johnson may be considered as placed at opposite ex- 
 tremes ; the Btyle of the former being peculiarly 
 
 glish : thai of the latter being formed upon the 
 classical models, and imitating not only the phraseology, 
 hut the polish and rotundity, of their periods, Swift 
 would Bay, " The thing has not life enough in it, to 
 
 pit sweet;" Johnson, il The creature poe not 
 
 vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction." 
 How widelj differenl is the phraseology of these sen- 
 tences! yel they both express the same meaning, and we 
 call them both English. To court classical terms too 
 much, or to avoid them too much, would generally 
 lead t'> a mode <<i e\pr. ssion bordering on affectation. 
 In words compounded with prepositions, we have 
 borrowed largely, and necessarily so, from the Latin, 
 and from these borrowed term- primary and secondary 
 meanings are obtained with a happy discrimination. 
 I ike, for instance, the verb risto, I stand, itself derived 
 from the verb urraox We then have, in the firsl pis 
 
 S 'l I ind. 
 pounded with Ad, Adsisto, I land to or n< A 
 
 I I • ind with, a 
 
 I Willi.
 
 OF CLASSICAL TERMS. 91 
 
 Compounded with De, Desisto, I stand off, Desist. 
 
 — Ex, Existo, I stand forth, Exist. 
 
 T T . , f I stand over, upon, 
 
 — In, Insisto, i , T . 
 
 I take my stand on, Insist. 
 
 — Per, Persisto, I stand through, Persist. 
 
 — Re, Resisto, I stand back, Resist. 
 
 — Sub, Subsisto, I stand under, Subsist. 
 
 From traho, to draw, is derived tractus, drawing, 
 from which we have : 
 
 Compounded with Ad, Attract, to draw to. 
 
 — Con, Contract, to draw together. 
 
 — De, Detract, to draw from. 
 
 — Dis, Distract, to draw asunder. 
 
 — Ex, Extract, to draw out of. 
 
 — Pro, Protract, to draw forward. 
 
 — Re, Retract, to draw back. 
 
 — Sub, Subtract, to draw from under. 
 
 From tendo, I stretch, when compounded with pre- 
 positions, is derived attend, contend, distend, extend, in- 
 tend, pretend, portend. The verbs teneo, venio, and 
 fero, with many others, admit of being compounded 
 with prepositions, and then run through diversities of 
 meaning, both in Latin and English, with a clear and 
 beautiful discrimination. If these words alone were 
 blotted out of the English language, how could their 
 places be supplied ? 
 
 Again, take such a word as asylum, for example. 
 How shall the mere English scholar deal with it? He 
 may not, it is true, misapply it, and bo far it serves 
 his purpose; but he cannot understand, without expla- 
 nation, why it signifies a place of refuge, which is in 
 fact, only a secondary meaning. Its primary meaning 
 is a place, from which you cannot drag an object —
 
 92 JL'DK [01 - rM i R0DUCTI0N 
 
 hence a place of refuge, a sanctuary not t<» l»e vio- 
 lated. Absurd, all siiriln, coming Prom a deaf man, 
 who, mistaking the question that is put to himi returns 
 an answer quite foreign to the purpose. Calamity, 
 from calamus, a reed, a .-talk of corn. Calamity, de- 
 struction of the -talks (of corn), hence a greal mis- 
 fortune, a calamity, [mbecility, <>" (in) baculut, im- 
 beeUluSy one leaning on a staff; hence imbecility, 
 weakness, dependence for Bupport. 
 
 It is only when we enter into the anatomy of such 
 words a- these, thai we become sensible of their per- 
 fecl adaptation to express our ideas; and we feel that 
 their services in the English language cannol be dis- 
 pensed with. As children of softer climes and gentler 
 aspect, 1 1 m \ have been received into the family inheri- 
 tance, and add grace and elegance to the land of their 
 adoption. If we must borrow at all, it i- Burely bettet 
 that we should borrow from these pure fountain- of 
 antiquity, than from the polluted Btreams of more 
 modern times; and it' we arc to be accused of piracy 
 on tlii- account, whal European language can furnish 
 partisans bold enough to throw the firsl -tone;-' From 
 intercourse and from conquest, all the Languag< - oi 
 Europe participate with each other. The modern French 
 ]- a compound of the ancient Gallic; of Greek, partly 
 derived from the Greek colony that founded Marseilles, 
 ami partly through the medium of the Latin, intro- 
 duced by the Long residence of the Roman legions in 
 Gaul; of the Francio, introduced bj the Franks, who 
 cut. r. .1 ( i.iul under Faramund, and gave their name to 
 France; of the Norman or northern dialect, with which
 
 OF CLASSICAL TERMS. 93 
 
 the peculiar pronunciation of the letter r is supposed 
 to have been introduced, just as a similar peculiarity 
 was introduced into Northumberland by the Danes. 
 Language, in fact, is the mere child of circumstances ; 
 " words," as it has been beautifully expressed, " being 
 the daughters of earth," whilst " things are the sons of 
 heaven," the one changeable and perishable, the other 
 stable and permanent. We see language in various 
 stages of its progress, in its rude formation, its acquire- 
 ments, its plenitude, its corruption, and its decay. 
 But the Enp-lish lancfuao-e has shown no wanton or 
 capricious adoption of foreign terms or foreigns idioms. 
 In the simplicity of its construction it has cut out a 
 path for itself; and neither by the introduction of clas- 
 sical terms, nor by words or phrases derived from any 
 other source, has it ever suffered its onward process of 
 simplification to be impeded, or its leading principles to 
 be overpowered. 
 
 " Trampled upon by the ignoble feet of strangers, its spring still 
 retains force enough to restore itself, it lives and plays through 
 all the veins of the language, it impregnates the innumerable 
 strangers entering its dominions with its temper, and stains them 
 with its colour; not unlike tin- Greek, which, in taking up Oriental 
 words, stripped them of their foreign costumes, and bid them ap- 
 pear as native Greeks." — 1 latter tsmti, quoted by liosworth.
 
 94 INTRODUCTION OF FOREIGN 
 
 SECTION II. 
 SOURCES OF CORRUPTION. 
 
 ( HAP. J. 
 urraoDUcriais on rossion rxRus, phrases, inn mm 
 
 Foreign Term*. 
 
 In the time of Chaucer, the French Language flowed in 
 copiously upon the Anglo-Saxon. His popularity as :i 
 poel gave authority t<> the introduction of new terms. 
 •• 11.' was indeed," saye an ancient author, " a greal 
 mingler of English with French, unto which by like, 
 for he was descended of French, or rather Wallon ra 
 he carried a greal affection." 
 
 •• And he baddd be long time in chevaehie, 
 La Flanders, and Artoia, and Picardie." (\mi. Tales. 
 
 Again : 
 
 \tnl to ben holden digne of rerereni Ibid. 
 
 I tf which aehetourt mighten take enaample.' 1 Hud. 
 
 Thia propensity acquired for Chaucer the nickname of 
 ■• The French Brewt r." 
 
 r. rides introducing French terms, Chancer accented 
 many of his syllables after the French form, and made 
 dissyllables out of monosyllables ; a principle quite con- 
 trary to the genius of the English language, and, as it 
 proved, incapable <>f sustaining itself: —
 
 TERMS, PHRASES, AND IDIOMS. 95 
 
 " A clerkc there was of Oxenforde also, 
 That unto Logicke hadde long ygo, 
 And lene was his horse, as is a rake, 
 And he was not right fat I undertake." Cant. Tales. 
 
 Some excuse may be found for the introduction of 
 French terms by Chaucer, in the comparative poverty 
 of the English language, at the time, in which he lived. 
 What might even be excusable in his day, would be 
 an affected and mischievous principle in the present 
 state of our language. If the French invent some new 
 instrument, as guillotine or bayonet, we use the same 
 term to express those objects, rather than have recourse 
 to a circumlocution, or invent a new term. Upon the 
 same principle, we call a Turkish sword a scymetar ; the 
 burning of a widow in India, a suttee ; a noisy instru- 
 ment invented by the Chinese, a gong. If we introduce 
 a foreign material, we in most cases adopt its concurrent 
 name, as gutta percha. Such terms are already made 
 to our hands, and offer themselves for their adoption. 
 In this there is nothing worthy of blame ; it is the 
 practice of all countries. But this is very different 
 from that silly pedantic affectation of interlarding our 
 language with foreign terms, where there is no occasion 
 for it ; very different from that heterogeneous mixture, 
 which no process, however laborious, can ever triturate 
 into a state of amalgamation. We wish not the manly 
 form of our language to be tricked out in a coat of 
 many colours. It has arrived at vigorous and majestic 
 proportions, and spurns from it that officiousness, which 
 would hide its dignity under a load of foreign frip- 
 pery.
 
 06 1\ rBODl • l [OK OF FORI l « • N 
 
 / reign Phra 
 
 I   iez moi, inhaling the odewr musquet <>f' my scented 
 loir, when the Prince de '/.. entered. He found me in my demi- 
 toilette, blasSe-surtout, and pensively engaged in solitary conjugation 
 of the verb iennuyer y and, though be bad never been one of my 
 habitues, <<v l>v any means de» noire*, I was n<'t disinclined, :it tlii> 
 moment of d&astement, t" ^r 1 i « 1 * - with him into the crocchio rettretto 
 miliar chat." — haa\ M _ a, Nt o Monthly, No. 1 1 <   _ 
 
 A gain : 
 
 u And where 'li'l 1 give this notable rendezvous ? 'Jo voua le 
 
 donne en une — je voiu 1>' donne en quatre,' as Madame Savigne 
 
 Why, in the church of the Quirinal at Rome, and at the car* 
 
 dinaTs. Pardi, my cardinal was n of your ordinary cardinals, 
 
 who come with a whoop and a call, and take a cover at your table, 
 and fill your littl<- ante-room \\itli lafamiglia. The cardinal par 
 Hence, the Cardinal Gonsalvi, was of another itoffe? 
 
 Here are the sweepings of a tailor's shop, the shreds 
 and patches of a harlequin's jacket. It is lit to be put 
 into competition with the address of Jemeno, the priest, 
 ; • .Mr. ( loleridge, at 1 Dominica 
 
 i Monsieur? iTespere que usted ie porta vary well. 
 
 i Latin est good ting, mail good knowledge! .-in el Latin, rien t" 
 
 / ■/ ■> iqn Idioms, 
 
 Foreign idioms oughl as strenuously i<» be avoided 
 as foreign terms and phrases. They derange and inter- 
 \sitli the oatural ord< r of the Language. This sorl 
 of corruption is well exemplified in Hannah Moon 
 • Satirical Letter from a Ladj to her Friend, in the 
 I ; ign of < reorge the Fifth "' i — 
 
   I • [ml mi. Alamodc (a-tlc-. 
 
 I i Pound in ited mj new a] 
 
 lii> li are > ompo « in. q
 
 TEEMS, PHRASES, AND IDIOMS. 97 
 
 gives upon the garden is practised through the great one, and there 
 is no other issue. As I was exceeded with fatigue, I no sooner 
 made my toilette, than I let myself fall upon a bed of repose, where 
 sleep came to surprise me. My Lord and I are in the intention to 
 make good cheer, and a great expence, and this country is in pos- 
 session to furnish wherewithal, to amuse oneself. All that England 
 lias of illustrious — all that youth has of amiable, or beauty of 
 ravishing sees itself in this quarter. Render yourself here then, 
 my friend, and you shall find assembled all that is of best, whether 
 for letters, whether for mirth," &c. &c. 
 
 Here the words are English, but the idiom altogether 
 French. It is intelligible ; but, as English, ridiculous. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 UNAUTHORISED TERMS. 
 
 We sometimes find that particular authors presume 
 too much upon their own authority, and make use of 
 strange and unauthorised terms. Mr. Coleridge, in his 
 " Constitution of Church and State," uses the following 
 words, injhn ncirr, exhaustive, extroitive, retroitive, pro- 
 ductivity. Minds not so subtile or metaphysical as 
 that <d' Mr. Coleridge would scarcely recognise the 
 necessity of such terms as these. 
 
 Bentley uses commentitious, aliene, negoce, exscribe, 
 as English words. When, however, word- perish on 
 the page on which they were written, it is a proof that 
 they were not wanted. He finds fault with his oppo- 
 nent for using extemporaneous instead <d' contempora- 
 
 F
 
 98 IMTL * 1 ED 1 I. KM-. 
 
 aeons, on the principle, thai the Latin- used co instead 
 of can, when followed by a vowel, as, <-<>irc, ooercere; 
 but they wrote congratulare, constituere, componere, 
 \ .. retaining the n when the next word began with a 
 Qsonant. Cotemporary, as a matter of euphony, is, 
 however, struggling against contemporary, and prin- 
 ciple and analogy may yet Buccumb before the authority 
 of custom. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 INFLATED I I KM-. 
 
 There is an inflated or Btilted style "t' composition, 
 embodying terms altogether disproportionate to the 
 subject, ami which is often so unfortunate as to com- 
 bine in one sentence, or one paragraph, the pompous, 
 the offensive, and the ridiculous: — 
 
   The night, now far advanced, was brilliantly bright with 1 1 »* - 
 
 radiancy of lunar ami astral effulgence- a b1 lovely night — 
 
 ith-lik'- -t illie*- — prevailed over nature, sound and the 
 
 moon, taking her nocturnal promenade along the cloud] 
 azure, ami stellar canopy of heaven, « alk< -<1 in all the resplendency 
 of her highest and brightest the verj night, according n> 
 
 fiction's tales and romance, "i imagination's fantastic records, 
 (that) would have suited   melancholic pensiv< Limental 
 
 bivalroui spirit, bent on some Quixotic deed of bold 
 ! • ■.//,. M'f' >poliiqf Frond By Clayton, E 
 
 The same gentleman speaks of houses, that "run
 
 INFLATED TERMS. V9 
 
 eight stories in ascent;" basins of " translucent water, 
 in which gold and silver fish disport leapingly, with 
 vaulting somersets." 
 
 Francis Moore would say, that a style like this had 
 been generated under a " malific configuration of delete- 
 rious planets." Not, however, that this style and this 
 kind of phraseology are altogether to be avoided. When 
 there is an intentional disproportion between the subject 
 and the diction, as in " The Battle of the Frogs and 
 Mice," or in the case of a Puff, the hyperbolical may 
 be made productive of considerable humour. Thus 
 when M'Alpine, after dilating in high-flown phraseology 
 on the superiority of his bear's-grease, boldly throws 
 himself into the field of competition for empire, and 
 proclaims, to the consternation of inferior aspirants, 
 " The Rubicon is passed, — aut M' Alpine aut nullus," 
 we are amused with the disproportion between the ob- 
 ject and the diction, — the contrast between the man of 
 empire and the man of hair. The hyperbole, with its 
 concomitant phraseology, is a dangerous figure, when 
 used seriously. It is constantly quivering on the verge 
 of the ridiculous. The aspirant who says to himself, 
 
 " Sublimi feriam sidera vertice," 
 
 hut too often meets with the fate of the unhappy Icarus. 
 Thua Blackmore: — 
 
 " Up to the stars the Bprawling mastiffs fly, 
 Ami add new monsters to the frighted Ay." 
 
 We are apl t<> follow these flying dogs in imagination, 
 
 * r 2
 
 100 IN' ONGR1 in ni n RM8. 
 
 and, wen i; ad for the trifling anachronism, to b 
 the poeition of Siriue and Procyon to an English 
 bull-bait. 
 
 ( HAP. IV. 
 
 i\< ONORl ITT Ol ii RMS. 
 
 I<> Lhese may be added the startling incongruities 
 which we unit with in the u Memoirs of Dr. Burngy,' 
 bj the authoress of Evelina. 
 
 u Mrs. Cibber herself he considered u   pattern of perfection, 
 in the tragic art, from her magnetizing power <■(* harrowing, and 
 winning al once, every feeling of the mind.* 1 
 
 '• Six heartless, nearly desolate Mar- of lonely conjugal chasm 
 bad succeeded t'> double tlnir number of unparalleled conjugal 
 enjoyment ; and the void was Mill /"<///.</<•, and hopeless, when tin- 
 /« rj/'handsomt -though~no~longi r-in-hsr-bloom Mrs. Stephen 
 Allen of Lynn, now become :i widow, decided for the promoting 
 (of) the education of her eldest daughter, to make London her 
 winter resident 
 
 in : — 
 
 B i fearful and calamitous event, which made the fall 
 • Autumn corrosively tejndchral \>> Dr. Burney." 
 
 \ ain : — 
 
 u had this harrowing fili;il separation taken place, ere 
 
 made upon lii- conjugal feeling . I j ihc smI<I< u-nt- 
 
 h^- Uine$S'0/ii >- rrpeeted 
 
 l
 
 INCONGRUITY OF TEEMS. 10 1 
 
 Here, eleven words connected by hyphens form one 
 rambling adjunct to death, — an example of what the 
 English language may be made to bear, but no credit 
 to- the executioner. 
 
 Mr. "Willis, an American writer, in his " Dashes at 
 Life with a Free Pencil," is full of overstrained and 
 incongruous imagery and expressions. As, 
 
 " My heart was as prodigal as a Croton Hydrant." — p. 48. 
 
 " She was consumedly (query ?) consummately good-looking.' 
 
 — p. 50. 
 
 " They might have known indeed, that the chain of bliss, ever 
 .so far extended, breaks off, at last, with an imperfect link — that 
 though mustard and ham. may turn tivo slices of innocent bread into 
 a sandwich, there will still be an unbvttered outside." 
 
 " Phoebe at last believed that in the regions of space there ex- 
 isted, wandering, but not lost, the aching worser half, of which she 
 was the better, some lofty intellect, capable of sounding the un- 
 fathomable abysses of hers, some male essence, all soul and romance, 
 with whom she could soar finally, arm-in-arm to their native star, 
 with no changes of any consequence, between their earthly and their 
 astral communion." — vol. iii. p. 04. 
 
 " But virtue, if nothing more, and no sooner, is its own reward, 
 and in time to save its bacon." — p. 90. 
 
 "To the keeper of Congress Hall the restoration of the Mil- 
 lennium would have been a rushlight to this second advent of fun and 
 faehiondotn." — p. 99. 
 
 " If she could have protruded from the flounce of her dress a 
 more like a mincing little muscle, and less like a jolly fat clam.'' 
 
 — p. 117. 
 
 In addition to these we have such terms as "pocketu- 
 ally speaking," "unUtupable nature,*' plumptitude, wide- 
 awakeity, betweenity, go-awayness. 
 
 Mr. Brockden Brown, also an American, uses dis- 
 proportionate epithets and pedantic expressions. Simpl< 
 
 r S
 
 102 i a i K i r.-i \i k i 
 
 matters require Bimple terms, and Buch as are in common 
 use. Mr. Brown, in Buch examples aa tin- following, 
 violates this » >1 >\ i« >us and natural principle. Thus: — 
 
   I ught with di'' persuasion, that my life was cmlun- 
 
 1." 
 
 iter door was ajar, I shut it with tremblii mess, 
 
 and ill' j boll that was appended t<> it." 
 
 " Hi- brain Beemedto Bwell beyond it- continent" 
 • I waited till their Blow ami harsher inspirations shewed them to 
 be both asleep; jusl then, on changing mj position, my bead struck 
 something, which depended from the ceiling." 
 
 Tin- terms fraught, appended, continent, inspirations, 
 depended, ill accord with the simplicity of the Bubject. 
 
 CHAP. Y. 
 
 i \ii.i i -I \i ki : 
 
 Axotheb mode of corrupting a language, and <>ur, 
 from which the English, as well a- other languages, i- 
 liable to suffer, consists in adapting it to the standard 
 and caprice "I ignorance ami vulgarity. Would it not 
 bave been much better, for instance, ii the Moravian 
 missionaries had adopted the Bimple authorised version 
 (if tin' New Testamenl amongst tin' N in the 
 
 l'ji'jli Ii \\'i -t India Colonit •, in preference t<> tin 
 bideoue corruptions and abominations which they have 
 i • I in print ? Take the i"ll"\\ in- i
 
 CORRUPTION FROM EXTRANEOUS WORDS. 103 
 
 extracted from the " Quarterly Review," No. 76. The 
 subject is the Marriage Feast in Cana of Galilee. 
 
 " Drie deb na bakka, dem holi wan bruiloft na Cana, na Galilee, 
 en mamma va Jesus been ce dapeb. 2. Ma dem ben kali Jesus, 
 nanga him disciple toe va koin na da bruiloft. 3. En tah wieni 
 kaba, mamma va Jesus takki na bim, dem no babi wieni mono. 
 4. Jesus takki na bim nu mamma noeworko mi babi nanga joe. 
 Tern va mi no ben kom jette." &c. 
 
 Translation. " Three days after back, them hold one marriage 
 in Cana of Galilee, and mamma of Jesus been there. But them 
 ben call Jesus with him disciples to come to that marriage, and 
 when wine end, mamma of Jesus talk to him, Them no have wine 
 more. Jesus talk to him, me mamma, how work me have with you. 
 Time of me no come yet." 
 
 Tarrawan, in this jargon, stands for to'ther one ; nebre- 
 wantum, for never one time, man-voal ; man-fowl, a 
 boy ; snekki-family, snaky-family, a generation of 
 vipers. The whole is ridiculous, base, and shocking to 
 the feelings. To confer upon such stuff the factitious 
 dignity of print, is a miserable degradation of a sacred 
 subject, and a mistaken policy indeed. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 CORRUPTION ARISING FROM WORDS ALTOGETHER 
 EXTRANEOUS. 
 
 Certain terms have been introduced into the Engli>h 
 language, which claim no kindred or acquaintance with 
 it. They have no affinity, either with the stock, from 
 
 F 4
 
 lol CORRUPTION FROM EXTRANEOUS WORDS, 
 
 w Iii.ii tin- language 1ki~ Bprung, or with its more recent 
 ramificatio They are often vile mutilations of Borne 
 :i 1 ill understood originaL D'Israeli, in his 
 Literature, " gives the following i 
 planation « >t* i li<   phrase, run a muck: — 
 
 piril of play characterises the Malayan. After 
 rv thing t<> the good fortune of the winner, be 
 gtate of despondency. 1 le then loosei 
 iiair, which indicates war and destruction to all whom the 
 ter ma) meet. He intoxicates himself with opium, 
 himself up t" a lit of phrenzy, he bites, or perhaps 
 kill ne who may come in hi- way. Bui a~ soon as this lock 
 
   ing, it is Lawful to fire at him, and destroy bim 
 •le." 
 
 The Malay term ie amuco s which we have corrupted to 
 a /, . and from this we have framed /<> run <i muck. 
 -<■ i- used to designate :i Furious and indis- 
 iiinate onset : — 
 
 I . . and satire-proof be scours th< 
 
 in [ndian much at all he me 1 > it \ i.i \ 
 
 Satire's my weapon, bul I'm t iiscreet 
 
 run a iiiiii/i, ami tilt at all I meet." Pop] 
 
 " Mn. i -. Finland ilt'. in tin' Scandinavian 
 
 Varland, who ruled over the Upsal domain, was be- 
 elf. II'- became di ind bud himself down t>> 
 
 it. when he had slept but a little while, becried out, 
 
   'h bim; l"tt, when thej t""k hold « * t " 1 » I — hi 
 i up. m lii- I.-;:-. and when they laid hold of hi- legs, she 
 
 ■' [ .ith. 
 
 \ land in a fatal hour 
 . i . imchild' 
 
 |o the dwclling-pl 
 
 i • i >
 
 EFFECTS OF COLONISATION. 105 
 
 Trampled to death by Skyta's shore, 
 
 His corse his faithful followers bore, 
 
 And there they burn'd, with heavy hearts, 
 
 The good chief killed — killed by witchcraft's arts." 
 
 Lainq's Chronicles of the Kings of Norway. 
 
 Assassin. The word Assassin, according to Lane in 
 his " Modern Egypt," is derived from the Arabic word 
 hhash-shash, signifying a smoker, or eater of hemp, 
 which has an intoxicating effect. The name was first 
 given to Arab warriors in Syria, in the time of the 
 Crusades, who made use of intoxicating and soporific 
 drugs, in order to render their enemies insensible. In 
 such a state they would be unprepared for resistance, 
 and fall easy victims to the murderer. 
 
 Jacobite. The same author gives the following ex- 
 planation of the origin of the term Jacobite. A sect of 
 Christian Copts were called Ya-a-ehibeii, or Ya-a- 
 cheobees, Jacobites, from Jacobus Barodaeus, a Syrian, 
 who was a chief propagator of the Eutychian heresy. 
 Those who adhered to the Greek faith were called 
 Melchees ; that is to say, Royalist, because they agreed 
 in faith with the Emperor Constantine. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 EFFECTS OF COLONISATION. 
 
 Colonisation has a tendency not only to add to the 
 words of a language, but also to corrupt it. New 
 
 F 5
 
 I i M < i - OF < OLONISA1 [OK. 
 
 . new object*, new habita of life rail forth new 
 expressions, al the Bame time that words, in many 
 casesj deviate from their original signification. Many 
 words havecrept into the English language, in Ann lira, 
 which are quite oew to it: others have changed their 
 meaning; others are merely fanciful. From America 
 v,,. h ?! adopted to progress, to effectuate. Clever, in 
 An.' ri i. has gained a meaning which it does doI expr< -- 
 in England ; as, a ch m r hottst . a el oer son, a eh w r o/ /-</<>. 
 ck, hedge, boss, absquatilize, are from America; nor 
 (1.) we quite understand what is meanl bj a /a// smell. 
 Political parties arc there designated by terms which 
 have never been applied to any thing, living or dead, on 
 this Bide of tin- Atlantic: so thai looking at the Eng- 
 lish language, as unproved by Americanisms, there in 
 
 »on for a New York Negro barber's saying 
 Mr. Pearon, " You speak English pretty well, for 
 Britisher." The inhabitants "i different localities re- 
 ceive their appropriate nicknames, understood and re- 
 lished on the spot, hut unmeaning t" the uninitiated. 
 What do we understand by Suckers, Pukes, Wolverines, 
 II . Corncrdkers, Buckeye, and Ring-tailed Roarers f 
 
 A iniii may ha\ e emigrated from the old country under 
 
 the name of Jack Smith. It may, however, he in vain 
 enquire for him under this name, as, without a patent, 
 
 he ha- perhaps assumed the name of Populorum High' 
 
 tow* /■, <>i ( . i L 
 
 i vagaries are, however, harmless in themseh 
 
 and if they tickle the fancy of the communities into 
 
 which they are from time t" time introduced, they may 
 i ked upon a- minor contributions t" the sum ol
 
 SUMMARY. 107 
 
 human happiness. The world, without a dash of non- 
 sense, would scarcely be worth living in, and our Trans- 
 Atlantic kindred have their full share of dry humour. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 It is not, then, so much individual terms which tend 
 to corrupt a language, for these have no effect on the 
 structure of the language, it is rather the licentious 
 and pedantic introduction of foreign phrases and idioms, 
 never to be justified, except in peculiar cases of neces- 
 sity. In a language so copious as the English is now, 
 such necessity will seldom arise. 
 
 " Surely far more dear 
 . Is good plain English to an English ear, 
 Than lisp'd out phrases stol'n from every clime, 
 And strangely alter'd to conceal the crime. 
 Yet without French, how dull the page would look ! 
 Must no italics mark when speaks a duke ? 
 Must peers and beauties flirt in common print, 
 And no small letters mark a statesman's hint ? " 
 
 The Novel, a Satire. 
 
 As Butler says, shall men 
 
 " Be natives whercso'er they roam, 
 And only foreigners at home ? " 
 
 Hear the beautifully expressed lament of Arthur 
 Golding, on the too free introduction, even of classical 
 
 F 6
 
 108 BUMHABT. 
 
 terms, in bis day. The verses are prefixed to Baret's 
 klviarie," 1560: — 
 
 •■ All L r "'iil inditers find 
 < )ur English tongue driven, almost, oul of mind, 
 Dismembered, hacked, maimed, rent and tome, 
 Defac'd, patch'd, marr'd and made a akorni 
 
 11 then odds : — 
 
 •■ No doubt luit men would shortly find there is 
 pei feci order, as firm certaintie, 
 grounded rules. t<> try oul things amiss, 
 As mucb sweet grace, as sweel varietie 
 Of words and phrases, as good quantitie 
 For verse and prose, in English every w 
 A- any common language hath this daie. 
 
   And were we given, as well to like our owne, 
 And for to cleanse it from the noisome we< 
 Of affectation, which hath overgrowne 
 Ungracious! -"1 and native Beed, 
 
 for to borrow where we have no need, 
 l would prick near 1 1 1 » - learned tongues in strength, 
 1 '. r< 1 1 inc< . and mat eh me some of them at Length.' 1 
 
 [f observations like these were called for in 1660, if 
 itrong a proti this was entered againsl the too 
 
 introduction of terms borrowed from the classics 
 at thai period, how much more Btronglj have we rea- 
 son to protesl againsl the introduction of Continental 
 frivolities in the presenl da) ? The language in which 
 Shakspeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, and Byron, and 
 many other eminent poets, have in whioh Hume, 
 
 and Robertson, and Gibbon have narrated; in which 
 Addison, Swift, and Johnson have written; in which 
 Burke, and Pitt, and Fox, and Sheridan have spoken.
 
 SUMMARY. 109 
 
 / 
 
 needs not to ask alms of its neighbours. It has done 
 with them, except where the improvements in arts and 
 sciences, and the introduction of new commodities, 
 render the use of adventitious terms necessary. It has 
 already culled the sweets and made them its own. 
 
 " The Italian," says Camden, " is pleasant, but without sinews, 
 like a still fleeting water. The French delicate, but ever nice, as 
 a woman scarce, daring to open her lips, for fear of marring her 
 countenance. The Spanish majestical, but fulsome, running too 
 much on the o, and terrible like the divell in a play. The Dutch 
 manlike, but withal very harsh, as one ready, at every word, to 
 pick a quarrel. Now we, in borrowing from them, give the strength 
 of consonants to the Italian, the full sound of words to the French, 
 the variety of terminations to the Spanish, and the mollyfying of 
 more vowels to the Dutch ; and so, like bees, gather the honey from 
 tlieir good properties, and leave the dregs to themselves ; and thus, 
 when svbstantialnesse combineth ivith delightfidnesse, and fullnesse 
 with finenesses seemlincsse with portlinesse, and currentnesse with 
 stayednesse, how can the language that consisteth of all these sound 
 filter than most full of sweetnesse ! "
 
 110 
 
 PART III. 
 
 (, R A M M ATI C.\ L. 
 
 SKCTION I. 
 
 J Hi: PRESENT STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH 
 LANG1 \'.l. 
 
 (iiat. i. 
 
 in 1 1: i h>\. 
 
 Amidsi the multitudinous accomplishments "t' the 
 present age, a knowledge <>t English grammar is by 
 oo means a common qualification. Many Bpeak and 
 wriii their mother-tongue, with general accuracy, il 
 true, who at the -nmc time | bul a eery Buper- 
 
 ficial knowledge of its grammatical structure. We 
 cannol call thai man a Bkilful anatomisl whose know- 
 ledge does qoI extend beyond tin- outward configura- 
 tion of the human subject, and who is ignoranl of th< 
 combinations <>i animal machinery which give life and 
 action. So also the Btringin ether of certain Bel 
 
 phrases and authorised expr< isions, with a correel i 
 imitation, will often hide a multitude "l infirmiti 
 which would soon become apparent in circumstance - of
 
 INTRODUCTION. 1 1 1 
 
 difficulty, or under unusual tests. If a knowledge of 
 the strict meaning of words, their arrangement in a 
 sentence, and their relation to, and dependence upon, each 
 other, is requisite in any one kind of composition, more 
 than in another, it is in the construction of legal docu- 
 ments. Property, character, life, and death hang upon 
 their very syllables and letters; and yet one of the 
 acutest lawyers of modern times has declared that he 
 had never seen an act of parliament through which he 
 would not drive a "coach and six," that is, in less 
 figurative language, in which there were not loopholes 
 of very commodious dimensions. Surely such laxity, 
 ambiguity, and confusion are altogether inconsistent . 
 with a strict knowledge of grammar, and an unam- 
 biguous arrangement of words. 
 
 If we look back to many of the standard authors 
 even of the last century, we shall find that they abound 
 in grammatical errors, in almost every conceivable 
 form, and my object will be, to show by example and 
 argument, that the statement is not overcharged. Nor 
 do I wish to confine this charge to writers of the last, 
 and of preceding centuries. It is applicable, in a very 
 serious degree, to many of the most popular authors of the 
 presenl age. "Hence," as observed by a writer in "Black- 
 wood's Magazine," in an article entitled "Elements of 
 Rhetoric," — hence an anomaly, not found, perhaps, in 
 any literature but ours, that the most eminent English 
 writers do not write their mother-tongue, without con- 
 tinual violations of propriety. With the single excep- 
 tion of Mr. Wordsworth, who has paid an honourable 
 attention to the purity and accuracy of his English, we
 
 1 12 IK I R0D1 I I ION. 
 
 believe that there is not one celebrated author of this 
 day who baa written two pages consecutively without 
 some flagranl impropriety in the grammar; such as the 
 
 rnal confusion of the pneterite with the past parti- 
 ciple, confusion of verba transitive with intransitive, 
 
 . &c, or Bome violation, more or Less, with the ver- 
 nacular idiom." Thia ie not only true aa an assertion, 
 lmt the writer has himself also inadvertently given as 
 an example of that which he waa in the very act of 
 justly condemning; for it is not consistent with the 
 English idiom to Bay :i violation with a principle or a 
 rule, but a violation of a principle or a rule. The 
 author had previously said "violation of propriety .'« 
 The observation indeed made by Swift, in a remon- 
 Btrance addressed to the Earl of Oxford, is -till appli- 
 
 »le, — that, "in many instances, it (the English 
 offended againsl every part of grammar.*' 
 
 Much ha- been done of late years in cultivating the 
 
 nmiar of the English language. This, added to the 
 more genera] diffusion of education, has banished some 
 of those flagrant errors which were by no means un- 
 common in English composition; whilsl our unbounded 
 
 ial intercourse, conversation, and collision of Benti* 
 ment, together with the necessity of daily composition 
 imposed upon public men, have given a facility of 
 writing unknown to former tim< The articles which 
 appear in manj of the leading public papers frequently 
 afford the finesl imene of powerful and accurate 
 
 composition. They constitute, in (act, an essential part 
 of the literature of the day. 
 
 There are many to whom the observations which 1
 
 INTRODUCTION. 113 
 
 am about to offer may appear unnecessary ; but such 
 must bear in mind, that there arc others to whom those 
 very observations may be both novel and useful. It 
 must also be admitted, that we require to be, now and 
 then, reminded of that which was once familiar to us ; 
 and that a subject is sometimes presented in a new and 
 a stronger light than that in which we have been accus- 
 tomed to view it ; and that some things worthy of at- 
 tention may yet have altogether escaped our notice. 
 In pursuing my object I shall endeavour to give princi- 
 ples and reasons, for a principle once understood is 
 never forgotten. It is in grammar* what a physical 
 principle is to the man of science — he never forgets it, 
 and never misapplies it. A principle is a landmark, to 
 which we can always look forward in doubt and per- 
 plexity. It is a pedestal on which we can take our 
 stand, prepared to climb higher and higher, but never 
 to descend. 
 
 These pages, then, are offered as a small contribution 
 to an object in which much still remains to be done. Too 
 many persons are satisfied, if they can but find a certain 
 phrase absolutely in print; they arc more than satisfied 
 — they arc triumphant, if they can appeal to an author of 
 reputation. Such a practice must ever have a tendency 
 to perpetuate error. That which is right is right, with- 
 out any authority at all ; and that which is wrong 
 cannot be made right by any authority. If the fol- 
 lowing observations on the " Structure of the English 
 Language" should attain no other object beyond that 
 of shaking this misplaced confidence, they will not have 
 been offered in vain.
 
 1 11 l >i;m.i\ OF i in 
 
 I -hall DOl niter into the vexed . [in-t !■ m U to the 
 
 Dumber of the " Parte of Speech " requisite for the ex- 
 pri asion of our ideas. Two thousand yean have added 
 nothing new to the Bubjed : and, though there may be 
 much thai is ingenious in such discussions, t'> the 
 leral reader there is uol much thai is practically 
 useful The Parte of Speech, as usually received, will 
 be admitted withoul question, and the prominenl pro- 
 perties and positions of each in the English langua 
 as now constructed, will be briefly exhibited. The 
 limited nature i.t' this work will nol admil of more. 
 Under the genera] head of " Structure," I propose to 
 explain the origin of the "Parts of Speech; w to give 
 examples of false grammar, and the false position <>i' 
 terms, and to oontrasl them with sentences grammati- 
 cally ami properly constructed : to notice th< effeel of 
 connecting particles when repeated, nr omitted and 
 understood; and cursorily to examine and discuss some 
 of the unsettled idioms of the langua 
 
 CHAP. 11. 
 
 ORIGIN "i i hi r \i;i - 01 BPE1 I u. 
 
 Ait. languages, thai evi r existed, are founded upon the 
 same grammatical principles, in all their gn en- 
 
 tials. He, therefore, who understands the philosophical 
 principles, on w hich any one language is founded, has 
 Bubstance of the grammar of every other, thoi
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 115 
 
 lie has not got the form. Before, therefore, we can 
 show the peculiar characteristics of one language, it 
 would be necessary to show in what respect it differs 
 from other kindred languages, in particular; or even 
 from more remote languages. All languages arrive at 
 the same end, but by different forms, and in different 
 degrees of perfection. 
 
 The Noun Substantive. 
 
 All languages must have terms to express tilings — 
 they must have the names of things ; for without these 
 the first step to language would be wanting. This 
 gives rise to the noun, or name — the corresponding 
 term, in Greek, and Latin, signifying simply name. As 
 language advances there must be terms expressive of 
 the state or condition of things. This leads to the origin 
 of the 
 
 Noun Adjective. 
 
 As the noun substantive simply expresses the sub- 
 stance or being of a thing, as tree, so the noun adjective 
 expresses some attribute of the noun substantive, as high 
 tree. The noun substantive, then, expresses the being 
 of a thing only ; the noun adjective, as the word implies, 
 is a name added to express, either the essence of a thing, 
 or some contingent quality belonging to it. 
 
 Pronoun. 
 
 But, as it would be inconvenient to repeat the name 
 of a thing, over and over again, in a sentence] another
 
 ] 16 ORIGIN OF 1 m: 
 
 pari of Bpeecfa has been invented, t<> supply its place, 
 and tlii— i- called a pronoun — that is, something -ul>- 
 Btituted for the noun — a for-noun. By the use of the 
 pronoun tit*- frequent repetition of the noun is avoided. 
 How convenienl the use of the pronoun i-, may 1 >«.- .-■ 
 from such a sentence aa the following: — 
 
 'But think en Joseph, when ii shall be well with thee (thee 
 •i| in the place of the butler's name)] and ahow kimli 
 
 ph prays tlu-<'. onto Joseph, and make mentii f Joseph nnto 
 
 Pharaoh, and bring Joseph <>ut of this bouse, for indeed ./■■^>jih 
 [en away from the land <>f the Hebrews, and here also 
 ,'/( has done nothing, thai th<-_\ Bhould |>ut Joseph into tin- 
 iluni: i." 
 
 - 
 
 It' we substitute the pronoun / for the nominative 
 
 Joseph, and me for the objective, we avoid the 
 
 frequent and inconvenient repetition of the noun Joseph, 
 
 The Article. 
 
 In modern languages the article i- considered a ne- 
 Bary pari of speech. The Latin language is defec- 
 tive, on account of the want of the article, and is obli 
 to have recourse to the use of the demonstrative pro- 
 nouns "ii as when a definite and specific dcsigna- 
 tion is wanted. The Greek language would say oi 
 ocoSsko,] the English, the twelve ; the Latin, tV/tduodecim, 
 those twelve. Winn Virgil Bays, "Fas odisst vv 
 the word viros, signifying nun. does ool designate any 
 particular men, though that designation is intended. 
 In the Greek, indefinite signification was marked simply 
 by the abscna of the definite article. This is an <■»•<>- 
 Qomj , of \\ bich the < rreek i- ool often 'jnilt v ; for it 
 
 I the ni"~t prodignl of lane Thus.
 
 EARTS OF SPEECH. 117 
 
 KXrjapxos would signify "one Clearchus," but 6 KXTjap- 
 %os, the Clearchus, already mentioned : iraaa aXrjdsia, 
 all truth ; ■>} iraaa aXrjOsia, all the truth. 
 
 The Verb. 
 
 With the noun substantive, the noun adjective, and 
 the article, we cannot however form a sentence, or 
 even a simple proposition ; because, as yet, wc have no 
 affirmation or negation, one of which is essential to a 
 proposition. The word or part of speech which effects 
 this is called the verb or the word — the icord of icords. 
 A verb is the vital principle of a sentence — it is the 
 moving power. The Chinese most happily call verbs 
 live words, nouns dead icords, and all other parts of speech 
 auxiliaries; and it is a singular coincidence, that the 
 Chinese should have hit precisely the notion of the Greek 
 grammarians, who designated verbs ra sfM^v^orara 
 tov Xoyov, the most animated parts of speech. A noun 
 and a verb of themselves may constitute a perfect pro- 
 position, as, man dies. Here we have a subject, man, 
 and we assign or attribute to man, that he dies. "We 
 have therefore a subject and an attribute, with an affir- 
 mation, and the sentence is perfect. On this account 
 some of the ancient grammarians allowed only two parts 
 of speech — noting and verbs. All others they con- 
 sidered as auxiliaries only. There are. however, different 
 kinds of verbs, as active transitive, active intransitive, 
 and passive : active transitive, as, Caesar conquered 
 Britain; passive, as Britain was conquered bj Caesar; 
 active intransitive, that is. when the action of the ^erb 
 does not fall on a noun, but i> simply confined to the
 
 I 18 ORIGIN 0\ I III 
 
 nt. as, man thinks, birds Jly; or a verb may imply 
 simple existence, and it is then denominated ;> freri 
 
 ttantive, that is, a verb implying the ntfofaxftd or 
 fetii^ of a thing. 
 
 77/r I'll it iii [ill . 
 
 Another part of speech is called a participle, that is, n 
 partake, inasmuch as it partakes of the oature <>t* a 
 verb, and also of'a noun adjective, as, the mother loving 
 her child. Here the word loving implies to love, and it 
 also implies time or towe, indefinitely or definitely, 
 according to circumstances. So far it possi sa - the 
 oature of a verb. Bui it also expresses an attribuu 
 — a capability of Loving, and so far it partakes of 
 the nature of an adjective; bo <l<> having lowed, being 
 loved, having In in /urn/, about to love, about /<> bt 
 loved. This pari of speech is therefore called a parti* 
 ciple, or participator. In English, like the other parts 
 of Bpeech, it is very simple in form; in Greek it i- 
 quite the contrary, running through a greal variety oi 
 forma 
 
 The remaining parts of Bpeech. - namely, Advcr-h. 
 
 nj unction, Preposition, and Interjection, in English 
 never vary their form, however applied, ami may be con- 
 sidered more than others as subsidiary parts of speech. 
 
 7'/n Adverb. 
 
 \n adverb, as its name implies, ml verbum, is gene- 
 rally joined t" :i verb, in order to indicate it- mode, 
 or it- intensity of action, as, he behaved unmercifully, 
 that i- in an unmerciful manner; the arrow flew swiftly;
 
 PARTS OF SPEECn. 119 
 
 or it is joined to an adjective, to qualify its signification, 
 as, simply elegant, incomparably beautiful. 
 
 The Preposition. 
 
 A preposition, as the name implies, is something set 
 before — that is, set before a word,'as, to him, icith him, 
 by him, from him, &c. ; or it enters into composition 
 with a noun, as, abstinence, or with an adjective, as, 
 antediluvian, or with a participle, as, over-grown, or 
 with a verb, as, distribute, over-rate. In English, the 
 preposition is always followed by the objective case ; but, 
 the objective case being the same as the nominative, 
 the distinction is not outwardly visible. If we use the 
 pronoun after the preposition, the principle is imme- 
 diately evident, as, to him, with him, by him, &c. ; and 
 to he, with he, by he. 
 
 The Conjunction. 
 
 Conjunctions are used to couple either Avords or 
 sentences together, and are denominated copulative or 
 disjunctive, as, John and Thomas, neither John nor 
 Thomas ; this and that, either this or that : nor bein<r 
 the correlative of neither, or of either. Conjunctions 
 couple like cases of nouns and tenses of verbs ; as you 
 neither respect him, nor me ; him and me being in the 
 objective case. As both these words, him and me, 
 essentially depend upon the verb respect, it is obvious 
 that we cannot say respect /. In composition, much of 
 the appropriateness and beauty of a sentence depends 
 upon the repetition, or the entire absence, of the con- 
 junction, according to the purport of the sentence.
 
 120 ORIGIN <>l 1 ill. PAB I - "i BPEE4 11. 
 
 The ////' rji ction. 
 
 An interjection, as its name implies, ia Bomething 
 thrown in — an ejaculation, in no way affecting the 
 grammatical structure of a sentence; it neither falls 
 under logical nor grammatical consideration; a-. II.. 
 alas] perished, :it an early age. .Many interjections are 
 inarticulate sounds, Buch n- proceed from irrational 
 creatures, and are merely symptomatic of pleasure or 
 pain. 
 
 In English, then, we have ten parts of speech, all of 
 which may occur in a single sentence, though the noun 
 and the verb, of themselves, are capable of formini 
 perfect proposition, as, man thinks. Here we have a sub- 
 
 . ///////. to whom we attribute or assign the faculty 
 of thinkii We have therefore a Bubject, of which 
 
 we affirm something thai i-. a perfect proposition. 
 < )r. again, :t proposition contains :i subject, an attribute, 
 and an object, a.-, vice produces misery. Here nee is 
 the subject, of which we Bpeak, and we predicate of it 
 thai it produces something, which something is misery, 
 The term misery is the object. It is thai to which tin- 
 action of the verb produces is directed ; it i- tin' objeel 
 
 which it tall-. By introducing other words, ;i- aux- 
 iliaries, \\'- may employ, in ilii- "lie proposition, :ill the 
 different parts of speech, Wemaj Bay," j vice pro- 
 
 duces mi r\." II' re, then, we have the addition of an 
 article and a noun adjective, We may go further, and 
 .. •• :i gross vice corrupting the reason and 
 the heart, in the end, alas] certainly produces misery." 
 Here the framework i- \i<-'- produces misery. All the
 
 GRAMMAR REGARDS CONSTRUCTION ONLY. 121 
 
 other parts of speech which enter into the composition 
 of this sentence are subsidiary. In the construction of 
 a sentence, then, the subject, the attribute, and the 
 object, should always be kept distinctly in view. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 GRAMMAR REGARDS CONSTRUCTION ONLY. 
 
 Now, Grammar strictly regards the construction of a 
 sentence, and has nothing whatever to do with the 
 truth or falsehood of a proposition. A proposition may 
 be strictly grammatical and true, as, man is mortal ; or 
 false, as man is a horse. Both sentences are gram- 
 matical ; but the one true, the other false. If, however, 
 a proposition is ^grammatical, properly speaking, it 
 has no meaning at all. We may guess at the author 
 or speaker's meaning, but, strictly considered, an un- 
 grammatical, and therefore an incongruous and incon- 
 sistent, sentence has no definite meaning. If we say 
 " John were the persons who didst it;" we have first a 
 noun singular, and individual, John, joined to a verb 
 were, denoting plurality ; and again a plural noun, per- 
 sons, having reference to a singular and individual noun, 
 John ; and again a verb of the second person, didst, re- 
 ferring to a pronoun of the third person, the relative 
 who being of course of the same person as the noun to 
 which it relates. We may guess at the meaning in- 
 tended, but, technically speaking, such a sentence ha.< 
 no meaning at all. Without rules of construction, 
 
 G
 
 122 NUMBERS < >\ s< \\ SB. 
 
 therefore, to fix the meaning of language, the oom- 
 pticated affairs of civilised life could not be conducted. 
 All would 1"- error and uncertainty. Grammatical 
 arrangement, then, has nothing to do with the essential 
 /it/Hi/ of words. A- a matter of grammar, it is im- 
 material whether we Bay, umn is n vegetable, or nmu is 
 
 ll II II III III III. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL < < INSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 
 
 ( BAP. I. 
 
 m Mia Rfl "i N''i N6. 
 
 Co begin with the Noun. Logically Bpeaking, there is a 
 \ ariety of nouns; grammatically, all arc Looked upon 
 
 names : ami, whether i unon or individual, arc all 
 
 subjeel to the Bame rules. First, then, let u- consider 
 nouns, with respect to their unity ami plurality. The 
 Greek anil some other languages have three numbers 
 of nouns : the singular, Bpeaking of om : the dual, of tin> ; 
 the plural} of any number ///<</•/ than ///•(». This mak 
 
 language more c plex, and uselessly The 
 
 modern Greek ha- Lost the dual number. The Gothic 
 had the dual number, languages derived from it have 
 l"-t the dual number. Faulkner, a .l< mil "I Paraguay , 
 thai the language of Patagonia ha- the dual 
 number. The langu if Lapland is Baid also t" have
 
 NUMBERS OF NOUNS. 123 
 
 it ; and Crantz, one of the Moravian missionaries, says, 
 that the language of Greenland has a dual number. 
 The English has but two numbers, the singular and 
 the plural; the singular having reference to one, the 
 plural to any number more than one. It will some- 
 times happen, however, that a term, from its essential 
 signification, embraces more than one ; but this plurality 
 is comprehended in the mind as unity. As, corn is the 
 staff of life, variety is pleasing, the multitude was in- 
 numerable ; corn, variety, multitude, imply a plurality, 
 but are comprehended in the mind as unity. Such words 
 then, though implying many, may have a verb of the 
 singular number ; each term being in itself a gram- 
 matical integrity or whole, composed of several parts. 
 With respect, however, to nouns of multitude, we 
 frequently meet with a confusion between nouns of 
 quantity and nouns of number. Whatever cannot be 
 conveniently numbered, and is not reckoned numerically, 
 or one by one, we speak of as a quantity ; as, a quantity 
 of corn, of sand, of leaves, but not a quantity of men, or 
 of oxen, because these are usually reckoned numerically, 
 as four hundred men, five hundred oxen. 
 
 Examples, 
 
 " The congregation was almost exclusively of the people who 
 had attended the execution, and quantities of men, as wel] as women, 
 shrouded in their black silk faldettes, were listening to a tall, strong, 
 Capuchin friar." — Head's Bubbles from the Jinn, inns of Nassau. 
 
 " The deserts," says Adanson, "are entirely barren, except where 
 they are found to produce Berpents, and in such quantities, that 
 jome extensive plains are almost entirely covered with them." — 
 Palcys Quotation from Adanson. 
 
 a 2
 
 124 \i MB! Bfl I T BTOl SB. 
 
 Numbers in I ►« » t It cases, though neither in number 
 nor quantity, would serpents constitute fertility; uor is 
 abundance of serpents the opposite <>t" barrenness, when 
 -\« aking of the absence of vegetable productions. 
 
 B ich ;i result is .1 demonstration, that qo Bucfa law hai 
 tablished in human nature, because nothing like even ;i 
 millionth pari "t" such a quantity has been produced in our world." 
 Sharon Turner's Sam it History. 
 
 \_:iin, number of people, and nol quantity. We 
 don't Bay, How much men had Napoleon at Waterloo, as 
 if speaking of quantity ; but how many, as -peaking of 
 number, 
 
 A uns of Multitude. 
 
 N <   u n ~ of multitude sometimes imply a generality 
 
 only, and nol a collective unity. In Buch a case a 
 
 plural verb is necessary ; as in the following example, 
 from Law rence's. " Lectun , 
 
 •• It has generally 1 d observed, that the European population 
 
 be • oited St I tall, and characterised by a pale and sallow 
 tntenance." 
 
 Now the tallness of the population cannot be universal, 
 though it may be general. We cannol speak <>f it as 
 unity, bul ae plurality. Wecan Bay, with propriety, tin 1 
 population U great, because each individual, whatever 
 may be his physical <t mental peculiarities, is a con- 
 stituent part of its greatness ; bul each individual of a 
 whole population i- not necessarily a constituent pari of 
 their tallm The population does nol constituti 
 
 tall unity. So also we <an -ay. tlu-iv M B '.: n at variety
 
 NUMBERS OF NOUNS. 125 
 
 of flowers, because each flower constitutes a part of that 
 variety. 
 
 " That people," says Herodotus, " rejects the use of temples, of 
 altars, and of statues, and smiles at the folly of those nations 
 who imagine that the Gods are sprung from, or bear any affinity with. 
 the human nature." — Gibbon, c. viii. 
 
 A universality of smiling is not necessarily implied, 
 nor would the implication of such a universality be 
 necessarily true, though the implication of a generality 
 might be so; a generality is all that is wanted. We do 
 not, in this case, comprehend the whole Persian nation 
 as a collective whole. They are spoken of distributively, 
 and not collectively. We therefore expect reject and 
 smile, not rejects and smiles. 
 
 It sometimes happens, that a noun of the plural 
 number is used simply with reference to a space of 
 time, taken collectively. In such a case, it will admit 
 of a pronoun being joined to it, though of the singular 
 number; as, 
 
 " I have ventured, 
 Like little wanton boys, that swim on bladders, 
 This many summers, on a sea of glory." Shakspeare. 
 
 As a general rule, a noun of the singular number 
 must be followed by a verb of the singular number ; 
 a noun of the plural number by a verb of the plural 
 number ; two or more nouns of the singular number, 
 coupled by a copulative conjunction, by a verb of 
 the plural number. There are, however, exceptions 
 to this rule, the force of which we are disposed to allow. 
 as, when two nouns have an indivisibility, or concentra- 
 tion of meaning. Virgil is considered one of the mosl 
 
 g 3
 
 \l HBERS OF KOI NTS. 
 
 elegant, as w < II as one of the moel correol writers in 
 the Latin language, ye1 we find: 
 
   Exoritur clamorque virum, clangorqne tubarum.* 1 
 
 /Eneid. lib. ii. 813. 
 
 Again: 
 
 M Omnu spes Danauro, et coepti fiducu belli 
 Palladlfl auxiliis semper m »•///." Sneid. lil>. ii. 163. 
 
 This may perhaps be accounted for on the principle, 
 that the verb, though not expressed, must be applied t«> 
 i 1m- first noun separately. The Becond noun would then 
 stand alone, and require a verb of the angular number. 
 in, Phaedrus, 
 
 •• Quia dolor ft gaudium aaacet totam ritam. 
 S in the New Testament, Matthew, wiv. .">•"». 
 
 i 7; -,7) tt rat. 
 
 in, M:itt. w i. 1 7. : 
 
 •,, Km alfta mm awtitaXvfy 
 
 In St. Pauls Epistle to Titua we find a similar 
 e, in the English translation. 
 
 I; it , \. 1 1 their mind and conscience '^ defiled."— Ck. i. \ . I"-. 
 
 And again, in the Book "t Proverbs, 
 
   When distress and anguisb conu th upon you." —   Prov. i. 27. 
 
 In the case of a verb of the aingular number following 
 the two nouns, 6 ovpavos kcu >) yi< there is a peculiar pro- 
 priety. The pae ing awaj of these two object i 
 represented as absolutely simultaneous. — a diversity of 
 objects, but a simultaneity of operation.
 
 CASES OF NOUNS. 127 
 
 So again in the case of Jiesh and blood ; in their 
 natural state they are co-existent, and in the passage 
 quoted above they are taken together, as one indivisible 
 subject, and followed by a verb of the singular number. 
 So also clamor and clangor, spes and Jiducia, mind and 
 conscience, distress and anguish, are co-ordinates. There 
 is a certain identity of meaning between the nouns thus 
 coupled together ; and even in the quotation from 
 Phaedrus, the inseparable mixture of grief and joy, 
 which is found in human life, is forcibly expressed by a 
 verb of the singular number, " dolor et gaudium miscet." 
 These are exceptions to the ordinary rule of grammar, 
 that two or more nouns of the singular number shall be 
 followed by a verb of the plural number, but the 
 exceptions are founded on the peculiar signification of 
 the terms. * 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 CASES OF NOUNS. 
 
 The word case is derived from the Latin word casus, 
 a fall, the Greek word used to denote a case having 
 precisely the same meaning. Grammatically speaking, 
 
 * Some nouns, of foreign origin, form their plurals according (o 
 tin' principles of the languages from which they have been derived ; 
 as arcana, errata, data, genera, radii, vortices, from the Latin; 
 automata, phenomena, criteria, theses, from tin- Greek; Cherubim, 
 Seraphim, from the Bebrew; with some others. Custom authorises 
 encomiums, not encomia. 
 
 g 4
 
 128 < LSE6 "I Si >1 NTS. 
 
 the wonl i,/-. \- w-, ] to express the »■* >inlit I< »ii of a noun, 
 tin- relation which it bean t" some other word or words 
 with which it is connected. It i- obvious, thai such 
 condition <>r relationship may undergo great variation, 
 and that cases may be numerou-. varying with every 
 conceivable degree of relationship. Bence, different 
 languages have different numbers of cases. ///. with, 
 from, l';i, within, without, above, beneath, beyond, jpc., 
 mighl all have their respective cases. Such a principle 
 would uselessly add to the complexity of language; ami 
 therefore the number of cases, in most languages, has 
 
 ;i reduced within comparatively narrow hound.-. The 
 
 Hebrew had four, the Greek five, the Latin six. the 
 Sanscrit eight, the Finnish and Laplandish fourteen. 
 Fielstrom, as quoted by Bosworth, gives nine cases of 
 the Laplandish language, expressed by variable termi- 
 
 Nom. Joulke, :i t"".it. AM. Jbulkest, from :i f""t. 
 
 Gen. Joulken, "t';i foot. Priv, Joulket, without ;i foot. 
 
 D.u. Joulkaa, to   i""t. Med. Joulkin, with a foot. 
 
 Aoc Joulken, a foot Locat. Joulkesn, in .1 foot. 
 
 .I..iilk. a foot. 
 
 It i- obvious thai such a principle might he extended 
 far beyond these limit-. 
 
 Tin- English has discarded all useless variations of 
 tin- noun, and expresses the relationship of the noun t -   
 tin- word with which it stands o< nnected bj tin- use oi 
 prepositions. We have, in fact, but one esse or varia- 
 tion in tin- English noun, - the genitive or possessive 
 for the objective case, though diffcrcnl in sig- 
 nification from the nominative, is yel the same inform;
 
 CASES OF NOUNS. 
 
 129 
 
 and that difference in form becomes visible only when 
 the pronoun is used, instead of the noun. As Alex- 
 ander conquered Darius ; or Darius was conquered by 
 Alexander. Though the order is here reversed, and an 
 interchange takes place between the nominative and the 
 objective case of the two nouns, Alexander and Darius, 
 yet there is no change of form. I respected him. He 
 respected me. Here the pronouns I and he change their 
 form according to their relationship to the verb, re- 
 spected. 
 
 Some of the ancient grammarians did not consider 
 the nominative as a case at all. It is in fact the start- 
 ing point. It is the noun in its primary and simple 
 form, and cannot therefore be a case, or fall, from a 
 given state. They represented the nominative case by 
 a perpendicular line. Every variation from this line 
 they considered as so many stages, or falls, downwards. 
 Others considered the nominative as a case indicating 
 the noun, in that state in which it simply falls from the 
 mind. This case they called the upright case. All 
 other cases were called oblique cases. 
 
 Nora 
 
 The oblique cases might be expressed indefinitely, 
 according to the genius of any particular language. 
 
 g o
 
 The Hebrew used prefixes to denote the cases of 
 noun-, and did not inflect the nouns themselves. This 
 is tin- convenient and philosophical principle, which 
 the English language has adopted. 
 
 The same prefixes, without any variation, in the 
 1 1 tuvu . sen e t" denote the cases of the plural number, 
 .i change taking place in the termination of the noun, 
 to denote plurality. The Greek formed it- cases, nol 
 by prefixes, but by varying the termination of the 
 noun. These variations, being formed upon ten dif- 
 ferent «!' clensions, livr of Bunple, and five of contracted 
 nouns, with their singular, dual, and plural number, 
 
 ether with an infinity of irregular, capricious, and 
 anomalous nouns, form a labyrinth of variations to 
 which qo memory is adequate. The Latin- formed 
 their cases in a similar manner, though with less com- 
 plexity. The modern Italian, derived from the Latin. 
 has discarded these variations, and uses a prefix. The 
 mixed Indian dialects form their cases not bj prepo- 
 ritions, or variable terminations, bul bj postpositions; 
 as, Hhoda,aGod; Hhoda-ka, of a God ; Hhoda-ko, to a 
 i . kL The French language denote- it- cases by pre- 
 positions. 
 
 Langu thai have adopted the principle of ex- 
 
 pressing cast - by prepositions gain immensely in 
 simplicity and convenience. It is true, by such means, 
 they introduce a greater Dumber of small word-; but, 
 in speaking a language, this i- of trifling consequence, 
 because words coalesce so much with each other in pro- 
 nunciation, that this imperceptible amalgamation forms 
 one of our greatest difficulties in understanding a
 
 NOMINATIVE CASE. 131 
 
 spoken language with which we are but imperfectly 
 acquainted. 
 
 The form, then, of cases, and the number of cases, 
 differ in different languages. The object of cases, 
 however formed, is to express the different condition of 
 the noun, or of its substitute the pronoun ; and this may- 
 be effected by variable terminations, by prepositions, or 
 by postpositions. All cases in English are expressed 
 by prepositions, except when the genitive case is 
 expressed by 's following the noun with the apostrophe, 
 which is nothing more than the old legitimate Saxon 
 genitive case abbreviated. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 The Nominative case denotes the noun, as the subject 
 of the verb, and every proposition must have a nomi- 
 native case and a verb. The nominative case is gene- 
 rally expressed by a single word, as man is mortal, 
 Sometimes an infinitive mood performs the same office, 
 as, " To err is human, to forgive divine." The infinitive 
 mood in this case becomes virtually a noun, ovo/xu 
 p7]/u.aTiKov, a verbal noun. The principle is much more 
 palpable in Greek, when the verb is in the infinitive mood, 
 and, undergoing no change itself, associates with the 
 nominative, genitive, dative, or accusative case of the 
 article. The infinitive mood of a Greek verb is some- 
 
 g 6
 
 132 \. -min \ I i\ i. < L8E. 
 
 times OOUpled to a noun. BG if it were ;i noun itself, as 
 ,Sov\;jKai ftax^Oai ( limn, r's Iliad )\ literally, in counsel 
 
 and to fight ; in counsel and fight. The principle has 
 been recognised in English, as far as the simplicity of 
 our > aaes will permit. 
 
 Sometimes an afiair or circumstance, with concomi- 
 tants or qualifications, forms the nominative case to the 
 
 rb, as, 
 
 •• Early to bed, and early t<> rii 
 Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wu 
 
 What U it that make- a man healthy, wealthy, and wise ? 
 
 The fart of his going to bed early, and rising early. 
 The sentence Lb a collective fact, though there are two 
 
 members, viz. "early tO bed, and early to ri-«." \>t if 
 we write //////■< in-tiad of maht >, would it QOl he a viola- 
 tion of grammar? because it i- aol asserted thai going 
 to bed early will produce this result, or that rising early 
 will produce it, hut both conjointly. They form a 
 
 immatical, and a Logical unity — makes and not make 
 
 .11-. therefore, to he required. 
 
 ■• Tliat it should thus t'.iil i- contrary to the conceptions which 
 reason teaches as to entertain of the wisdom, justice, and m< 
 
 of I." 
 
 •• That it should tints- fail™ is the uominative case to the 
 verb is. 
 
 A noun, then, cannol affirm or denj anything, whilst 
 ending alone. It must he followed bj a verb, which 
 verb must agree with it in cumber. It sometimes hap- 
 pens, however, that the noun, alter being expressed, is 
 dropped, and a pronoun is substituted in it- place,
 
 NOMINATIVE CASE. 133 
 
 forming the legitimate nominative case to the verb. 
 Thus : 
 
 " Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lapidoth — she judged Israel 
 at that time." — Judges, iv. 4. 
 
 " The skipping king — he ambled up and down." — Shakspeare. 
 
 " But the Comforter, which is the Holy Ghost, whom the Father 
 will send in my name, he shall teach you all things." — New Test. 
 
 Sometimes the objective case of the pronoun is sub- 
 stituted, and the noun left without grammatical govern- 
 ment. 
 
 " For the Egyptians, whom ye have seen to-day, ye shall see 
 them no more, for ever." — Old Test. 
 
 Sometimes no pronoun is substituted, nor does any verb 
 follow the nominative case of the noun. 
 
 The ancient classics are full of examples of this kind 
 of figure, but one of the most beautiful and striking 
 modern instances of the kind, is in the 3rd Book of 
 Milton's " Paradise Lost." 
 
 " No sooner had th' Almighty ceased, but all 
 The multitude of angels, with a shout 
 Loud, as from numbers without number, sweet 
 As from blest voices uttering joy — Heaven rang 
 With jubilee, anil loud hosannahs filled 
 The eternal regions." 
 
 The noun multitude is not followed by any verb, to 
 which it can be applied. Bentley propose- o ive 
 
 a shout, instead of icit/i a shout. This al i ., it is 
 
 true, would make the sentence conformable ie rules 
 
 of grammar, but Milton, who so often constructs his 
 sentences after the classical models, no doubt knew, that
 
 134 NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 he was supported by innumerable authorities, in the use 
 of this form of Bpeech It' read with a pause after the 
 word joy, the effect of the Bentenoe is greatly increased, 
 and we are ready to agree with Monboddo, when he says, 
 "The lines are bo wonderfully fine, that, if it were a 
 iv:il solecism, nut to be justified by any ancient autho- 
 rity, J could excuse it." The poet, in fact, in the 
 fervour of his imagination, -rein- carried up to the third 
 heaven of inspiration, and there to stop and Listen to 
 the nni-if of an^ds, and to the mellifluous rhythm of his 
 own Bweet numbers; hethen collect- himself, and gives 
 this result of his impressions. 
 
 •• I It u\ i - 1 1 rang 
 With jubilee, and Loud hosannahs filled 
 'J'ln- eternal regions." 
 
 lint whilst tin' nominative case is thus sometimes lefl 
 without a villi, it is mi -..me occasions, emphatically 
 repeated before tin- verb, in order that attention maj be 
 more firmly fixed upon it. 
 
 '• //,•//, at I 
 
 ^ receiv'd them whole, and on them closed — 
 
 //■//, their tit habitation, fraught with tin' 
 
 i [uenchable, tin- hou fwoe, ami pain." Mn roH 
 
 The examples of tin- description, already quoted, arc 
 t.. be looked upon I urea of speech, dictated by 
 .•In. ice. and i..it the result "i inadvertence. The fol- 
 lowing -..in- in arise from an oversight, and i- not 
 defensible on any grammatical principle, or figure ot 
 speech.
 
 NOMINATIVE CASE. 135 
 
 " Forasmuch as it hath pleased Almighty God of his goodness 
 to give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great 
 danger of child-birth." 
 
 The verb hath preserved has here no nominative case, 
 for Almighty God occurs in the objective case after the 
 verb hath pleased. The sentence ought to be, "For- 
 asmuch as it hath pleased Almighty God, of his goodness, 
 to give you safe deliverance, and to preserve you, or, 
 he hath preserved you." 
 
 We often meet with a slovenly mode of expression, 
 such as the following from Abernethy's " Lectures " : — 
 
 " It is really curious, the course, which balls will sometimes take." 
 
 The noun, course, here stands without a verb. This 
 awkward expression might have been avoided by saying, 
 " The course which balls will sometimes take is really 
 curious." Again, in an article from the " New Monthly," 
 No. 103., we meet with the same form of expression, 
 but with an aggravated aspect : — 
 
 " It is incredible the number of apothecaries' shops, presenting 
 themselves." 
 
 It would be quite as easy to say, " The number of 
 apothecaries' shops, presenting themselves, is incre- 
 dible."
 
 13G OENl l 1\ I. ( 18E. 
 
 (HAP. IV. 
 
 T III GENITIVE, OB POSSESSIVJ < \-i 01 NOUNS. 
 
 The Genitive case ia bo called, as denoting the source 
 out of which something Bprings, as, the earth*a fertility, 
 or the fertility of the earth; fertility being traceable to 
 
 earth, BS being that out of which fertility sprin 
 
 i so"- sword, "i" the sword of Caesar; Caesar being the 
 person to whom the Bword is traceable, in whose ] 
 jsion it is. 
 
 In the transition >tate of the Anglo-Saxon to the 
 present English language, a grievous corruption of this 
 case prevailed, which seems to have arisen from an igno- 
 ranoe of it - true origin- The Anglo-Saxon had a regular 
 j. --• -i\e case, distinguished from the other cases by a 
 diversity of termination. This possessive case, ending 
 in ys, or is, or es, ami Bounding like the possessive 
 pronoun his, waa corrupted t<> his, forming a Beparate 
 word. No such form existed, in the Anglo-Saxon, aa 
 the placing of his after a aoun, i" denote what we un- 
 derstand l>\ the possessive or genitive case. Ii ia a 
 hideous solecism, and, it possible, i" make mattera wca 
 even her ia added, in a similar way, Bhowing an uti r 
 misconception of the whole principle. It ia from aboul 
 the end of the i ith century, thai we maj date thia cor- 
 ruption, and it haa now totally disappeared from all 
 
 lern English worl The following extracts will 
 
 show, that the legitimate Anglo-Saxon genitivi 
 prevailed, up to the beginning of the loth century.
 
 GENITIVE CASE. 137 
 
 In Alfred's will, " And ic bidde in Godes naman," 
 and I bid in God's name ; " Godes lufan," God's love ; 
 and many similar expressions occur. 
 
 In the parable of the Sower, from the "Northumbrian 
 Gloss," or "Durham Book," written about the year 900, 
 according to Mr. Bosworth, we meet with " Heanisse 
 eorthes,' n highness, (depth) of earth. 
 
 In a book called " Or molum," because written by one 
 Orm, about 1180, being a metrical paraphrase of the 
 Gospels and Acts, occurs the following lines. He is 
 speaking of the Marriage Feast : — 
 
 "Ami Crish'ss nmder Marye was att tatt bridalles aaete." 
 "And Christ's mother, Mary, was at that bridal's feasl (bridal-feast)." 
 
 In the laws of Ina, we find " Cunninges Husc•,* , 
 
 King's House, " Eoldermannt's Huse," Elderman's 
 
 House. 
 
 " The pope is to his chaumbre wende, 
 For dole he might ne speke na more, 
 And after cardinales he sende, 
 
 That much couthen of Cristes lore." 
 
 Elegy on the Death of Edward the First. 
 
 Chaucer, born 1328, perpetually uses the Anglo- 
 Saxon genitive case. 
 
 "And when In- in his chambre was alone, 
 He down upon his beddis fete him sette." 
 
 Troilus and Cresseida. 
 
 " He was also a learned man, a clerk, 
 That Chrixt.es gospel wolde preche." 
 
 ( 'canterbury Tab's. 
 
 ■•Than if T win a hinges londe." Goweb (died 1408). 
 
 •• As for the time, though I of mirthti loud. 
 .Might have do more, to look — -it did me good." 
 
 James the Fibst of Scotland (born 1395).
 
 GENITIVE I L8E. 
 
 ■• Now wag there made t'a-t by the tourti wall 
 A garden fair." Jambs m I'm-i of Scotland. 
 
 •■ [Jpsprang the lark, the Aaosenu menstra] syne." 
 
 1 )i mi \k (l ; 
 
 •■ Ami 1 ride with gold so red, 
 And I have t" >!" with landes Law." 
 
 ]>ami Bi km as (1496). 
 
 Again : 
 
 •■ Bui I saj if any Bach armyi 1"' borne, thoos annya be of do 
 more auctorite, than thooe armys 1><-. 1 1»«- wich be taken 1\ a 
 mtamyt awne auctorite." — Dunn Bern 
 
 In 1497j 1 1 1 « - following entry occurs in the Treasurer's 
 
 l k of .Ian i'- the Fourth of Scot land : — 
 
 I- in. To Roland Robison, for hi> nuuterit monetku pen- 
 aioun." 
 
 I ' j > to thi- period then, and Bomewhal later, we find 
 this form of the regular Saxon genitive case prevailing, 
 withoul ever a trace of Am, as a substitute, and there 
 • ■an be do question, thai the Introduction of his took 
 place from it- resemblance, in sound, to the termination 
 
 or //•■>-. ores, at idually melted away from the 
 
 old Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In Drayton's " Polyolbion" (born 1563) we find the 
 following sentence : — 
 
 M They afterwards were most willingly requested t" multiply 
 their numl inding foi more of their countrymen, to helpe 
 
 Ring Vortigern, and under that colour, and by Ronix, her wo- 
 manish subtlety, in number were here planted.* 1 
 
 Here we have Ronix, her womanish Bubtlety, for 
 Ronixis, Ronix's womanish subtlety.
 
 GENITIVE CASE. 139 
 
 Even the plural their was used in the same manner, 
 as his and her, as in Welwood's " Memoirs " : — 
 
 "About the lawfulness of the Hollanders, their throwing off the 
 monarchy of Spain." 
 
 The present form of the genitive case is simply an 
 abbreviation of the Anglo-Saxon genitive, by the 
 elision of i, or y, before s. Such expressions as the 
 following, are therefore unmitigated corruptions : as, 
 
 " Mars his idiot." Shakspeare. 
 
 " Whereby I guessed that Ortelius did much incline unto Becanus 
 his conceit." — Verstegan. 
 
 " If Socrates his free nature be not found, surely Socrates his 
 slavish nature must be beaten, and that even by Socrates his own 
 profession." — Golden Grove> book iii. 1608. 
 
 " My paper is the Ulysses his bow, in which every man of wit 
 or learning may try his strength." — Addison. 
 
 " By young Telemachus his blooming years." 
 
 Pope, Odyssey. 
 
 It has been absurdly supposed, that the same single 
 letter s, on many occasions, does the office of a whole 
 word, and represents the his or her of our forefathers. 
 "Were this the case, how should wc deal with such ex- 
 pressions as the men's heads, the children's bread ? 
 As both these nouns are plural, on what principle can 
 we say the men his heads, or the children his bread? 
 It is, in fact, no such thing, it is a return from a gross 
 solecism to the legitimate Anglo-Saxon genitive case, 
 with the elision of i, or y, or c, which we -till acknow-
 
 140 GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 ledge by the use of the apostrophe in genitive cases 
 »   1 1 < 1 i 1 1 lt in .», as, ii'-iii. man, gen. manny* < »i* ;i man. In 
 English, nom. num. gen. man's. 
 
 Lnwtli r-u j»ju is--.-* that the phrase Jesus Christ his sake, 
 as we t i ii< 1 in the "Book of Common Prayer," which 
 used to 1"- written Ckristis sake, was an oversight of the 
 printers or compilers. The supposition is quite gra- 
 tuitous by the Bide of " Mordecai his matters," •• Asa Aw 
 heart." 
 
 The error Beems t<> have arisen from the similarity <>t 
 sound between the real Anglo-Saxon genitive case of 
 the noun, and the same noun, with the addition of his s 
 as Christ, Christ*'* gospel, Christ, Chrisl his gospeL 
 
 The error would probably never have been introduced. 
 had nol this similarity existed, 1 >ut once admitted, it 
 extended to words, which did not end in is, oryx, in the 
 genitive case, as in the case of " Asa his li art." The 
 Anglo-Saxon nouns were finally reduced t" three de- 
 clensions, of which the genitive in y#, or £», or es } was 
 one: as, 
 
 Singular. s igidar. 
 
 Nom. Smith, n smith. {Torn. Witega, a prophet. 
 
 . Smithes, of a smith. Gen. Witegan, of a prophet. 
 
 Singular. 
 N* < .in. "\\ilin-. a maiden. 
 
 W il ii - .-, of a maiden. 
 
 One form only, and thai an abbreviated one, has sur- 
 vived. In the plural number, all Saxon genitives ended 
 in «/. as Smitha, of ~niitli--. Witegena, of prophets; 
 \\ ilna, "i' maidens.
 
 COMPOUND TERMS. 141 
 
 In the following sentence, the possessive case is im- 
 properly used : 
 
 " And there went out with him, all the land of Judea, and they 
 of Jerusalem, and were all baptized of him, in the river of Jordan, 
 confessing their sins." 
 
 The river is Jordan, and Jordan is the river. The terms 
 are co-equal and identical, and reciprocal, and both ought 
 to be in the same case, in the river Jordan, and not the 
 river of Jordan. So also 
 
 " The river of Kishon swept them away, that ancient river, the 
 river Kishon." — Judges, v. 21. 
 
 It is true we find examples of this kind in Latin, but 
 then the expression is explained, as being elliptical, as 
 in Virgil, " flumen Himellae," the river of Himella, but 
 the resemblance to the expression, the river of Jordan, 
 is only in appearance. The sentence made out would 
 be, flumen cui nomen erat Himellae. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 COMPOUND TERMS JOINED BY IIYrUEN. 
 
 WHEN two nouns come together, though not in appo- 
 sition, the latter is not necessarily put in the genitive 
 case. The English language admits of compound terms 
 with great facility, many of which must be joined by 
 the hyphen, and in such terms the sign of the genitive 
 case must be omitted, as night-raven, not night's raven.
 
 142 OOMPOl 6TJJ I BBMS 
 
 sun-beam, Bea-nymph, ill-luck signs, yard-long taOed, 
 the lasl epithel consisting of a noun, an adjective, and a 
 participle, vet we reel thai the combination ia perfectly 
 legitimate, and that it oiler- qo violence to the English 
 idiom. Compound words of this description require to 
 be connected by the hyphen. 
 
 The following rules, applicable to 1 1 1 * - use of the 
 hyphen, taken from a note appended to the L99th i>a;_ r <- 
 <>t' Dv. Car.y'- " English Prosody,* 1 are sufficient t<» 
 meet the generality of cases, in which there may be a 
 » 1 < » 1 1 1 » t . 
 
 •• i . When each of two contiguous substantives retains each its 
 
 original accent, •<mit the hyphen, as, master biiilder. Where the 
 
 latter looses, or altera it- accent, insert the hyphen, as, Bhip-builder. 
 
 When two substantives are in apposition, and only one oi 
 
 the two is separately applicable to the person or thing designated, 
 
 nmii the hyphen, as lord chancellor. Winn the* are not in ap- 
 
 ition, and only one of the two if separately applicable t" t ]>•• 
 
 person or thing, insert the hyphen, as, a horse-dealer^ who is a 
 
 er, but not ;i hoi 
 
 When the firs! rabstantivi - the pnrpo f an ad* 
 
 jective, expressing the matter or substance, of which the second 
 consists, and may be placed after it with oj (not denoting 
 
 i), mini the hyphen, as, silk gown, a l."'\\h of >ilk. When the 
 
 tii-' the matter or substance of the second, and 
 
 maj be placed after it with of (denotin sion), or with 
 
 ..r belonging to, insert the hyphen, a- school-master, play-tune, 
 
 laundry -maid, Le. the master of the school, time of 
 
 pis Its, maid belonging i" the launch 
 
 I n an adjective and its substantive (used as such in 
 
 the sentence), omit the hyphen, as high sheriff, pri minister. 
 
 \\ hen the adjective and it'- substantive arc a kiml of com* 
 
 pound adjective to another erf the hyphen between 
 
 the two former, as high-church doctrine. 
 
 When an adjective, or an adverb, and a participle imme- 
 diately following are together a kiml of compound adj
 
 JOINED BY HYPHEN. 143 
 
 tivc, merely expressing an inherent quality without reference to 
 immediate action, and (in order of syntax) precede the substantive, 
 to which they are joined, insert the hyphen, as a quick -sailing 
 vessel. When they imply immediate action, and (in order of 
 syntax) follow the substantive, omit the hyphen, "as the ship quick 
 sailing o'er the deep." 
 
 The accent, in every one of these cases, is a sure guide ; 
 that is, when the accent is thrown upon the first member 
 of the compound, and lost on the second, the hyphen is to 
 be used; Avhen the accent is preserved on both, the 
 hyphen is not to be used. 
 
 There arc many other cases, no doubt, to which these 
 rules will not strictly apply. As far as they go, they 
 are sound and useful. To use a broad distinction, let 
 us take a milk-man, and a snow man. Here the accent 
 is upon milk, and the hyphen is used ; but in the case 
 of a snow man, or a man made of snow, the accent is 
 preserved in both terms, and we do not use the hyphen. 
 So a glass-house is a house for the manufacture of glass ; 
 a glass house, a house made of glass ; a green-house, a 
 house for the preservation of green plants ; a green house, 
 a house of a green colour. The compounding of terms 
 may arise in a variety of ways, and out of this variety, 
 uncertainty may occur. Let us take for instance horse- 
 power. Without considering, we at once lay the 
 accent on horse, and properly so ; because the horse is 
 not the constituent material of the power, but only the 
 instrument from which that material results. We use 
 the phrase horse-power, ns expressive of a certain inten- 
 sity of power; and if to this we add number, we ilien 
 throw the accent back upon the term fm, and constitute 
 a triple compound term, expressive of a definite quan-
 
 Ill COMPOUND rERMS JOINED B1 EYPHEN. 
 
 tity, and we Bee do impropriety in designating an 
 engine as a ten-horse-power engine. Now, to show bow 
 far this is the case, we cannot say a ten horsi s' power 
 engine, or a ten anything, excepl where :i phrase is 
 used collectively, as a ten weeks' sickness, for a and ten 
 are numerically incompatible; yet we see n>> impro- 
 priety in designating an engine as :i one-horse-power 
 engine, or a ten-horse-power engine. Oughl we then 
 to Bay, how much horse-power engine, or how many 
 horse-power engine? It' we insist on many, wc ought, 
 in order to be consistent, to insist on how many hoi 
 power. Either Let us <!<> this, or <1<> thai which i.- much 
 better, namely, make the whole a compound term, and 
 that, too, perfectly consistent with the genius <>f the 
 English language. Ajb, how much power engine? a 
 ten-horse-powet engine. Then (to work out the prin- 
 ciple) we may //"/"■ t<> Bee the master builders, the ship- 
 builders, the lord chancellors, the sch6ol masters, the 
 prime minister, the high-church-men, and the low- 
 church-men, m6n-eingers, and w6men-singera with 
 Bilver-toned voices, together with the 6pera-dancera ] 
 and the b6rse-guards, and the f6ot-guards, th<- o6w- 
 keepers, the coal-porters, the lighter-men, the copper- 
 smiths, the tin-men, the musical-instrument manufac- 
 turers, ladies in Bilk gowns, and w&ter-men in cork 
 jackets, and waiters with cork-screws and wine-coolers, 
 even the anti-staj -and-corset-3 oung-women-killina 
 oiety, all in a quick-sailing vessel, 'j"in;_ r to see the sndw 
 
 man, mad.- I.y the milk-man of Mdry-le-bone, ami then 
 
 proceeding t" view tin- "yard-long- tailed" monkey, ami 
 the elephant possessing tin- strength of a twenty-horse-
 
 OBJECTIVE CASE. 145 
 
 power steam-engine, now exhibiting in Bishop-gate - 
 street-without, a sight never-to-be-forgotten. 
 
 If these principles are correct, the following expres- 
 sion from Gibbon is erroneous : — 
 
 " The buckler was of an oblong and concave figure, four feet in 
 length, and two and a half in breadth, framed of light wood, 
 covered with a bull's hide, and strongly guarded with plates of 
 brass." 
 
 If each shield was covered with one bull's hide, a 
 bull's hide, the expression would be correct ; though we 
 cannot suppose that each shield or buckler would require 
 the whole hide, and, according to the dimensions given, 
 it certainly would not. But by bull's hide, is probably 
 meant simply the material with which the buckler was 
 covered, without reference to any particular bull; and if 
 so, the expression ought to be bull-hide, and not bulls 
 hide. We say the chair was made of yew-tree, the 
 cabinet was inlaid with box-wood, not yew's tree, box's 
 wood. We say also the seat was stuffed with horse- 
 hair, taking these terms, as being expressive of particu- 
 lar materials, without any reference whatever to the 
 individual source of production. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 OBJECTIVE CASE. 
 
 Aj the objective case in English is the same as the 
 nominative, it is impossible to err in point of form. 
 Whether the noun depends upon an active transitive 
 
 ii
 
 140 OBJE4 i ivi; < \-E. 
 
 verb, or upon a preposition, the objectiye case, in 
 English, ie always the same as the nominative. Though 
 not Bubjecl i<> a change of form, it is virtually in a dif- 
 ferent case. It i- called the objectiye case, beoause it 
 expresses the object upon which the action of a transitive 
 verb falls. Thai a freedom from error in the use of the 
 objective case very often depend- uj»<>n tho unehange- 
 able nature of the noun, rather than upon B knowledge 
 of the principles of grammar, is pretty obvious from 
 the fact, that error- are very frequently met with in 
 the confusion of the nominative and objective cases of 
 pronouns, though these have the very same grammatical 
 construction as nouns. The cases of pronouns being 
 \;iiied, an opening is left for error, and error- we find 
 
 in abundance, and those, too, in the most popular writers 
 
 in the English language. Such will fall under eon- 
 
 ideration when treating of the pronoun. 
 
 An active transitive verb, then, requires the objective 
 sase, and so does a preposition; bul the objective case, 
 whether of noun or pronoun, does ao\ necessarily follow 
 the verb or preposition in order, though it must do so 
 entially, and according to grammatical government. 
 The English language admits of a greater inversion of 
 order than is generally supposed, and this we find 
 
 ried to the greatest extent in the measured progn 
 biod of blank v< rse. As — 
 
 • \i.\v BtOTming I'iiiv PC 
 
 Aii'l clamour, snob :e beard in heaven, till now, 
 \\ ;" 
 
 . -in -h as was aever heard in heav< n, till now.
 
 OBJECTIVE CASE. 147 
 
 " Orators, such as Cicero and Demosthenes, we have none." — 
 Blair s Rhetoric. 
 
 The grammatical order would be, " We have no such 
 orators as Cicero and Demosthenes were." 
 
 Sometimes a sentence forms the objective case after 
 a verb, grammatically, and yet precedes it in order, in 
 the same manner as a simple noun might do. Thus, in 
 " Paradise Lost" — 
 
 " That thou art happy, owe to God ; " 
 
 i. e. owe to God the fact, or circumstance, " that thou 
 art happy." 
 
 Again, from the same source, 
 
 " For this fair earth I see, 
 YVarm'd by the sun, producing every kind; 
 Them, nothing;" 
 
 i.e. For I see this fair earth, warmed by the sun, pro- 
 ducing every kind. I see them producing nothing. 
 
 " And these very thoughts, these very sources of sentiment, this 
 very satiety, this very discontent, this profound and melancholy 
 sentiment, the result of certain social systems, the first two cant* »s 
 of Childe Harold suddenly appeared to represent." — Bulwer. 
 
 Here we have four nouns in the objective case, all 
 preceding the verb on which they depend, and that verb, 
 namely, represent, placed at the very end of the sentence. 
 In the following sentence, a verb in the infinitive mood 
 fulfils the office of a noun in the objective case. As, 
 
 " Owe no man any thing, but to love one another." — New Test. 
 " What went ye out for to see ?" — Ibid. 
 "For to provoke" — Ibid. 
 
 H 2
 
 MS GENDERS OP NOl W8. 
 
 ( BAP. VII. 
 
 OENDl RS «'i NOI SS. 
 
 Webb any number of educated men required to form 
 
 :i in w language, and li\ ite grammatical principles, they 
 
 would, without doubt, distinguish all living creatures 
 
 by masculine or by feminine noun-, according to their 
 
 . and things without life, by neuter nouns. In such 
 
 . we should have a philosophical and an intelligible 
 
 principle, founded on the very nature of things, adapting 
 
 nam* - to things, and not things to names. I » u t lan- 
 
 . being formed for the most pari 1>\ men little 
 
 removed from a state of savage nature, obtain certain 
 
 table forms which will not admit of change even 
 
 in a more advanced state of civilization. Hence 
 
 utter absurdity of classing nouns into masculine, 
 
 mine, and neuter, according to their terminations. 
 
 Words arc the mere arbitrary Bigns <■! things, and it 
 
 inol lie of the least importance whether the name of 
 
 i thing ends in one letter of the alphabet or in another, 
 
 • tmbination of letters or in another. The 
 
 thing signified, under all names, remains tin- Bame. 
 
 {fence nil languages, which have attempted i" form the 
 
 , . of nouns on termination, are full of inconsistency 
 
 and absurdity, laying down rules apparently lor the 
 
 express purpose of annihilating them by innumerable 
 
 eption ' hat, both in tin- da »ics and in 1 1"' 
 
 modern continental languages, we are fullj prepared to
 
 GENDERS IN THE ENGLISII NOUN. 149 
 
 coincide with the candid remark of the author of a 
 German grammar — 
 
 " But neither this rule, nor any rules, will be sufficient to dis- 
 tinguish the genders of nouns." — Raivbothcun. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 PRINCIPLE OF GENDERS IN THE ENGLISH NOUN. 
 
 Now the principle of genders in the English language 
 is founded simply on the distinction of sex ; that is, on 
 a natural and unchangeable distinction. "Where there 
 is no sex, a distinction is made by the simple negation 
 of sex; that is, by what is called the neuter gender, 
 neither masculine nor feminine. This is instantly com- 
 prehended as a broad and important principle. In 
 philosophical subjects, in plain narration, on all ordinary 
 occasions, it is a principle from which the English 
 language does not depart ; but in oratory and poetry 
 it is not unusual for the name of inanimate things to 
 be personified, and the masculine or feminine gender 
 assigned ; but always with reference to peculiar pro- 
 perties. This being done sparingly, and on peculiar 
 occasions, adds greatly to the force or tenderness of 
 description. The sun, for instance, which communicate- 
 light and heat, in poetry is frequently made masculine ; 
 not merely because the deity of the sun is represented 
 as masculine in heathen literature, but because of the 
 sun's inherent power and energy ; whilst the moon, 
 
 u 3
 
 1.50 OENDEBfi IN llir. ENGLISH NOUN. 
 
 from her sofH an 1 chastened Light, le denominated femi- 
 nine. Thus Milton : — 
 
 •• A~ w Inn tli^ -mi. new risen, 
 i. >ks through the 1 1 1 i - 1 _v horizontal sir, 
 Bhorn of hit beama.* 1 
 
 Thue Pope, " Homer : — 
 
 \n<l now from forth tin' chambers of the main, 
 i'.. shed hu sacred light on earth again, 
 Arose the golden chariot of the day, 
 And tipt the mountains with ;i purple i 
 
 But speaking of the ///"<<//, the Bame author Bays: — 
 
 • As when ill' 1 moon, refulgenl lamp of night, 
 0\t heaven's clear azure sheds her sacred light." 
 
 We at once feel the propriety of this distinction, 
 ing of either sun or moon philosophically, we 
 
 nld Bay it} spen king of them poetically, <>r rhetorically, 
 we should say //-•. and the. Yet the Grermans, running 
 counter to the authority of antiquity* and to our very 
 innate feelings mala- the sun tViuiniiu*, ami tlic moon 
 masculim — the bud a she, and the moon a he; an act 
 of violence and profanation against the majesty of the 
 
 , and the Loveliness of the other. Neither gallantry, 
 philosophy, <>r poetical embellishment can have bad 
 any share in Buch an appointment. It i- probable, 
 that the genders of the sun and moon, with other 
 arbitrary and incongruous genders, were fixed in 
 
 rman, and in many other Languages, al a time when 
 they were the languages <>i barbarous hordi The 
 
 son of our forefathers was guilty of th< 
 incongruities in the application of genders. From
 
 GENDERS IN THE ENGLISH NOUN. 151 
 
 such we are now happily released. We still, it is true, 
 find traces of this capricious application of gender- 
 among a certain portion of our population ; and agri- 
 cultural implements, as harrows, and ploughs, and 
 flails, and even measles, small-pox, or fever, are dig- 
 nified with a he or a she, according to the taste of an 
 individual, or of a district. This gives us a clue to the 
 origin of the arbitrary and capricious genders of 
 languages — barbarism rendered intractable by the force 
 of custom. Some Indian nations make the sun and 
 moon brothers. Euripides, on one occasion, calls them 
 father and daughter. In Greek, the Furies — infernal 
 goddesses — ar e feminine ; but Lucan, as if to indicate 
 their intense and powerful malignity, has made them 
 masculine : — 
 
 " Terribilesque deos scelerum." 
 
 We must, however, bear in mind, that dsos, a god, 
 in Greek, and deus, in Latin, represented either gender. 
 Euripides, speaking of Venus, says, rrjv dsov ; and 
 Virgil, speaking of Venus, says, ducente deo. In 
 speaking of children, as a family, without reference to 
 sex, the Greek uses a neuter noun, ra tskvu. The 
 word children we consider, both masculine and feminine, 
 of the common gender. When speaking of an infant, 
 we say it. In Scripture, the Deity is sometimes 
 represented under the neuter gender : — 
 
 " Art thou not it that liuth cut Rahab, and wounded the dragon ' 
 Art thou not it which hath dried the sea, and the waters of the 
 great deep ? " 
 
 There is a peculiar fitness in thus speaking of Drily. 
 
 ji 4
 
 l."<2 (.1 HDEB8 IN i in: ENGLISH HI >1 v. 
 
 an abstraction, apart Prom all human distinctions. 
 So, again, "Our Father which" not who, w «rl in 
 heaven,* 5 avoiding human personality and paternity. 
 Milton makes thunder of the masculine gender: — 
 
   And the thunder, 
 Winged with red light'ning, and impetaov 
 1 ' baps hath Bpenl hit shafts." 
 
 Th( Greeks and Romans represented the imperson- 
 ation i>t' love under the masculine g< nder, as a mis- 
 chievoua and playful boy. English poete have followed 
 theirexample. Thus Lodges in "Rosalind's Madrigal'*: — 
 
   Loi e in my bosom, like a b< . 
 I >oth buck hit Bweel ; 
 X w with hit wings he plays with me, 
 v with hit feet." 
 
 In English we have lost some terminations, in them- 
 
 distinctivt of masculine and feminine, the want 
 
 of which we perceive in the following couplet from 
 
 I be'fi •• Loi er's Journej '" : — 
 
 • ( rone to a friend, Bhe tells me \ I commend 
 Her purpose— means she to * female friend?* 1 
 
 [f the word friend, had retained it- distinctive termi- 
 nation, ii would col have been necessary to use the 
 words femdU friend. The old words were freund, a 
 male friend, freundinne, h female friend. 
 
 \- o general principle in the use of genders, when- 
 :, in poetry or oratory, we personify, we give the 
 masculine gender to such inanimate things aa are re- 
 markable for th, courage, majesty ; and the ferai-
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRONOUNS. 153 
 
 nine, to such as are remarkable for gentleness and 
 loveliness, or for which we cherish a tender affection. 
 Thus we speak of country under the feminine gender: — 
 
 " For thankless Greece such hardships have I brav'd, 
 Her wives, her infants, by my labour sav'd." 
 
 Pope's Homer. 
 
 We feel a peculiar fitness in representing justice, 
 charity, mercy, as feminine ; and night, with her soft 
 and silent step, is aptly represented as feminine. Thus, 
 in the Book of Wisdom, xviii. 14. : — 
 
 "For while all things were in quiet silence, and that night was 
 in the midst of her swift course, thine almighty word leaped down 
 from heaven, out of thy royal throne, like a fierce man of war, 
 into a land of destruction." 
 
 The quiet and stealthy step of night, and the " al- 
 mighty word, leaping down from heaven like a fierce 
 man of war," may be ranked amongst the very sub- 
 limest conceptions of human genius. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 THEIR IRREGULARITIES. 
 
 The English pronoun, though not so complicated or 
 irregular in form as the Anglo-Saxon pronoun, yet is 
 necessarily so to a certain extent; and in that com- 
 paratively limited extent is the source of many gram-
 
 154 IRfcEGl I. \i:i i ItS 01 PRONOTJKS. 
 
 matical errors — so much bo, indeed, thai the proper 
 use of the pronoun, in it- various forms, may. in   verj 
 considerable degree, 1"' considered a- the test of   
 "THiimiatiral education. We have no Less than thirty 
 pronouns, classified by differenl grammarians according 
 t<> their supposed distinctive proju-nir.-. It i- not so 
 much with these distinctive properties that we have to 
 deal, as with the grammatical application of the pro- 
 nouns themselves. 
 
 A personal pronoun is thai which ha- reference to 
 persons, or to things personified. 
 
 We have five personal pronouns, /. thou, he, she, it. 
 with their plurals, • . ;/<• or you, and they. 
 
 It i- n<>t necessary that the firsl person Bhould be 
 distinguished by any variation of gender; hence, 
 whether male or female speaks, both would Bay, fgive, 
 or give il tome; the gender being marked by present 
 personality. The same may be said of the plural o1 T, 
 nam ly, we and us. So also tin- Becond person, whether 
 singular or plural, has qo variation of gender, because 
 the j rsons are present when designated. A- no ambi- 
 iy .'.in arise, no di ttinctioo is necessary. In u riting to 
 an absenl person, there u -till a mental or implied 
 
 pr< But, a the third pers t whom we Bpeak 
 
 i- absent, or maj 1"- bo, b distinctive term i- necessary, 
 and th< refore we Bay, /■< or the, him or her, according to 
 
 The persona] and relative pronouns, admitting the 
 si irregularities, are the mosl fruitful sources of 
 
 or; ami in the Latin and Greek languages, where 
 and variation! are much more numerous, the
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUN. 1.55 
 
 proper form of the relative pronoun always seems a 
 matter of difficulty with the young student. All prac- 
 tical teachers know this by experience. 
 
 In treating of the grammatical application of the 
 pronoun, the first object will be to point out that which 
 is right, by the exhibition of that which is wrong, and 
 then to show how far the effect of a sentence, or of a 
 paragraph, may be improved by the judicious repetition 
 of the pronoun. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUN. 
 
 To begin with the personal pronoun. We shall find 
 that high authorities are no guarantee against the com- 
 mission of flagrant error. There are facts in grammar, 
 as well as facts in other" matters ; and against these 
 no authority, however great, can contend ; and as such 
 errors may be quoted as authorities, by those who never 
 dream of subjecting them to a grammatical scrutiny, it 
 may not be a useless task to show that grammar has no 
 aristocratic favourites, that there is no true standard 
 except an impartial grammatical standard. 
 
 " Gentle reader, let you and /, in like manner, endeavour (<> 
 improve the enclosure of the Carr." — Son//,,//, The Doctor. 
 
 Let you and me (not I), both pronouns, you and me 
 depending upon the verb let. Mr. Southey would nol 
 
 B G
 
 laG P] BfiOM M- PRONOUN. 
 
 have said, Lei / alone ; yei this would be quite as 
 oorreci a- the 1 in the sentence here quoted. 
 
 "And though, by heaven's Bevere deer 
 
 She BUfifen hourly, more than //(»." Swiit tO Stcllti. 
 
 Than L that is than / do : for t/ia/i, in this position, i- 
 Bimply a conjunction. When followed by whom, and in 
 no other case, it Lb b preposition : as, "Than whom (nol 
 
 than who), DO better man exi-t-.'' 
 
 \t an boar 
 When all Blepl Bound, Bave the, who bore them both." 
 
 i;.m.i bs's //"///. p. 108. 
 
 Save her, thai is, except ////•.• and Rogers, in another 
 passage, ie inconsistent with himself j a . 
 
 •• I Looked up, 
 And all roe, Bave /"/«. who now kepi guard." 
 
 Ibid. p. 166 
 
 •• I [ere la a pleasant place, 
 \n'l Dothing wanting i-. >a\>- >/<>. alas I " 
 
 Dbt m noim of I law thorden. 
 
 "There vat do Btranger with n>, in the bouse, Bave we two." 
 
 ] King . iii. I s . 
 
 /. were at rest, and enjoyment."— Frcmkerutem. 
 In all these pae ave requires alter it the objective 
 
 r hope ti> 1"- mj self less miserable 
 By wl • 1 '., bul others t" make rooh 
 
 l /." Paradi* I -• . \ 
 
 Lowth quotes thi p , with Bentley's observation 
 
 upon it, who says, "the syntax requirt such at rne."
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUN. 157 
 
 Bentlcy was an acute classical critic, but his English 
 is often perfectly childish, and betrays an utter igno- 
 rance of the commonest grammatical principles. Let 
 us supply what is wanting, and the sentence will be 
 quite clear. 
 
 " but others to make such 
 
 As I am." 
 Not as me am. 
 
 " But if there is one character more base, more infamous, and 
 more shocking than another, it is him, who," &c. — Rev. Sidney 
 
 Smith, " Trimmer and Lancaster." 
 
 It is he, not him. 
 
 Again : — 
 
 • When do we ever find a well-educated Englishman or French- 
 man embarrassed by an ignorance of the grammar of their re- 
 spective languages. They first learn it practically, and unerringly ; 
 and then, if they chose (choose) to look back, and smile at the 
 idea of having proceeded by a number of rules, without knowing 
 one of them by heart, or being conscious that they had any rule 
 at all, this is a philosophical amusement ; but icho ever thmks of 
 learning the grammar of their own tongue, before they are very 
 good grammarian> P" 
 
 " Whoever thinks of learning the grammar of his own 
 tongue, before he is a very good grammarian?" The 
 author surely meant to lie facetious when he repre- 
 sented an English gentleman as learning his own lan- 
 guage, practically and unerringly, without the know- 
 ledge of rules. There is much confusion, also, in the 
 application of their and they to an Englishman or a 
 Frenchman.
 
 158 1 BB80N \l. PR0N01 ft. 
 
 •■ The philosopher, who has Bpent a lifetime in laborious, but 
 fruitless inquiry, does not enjoy the same reputation a.> lam, who 
 with less labour, and possibly less talent, has added something to 
 the catalogue of discovery.*' — Solitary Walks, 
 
 A- In ; as A< enjoys, doI him enjoys. 
 
 • I- i- not lit for such as us, t.> -it with the rulers of the land/' 
 — Scott, Ivanho 
 
 Such as i as are. 
 
 Again : — 
 
 M Lei he thai !"<>k- after them, look on hi.- hand, 
 And if there's blood "n't, be's one of their band." 
 
 s. ott, Pirate. 
 
 Let him, not let he, 
 
 Again : — 
 
 •■ I will be her, wh< the waves wrel not." 
 
 I will be sh* • 
 
 Perhaps, in these ] -. Scotl may be supp 
 
 to speak the language of the characters introduced. 
 
 •• Now Margaret's curse is fallen upon our heads, 
 When she exclaimed on Bastings, \><w, and /." 
 
 Sh lksfj \iu 
 
 < )n nn\ Qd on /. 
 
 •• A-k the murderer, in- who tu i bii b mdi in tli" blood 
 
   it' another, — ask bun, who has terminated a life <>i iniquity b 
 death of infamy," 8tc. —Dr.R I ture. 
 
 k the iitiirili r< r - -him, i i   . t In, him being put ill 
 
 apposition with murderer, which word is in the objectiye 
 case: •• Ask the murderer— ask him, who," &&
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUN. 159 
 
 " He that studies to represent one of known and eminent merit, 
 to be a mere fool, and an ideot (idz'ot), he gives himself the lie, and 
 betrays he is (that he is) either acted by envy, or corrupted by a 
 faction." — Bentley. 
 
 The pronoun he in the second place is superfluous, 
 and the whole sentence insufferably faulty. Three of 
 the phrases are not English, and ideot ought to be 
 idiot* 
 
 " Sorrow not as them that have no hope." — 1 Thess. iv. 13. 
 
 This sentence made out would be, sorrow not as them 
 sorrow that have no hope. — As they sorrow, not as them 
 sorrow. 
 
 " If he suffers, he suffers as them that have no hope." — Ma- 
 turities Sermons. 
 
 As they who, as they suffer, who, &c. The whole sen- 
 tence ought to be, " If he suffer, he suffers as they 
 that have no hope ; " for the author is not speaking of 
 time present, but of time future and indefinite. If, at 
 any time, he should suffer. 
 
 " Holland and thee, did each in other live." Dktden. 
 " We are alone, here's none but thee and I." Idem. 
 
 Each of these sentences exhibits a most incongruous 
 and ungrammatical amalgamation of terms. They arc 
 absolutely ridiculous, as matters of grammar. 
 
 * Idiot is derived from iffionjs, a private person, in opposition to 
 a professional one, the private or unprofessional person being 
 supposed to be comparatively unskilful, ignorant, Btupid, idiotic, 
 tottirriKus,
 
 160 li i>. >\ \i. PBON01 ST. 
 
 Mr. Gilpin, in hi- " Remarks on Forest S ry," 
 
 -a;. 
 
 •■I have, oftener than nut with the following tender 
 
 iacs in churchyards, in Hampshire: 
 
 •• Hun -hull never come again to w 
 
   «•• shall surely one day l'" to he." 
 
 We ni:i\ -milr at tin- rustic simplicity, but there is 
 c rtainly do reason why the Hampshire peasant Bhould 
 
 entitled t<> our especial condescension. II' 
 arm in arm, with the "unerring English gentleman," 
 ami ma* claim a personal companionship even with 
 authors of the highesl <■> lebrity in the walks of English 
 literature. Let he, then, h<>M up his head Like ;i mam 
 
 a- him \-. 
 
 ■• II. r price \s pud, and Bhe is sold like i/mu." 
 
 Mn m w'- Fail of Jerusalem, 
 
 I. '< thou is qoI English; like thee t Le. to thee t or, at 
 
 thou, BS thou art. 
 
 •• Hi- walk- like I ill..'* ami Buch expressions arc mere 
 vulgarisms. 
 
 "Phalaris, who was much older than fur."— Bentley't D 
 * There were thousands in the French army who could 1. 
 •1": U as Aim."- \ . // - ry of the French War. 
 
 A- v. i II a- In could, not as him could. 
 
 •• Be having none but them, they having none but hee. n 
 
 I >u \> row's PolyoUrion, 
 
 It i- difficult to conceive how the author, who had 
 just said but them, should immediately after Baj but h 
 both terms being subject to precisely the same gram- 
 matical government
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUN". 161 
 
 " They were more terri6ed than us." 
 
 Which, made out, runs, " they were more terrified than 
 us were terrified." 
 
 " It was thee who peopled the confines of Asia, Sicily entire, and 
 part of Italy." — Monthly Mag. 
 
 It was thou. 
 
 " I thought this a good occasion to ascertain how far my autho- 
 rity was nominal or real, and therefore insisted peremptorily upon 
 their putting off again. ' Unless,' as I said, ' Messieurs, you are 
 the masters, and not me.'" — Basil Hall. 
 
 " Unless you are the masters and / am not ; " not me 
 am not. 
 
 " At the town we discovered that we had drawn up against 
 !»■ uceable travellers, who must have been as glad as us to escape." 
 — Burnes's Travels. 
 
 As 
 
 //v. 
 
 " Stimulated, in turn, by their approbation and that of better 
 judges than them, she turned to their literature with redoubled 
 energy." — Quarterly Review, Life of H. More. 
 
 Better judges than they were, not than them were. 
 
 " And is this, thought we, in very deed, the wife of poor Simon, 
 the village lawyer, whose Burns was him of the justice and law 
 ecclesiastical?" — Blackwood's Magazine, Article " Very Odd:' 
 
 Was he. 
 
 "There are the families of Muness Queendale, Thereliove, ami 
 I know not whom else are expected." — Scott, Pirate. 
 
 "The families of Muness Queendale, Thereliove, and 
 I know not who else are expected." U'h<> being the 
 nominative case before are expects I.
 
 162 PEB80NAL PfcONOl N. 
 
 ■•'11 • d." 
 
 \.>t irltom arc expected. 
 
 •■ N •■ ■: messmate of the round table was, than him. more 
 •lit with manliness and beauty." 
 
 Than he, 
 
   1 1" tli v hand or thy fool offend thee, cut them off and cast them 
 
 from thee." — Matt, xviii. s . 
 
 Cut ft off, and cast ft from thee, such being the 
 grammatical effect of the conjunction or. Suppose the 
 hand to offend, and the fool not to offend, surely the 
 unoffending foot is not to be cut off And again, sup- 
 pose the Pool to offend, and the hand not to offend, 
 -mvly the unoffending hand is not to be cut off. <>r 
 i- here necessarily disjunctive, and the nouns fame? and 
 foot must be taken separately, and each of them ex- 
 pressed by it. 
 
 Ambiguity in the Use of the Personal Pronoun, 
 
 "And it came to pan in thus,' days, thai Jesus came Gram 
 Nazareth of Galilee, and was baptized of John in Jordan) and 
 straightway coming up out >>t' the n ater ht saw the heat i dj opened, 
 and the Spirit, like :i dove, descending upon him.* 
 
 " II«- .-aw." Who -aw? Jesus, or John? The 
 context requires thai Jesus -aw ; thai is, J< -u- came, 
 wa- baptized, and. coming up "in of the water, -aw 
 the heavens opened, and the spirit descending upon 
 him, thai is, upon John, whereas the meaning intended 
 is, thai John saw the heavens opened, and the Spirit 
 descending r7r* avrov on him, thai is, on Jesus. The 
 Greek text it also ambiguous, Por the verb el8e will
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUN. 163 
 
 apply either to Jesus or to John ; and as Jesus occurs 
 in the nominative case, in the preceding member of the 
 sentence, we should certainly understand el8e to be 
 predicated of Jesus, and not of John. This ambiguity 
 of the Greek is noted by Erasmus. 
 
 It may here be incidentally noticed, that there is 
 another ambiguity in this passage, arising from the 
 phrase, like a dove. Like a dove conveys the notion 
 of descending in the similitude of a dove ; but the 
 similitude was only a similitude in the descent, not a 
 similitude of bodily form. If the phrase had been, 
 " and the Spirit descending like a dove upon him," there 
 would have been less chance of ambiguity than there 
 is under the present arrangement of the phrase. " The 
 Spirit descending like a dove ; " as a dove would descend, 
 aiGci 7T£picrTspav. 
 
 " In his days Pharaoh-Necoh, King of Egypt, went up against 
 the King of Assyria, to the river Euphrates, and King Josiah went 
 against him, and he slew him at Megiddo, when he had seen Mm" 
 — 2 Kings, xxiii. 29. 
 
 From the confusion arising from the pronoun him 
 in this sentence, it is not easy to understand whether 
 Pharaoh-Necoh slew Josiah, or Josiah slew Pharaoh- 
 Necoh, till avc find, by what follows, that Josiah is 
 dead, and Pharaoh-Necoh alive, and that this very 
 Pharaoh-Necoh makes Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king, 
 in the place of Josiah his father. 
 
 " The Son of Man shall he delivered up to the chief priests and 
 to the scribes, and they shall condemn him in death and deliver 
 him i" tlic Gentiles, and they >h;ill mock him, and scourge him, 
 ami shall Spit upon him, and Bhall kill him."
 
 164 PERSONAL PBOKOI v 
 
 They, who? The Gentiles ? or the chief prieste and 
 the scribes? The Introduction of who after Gentiles, 
 instead of they, would have rendered the sentence free 
 from ambiguity; "shall deliver him to the Gentiles) 
 who shall mock him." 
 
 A- pronouns supply the place <■!' nouns, it i.-. indei d, 
 •ntialh in   • ssary thai they Bhould distinctly point 
 to the nouns which they represent, otherwise confusion 
 and ambiguity must necessarily he occasioned. Take 
 the following sentence, from Goldsmith's "History of 
 ( rreece ": — 
 
 •■ Ih nrote i" thai distinguished philosopher, in terms the most 
 polite and flattering; begging of him to rem.' and undertake his 
 education, and t<> bestow on him those useful lessons of magnani- 
 mity and virtue, which every great man ought t" possess, and 
 which hit numerous avocations rendered impossible to Awn." 
 
 Tin' pronoun he is introduced six times in this sen- 
 tence, under different forms ; and were it nol thai we 
 are acquainted with tin- facts, the whole would he a 
 mase of confusion. Firsl it stands for Philip, then for 
 Aristotle, then i"i' Alexander, again For Alexander, and 
 then twice for Philip. The sentence would have been 
 rendered much clearer it' the author had said, " under- 
 take lii- Bon's education." And again, "hi- own nu- 
 merous :i\ ocations." 
 
 In the following sentence confusion arises from the 
 indistincl use of the persona] pronoun they: — 
 
 did all eal ami «viv filled, and they took up of the 
 
 •   lined, tv. lull." 1/-.7. aiv. 20. 
 
 Who took up? \ th< disciples placed the loaves
 
 NUMBER AND GENDER. 165 
 
 and the fishes before the multitude, and the multitude 
 partook of them, it is not clear whether the disciples or 
 the multitude took up the fragments. 
 
 ' ; When Diogenes was asked of what country he was, ' I am 
 (said he) a citizen of the world.' The sentiment of this answer 
 has been generally admired, although probably no person ever 
 gave a more unamiable illustration of it, in his own life, than the 
 Cynic in the tub himself." — Percy Anecdotes, Address. 
 
 In this sentence, from the juxtaposition of the words 
 tuh and himself, the mind connects them together ; so 
 that tub himself seems intended, and not cynic himself. 
 Cynic himself in the tub, or the tub cynic himself 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 INCONSISTENCY OF NUMBER AND GENDER. 
 
 " During the discourse, upon every puncture he felt from his 
 distemper, he smiled and cried, out Pain! pain! be as imperti- 
 nent and troublesome as you please, I shall never own that thou art 
 aj, evil."— Spectator, No. 312. 
 
 "On the other hand the Si mite cannot easily stand or walk 
 upright ; because its foot rests on the outer edge, the heel does not 
 touch the ground, and the narrowness of the pelvis renders the 
 trunk unsteady." — Laurence's Lectures. 
 
 The SimicE, being plural, required their, not its. 
 
 "We do not consider that the wicked are suffered to flourish 
 
 till the sum of his iniquities is full." — Cole's Sermons. 
 
 His ? their. 
 
 " Think me not lost, for thee I heaven implore, 
 Thy guardian angel, though a wile no more ;
 
 1G0 tfUMBEB AM> GI M'l.K. 
 
 I. when abstracted from the world you seem, 
 
 Him the pure thoughl and frame the heavenly dream." 
 
 B w lob, Wanderer. 
 
 i 
 
 •' Nor can the prison 'scape your searching • 
 ) r ear ~till opening to the captive's cry : 
 less was promised from thy early >kill. 
 i.'< r power enforced benevolence of will." 
 
 dm/, to WalpdU. 
 
 •■ Y.t you, ui\ creator, detest and Bpnrn me, thy creature, to 
 whom thou art bound by ties only dissoluble by the annihilation 
 
 Of One "t'u-." — I'rinilo nsli in. 
 
 ■• 1 Ii~ design was to render Athi ns a maritime city, in whit li be 
 followed a very difierenl Bystem of politics from their former 
 governors.' 1 — QoldsmitKt Greece. 
 
 From thai of their former governors; otherwise sys- 
 tem ia contrasted with governors, instead of the system 
 of one governor with the system of other goyernors, 
 
 In the following passage there is an incongruity 
 between the Dumber of the noun and thai "i the pro- 
 Doun which refers to it. 
 
 Egypt was glad at their departure, for the* were afraid of 
 them."— OW Tett 
 
 Egyptj for the Egyptian-, i- a figure of -porh quite 
 justifiable. 
 
 The following passage presents a confusion of gen- 
 ders : — 
 
 ■• He that pricketh the ear maketh it to show her knowledge.'' — 
 
 /   r. .\\i- l". 
 
 W* "" for it in one place, and her in the 
 
 other. 
 
 The pronoun he, when standing for a noun Bub-
 
 USE OF TI1E PERSONAL PRONOUN. 167 
 
 stantive, or for a noun adjective, is indeclinable ; it has 
 no variation of case. As, 
 
 " Malevolti had noticed these splenetic efforts, but, though a 
 man of fiery character, and proud enough to dare the proudest he 
 who ruffled his self-complacency by a look," &c. 
 
 The proudest, he, that is, the proudest man. He is 
 in this sense an indeclinable name, and in the objective 
 case. 
 
 When standing in the place of an adjective, it again 
 has no variation of case. As, 
 
 " I will take no bullock out of thy house, nor Ae-goat out of thy 
 folds." — Psalms. 
 
 In this position he is an integral part of the term 
 goat, and remains unchanged, though in the objective 
 case. It would be rather odd to say, I will take no 
 him-gosd. 
 
 chap. iv. 
 
 PROPER USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 
 
 The following sentences present us with the proper use 
 of the pronoun, contrasted with some of those errors 
 which have already been given. 
 
 " Successful he might have been had his horse been as ambitious 
 as Ae." — Goldsmith, Citizen of the World. 
 
 That is, as he was.
 
 168 USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 
 
 "Surely there's not a dungeon-slave that's l uried 
 In the high-way unshrouded and oncoffined, 
 Bui lies as boA and Bleeps as sound as he." 
 
 Mi \ik'- I i 
 
 That ')-, B8 I" do 
 
 "And let the king give her royal estate to another thai is better 
 than sin." — Esther, i. l"- 
 
 I hal IS, than sin is. 
 
 I >r thou hast discovered thyself to another than me." — Tsaiah, 
 
 Ivii. B. 
 
 That I8j than to WU . 
 
 The errors that have been pointed out, in the use of 
 the personal pronoun, are but a few specimens out of 
 hundreds, I might say thousands, which :nv scattered 
 
 over our literature. It is the yen fact of their per- 
 petual recurrence thai makes them a matter of conse- 
 quence, and entitles them to notice; though, individu- 
 ally, many of them are absolutely below criticism. 
 They are of a character, to which, perhaps, the langui 
 of no civilised people can afford a parallel. It is to 
 regretted, thai nun o1 high literary reputation enould, 
 over and over again, be guilty of errors, which must be 
 iring and obvious to everj foreigner who applies 
 himself to the study of the very firsl principles of the 
 English language ,
 
 USE OF YE, YOU, THOU. 169 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 ON THE USE OF YE, YOU, AND THOU. 
 
 Custom has authorized that ye shall be used in the two 
 extremes of solemnity and familiarity ; whilst you is 
 more properly confined to ordinary narrative, and fami- 
 liar occasions. 
 
 Solemnity. 
 
 " Thou hard firm earth, thou wilt not break before me, 
 And hide me in thy dark and secret bosom ! 
 Ye burning towers, ye fall upon your children 
 With a compassionate ruin, not on me. 
 Ye spare me only. I alone am mark'd 
 And seal'd for life, death cruelly seems to shun me, 
 Me, who am readiest, and most wish to die." 
 
 Milman, Fall of Jerusalem. 
 
 " I speak to time and to eternity, 
 Of which I give a portion — not to man. 
 Ye elements ! in which to be resolved 
 I hasten, let my voice be as a spirit 
 Upon you ! Ye blue waves, which bore my banner ; 
 Ye winds, that fluttered o'er, as if ye loved it, 
 And filled my swelling sails, as they were wafted 
 To many a triumph ! Thou my native earth, 
 Which I have bled for, and thou foreign earth, 
 Which drank [drank'st] this willing blood from many a wound. 
 Ye stones, on which my gore will not sink, but 
 Reek up to heaven ! Ye skies, which will receive it ! 
 Thou sun, which shin'st on these ! And Thou 
 Who kindlest and who quenchest suns ! attest." 
 
 Byron, Doge of Venice. 
 
 I
 
 170 o\ tiii: i 3K "F 
 
 Thou is used instead of you, in cases of marked | 
 sons] appeal, or emphatic distinction. 
 
 " Hail horrors ! liail, 
 [nfernal world I Ami Tkou\ profoundesl bell, 
 B 'i\v thy oew possessor." 
 
 /' tut n Loat, b. i. 
 
 Thou Bun, said 1. fair light ! 
 And /him, enlightened earth, bo fresh and g 
 ) hills and dales ' ye rivers, woods, and plains ! 
 And .v that live and move, fair creatures, fell 
 Tell It' ye saw how 1 Came thus, how here!" Ibid. 
 
 There is an earnestness of appeal, and a sublimity, 
 which rank these with the finest passages of English 
 poetry. Let them he examined, and it will be seen how 
 much of this effect Lb owing to the pointed and distinct 
 personality expressed by ye and thou. 
 
 ( lad in AiAfllw' anus if thou app 
 
 Proud Troj may tremble and desist from war." 
 
 P. 'IT, Iliad. 
 
 •■ Tliv oi proud hopes, presumptuous prince, are fled, 
 
 Thi« arm -hall reach thy heart, and .-trikr i/n>- dead." Had. 
 
 \h wretch ! do father shall tin/ corpse compo 
 
 Thy dyii do tender mothw ol Ibid, 
 
 Change ye and tlmu into you, and thine into yowti, 
 
 and the earnestness, vigour, and solemnity of these 
 passages will be destroyed. They will exhibit nothing 
 I. ut a mawkish and insipid conventionalism. 
 
 The following couplet from Pope we cannot but dis- 
 like, on tl, rands : — 
 
 \\ >■ then explained tl ">> which ws came, 
 
 i . ,"" to arms, and found yon I . fame." Ibid
 
 YE, YOU, AND THOU. 171 
 
 The passage is offensive, because it is inconsistent 
 with the language of the heroic age, and, as the relation 
 of a solemn appeal, is ridiculous. But when we pass 
 from mere mortal subjects to the Deity, and the Re- 
 deemer, the term you in the place of thou becomes highly 
 offensive. 
 
 What a grievous profanation would it be to substitute 
 the second person plural for the first, and your for thine, 
 in the Lord's Prayer! "Our Father, which art in 
 heaven, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come," 
 &c. All right feeling revolts against the impious fami- 
 liarity. 
 
 The profanation is not much less, when the second 
 person plural of the pronoun is applied to the Redeemer. 
 As, 
 
 " Jesus Christ! what great crime have I done ? Who, (whom) of 
 those, who believed in you, have I ever treated so cruelly ! " — 
 D' Israeli, Curiosities of Literature. 
 
 In expressing contemptuous indignation, and wither- 
 ing scorn, the pronoun thou is used with great effect. 
 
 As, 
 
 " Thou elvish-mark'd abortive rooting ho" ! 
 Thou that wast sealed in thy nativity 
 The slave of nature, and the son of hell ! 
 Thou slander of thy mother's heavy womb ! 
 Thou rag of honour ! thou detested ! " 
 
 SlIAKSPEARE. 
 
 Substitute you for thou, and the passnge becomes 
 comparatively courteous. 
 
 i 2
 
 172 USE OF YE, YOU, THOU. 
 
 )>. used "m Ca» - of extreme Familiarity. 
 
 •• Lore in mj bosom, life 
 
 I >"tli sink hi- sweet, 
 v m frith hi- wings he playa with me, 
 
 Kbw w ith lii— i 
 
 Within mine eyes he makes hi- nest, 
 His bed amidol my tender breast, 
 My basset are hi- daily feast. 
 
 Ali I wanton, will ye ! 
 
 Lodge's Hosuhiiil's Ma drig al. 
 
 Drayton, in hi- Xynipliidia, uses' ye 9 in the Bame (ami- 
 liar manner: — 
 
 '• Come all into this nut, quoth die, 
 
 Come closely in — be ruled by me, 
 Each one may here a chooser be, 
 
 For room yt need nol wrestle ; 
 N'.r aeed //< be together heap'd ; 
 So one by one therein they crept, 
 Ami lying down, they soundly >l>-pt. 
 
 And safe as in a castle.* 1 
 
 "Show your Small talents, ami let that BUfficejfS, 
 I5ut grow not vain upon it, I advisi fYv&WMt. 
 
 rea4 critics in   'noverinl oniversi,' 
 Know all men, by these presents, how to curse y*.* 1 
 
 Br tleh. 
 
 We aometimea find ye in the place of y<ra, even in 
 tin: objectivi m<l where the subject is of a solemn 
 
 nature. Against tlii~. Lowth strongly protests. "In 
 the Berioxu and solemn stj l< ■." saj - he, " no authority is 
 sufficient tojustifj so manifeel a solecism. " 
 
 I . \ Will is 
 
 i rod, thi iiniot huri i/i , and be jo 
 
 Paraditt Lust, b. i.\
 
 PRONOUNS ENCLITIC AND EMPHATIC. 173 
 
 " O Flowers, 
 That never will in other climates grow, 
 My early visitation, and iny last, 
 At e'en, which I bred up with tender hand, 
 From the first opening bud, and gave ye names, 
 Who now shall rear ye ? " Paradise Lost, b. xi. 
 
 ** Yet for my sons I thank ye, gods ! 'Twas well, 
 Well have they perish'd, for in fight they fell." 
 
 Pope, Iliad, b. xxii. 
 
 " Be sad, as we would make ye." 
 
 Shakspeaee, Henry VIII. 
 
 " Sparta ! Sparta ! why in slumbers 
 Lethargic dost thou lie ? 
 Awake, and join thy numbers 
 
 To Athens, old ally ; 
 Leonides recalling, 
 
 That chief of ancient song, 
 
 Who sav'd ye once from falling, 
 
 The terrible — the strong." 
 
 Byron, Translation of War-Song. 
 
 To say the least, no advantage seems to be gained by 
 the use of ye in the place of you, in the five last men- 
 tioned passages ; nor can extensive custom be pleaded 
 as an authority. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 PRONOUNS ENCLITIC AND EMPHATIC. 
 
 An enclitic pronoun is that which leans, or inclines, 
 upon the word which immediately precedes it. It coa- 
 lesces with it in pronunciation, so as to seem an integral 
 part of that word. 
 
 I 3
 
 174 PBONOl ITS IN' LITIC AND EMPHATIC. 
 
 An emphatic pronoun attaches to itself a distinct 
 
 personality, ftlaiming an ancombined enunciation. 
 
 Enclitic — as, Give bis the book, ( I span //«■ a little, 
 pronounoed as if written, gweme, tpareme. 
 
 The following sentence combinei both the enclitic 
 and tin emphatic pronoun : — 
 
 ■• Be thai -t'-;il> my parse steals trash, 
 But he thai robs me of my fame 
 Steals that, which aoughl enriches him, 
 And leaves m poor indeed.'' Bnaxspaaai 
 
 llim ami the latter me are in this case not only em- 
 phatic, bul contradistinctive, antithetical. 
 S again : — 
 
 Richmond is <>n the pea-, my lord, 
 
 I re lei aim Bink, and be the seas on airo." 
 
 " Entendesl thou to kill me, a- thou Icilledst the Egyptian yester- 
 
 -lay ''" — Exod, ii. 14. 
 
   Bl "" , even nsalso, Omj father!"— Gsa, cxviL 
 
 ■• i ill. iiiir-t the harem — wrong net on your li'. 
 One female form — remember m have «i'> 
 
 ( 'ortair, canto 9 
 
 Forgive us our tresps we forgive them, that treepsai 
 
 osl u$. n 
 
 I i- here emphatic, and onghl to be read as inch; 
 otherwise the antithesu of the sentence ia destroyed 
 forgive us, when we trespass againsl thee, at we for> 
 give them, that trespass againsl as. 77c///, and as, and 
 Gi//r are all emphatic 
 
 Any man maj have h defective voice ; thai i- a Datura! 
 defect, which he cannoi remedy; at least, bul partiallj ;
 
 PRONOUNS ENCLITIC AND EMPHATIC. 175 
 
 but nothing is so offensive, nothing shows so great an 
 ignorance of the bearing of a sentence, as the confusion 
 of enclitic and emphatic pronouns. 
 
 Instances of marked emphatic pronouns abound. To 
 observe them requires nothing more than common sense 
 and common apprehension. There is a voice-grammar ; 
 as well as a written grammar. In giving utterance to 
 our own natural sentiments voice-grammar is seldom 
 violated. False emphasis and false intonation indicate 
 the want of a distinct apprehension of an author's mean- 
 ing, and virtually falsify his intentions. 
 
 Let us take the following sentence, and place upon 
 the pronoun him a wrong emphasis : — 
 
 " And he said, Saddle me the ass, and they saddled him," 
 
 Him being pronounced without any emphasis, and 
 enclitically. But place a strong emphasis on him, and 
 the pronoun becomes antithetical. " And he said, Saddle 
 me the ass;" and, instead of saddling the ass, they 
 saddled him — the person who gave the order; him 
 with the verbal emphasis being antithetical, and in fact 
 changing the personality altogether. Verbal emphasis 
 is an unchangeable principle, and in this respect differs 
 from syllabic emphasis, which sometimes depends on the 
 analogy of the language in question, and sometimes on 
 custom. 
 
 Such words as retinue and revenue, advertisement, com- 
 mittee, and many others, have had a fluctuating syllabic 
 emphasis. The general tendency of our pronunciation 
 is, however, to throw the emphasis as far hack as pos- 
 sible — that is, as near to the beginning of the word as 
 
 1 4
 
 176 THE RELATIVE PBONOUN8, 
 
 possible. This is often done in tlio face of an mcreased 
 difficulty of* enunciation, afl commendable, and even 
 irrefragable baa been attempted. The tyUabie emphasis 
 ia then a fluctuating principle, and Leads to error, only 
 when two words having different meanings are spelt 
 alike; as conjure, conjure, desert, desert. But it a 
 person clearly comprehends what he otters, he will, 
 from mere natural impulse, use the verbal emphai 
 
 whore it ought to In used : and it is in the pronoun, 
 
 where the most decided perversion of the meaning of a 
 sentence is likely to take place by misplaced emphasis* 
 A child would learn tyUabie accent by imitation : verbal 
 emphasis is the result <>t' natural feeUng. The merest 
 child would Bay, " Give me that pretty thing,* .give m> 
 being enclitic; l»ut if the same child were contending 
 tor the pretty thing with another child, it would - 
 " Give it to me" or " Give "" that pretty thing,* 1 me, 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 mi kii.\ii\! PBONOUirS — WHO AMU WHICH. 
 
 Till use of the relative pronoun //■//-< and whom, IS a 
 
 oeral rule, seems to be confined to rational creatun 
 which, to the brute creation and inanimate things. In 
 the violation of tin- rule, there i- something offensive 
 to our feelings. It is true we -ay the men which, 
 
 because we mean the men, which men ; and we .-:iv the 
 (ioffi which, hnt we do not -:iy the ilui/s who. Cats
 
 WHO AND WHICH. 177 
 
 would not fare much better in spite of the following 
 authority : — 
 
 " This person informed me that he had the horror to see his 
 own child dragged to the door by eight or ten cats, whom he Avith 
 difficulty scared away." — Barnes's Travels. 
 
 Custom has, however, authorised the use of whose 
 when we speak of men, brutes, or inanimate things. 
 As, " The man tchose peace you have destroyed ; " 
 " The wild beasts, ichose roaring was dreadful ; " " Vir- 
 tue, whose form is lovely." The expression probably 
 originated in the love of brevity. If we do not use 
 whose, we must say of whom, or of which. This in 
 English was enough to decide the question. The prin- 
 ciple is now fully sanctioned by general adoption. The 
 same apology does not apply to who and whom : who 
 and whom gain nothing in brevity over which. 
 
 " I shall, therefore, since the rules of style, like those of law, 
 arise from precedents often repeated, collect the testimonies on 
 both sides, and endeavour to discover and promulgate the decrees 
 of custom, who has so long possessed, whether by right or usurpa- 
 tion, the sovereignty of words." 
 
 " Custom who," cannot be tolerated. 
 
 " The olfactory nerves of the Cetacea, in ichom the blowing holes 
 occupy the place of the ?iose." — Lawrence's Lectures. 
 
 Though ichom, as in the case of the cats already 
 noticed, is here applied to living objects, yet we feel 
 that the application is offensive and unnecessary. 
 
 " My lips will be fain when I sing unto thee, and so will my 
 soul, whom thou hast delivered." — Psalm, lxxi. 21. 
 
 i 5
 
 178 I HE RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 The propriety of nlmni in tlii- situation, would de- 
 pend upon tlu- force and authority of custom at the 
 time it was used. 
 
 "These considerations naturall y lead to the consideration ad   
 
 miracle, in which the kingdom of God is personally exalted over 
 
 the powers of darkness, and which shows the superiority of faith, 
 
 a when exerted over those principalities and throi . by 
 
 the firs! man's tmn^ivsMim, obtained," \c — RamA 
 
 ■• I sailed :il<>n'_ r the ancient city <>t' Priam, and then reai bed 
 Tenedoa, fifty miles north of it, where a Mahometan, Adas <>l'1<>u, 
 was banished from Constantinople, ><\\ acconnl of his riches, which 
 bad excited the jealousy of the Porte, who also compelled him to 
 huihl a fortification for the defence of the former.* 1 — Roe WUtom. 
 
 In both these examples personality ought to have 
 merged in the terms principalities, and thrones, and 
 Porte, as indicating the constituted powers of govern- 
 ment in the abstract, and therefore we expect which 
 instead of who. 
 
 Both sentences arc altogether badly constructed. 
 
 \ i in : — 
 
 ■• It i- a kind of basin thirty feet in length, twelve in breadth, 
 and fifteen in depth, enclosed by a wall, which comes from a dis- 
 tance '•(' several miles, runs beneath Jerusalem, and is of a brackish, 
 disagreeable taste." — Ibid. 
 
 In this | the relative which attaches itself to 
 
 the immediate antecedent watt, and we do aoi discovi r 
 our mistake, till we find the trail running under Jeru- 
 tah in. and hai iog a brackish disagreeable taste. Nothing 
 then remains as an antecedent but the word basin. 
 Then we have a basin enclosed by a wall, running, that 
 i- the basin, running under Jerusalem, and having a 
 bi ackisb disagreeable taste.
 
 WHO AND WHICH. 179 
 
 Mr. Rae Wilson is sometimes unfortunate both in his 
 facts, and in his mode of narrating. Take the following 
 effort at chaotic sublimity. The view is from the summit 
 of Mount Etna, and the description is at least curious. 
 
 " A horizon of boundless extent, embracing a similar tract of 
 country, dotted with numerous villages, and showing the whole 
 course of many rivers, from their source to their estuary, in their 
 serpentine directions, through all their windings, which (what ?) 
 glittered in the beams of morning like silver threads, hoary moun- 
 tains, like billows on a tempestuous ocean, and the smoke of 
 mouldering (query ? smouldering) volcanoes." 
 
 In this one sentence there is food for an essay. It 
 reels, and staggers, and talks inconsistent nonsense, like 
 a drunken Helot, and conveys the same moral. The 
 subject is too great for the powers of the writer, and he 
 sinks under a fruitless effort to give a description ade- 
 quate to the object. A subject like this is a dangerous 
 subject in ordinary hands. The fault is not so much in 
 the failure as in the attempt.* 
 
 In the first clause of the Lord's Prayer the Americans 
 have changed which into iclw, as being more consonant 
 with the rules of Grammar. 
 
 " This," (justly observes the author of "Men and Manners in 
 America") "is poor criticism; for it will scarcely be denied, that 
 the use of the neuter pronoun carried with it a certain vagueness, 
 
 * The same gentleman must pardon incredulity, when he says, 
 " Etna, and the l'eak of Teneriffe, are estimated as the most ele- 
 vated points on the earth." If he had said, are estimated at half 
 the height of "the most elevated points on the earth," he would 
 have been near the truth. Nor can we altogether believe that 
 " the very u-ater of the river (Guadalquiver) fattens horses more 
 than the barley of other countries" 
 
 1 6
 
 180 THE BEL \ 1 ivr. ri;> >N01 fffl, 
 
 and sublimity, nol inappropriate in reminding us, that oar worship 
 ia addr oBso d to i being infinite and superior to all distinctions] m>- 
 plicable t>> material objects." 
 
 "Jesus Chrisi ! what great crime have I done? who <»f those, 
 who believed in 700, have I ever treat) d so cruelly P — Frankenstein. 
 
 Whom of ill"-' '.' ff'/tnni' those ifl grammatically as faulty 
 as /<<■ trrutnl shr very badly. 
 
 "Who servesl thou under." SbakbtbabSi 
 
 Whom, that is, under whom serveel thou? 
 
 M Tli is, it Beems, was proved by the report of Dr. Walter BaDy, 
 sometime fellow of New College, then living in Oxford, and Pro- 
 fessor of Physic in that University; whom, because he would not 
 coneenl to take away her life by poison, the Bar! endeavoured to 
 displace him at court." — AshmoWa Antiquities, 
 
 The word him ia superfluous. 
 
 " lie whom \<- pretend reigns in heaven, is so far from protecting 
 the miserable sons of men, that he perpetually delights to blast the 
 s w eet est flowers in the garden of hope." Sped. No. 76. 
 
 "Ilr, ;///» reigns in heaven, as ye pretend." )'< pre- 
 tend ia merely parenthetical, and baa uo influence what- 
 ever upon the relative who, and the verb reign*. 
 
 •• It s mi were here, yon would find three or four in the parlour 
 after dinner, whom (you would saj i passed their time agreeably.' 1 
 — /. Letter to I.. Sfolyneux. 
 
 You would say is again parenthetical, and has do 
 effect upon the grammatical construction of the reel 
 the sentence. Strike out the words you would say, and 
 how transparent is a sentence like this. " JTou would 
 find three or four there, iii the parlour, alter dinner, who 
 passed their time agr< eablj ."
 
 WHO AND WHICH. 181 
 
 " On examining the above sum of 199Z. \5s. Od., it appears that 
 the sum of 91Z. 3s. lOd. was actually paid for subsistence to men 
 with families, and single men, able to work, but could not obtain 
 work." — Appendix to the Report of Committee on the Poor Rate 
 Returns. 
 
 The relative icho is wanting before the verb could. 
 
 " Breaking a constitution by the very same errors, that so many 
 have been broke before." — Swift, Contests and Dissensions. 
 
 It seems incredible that a man of Swift's literary 
 character should ever have written a sentence so faulty 
 as this. Here is a sentence of fifteen words, with three 
 grammatical errors, glaring and palpable. It is one 
 which warns us against being led away by the mere au- 
 thority of names. By is required before the relative, 
 that ought to be which, and broke broken. 
 
 That, if ever proper, as including the relative which, 
 has ceased to be so now. We speak that we do know, 
 and testify that we have seen," (John, iii. 11.), is a 
 phrase not consistent with modern usage. 
 
 " Of a more serious kind are the injuries done to private indi- 
 viduals, which no one deplores more than I the cause of them." — 
 Article, Errors of the Press. 
 
 Which, and them, in this sentence are incompatible. 
 One of them is useless. Thus, " of a more serious kind 
 are the injuries done to private individuals ; the innocent 
 cause of which no one deplores more than I do." 
 
 " And I beg you not to think that this only applies to parenta 
 in a higher line of life than yours, and are therefore esteemed more 
 learned, and more instructed, than you are." — HaggWs SermoiU. 
 
 The relative who is wanting before are, otherwise the
 
 182 WHO AM' H UK 11. 
 
 verb are will have do nominative case; as the term 
 parent* occurs in the objective case in the preceding 
 member of tin- sentence. 
 
 The following sentence is Liable to the Bame objection. 
 The relative who us wantin 
 
 •■ There a Bliss Liddy, can dance a j i^r, raise paste! write a good 
 hand, keep an account, give ;i n asonable answer, and '1<> as slic is 
 bid.**— Sped. 806. 
 
 ]■ been remarked by some nice observers and critics, thai 
 there i- nothing discovers the true tempo of a person so much as 
 bis letters "— Spt ct. 
 
 That nothing discovers, or, "tJuxt there is not hint/ which 
 discovers, &c." 
 
 I bere i- nothing places religion in so disadvantageous a view." 
 — Sherlock's Set mons. 
 
 There is nothing that places, &c 
 
 •• I bave hardly seen a Line from any "f" these gentlemen, l>\u 
 spiihi tin in. a- al'M'iit ihun what they were doing, a- they prol 
 they are, when they come into company." — Spec. 884. 
 
 But spoke - that, or which — "did not speak them." 
 
 • We have thus gone through the arl of] try, which, as ii 
 
 work thai required to be explai I with particular exactness, I 
 
 have enlarged ii:'' notes considerably." — WatsotCs Translation iff 
 
 I / Art ,<f Poetry. 
 
 Tli'' relative which has here do grammatical connec- 
 tion with ;iny ether member "i" word of the sentem 
 
 i Improperly used for the Relath <■■ 
 
 " A- if there was no difference between Abraham's intercedii 
 fur Sodom, for which !"■ had no warrant, at ire can find, uud yur
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUN OMITTED IDIOMATICALLY. 183 
 
 asking those things which we are required to pray for." — Sped. 
 312. 
 
 If as supplies the place of the relative that, it is a 
 mere vulgarism; if not, it alters the meaning of the 
 sentence. 
 
 " The very night as would have suited a melancholic pensive- 
 ness." — Claytons Narrative. 
 
 That. 
 
 " His work, in eight books, comprehends twenty years of the 
 Peloponnesian war, and is written with a depth of reasoning, clear- 
 ness of conception, and vigour, and dignity of language, as has not 
 been equalled, by any other Greek Historian." — Peitkman on 
 Latin Composition, p. ] 30. 
 
 Not with "a depth of reasoning as has not been 
 equalled : " either, " such a depth of reasoning as has not 
 beeii equalled," or, "a depth of reasoning that has 
 not been equalled." 
 
 What do we think of, " This is the man as I saw." 
 " This is the woman as is not to be equalled." " This 
 is the animal as chews the thistle." 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUN OMITTED IDIOMATICALLY. 
 
 In common conversation, and familiar narrative, it is not 
 unusual to omit the relative pronoun altogether. This 
 probably arises from that spirit of contraction which so 
 generally pervades our language. As, this is the man I
 
 184 AMBIG1 II v ABIBING FB< flfl 
 
 spoke of , that is, «/' >/•/<<</// I -poke: this 18 the house he 
 
 built : tliat i.-, uliidi lie built Ose haa sanctioned this 
 elliptical mode <>t' expression, but in serious ami Bolemn 
 subjects it ought to It avoided. 
 
 In the following sentence the relative pronoun is 
 three times omitfe '1. 
 
 u Is there a God to swear by, and is there none to beliere <«, 
 none to trust tot" — Letters and Essays, Anonymous. 
 
 />'//. in, ami /c as prepositions, stand alone, denuded «>t" 
 tlif relatives to which they apply. The sentence presents 
 no attractions worthy of imitation. It exhibits 8 licence, 
 carried to the extreme poinl of endurance. 
 
 In that pas.-age of the Bible in which Joseph 18 re- 
 presented as inquiring affectionately alter his lather's 
 welfare, the translators have not put this flippant 
 phraseology into his mouth, but made him to expn 
 himself in more dignified and respectful langua 
 
 •• [syour Gather well, the old man, of whom ye spake? — Qen. xliii. 
 
 -'7. 
 
 chap. ix. 
 
 4MBIOUITT ABISTJfO IRON i 1 1 1 PLURALITY 01 A\ i i < u>i vr?. 
 
 u 'I'm in i- among the people of all countries an. 1 all religioi 
 belief "t" immortality, arising from the Datura] desire of li\ tag, and 
 
 Dgthened bj uniform tradition, which has oertainlj some 
 infloenoe apon practice, and some effect in fortifying ti„. wu ] 
 
 n-t ill'- terron of death."— Lindsay's SermonSi 
 
 The relative which is here to,, in- separated from it-
 
 THE PLURALITY OF ANTECEDENTS. 185 
 
 antecedent, belief. The first impression made in reading 
 the sentence is, that tradition is the antecedent. The 
 intervening words almost obliterate the remembrance 
 of the real antecedent, belief. Tradition dwells upon 
 the mind, as well as on the ear, and connects itself 
 with the relative immediately following. 
 
 " For be hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin." — 
 New Testament. 
 
 Here the meaning deduced from our own knowledge 
 of the fact is at variance with that which is deducible 
 from the strict grammatical arrangement of the sen- 
 tence. Though the term him is the antecedent to the 
 relative who, and required to be so by the facts of the 
 case, yet us, from its juxtaposition with who, presents 
 itself as the proper antecedent. By reason of the in- 
 flexion of the verb, in its grammatical concord with 
 the relative, no mistake can arise in Latin or Greek; 
 but in English the passage is ambiguous. If the pas- 
 sage had run, " For he hath made him, who knew no 
 sin, to be sin for us," all ambiguity would have been 
 avoided. 
 
 The following passage from Milton presents us with 
 a peculiar construction, as respects the antecedent and 
 the relative. A participle is thrown in between them. 
 But as no other word can be mistaken for the ante- 
 cedent, no obscurity can arise from this construction, 
 though singular in its kind. 
 
 "Nay, lady, sit, if I but wave this wand, 
 Your nerves are all chained up in alabaster, 
 And you a statue, or as Daphne was, 
 Root-bound, that fled Apollo." Milton.
 
 186 PRONOMINAL VDJLCTl\l-. 
 
 (HAT. X. 
 
 ri;« "NOMINAL Al'.ll < 11\ I -. 
 
 Aught, 
 
 This pronominal adjective is sometimes written ought, 
 hut erroneously Were it only for the Bake of 
 
 distinguishing it from the verb ought, il would be de- 
 sirable that it should be written aught, and not ought; 
 but it La derived from the Anglo-Saxon aht, written 
 also unlit ii i n 1 ttwhit, signifying any thing; and therefore 
 there can be no reason, either etymologically or other* 
 wise, for writing ought and nought, aht, aught, ne, not 
 aght, oaht, naught, not any thing. 
 
   Ii i~ naught, it i- naught, saith the buyer, but when li«' ifl gone 
 hi^ way, then he boaBteth." — Prov. \\. 14. 
 
 ■• Nor aughl ai aila him now, 
 J have lmili in heaven blab towei /' 
 
 o 
 
 Any, 
 
 Any ifl derived from the Anglo-Saxon senig, nllus, 
 any one. La the time of Henry the Third it was 
 written oni, masculine, :ui<1 onie, feminine. 
 
 \ml ^'ii' oni, other onie enmen her ongenes." 
 
 ■• Am I if any man, or any woman come here against." 
 
 // t. Henry III 
 
 Thifl distinction ofgend< r is now lost. 
 
 In the following sentence any ifl erroneonslj used 
 lor all: — 
 
 •• Whatever be the motive, thej an sot onlj the most charitable
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 187 
 
 of any other nation, but most judicious in distinguishing the 
 properest objects of compassion." — Goldsmith's Citizen of the 
 World. 
 
 The most charitable of all other nations, or more 
 charitable than any other nation. 
 
 Either and Neither. 
 
 Either, Anglo-Saxon ccgther, answers to the Latin 
 term liter, which invariably refers to one of two things, 
 and not one of a plurality. So also neither refers to 
 two things only, and answers to neuter, neither of the 
 two. But none, no one, refers to a plurality of objects, 
 and is sometimes plural itself ; as, " Two were invited, 
 but neither of them came ; " "I should have been satis- 
 fied, if either of the two had come ; " " Twenty were 
 invited, but none, no one (emphatically, and in the 
 singular number), not one of them came." An ille- 
 gitimate and ungrammatical use of these words, either 
 and neither, has lately been creeping into the language, 
 in the application of these terms to a plurality of objects ; 
 as, " Twenty ruffians broke into the house, but neither 
 of them could be recognized." "Here are fifty pens, 
 you will find that either of them will do." 
 
 " For injustice springs only from three causes, either because 
 we have not the wisdom to perceive what is just, or the power to 
 enforce it, or the benevolence to will it. Neither of these causes 
 for injustice can be found in a being wise, powerful, benevolent." 
 — New Monthly, Conversations with an Ambitious Student. 
 
 None of these causes, not one of these causes. 
 
 " At last a servant, who had lived with him, and knew the way 
 of the house, plotted with one Cain a cooper, and one Dignv i
 
 188 PBONOMIN VL VIOKCTIVKS. 
 
 school-master, and a fellow of the name of McHenry, to rnli tlic 
 house, on a sabbath evening. Neither of them lived in thai neigh- 
 bourhood." — Lift of Dr. Clarke, 
 
 " None, or not one, of them lived in that neighbour- 
 hood." 
 
 Either and neither, applied to any number more than 
 one of two objects, Lb b mere solecism, and one of Into 
 introduction. 
 
 An Other, Another, the Other. 
 
 Another refers to one of many, the other, one of two : 
 " Here arc ten volumes of books ; take this one, or 
 another, if you please,' 1 Bpeaking indefinitely; "Here 
 are two books; take this, or the other, if you please," 
 speaking definitely; "Two men were standing on the 
 road; one walked away, the oilier remained;* 1 "Two 
 men were standing on the road, and another came np." 
 " Two women -hull be grinding at the mill, the one 
 shall be taken and the other Left;" "una accipietur, 
 altera relinquetur." 
 
 Confusion of Another vvith the Other, 
 
 \nd they came into the bouse of Baal, and the boa i Baal 
 
 was lull from one end to mother? — 2 hmr . 
 
 If the bouse of Baal, Like most houses, bad onlj two 
 ends, it might be lull from <>u<- end t" tht other, not 
 another, which implies one end of many. 
 
   Bat should be persist in refusing your daughter, then prepare
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 189 
 
 the felek and the sticks, collect your strongest ferashes, and let them 
 strike, till you cannot tell one foot from another." — Zorab. 
 
 As Zorab had, probably, only two feet, the expression 
 ought to have been one from the other. 
 
 " These two kinds of diction, prose and poetry, are so different 
 one from another, that the one will hinder more than assist the 
 other." — Peithmans Latin Composition. 
 
 As the kinds of diction mentioned are but two, the 
 writer ought to have said from each other, not one from 
 another. Any number of objects above two might 
 differ from one another, but two differ from each other. 
 It may also be observed of this passage, that to hinder 
 more than assist is nonsense. The terms are contrary, 
 and do not admit of mixture. Where hindrance begins 
 there can be no assistance. We cannot depress an 
 object two inches, and simultaneously raise it one inch. 
 Hinder rather than assist. 
 
 " The reed grows to an amazing height, as the part the Indians 
 use is from ten to eleven feet long, and no tapering can be per- 
 ceived, one end being as thick as another.*' — Wanderings in South 
 America. 
 
 Again ; the other. 
 
 The Other in the Place of Another. 
 
 " On looking upwards, we saw them clinging by myriads to the 
 roof, all in convulsive motion, with glittering eyes, open mouths, 
 and hideous trembling wings, seeming, in their fear, to be hanging 
 one to the other, tier below tier." — St. Johns Egypt, vol. i. p. 147. 
 
 As there were myriads of bats, they must have hung 
 one to another. They formed a concatenation of bats,
 
 190 FBONOHTS LL Aiur.i rivi 3. 
 
 and one bat hung to another bat throughout the whole 
 series. 
 
 " Diodorus, wh< I i refer rill occurrences to years, 
 
 is of more credit in a |><'int of chronology, than Plutarch, <>r any 
 otter, who write urea by the lump.* 1 — Bendeg'a Dissertation on 
 T/i> mist I .j U 
 
 ** Or any others, who write." 
 
 Each, 
 
 Each is connected with he, him, she, her, it. and not 
 with they, (hem, 
 
   And they dreamed a dream, l">th of them, esc A man his dream 
 in one night, each man according to the interpretation of hit dream." 
 . \1. 5. 
 
 u To each his proper phantom fell, 
 Whilst Caesar reigned, the general care of hell." 
 
 Rowa'a Lw lh's Pharsalia. 
 
 " Each bad his place appointed, each his course." 
 
 Paradise Lost, book iii- 
 
 Hit in :ill these cases is right. Each i- always taken 
 distributively, and i- therefore necessarily of the singular 
 number, and will therefore be connected grammatically 
 with the persona] pronoun of the singular number. 
 / try is also distributivei and follows the same rule. 
 The following passage has their improperly in the place 
 
 of his, ii- tin rnnvlativc of ' 1 ' rii. 
 
 " And i' nj> the dead, thai were in it. and death and 
 
 hell gave up the dead that were in them; and the) were judged 
 every man according t.. //<«;;■ works." — Rev. ax. IS. 
 
 // works.
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 191 
 
 Self. 
 
 Self is used in conjunction with the personal pro- 
 nouns I, thou, he ; and selves with the plurals of these, 
 we, ye, and they. In the Anglo-Saxon self was de- 
 clinable ; but about the time of Chaucer it shared the 
 same fate as that which many other declinable words 
 had undergone. Self varied in number, case, and 
 gender, according to circumstances, and the language 
 did not present the curious incongruity of such ex- 
 pressions as I myself, thou thyself, he /mrcself, &c. Both 
 the pronoun and self combined with it varied according 
 to the case, gender, or number required. As — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Icsylf, I self. Wesylfe, We selves. 
 
 Minsylfes, of myself. Urensylpha, of our selves, &c. 
 
 Selves is the only variation of self now remaining. 
 We now say — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I myself. "We ourselves. 
 
 Thou thyself. Ye yourselves. 
 
 He himself. They themselves. 
 She herself. 
 
 So that / stands connected with its own possessive form 
 in myself, thou also with thyself, whilst he, she, and they 
 are connected with their own objective form in himself, 
 themselves. These forms seem to have been regulated 
 by euphony rather than grammar, for no grammatical 
 principle can be recognized. I self, thou self, we selves, 
 are objectionable as combinations of sound, though con- 
 sistent with ancient authority, and with grammar.
 
 192 REPETITION OF PBONOUN — ITS EFFECT. 
 
 In the present Btate of the English language, myself 
 and thyself, ami ourselves and yourselves, and himself 
 and themselves, are no1 used alone, at least in the 
 Dominative ease. We d<> nut Bay "myself did it." 
 u thyself did it," but / myself, thou thyself, &c, such 
 expressions being strongly and distinctly personal. 
 
 [tself has no variation, though it is probable that the 
 s, indicating the possessive case of this word, has been 
 dropped, because Belf begins with an *, as self, its self, 
 contracted to //sell". 
 
 chap. xi. 
 
 BEPBTTTIOM <>i nil: im;<>.\oi\ — its KFFKOT.' 
 
 Tin. frequent repetition of the pronoun in a senten 
 gives force, beauty, or tenderness, just a- the nature of 
 the subject may require. It is true, this u not strictly 
 a question of grammar, but -till it is one intimately 
 connected with the \i:_ r '>m\ perspicuity and beauty of 
 composition. 
 
 Take 1 1 1 « - following passage from the hymn <>i Adam 
 and Eve, addree w d t" tin- Creator : — 
 
 •■ lli- praise, v winds, thai from four quarters blow, 
 Breathe -■■'■< or loud, ami wave jrour tops, ye pines ! 
 \\ iili ever} plant, in sign "i \%   i- 1 1 i j > wave. 
 Fountain*, andya thai warble asy< flow, 
 Bdi lodioui murmurs, warbling tune bii prai 
 Join voices all, >jr \\\ in • ,,■ birds,
 
 REPETITION OF PRONOUN — ITS EFFECT. 1 93 
 
 That singing up to heaven-gate ascend, 
 
 Bear on your wings, and in your notes his praise." 
 
 Paradise Lost, b. v. 
 
 This principle is still more forcibly exemplified in 
 the scene between Adam and Eve, after their fatal 
 transgression. As she clasps his knees and supplicates 
 forgiveness, she never allows him one moment for re- 
 flection. She places her beloved image before him 
 under every variety of condition, and mingles their past, 
 present, and future destinies together in an overpower- 
 ing flood of tenderness. 
 
 " Forsake me not thus, Adam 1 Witness heaven ! 
 What love sincere, and reverence, in my heart, 
 / bear thee, and unwecting have offended, 
 Unhappily deceived ! Thy suppliant, 
 / beg, and clasp thy knees — bereave me not 
 Whereon /live — thy gentle looks, thy aid, 
 Thy counsel, in this uttermost distress, 
 My only strength and stay ! forlorn of thee, 
 Whither shall / betake me ? where subsist ? 
 While yet we live, scarce one short hour perhaps — 
 Between us two let there be peace, both joining, 
 As joined in injuries, one enmity, 
 Against a foe, by doom express assigned us, 
 That cruel serpent. On me exercise not 
 Thy hatred, for this misery befallen, 
 On me already lost — me than thyself 
 .More miserable! Both have sinned, but thou 
 Against God only — /against God and thee, 
 And to the place of judgment will return, 
 There with my cries importune heaven, that all 
 The sentence, from thy head removed, may light 
 On me, sole cause to thee of all this woe, 
 il/c, /;/c, only, just object of this ire." 
 
 Ibid. b. s 
 
 In this passage the pronoun alternating between 
 
 K
 
 194 REPETITION OF PBOMOUN — ITS EFFECT. 
 
 Adam and Eve, a- personal or possessive, is used do 
 l( as than thirty times ; and it is, in a great degree, to 
 this circumstance, to the intense personality of the 
 ne, that much of its beauty and inimitable tender- 
 ness is to be attributed. It rouses all the generous 
 
 impulses of the BOul, and. 
 
 " A- one disarmed, M- anger all he lost." 
 
 Heaven had given lv. as a help-meet to Adam, and 
 
 he now feels the lull force of a former acknowledg- 
 ment : — 
 
 "How can I lire without thee! Ilnw forego 
 Th;i sweel converse, and love bo dearly join'd, 
 To live in thes< wild woods forlorn I "* 
 
 We sec the same principle running through Bve's 
 farewell address to Paradise, when the archangel com- 
 manded them to leave the blissful abode: — 
 
 ( Hi am sp than of death ! 
 
 Mu-t I ill ii- leave tht i . Paradise ! thus leave 
 Thee, native Boil ' These happy walks and shades, 
 Kit haunl of gods, where I had hope to spend, 
 Quiet, though tad, the respite of thai day, 
 Thai musl be mortal to us both. flowers! 
 
   rhough foreign to the immediate purpose, it would be diffi- 
 • -ul t tn pan unnoticed the profound melancholy expressed by the 
 construction of this concluding line — 
 
   In live In these wild forlorn." 
 
 Mil man, in the " Fall of Jerusalem," imilar construction 
 
 of the rerse, and on paally true to nature. 
 
 •■ Bless thee ' but we may me< t again, e'en here. 
 I Inm lo isent, I w e it through thy U 
 
 V.t, once again, that cold sad word farewell.* 1
 
 REPETITION OF PRONOUN — ITS EFFECT. 195 
 
 That never will in other climate grow, 
 My early visitation and my last, 
 At e'en, which I bred up with tender hand, 
 From the first opening bud, and gave ye names ; 
 Who now shall rear ye to the sun, or rank 
 Your tribes, or water from the ambrosial font ? 
 Thee lastly, nuptial bower, by me adorn'd, 
 With what to sight or smell was sweet from thee, 
 How shall I part, and whither wander down, 
 Into a lower world, to this obscure, 
 And wild ! how shall we breathe in other air, 
 Less pure, accustomed to immortal fruit ! " 
 
 Paradise Lost, b. xi. 
 
 The language of Adam on the prospect of leaving 
 Paradise, and of being deprived of the visible and 
 immediate communion with God, is of the same cha- 
 racter : — 
 
 " Here I would frequent 
 With worship place by place, when he vouchsafed 
 Presence divine, and to my woes relate — 
 On this mount he appeared, under this tree 
 Stood visible — among these pines his voice 
 I heard, here, with him, at this fountain talk'd." 
 
 Ibid. b. xi. 
 
 Unquestionably this is the language of strong feeling 
 and personal attachment to a beloved object. The 
 repetition of the pronoun exhibits the mind as impa- 
 tient of interruption, and falling back again and again 
 upon that object, at one moment collectively, at another 
 individually, and dwelling with a lingering fondness on 
 each of its separate parts. 
 
 Corresponding with this principle is the following 
 passage from the " Noctes Ambrosianae ": — 
 
 • \'ae thou't so ansupportable as that o' entire, blank forgetfid- 
 
 K 2
 
 196 REPETITION OF PRONOUN — ITS EFFECT. 
 
 .... When ahe, the cretur thai once laucht, and sang, and 
 wept to as, close to our ride, or in out ram arms, i-, a- if her 
 smiles, her voire, her tears, her kisses had never been.* 1 
 
 Every touch of tlii- passage points directly to the 
 heart. 
 
 S also Milman. On the eight in which Jerosalem 
 was taken, Salone had been married t<> Amariah. Her 
 sister Miriam, when the city \\a- in flames, goes t<> Beek 
 her, and finds thai Amariah had stabbed her, in order 
 tn prevent her from falling into the hands of the enemy : 
 Salone ie dying, and her intellects are wandering. She 
 tells the following talc : — 
 
 " He came back, and ki->'d me, and he said, 
 I kn«>w not whal he Baid — but there was something 
 
 Qentile ravisher, and liis beauteous bride. 
 i/.. /.. he meant, he called me beauteous bride, 
 
 And he si 1 o'er me with a sword so bright, 
 
 M \ dazzl'd eyes did close. And presently 
 M> thought he smote me with the sword — bul then 
 He t'll upon my Deck, and wept upon me, 
 And I fell nothing but Ids burning kit 
 
 This | res its 1 utj to the Btrange bewilder- 
 
 ment and the inten ■<• p< rsonality thai pervades it. The 
 pronoun, personal <>r \ ive, is twenty-two times r ,._ 
 
 peated in eight Lines and a half. 
 
 . ijl' ctionaU Entrt aty. 
 
 Sector feels himself called to the field of battle, by 
 honour, duty, and the cause of lii- country, though at 
 the same time with a firm conviction that there he must
 
 REPETITION OF PKONOUN — ITS EFFECT. 197 
 
 perish. Hecuba, with earnest prayer and maternal 
 tenderness, beseeches him to remain within the walls : — 
 
 " Her zone unbraced, her bosom she display'd, 
 And thus, fast falling the salt tears, she said, 
 Have mercy on me ! O my son ! 
 If ever thee in these fond arms I press'd, 
 Or still'd thy infant clamours at this breast, 
 Ah, do not thus our helpless years forego, 
 But by our walls secured repel the foe." 
 
 Pope, Iliad, b. xxii. 
 
 So also Priam : — 
 
 " Then wept the sage, 
 He strikes his reverend head, now white with age, 
 He lifts his wither'd arms — obtests the skies, 
 He calls his much-lov'd son, with feeble cries. 
 'Ah, stay not, stay not guardless and alone, 
 Hector, my lov'd, my dearest, bravest son ! 
 Methinks already I behold thee slain, 
 And stretch'd beneath that fury of the plain.' " 
 
 Ibid. b. xxii. 
 
 Intense personal Hatred. 
 
 1 A plague upon them, wherefore should I curse them ? 
 Would curses kill, as cloth the mandrake's groan, 
 I could invent as bitter, searching terms, 
 As curs'd, and harsh, and horrible to hear, 
 Deliver'd strongly through my fixed teeth, 
 With full as many signs of deadly hate, 
 As lean-fae'd Envy in her deadly cave. 
 My tongue shall stumble in mine earnest words, 
 Mute eyes should sparkle, like the beaten llint, 
 My hair be fix'd on end, as one distract, 
 Ay, every joint should seem to curse and ban. 
 And even now, my burden'd heart would break, 
 Should I not curse them — poison be their drink, 
 
 K. 3
 
 lit* REP] l I I !<»\ <>i PRONOUN — ITfl EFFECT. 
 
 Gall — worse than gall, the dainties thai (key taste! 
 Their sweeteal shade a grove of cypress trees! 
 7'A. /;- chiefeat prospecl — murdering basilisks! 
 7"/i"/- softest touch- a- smart as lizards' Btingt 
 Their music — frightful, as the serpents 1 hist I 
 An] boding screech-owls make the com erl full ! 
 All the foul tcrmrs of dark-seated li« -1 1 ! 
 
 Sll \K-II \ltl . //< / ■-./ VI. 
 
 In this passage hatred, withering, scorching, burning, 
 pursues lik<- a Btaunch blood-hound, and never quits the 
 personal odour of its object. 
 
 Contemptuous Indignation. 
 
 M Thou lieet, thou thread, th,m thimble, 
 Thou yard, three quarters, half-yard, quarter, nail. 
 Thou flea, //«"< ait, thou winter-crickel thou." 
 
 Taming of a Shrew, art 4. - 
 
 Seethe life and energy given to a contesl by the 
 repetition of the pronoun. 
 
 • A- on the conflnes of adjoining ground, 
 I wo stubborn swain-, with blows dispute the ground, 
 They tin', they sweat, but neither gain nor yield 
 
 < >u<- foot, • inch of the contested field. 
 
 Thus obstinate to death, they fight, they fall. 
 Nor thett can keep, nor them can win the wall." 
 
 POPI . //mi/. 
 
 Ii is questionable whether ani modern fraternal 
 appeal can equal that of young Harrj t<> his comrades 
   in the field of battle, and ref the most powerful instru- 
 Hunt in thai appeal U aimplj the personal pronoun we. 
 It combines and condenses the destinies <>f :ill into one 
 firm :in<l indissoluble mass. Themeanes! soldier, in 1 1 f "* *
 
 REPETITION OF PRONOUN — ITS EFFECT. 199 
 
 or death, shares in the glory, or mingles his blood with 
 that of his indomitable chief : — 
 
 " This story shall the good man teach his son, 
 And Crispin Crispian shall ne'er go by, 
 From this day, to the ending of the world, 
 But we, in it, shall be remembered. 
 We few — we happy few — we band of brothers! 
 For he to-day that sheds his blood with me 
 Shall be my brother ; be he ne'er so vile, 
 This day shall gentle his condition." 
 
 Shakspeare, Henry V. 
 
 It would be easy to multiply examples of a similar 
 kind. In reading such passages, a deep interest and 
 sympathy is excited, and, if we investigate the ground 
 of this feeling, we shall find that it mainly consists in 
 the frequent recurrence of their personality. Dry, ab- 
 stract reasoning may convince the understanding, but 
 it is feeble in exciting human sympathies and affections. 
 It is just so in the practical scenes of life. The dumb 
 appeal of the wounded, . helpless traveller, laid by the 
 road side, is far more eloquent than the most forcible 
 exhortation to relieve the distressed. It is personality, 
 whether in real or descriptive life, that makes its way 
 to the heart, and it is to this principle, properly applied, 
 that many of the finest passages, whether of poetry or 
 of prose, owe their energy, or tenderness — their power 
 of exciting the deepest sympathies of our nature. 
 
 K 4
 
 200 ANGLOS w>.\ w;l K Ll.. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 AIM K 1.1. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Tin. Anglo-Saxon mi. aon, a£n s was Beldom used as an 
 indefinite article. It had the signification of the Latin 
 ■i/tns. one. Where an indefinite signification was 
 quired, no article was prefixed, and the sentence followed 
 the Latin construction, a-. " Deodric was Cristen," 
 Theodoricus tail Christianus. Theodoric was a Chris- 
 tian, a- we ahould now express it. Tin- particle, 
 
 Iginally tin- numeral one, became tin- indefinite article 
 '/ or 'in, with mi other variation. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon definite article passed through 
 
 era! inflections, all which have been discarded. It 
 had four cases in the singular number, and was inflected 
 in the masculine, feminine, and neuter gender of the 
 nominative ami accusative • It bad four cases in t In 
 
 plural number, the accusative, in form, however, being 
 the same as the nominative. In the plural number 
 there was no variation of gender. The presenl English 
 definite article has no variation in number, ease, or 
 
 ider. If'any error therefore mould ever occur in the 
 of the definite article, it muel !"• an error of appli- 
 
 on, not of form.
 
 DISTINCTION OF ARTICLES. 201 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 DISTINCTION OF ARTICLES. 
 
 The indefinite article a, before a word beginning with 
 a consonant, and an before a word beginning with a 
 vowel, or h mute, is applied to any thing not before 
 mentioned or known. When no article at all is used, 
 the sense is still less definite. The following sentences 
 from the second chapter of Genesis introduce the dif- 
 ferent applications of the indefinite and the definii< 
 article, and also illustrate the principle upon which the 
 absence of the article is founded. 
 
 " And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the earth." 
 Man not having previously existed. 
 
 " Therefore shall a man leave his father and mother." 
 Any man at any future time. 
 
 " And the Lord planted a garden eastward, in Eden, and there 
 he put the man (before mentioned) whom he had formed." 
 
 " And the Lord God said, it is not good that the man should be 
 alone, I will make liini an help-meet." 
 
 These sentences exemplify the use of the present 
 English article, whether definite or indefinite, whilst 
 the absence of the article altogether before the term 
 man denotes the species at large. 
 
 " Which in time past were not a people, but are now the people 
 of God." 
 
 Here, also, we have a marked distinction between the 
 indefinite and the definite article.
 
 202 MB! IN' ii. • n i.i \i: ri« i.i -. 
 
 It' Pilate had Baid, u Behold <> num.*' the observation 
 would nut have had either point or Bpecific application. 
 It' Peter bad Baid, " I know nol " man.'' instead of the 
 man. the observation would have been false, a- a matter 
 of course, and nol merelj as a matter of distind appli- 
 cation. It' it had been stated, that any two sides of a 
 triangle are greater tlian n third side, the position might 
 havi been either true or false, bul nol necessarily either; 
 u third Bide would allow as t<> ti\ upon sonu other tri- 
 : 1 1 1 __r 1 1   . ami so to compare two sides <>i "/" triangle with 
 tine side of another triangle, lint when it is Btated that 
 any two sides of a triangle is greater than tin third side, 
 the pn-itiuii L confined to //"■ third or remaining Bide <>t 
 the triangle in question, and is either necessarily true, 
 or necessarily fal 
 
 in : — 
 
 '•In everj parallelogram any of the parallelogram! about </ 
 diameter, together "itli the two i omplementa, i- called   gnomon." 
 
 — Simps, i n's Euclid, Uef. J. b. ii. 
 
 If thr expression " diameter had been the diameter, tin 
 position would have assumed, that a parallelogram could 
 have <"" diameter only. 
 
 r tin- proper use of thr articles in the English 
 language, \\> obviously gain great precision of meaning, 
 
 and Blich a- i- Dot attainable in Latin. A> an illn-- 
 
 tration of this, let us take the phi i •■ Imioue [mpera- 
 tons' 1 propounded b) Mr, Grant, which in Latin i- 
 ceptible of four different significations, compressed 
 and undistinguished. Now in Rngli heacli signification 
 would be perfectly defined, as, t( a friend of an emperor,
 
 DISTINCTION OF ARTICLES. 203 
 
 the friend of an emperor, a friend of the emperor, the 
 friend of the emperor. 
 
 So, also, in the " Fas odisse vivos" of Virgil, and 
 
 " Obstupuit priino aspectu Sidonia Dido 
 Casu deinde viri tanto," 
 
 we feel the "want of definition. 
 
 The following passage will show how frequently the 
 definite article may enter into the composition of a single 
 sentence, and that necessarily. 
 
 " But when the military order had levelled, in wild anarchy, the 
 power of the prince, the laws of the senate, and even the discipline 
 of the camp, the barbarians of the North, and of the East, who had 
 long hovered on the frontier, boldly attacked the provinces of a 
 declining monarchy." — Gibbons Decline, c. viii. 
 
 Here the definite article occurs eleven times, and the 
 
 indefinite once. 
 
 Again : — 
 
 " 'Tis not the balm, the sceptre, and the ball, 
 The sword, the mace, the crown imperial, 
 The enter-tissued robe of gold and pearl, 
 The farced title running 'fore tin' king, 
 The throne he sits on, nor the tide of pomp, 
 That beats upon the high shore of this world, 
 No!" Shakspeare. 
 
 Here, again, the definite article occurs twelve times 
 in six lines. The distinct properties and the correct 
 application of the English articles become, therefore, a 
 matter of the greatest moment. 
 
 k 6
 
 204 ENGLISH AND GREEK AUTICLEB COMPARER 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 UTGLIBB 4BXICLE OOMPABED w "li II mi GREEK \Kinu 
 
 Tin. English definite article in it- general use oor- 
 responds with the Greek article] bul everj langua 
 has it- own peculiar idioms, which refuse to bend t.> 
 any foreign authority. Thus the Greeks used the 
 definite article before abstract nouns, as fjaperif, >} kcikIo, 
 virtue, vice. If we prefix the article in English, w< 
 
 tine the terms to Borne particular virtue and \\<-> 
 already specified, or to be specified. The French, in 
 this respect, follow the Greek form ; as, la vertu, le 
 \ ice. 
 
 ^gain, the Greeks use the definite article before a 
 proper name in the singular number; as, 6 ZtoicpaTrj?, 
 Socrates, whereas in English we use it only before th« 
 plural <>f proper names; a-, "the .1 • »I i n -< >i i -, " "the 
 Ail'li-.'ii-.'" except in a case <>i' marked distinction, Buch 
 
 an seldom occur. 
 
 "Go to tht I tougl i-. and deliver him 
 [Jp to lii- pleasure ransomlesa an 1 1 
 
 Shakspi uu 
 
 •• I do ii" injustice to the Red* Rover, when I lay In- is too tilighl 
 to be weighed with Ms I >■ s Chron Cannon- 
 
 We have also a peculiar use of the ind finite article', 
 a- applied t>> in.un- of the singular number. 
 
 • l i . >m liberty eat li aobler 
 A Bacon 1 I, and a Sji 
 
 ^\M'.i / WalpoU
 
 IRREGULAR USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 205 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 IRREGULAR USE OP THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 A variety of examples, both in Scripture and in some 
 writers of the same and even of later date, sanction the 
 use of the definite article before the word death when 
 that term has nothing more than a general significa- 
 tion, and when no reference is made to any particular 
 form of death ; thus : — 
 
 " Jeoparded their lives unto the death." — Judges, v. 10. 
 " Let hiui die the death." — Matt. xv. 4. 
 
 " Bear Worcester to the death." Shakspeare. 
 
 " True to the death." Cowper's Task. 
 
 " It shall not save him from the death." Byron. 
 
 Nor is this form of expression confined to the phrase 
 " the death ; " the article is on some other occasions 
 placed before the noun in a manner not recognized by 
 modern custom ; as, 
 
 " They lie in the hell like sheep." — Psalms. 
 
 La hell is, however, probably derived from Halla or 
 Walhalla, the phrase may be accepted as signifying th> 
 abode of the dead. They lie in the place of the dead. 
 
 " O that the salvation were given unto Israel." — Psalms. 
 
 Phrases of this description seem to be founded upon 
 Greek rather than English construction. They un- 
 certainly inconsistent with our modern idiom.
 
 206 I NOLI8B ami GERMAN 
 
 The use of the definite article before the relative 
 which has now become obsolete. 
 
 •• Where there wnt n garden, into the which he entered." — John, 
 
 xviii. 1. 
 
 We have also an anomalous use of 1 1 1 * * article before 
 adjectives, <>r rather adverbs of the comparative and 
 superlative degree; as, "I like this th* better;* 1 "1 
 like thia the best." If in such cases we Leave out the 
 article, and take better and best adverbially, there is no 
 difficulty. "I like A. well, V>. better, but C. 1- 
 Musi we then treat the phrases tht /"//'/-and ///' best 
 ■a- .-titl'-iK'ckL'd vulgarisms, rendered intractable, or must 
 we look upon them aa elliptical expressions, used in 
 tin.- place of mi the best way, in th< best manner 9 
 
 Again, what can we make of the phrase " I Baw him 
 the other d&y ?" meaning a Bhorl time ago; the definite 
 ///- in the interpretation of the phrase becoming the 
 indefinite a: I saw him the other day, thai is, a Bhorl 
 time ago. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 ENGLISH Aicii'M COMPARED wiiii nil GERMAN ARTICLE. 
 
 Is German the article i- repeated before nouns of dif- 
 ferent genders, as, u det voter, </i> mutter, und das kind ; n 
 the father, the mother, and the child. \N hen nouns 
 are >>\ 1 1 » < - same gender and number, the article ifl re- 
 quired before tl><: first only, m u der /■<>,/. undhut" the 
 
 COal and liat.
 
 ARTICLES COMPARED. 207 
 
 As the English article has no inflexion, but is used 
 under the same form to signify masculine, feminine, or 
 neuter, it might be argued that, on this principle, it is 
 necessary to place the article before the first of a series 
 of nouns only, as " the men, women, and baggage." It 
 is not, however, a proper view of the English definite 
 article to suppose that it is masculine, feminine, and 
 neuter at the sa?ne time. The English article is mas- 
 culine when applied to a masculine noun, feminine when 
 applied to a feminine noun, and neuter when applied 
 to a neuter noun. Its want of inflexion is a mere 
 matter of form, and the same article which is applied 
 to a masculine noun, and therefore of itself masculine, 
 cannot at the same time be applied to a feminine noun, 
 and be at the same time feminine. It cannot be two 
 different things at the same time, and the repetition of 
 the article in English, when applied to objects differing 
 in gender, number, or condition, is just as necessary for 
 the sake of definite meaning as the German article 
 would be in German under similar circumstances. The 
 English adjective has no inflexion as to gender, number, 
 or case ; yet in the phrase a tall man it is masculine, in 
 a tall woman it is feminine, and in a tall tree it is neuter. 
 In signification as to gender and number it is just as 
 mutable, as, alt//s, alta, alt«w, though its form may not 
 be altered. So also in the verb, we say, I love, thou 
 lovest, he loves ; yet we say, we love, ye love, they love; 
 so that the same form, love, is first person singular, 
 first, second, and third person plural: yel tin invariable 
 form of the verb in the plural number expresses the 
 meaning just as well ae its variable form in the singular
 
 '-'<>* M.l.l-II AM> t.i.liMAN 
 
 number, — I love, thou bvest t he lovet ; we fope, ye ftw«, 
 
 they A 
 
 In the case of the article, its immutable form has 
 Qothing tn do with the question. The question is, can 
 thai which is masculine define thai which is feminine, and 
 that which ie neuter, all al the same time | or, thai which 
 i~ singular, and thai which is plural, a1 the aame time? 
 Logically and grammatically it cannot, whate\ er custom, 
 or negligence, or ignorance, may sanction to the con- 
 trary. The Greek and German articles have their 
 fixed principles, bul scores of passages might be adduced 
 from the OM and the New Testament, in English, in 
 which the sens< U essentially changed by the omission 
 of the definite article, where thai article is clearly and 
 distinctly applied in the original for the express purp 
 of definition. It is an easj matter to propound phraf 
 in the English language, which custom has sanctioned, 
 and which militate againsl thi^ principle, but on exami- 
 nation we shall find such examples, either obviously 
 unjustifiable, and dependenl solely on the tyranny of 
 custom ami the tenacity of error, <t upon Borne peculiar 
 
 i lificatiou generally overlooked. Examples of the 
 
 former hind are painfully numerous. I >f the latter, take 
 such an example as the following: — " I met a mini mid 
 Inns' ." Now it i- bo customary for man and h 
 t.i be associated, thai we look upon them as forming a 
 compound animal a hind of Centaur. Bui who 
 would think of saying, " 1 mel a man and crocodile, M 
 or, "a woman and Ornithorhynchus paradoxus!" The 
 "■i;itiipn i- \i\\ improbable, and requires distinct 
 cification, a man and a crocodile, a woman and an
 
 ARTICLES COMPARED. 209 
 
 Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. But if we speak of a man as 
 well known — as having made himself notorious by his 
 exhibition of a crocodile, and both are conjointly cele- 
 brated, we then say, " Have you seen the man and 
 crocodile ? " for there is in this case a logical association 
 of objects, in fact, a unity. To pass to the definite 
 article, to the question, " Have you seen the man and 
 crocodile?'''' It might be answered, " There are several 
 men exhibiting crocodiles" I answer, " So there may, 
 but the others are not worth looking at. I mean the 
 man and the crocodile," emphatically and eontradis- 
 tinctively. The justice of these distinctions will I think 
 be acknowledged ; yet they are not the more necessary 
 here than they are in a thousand instances in which 
 they are neglected. A grammatical principle is either 
 right or not right, it cannot be right by halves. 
 
 We say, " I saw the father and mother of the child," 
 because we recognise parental association in the phrase, 
 but I cannot with the same propriety say, " 7" saw the 
 General and Adjutant" because there is no association 
 of office. I speak of two distinct persons, and two 
 distinct conditions, and I ought to say, " I saw the 
 General and the Adjutant." On what principle, then, do 
 we say, The Pharisees, and scribes, and chief officers, 
 each class being distinct? We do it in direct violation 
 of principle. 
 
 The same rule is applicable to adjectives. When two 
 epithets involving distinct and incompatible properties 
 are applied to a noun, the definite article, where used 
 before the first, must be repeated before the second ; ;is 
 " The Lords Spiritual and Temporal" As the Spiritual
 
 210 TriE Dl.l'IM I I \i; l l< l.l. 
 
 J.onls arc doI Temporal /.<>r<ls, uorthe Temporal Lord* 
 Spiritual Lords, they oughl to be distinguished and n<>i 
 combined ae unity. The Spiritual and the Temporal 
 Lords, "T tin Spiritual Lords and tin Temporal. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 I III D] I IM 1 I \i;i U 1 1 DfPBOPEBLI OUR] BO. 
 
 '• Howbbit, when the Spirit of trutli i> come, he will guide you 
 into aU truth." 
 
 The passage Bhould have run, all the truth, thai is, tin 
 truth ae far as it respected the Christian religion, and 
 ifi i spn Bsed in 1 1 » * - original Greek, em wturav tt),v 
 <\\i'/(ht(u\ into nil tfu truth. We cannol Buppose thai 
 Jesus meant thai the Holy Spirit Bhould lead thedisoiplee 
 i i j t « » the knowledge of all truth, scientific, &c &c Ae 
 u .11 might the 33rd verse of the ■">th chapter of St. Mar!; 
 be translated in tin- -aim- way, all truth, instead of all 
 th> truth. 
 
 I'.it the woman, fearing and trembling, and knowing what «:■- 
 done in ber, came, ami I'll down before bim,aud told him nil 
 truth." 
 
 The ]■ ie properly translated, all tin trutli. 
 
 " Thou nit my beloved ion." •' i> •   i '■ 
 
 Which <ln- net mean, "thou arl m\ beloved K>n, M bu1 
 " thou art ni\ -"ii. ///< beloved." The article, which
 
 IMPROPERLY OMITTED. 211 
 
 is here so emphatic in the Greek, is lost sight of in our 
 translation. In the Latin, the sense is preserved by 
 the substitution of the demonstrative and personal pro- 
 noun ille, the Latin having no article. " Tu es Alius 
 meus, ille dilectus." But the 6 ayairrjTos, the " ille 
 dilectus" is not expressed in the English version. Nor 
 does " I am the good shepherd " come up to sych slfu 6 
 TTOifJbTjv 6 koXos. 
 
 " When the morning was come, all the chief priests, and elders of 
 the people, took counsel against Jesus to put him to death." 
 
 In cases of this kind, attention to the original text, 
 in the use of the article, would keep us from error. In 
 the Greek we have ol 7rpsa§vTspoi, and in the English we 
 ought to have had the elders. The term elders in this 
 passage, without having the definite article prefixed, ac- 
 cording to the plainest idiom of our language, has a very 
 different meaning from that which it is here intended to 
 convey; for if we say that elders of the people took 
 counsel, we mean that certain elders, or some elders, 
 took counsel, which might be five out of five hundred ; 
 but when we say the elders, we mean the elders as a 
 body, a class, and this is the meaning required ; ol 
 
 7TpSCr£vT£p0l. 
 
 " When therefore the chief priests and officers saw him," &c. 
 
 Though the term chief is applied to priests, it is not 
 intended that it should apply to officers ; nor is there a 
 mutual community of signification between the terms 
 " priests and officers." The definite article ought, 
 therefore, to have been repeated : ol upxiepeis, koX ol 
 v7rt]psTai.
 
 212 THE DEF1M I I LRTICLE 
 
   When the morning was come, all the chief priesta and eld 
 
 &c. 
 
 Priests and elders being distinct, the article oughl t<» 
 have been repeated before the latter, according to the 
 original. Elsewhere we have the chief priesta and the 
 
 8cril 
 
 • A n- 1 they continued Btedfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fel- 
 lowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers." — Acta, ii. * 
 
 There i- a strange inaccuracy and can I - running 
 
 through tin- whole of thia passage. In the firsl place, 
 there i.< an ambiguity in the sound of the apostles 1 
 doctrine, which mighl mean the doctrine <>i one parti* 
 cular apostle, or of all the apostles. Thia might have 
 been avoided by Baying, the doctrine of the apostles. 
 
 S. i dly, there ia a grammatical error in the phn 
 
 in breaking of bread. Thirdly, there i- a total p 
 version of the meaning in the omission of the definite 
 article before fellowship, before breaking, before bread, 
 and before prayers, for the definite article ie used before 
 each of these terms in the original, and ia absolutely 
 
 iiy for a proper understanding of the passa 
 cither in Greek or English. The whole pa . trans- 
 lated according to the original, would run thus: — 
 
 •■ And they continued Btedfastly in the doctrine, and the fellow- 
 ship "t the apostles, and in the breaking of the bread, and in tin 
 prayers." 
 
 Now, ae we understand the doctrine, and the fellow- 
 ship of the apostles, to be a specific doctrine} and a 
 lific fellowship, and, aa the ac1 of breaking thia 
 bread was not an ordinary act of breaking bread, bnt
 
 IMPROPERLY OMITTED. 213 
 
 the act of breaking bread for a specific purpose, and as 
 the bread was not ordinary bread to be used as food 
 merely, but the sacramental bread, and as the prayers 
 were not accidental prayers, but the prayers used by 
 the Christian converts at that time, and so expressed 
 in the original, it will be obvious that the whole pas- 
 sage is lamentably deficient in accuracy of expression. 
 
 " That thy power, thy glory, and mightiness of thy kingdom 
 might be known unto men." — Psalm, xiv. 12. 
 
 The mightiness. 
 
 " And are choked with cares and riches and pleasures of this 
 life." — Luke, xviii. 14. 
 
 The cares — the specific cares that belong to this life. 
 We should not say, " I saw beauty of his face," " I 
 admired strength of his arm," but the beauty, the 
 strength ; so also the " mightiness of thy kingdom," 
 " the cares, " &c. 
 
 " While unfortunate gloomy Dust, who came whipping behind, 
 was cheered by the encouragement of some, and pity of all." — 
 Goldsmith's Citizen of the World. 
 
 Both grammar and euphony require the pity. 
 
 " Some of the most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual were 
 destined to salute the new calends of January with vows of public 
 and private felicity, to indulge the pious remembrance of Me dead 
 and living." — Gibbons Decline, c. xv. 
 
 Though the dead and the living are perfectly distinct 
 classes, yet here is an operation comprehending both 
 indiscriminately, as if they were dead and alive at the 
 same time. The blind and lame form one class labour- 
 ing under the infirmity — of blindness and lameness, —
 
 214 l>i:i im I l. LBTIOLB -i PEBFL1 "t S. 
 
 tin- blind and the lame t'nnn two classes eaeh labouring 
 under one distinct infirmity : bo the Living form our class, 
 and the dead another; but neither class can be both 
 living and dead. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 IIIK DEI IMll. \ K I l< LB, NOT ONLY SVl'l Kl II "I S, l.l 1 
 
 mat mi VOTJB. 
 
 ■' 1'or as tli^ lightning, tint lightenetb <>ut of the one part under 
 heaven, shineth unto the other pari onder heaven." — Lulu-, xii. 24. 
 
 If there had been only two parts under heaven, then 
 
 the definite article would have been required; hut a- the 
 parte are indefinite, it is improper to limit them to thr 
 one, and the other, as if there were but two parte only. 
 
 " Even Terah, the father of A.braham, and the father of Nachor." 
 
 A- Terah wa- the father of Abraham, and the lather 
 
 of Nachor, the phrase oughl to have been, "the father of 
 Abraham and of Nachor" otherwise some other person 
 might be meani a- the father of Nachor. 
 
 •• There are few words in the English language which are em- 
 ployed in :i more loose and uncircumscribed sense than tho# 
 //" fancj : 1 1 1 • 1 the imagination."— Spectator. 
 
 The' author doefl not here mi an the word- of tin faney 
 
 and the imagination, hut the words fancy and imaginar 
 tin/i themselves. The word- thoti oftiu are worse than 
 superfluous. 
 
 We do not -,iv thifl U the man "/'.lohii, hut this is
 
 DEFINITE ARTICLE PROPERLY REPEATED. 215 
 
 the man John. Here the man is John, and John is the 
 man ; so the words are the imagination and the fancy, 
 and the imagination and the fancy are the tvords. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 THE DEFINITE ARTICLE PROPERLY REPEATED. 
 
 " And he stood between the dead and the living, and the plague 
 was stayed." — Numbers, xvi. 48. 
 
 If ill this passage we strike out the definite article 
 before the term living, the beauty and distinctness of 
 the passage is destroyed. Aaron stood between the 
 dead on one side, and the living on the other. Dead 
 and living would present to the eye nothing but an 
 indiscriminate mass, where a marked distinction is pecu- 
 liarly necessary. 
 
 In the Creed the same distinction is properly ob- 
 served : — 
 
 •' And he shall come again with glory, to judge both the quick 
 and the dead." 
 
 Again, Matt. v. 45., the same form of expression 
 is correctly introduced : — 
 
 " For he maketh his sun to rise on the evil, and on the good, and 
 seudeth rain on Me just and on the unjust." 
 
 Evil and good, just and unjust, are so totally distinct, 
 that nothing could warrant a confusion of the terms. 
 
 " The Lord hath caused the solum feasts and sabbaths to be
 
 21fi DEFINITE kBTICLE Pi:< >i'i:i:i.v ui tkatf.P. 
 
 forgotten in Xi>>n, and hath despised, in the indignation of la* 
 anger! the king and the priest." — Jeremiah's Lamentations, ii. »>. 
 
 The offices of king and j>ri<.<t being distinct, the 
 article i- properly repeated. 
 
 For they shall fall by the sword, by tin- {amine, and by the 
 
 pt -•'! Q '--- /.'.•• hirl, \i. 11. 
 
 u How much more, when I send my four Bore judgments, upon 
 Jerusalem, the sword, and the famine, and the noisome beast, and 
 the pestilence, t<> out off from it man and beast.* 1 
 
 In both these passages a distincl instrumentality is 
 bere properly marked by the repetition of the definite 
 article before each noun. As a matter of grammar the 
 principle is perfectly j n.-t , for when there is no com- 
 munity of meaning in a sequence of nouns, there ought 
 to be no community of article; at the same time the 
 force of the; passage is wonderfully increased by the 
 repetition <>i the article and the conjunction before 
 each noun. The ag< ntc of destruction seem multiplied, 
 and each <>f them to labour with individual energy in 
 the \v<nk of death. 
 
 M Ami immediately, while he \<t spake, cometfa Judas, one of the 
 twelve, and with him a great multitude, with swords and -i.e. 
 from the chief pri< its, and the scribes, and the elders." 
 
 The article is here properly repeated before the tin 
 
 Doune oi this sentence, because tht chief pri< ts, tht 
 scribes, and tht elders were distincl clae 
 
 Prom the reign oi \ to the time of Alexander Sevei 
 
 the enemies of Rome were in her bosom- -the tyrants, and tht 
 soldiers." — Gibbon, c. \ iii. 
 
 •. - . th« emperors as tyrants, the soldien as mercenary 
 :■ 1 1< 1 tumultuous instruments of tyranny, both parties 
 acting on their own individual impulses, and both too,
 
 DEFINITE ARTICLE PROPERLY REPEATED. 217 
 
 often the enemies of Rome. The definite article was 
 required before the noun soldiers, because they were a 
 distinct cause of tyranny. 
 
 " By their tumultuous election, a Syrian, a Goth or an Arab, 
 was exalted to the throne of Rome, and was invested with despotic 
 power over the conquests, and over the country of the Scipios." — 
 Gibbon, c. vii. 
 
 If the definite article had not been repeated before 
 the noun country, the conquests and the country of the 
 Scipios would have been identified ; whereas the con- 
 quests of the Scipios were not their country, nor their 
 country their conquests. 
 
 " A chorus of twenty-seven youths, and as many virgins of noble 
 families, whose parents were both alive, implored the propitious 
 gods in favour of the present, and for the hope of the rising genera- 
 tion ; requesting in religious hymns that, according to the faith of 
 their ancient oracles, they would still maintain the virtue, the 
 felicity, and the empire of the Roman people." — Gibbon, c. vii. 
 
 Virtue, felicity, and empire are all distinct objects 
 marked as such. 
 
 " The life of the former was almost a perpetual journey, ami aa 
 he possessed the various talents of the soldier, the statesman, and 
 the scholar, he gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his duty." 
 — Gibbon, c. i. 
 
 Sentences like these have not merely the merit of 
 grammatical accuracy in the use of the article ; they also 
 exhibit a refined taste in the construction and the har- 
 mony of a sentence. 
 
 "From the beginning of the world an uninterrupted series of 
 predictions bad announced and prepared the long-expected coming 
 of the Messiah, who, in compliance with the gross apprehensions of 
 
 L
 
 21s DiiriMii: ARTICLE PBOPEBLT ur.PEATED. 
 
 the Jews had been man frequently represented under the cha- 
 racter of a king ami conqueror, than under that of a prophet, a 
 
 martyr, or the BOO of (lod." 
 
 Murk here the nice <li~' riininat iuii in the use of th«- 
 definite ami the indefinite article. In consequence of 
 tin near affinity between king and conqueror t not merely 
 in tin abstract, but more particularly with reference to 
 pectations of the .lew.-, who imagined that he 
 would come in the character of both, the author does 
 nut repeat the article before conqueror} but there being 
 no affinity, either absolute or relative, between prophet 
 and martyr, the article is properly repeated before the 
 term martyr; and again the indefinite article ifl properh 
 changed for the definite before the words son of God, 
 indicating that he- was the Bole and only son of God, and 
 Dot a son of many e This one sentence is, in fact, 
 
 a Lecture on the use of the article. 
 
 •■ It I 1 >ut stretch thu hand 
 I heave tht gods, the ocean, and the land." 
 
 l'..ii- lhud. viii. 
 
 All the objects an- here perfectly distinct, and are 
 properly and grammatically marked n- such, by tin 
 repetition of the definite article before each of them. 
 
 I cause came I into the world, that I should bear wit 
 
 until //,,• truth. Every one that is "t the truth, beareth an   
 Pilate said, what is truth ? n —John, xviii 
 
 Christ here sp I i' the Bpecifie Bpiritual truth, 
 wh'nh he '-on. to establish. Pilate, not seeing the drift 
 
   it our Lord's obser Nations, -pr.ik- of truth L r 'in rally :
 
 DEFINITE ARTICLE PROPERLY REPEATED. 219 
 
 the article is therefore properly prefixed to the noun 
 truth in the two former cases, and as properly omitted 
 in the latter case. 
 
 " His purpose was to infuse literary curiosity, by gentle and 
 unsuspected conveyance, into the gay, the idle, and the wealthy." — 
 Johnson's Life of Addison. 
 
 " Behold I will bring them from that north country, and gather 
 them from the coasts of the earth, and with them the blind and the 
 lame." — Jer. xxxi. 8. 
 
 If the definite article had not been repeated before 
 the term lame, one class of persons only would have 
 been designated, and that class botli blind and lame ; 
 whereas, by the repetition of the article the before the 
 term lame, two distinct classes are pointed out — those 
 that were blind, and those that were lame. The blind 
 might not be also lame, or the lame blind. 
 
 When, however, there is a community of signifi- 
 cation between two nouns or epithets, there is no impro- 
 priety in leaving out the definite article, as, 
 
 " Now I Paul beseech you by the meekness and gentleness of 
 Christ."— 2 Cor. viii. 1. 
 
 Meekness and gentleness are inseparably connected, 
 and therefore the repetition of the definite article before 
 the latter was not recpaired. 
 
 " Yea, a joyful awl pleasant thing it is to be thankful." 
 
 The epithets have a necessary connection. Again : 
 
 " He had compassion on the poor and needy." 
 
 Now a poor man being in the ordinary acceptation of 
 
 the terms a needy man, and a needy man a poor man, 
 the definite article was not required. 
 
 i. 2
 
 220 DEFINITE ABTICLE IKni'r.lU.V REPEATED. 
 
 Bl ssed be the man that provided for the sick and aeedj.* 1 — 
 Paakm xii. 1. 
 
 A - i « * k man i- not Qece88arily a needy man, in the 
 usual acceptation "t the term needy t nor ie a needy man 
 necessarily ancii man. The benediction, therefore, only 
 appliee to those who provide for the wants of such ai 
 labour under the combined infirmities of sickm-- ami 
 poverty. Suppoe   I »y, " he selected all the black and 
 white cattle for himself, ami left the rest." Grammati- 
 cally this sentence mean-, that he selected those indi- 
 vidual beasts that were black and white, partly black 
 
 and partly white. I > 1 1 1 place the definite article before 
 white, as well as before Mack, and then it mean- that he 
 31 1 ei, d all the black cattle, and all the white cattle, and 
 left the resi ; which, for anything thai is implied t<» the 
 contrary, might be all black and white, that is, combining 
 the two colours of black and white. Allowing thai one 
 class of persons only is 1" re meant, under the terms sick 
 and needy, the sentence is righl ; if two, it is wrong. 
 
 This rule depends upon the obvious principle, that a 
 particle applied to Borne particular word to define and 
 limit it- signification cannot, at the Bame time, have a 
 community of application to some other word, when 
 that other word ha- no community of import with the 
 
 wind tO which that pal t iff- wa- in t he lir-t plaee applied. 
 
 Generally in this, a- well a- many other cases, we feel 
 obliged to f.»llow in the wake of custom ; but in all casi 
 where the Bouse is manifestly falsified bj such a com- 
 pliance, surely we are justified in following that oom 
 which grammar and conjointly demand.
 
 INDEFINITE ARTICLE PROPERLY REPEATED. 221 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 TOE INDEFINITE ARTICLE ritOPERLY REPEATED. 
 
 " A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly disposition, 
 prompted him, at the age of nineteen, to assume the mask of 
 hypocrisy, which he never after laid aside." — Gibbons Decline, c. i i I - 
 
 The author's object in repeating the article before 
 cool head, unfeeling heart, and cowardly disposition is to 
 mark distinctly the three properties of Augustus. 
 
 " As they prevailed [curiosity and vanity], and as they were 
 attracted by different objects, Hadrian was, by turns, an excellent 
 prince, a ridiculous sophist, and a jealous tyrant." — Gibbon, c. iii. 
 
 The indefinite article again properly repeated. 
 
 " Just balances, just weights, a just ephah, and a just hin shall 
 ye have." — Lev. xix. 36. 
 
 " This earth, a spot, a grain, 
 An atom." Mllton. 
 
 The repetition of the article marks a distinct descent. 
 
 These examples arc sufficient to show the propriety 
 of repeating the indefinite article where the things or 
 qualities specified are in themselves distinct. Yet 
 Gibbon occasionally deviates from this rule, and is 
 inconsistent with himself. 
 
 L 3
 
 222 INDEFINITE ARTICLE IMPR0PEBL1 OMITTED. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 mi. iMTllMil aimiu.i. [MFBOPEBL1 OMITTED. 
 
 \ I enervated people." — Qibbon, c ill. 
 
 Again : 
 
 •• II - i -• . from so obscure :i station, t" the first dignities » >r the 
 - to prove thai be was a l • « »1* 1 and able leader." — 
 
 . o. vii. 
 
 A Leader may be bold, though not able. Incon- 
 siderate boldness may involve a Leader in fatal difficulties. 
 In -iicli ; cast be could not be characterised as an aide 
 ler. CalHcratidas, rather than sheer off, fought the 
 Ai! - when he had no chance. A- boldness ami 
 
 abil !"• distinct qualifications, they oughl t<> be 
 
 marked as such, according t<> Gibbon's usual practice. 
 
 Bui • triumphs of modern ingenuity and art are those 
 
 and watches in which the counted equal vi- 
 
 I. ration- <A , n <r balanCt -wind, have detected p«ri- 
 
 odical inequaliti in the motion of the earth itself." — Amofs 
 
 \ pendulum is doI d balance-wheel ; the terms are n<>t 
 convertible. I cannol say this is a pendulum or balan 
 wheel, meaning thai it may be designated by either 
 term j b< cause tl"- instruments are distind a pi odulum 
 or a balance-wheel marks the distinction. It I 
 pendulum or balance-wheel, tin latter member of the 
 tenc< i- a mi n exposition or definition of the former. 
 I >n gay with propriety, " He w '/inn or Cir~ 
   I N r Ethiopian," becaut i
 
 CONFUSION OF ARTICLES. 223 
 
 individual might be designated by either term ; but I 
 cannot with propriety say, he was a Negro or Laplander, 
 but a Negro or a Laplander, the former phrase marking 
 community ; the latter, distinction. 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 CONFUSION OF ARTICLES. 
 
 An in the Place of The. 
 
 " And the contention was so great among them, that they de- 
 parted asunder, one from araother." — Acts, xv. 39. 
 
 As Paul and Barnabas only are here spoken of, they de- 
 parted one from the other, not one from another, the 
 said Paul went this way, and the said Barnabas that. 
 When we say they departed one from Another, we at 
 once plunge into plurality ; and there might have been 
 five hundred, or five thousand persons departing asunder, 
 one from another ; but one from the other, or the one 
 from the other, would limit the expi'ession to the two 
 persons previously mentioned. 
 
 " Therefore said the disciples (the disciples being many) one to 
 another." — John, iv. 33. 
 
 The in the Place of A or An. 
 
 A\jj0o>c Qiov vloQ nv ovtoq. " Truly this was the son of God." 
 
 The centurion was a heathen, and cither believed, or 
 affected to believe, in a plurality of gods — in gods 
 many ; and therefore, with the common heathen notion 
 
 L 4
 
 221 0ONF1 8IOH OF \i. I l< I i 3. 
 
 of the existence of demigods, ob seeing the supernatural 
 appearances thai attended the crucifixion of our Lord 
 
 exclaim-. " Truly this was n BOO of <i god ;" and not, 
 
 ae we render it, u tfu bod of God :" in which there arc 
 two errors, the firsl in the words thi Bon, which expres- 
 sion is definite and emphatic, when it oughl to have 
 been indefinite and indifferent ; t! ml, in the words 
 
 of God, which again, according to our idiom and notion 
 of the unity of the godhead, is definite ; when, according 
 to the real words, and the meaning of the centurion, it 
 oughl to have been indefinite, the word Seov never being 
 used in scripture without the article rov when God, 
 th God, is spoken of. In this case the article i- wanting 
 before Beov. Pilate, as a heathen, believed thai Bucfa 
 things existed as men descended of (iods, and he ex- 
 pressed himself according to tin- belief It would not 
 have been in character for a dew to have expressed 
 himself as Pilate did, or for Pilate to express himself 
 
 i believer in the unity of the ( S-odhead would do. 
 
 \ tin : in the case of " Shadrach, Mesech, and Abed- 
 we oughl to have "the fourth is like a -on of a 
 
 God," not - th.- *ou of <;..d."
 
 THE ADJECTIVE — ITS PROPERTIES. 225 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 ADJECTIVE. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE — ITS PROPERTIES. 
 
 An adjective is a term adjected or added to a noun, and 
 is expressive of its quality, or dimensions ; as good, 
 least. In this respect it bears the same relation to the 
 noun as the adverb docs to the verb. It expresses 
 some attribute of the noun, either essential or contin- 
 gent, absolute or relative. It is capable, therefore, of 
 expressing the attributes of nouns under different modi- 
 fications and intensities. The English adjective has no 
 variation in number, case, or gender. In this respect 
 it differs from most other languages, and from the Greek 
 in particular, which riots in contractions, evolutions, 
 involutions, and inflexions of case, gender, and number. 
 With whatever letter, or whatever combination of letters 
 the English adjective may terminate, it is immutable. 
 The terminations of adjectives arc on this very account 
 various, because they are not subject to restraint. 
 They are not cast in any particular mould. They have 
 no artificial paces. They at once say what they mean; 
 and the same adjective, under the same form, is appli- 
 cable to any object in creation, supposing the quality 
 which it expresses to belong to that object, either acci- 
 dentally or essentially. "With respect to the signification 
 
 L 5
 
 226 I ill: ADJECTIVE — ITS PBOPERTIE& 
 
 of adjectives, our broad distinction is to be found in 
 words ending in /W, and those pnding in Jess; the former 
 denoting possession of t the other afoenc< of. Adjectivea 
 of this description are of extensive and easy application ; 
 and when a fi . r i- told, that the English adjective 
 
 has n<> variation whatever, and that, as a general prin- 
 ciple, adjectives ending in/'/// denote \heposst ssion of, and 
 adjectives ending [a less, absena of s what a gigantic Btep 
 i- here made im<> the properties of this pari of Bpeech! 
 With what facility are adjectives of this description 
 (numerous as tl an I tunned out «»t* nouns; a.~ hope, 
 hopeful; power, powerful; acorn, scornful I Again; in 
 the case of adjec - i ading in less, the coalition of less 
 with a mum i -y. natural, ami expressive, that we 
 
 moe acquiesc in the formation of adjectives of this 
 oription, though suoh formation may individually be 
 
 entirely nOVcL 
 
 ■• I In' world wai ?oid : 
 'J'li'- population and the powerful was   lump 
 
 r, iiuiiil, m, ///'- less — 
 A. lump of death — a chaot of hard clay." Brmow. 
 
 Its Position, 
 
 .\ then the adjective in English has n<> variation. 
 undi do ohange of form, it is obvious that 
 
 proper place must be such as qoI t" run the chance ol 
 ambiguity by a false j ►> >~it i»>ii. The process muel be 
 of agglutination, adhesion. Th era! position 
 
 I I ish adjective is, therefore, immediately before 
 the noun to which it belonj "   wise man," 
 
 blind in an." Bui if the adjective should be qualified, or
 
 CONFUSION OF PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 227 
 
 affected by something which follows, then its proper 
 position will be after the noun, as " a man wise in his 
 own conceit." Such is the general principle in the use 
 of the English adjective, and the following passage 
 which deviates from this principle is inconsistent with 
 the English idiom. 
 " For a'great door and effectual is opened unto ine." — 1 Cor. xvi. 9. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 CONFUSION OP PRONOMINAL ADJECTrVES. 
 
 There is so strong an instinctive abhorrence of gram- 
 matical inflexions in the English character everywhere 
 manifested in the present structure of the language, 
 that the adjective is fortunate indeed in thus escaping 
 the possibility of mutilation. We have, however, certain 
 terms, which maybe looked upon as pronominal adjectives, 
 inasmuch as they are added to nouns, as demonstrative, 
 distributive, alternative, collective; and these, being 
 subject either to a variation of form, or to a restrictive 
 application, meet very often with unceremonious and 
 irrespective treatment. Thus we find this, — this of the 
 singular number joined to means of the plural ; whilst 
 those of the plural number is joined to kind and sort of 
 the singular number ; as "Those kind of things" {Sir if/): 
 "Those kind of gods" (Addison); "These kind of 
 sufferings" (Sherlock). Such expressions exact a humble 
 resignation to the tyranny of custom. 
 
 L G
 
 228 CONK I BIOH OF 
 
 Collective numbers, however, will admit of this being 
 used before nouns of the plural number; as " This forty 
 Bummers" | Shakspet " This nineteen years." ( Ibid,) 
 
 Even a numeral adjective denoting plurality is some- 
 time- joined t" a noun of the singular number, as in 
 Chauci r*s •• Canterbury Tales 
 
 •• In twenty manere cou'd Ik 1 trip ami dam 
 
 Tin- form of expression would not, however, be tole- 
 rated now . 
 
 Each, 
 
 The pronominal adjective cadi is distributive, and has 
 reference t<> individual « >1 >i>-<-t - only. Sere we take 
 advantage of its immutable form, and apply it often in 
 
 collective sense, when it ought t.> It applied in a 
 distributive and restrictive sense j a-. 
 
 1- ervable thai each one of the letters bear date 
 
 In- banishment." — J   
 
 To tin- might !"• added innumerable examples. 
 
 Either. 
 
 iin : i itlu r i- sometimes a ed in the place of each. 
 
 Either gives -imply an alternative; a- "Place them 
 
 mi i ith> r side :" that i-. mi (Pile side or the other, but not 
 
 mi both, whilst each signifies both taken distributive!] j 
 
 •■ Place tlnin on .arli side,* 1 that i-. on both Bid 
 
 apart. Tim- : 
 
 I !i.-v crucified t. r with him, <>n either side one, and 
 
 . • in ill' nii'i
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 229 
 
 An expression which does not meet the case ; for it is not 
 meant to assert, that if you do not find that a thief was 
 crucified on this side, he was crucified on that ; but 
 that two thieves were crucified, one on each side, on this 
 side and on that ; not this or that, ivrevOsp icai ivrevdsv. 
 So, also, 
 
 " On either side of the river was the tree of life." — Rev.xxi. 2. 
 
 on each side. 
 
 Evert/, Any. 
 
 "Whilst in the two preceding examples the alternative 
 pronominal adjective either is used in the place of the 
 distributive pronoun adjective each, we have in the follow- 
 ing example the distributive every used in the place of 
 any ; the former implying all distribntively, the other all 
 electively. 
 
 " The warriors, on the contrary, represented the powers of the 
 neighbouring kings, the combinations formed against their state, 
 and the weakness of their wall, which every earthquake might 
 overthrow." — Goldsmith, Citizen of the World, Letter 25. 
 
 In this passage every ought to be any ; for when once 
 the wall shuuld be overthrown it was not in the power 
 of any other earthquake to overthrow it. Twenty 
 earthquakes in succession could not all overthrow the 
 wall, when the first of the series had already done it, 
 unless one and the same thing could be dune at differ- 
 ent times, which is absurd.
 
 230 CONFUSION 01 PBONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 None. 
 
 We have again an irregular and capricious use of 
 jiunr, which i- a contraction of no one, and therefore 
 improperly used to express plurality. 
 
 All. 
 
 All, ■which i- b collective adjective, is sometimes 
 I for every, which is distributive . 
 
 " Hence, to use the preceding examples, it is evidenl that the 
 
 idea tree is applicable to b laurel or to a plane-tree, n> a lofty 
 
 or to :i low one, to a fruit tree or to one of the forest; ii may, 
 
 therefore, be regarded nature common t<> "// individual 
 
 trees.* 1 — Note /" Translation ofAIdrich't ' 
 
 AH trees, both here and elsewhere, means all tn 
 collectively, whilsl individual trees means each b 
 
 taken separately imething incapable of division — 
 
 individual There is, therefore, an incongruity <>i' terms. 
 We can say each individual, and every individual, but 
 not all individuals j for whilst one of the terms embraces 
 community, the oth< c is antagonistic. 
 
 When we seem so incapable of managing our pronouns 
 and the pronominal adjectives \\ hich wep . mingling 
 
 indiscriminately collectives, distributives, alternative 
 
 ifoun ling 1 1 * « - singular with the plural number, and 
 the nominative with the ol what hav< 
 
 must have taken place if our simple adj had aol 
 
 happily been denuded of all their variations] 
 
 In the Following passage the pronominal adjective 
 //// i- beautifully, and with pn prii ed in the 
 
 place of the copulative conjunction : —
 
 ADJECTIVE IN PLACE OF ADVERB. 231 
 
 " All heart they live, all head, all eye, all ear, 
 All intellect, all sense." Paradise Lost, book vi. 
 
 The meaning of this could not have been given but 
 by a repetition of the word all in each member of the 
 sentence. The copulative conjunction would not have 
 served the purpose intended. Raphael, in this passage, 
 is describing to Adam the nature of 
 
 " Spirits that live throughout, 
 Vital in every part — that 
 Cannot but by annihilating die." 
 
 He affirms, therefore, that spirits do not, like men, 
 depend upon the functions of particular organs, but 
 that in every part they possess all the essentials of 
 vitality ; and that, though one or more organs should 
 receive injury, still the principle and use of that organ, 
 or organs, is to be found in each of the other organs. 
 They arc not all heart, and head, and eye, and ear, and 
 intellect, and sense. That is, these are not the qualities 
 which collectively constitute a spirit ; but its having 
 every one of these attributes, in every one of its sepa- 
 rate organs, so that the destruction of the eye would not 
 affect the faculty of sight, or the destruction of the ear 
 the faculty of hearing. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 ADJECTIVE IN TIIE PLACE OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 In poetic diction we very frequently meet with the 
 adjective in the place of the adverb. This principle is
 
 232 Ai'ir.' i i\ i in 1111. 
 
 by no means peculiar to the English language. In 
 Latin indeed its use, in this respect, has a wider range 
 than the idiom of the English language will allow. 
 
   Bo swift through ether the ^lniil harp; Bprii 
 The wide air floating to b< r ample win 
 
 Pom . Wad \i.\. 
 
 ■• The charioteer thru whirled the lash around, 
 And swift ascended al one active bound." Ibid, six, 
 
   As w ben the buu, m w risen, 
 '.> through the misty horizontal air, 
 Bhorn of In- beami Paradise Lost, book i. 
 
 ,l Cross tether a oifl elance the vivid fij 
 A- swift again each i»- ►Iiii»-«1 flame retu 
 
 I'oi'i:. / 
 
 The difference in the meaning conveyed by the ad- 
 tive twift t Prom that which would be conveyed bi 
 the adverb swiftly, i.-. thai in oases oi this hind the 
 adjective denotes Borne qualification, or habitual pro- 
 perty; whereas the adverb, which qualifies the verb, 
 applies only to the individual action then < spr< <<1 by 
 the verb. For instance: though Aohilles might ascend 
 hi- chariot slowly, yel he was not the less, on thai ao« 
 count) iroBas uncus, -wilt of Fool ; ami though another 
 hero might ascend his chariot swiftly, -till he might 
 not 1»«' entitled i" thi eral character of swift "/' 
 
 I'm,!; the adjective, in Buch a case, denoting the qua- 
 lity of the noun; the adverb qualifying -imply the 
 particular action or state expressed bj the verb. 'I lie 
 aification of the adjective is permanent, that of the 
 a<l\ erb transitory. 
 
 The genius "1" the English I e, as ii ha- been
 
 PLACE OF TIIE ADVERB. 233 
 
 observed, is not always compatible with that of the 
 Latin, in the use of the adjective, in the place of the 
 adverb. As in the example given in the Eton Grammar 
 we can say, " Pii orant taciti, " and the pious pray silent ; 
 yet, as Mr. Edwards has justly observed, there are many 
 examples at variance with the idiom of our language, 
 as taceo mvltus, loquor frequens, scribo epistolas raris- 
 simus. 
 
 When the adjective is used in the place of the adverb, 
 it is commonly in cases where it agrees with the nomi- 
 native case to the verb, seldom when it agrees with 
 object of the verb ; as, 
 
 " Science by thee flows soft, in social ease, 
 And virtue losing rigour learns to please." 
 
 Savage, Verses to Viscount Tyrconnel. 
 
 Here the adjective soft agrees with science, the nomi- 
 native case to the xerbjloivs. 
 
 "When an adjective is not an epithet of the noun, 
 which noun is the nominative case to the verb, but 
 simply qualifies the action of the verb, its usurpation of 
 the place of the adverb is not so clearly consistent with 
 grammatical propriety. It must, however, be acknow- 
 ledged that it adds greater force to the passage into 
 which it is introduced; as, 
 
 " In still descent she melts on opening flowers, 
 And deep impregnates plants with genial shower-." Ibid. 
 
 In the following passage from Savage, " "Wanderer," 
 canto 5., the use of the adjective for the adverb has not 
 even the merit of conveying the meaning intended by 
 the author : —
 
 234 ADJECTIVE IN PLA< E OF AL>\ ERB. 
 
 •• Be weeps, stamps wild, and to ami fro now fl 
 Now wring! hia hands, and tend* unmanly cri 
 Arraigns his judge, affirms unjust he bleeds, 
 And now recants, and now for mercy pleads." 
 
 The crrammatica] meaning La here the reverse of that 
 which the poet intends. Were the adverb used in this 
 place unjustly, instead of unjust, the sense would be 
 thai he Mt'tdd — .sutler.- unjustly, or hy an unju.-t sen- 
 tence; and this is 1 1 1* - meaning obviously intended, the 
 term unjust having reference to the verb bleeds, and not 
 to the man: but when wc say that unjust he bleeds, the 
 affirmation is, that he bleeds or Buffers as an unjust 
 man. In the one case the man affirms that his punish- 
 ment is not justj in the other that lie, being a guilty 
 man, it is just. Whatever may he the poet's intention, 
 
 this difference of meaning would arise out of a confusion 
 of the adjective with the adverb. 
 
 The old form of using the adjective in the place of 
 th( adverb, to qualif; the meaning of another adjective, 
 i- now generally exploded. Such phrases as " marvt llous 
 white." " indifferent well," of Shakspeare, "wonderful 
 silly," of Butler, 8rc, are not, or at least ought not, to 
 found in modern authority .
 
 ADJECTIVE IN PLACE OF THE NOUN. 235 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 ADJECTIVE IN THE PLACE OF THE NOUN. 
 
 Milton frequently uses the adjective in the place of 
 the noun substantive ; as, 
 
 " So much of death her thoughts 
 Had entertain'd, as dyed her cheeks with pale.''' 
 
 Paradise Lost, book i. 
 
 " I by conversing cannot these erect 
 From prone." Ibid, book ix. 
 
 "From strength from truth divided, and from just." 
 
 Ibid, book vi. 
 
 " Tending to wild." Ibid. 
 
 " What heaven's lord had poiverfullest to send." Ibid. 
 
 With all due deference to the authority of Milton, 
 the effect is not agreeable. 
 
 In the following passage from Ezekiel, xxviii. 7., the 
 noun is elegantly understood, the adjective standing 
 alone : 
 
 " Behold, therefore, I will bring upon thee the terrible of the 
 nations" — 
 
 the term terrible being here taken in a partitive 
 sense, and quite justifiable.
 
 236 PREVENTIVE. — PABTI4 BLAB. — -PE< l LIAB. 
 
 CHAP. \. 
 
 rm.\ IMIV!.. — PABTIC1 LAB. — PEOUL] LB. 
 
 These \b a word in our language] a participial adjecth i . 
 which i- frequently written and spoken improperly i 
 the term preventive, which ia made preventative. It is 
 almost needless to say, thai the word preventive ia de- 
 rived from two Latin words, pra before, and oenio t<> 
 come : and is used to signify something coming before a 
 
 tain thing, which otherwise would happen, and thus 
 hindering or preventing it from happening. In one of 
 our collects, prevent ie used in its Bimple and original 
 meaning, go before us, and so make way for us. "IV. - 
 rent us, <> Lord, in :ill our doing . Now venio makes 
 vent and ventum, from which we have ventive, — pra 
 ventivi not ventitive, or tentative, preventive. 
 
 Savage properly writes, 
 
 •■ Preveniiin of thy call, behold pay haste, 
 (II.' Bays) dot lei warm thanks thy Bpirit wast Wanderer, 
 
 Again ; 
 
   I spring preventive, and miliar the w Tbid. 
 
 \i\ in Brewster's. •• Natural Magic," page -'i 11 '... we 
 find, 
 
 "And it In- been plausibly conjectured by Beckmaa, thai 
 daring tin- three first days, the preventative was applied t" tl. 
 whom they wished t" acquit." 
 
 Amo makes <i>n<itinn, from which we have amative, 
 cot amatativej invehoj invectum, invective] atlligo,
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 237 
 
 affliction, afflictive; dono, donatum, donative. Preven- 
 tative may, therefore, be looked upon as a prodigal son 
 who has wandered out of the family circle, and ought 
 to be brought back as a penitent, and resume the family 
 features and habiliments. 
 
 Particular and Peculiar. 
 
 Particular relates to that which is possessed in 
 common; peculiar to that which is exclusive. The 
 style of singing might be the same in two parties ; yet 
 one of them might be distinguished from the other, as 
 singing particular I [// well. But should one singer differ 
 from every other singer in his style of execution, then 
 he might not only sing particularly well, but in a style 
 peculiar to himself. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 TniNGS in their essences do not admit of comparison. 
 A mouse is just as much an animal as an elephant is. 
 They both come under the generic term animal ; both 
 possess the same principle of animation. They possess 
 this principle in common. Whether mouse, elephant, 
 or man, all are equally animals. 
 
 Again ; an animula miserula, an infinitesimal fraction 
 of humanity as far as magnitude is concerned, is " every 
 inch a man," and possesses all the essential qualities of
 
 238 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 the species, as much as a man of the most gigantic 
 
 1 import i« >, . 
 
 Comparison I where unessential properties only 
 
 are designated. This man | - the attribute of 
 
 strength ; thai man po it in a greater degree ; he 
 
 i- more strong than the oth< r. A third La not only 
 stronger than the first; he is stronger than the second; 
 he is the strongest of the three. Ae men they do not 
 differ; but they differ in the gradations of non-essential 
 attributes; and these attributes are denoted by the 
 adjective, cither absolutely or relatively. 
 
 It is, however, a epicstion, whether any absolute 
 quality can exist, and whether or not any epithet, 
 which we can apply to a noun, has not reference to some- 
 thing either expressed Or understood. If T say "this 
 material i- coarse," "this loan i- tall," in the first 
 case the coarsi d - of the material has a reference 
 
 to the general condition of materials of a certain kind. 
 In the .-eeond Case, the tallncss of a particular man ha- 
 
 reference to the general stature of men •. ami though in 
 such cases there is no immediate comparison between 
 individual things or persons, there i- a reference to a 
 general standard. A learned man i- bo termed with re- 
 ference to -'me genera] Btandard of intelligence; ami 
 
 Were the term Inn mil ll-ed ahsullltill/ and It'itlmiit 
 
 referena to a tacit standard, it mighl be applied in- 
 differently tn a scientific European, 01 to a luminom 
 Hottentot. It U with reference t" a general thoi 
 
 lueal standard, then, that we e.ill | m:m good, or tall, 01 
 
 learned; so far those terms which we term postthx and 
 absolute, are comparative. Amongsl a certain cl
 
 ADJECTIVES NOT ADMITTING COMPARISON. 239 
 
 one man ranks as learned; he is above the general con- 
 dition. Another is more learned than this man ; and 
 another is the most learned of all. Thus a general 
 standard is the basis. A learned man is the first gradation 
 of comparison, more learned the second, and most learned 
 the third gradation. 
 
 The comparative degree relates to two objects, or 
 two parties only, one of which may be taller, shorter, 
 thicker, thinner, than the other. The superlative 
 degree relates to any number more than two. It is the 
 third gradation, and stands above all competition. A 
 man may be the tallest of three, or of three thousand. 
 He oversteps all subordinate gradations of stature. 
 Hence we say the taller of two, but the tallest of three, 
 or of many. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 ADJECTIVES NOT ADMITTING COMPARISON'. 
 
 Some adjectives do not admit of comparison. Their 
 inherent signification admits neither increase nor 
 diminution, intensity nor remission. Amongst these are 
 reckoned definite quantity, as a himdred. A hundred, 
 whether applied to things small or great, is still a 
 hundred. Definite property, arising from figure, ad- 
 mits of no comparison. One circle cannot be more of 
 a circle than any other circle. Circles may differ in 
 magnitude, which is an accidental property, but they 
 cannot differ in the essential property of figure. One
 
 240 ADJi:< riVE8 NOI ADMITTING COMPARISON. 
 
 figure oannol be more circular than another, tor everj 
 figure i- either circular or no1 circular al alL There 
 can be in. comparison between a property thai exists 
 in one thing, and which doee not exist at all in another. 
 
 A quadrangle must have four angles. It' we take 
 away one angle, ii ceases t>> be a quadrangular figure; 
 ii' we add one, it ceases to be quadrangular. It cannot 
 be made more or less quadrangular. It admits of no 
 intension — no remission. 
 
 Dr. Andrews gives a lisl of adjectives, which do not 
 admit of degn ee ; as, 
 
 Almighty. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Reverend 
 
 Certain. 
 
 I nil. 
 
 Right 
 
 Chi< i'. 
 
 ( rodly. 
 
 Royal 
 
 Circular. 
 
 ( lolden. 
 
 Safe 
 
 Conscious. 
 
 < rratuitoua. 
 
 Sen 
 
 Continual. 
 
 1 [eavenly. 
 
 Solid 
 
 1). id 
 
 Human. 
 
 Souml. 
 
 Earthly. 
 
 [nfinite. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Empty. 
 
 Lawful. 
 
 Subject 
 
 1 inc. 
 
 Leaden. 
 
 Supreme. 
 
 Eternal. 
 
 Lh tag. 
 
 Triangular 
 
 1 lasting. 
 
 Natural 
 
 True. 
 
 False. 
 
 Paternal 
 
 1 rnivenal. 
 
 Filial 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Void 
 
 Fluid 
 
 Perpetual. 
 
 
 We frequently, however, meet with some of tl 
 adje< tives in ;i comparative or superlative form | as, 
 
 •• Bui first and chiefe$l with thee bring 
 
 Mil i"v // /'• rut i 
 
 " 'That on t! ' border Btood." 
 
 A.DDI80W 
 
 Again i we have gradations of the nip rlative degree. 
 That which is infinite cannot, in the nature of thin
 
 ADJECTIVES NOT ADMITTING COMPARISON. 241 
 
 be more or less infinite ; yet we say infinitesimal, anil 
 not only great, greater, greatest, but by far the greater 
 and far greatest. AVe even qualify the positive form of 
 an adjective, as, " He is tallish ; " " The taste of it is 
 bitterish." Such expressions denote an approximation 
 only to the positive form of the adjective. We also 
 qualify comparatives by such terms as someichat, little, 
 still, almost, much, so, exceedingly. In particular cases 
 a double superlative is admitted ; as when applied to 
 the Deity, as, Most Highest. Shakspearc uses it in an 
 ordinary case, as, 
 
 " This was the most unkindest cut of all." Julius Casur. 
 
 Another mode of comparison, -which in its nature is 
 eminently superlative, is to select a certain class out of 
 numbers, and to make that class which, as a whole, is 
 superior to the common herd, the starting point of com- 
 parison ; as, "Lord of lords;'' " King of kings ; " " The 
 bravest of the brave." As all men are not brave, 
 brave is in itself comparative in such a situation ; and if 
 the brave exceed the common herd, much more does the 
 bravest exceed the common herd. 
 
 The mind readily acquiesces too in the sublime con- 
 ception of Milton : — 
 
 " And in the loircst deep, a lower deep 
 Still threatening to devour me opens wide." 
 
 Paradise Lost, book it. 
 
 In the following passage a progressive increase in the 
 comparison is effected by the addition of get after a 
 comparative adjective, as, 
 
 " Short, shorter, shorter yet mv breath 1 drew." 
 
 Sav fraud. 
 
 M
 
 242 < "Ml BION OF COMPARATIYl 9. 
 
 Though custom, and even the nature of things, admit 
 of graduated comparatives, custom and propriety hi 
 ceased to recognise double comparativt They were 
 common in a former age, bul n- >t having neoessitv as 
 their foundation, they have deservedly (alien 1 1 1 1 • > dis- 
 use, and are now looked upon as mere vulgarisms. 
 
 " Winch title had been more truer, if the dictionary had been 
 in Latin :m<l Welch." — I \-rst, _ "Epistle (<> our Nation, 
 
 "The waters are more sooner and harder frozen, than more 
 further upward, within the inlands." — Verstegan. 
 
   Where he shall find 
 Tlf onkindest beasl more kinder than mankind." 
 
 Sn \K-i'i: \ui , Tiliioii. 
 
 Lesser and worser have also fallen into disuse; in till- 
 age of Shakspeare they were very common. 
 
 •■ I wish your grandam had a worser march." Richard III. 
 
 •• There is ne*er a man in Christendom 
 Can lesser hide his 1"\'' or hate than be." Ibid. 
 
 '• Leaser muse." Anniaoa 
 
 •■ Worser far." I >m dj r 
 
 More sorer punishments." — Hebrews^ x. •-'!•. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 i '>M i 3K n "I ' OHPAB \ I i\ I B. 
 
 Si i. whal confusion arises in the following s< atence from 
 Lawrence 1 "Lectureson I'li\ -i..!,,-\," j,:,.., ics., i'mm 
 inattention to the lawa of comparison! —
 
 CONFUSION OF COMPARATIVES. 243 
 
 " For allowing one grain of encephalon to a hundred fibrils, the 
 brain, which is absolutely the least, will have an overplus of two 
 drams, while the larger has only one." 
 
 The author is here speaking of two brains, and in 
 instituting a comparison between the two, properly calls 
 one of them the larger, and why not the other the less or 
 smaller, but not least, for least would have reference to 
 more brains than two. Then would not one of them be 
 comparatively less, not absolutely so; for standing abso- 
 lutely the term less would have no reference to any 
 other brain at all. Then another important error is 
 couched in the phrase, " while the larger has only one.''' 
 The author really means, while the larger has an over- 
 plus of one dram only. To have only one dram, and to 
 have an overplus of one dram only, are very different 
 things generally; and so they are here; yet the elucida- 
 tion is introduced with, "in order that my ideas may 
 be better understood." 
 
 Butler in his characters, Small Poet, sarcastically ob- 
 serves of obscure illustrations, 
 
 " A man is sure to gain by an illustration of this kind, for the 
 darker and more unintelligible the illustration, the clearer and 
 more comprehensible will the position to be illustrated become 
 comparatively; for as ladies wear black patches to make their com- 
 plexions seem fairer than they are, so when an illustration is more 
 obscure than the sense that went before it, it must of necessity 
 make it appear clearer than it did, for contraries are best set off 
 by contraries." 
 
 In the following passage, the position of the com- 
 parative adjective is wrong: — 
 
 " Whereas the more mild and gentle they arc treated, the greati r 
 is there a chance of their recovery." — Hue Wilson. 
 
 M 2
 
 244 CONFUSION OF COMPARATIVES. 
 
 "The greater chance is there of their recovery," to 
 Bay nothing of mild and gentle. 
 
 •• From my knowledge of astronomy, navigation, and astrology, 
 the former of which I have professionally studied above twenty* 
 four rears, and tin" latter art for my own amusement during more 
 than seven years, I bave no hesitation in saying that the principle 
 of your inventions and discoveries, now published, may be applied 
 with infinite advantage by all persons who practise one or other 
 of the above arts.* 1 — AforrisoiCi Recommendation of OxL 
 
 Ptanupfu r, . 
 
 /•'.-/•///'/•and latter, as applied t<> three things distributed, 
 arc nonsense. This error might have been avoided by 
 saying the two former of which, &e. 
 
 " The question is not whether a L r '»»l Indian or bad (a bad) 
 Englishman be most happy, but which (whether) state i- moot de« 
 Birable, rapposing virtue and reason to be 1 1 1 • - same in both." — 
 Johnson, I (■ of Sir /•'. Drain-. 
 
 In this sentence the indefinite article should have 
 been repeated before the term bad; and which, a term 
 expressive <»t' a at rural Mate oughl to hat e been whetht r, 
 having reference t" a comparison between two objects 
 already mentioned. But besides, there are two errors 
 in this sentence arising from the use of the superlative 
 degree in the place of the comparative. If we nse the 
 superlative degree in this case, the comparison insti- 
 tuted i- not between the happiness of :• good [ndian 
 and a bad Englishman, lmt between the happiness of a 
 
 id Indian ami that of all mankind, and the happim — 
 
 of al' nl Englishman and that of all mankind; the qui 
 tion thus being whether a good Indian i~ the happiest of 
 
 all mankind, or a bad Englishman the happiest of all man- 
 kind the happiesl of men: lmt the question intended
 
 THE VERB — ITS MOODS AND TENSES. 245 
 
 is, whether a good Indian is, or is not, happier than a 
 bad Englishman. It does not follow that cither one or 
 the other should be the happiest of men, but one of 
 them may be happier than the other. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ITS MOODS AND TENSES. 
 
 The Verb, by way of pre-eminence, the wordy is the vital 
 principle of every sentence. "Without it no sentence, 
 either affirmative or negative, can exist. It has re- 
 ference to time present, past, and future ; and that, too, 
 under various modifications. These properties of the 
 verb give rise to tenses and modes, or moods. The 
 verb thus becomes more varied and complex than any 
 other part of speech. Languages differ in the number 
 of moods and tenses ; and grammarians differ in the 
 classification of moods and tenses in one and the same 
 language. Moods representing the condition, or affec- 
 tions, of the mind would be as varied and extended as 
 those affections. Hence we might have Indicative, Im- 
 perative, Potential, Optative, Subjunctive, Infinitive, 
 Vocative, Precativc, Interrogative, Causal, Reflec- 
 tive, &c. Then, again, verbs have respect to different 
 persons, and are distinguished by inflections, as relating 
 
 M 3
 
 246 TIN: VERB — ITS HOODS AM) TENSES: 
 
 to the Bret, Becond, or third persons, and to the singular 
 or plural Dumber. The English language prefixing 
 the pronoun to the verb, avoids the nec< ssity of inflect- 
 ing the verb in many of its persons. Thus we say, I 
 love s we love, ye love, they loth (the "1*1 plural 
 form loven having become obsolete), and I loved, he 
 />r,</ % wr loved, ye loved, they loved. In tin- the 
 
 distinction 1' the singular and the plural number 
 
 of the verb, as also the distinction of persons, a- far as 
 the ?erb itself is cone rned, is mental hut not visible. 
 Instances, however, may occur, in which the verh may 
   line ambiguous from the want of inflexion ; as, " On 
 these two commandments hang all the law and the 
 prophets," hang being either indicative or imperative. 
 
 I hen we have verba Active, Passive, and Neuter, 
 Active Transitive and Active [ntransitive, [rregular, 
 Defective, [mpersonal, Auxiliary. Amidst all th 
 complexities, we need not be surprised that many errors 
 should exist in the diversified application of the verb 
 to varied time--, conditions, and contingency 
 
 The Bubtle and Logical Harris considers twelve tenses 
 requisite t<> form a perfect Bystem; three indefinite, 
 
 that i-, marking present, past, and future time, without 
 
 reference to a beginning; and nine, as marking present, 
 past, and future time with reference to a beginning. 
 
 Jndtfinii t tqftht Present, I write. 
 
   the Past, 1 v. rote. 
 of the Futon , I ihaU n rite. 
 
 Inceptive Pit k at, I am i write. 
 
 "Extended Present, I un «riiiiiL r - 
 ComoU tivi ! I bare n ritten.
 
 THE VERB — ITS MOODS AND TENSES. 247 
 
 Inceptive Past, I was beginning to write. 
 Extended Past, I was writing. 
 Completive Past, I had done writing. 
 
 Inceptive Future, I shall be beginning to write. 
 Extended Future, I shall be writing. 
 Completive Future, I shall have done writing. 
 
 " It is not to be expected," says Harris, " that the 
 above hypothesis should be justified, through all 
 instances, in every language. It fares with tenses as 
 with other affections of speech : be the language, on the 
 whole, ever so perfect, much must be left, in defiance of 
 all analogy, to the harsh laws of mere authority and 
 chance." 
 
 Though the English language, in its system of tenses, 
 does not follow this classification and denomination, 
 yet it is by no means useless to have these philosophical 
 and explanatory principles of the tenses placed before 
 us. 
 
 Moods or modes are defined by Priscian, " Modi sunt 
 diversrc inclinationcs animi, quas varia conscquuntur 
 declinatio verbi." Modes or moods represent the dif- 
 ferent feelings of the mind, to which feelings the varied 
 inflexions of the verb are adapted. According to Dr. 
 Andrews, the Arabic has thirteen moods, the Sanscrit 
 six, the Russian seven. These arc the greatest numbers 
 of modes, or moods, out of twenty-eight European and 
 Asiatic languages. The number of moods is obviously, 
 therefore, a matter of uncertainty, depending upon the 
 peculiar genius and construction of a language. 
 
 m -4
 
 248 AUXILIARY YI'.UBS. 
 
 chap. ii. 
 
 Tin: AL XII.lAltV VERBS. 
 
 The auxiliary verb in English simplifies the inflexions 
 of the principal verb, by its being prefixed t" the present 
 or past participle, ;| ~- lam loving, I am loved, 1 was 
 loving, I had loved, I shall be Loving, I Bnallhave loved. 
 Here we have bat two terminations of the principal 
 verb, and yei in all these cases the action of the verb 
 is clearly denned with reference to time. By means 
 of this simple contrivance the inflexions of a regular 
 English verh arc reduced to six, including its participial 
 terminations, love, lovest, lovedst, loveth (or loves), 
 loved, loving. An irregular verb has one more variation, 
 as drive, drivest, drives, drivedst, drove, driving, driven ; 
 an extraordinary fact, when compared with the manifold 
 windings and diversities of the Greek verb, and traceable 
 perhaps to the genius and character ofa people, who are 
 prone to Bet aside all useless incumbrances and appen< 
 dages in the business of life, and to effect their purpose 
 by the simplest means. 
 
 The auxiliaries be, do, have, let, may. can, Bhall, will, 
 might, would, should, ought, must are the exponents 
 ( .t" our moods and tens* -. They determine the time 
 and mode of the verb's action; they express the per- 
 ceptions and volitions of the mind. 
 
 To Be, 
 
 /;, , in the sense of am, as 1 be, is dow obsolete, though 
 .-till in use amongst our peasantry of the south. The
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 249 
 
 verb to he is also a principal, as well as an auxiliary ; 
 and, in this case, has the sense of exists, and stands 
 separately — "God is ;" " There is a God ;" " Honesty is 
 the best policy." In these cases the verb is expresses a 
 general proposition, having reference to present, past, 
 and future time — an eternal truth — a variable, everlast- 
 
 ing now. 
 
 Am and Was. 
 
 Lowth doubts of the propriety of such expressions 
 as the following, though doubt seems too modest a 
 term : — 
 
 " The rules of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely 
 swerved." — Tillotson, 
 
 "Have infinitely swerved." 
 
 " Was also ceased." — Tillotson. 
 
 " Whose number teas now amounted to three hundred." — Sieift. 
 
 " This mareschal, on some discontent, was entered into a con- 
 spiracy against his master." — Addison. 
 
 " At the end of the campaign, when half the men are deserted or 
 killed." — Ibid. 
 
 The principle upon which the propriety of using am 
 and was as auxiliaries is this : am and was may be 
 applied to verbs as auxiliaries, when the principal 
 verb implies motion, or a change of condition ; as, "I am 
 come," " I was gone ; " " I was fallen ;" " They are waxen 
 fat; n "Israel is fled." AVc find the same principle in 
 French, " 11 a venu," he is come : "11 est tomhe" he is fallen. 
 But if we take the phrase, " when half ///<■ men are 
 deserted, or hilled" we then place are deserted in the
 
 250 AUXILIARY VKKBS. 
 
 same category as are kitted; "are deserted and arc 
 kill Both are the passive tonus of the verb. In 
 
 both cases passion is understood. Both verbs express 
 something acted upon. Both forms are precisely alike. 
 Both are derived from the active verbs to desert, to 
 kill: yet in tli«' first case the verb expresses voluntary 
 action, in the id Bufierance. Are deserted signifies 
 
 properly are deserted by something; and are kitted 
 signifies are kitted by something. But this is not the 
 author's meaning, nor will the Bense hear it. The sen- 
 tence is in fact nonsense. 
 
 Am and was may then be used, with propriety, as 
 auxiliaries, when, in conjunction with the principal 
 •b, they simply express the time of an action, hut nol 
 when they affect the action itself. This is Lowth'sview 
 of the principle involved in the use of these auxiliaries, 
 and it seems to be the right one. 
 
 Th( re is, however, a much more palpable violation ol 
 miliar in the use of the verb was. It tails upon a 
 immatical ear like a hideous discord. In weighing 
 such ex] ions, we musl divest ourselves of every 
 vestige of reverence for mere names. Poets, orators, 
 historians, critics, when thrown into the grammatical 
 crucible, come out simply as nun, stripped of nil adven* 
 titious ornament . You urns, instead of you were t in 
 point of propriet Is on a par with thou were, I li<' 
 
 authority of A.ddi on in matters of grammar; of B< nth 
 
 - i i, .w rather lightly »pok< a of, even in lii- 
 
 nghold classical criticism, The following observatii scurf 
 
 in the adverlisemenl to the i'm-i edition to " I I ' Introduction 
 i incipal I ' mil Mi tr< ."' " M.m\ things now
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 251 
 
 who evidently never made the English grammar his 
 study ; of Bolingbroke, Pope, and others, are as nothing. 
 Universal adoption, before which all must bow, and 
 nothing short of it, can ever sanction the expression 
 you icas. It can find no refuge but in ignorance or silly 
 affectation. 
 
 " Knowing that you was my old master's good friend." — Spec- 
 tator, 517. 
 
 " The account you ivas pleased to send me." — Bentley. 
 
 " Would to God you icas within her reach." — Bolingbroke. 
 
 " I am just now as well as when you was here." — Pope. 
 
 Lowth justly calls this expression " an enormous sole- 
 cism." But this is not all, in the case of Bentley ; he 
 even uses the verb icas in connection with a plural noun 
 of the third person. 
 
 " As one would think there was more sophists than one hail (who 
 had) a finger in this volume of letters." — Bentley s Discourse 
 on Socrutes's Epistles. 
 
 A specimen of mere nursery English, in a very short 
 space, embracing two vile errors. 
 
 The auxiliary verb joined to the participle, as, he is 
 drinking, in some instances does not convey the same 
 meaning as lie drinks. He is drinking indicates a 
 present action ; lie drinks may indicate a habit. Thus he 
 drinks icine at dinner means, that he docs so habitually ; 
 whilst lie is drinking wine at dinner confines the act of 
 drinking wine to that particular occasion. Boys play? 
 
 familiar to young academics, thanks to the labours of Dawes and 
 Burney, ami Parr and Person, and Ehnsley, were utterly unknown 
 to scholars like Bentley, and to Scaliger before him." 
 
 m 6
 
 259 A I XILIARY VBBB& 
 
 that is, it is the nature of boys to play. The Ks.mimaux 
 rats raw fish, ami drink- whale oil; L e. these are the 
 habits of his life. A habit is also expressed by the 
 Bunple verb to be used in the present tense, which could 
 not be expressed in any other mood; as, 
 
 •• 1 knew thou art ;i bard man." — Matt. xw. 24. 
 That is, I knew thee to be a hard man generally, [f 
 we say wert t the hardness would refer to a particular 
 occasion, and not express a habit. 
 
 An unwarrantable expression lias of late years been 
 creeping into the language, more particularly in light 
 dialogue. It is the omission of the adverb there after 
 have bet n. 
 
 "Seriously though," continued Lady Bab, "you must, and 
 dial] go, and buy some of Fanny's flowers. I need only tell you, 
 it will be ih" greatest charity you ever did, and then I know you 
 wo'nt rest till you have been? 
 
 1 [ave been | there). 
 
 In the following sentence from Else Wilson's M Travels 
 
 in the Holy Land," had been is omitted altogether: — 
 
 •• \.. respite was given ; but whenever the operation ceased, th-- 
 whole tab) overed, and appeared perfectly black, as if so 
 
 much loot thrown upon it." 
 
 /A/-/ bet i, thrown U] it. 
 
 Do. 
 
 The verb do occurs, both u :i principal and an 
 auxiliary. When used at I principal, it is usual to 
 write doe$t t and not dott ; as, 
 
   If thou dot tt a ell, shall thou not be accepted \ and if thou doeei 
   well, -in lieth ;it the door." — Oen. i\ 7. 
 ■• Which d past finding out."
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 253 
 
 Sometimes the auxiliary do stands in the place of the 
 principal verb, to which it has reference, rendering the 
 repetition of that verb unnecessary, as, 
 
 " He loves not plays 
 As thou dost." Shakspeake. 
 
 On some occasions do and didst are strikingly em- 
 phatic, as, 
 
 " Perdition catch my soul, 
 But I do love thee." Ibid. 
 
 " Nay, but thou didst call me." 
 
 Having reference to an expressed or silent negation, as 
 the case may be. 
 
 Don't is a contraction of do not, and not of does not. 
 Don't for does not is a mere vulgarism. 
 
 " The clock don't tick as it goes." — Bulwers England and the 
 English. 
 
 " It were an intolerable spectacle, even to the inmates of a felon's 
 cell, did they behold one of their fellows in the agonies of death." 
 — Chalmers's Bridgewuter Treatise. 
 
 It would be an intolerable spectacle even to the 
 inmates of a felon's cell, should they behold, or were 
 they to behold, one of their fellows in the agonies of 
 death. 
 
 Have. 
 
 The variations of the auxiliary verb to have are have, 
 hast, hath or has, and hadst. Doth and hath in the 
 place of does and has are associated with serious and 
 solemn subjects, more particularly of a religious kind. 
 They accord with the date and character of scripture
 
 254 AUXILIARY YT.KllS. 
 
 phraseology. Independent of their use on soleknn 
 occasions, there is a peculiar softness and tenderness in 
 the use of /// in the place of s, whether in the auxiliary 
 
 or principal verl>. JJoth and hath are Bometimes used 
 in the place of does and ha», in order to avoid the hissing 
 sound ari-ing from the two frequent repetition of the 
 
 litter t. 
 
 In the following Bentence from \h-. Chalmers's 
 •• Bridgewater Treatise,* 1 hath and has arc used in the 
 same Bentence without any reason for the distinction ; — 
 
 •• It i> for their Bake thai human law hath interposed in some 
 countries of the world, and by creating and ordaining a right for 
 them, has endeavoured t<> make L. r '»»l the deficiency of nature.* 1 
 
 Shakspeare, " Richard II.,"' even uses has in the 
 
 second pel-. m singular: —   
 
 •• Why, ancle, thou has many yean t" live." 
 
 An expression at all events nol to be tolerated now. 
 
 The \eil» /<( have has do distinctive form whatever in 
 the plural Dumber. The first, second, and third persons 
 are all alike in the several tenses. The following 
 sentence affords a curious example of "confusion worse 
 confounded* 1 in the use of this yerb: — 
 
   ["he events which he narrates arc authentic, but the subject 
 could have been belter ch — d, and have more unity." Peithman 
 on Latin Composition, p. I"-'- 
 
 Might have been better chosen, and have had inure 
 unity. Again; the word better ought to qualify the 
 subject, and not the act of choice. The author probabh 
 mean- to say, that, in his opinion, " a better subject, and 
 one | ng more unitj , might bai e been cho i n."
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 255 
 
 Vd rather is frequently used in familiar discourse for 
 / would rather, and not for I had rather. I had rather 
 is a mere corruption, arising from the letter d forming 
 the final sound of would and had. 
 
 In the following example from Coleridge, " On the 
 Constitution of Church and State," page 68., confusion 
 arises from a want of the application of the auxiliary 
 verb he : — 
 
 "I do assert that the national ty cannot rightfully, and that, 
 without foul wrons to the nation, it never has been alienated from 
 its original purposes." 
 
 It is evident that the verb he is here w r anting, and that 
 the words has been cannot grammatically be applied both 
 to a thing past and a thing future ; to that of which it 
 is declared, that it cannot he alienated ; and that, of 
 which it is declared, that it never has been alienated 
 without foul wrong to the nation. " I do assert that 
 the nationality cannot rightfully be alienated from its 
 original purposes, and that without foul wrong to the 
 nation it never has been so." 
 
 Whenever an ellipsis takes place, that which is 
 expressed should never be incongruous with that 
 which is not expressed. The phrase never has been in 
 this case is incongruous with cannot rightfully he. " 1 
 am, and always have taken great pains ; '' that is, " I am 
 taking, and have always taken great pains." Here is a 
 transition from the present to a past time, and am and 
 have, present and past, are auxiliaries in common of the 
 verb to take — a manifest incongruity. 
 
 It is not easy to see upon what principle Harris 
 constructed the following sentence: —
 
 2 3G .uxii.iauv vf.rbs. 
 
 •• .Vow, 03 all these several contacts, unless some opening of the 
 mouth either immediately precede, or immediately follow, would 
 rather occasion > il« -i n •*•. than to product a voice," &c. 
 
 Why not "rather occasion silence than produce a voice?" 
 The incongruity arising from the transition from one 
 tense t>> another ia remarkable} and, one would suppose, 
 mu-t have been overlooked. 
 
 SW/ and //'///. 
 
 In a review of Justice Brcnan's " Foreigner's English 
 Conjugator," contained in the Atlas newspaper of 
 .Ian. 23d, 1831, the following observations are made 
 on the subject of shall and will: — 
 
 •• II'- (Brenan), however, has not removed the difficulty. Here 
 i- no ^1'iirral rule to be drawn from his work. In the case ofaaofi 
 and "■'// (says the reviewer), lei us try to supply this deficiency. 
 Will is the sign of resolution, may of possibility, <•<//( of ability, 
 must of necessity, ought of propriety ; these have all a view to the 
 future, without contingency. Shall supplies the place of either 
 
 (anyone) of th signs, when the future involves a doubt, or a 
 
 contingency, especially when it regards die first person. Ii^ com- 
 parative power i- -i in] >Ie. :i i j - 1 i- never abused; its contingent force 
 alone creates the difficulty. With respect to human life ami pur- 
 doubt i- the \,rv essence of futurity. The vivacity of the 
 southern nation- confounds uriS and shall, because they determine, 
 in the levity of their minds, without doubt or dread. The cautious 
 Englishman doubts ever ; lie sees contingency in the future ; ami 
 from this peculiarity of the national mind comes a delicacy of ex- 
 pression which has no equivalent in any other languagt 
 
 Tin- is rather a moral than a grammatical disquisition, 
 ami leavec tin- subject ?erj much in the same state 
 •re Pound it. 
 
 Though tin' auxiliaries thall and will, in certain
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 257 
 
 positions, are very different in their meaning, yet they 
 are frequently used the one for the other, as exemplified 
 in the trite but forcible case of the drowning Irishman, 
 " I will be drowned, and nobody shall help me ; " and it 
 is a common expression used by an Irish servant, " Shall 
 you take tea to-night, and will I bring it in ?" 
 
 The Scotch are also apt to confound the use of shall 
 and will ; as, 
 
 " Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss, in un- 
 derstanding several passages in the classics, which relate to public 
 speaking and the theatrical entertainments of the ancients." — 
 Blair s Lectures. 
 
 " In the Latin language there are no two words we would more 
 readily take to be synonymous, than amare and diligere." — Ibid. 
 
 Shall and should are required. 
 
 " Think what reflection shall most probably arise." — Ibid. 
 
 Will is here required. 
 
 " If I draw a catgut, or any other cord, to a great length be- 
 tween my fingers, I will make it smaller than it was before." — 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 Shall. 
 
 " There is not a girl in town, but let her, in going to a mask, 
 and she shall dress as a shepherdess." — Spectator. 
 
 Will. 
 
 A well-educated Englishman, however, seldom makes 
 a mistake in the application of shall and will, though it 
 may sometimes be necessary to feel the way, as it were, 
 by a delicate touch. There must be, and is, a broad 
 principle of distinction. In the modest language of the 
 reviewer just referred to, let us try to find it. From 
 example let us endeavour to work out the principle.
 
 258 -M \ll.IAKV VERB8. 
 
 I shall go to town to-morrow. Here simply die 
 intention of doing a certain thing Lb expressed without 
 any anticipation of, <t reference (<>, hindrance. Bui 
 when I Bay I will go t<> town to-morrow, 1 declare 
 inv resolution to do bo, in Bpite of all opposition. I 
 must and wiU go t<> town to-morrow. New, we must 
 bear in mind that, in both th . the person that 
 
 aks is also the person that is about to act* II*.' thei - 
 fore, at pleasure, expresses an act of simple volition, or 
 
 fixed purpose, according to circumstances. Both ore 
 at hia own option ; he has the control of I »» » 1 1 1 in his own 
 mind. But when we pass to the second person, thou 
 shalt or wilt s > l '~ l " be borne in mind, that though the 
 second person is the actor, the first is still the speaker. 
 If, therefore, the acting of the second person is dependent 
 upon the will of the first, the first person Bays to the 
 .sK-n/o/, thou shalt. an<l not thou wilt, for t lie willing 
 iv-i- with the first; but if the first leaves the second to 
 act as he may think proper, he Bays tlom wilt, ami thus 
 claim- ao control ov< r that willing. Again; in the third 
 person, he shall or he will, we still Bee the Bame principle. 
 When the firsl Bays he shall, he deprives the third of 
 the exercise of hi- <<wu will; but when he Bays he will, 
 he leaves him the exercise <>f that will, and simply 
 exi his belief, thai it is the intention or will of 
 
 the third person to d<> this or that. 
 
 The principle t" be borne in mind in the distinction 
 of shall and will \-, that it is always the first person 
 that speaks; and that, in the first person of the verb, the 
 
 aker is also the <iti<nt; but that, in the cond and 
 third, the first person is the speaker, but th< second or
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 259 
 
 third the agent. Hence, as volition is allowed to the 
 second or third person, or control exercised over that 
 volition, the use of will and shall must vary in passing 
 from the first to the second and third persons. 
 
 When, however, we pass to the interrogative forms 
 of shall and ivi/l, the case is reversed. In the second 
 person of the verb, we simply inquire what the will of 
 that person is, the act of volition remaining in the 
 breast of that person, and not being subject to the 
 control of the person asking. We therefore say wilt 
 thou ? or will you ? In the third person of the verb 
 again the act of willing remains with that person, and 
 we simply ask for an enunciation of that will; as, xoill 
 he ? if plural, will they ? Thus : Shall I go to London ? 
 wilt thou go ? will he go ? shall we go ? will you go ? 
 will they go ? 
 
 This distinction of shall and will does not form a 
 part of the system of a Latin or a Greek verb. 
 
 The verb will is also a principal, as well as an 
 
 auxiliary. As, i~ will, thou ivillest, he wilts, wr will, ye 
 
 or you will, they will. A confusion of will as a principal 
 
 and an auxiliary occurs in the following passage from 
 
 Attcrbury's " Sermons." : — 
 
 " Thou that art the author and bestowcr of life canst doulitl<-s 
 restore it also if thou will'st, and when thou wiWst; but whethei 
 thou wiir.sl please to restore it, or not, thou alone knowest." 
 
 Here willst in the two former cases is a principal, in 
 the last an auxiliary, and ought to be wilt, and not 
 will 'st or wiliest ; that is, but whether thou wilt restore 
 them or not, &c.
 
 260 ai mi.iauv VE&B& 
 
 Would and Should. 
 
 Would expresses volition, and has reference either to 
 time past, or present u I would do it were I in your 
 situation," expresses a present inclination with reference 
 to ;i future action, the pronoun Z being emphatic 
 and contradistinctive. " I would do it," with the 
 emphasis on would, expresses a present feeling and 
 determination to haw done a thing with reference t«> a 
 particular lime passed ; thai is, I would, at that time, do 
 it — I was determined to do it. 
 
 Should expresses duty, a sense of obligation ; " I 
 should Ho it," i. e. all things considered, I feel that it is 
 my duty to do it. In the same sense also we use, I 
 should have done it, ought to have done it. Should, 
 
 with a future Bubjunctive signification, expresses a 
 timple contingency: as, "If he should do it, that 
 
 will he Bufficienl : " whereas the expression, if he u-ould 
 
 do it, ha- :i stringenl reference !■• ?olition, a- \\<11 a- t.. 
 contingency; a-, "if he would bul do it, I Bhould he 
 satisfied," the term would being expressive of a sup- 
 posed aversion on his part, The operations of the 
 mind, a- far a- the use of these auxiliaries is concerned, 
 are generally expressed with sufficienl accuracy, accord- 
 ing to the drift of the sentence, and the intentions of 
 the speaker. 
 
 Cither, however, should and would have char 
 their meaning in the following passages from the 
 Pi ilin-. or their application u erroneoui i — 
 
 '■ [f I would deoUre then^ :n«<l ipeah of them, thej ire mors 
 than can I"- numbered." — Bible tertian^ Psalm \1. I
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 261 
 
 " If I should declare them, and speak of them, they should be 
 more than I am able to express." — Prayer Book, Psalm xl. 6. ' 
 
 The sense required in the first case is that of a 
 simple contingency, without any express volition. We 
 therefore expect, " If I should declare them," and not 
 " If Iivoidd declare them" Again ; " if I should declare 
 them, and speak of them, they should be more than I 
 am able to express." They icould be more, and not 
 shoidd, because should in this case would indicate a 
 latent reason why they should be more, instead of a 
 simple contingency. If I should declare them, and 
 speak of them, they should, that is ought, according to 
 all reasonable calculation, to be more than I am able to 
 express. But this is not what is meant. Let us take 
 the following example : — "Were he to do such a thing 
 in England, he woidd be hanged." Would be hanged 
 here indicates a necessary result, without assigning or 
 implying any reason for such a result. But if I say, 
 "Were he to do such a thing in England, he should be 
 hanged," we see that a reason is implied why he should 
 be hanged. He should be hanged, that is, ought to be 
 hanged, either because it is an aggravation of the offence 
 that it is committed in England, or because, according 
 to the scale of punishment in England, the offence ought 
 to be punished by hanging. 
 
 " In judging only from the nature of things, and without the 
 surer aid of revelation, one should be apt to embrace the opinion 
 of Diodorus Siculus." — Warburtons Divine Legation. 
 
 Would. 
 
 " This man was taken of the Jews v and should have been killed 
 of them." — Acts, xxiii. 27.
 
 2C>2 .\r\n.i \i:v \ BBB& 
 
 Should in this situation would now mean ought, — 
 ought to have been killed; in modern phraseology] 
 would haxk I'" a hilled by them. 
 
 • ( » had ii been :> Btranger, nol my child, 
 mooth (-in he) lii- - fault, 1 should have been more miM." 
 
 Would have been more kind i~ the signification 
 which first presents itself; but should is defensible, aa 
 bearing a signification different from would. Would, 
 in this . would express resolution : i. e. though a 
 Btranger and nol my child] still, in Bpite of that, I 
 would have been more mild. Should, on the oilier 
 hand, would ezpresfi a simple intention. 
 
 Tin' following sentence from Psalm cvL 23. is a 
 
   
 
 d example of tin- proper use oftoouWand shoitl<I : — 
 
 •• >■■ he > . i i • 1 he would have destroyed them, had not Mosei hia 
 chosen stood befon him in tin- gap t<> turn away lii- wrathful in- 
 dignation, let! he thould destroy them." 
 
 .id, after the occasion had passed away, that 
 he would on that occasion have destroyed them, hail 
 not Moses stood before him, lest ho thould destroy 
 them; not, should have destroyed them, an expression 
 which would place the prevention subsequent to the 
 
 BUppOSt d art. 
 
 " This was ;i thing deeply resented : and i o have spoken to me 
 :it"iut the manuscripts had been to 1"-'' :i plausible nol 
 
 taking revenge." ///</'<< P D tation on Episih 
 
 /'/ui/iir- 
 
 Would have been. 
 
 [| he had wri! me word tl . . •_ ^ t /„„/ j ,.,.,, 
 
   :ni(| cit il. - Ibid, 
 n ould hur, been,
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 263 
 
 Might. 
 
 May refers to % -present or a future privilege, might 
 
 to a past one. As he is attentive in order that he may 
 
 learn, he will be attentive in order that he may learn, 
 
 he was attentive in order that he might learn. 
 
 " Let us therefore reflect how a serious and attentive study of 
 the books of the Old Testament best ansiver the great end for 
 which they were written, namely, that we through patience and 
 comfort of the Holy Scriptures might have hope." — Rennet's Ser- 
 mons. 
 
 There are, in this sentence, three grammatical errors, 
 two of which are chargeable upon the author, and one 
 on the quotation. The first is of minor importance, 
 and occurs so frequently in various authors, as to have 
 some claim to justification, — "a serious and attentive," 
 instead of a serious and an attentive. The second is 
 ansicer instead of ansivers ; a serious and an attentive 
 study ansivers, not answer. The third error consists in 
 the use of might instead of may. The Scriptures were 
 written that we, through patience and comfort of those 
 Holy Scriptures, may have hope. They were written, 
 that ages that have preceded us might have hope, 
 that we may have hope, that future generations mag 
 have hope. Speaking of the past, we should say might : 
 of the present, or the future, mag. 
 
 " And Jesus answered and said, What wilt thou that I should 
 do unto thee. The blind man said unto him, Lord, that 1 might 
 receive my sight." — Mark, x. 51. 
 
 May receive. 
 
 Can and Must. 
 
 The auxiliary verb can, under its different form-. 
 is seldom misapplied ; and must affords the curiou-
 
 2G4 BEXABKfl OH Till LUXILIABIE& 
 
 grammatical phenomenon of a verb without a single 
 
 variation. 
 
 Ought. 
 
 Ought IS not an auxiliary, but a primary verb. We 
 
 cannot connect it with another verb .-imply : as, I oiiijltt 
 go, I Ought write, in the -aiue wav afl we can sav, I 
 
 thould gOj 1 should write. It must be connected with 
 
 the verb that follows in the same way as any other 
 
 principal verb must he, by the particle t>> .• I ought to 
 i/u ,- 1 ought tu writi . 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 GENERAL &KMABK8 ON mi. \i \iii.\iai.s. 
 
 1\ English we have as many moods as we have auxiliary 
 verbs* allowing these verba to he auxiliaries) and not 
 principals; for every auxiliary verb in the language 
 expn -- - "in'- modification of action, or volition, or 
 condition, which cannot he bo well expressed in any 
 otlur way, and thus constitutes .-i Beparate mode or 
 mood. For instance, I toritt verse* is an indefinite 
 
 aorisl of the present ii , and implies a habit; I do 
 
 write verses is :i decisive assertion in opposition to an 
 expressed or latent doubl : I am writing verses, is ;• 
 presenl imperfect tense; I am now in the act of writing 
 vers -. Now we have here three distinct significations, 
 all included under the indicative mood presenl tense; 
 
 and distincl a- they are, there i- Imt one word in Latin
 
 REMARKS ON THE AUXILIARIES. 265 
 
 to express the indicative mood present tense, namely, 
 scribo, which falls far short of the nice discriminations 
 of the English auxiliaries. The auxiliaries, may, can, 
 might, would, could, should, our/lit, have, had, shall, 
 will, &c, afford greater precision in the expression of 
 various shades of meaning than is attainable by the 
 use of single and unaided terms. They possess an 
 elasticity which adapts itself with ease to the extension 
 or contraction of our ideas, and the varied modifications 
 under which they present themselves. How shall we 
 translate into Latin, and by one word only, / have been 
 going to write ? As, I am glad I have met you, for / 
 have been going to write to you for some time past; or, I 
 have been writing ; or, / had been ivriting, or / shall or 
 /rill have been writing. Such expressions may seem 
 encumbered with expletives, but nevertheless these 
 expletives clearly and definitely express our meaning, 
 when properly applied. Mr. Fickbourn has pointed 
 out that we have no less than eight future tenses or 
 forms of expressing future time ; four of these express 
 time simply ; as, I shall write, I will write, I shall be 
 writing, I will be writing. In each of these forms of 
 expression we clearly recognise a distinction of meaning, 
 yet their equivalent in Latin is simply scribam —a poor 
 equivalent it must be confessed. The other four, I 
 shall have been writing, I will have been writing, I 
 shall have written, I will have written, express future 
 time in a more complex manner, as antecedent to some 
 definite future period, pointed out by some other word 
 or member of the sentence. The English language is 
 often blamed for want of definiteni^s. Let us first learn 
 
 N
 
 2GG I in: mi rii: VERB. 
 
 to make a proper use of our tools before we complain 
 of their inapplicability to the work which we have in 
 hand. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 i in: mii 11: \ i i:r.. 
 
 Bi a neuter verb is meant a verb that has neither em 
 active aor u passive signification. The action of the 
 verb is not transitive. It docs not pass on to the 
 Following noun, unless that noun either has an identity 
 
 of meaning with the verb itself, <>r the expression may 
 be grammatically resolved into a verb, preposition, and 
 noun. To dream a dream would he an example of the 
 first case, to walk a mile of the second, thai i-. over the 
 
 space of a mile. This, in fact, i- a lucre elliptical 
 
 expression. The neuter verb properly has no object, 
 the action of the verb being limited to itself. It cannot 
 therefore be followed by the objective case. The child 
 cries, gives n- an example of a Bimple neuter verb. 
 The sense is complete, Bu1 if we say the child destroys, 
 we Decessarily suppose something destroyed, that some- 
 thing being the objecl upon which the action of the 
 verb or the destructive agency fall-, and therefore in 
 the objective case. A- the child destroys his play- 
 things. A neuter verb then ha- do transitive significa- 
 tion, and it- character in happily designated in Greek 
 by the word avrcmaBsia, autopathy. 
 
 Neuter verbs have the same construction as verbs 
 which -imply indicate a -tate of being. Cscsar is
 
 THE NEUTER VERB. 2G7 
 
 Emperor, or the Emperor is Crcsar, are convertible 
 propositions, and both the nouns are in the same case. 
 
 " While his love-loch descend a golden shower." 
 
 Savage, Wanderer, canto iv. 
 
 " Which rose a stately colonnade" Ibid, canto iv. 
 
 His lovelocks, as they descended, were a golden shower. 
 The building, as it rose, was a stately colonnade. 
 
 Neuter Verbs improperly used actively. 
 
 Pope claims an unwarrantable licence when he con- 
 verts the neuter verb succeed into an active one: — 
 
 " How would the gods my righteous toils succeed.'" 
 
 Odyssey, xiv. 447. 
 
 " If Jove this arm succeed." Iliad. 
 
 " The heroes pray'd, and Pallas from the skies 
 Records their vows — succeeds their enterprise." 
 
 Iliad, x. 351. 
 
 That is, makes it to succeed. Succeed, as an active 
 verb, is utterly unwarrantable. 
 
 Equally unwarrantable is the term approaches, used 
 actively by Bulwer: — 
 
 " This is true power, it approaches men to gods." — England 
 and the English. 
 
 What do we think of approach the candle to m< f 
 
 " You rejoice me." — Dr. Wharton. 
 
 " He retired the army behind the river." 
 
 " Me of these 
 Not skill'd or studious higher argument 
 Remains" Paradise lost, book ix. 
 
 That is, higher argument remains me — to me surely, 
 
 > 2
 
 268 i in: ketjteb verb. 
 
 If we do not consider the expression "remains me* 
 as elliptical, and Btanding in the place ol remahu to 
 me, it is u liberty which even Milton was not justified 
 in taking. When large fishes break through the 
 
 meshes <»t' the int. we need not he surprised that the 
 
 small Pry Bhould follow them. 
 
 Active Verbs improperly used as Neuter, 
 
 " I inii-t premise with three circumstancea.** — Suri/t 
 
 M Those that tliink to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 
 
 — Jh III/ rl/. 
 
 Premise three circumstances. Ingratiate themselves, 
 
 Nciit' r Vi rl> T<> Lie. 
 
 There is perhaps no verb in the English language, 
 in the use of which BO much ignorance is manifested, as 
 in the confusion of the active verb to lay with the 
 
 neuter verb to lie, M He lays this hook down on the 
 table, and then the hook Hes on the table;* 1 lay being 
 
 an active transitive verb, and tlu- object on which that 
 BCtion falls, or to which it extends, being the word book. 
 Lies, on the other hand, being a neuter intransitive verb, 
 -imply expresses b condition. Lies, the neuter verb, 
 in the imperfect past tense make- lay: a-, when I saw 
 the book, it lay on the table. The following examples 
 embrace the difference in the signification of these two 
 
 word- : — 
 
 Vn w /// '/', /is, of Lie. 
 
   Bight fbrky UTOWi from tlii- hand hare fled, 
 Au'l eight bold beroei by their pointi /"■ dead.* 1 
 
 Haul. \iii. 861.
 
 THE NEUTER VEKB. 269 
 
 " When Jesus saw him lie." — John. v. G. 
 That is, to lie. 
 
 " And seeth the linen clothes lie" — John, xxii. 6. 
 
 Again, to lie ; elliptical. 
 
 " Though now they lie 
 Grovelling and prostrate on yon lake of fire." 
 
 Paradise Lost. 
 
 These are examples of the present tense of the neuter 
 verb to lie. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 " Then the king arose and tore his garments, and lay on the 
 earth." — 2 Samuel, xiii. 2. 
 
 " Nine times the space, that measured day and night 
 To mortal man, he with his horrid crew 
 Lay vanquish'd." Paradise Lost, book i. 
 
 " Unwept, unhonour'd, on the plain he lay, 
 While the proud victor bore his arms away." 
 
 Pope, Iliad. 
 
 These are examples of the past tense of the neuter 
 verb to lie. 
 
 Participle of the Neuter Verb To Lie. 
 
 He lies upon straw now, he fay upon straw lust night, 
 he is Baid to have lien, or lain, upon straw last night. 
 
 " For now would I have lain still, and been quiet." — Job, iii. 13. 
 " Though ye have lien among the pots." — Psalm lxviii. L'5. 
 " See where thou 'hast been lien with." — Jer. iii. 2. 
 
 Lien with, ;i passive participle of a neuter verb, effected 
 by the conjoint efficacy of the preposition with. 
 
 K 3
 
 270 [RREGULAB vi.ki:-. 
 
 . l< tin J'i rh To Lay*. 
 
 No more with presents her embraces meet, 
 Or lay the spoils of conquest at her feet" 
 
 Iliad, xi. 3. 
 
 The active verb to lay admits a passive form. A-. / 
 ln>/ the book down, the book is layed or laid down, the 
 book has been layed or laid down. 
 
 1 1 that m v griefs were weighed, and my calamity laid in the 
 baloni i - together I" — Job. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 [RREGl LAB \ BRBS, 
 
 The whole aumber of verbs in the English lanirufl 
 
 rular and irregular, Bimple and compound, is esti- 
 mated at aboul 1,300. The whole number of irregular 
 verbs, defective included, is aboul 177. The ungram- 
 matical use of some of the most striking of these will 
 here 1"' noticed. Irregular verbs are such :i- draw, 
 drew, drawn ; ./'///, Fell, fallen; take, took, taken; tit, 
 -at. titten; begin, began, begun, &c Defective, such 
 
 BS ih<"/. might, run, COttld, shiill, .-/multl, ////'/-/. Tile 
 
 nasi t' verbs, and the passive particip] 
 
 ore so perpetually confounded and mutilated, that thej 
 exhibit a perfect grammatical slaughter-house. Shak- 
 . Vddison, Swift, Pope, Milton, Dryden, Ati.r- 
 l.iiiv. Prior, Gay, Sterne, Gibbon, Byron, and a host 
 of others, up to tin- present day, violate a principle 
 
 which i ulp\iuii- to tin; men -t Kjhool-boj in writing
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 271 
 
 any other language than his own. The man of vege- 
 tables says, " Potatoes is rose or riz, and turnips is fell." 
 The language serves his purpose, and more is not ex- 
 pected ; but men of high literary character should 
 take care not to mislead by corrupt example. There is 
 not one iota of difference between I had drank, and I had 
 knew, I had rode, and I had blew, I have sat, and I have 
 gave, a web was wove, and a stone was threw. In such 
 cases as these the error may be more palpable than in 
 ordinary cases, but there is not the slightest difference 
 in degree. In prose composition there can be no excuse. 
 It is, perhaps, to the poets that we in some degree owe 
 these solecisms ; for the perfect tense of the verb in 
 the place of the participle frequently offers a conve- 
 nient rhyme, which the participle would not supply. 
 As Pope : — 
 
 " Rapt into future times, the bard begun, 
 A virgin shall conceive, a virgin bear a son." 
 
 Messiah. 
 
 " At length he roll'd in dust, and thus begun, 
 Imploring all, and naming one by one." Iliad, xxii. 
 
 " Doom'd from the hour his luckless life begun, 
 To dogs and vultures, and to Peleus' son." Ibid. 
 
 " In the fat age of pleasure, wealth, and ease, 
 Sprung the rank weed, and thriv'd (throve) with large increase." 
 
 Pope, Essay oh Criticism. 
 
 Not satisfied with using the participle in the place of 
 the verb, Pope also uses the verb in the place of the 
 participle: — 
 
 " And now the years a numerous train have ran, 
 
 The blooming boy is ripen'd into man." Odyssey. 
 
 N 4
 
 272 IBREGULAB VERBS. 
 
 In ill*- following couplet grammar and rhyme fortu- 
 nately coincide: — 
 
   .War as be drew, the warrior ilm> began, 
 great Ulysses! much-enduring man." IUad. 
 
 We see in these examples li<>\v unscrupulously grammar 
 i- sacrificed to ili\ me. 
 
 •■ From Liberty each nobler science sprung (sprat 
 A Bacon brighten'd, and a Spencer twig (sang).* 1 
 
 s w lob, Wand* 
 
 \ml with my years my soul begun (began) to pant 
 'NX i 1 1 1 feeling of strange tumuli, and ><>t'i pain." 
 
 Bi ftow, Lann tU of Tasso. 
 
 Without the apology of rhyme, Dryden says, "have 
 
 sang " I sung i; Montg ery, " could he nol have sang" 
 
 _ : Rowe, "since time begun" (began). Vet w 
 few lines further on. he say - : — 
 
 •• From bills they taught how melting currents >">i. 
 When the first swelling of the flood began." (right) 
 
 l'litirsiilia. 
 
 MiT.it is obvious that no grammatical principle 1 1 : i - 
 been kept in \ iew t 
 
 •• . v r i   I all the city was moved, and 1 1 1 « * people run together." — 
 
 i. SO. 
 •• I [e began to cm ■' wear." 
 
 •■ X"\\ the first man who began to speak.**— Afonboddo, Origin 
 miJ Pro ' Language. 
 
 In these examples the imperfect tense of the verb is of 
 course used with propriel j . 
 
 \i the dose of such ;i folio   I (written) for their 
 
 >'/< rm  
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 273 
 
 " I satisfied the cravings of hunger with bread and water, which 
 I may add was ate in a filthy stable." — Burnes's Travels. 
 
 This is gross indeed. Was ate ! I eat now, I ate yes- 
 terday, the dinner " was eaten in a filthy stable." So 
 I sit now, I sate yesterday, I had sitten down. 
 
 " The Queen bound with love's powerful charm, 
 Sate with Pigwiggen, arm in arm." 
 
 Drayton's Pohjolbion 
 
 " Many a time 
 On holidays we rambled through the woods, 
 We sate — we walk'd." AYordswortii, Wanderer. 
 
 Right in both examples. Sit, sate, sitten ; bid, bade, 
 bidden. 
 
 '* A certain man made a great supper, and bade many, and sen 
 his servant at supper time to say to them that were bidden." — 
 Luke, xiv. 17. 
 
 Dr. Thirlwall, Bishop of St. David's (History of 
 Greece), uses bad falsely in the place of bade. 
 
 " I, like the arch-fiend, bore a hull within me, and, finding 
 myself unsympathised with, wished to tear up the trees, and spread 
 havoc and destruction along with me, and then to have sat down 
 and enjoyed the ruin." — Frankenstein. 
 
 " To have sat" is here doubly wrong. Grammatically, 
 sat ought to be sitten. As a matter of sense, this also 
 would be wrong ; for the fiend wished to tear up the 
 trees, to spread havoc and destruction around him, and 
 then to do what? to sit down and enjoy the ruin; for 
 the act of sitting down and enjoying the ruin was 
 posterior to the other acts, and certainly posterior to 
 the wish. As well might we say, " I wished to have 
 gone to London," which means I wished to do some- 
 
 N 5
 
 2 71 IKKKdlLAK Yl.Kl'.-. 
 
 thing anterior t<> my wish to do it. But were we to 
 assimilate this expression to the one in question, we 
 musi aay, •• I wish to have went to London*" 
 
 u In the middle of one night in September, I awoke from sleep, 
 in a breathless and burning heat, though I was conscious thai I 
 had neither <//<■ nor drmk any thing thai ought to have fevered 
 me." — CampbeWa Letters from the South, voL i. p. 182. 
 
 •• Neither eaten nor ilrunk." 
 
   In the ways hast thou sol for them, ;i> the Arabian in the 
 u ilda ness." — Jer. iii. •_'. 
 
 Sitti a. 
 
 Lowth gives Borne examples of the proper use of sitten 
 instead of sat: — 
 
 " The army having ritten there bo long." — Raleigh, 
 
 •• Which was enough t" make him Btir that would not he 
 
 sitten Mill." — Raleigh. 
 
 rhat no parliament should be dissolved till it had sitten fare 
 
 months." — Hob 
 
 M To //"(•<■ sitten on the beads of the apostles— to hoot sitten 
 i i I >< mi each of tin-in." — Dr. Middleton, 
 
 lie at the Bame time points oul the impropriety 
 of using set in the place of sir, the former being an 
 active verb signifying ti» place, the latter a neufer 
 verb Bimply expressive of condition. [o set, ox to 1'*' 
 .>,/, or wa set, is not in any way expressive "I 
 posture. A person Bel down mighl stand, oxlie, ox sit, 
 and as KaBuraihos ovrou expn i particular posture, 
 
 namely, thai of sitting, was set, u .■>■</, ox any other 
 form of the verb t<> set, cannot be n correct translation 
 
 of the terms KathaaiTos avrov.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 275 
 
 " Full in their eyes the dazzling flashes broke, 
 And with amaze their troubled senses stroke." 
 
 Howe's Translation of Lucan's Pharsaliu, 
 
 b. vii. 1. 237. 
 
 There can be no doubt that stroke is here used in the 
 sense of struck — that is, struck their senses with amaze 
 — an expression which violates sense and grammar. 
 "We cannot suppose that the poet means stroke in the 
 sense of to stroke, but in the sense of to strike. Stroke 
 is, therefore, ambiguous ; at the same time that it is 
 unerammatical. It ought to be struck, -which would 
 have been somewhat injurious to the rhyme. 
 
 These corruptions, arising out of the use of the perfect 
 tense of the verb in the place of the participle, are 
 ' - - as " plentiful as leaves in VaUflmbrosdl'' They are 
 profusely scattered over our literature, and with various 
 other blunders show that men of great ability, and 
 o-reat critical attainments in the classics, had never 
 paid a proper attention to the grammatical structure of 
 their mother-tongue. A few out of thousands may be 
 given: — 
 
 " But at the close of such a folio as this wrote for their sakes." 
 — Stei-ne. 
 
 " That cracks, as if the axis of the world 
 Was broke" Bi.ackmokb< 
 
 " That no part useless, none misplaced we see, 
 None are forgot" Ibid. 
 
 '• Lo! Pan himself, beneath a blasted oak, 
 
 Dejected lies, his pipe in pieces broke." Coxgbeve. 
 
 " The camp was almost immediately broke up." — h'tbbon. 
 Milton uses have spoke, words interwove, have chose, 
 hath bore, had Stole, had rode, was took ; Addison, had 
 
 n 6
 
 276 [RREGl LAB VEBB8. 
 
 drank, has wrote, was broh : Swift, had rose, have stole, 
 have mistook ; Bolingbroke, has been shook .• Atterbury, 
 to be shook : Prior, have fell ; ( ray, has 6e/i II ; Bentlej . 
 have wrote, though in another place have written, and 
 has /■"-. In these examples we have the perfect tense 
 of the verb, instead of the participle. In the following 
 the case is reversed. Atterbury Bays, have sprang, in- 
 stead of sprung; Clarendon, had spoke, had began; 
 Shakspeare, have strum. 
 
 Some of our verbs, which terminate alike in the 
 present tense, are extremely arbitrary in the formation 
 of the other tenses and of the participle: as, spit, spat, 
 spitten : sit, sat, sitten : yet we say, fit, fitted, fitted; hit, 
 hit, hit ; as, I hit the mark, he hit the mark, the mark 
 WB£ hit, and he had hit the mark. There are a few 
 verbs of this kind which never \ar\ in form, whether 
 in the present or past tenses, or in the participle; as, 
 read, read, read, in the pasl tense and participle pro- 
 nounced red, read contracted from readed ; !</. let, let; 
 rid, rid, rid ; set, set, set : shut, shut, shut ; shred, shred, 
 shred; cut, cut, cut; cast, east, east; split, split, sj>lit. In 
 the present state of the language these verbs do not 
 vary, though in the case of cast and split Shakspeare 
 
 OSes ' OSti d and splitti d ; M, 
 
 '• And iiiu lv 1 1 1 < > w ii. 
 With ctuted slough, and fresh celerity." Henry I'. 
 
 Splitted the heart itself.* 1 Antony and Cleopatra, 
 
 h i- probable thai the national spirit of verbal con-* 
 traction has come over such words as these and cut <>fr 
 the final syllable! He lighted the candle, has been
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 277 
 
 pruned clown to lit : lie lit the candle, leaving nothing 
 but the bare stem. In all such cases submission 
 is mercilessly exacted by custom, " penes quern jus 
 et norma loquendi." Few men would now venture 
 to write it " mewed ; " yet Chaucer says : — 
 
 " It snewed in his house of mete and drinke, 
 Of all daintees that men could of thinke." 
 
 Canterbury Tales. 
 
 Or, clomb : — 
 
 M So clomb the first grand thief into his fold." 
 
 Milton, Paradise Lost, book iv. 
 
 There are, however, no two words in the English 
 language used so vaguely, uncertainly, or so erroneously, 
 as the forms arising out of the commonest of all terms, 
 namely, to eat and to drink. At the expence of a little 
 repetition it may, therefore, be necessary to draw atten- 
 tion to the use of these two words. 
 
 Eat, ate, eaten ; I eat, I ate, I had eaten ; the dinner 
 was eaten; drink, drank, drunk — drunk being a con- 
 traction of the participle drunken ; I drink, I drank, I 
 had drunken, or drunk ; the wine was drunken or drunk, 
 — not I had drank, or the wine was drank, both of which 
 are sheer nonsense. The following passages from the 
 Bible, 1 Kings, i. 13., are rich in the proper use of these 
 words: — 
 
 " So he went back with him, and did eat bread (or ate bread) 
 and drank water." 
 
 Not drunk water. 
 
 Again : — 
 '■ But earnest back, and hast eaten bread and drunk water."
 
 278 IBREGULAB vi.i;i;>. 
 
 Again : — 
 
   A fii. r be bad asfm bread, and after be //<«/ drunk." 
 
 " It >luill be oatra tbe same day ye offer it." — Lev. six. & 
 
 •■ They * 1 i « 1 mi, they drank? — £«&*, 
 
 The Bible, with b few exceptions, which may perhaps 
 be admitted as contractions, makes a proper distinction 
 between the past tense of the verb and the participle. 
 In the case of drunken it i> dow generally contracted to 
 drunk ; as, the wine wslb drunk: but n<> man haying but 
 the slenderest pretensions to grammatical knowled 
 wonld even write or use the expression had drank. Lei 
 "beer to be drank on the premises" be confined to the 
 sign-board, when' no man ever Looks for a grammatical 
 guide. Bound retains its proper form, bounden, as our 
 bounden duty '. and with propriety we --till say a drunken 
 beast, though the fastidious delicacy of the age would 
 perhaps denominate him an intoxicated individual. 
 
 We often hear a confused use of the verb to swim. 
 Its form is swim, swam, swum: I swim over the rii 
 I swam over the river, I had swum over tin- river. 
 
 The verb cleave, t<> .-tick to, and cleave, to Bplit, are 
 both the same in the pi'!-, nt tense, but differ in the 
 I>a-t tense anil the participle. Cleave, to stick to, to 
 adhere, makes cleave, <•/</'•,•, cleaved: I <l><ir, to him, I 
 '•A//-* tu him, I had cleaved to him. Cleave, i<> .-jilii. 
 nial-.i - cleave, clove, cloven and cleft: I cleave the \\<<od, 
 I (A-/-, the wood, I had cloven thr wood, the wood v, 
 cloven i >r '•/'■//• 
 
 Tin- Mib- /A/ and //< < air -> >inrt inn- Confounded. 
 
 /■'/'/ denotes the act of living, without reference to a 
 particular cause or object As, u tin- eagb \ flies through
 
 TIIE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 279 
 
 the air." Flees denotes the act of escaping from a 
 threatened danger to a place of refuge. " The pigeon 
 Jlees from the hawk, the pigeon Jlcd or fleed from the 
 hawk." 
 
 Again, flown and flowed are sometimes confounded. 
 
 " The birds had flown or were flown" " the meadows 
 
 were overflowed," not overfloivn, which would mean that 
 
 birds had floivn over them, not that water had over- 
 
 floiced them. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 "We now come to the consideration of a part of English 
 grammar, in which we shall look in vain for any tiling 
 bordering upon a principle, even in authors of the 
 highest authority in English literature, namely, the 
 use of the subjunctive mood. It would be folly to suppose 
 that there is not a principle — the question is, how that 
 principle is to be investigated and developed. It is no 
 uncommon thing to find two hypothetical members of 
 a sentence both placed under the same circumstances, 
 yet one of them shall be in the indicative, the other in the 
 subjunctive mood. Throughout a whole work we shall 
 find these moods used indiscriminately and promis- 
 cuously. 
 
 " There are few or no English writers who seem to have adhered 
 uniformly to any rule in the use of the verba after the conjunctions. 
 In consequence either of ignorance or inattention, the most .cor-
 
 2M> THE SUIUIM TlVi; MOOD. 
 
 rect writer.- have fallen into inconMBtenciea even in t ho nine 
 sentence.* 1 — Nuah Wi-bst, ' D ■futinn. 
 
 It signifies nothing that this or that expression has 
 hern u-ed by .Johnson, or Addison, or Swift, or Pope, or 
 
 any other author whatever. All of these, whose names I 
 have mentioned, and innumerable others, have written 
 
 incorrectly, and their authority will L r <> jn.-t BO tar a- it can 
 
 be supported by grammatical principle, and no farther. 
 
 The mere ipse r//./v7of any man, in a case of this kind, is 
 not worth a rush. Time and space, tensefl and moods, 
 
 possess principles which bend not before authority. It 
 i- not a question of genius and utility, but simply a 
 question of syntax; and as authors of the highest re- 
 putation in English literature are, over and over again, 
 inconsistent with themselves, it is impossible that in 
 
 all Cases they can he right, unle.-s a sentence, which 
 
 i- indicative and declarative, can be equally hypothetical 
 and Bubjunctive, and in many cases unless past, present, 
 and future time, -hould be bo accommodating as to be 
 capable of being expressed by the Bame form of the 
 verb. 
 
 We are told that tin.' Bubjunctive mood i- required 
 when a contingency is implied. Now, contingency 
 ha- respect to that which is past, that which ib present, 
 or that which U t" <,,,in. lint with resped to that 
 which is past and that which i- present, there can be no 
 contingency of J art. In both cases a thing either has 
 i„, i, or has not been, either is or is not. The con- 
 tingency exists no where hut in the mind of the speaker. 
 
 Bui when we COme t" the e . 1 1 - i   1 • ration of a thing that, 
 a- \«t, tXXStS i'"t at all. hilt which 1- tlllure. We thell
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE 3IOOD. 281 
 
 have a contingency of fact added to the uncertainty 
 of the speaker's mind. In the very nature of things 
 then, we speak declaratively and indicatively of that 
 which is past or present, but hypotlietically of that which 
 is contingent as a fact. Let us then try this principle 
 by supposed examples, and then by existing examples, 
 as they occur in various authors. " Is Thomas able to 
 repeat his grammar this morning?" " No, he is not, 
 because he was ill last night." " If he was ill, that is 
 enough." " Has Thomas come to repeat his grammar ?" 
 " No, he has not, because his head aches." " If his 
 head aches, that is enough." In neither of these cases 
 is there any contingency of fact, and therefore we say 
 if he xcas ill at that time, and if his head aches at this 
 time. But if Ave pass on to a future time, we then put 
 the case hypotheticalhj. As, " Will Thomas come up 
 to repeat his grammar to-morrow?" " Yes, if his head 
 (Jo not ache," — if he he better, that is, should it so happen, 
 should his head not ache, should he be better. " Did 
 you take a walk yesterday ? " " No, I did not, because it 
 was wet." " If it teas wet (not if it were) you were 
 better at home." " Will you walk note ?" " Yes, if it 
 does not rain." " If it rains note, will you take a walk 
 an hour hence?" "Yes, if in the mean time it cleat 
 up," that is, should clear up, not clears, which has re- 
 ference only to a present and now existiu// state. " Do 
 you think that the roads will be dirty this morning?" 
 " Yes, if there has been much rain in the night 
 "Will you ride your horse to town next week?" 
 " Yes, if he have (not has) recovered of his lameness 
 before that time." " Though he studied (past) the
 
 282 Tin. -i luuxi ri vi: mood. 
 
 work for twelve months, yet he did not make himself 
 master of it. Though he studies | present ) twelve hours 
 a day, yet he makes Little progress. Though he study 
 twelve hours he will not (future) be sufficiently pre- 
 pared. 1 ' 
 
 *• Were I Alexander, I would do it. And wen 1 
 Parmenio, 1 would do it.'" That is, were tin- Btate "i 
 things so altered, that 1, as Alexander, should become 
 Parmenio, then I would do it. But, if in these Of 
 we substitute was in tin; place of were, the meaning of 
 both sentences would be changed, and that subjunctivity, 
 which is their very gist and essence, would cease t<> 
 exi^t. 
 
 The substance of these observations on the Bubjunc- 
 tive mood was written many years ago. Since that 
 time I have had the good fortune t<> tall in with Noah 
 Webster's* fourth Dissertation on "The English 
 Language," with introductory remarks by II. .1. 11. — 
 the subject being the subjunctive mood. Of the nu- 
 meroue examples there given, whether supposed or real, 
 I do not find one to which the above-mentioned prin- 
 ciple d-ies oot apply, where the distinction of past, 
 present, and future is clear and decided. Every thing 
 that i- past orprt sent is a matter of certainty, as far as the 
 thing itself is concerned, though it may not In' a man. c 
 of certainty, a- tar as our hmnrinhjc i- concerned. We 
 speak of it therefore declarativelj or indicatively. Every 
 thing that is future we -peak of a- a matter Bubjeot to 
 some condition, by which it mag it may not be affected. 
 
 * Mr. Webster i-> an American.
 
 TIIE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 283 
 
 In many cases shall and should may be prefixed to that 
 which has a subjunctive form when it relates to that 
 which h future, but never when it relates to that which 
 is past or present. 
 
 Let us now try how far this consideration will apply 
 to the following examples, given in H. J. H's. intro- 
 ductory remarks : — 
 
 " If I be well next week, I shall call upon him." 
 " If he be there by two o'clock, he will be in time." 
 " If it be ready when you call, you shall have it." 
 " If they be unprepared, they will fail in the attempt." 
 
 Every one of these suppositions relates to a future con- 
 tingency, and might be expressed by should be or shall he. 
 
 " If it is he I am much mistaken." 
 
 " If it is raining you had better not go." 
 
 " If I am the man you seek why not confess it ?" 
 
 " If they are guilty they will be hanged." 
 
 Every one of these sentences relates to the present 
 time, and is, therefore, expressed declaratively. 
 
 " If Caesar was a tyrant, he deserved death." 
 
 " If I was in your company at A.'s, I have not the slightest re- 
 collection of it." 
 
 " If his mind teas uncultivated then, it is far from being so now." 
 
 " If they were at York when I was, probably I should have seen 
 them." 
 
 Every one of these sentences relates to the past, 
 and is properly expressed by the indicative mood. If 
 we give an answer to a supposition, which has reference 
 to present or past time, that answer will be declarative, 
 but not so in the case of a supposition relating to future 
 time. Asj
 
 284 Tin: BUBJ1 n< iivi: mood. 
 
 u If CsBsar was a tyrant, he deserved death." " Csssaf 
 was a tyrant, ami therefore he deserved death." 
 
 " If it u he, I am much mistaken." "It is he, and 
 therefore you are much mistaken." 
 
 "If* I ; " well nezl week, I shall call upon him." 
 " II' you should be well, 1 hope you will call npon him." 
 
 II. . I. II. then irivee the following illustration of what 
 he calls the present tense of the subjunctive hypothetic 
 mood : — 
 
 •■ It I wen in ;i situation to defend, I would disdain to Bee." 
 •• [fhe were in my situation, he would 1><- unbearable.* 1 
 •■ It" It were not for its opacity, I could Bee more clearly.* 1 
 " If tlicy were present, you would not Bpeak of them so con« 
 temptuously." 
 
 ljut Bentences like these, and which I believe arc con- 
 fined to the verb were, seem to embrace both present 
 and future time. A-, u If I a were in a situation ;it this 
 moment t<> defend, or should I be placed in a situation 
 to defend." 
 
 The expression, being capable of a double combined 
 meaning, with reference to time, present and future, is 
 peculiar, and cannot be classed Bimply in the present 
 tense. It is the participation of futurity thai requires 
 the subjunctive form. Were the meaning strictly 
 confined to the present time, we should say, " If I <mi 
 in a situation to defend, I will disdain to flee.' The 
 subjunctive form of the verb carriet us on to a 
 future point, al which point we t hou Id or would do this 
 or that. In its present form we arc already :it a 
 jto'mt when we shall or will. " Wen I Alexander, I 
 would do it. Tin- implies, in the first place, thai I am
 
 TITE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 285 
 
 not Alexander, and, in the second, that were my con- 
 dition, should my condition, be so far changed, that I 
 should stand in the place of Alexander, I would do it. 
 Such a sentence as the following, it is true, has refer- 
 ence to past time, and yet is put in the subjunctive 
 mood ; but then the subjunctive member of the sentence 
 is future with reference to the primary and indicative 
 member of it. " It teas my desire that he should come 
 yesterday.' 1 '' The coining being posterior to the desire, 
 and therefore future. 
 
 " After an attentive and accurate examination of this subject, I 
 believe I may venture to assert (says Mr. Webster) that nine 
 times out of ten, when the pretended subjunctive form of the verb 
 is used after a conjunction, either in the vulgar translation of the 
 Bible, or in our best profane authors, the sense is actually future, 
 and, to render the sentences complete, it would be necessary to 
 insert shall or should." — Webster s Dissertation, p. 49. 
 
 If, in all cases of doubt as to the use of the indica- 
 tive or the subjunctive mood, we should mentally try 
 whether or not the auxiliary can, with propriety, be 
 placed before the principal verb, we should at once see 
 the principle upon which the form of expression must 
 rest. We may go so far as to look upon the auxiliary 
 as a principal, and the verb following as a verb in the 
 infinitive mood ; with the exception of the verb were, 
 which is derived from the German, Ich tear, I was, and 
 as a verb is irregular and defective, and does not har- 
 monise with the usual form of an English verb. In 
 the Anglo- Saxon, indeed, the verb following the auxi 
 liary was evidently considered to be a verb in the 
 infinitive mood ; for this is distinctly marked by the 
 termination an, which denoted the infinitive mood of
 
 I'M] THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 the Angl<)-S:ix« m verb. fl\a, •■ Xn u-iUr ic 'faran? 
 ( L>ik<\ xiv. 19.) "Now will I go," an infinitive after will. 
 " IIu wuep Be man well faran f* " How nay, or can, 
 the man fare well?" To fare, an infinitive after /m/y. 
 
 The propriety of using the indicative or the subjunc- 
 tive mood will sometimes l»e determined by an adjunct 
 
 of the verbs, which marks the time of an action. Aft, 
 •■ Were I e&er to recover from my lameness, I would 
 make a pedestrian tour." " Were he to read hard for 
 the m.rt six months, he would probably accomplish 
 his object." Futurity is the very essence of these sen- 
 tence-;, and to write ims in the place of were would be   
 monstrous solecism. 
 
 As a clear principle, there can be no contingency of 
 a fart apart from futurity. 
 
 Lindley Murray gives the following phrase as I 
 contingency apart from futurity: — 
 
 u If he thinks u be spefeks, be may safely be trusted." 
 Bu1 Burely the man either thinks as he speaks, or he 
 
 does not think as he -peak-. One way or the other is 
 
 a matter o£ fact, only 1 d I know whether or not 
 
 he speaks as he thinks; but my ignorance cannot alter 
 the existence of a fact Westminster A.bbev either 
 exists or it does not exist. If it exists, the ignorance 
 of a Hottentot, as to it- existence, could nol affect that 
 existence. The subjective contingency arises out of 
 mere mental ignorance or uncertainty as to the existence 
 of a fnrt ; but iii that which either exists or does not 
 i //.-/. is ox is not, there can be no objectivt contingency 
 
 at all. 
 
 The subjunctive mood, then, in English, is not used
 
 TTCOPER USE OF SUBJUNCTIVE WOOD. 287 
 
 frith propriety, when we speak of that which is past, or 
 that which is present, hut when the fact itself has not yet 
 taken place, and is necessarily future. 
 
 This rule will bear the test of the numerous ex- 
 amples which have already been given, and will equally 
 apply to the use or abuse of this mood in those which 
 follow. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF TnE PROPER USE OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 " Even so our eyes wait upon the Lord our God, until he have 
 mercy upon us." — Psalm exxiii. 2. 
 
 The end or purpose of waiting is, that the Lord may 
 have mercy upon us ; that mercy not being extended to 
 us as yet. If, in this case, we should say has mercy 
 upon us, instead of have mercy upon us, the meaning 
 would be altered. If has be used, the sentence would 
 mean that our eyes are in the habit of waiting upon 
 the Lord until he has mercy upon us, when they cease 
 to wait upon him ; but if have be used, then the sen- 
 tence means, as it does here, that our eyes continue to 
 wait upon the Lord our God, until, at some future 
 period, he shall he pleased to have mercy upon us. The 
 subjunctive mood is here clearly and legitimately re- 
 quired. 
 
 " They deck it with silver and with gold, they fasten it with 
 nails and with hammers, that it move not." — Jer. x. 4. 
 
 Here the end or purpose of fastening it is, that it move
 
 288 THE PROPBB USE OF 
 
 not. In lioth those oases a future end or purpose is in 
 view. 
 
 • Men <1<> not despise a thief if lie stud t<> >.it i.-l'v his soul when 
 he i- liniiL'rv." — Prov. vi. 30. 
 
 That is, a- a general supposition, should a thief steal 
 merely to satisfy hunger, then men do not in Bucfa a 
 case despise him. Steals, in this case, would imply a 
 habit) and not merely one individual fact. 
 
 ■• [f thou return at all in peace, the Lord hath nol spoken it 
 
 all by me." — 1 Kings, x\ii. 28. 
 
 Thy returning in peace will he a proof that the Lord 
 hath nut spoken by me. Shouldest than return in 
 peace, a thing not to be expected, then will it he a 
 proof that the Lord hath not spoken liy mc ; if thou 
 
 returns having reference to a Future contingency. 
 
 •• It' tin iii have a servant, let him be onto thee at thyself! because 
 thou hast bought him with a price; it' thou haves servant) entreat 
 
 him a- thy brother, for thou hast t 1 of him a- of thine own SOul ; 
 
 if thou entreat him evil, ami he run from thee, which way wilt 
 
 thou go t'> seek him f -- tied, zxxiiL SO. 
 
 It', in till- sentence, we read hail instead of //'/'■'•, the 
 would mean. If thon hast a servant at this 
 present moment : but if we read have, it means at 
 whatever time thou mayest have a servant, entreat 
 him "a- thy brother." If thou hast, &c, would convey 
 a specific precept with refer, nee to g present state of 
 things; if thou have, a general precept, with reference 
 t<» a contingent state of things. 
 
   If thou hast a hundred pound- at thy present com- 
 mand, pray lend it to me." *• [fthou have a hundred 
 pound- at thy command next January, wilt thou lend
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 289 
 
 it to me ? That is, if thou shalt have or should have, 
 if thou have. 
 
 " With whom, if he come shortly, I will see you." — Heb. v. 8. 
 
 If in a short time he should come, or shall come. 
 
 " For these mid hours, till evening rise, 
 " I have at will." Paradise Lost, b. v 
 
 Rise, not rises ; for Raphael is speaking of a future 
 event. 
 
 " Unanswered lest thou boast" Paradise Lost. 
 
 That is, lest not having received an answer thou shouldst 
 hereafter be led to boast. 
 
 " No fear lest dinner cool." Paradise Lost. 
 
 That is, lest it shall or should cool. 
 " Thou shalt stone him with stones, that he die." — Deict. xiii. 10. 
 
 The end or purpose of stoning him is, that he may die, 
 that he shall be stoned to death. They stoned him 
 with stones, till he was dead : they had stoned him 
 with stones, till he was dead : they have stoned him 
 with stones, till he is dead. In all these cases the 
 end or purpose is accomplished. But in the phrase 
 " thou shalt stone him with stones, till, or that, he die," 
 the end or purpose is yet to be accomplished. 
 
 " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." — Job, xiii. 15. 
 
 Though he should proceed beyond all his present in- 
 flictions, and even slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
 (Future.) 
 
 O
 
 ■_'!•( i THE PB< 'I'l 1: i BE OF 
 
   Though he were dead, yet ahal] he live,* 1 
 
 Le. on the supposition thai he Bhould die, yet would 
 he live : very different from though li> teas dead, 
 
 •■ The soul which hath touched any rach shall be unclean until 
 ■.. and shall not eat of the holy things, unless he wash hi- Qeah 
 with water." — Lev. x.\ii. <>. 
 
 That i-. until lie shall have washed hi- flesh, having 
 reference t.» an act, not pasl or present, l»ut a- \ct to 
 be performed. 
 
 •• That I may testify onto them, lesl they also corns into this 
 place of torment.* 1 — Luke, .wi. 28. 
 
 The end of testifying is that they may note orac into 
 till- place of tornunt, lest they Bhould COtne into thi- 
 place of torment — m veniant 
 
 •■ It' thy brother tretp dnsl thee rebuke him, and if he 
 
 repent forgive him." — Luke, xvii. :!. 
 
 Thai is, if thy brother -hall <>r Bhould trespass against 
 thee, rebuke him ; and if, after thi^, he shall or should 
 repent, forgive bim. 
 
 •■ [fever he have child, abortive be it." 
 
 . Sn uupi \ki , Richard III. 
 
 Nol has child. 
 
 ■• And take I '1 to yourselves, lesl at anj time your hearts bt 
 
 i with surfeiting." — Luke, sxi. 84. 
 
 The purpoe • objeel of taking heed is, " 1< b1 your 
 
 hearts should, at any future time, be overcharged with 
 -uH'eit In such a case, with n future purpose is 
 
 view, to -a_\ take heed Lest your hearts an overcharged, 
 v. i.ulil be oonsen
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 291 
 
 " If thou seek him, he will be found of thee ; but if thou forsake 
 him, he will cast thee off for ever." — 1 Chron. xxviii. 9. 
 
 That is, he will be found of thee, if at any time thou 
 shall think fit to seek him ; if thou seek, not seekest ; 
 and yet, though the subjunctive mood is here used with 
 propriety by the translators of the Bible ; yet, in other 
 cases of precisely similar import, we find the indicative ; 
 the translators, in such cases, deviating from the original, 
 and using the indicative or subjunctive mood indiscri- 
 minately, and apparently without the slightest consi- 
 deration. 
 
 " Then shalt thou prosper, if thou takest heed to fulfil the statutes 
 and the judgments which the Lord charged Moses with concerning 
 Israel." 
 
 If thou take heed, then thou shalt prosper; if thou seek 
 him, he will be found of thee ; upon what principle 
 shall we write takest in the one sentence, and seek in 
 the other? 
 
 " Beware, 
 And govern well thy appetite, lest sin 
 Surprise thee." Paradise Lost, book vii. 
 
 Lest it should. 
 
 " And they shall pursue thee until thou perish." — Deut. xxviii. 
 22. 
 
 Not perishest. Until the end be accomplished, namely 
 that thou perish. 
 
 " What man of you, having a thousand sheep, if he lose one of 
 them," &c. — Luke, xv. 4. 
 
 That is, if lie shall have lost one — si unam perdiderit. 
 
 o 2
 
 292 TIIE PROrEIl USE OF 
 
 " Which of you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down 
 lir-t. and counteth the COSt, whether he hare sufficient to finish 
 it ?" — Luke, xiv. 28. 
 
 An hahcut. 
 
 " I pre thee charge in the sight of God, tlmt fhou keep this com- 
 mandment without spot." — 1 Tim. vi. 15. 
 
 Expressn e of an end <>i - purpose, a hereas tlmt signifying 
 i cause, and referring to present or past time, would 
 require the indicative mood. As, I am sorry to hoar 
 that he M ill. I was sorry to hear that he was ill. 
 
 " S<> chilli the Lord bring upon yon all evil things, until he hare 
 destroyed yon." (i, <■■ until he shall have destroyed you.) — 
 Joshua, xxiii. 15. 
 
 Expressive of an object to accomplish. And Joshua 
 smote him and hia people, until he had left him none 
 remaining. Expressive of an object accomplished* 
 
 chap. yiii. 
 
 EXAMPLES oi Till PBOPSB 0S1 "i THE OTOK \ii\l. HOOD, 
 
 [f ; ,ii\ of in\ readen has looked with so little attention upon 
 the world around him.' 1 — Adventurer t No. 69. 
 
 Has certainly. The question propounded is, whether or 
 
 n ,,t any of the author's n :id< i- bat looked with BO litll< 
 
 attention upon the \\<>iM around him. The fad ia 
 
 Certain one way <>,■ the Other. There is no end or jiur- 
   in view.
 
 THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 293 
 
 " Though every funeral that passes before their eyes evinces the 
 deceitfulness of such expectations." 
 
 Evinces certainly ; that is, evinces the deceitfulness of 
 such expectations the moment that it is passing. 
 
 " If Mr. Frolic is celebrated by other tongues than his own, I 
 shall willingly propagate his praise ; but if he has swelled among 
 us with empty boasts and honours conferred only by himself, I 
 shall treat him with rustic sincerity, and drive him, as an impostor, 
 from this part of the kingdom to some region of more credulity." 
 — Rambler, No. 6. 
 
 If he is celebrated at this time, and if he has (already) 
 swelled, &c. The indicative mood is right in both 
 cases. 
 
 " He that gazes upon elegance or pleasure, which want of money 
 hinders him from imitating or partaking, comforts himself that the 
 time of distress will soon be at an end, and that every day brings 
 him nearer to a state of happiness, though he knows it has passed, 
 not only without acquisition of advantage, but perhaps without 
 endeavours after it." — Adventurer, No. 69. 
 
 He gazes at such and such things, comforts himself 
 with such and such notions, at the same time knowing, 
 though he knows that, &c. The indicative mood is 
 required. 
 
 " If thou canst do any thing, have compassion on us, and help us." 
 — Mark, Lx. 22. 
 
 That is, if thou canst at this moment. Hast thou the 
 the power to do this thing? if thou hast the power, 
 have mercy on us, and save us. 
 
 " Thyself, though great and glorious, dost thou boast ? " 
 
 Paradise Lost, book vi. 
 o 3
 
 294 PBOFXB USE OF IHDN ATIVE. 
 
   Qui m ri fata rirom servant, n vescitur warn 
 iEthereft." .T'miii. \. r,50. 
 
 Virgil here usee the present indicative, because the 
 condition has reference to the present time ; for if the 
 
 man is not alive now. he cannot be alive hereafter. 
 With the speaker, therefore, it was a present condition, 
 there being no contingency of fact In the enuneiation 
 
 of general principles, which, if existing at all, must 
 always exist, though the expression ma) be conditional, 
 tli.- indicative mood Lb used with propriety | as, I- 
 there a ( io.l ? Jfes. If then there is a God, that God, 
 Honesty is the best policy. If honesty u the best 
 policy, then &c. Man is mortal If man is mortal, 
 then, &c These principles, if true at all, are true at 
 all times: and the question is, not whether or not the} 
 
 may ultimately he found to he true, hut whether 01 
 
 not they an- bo at tin- moment, have been 30, and ev< i 
 
 will he 30. 
 
 '• Will keep your own heart, ifailenoe u betl : 
 Thongb a woman, for once I'll in ignorance reek" 
 
 N . > \ 1 1 W in- 1 1 k | Quotation). 
 
 thU principle Mr. Webster observes, ami justly, 
 that the indicative mood i- employed to express condi- 
 tional ideas more frequently than the subjunctive, even 
 th< best English writer-, (p, | And again, 
 
 •• \\ Inn affirmation respects present time, the indicative 
 form i- the most correct, and the only form which 
 respondi with the actual present state of the Ian- 
 P. 15.)
 
 CONFUSION OF MOODS. 295 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 IMPROPER AND CONFUSED USE OF THE INDICATIVE AND 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOODS. 
 
 " If a man was to compare the effect of a single stroke of a 
 pickaxe, or of one impression of a spade, with the general design 
 and last result, he would be overwhelmed with a sense of their 
 disproportion." — Rambler, No. 43. 
 
 Were, not teas. If any man should compare, &c. If a 
 man were to compare ; otherwise we shall have a verb of 
 the indicative mood past imperfect tense, with condi- 
 tional and future signification. Let any one try to 
 translate the phrase as it stands into another language, 
 and the error will stand out glaring and palpable. 
 
 " But if it be true which was said by a French prince, that no 
 man was a hero to the servants of his chamber, it is equally true 
 that every man is less a hero to himself." — Johnson, 
 
 If it is true ; that is, if, as a general maxim, it is true, 
 that no man is a hero to the servants of his chamber ; not 
 was a hero. The French prince lays down a principle, 
 namely, that no man is a hero to the servants of his own 
 chamber. Was refers to a past time, and cannot convey 
 a general principle. Be and teas are both wrong. 
 
 "Two young men have made a discovery, that there was a God." 
 — Swift, Argument against Abolition of ( TtristianUjf. 
 
 We naturally ask, at what time was there a God ? does 
 
 o 4
 
 29G CONFUSION OF INDICATIVE 
 
 a God continue to exist now, and will he exist here- 
 after? The phrase unquestionably ought to be is a 
 God, the simple enunciation of an eternal principle. 
 They have made a discovery, that there is a God. That 
 there was a Gh>d I When? Last year? 
 
 " If the teg doe* DOi I ome off, take the turkey to yourself." 
 " Madam," replied the man in black, "1 don't care a farthing 
 whether the leg or the wing comet oil'." — Goldsmith. 
 
 Do and come; for the parties are disputing upon the 
 result of the lady's carving, and not upon the actual 
 Mate of the turkey. 
 
 " [f nobody within cither moves or speak*, it is not unlikely that 
 thej may carry the place by storm; hut if a panic should teiae 
 them, it will be proper to defer the enterprise to a more ban 
 hour."— Idler, No 8. 
 
 If no person within either move or speak ; not moves or 
 dks; for the author u speaking not of any thing 
 
 present, but of what may happen, namely, that someone 
 within may cither move Or speak and cause a panic. 
 Should no one either move OX tpeak, then perhaps they 
 may carry the place l»y storm; hut should anyone more 
 
 or speak, and on this account a panic should seize them. 
 
 then it will be proper to deter the attack to a more 
 hungry hour. The author himself Bays, in the second 
 
 member of the sentence, but if a panic should at 
 
 them, not m izes them. 
 
   if the hair hat loaf its powder,   lady has i puff; if .1 coat be 
 .1. 1 lady has 1 brush."— Idler, N 
 
 Sere we have hat in one member of the sentence, 
 
 and /»• in the other ; tic one indicative, the other tub-
 
 AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOODS. 297 
 
 junctive ; the author being again inconsistent with 
 himself. It is easy to give a future form to the sen- 
 tence : " If the hair shall at any time have lost its 
 powder, a lady has a puff; if a coat shall at any time 
 be spotted, a lady has a brush." 
 
 " If similitude of manners be a motive to kindness, the Idler 
 may flatter himself with universal patronage." — Idler, No. 1. 
 
 Is a motive to kindness. The author is speaking of a 
 principle, which, if true now, was equally so a thousand 
 years ago, and will be so a thousand years hence, and 
 which simply either is or is not, and these general pro- 
 positions, as it has already been shown in a former 
 chapter, are properly expressed in the indicative present. 
 
 " If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better than a 
 tyranny ; if there are only two, there will want a casting vote." — 
 Spectator, No. 287. 
 
 Inconsistent. 
 
 " And when the tempter came to him, he said, If thou be the 
 son of God, command that these stones be made bread." — Matt. 
 iv. 3. 
 
 In the Latin and Greek of these passages we find ft 
 and es, both indicative, and properly so. 
 
 H If thou be the Son of God, come down from the cross." — 
 Matt, xxvii. 40. 
 
 Again, be in the Latin and Greek is in the indicative 
 mood, and ought to be so here. 
 
 " Now if Christ be preached, that he rose from the dead, how 
 say some among you that there is no resurrection of the dead ? 
 But if there be no resurrection of the dead, then is Christ not 
 
 o 5
 
 298 CONFUSION OF INDK 3ATI1 1 
 
 i. And it' Christ be not risen, then is OUT preaching vain, ami 
 your faith is also vain." — 1 Cor. w. 12. 
 
 In all these cases the translators have unnecessarily 
 deviated from the original, and substituted the rob- 
 junctive for the indicative mood. The question was, 
 not whether Christ should or should not be preached 
 that he cose from the dead, but whether or not, at the 
 time St Paul speaks, he u or u not preached that he 
 rose from the dead. 
 
 For he must reign, till be hath put all enemies under his feet." 
 
 — 1 Cor. xv. 25. 
 
 Till he shall have put all enemies under his feet, — tub- 
 rit. Till he have. Till carries us forward to a 
 future time: hutli fixes us down to the present. 
 
 •• It'ilmu bring thy lti ft to the altar, and there rcimmlh 
 
 — Matt. v. 53. 
 
 Here is a Bubjunctive and an indicative mood in on< 
 
 and the -nun- -nilrinv. and under precisely the -aim- 
 
 condition-. If thou bring required to be followed by 
 
 if tli i hi n m> ml" r. 
 
 1 aid unto them, If the j hear not Motes and the pro- 
 pheta, neither will they lie persuaded though one row from t li » - 
 dead.* 1 - l.ulr, wi. 81. 
 
 Though one rtSi from the dead. Though one rosi 
 means though one did ri-c at SOmS former period. 
 
 Though one rite, thai is, though one should rise is the 
 moaning required, and also conveyed by the original. 
 
 '• Nay, rather Abraham, but it' one went unto them from the 
 dead, they will repent."- /.»</.., wi. 2n 
 
 That is, ii one went tti a future time, which i- in- 
 tense i en
 
 AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOODS. 299 
 
 In these cases, with a clear and obvious principle 
 before them, and with the guidance of the Latin and 
 the Greek, as also in many other similar cases, we ask 
 what could induce the translators of the Bible to be so 
 frequently inconsistent with themselves ? The answer is, 
 that the English language had not then, nor has it 
 yet, received that attention which is required. 
 
 " No one can thoroughly understand the Scriptures of the New 
 Testament, unless he be well acquainted with those of the Old. No 
 one can entirely comprehend the more perfect system of Christ, 
 unless he sees it prefigured in the more imperfect system of Moses." 
 — Rennell, Sermon 24. 
 
 Here we have unless he be, subjunctive, followed by 
 unless he sees, indicative. No one can thoroughly un- 
 derstand the Scriptures of the New Testament, unless, 
 at the time he is endeavouring to understand them, he 
 is well acquainted with those of the Old. No one can 
 comprehend the more perfect system of Christ, unless 
 he sees it at the time prefigured in the more imperfect 
 system of Moses. In other respects the sentence is 
 bad ; we have more perfect contrasted with more im- 
 perfect ; and though, perhaps, degrees of perfection may 
 be allowed, yet there is an incongruity between an 
 ascending and a descending comparative. "We expect 
 more perfect and less perfect, not more perfect and more 
 imperfect. 
 
 " So that, while to law we would commit the defence of society 
 from all the aggressions of violence, and confide the strict and the 
 stern guardianship of the interests of justice, we should tremble 
 for humanity, le.st it withered and expired under the grasp of so 
 rough a protector ; and lest before a countenance grave as that of 
 a judge, and grim as that of a messenger-at-arms, this frail but 
 
 o 6
 
 300 COM I -ION OF MOODS. 
 
 loveliest of the virtues, should be turned, as If l>y the head of 
 Medusa, into stone." — Chalmers, Bridgemater Treatise. 
 
 Lest it should wither; and the author, in the next mem- 
 ber of the sentence. Bays, leal this frail but loveliest of 
 the virtues should be turned, being obviously inconsistent 
 
 with him-elf. 
 
 " So lie took the opportunity of declaring certain truths, which 
 she might ponder in her heart till she was able to comprehend 
 them more fully." — Sermon, "Christ thr Besurrectkm and the Ltfi 
 
 Should he able. I might with propriety Bay, she pon- 
 dered in her heart certain truths till she was able, &c. 
 
 because here would be an object accomplished, but in 
 the case before us the object is future: "So he took 
 the opportunity of declaring certain truths, which she 
 might ponder in her heart,'* till she should be able to 
 
 comprehend them nunc fully. 
 
   Whether our conduct be inspe :ted, ami we <irc under a 
 
 right i- government, or under no government at all." — Priestiey, 
 
 Letter to a Philosophical Unbeliever: quoted bj Webster. 
 
 Inconsistent. 
 
 ■• Though thou h,- Long in the 6rsl part of the verse." — Sheridan, 
 i 7' Reading. 
 
 •■ And though it is impossible to prolong the sound of this 
 word." — Ibid. 
 
 Sheridan ifl here evidently inoonaiatenl with himself. 
 
 •■ lfanv member abstnti himself, he shell forfeit s penny for the 
 use of the club, unless in cue of sickness and imprisonmeni. << — 
 ,s'y,< ctator. 
 
 Ifanv member absent himself, thai i-, .-hall absent him-
 
 ERRORS IN USE OF VERB. 301 
 
 self, for the sentence has reference to a future and sup- 
 posed violation of certain rules. 
 
 " Saxony was left defenceless, and if it was conquered, might be 
 plundered," &c. — Johnson, Life of the King of Prussia. 
 
 Were conquered. The power of plundering Saxony- 
 depended upon the condition of its being conquered, 
 which at the time it was not. The subjoined condition 
 of plundering Saxony was its previous conquest. The 
 sentence ought to be, " Saxony was left defenceless, 
 and if it were conquered (should it be conquered) might 
 be plundered." 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN THE USE OF TIIE VERB. 
 
 " O God of my fathers, and Lord of mercy, who hast made all 
 things with thy word, and ordained man through thy wisdom, that 
 he should have dominion over the creatures which thou hast 
 made." — Wisdom of Solomon, ix. 1. 
 
 If ordained is here used simply without the repetition 
 of the auxiliary hast, it ought to be ordainedst, that is, 
 didst ordain, &c. 
 
 " Perhaps, lone wretch, unfriended and alone, 
 In hovel vile thou gavst thy final moan, 
 Clot'd the blear' d eye ordain'd no more to weep, 
 And sunk — unheeded sunk — in death's long sleep." 
 
 Quotation in the History of Suffolk. 
 
 Gav'st is right in the second person, and clos\l wrong
 
 302 1'UoMIsi L'oi'9 BRB0B8 IN 
 
 in the third. Sunk in each place ought to be sank'st. 
 Sunk is doubly wrong: the participle is used in the 
 place of the verbs and the third person engrafted mi it. 
 in the place of the Becond, 
 
 These four lines comprehend three errors ; four t in- 
 cluding tlir repetition of sunk. 
 
 The following errors of a similar kind have also been 
 
 noticed in Pope: — 
 
 "Thoa great First Cause, least understood, 
 \\ bo all my Bense con/m'd; 
 To know but thi~, thai thou art good, 
 And thai myself am blind ; 
 
 Yd gave me in tlii- dark estate 
 
 To Bee the g 1 from ill ; 
 
 And binding oature fast In fate, 
 
 Left free the human will." 
 
 The relative tcho, being of the same person as the 
 
 antecedent thou, of course requires this sequence of 
 
 verbs, confinedf gave, and I, it. t<> be of the second 
 
 person. 
 
 Again : 
 
 •' < ) limn, mv voice i 1 1 ~ j   i »-« -, 
 Who touch' d Isaiah's ballowM lips with fire." Messiah, 
 
 "If there arise a prophet ai L r you, or a dreamer of dreams, 
 
 and giveih thi a or   wonder." — DevL sdiL l. 
 
 Giveth is here altogether inconsistent with the pre- 
 ceding member of the sentence, and the pronoun he 
 ought to be placed before the latter verb. As, if there 
 arise among you   prophel <<r a dreamer of dreams, 
 and (if) he give (that, is should he give) _\<>u :i sign or 
 
 :i w l< r, &o. Nothing can justify the sentence as it 
 
 Btands.
 
 THE USE OF THE VERB. 303 
 
 " Have we, during the last year, clone the proportion of work 
 towards working out our own salvation, which, suppose we were 
 certain of the term of our life, ivould be the proper quantity in 
 that time." — Sermon, Eminent Divine. 
 
 No one can read this sentence without being shocked 
 by its hideous cacophony, independent of any other 
 consideration. Such sounds and such a construction 
 would have carried death into an Athenian mob. 
 Work, wards, working, in an unmixed and unre- 
 deemed sequence, soon to be followed by which, ice, 
 were, would, might be very suitably set to that peculiar 
 kind of village music, which occasionally serenades 
 some " lord of the creation " who may have been 
 detected in asserting his prerogative by force of arms 
 over his weaker half. The terms are — 
 
 " Like hedgehogs, which 
 Lie tumbling in my barefoot way, and mount 
 Their pricks up at my footfall." Shakspeare. 
 
 A sentence may be constructed with harsh and 
 rugged terms by design, when the object of the 
 writer is to make the sound accord with the sense. 
 Thus when Pope describes Sisyphus struggling to roll 
 the huge stone to the top of the hill, the terms are 
 so appropriately chosen, that we seem to hear his 
 giant sobbings, and pantings and groanings, in the 
 performance of his laborious task. 
 
 "Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone." 
 
 Five aspirates or breathers, four of them in immediate 
 seepjence, followed by a heavy spondee at the end of 
 the line, give all that can be desired fur fidelity of
 
 304 PROHT84 DOTJS BRBOBfl IN 
 
 description. Deformity becomes a beauty, because 
 intensely characteristic. 
 
 Virgil makes thunder speak in tones which cannot 
 be misunderstood : — 
 
 '• It' rum atque iterum fragor intonal ingens. M 
 
 The change indeed of a single word, the abstraction 
 or addition of a single syllable, will sometimes mar the 
 harmony of a well balanced sentence. 
 
 "From every Bbi]> an i^laml \va> seen, about two leagues tu the 
 nortli, whose flat and n-nlmil fields, well stored with wood ami 
 watered with many rivulets, presented the aspect of a delightful 
 country." — Robertson. 
 
 As Lord Brougham has well observed, change ver- 
 dant into green, and the harmony of the passage is 
 destroyed. 
 
 In th<- passage, however, from an " Eminent Divine," 
 the nature of the subjeel affords n<> palliation for its 
 rugged and uncouth construction. Bui what i- meant 
 by in that timet The term of life immediately pre- 
 ceding dwells upon the mind, and connects itself with 
 the phrase in thai time. Bui probably in that timr 
 refers to the last year, a reference which is by no 
 means clear. Then again thai which was a propor ti on 
 
 becomes a nitantity : and again Wen OUghl to have been 
 
 /mil In i ii ; and would I" , would have been, 
 
 11 The right of man to the f existence, on the sole ground 
 
 t),;it he hi been vehemently and loudly asserted; yet is 
 
 a factitious sentiment, notwithstanding.* 1 — Chalmers^ Bridgewattr 
 Treaiue. 
 
 \ i | it it; not, n< i it,
 
 THE USE OF THE VERB. 305 
 
 " The worship and service of the glorified spirits in heaven is 
 not represented to us as a cold intellectual investigation, but as 
 the worship and service of gratitude and love." — Wilberforce s 
 Practical View. 
 
 " Worship and service " are, not is, not. * 
 
 " From the same position he may turn his eye to the left of 
 Goat Island, on the American side, and witness a still more lofty 
 cataract, but more modest ; not yet presuming to assert such pro- 
 found pretensions, descending in a silvery sheet, as if from an 
 artificial shelf, connecting the island with the shore, and dashing 
 on the rocks below, displays a vast bed of fleecy whiteness, like a 
 storm of the thickest and purest snow, reflected by the sun." — 
 Colton. 
 
 The noun cataract is in the objective case, and all 
 the participles and adjectives connected with it. We 
 cannot, therefore, have the verb displays standing here 
 without any nominative case. The author evidently 
 gets confused, and sinks under the magnitude of his 
 subject. " And dashing on the rocks below, it (the 
 cataract) displays a vast bed of fleecy whiteness." 
 
 " Diodorus, whose design was to refer all occurrences to years, 
 is of more credit, on a point of chronology, than Plutarch, or any 
 other that write lives by the lump." — Bentley, Dissertation on 
 Themistocles' Epistles. Lowth. 
 
 Any other that writes, or any others that ivrite. 
 
 " Let us consider how many things we formerly knew, but now 
 have either wholly forgotten, or but very imperfectly remembered 
 for want of use." — Iiennell, Sermon 25. 
 
 It may be said with propriety, that we have now, 
 
 * Had the author a principle in view here ; or is this an accidental 
 error overlooked ? See the question discussed under Noun.
 
 30G PROMI84 CJOXJ8 EBEOKfl IN 
 
 at this present time either wholly forgotten a thing, or 
 
 but imperfectly n //" m& r it, but not remembered, lor we 
 
 are here speaking of the degree of present recollection, 
 
 not of past, 
 
 •• In endless error hvrTd 
 these thai early taint the female bouL" Popb. 
 
 Hurfd in i nor doc- nut seem ;i very appropriate 
 
 expression, whil.-t * Tit these (though perhaps the expp 
 ~ I . » 1 1 may be supported by other authorities) is, after 
 all, a grammatical discord. 
 
 "A ringle glance at his own engraving ofthia beautiful head, .it 
 the symmetrica] and elegant formation of the whole fabric, tin' Dice 
 correspondence ami adjustment "t' all ( it ■> ) parts, the perfeci har- 
 mony between the cranium ami (the) face, and in all the detail 
 carl,, demonstrate mosl uneqtii\ ••••ally, that it is a natural formation, 
 and a very fine work of nature too. 11 — Lawrence's Lett* 
 
 Tin- author is lure confounded by a multiplicity of 
 images, and seems t" forge! that a single glance at all 
 tin-.' demonstrates) and oof demonstrate; besides, the 
 beauty or symmetry of an object is nut demonstrated 
 by a glance : the demonstration is inherenl in the object 
 itself. Tin' truth of a mathematical proposition appeals 
 to thf reason of man, bu1 it is not demonstrated bj that 
 -in. It i- true, or false, in itself. The sight i- the 
 instrumenl by which we perceive beauty in an object, 
 but it does ii"t demonstrate it. Again, we expect all its 
 parts, and ad all parts, which is general instead of being 
 particular, and in the phrase "the perfeci harmony 
 between tin- cranium and tare,'* we expecl the bee, and 
 n<>t ta«-c only, because thej arc distinct and separate 
 object 9.
 
 THE USE OF THE VERB. 307 
 
 " Wherefore kick ye at my sacrifice, and at mine offering, which 
 I have commanded in my habitation, and honourest thy sons above 
 me, to make yourselves fat with the chiefest of all the offerings of 
 Israel, my people." — 1 Samuel, ii. 29. 
 
 There is in this sentence a strange confusion of persons, 
 and an extraordinary abruptness of transition. 
 
 " Its tufted flowers and leafy bands 
 In one continuous curve expands, 
 When herb or ilowret rarely smile." 
 
 Glastonbury Abbey, A Poem. 
 
 Here are two errors in three lines. 
 
 " Tufted flowers and leafy bands 
 In one continuous curve expand" — not expands. 
 
 Then herb or flowret being disjoined, the verb smile 
 must be smiles. 
 
 " The unwieldly elephant, 
 To make them mirth, used all his might, and wreathed 
 His lithe proboscis." Paradise Lost, book iv. 
 
 Writhed would surely be more appropriate than wreathed. 
 
 " And the King said, If he be alone, there is tidings in his mouth." 
 — 2 Sam. xviii. 25. 
 
 Perhaps is may in this case be admissible, the words 
 tidings being used in the plural form only, and may be 
 considered as collective information. We say, what is 
 the news ? Is there any news ? 
 
 " There is nothing on the part of God to refuse this victory to 
 you, nothing in yourselves to make you incapable of enjoying the 
 blessing." — Sermon. 
 
 The dependence which the infinitive mood to refuse
 
 .*><>* PBOMI81 i -I - BBBOB8 IN 
 
 lias upon the preceding part of the sentence, is much too 
 slight; the Bame may l>c Bald of to make. The meaning 
 seem- t" be, their i- DOthing <>n the part of God which 
 would induce him to refuse this victory to you. There 
 i- no reason, on the part of God. why* he should re- 
 fuse, &c 
 
 • And I. .a!i also with her children came near, and bowed thrm- 
 •eJoet ; and after came Joeeph near and Rachel, and they bowed 
 themselves.' 1 — Gten. sxxiii. 7. 
 
 The word children being in the objective case, cannot 
 form a second nominative case, in conjunction with 
 Le;ih, and therefore grammatically the verb bowed 
 baa bul one nominative case, and that in the singular 
 number. The pronoun they ought, therefore, to have 
 been introduced before bowed, "And Leah also with 
 her children fame mar, and they bowed themselves ; and 
 after came Joseph and Rachel near, and they howed 
 themselves. M 
 
 "And Peter, fastening his eyea upon him with John, mnd\ 
 Look on ns." — . Lett, iii. 4. 
 
 The verb taia\ in English, mighl be either singular 
 or plural, and therefore Leaves an important principle 
 untouched, namely, whether a nominative case of the 
 singular Dumber, followed by another noun in the 
 objective case, connected with it by the preposition 
 with, and doI by the copulative conjunction and, may be 
 followed by a verb of the plural number; that is, whether 
 the virtual r»^aning of   sentence shall supersede its 
 tyntactical principle. A variety of examples may he
 
 THE USE OF THE VERB. 309 
 
 produced, on both side of the question ; so that, as far aa 
 authority goes, the matter cannot be decided. 
 
 In the case before us the Greek has elirs, and the 
 Latin, dixit, both in favour of syntactical rule. 
 
 " But a certain man named Ananias, with Sapphira his wife, 
 sold a possession."— Acts, v. 1. 
 
 Again, in English sold may be either singular or plural ; 
 but both in the Latin and Greek the equivalent of sold 
 is of the singular number, again in favour of the rules 
 of syntax. 
 
 " Then went the captain with the officers, and brought them with- 
 out violence." — Acts, v. 26. 
 
 Brought is again doubtful as to number ; but in the 
 Latin and Greek the verb again is singular. 
 
 Xenophon says, 'E/a&oXcov avv rots e^aKoaiots viica. 
 
 All these examples are in favour of syntax. 
 
 We now come to examples favouring the other side 
 of the question. 
 
 " Cleander, with six hundred soldiers whom he had employed, 
 were publicly executed." — Goldsmith's History of Greece, c. 14. 
 
 Here we get at the grammatical intention of the 
 author in the verb were. If the sentence had run, 
 Cleander and six hundred soldiers whom he employed 
 were publicly executed, the expression would have 
 been clear and grammatical, and the verb were would 
 have been right. Grammatically, were is wrong. The 
 question is, can it be admitted on the ground of the 
 virtual meaning of the sentence? The authority of
 
 310 PBOMI84 UOTJfl I RBOR8 IN 
 
 Goldsmith in grammar amounts to nothing, and ought 
 not t«> enter int<» the question 
 
 On the other band, however, there are classical 
 authorities in favour of this mode of expression ; a<. — 
 
 "Duni equites proeliantur, Brutus ram peditibuB, quoe lilius 
 ejus adduxerat, Deque in priore pugnfl adfuerant, postremam 
 Romanorum aciem invadunt" — SaUutt. 
 
 S in- cum illo vc-lni SUSUfTCOlL " 
 
 Ti i;i m II, nut. :\. 1. (!4. 
 
 •• Ilia com Kfiao de Numitore tati." Ovn>. 
 
 •■ Etemo cum fratre Quirinua 
 Jmtk dabttnt." Yuen. ./.'//. i. 296. 
 
 "On the morrow when Agrippa was come, and Bernice, with 
 great j •< -iii] >." - Acta, \\\ . ■_'">. 
 
 That i-. when Agrippa was come, and Bernice was 
 
 come. So far right; but when it is added, "and was 
 
 entered into the place of bearing," &c, tin- sentence is 
 
 faulty. In the former member of the Bentence the 
 
 terms are spoken of separately, and have separate 
 
 verbs, in the one case expressed, in the other understood. 
 
 In tin- second membei of the sentence they are Bpoken 
 
 of in common, and have one verb in common, and 
 
 therefore we exped and they were, nol was. The 
 
 English translation in this point deviates both from 
 
 the Latin and the < rreeh : — 
 
 r o i'.'itur <li<- linn \.iii • \ | rippa, el Bernice, ram 
 iiiult.'i ostentati , et intruistent." 
 
 The Greek maintains the same principle, though trader 
 a different form \ — 
 
 -rrr, ka, t^/i II«|>iim;., ^»t& iroAAtJc 
 
 . i .
 
 THE USE OF THE VERB. 311 
 
 Christ beheld by Faith. The title of a published 
 sermon. This is an unfortunate title ; for the gram- 
 matical and legitimate meaning of beheld is saw, not 
 seen. Christ beheld, or saw, something by faith. 
 But the meaning intended is, Christ seen, or beholden, 
 by faith. Beheld is the imperfect past tense of the 
 verb, grammatically and legitimately. Beheld is some- 
 times used as a participle ; but when so used is wrong 
 nevertheless, and most certainly ought not to be used 
 when by such use ambiguity is occasioned, and the 
 balance of propriety decidedly against it. " Christ 
 seen by Faith " would have answered every purpose, 
 and " Christ beholden by Faith," would have been in 
 accordance with Scriptural phraseology, at the same 
 time that an ambiguous use of the term beheld would 
 have been avoided. 
 
 Contraction of the Verb and Participle. 
 
 In the Scriptures, words ending in ed, whether verbs 
 or participles, seem to have been, as a general rule, 
 pronounced distinctly, so that the termination ed formed 
 a separate syllable. We still find this pronunciation 
 among our peasantry ; and the parish clerks of country 
 churches, perhaps without an exception, continue to 
 give full force to the final syllable of verbs and par- 
 ticiples ending in ed. It is amongst these that we 
 must trace the tenacity of custom, and judge of 
 that which has been from that which is. In the 
 Psalms, in particular, and in the rhythmical parts of 
 Scripture, the retention of ed, as a distinct syllable, is
 
 312 PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN 
 
 often imperatively demanded. We find, however, that, 
 in the present age, even in the reading of Scripture 
 and the liturgy, no regular principle is observed, and 
 every minister seems to follow the bent of his own 
 inclination ; so that one man reads the following 
 testing passage with the abbreviation of ed into <l, 
 whilst another reads it with the distinct enunciation of 
 the final -\ liable : — 
 
 ■• Brethren, I declare unto you the Gospel which I preach-ed 
 unto you, which also ye have receiv-ed, and wherein ye stand ; l>v 
 which ;il-" ye are sav-ed, if ye keep in memory what I preach-ed 
 unto yon, onlesa ye have believ-ed in vain. For I deliver-ed unto 
 you tii'-t of all that which I also roix-iv-ed." — 1 ('or. \v. 1. 
 
 It seems, however, hut right, that Scripture should 
 be read in the Bame way in which it was read at the 
 time when the translation was made. Every sentence 
 
 is, or ought to be, constructed with due regard to 
 
 harmonious proportion, and the curtailment of a verb, 
 or i participle, of its final syllable will often as effec- 
 tually mar this object, as it would do were we to con- 
 tract the dissyllables of Chaucer and Spencer into 
 monosyllables. If we preserve the Btyle of Scripture 
 and it- antique phraseology, why should we adapt to 
 it the tripping enunciation of modern times? 
 
 \\ ben we leave the field of Scripture, modern us 
 has sanctioned the fusion of the final syllable of certain 
 verbs and participles with the preceding consonant, 
 more particularly when ed is preceded by a liquid or 
 with s or '•. for the Bound of these two letters is con- 
 tinuous, and glides with facility into the following ed. 
 The contraction of ed is, of course, formed bj the elision
 
 THE USE OF THE VERB. 313 
 
 of e, leaving d and not t remaining. Custom has sane- 
 tioned the contraction of a few words from ed into t, as 
 feel felt, smell smelt ; and in some of these words there 
 is no violation of euphony ; but it must be borne in 
 mind, that this usage is by no means applicable to our 
 verbs and participles generally ; for to admit t in the 
 place of d is not a contraction simply, but a substitution. 
 It violates the grammatical analysis of the term, and 
 where it has not euphony to recommend it, becomes 
 a barbarous deformity. The sound of t compared 
 with that of d, is harsh, wiry, and curt, and when pre- 
 ceded by a mute, grates like a crushed pebble in the ma- 
 chinery of articulation. In verbs or participles in which 
 d coalesces with ease, t \i often altogether abhorrent ; 
 we can say spurnd, and kilVd, and climb'd, and proved, 
 and rcmovd, and grazed ; but we instinctively shrink 
 from spurnt, and hilt, and climbt, and provt, and rcmovt, 
 and grazt. He must be a bold man or else a vain man, 
 who, on his own authority, presumes to introduce such 
 mutilated cripples as these upon his pages. Yet in 
 six pages forming the preface to "Guesses at Truth," 
 third edition, we find the following terms, — distinguiskt, 
 furnisht 3 reacht, increast, lookt, affixt, nouriskt, developt, 
 Jixt, followed by specimens of a similar kind in the body 
 of the work. Words like these are sufficient to justify 
 the description of Byron already rpiotcd, where he 
 Btigmatizes the English language as 
 
 o DO© 
 
 "Our harsh, northern, whistling, grunting guttural, 
 Which we're obliged to hiss, and spit, and sputter all." 
 
 In justice to the English language it must, however. 
 
 P
 
 31 1 ERRORS IN i SE OF \ I. KB. 
 
 observed, that these words arc no! English, and 
 thai it would be equally jus! to exhibit, a< a Pali 
 
 8] imen of the English population, some unsightly 
 
 creatun 
 
   ( lurtailed of lii> fair proportion, 
 Cheated of feature by dissembling nature, 
 Deform'd unfiniab'd," Shasbpbabb. 
 
 ; - to parade these gurglings, and hissings, and .-n;ij>- 
 pings, as average examples of the Btructure of our 
 verba and participles. ** Guesses at Truth" is an In- 
 teresting work, and a successful one, and it needed not 
 these adventitious mutilations to attract attention. 
 Few animals indeed can be improved by lopping oft 
 their natural elongations, and substituting a Bhorl 
 impertinent looking tail. 
 
 ^re we doomed to admit into the English language 
 Buch terms as quaekt, stackt, atoakt, nakt, dig^fagt, oVc? 
 Slmuld Borne reckless innovator attempl it, may we 
 have the satisfaction of writing over him, 
 
 •• He with lii> horrid crew 
 Lay \ anquished I " Miltob
 
 CHARACTER OF THE PARTICirLE. 315 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ITS CHARACTER. 
 
 Every complete verb is expressive of an attribute, of 
 time, and of an assertion. Now if we deprive the verb 
 of its vitality, that is, of assertion, there will still 
 remain the attribute, and the time or tense. The part 
 of speech which expresses an attribute and time, is 
 called a participle or participator, inasmuch as it 
 partakes of a verb in marking time, and of an adjective 
 in expressing an attribute. The English participle 
 is subject to inflexion with reference to time, and also 
 varies in its active from its passive condition: as, loving, 
 about to love, loved, about to be loved ; but it under- 
 goes no inflexion, or change in number, case, or gender. 
 Loving, as a participle, never varies. The same may be 
 said of about to love, loved, about to be loved. AVe are 
 not, however, on this account to suppose that our 
 participles have neither number, case, or gender. The 
 same form of the word serves under intellectual dis- 
 tinctions, just as amans, loving, is either masculine, 
 feminine, or neuter. At the same time ambiguity can 
 seldom happen from this cause, since the juxtaposition 
 of the participle to the noun, of which it expresses an 
 attribute, is sufficient to form an "inseparable connexion 
 
 F 2
 
 316 \ EBB IN l BE PLA( B 
 
 between the two. There i-, therefore] nol much room 
 for error in the n~t* of the participle. 
 
 The language is nol answerable for any ambiguity 
 thai may arise from the misplacing of a participle ; as 
 in the following examples : — 
 
 •• Ami all ill.- people followed him trembling." — I Sam. xiii. 7. 
 
 The term trembling referring t<> the people and ool t<> 
 him Saul) i- misplaced: " And all the people trembling 
 ti.llow dl him." 
 
 •• l'liv father and I have sought t hoo sorrowing." — Luke, ii. I s 
 
 The participle sorrowing may agree, either with the 
 terms father and /, or with the term thee. "Thy 
 hitler and I, sorrowing, have sought thee/ The 
 
 Bentei bo constructed would not, however, read 
 
 well, as under it- presenl form. 
 
 (II \1\ II. 
 
 \ I B3 iv i BE PL \' i "I I Hi PAF I i< H'l I . 
 
 In speaking of tin- participle, I feel it accessary ngain 
 to reverl to the confusion thai exists in many of out 
 authors, with respect to the use of tl I tense 
 
 the \cili in tli'' place '•; the participle. To use the 
 
 v, ordf "1' I Iani- : 
 
 I- would l'<- well ii all writers, who endeavour t" be accurate, 
 
 would endeavour i" :i\>.iil .> corruption, :n pi nt   pn vol* m. "i 
 
 ing it wot wrote, for it was written; he waa drove, for be waa 
 driven; I have went, foi Hi' ; in all which inatanci a verb
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 317 
 
 is absurdly used to supply the proper participle, without any 
 necessity from the want of such word." — Hermes, c. ix. 
 
 A great deal of mischief has arisen in this respect 
 from versifiers, who find the past tense of the verb 
 more convenient as a rhyme, than the participial ter- 
 mination, and sometimes, having neither scruples of 
 conscience nor knowledge of grammar, do not hesitate 
 to adopt a sound which suits their present purpose. 
 What a god-send is hid in the place of hidden, in the 
 following lines from " The Golden Grove." 
 
 " That vertue which in happie state 
 Is darke unknowen, and hid, 
 Appeares, and shews itself more bright 
 Adversitie amid." 
 
 Alilton, in this respect, is frequently inconsistent 
 
 with himself, using the past tense of the verb in the 
 
 place of the participle or not, just as it happened to 
 
 suit the metrical arrangement of his verse. He says 
 
 rightly, — 
 
 " The roof 
 Of thickest covert was inwoven shade, 
 
 Laurel and myrtle." Puradisr Lost, book iv. 
 
 Not so, 
 
 " And to the ground 
 With solemn adoration, down they cast 
 Their crowns, inwove with amaranth and gold." 
 
 Ibid, book iii. 
 
 "At last 
 Words interwove with Bighs found out their way." 
 
 lb nl. boob i. 
 
 " To be avenged 
 On him who had stole Jove's authentic fire, 
 Too divine to be mistook" Ibid, 
 
 P 3
 
 :;l> 
 
 \ ERB IN 1 HE OP PARTICIPLE. 
 
 ••And tin- iridowa ofAahnr were loud in their wail, 
 And tin' i < 1< • 1 -^ ire /</•"/,' in tli" temple of Baal, 
 And the might of the Gentile unsmotf by tin- sword, 
 Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord." 
 
 IJvkiin, Drstriirtiiitt of Sennacherib, 
 
 To put this corruption in its lull aspect of deformity, 
 let us take a Beriea of irregular verba, and use the pasl 
 tenae of the verb instead of the participle. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 Hear, To bring forth, 
 
 The child was 
 
 The wind had blew, 
 
 They had chose, 
 
 ( leave. To adhere, 
 
 They had clave 
 
 ( Heave, To split, 
 
 Participle. 
 
 bare, instead of borne. 
 
 blown. 
 
 chosen. 
 ol< aved. 
 
 They had 
 
 clove, 
 
 cloven. 
 
 The wood wbb 
 
 clove, 
 
 cloven, 
 
 The cock had 
 
 crew, 
 
 crowed. 
 
 The bird was 
 
 Sew, 
 
 flown. 
 
 The money wafl 
 
 kve, 
 
 given. 
 
 The people were 
 
 went. 
 
 gone. 
 
 The t pee w as 
 
 grew, 
 
 grown. 
 
 The tire w 
 
 hewed, 
 
 hewn. 
 
 The lessi >n n ac 
 
 knew, 
 
 known. 
 
 The ni. in w ae 
 
 saw, 
 
 en. 
 
 The nun were 
 
 dew, 
 
 slain. 
 
 '1 he stone w as 
 
 threw, 
 
 thrown. 
 
 Glaring and hideoue ai thi »e i samples arc, they arc 
 grammatically in the verj same condition u ;i thou- 
 sand others, which mighl be produced from every
 
 PROPER USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 319 
 
 grade of English literature. They are on a par exactly 
 with the " unsmote Gentile " of Byron, and the " idols are 
 broke " and the " too divine to be mistook" of Milton, and 
 " words interwove with sighs," &c. &c. &c. Many ex- 
 amples of this kind are given under the head of the 
 verb, and form an anomaly not to be found, one would 
 hope, in the language of any other civilised people on 
 earth. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 PROPER USE IN THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 It is gratifying to turn from these ungrammatical 
 medleys to any passage in which the participle is not 
 displaced, but gracefully woven into the texture of the 
 verse, as in the following passage : — 
 
 " But let us leave Queen Mab awhile, 
 Through many a gate, o'er many a stile, 
 That now had gotten by this wile 
 
 Her dear Pkfwisj'en kissing : 
 
 o c© © ' 
 
 And tell how Oberon did fare, 
 Who grew as mad as any bare, 
 When he had sought each place with care, 
 Ami found his Queen was missing." 
 
 Drayton's Nymphidia. 
 
 " Grease that's siveuti u 
 From the murderer's gibbet." Siiakspkakk. 
 
 "At mortal battailea had he been fifteen. 
 And foughteii for our faith at Tramissene/ 
 
 ( 'n vi ci;k's Canterbury Tales. 
 
 "On the fonghten field." Milton. 
 
 r 4
 
 320 CONI'I BIOS OB 
 
 "Tin- barrel ground was full of wicked ire 
 Which she herself had aowen all about, 
 Now growen great of little seeds.™ Bpj hsj k. 
 
 • For he hath Woke* the Kates of brass and mitten the bars in 
 sunder.* 1 
 
 r 
 
 Who oould tolerate />/•<>/< and amote, in the piace of 
 
 broken and smitt> n ' 
 
 •• lli> countenance meanwhile 
 \\ r as hidden from my view, ami he remained 
 Unrecognized! but stricken by the Bight 
 With Blacken'd footsteps I advanced." 
 
 Wordswobtb's Waadt rer» 
 
 "The bold youth, 
 Of soul impetuous, and the bashful maid, 
 Siiuiti-n while all tin' promises of life 
 An- opening round her." //</>/. 
 
 Grammatically speaking, Wordsworth is perhaps 1 1 1 * - 
 
 j>iuv.-i el' English peel -. 
 
 CHAP, IV. 
 
 COM i 8IOH "i KOI n- \si> i\i;i [( in i ~. 
 
 W'h i.m.\ i i: a participle takes an article, it becomec 
 virtually ami grammatically a noun, and i~ Bubjecl t" 
 ':-. K the same regimen. 
 
 "Almighty God, by whose providence thy servant .F<>hn Baptist 
 was wonderfully borne, and sent t" prepare the a ay of thy son <>ur 
 Saviour l>\ preaching of repentance."— Collect. 
 
 In the i'n-t place, why nol the Baptist, in accordance
 
 NOUNS AND PARTICIPLES. 321 
 
 with the terras of Scripture 6 fiaTTTiaTr)?? Then the 
 omission of the article the before preaching throws the 
 sentence out of grammatical order, and changes its 
 meaning. The "preaching of repentance, preaching being 
 under such construction a noun, would have rendered 
 the passage clear and correct. As it stands it is wrong in 
 grammar, and wrong in sense. A man may preach of 
 repentance without preaching repentance, but the object 
 of John was to preach repentance, and enforce it, and 
 not to preach of or concerning repentance, which 
 preaching might be against repentance and not in favour 
 of it. In this passage the error of confounding the noun 
 and the participle is striking and obvious. 
 
 As in this sentence an error arises from the introduc- 
 tion of the particle of, so the following passage is 
 ungrammatical from the want of it. 
 
 "Since I have intimated that the greatest decorum is to be pre- 
 served, in the bestowing our good offices." — Spectator, No. 292. 
 
 Here we must either have " in the bestowing of 
 our good offices," or " in bestowing our good offices ; " in 
 the first case bestowing being a noun, in the second a 
 participle, with an active transitive signification. 
 
 •'But he had another errand in Persia than buying of slaves." — 
 Bentley. 
 
 This sentence is liable to the same objection. Ought 
 to be "than the buying of slaves." 
 
 '• And when they saw the chief captain and the soldiers, they 
 left beating qf Paul." — Acts, xxi. 32. 
 
 The phrase, "left beating of Paul" Bavours strongly 
 
 p 5
 
 322 PREFIX BEFORE THE PARTI4 IPLB. 
 
 of the nursery, and is totally unjustifiable, at an) 
 period of the English language. 
 
 chap. v. 
 
 ii: i i i\ Bl i OBE i in. PAB i H mi.i . 
 
 Such phrases as " I am a-coming," u he goes "-begging," 
 
 frequently occur ltoth in conversation anil print : and 
 though an educated person would not say " I :im »• 
 coming," but "1 am coming," yet the same person would 
 not scruple to Bay, "he goes a begging;" such i- the 
 authority of custom. In matters of euphony we might 
 often take a lesson from our own domestics; and suppos- 
 ing </ in Buch case to be   prefix, and not a preposition 
 abbreviated in the grammatical sense of a preposition, 
 oncoming is in man) instances, a- a matter of articula- 
 tion, far preferable to coming. In am coming the collision 
 between m and c is any thing but agreeable, the first 
 being close, the latter open. There is none of that 
 imperceptible gliding from one letter to another 
 grateful to the musical ear of the Greek and the Roman. 
 The sensation is that of being stumped t a- an American 
 would appropriately describe it. Tin- introduction of </ 
 between m and c renders the pronunciation eas) and 
 Rowing. Considered at i prefix, the question of gram- 
 mar would not be affected \>\ it. Some expressions of 
 this Kind, as a-begging, a-fishing, &c, have established
 
 PREFIX BEFORE THE PARTICIPLE. 323 
 
 themselves in the English language, and are therefore 
 deserving of our attention. 
 
 The phrases just alluded to are by some interpreted 
 as at coming, at begging. At other times, however, on 
 rather than at is required, and even expressed ; and this 
 prefix a has on the whole a very general and a very 
 loose application. Again, it is not unusual to find a used 
 in a similar manner, where of seems to be required. 
 
 " It would be pretty bard to believe that be would send a-begging 
 to Sicily." — Bentley. 
 
 That is, for the purpose of begging — on begging. 
 
 Again : — 
 
 " Yet the same man here, in his great wisdom, would have a 
 learned university make barbarisms a-purpose." (i.e., on purpose.) 
 — Bentley, Dissertation on Phalaris. 
 
 " They take coach, which costs them nine-pence, or they go a-foot, 
 which costs them nothing." (on foot.) — Goldsmith, Citizen of the 
 World. 
 
 " The depths on trembling fell." Hopkins. 
 
 " And when he thinks, good easy man, full surely 
 His greatness is a-ripening." Shakspeakk. 
 
 "Our grandfathers left more glory by their exployting great 
 acts, than we shall do by forging a-ne\v words and uncouth 
 phrases." 
 
 Unless a is in this case a misprint, and ought to be 
 joined to new (anew), it must here stand for of. The 
 sense, however, does not require anew but of new. 
 
 Here then we have the particle a apparently used for 
 at, for on, and for of and the abbreviation or corruption 
 has probably arisen from our natural tendency to cut 
 
 p G
 
 324 PREFIX BEFORE i 111. PAB l [< Mil.. 
 
 words a- short as possible in familiar conversation. In 
 the A. Sax< n Gospel, as Lowth has pointed "in, what 
 in our English i- translated, " I go a-Juhing n (John, 
 wi. .';.). i- there " [c wylle gan "// fixoth," 1 will go "/' 
 fishing, a-fishing. We say twelve o'clock for of th 
 clock, or on tin- duck, on the .-aim- clipping principle 
 He i- "/"/'/. "// the luii. 
 
 It is quite possible, however, that some of our preaenl 
 English words, which take a before them in the parti- 
 ciple, a- a-coming, may have onlj retained the common 
 8 -"ii prefix ae and be under a differenl form. Thus 
 clypode, or becleaped, becleopod, beclyped, has bc- 
 come yecleped, ifclep'd, Cclep'd, from the verb clypian, 
 to call, invite. "Manega Bynl geclypode* Many are 
 called. (Matt. xx. 16.) So gecuman might be changed 
 into a~ coming, without much violence in pronunciation, 
 [n defence of this supposition we have an example in 
 the following <>M \ ers< - : — 
 
 Sumer ia i cumen in, 
 l.lnij.- Bing cuccu, 
 
 !. and bloweth m<-< I. 
 And springetb wde do. 
 
 j cuccu, cuccu." 
 
 Here we have i cumen, n<>t <t coming, just as ge- 
 clypodi became y'clypode, and xclypode, and Cclept, 
 \   lin, on was a common Anglo-Saxon prefix before 
 nouns and verbs ; as on-dra ding, fear, on-dra </<//>, to fear, 
 on cuman, to come, to enter; and this prefix, like ye, be, 
 i/. in mosl . did ii"t alter the signification of the 
 
 >rd to which it was attached. W< might therefor* 
 — " Sumer is on-cumen in, di ring on-cumt n gram*
 
 PABTICIPLES ENDING IN EN, ING, ED, T. 325 
 
 matically as no more than a simple participle ; or, " Sumer 
 is a-coming, be-coming, ge-comen, y-comen, i-comen." " In 
 fact," says Bosworth, " if a word cannot be found under a, 
 it may be sought for under be, fur, ge, or to ; or rather 
 under the first letter that remains, after rejecting these 
 prefixes." We now say, to " stow away articles;" but the 
 Bible says, " And when he came to the tower, he took 
 them from their hand, and bestoived them in the house." 
 — 2 Kings, v. 24. 
 
 Besides in many cases we have dropped the initial 
 Saxon a of words : as aslidan, to slide ; aslidende, 
 sliding; astandan, to stand; astandende, standing — a- 
 slidcnde and astandende, neither expressing or im- 
 plying a preposition, sound very much like a-sliding, 
 and rt-standing. We have both live and alive, from 
 the Saxon alybban, to live, participle aleofod, living, in 
 the first case having dropped, in the second having 
 retained the initial a. We may look at these abbrevia- 
 tions, therefore, partly as abbreviations of the preposi- 
 tions on, or at, or of partly perhaps as the Anglo- 
 Saxon prefix, under a different form. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 TAUTICIPLES ENDING IN EX, ISO, ED, T. 
 
 Mistaken and Mistaking. 
 
 Dr. Carey, in his " English Prosody" (note), ranks 
 mistaken with such passive participles as sworn, drunken,
 
 326 PARTICIPLES ENDING i\ 
 
 ftilb it, (jnnrit (i/nnn id, rotten, gWoBeH* *' Thus a sworn 
 
 broker may not be %twearhng broker, & fallen tree ia not 
 * falling tree, a rotten branch is not a rotting branch." 
 Mistaken refers to an act accomplished, mistaking to a 
 part or present continuous state. 
 
 Mistaki n is the passive form of To mi-take, yel custom 
 has authorised its use with an active signification. I 
 am mistaken, is used to Bignify I mistake, misunderstand, 
 My meaning is mistaken, misunderstood Thus the same 
 form is used both actively and passively. 
 
 It is inconsistent with the English idiom to use the 
 
 auxiliary verh and the participle in the place of the 
 principal verb, whenever the principal verh bassoon* 
 tinuous signification • that is, a Bignificatioii having 
 reference both to past and present time. We say " I 
 .mi listening to you," for this expresses only n present 
 continuity : I >ut we do no! sag " I am hating you," for 
 this supposes past and present time a state of feeling, 
 — a condition <>i' the mind resting upon some antecedent 
 cause : and we therefore Bay " 1 hate" a term which do 
 not limit the signification t<> a present operation. I 
 hate, I love, I mistake, are English; hut not I "in hating, 
 I (//// loving, I am mistaking, in the same sense. When, 
 therefore, \\ e say " I am mistake // "instead of I " mistake ,' 
 we avoid the un-English expression " I am mistaking." 
 Custom has authorised "I am mistaken" in the place 
 of •■ I mistake or misunderstand? and custom has autho- 
 rised " bis meaning is mistaken or misunderstood? and 
 
 then- the matter re-t-.
 
 EN, ING, ED, T. 327 
 
 It is in vain, in cases of this kind, " to kick against 
 the pricks." "\Ve say, " he has the wish, but the means 
 are wanting," when the means are wanted. 
 
 Instead of oicing, we ought in many cases to use the 
 passive participle owen, instead of the active form owing. 
 It was owen to my exertions, not oicing. The debt was 
 owen to him, not oicing. It is my own ; that is, my owen; 
 i. e. it is oicen to me. Liberalism itself will not, however, 
 allow, " I am behold/?^ to him," instead of " I am be- 
 holden." 
 
 There is a phrase, at present, fluctuating between an 
 active and a passive form. As, the house is building, 
 that is, in the act of being built, and the house is being 
 built, the import aimed at being the same in both. In 
 German, the passive form is used in speaking of things 
 done by the assistance of man ; as Das Schifficird gebaut, 
 the ship is building, becomes built, is becoming built — 
 the active form, in expressing the operation of inanimate 
 objects ; as, Das Feuer brennt, the fire is burning. Is 
 the object of this distinction gained by the English 
 phrase, " The ship is being built f The phrase " is 
 being built,'' 1 and others of a similar kind, have been 
 for a few years back gradually insinuating themselves 
 into our language ; still they are not English. If we 
 use the phrase, "The house is building,''' we speak of it 
 as a thing from its very nature not acting itself, and we 
 use the term building as expressive <>l" a passive pro- 
 gressive condition of the house. If we say " The men are 
 building" we then have active instruments, and the term 
 building is an active participle, requiring to be followed
 
 328 PAETK III .1 - ENDING in 
 
 by a noun;" as building a wait, a cattle. No mistake 
 can therefore arise from the use of Buch phrases as The 
 house is building, Preparations are making. AN e use the 
 participle in ed l>"ili actively ami passively; as, I have 
 loved, I am loved The French <1<> the Bame, as j'ai 
 (linn, I havt loved; je suis aime, I am lnn<l. It" the 
 passive form ed can thus be used l><»th actively and 
 passively, the active form, on tin.' same grounds, ma-3 be 
 
 sively and actively. Certain it is, thai phra 
 similar to The house is building, Preparations are making, 
 are Bcattered profusely over our literature; whilst The 
 house is being built, Preparations arc being made, are 
 phrases, not only foreign to our language, but, under 
 
 miii modifications, difficult to deal with. Lei us take 
 such a phrase as the following: "He will find, on his 
 arrival, that the house will be being built." Or, " When 
 he arrived he found, on inquiry, that, when the accident 
 happened, the housi had been being built," \iv we to 
 •• / knew the house to !>• being built" instead of *• / 
 knew th> house to be building?" Are we prepared to 
 
 ry the principle thus far, for the sake of an innovation] 
 
 the] 1st, unnecessary? Besides built, or builded, 
 
 implies a thing effected, an aol accomplished; when 
 
 being implies something continuously present, a conti- 
 
 Qoua condition. N\ here a verbd< aotea - ontinuous action, 
 
 being maj properly be applied t" it, as consentaneoua 
 
 with the action ol the verb: as, being feared, expressive 
 
 mtinuoue condition; bul a house ie either built or 
 
 not 1-iiilt. Being built includes incompatible terms, pro* 
 
 • and accomplishment. It combines perfect and 
 
 imperfect action. Becoming lunlt the house i- be*
 
 EN, ING, ED, T. 329 
 
 coming built, i. e. approximating to accomplishment, 
 would come nearer to the intended meaning. Dr. 
 Beattie says, " one of the greatest defects in the English 
 tongue, with regard to the verb, seems to be the want 
 of an imperfect passive participle ;" yet he does not 
 scruple to say, "Actions that are now performing" 
 " Creusa, who was missing,'''' &c. 
 
 Mr. Pickburn (page 78.), speaking of the participle 
 ending in ing, observes, " The tenses of the passive 
 voice, compounded with the participle in ing, are never 
 used but in the third pei'son, and with relation to 
 inanimate objects ; or at least such as are incapable of 
 the actions mentioned. They can, therefore, in no case 
 occasion obscurity ; for whenever the imperfect par- 
 ticiple is joined, by an auxiliary verb, to a nominative 
 capable of the action, it is taken actively ; but, when 
 joined to one incapable of action, it becomes passive." 
 
 In no way can we express the difference between an 
 act accomplished and an act in the course of accom- 
 plishment, so readily or effectively as by considering 
 the participle ending in ing, under the conditions already 
 mentioned, as an imperfect passive participle. 
 
 To the same purport is the opinion of Mr. Grant, in 
 his " Grammar of the English Language," namely, that 
 " the imperfect participle is to be substituted when 
 progression is to be denoted ; as, the letter is writing, 
 was writing, has been writing, will be writing ; the 
 house is building, was building, has been building, trill 
 be building. Written, or built, would, on the con- 
 trary, denote perfection or completion." 
 
 If we object to participles in ing, as having an im-
 
 330 PARI h IPLE6 l M'lN'i IN 
 
 perfect passive signification, on what principle do we 
 justify such expressionfl as, "the verses read well," when 
 an external agency Lb applied to the verses, and they in 
 
 fact in-' read ? 
 
 Clearly in Bnoh a ease, /•""/ ifl an imperfect passive 
 verb; that is, a verb denoting progression or imperfect 
 accomplishment* The Bame may be said of such phrac 
 as, the ingredients mix well, the fit Ids j>l<>//t//i uh //. the 
 com threshes well, this is good t<> <<it, this is good to 
 drink, a house to let, an estate A' sefL The agency in 
 the- cases i- external, and the object does /"'/ "<'/. bat 
 
 i- acted upon. 
 
 It is, however, to be borne in mind, that when a 
 participle ending in ing is connected by an auxiliary 
 verb t<> it- Bnbject, and that Bubject a nominative ease, 
 sentient and capable of action, the participle must be 
 taken actively, and from it- very nature cannot be 
 taken passively in the -one tbnu : a-, he was reading, 
 uniting, painting. These phrases cannol be understood 
 Bfl passive, either perfect or imperfect. In the case of 
 verba implying sensation we do noi use the auxiliary 
 and the participle to express oar meaning, but th< 
 simple verb; not, / am fearing, but, I fear. The 
 reason is, that th< v< rbs expn -- a continuous affection 
 of the mind without an auxiliary. That verbs expressing a 
 continuous affection of the mind have a different bearing 
 from ordinary verba expressive of action, maj be ex- 
 emplified in phrases like the following : " If you feared 
 in, you would avoid m< ." which means, you would at 
 this time avoid me. it you were muUr tin influena of 
 
 r. [f you feared, does not then relate merely to
 
 en, ing, ed. r. 331 
 
 time past, but to time present also. It indicates the 
 continuity of a certain state of the mind. But a verb 
 of decisive action does not convey such a meaning 
 without the addition of the auxiliary verb. " If he 
 struck him," refers to an action which did or did not 
 take place at a certain time ; but there is no continuation 
 of the action, as in the case of a verb expressive of 
 sensation. 
 
 Passing. 
 
 " Where passing fair 
 Allured them." 
 
 Mllton, Paradise Lost. 
 
 That is, where something passing or surpassing that 
 which is fair allured them. 
 
 " And passing rich with forty pounds a year." 
 
 GoLDSMITir. 
 
 More than rich. 
 
 Rapt, carried away. 
 
 Care must be taken not to confound rapt, carried 
 away, with ivrapt, enveloped, the former being derived 
 from rapio, raptus, borne away, hurried along, the other 
 signifying folded up. 
 
 " Not rapt above the pole." Paradise Lost. 
 
 " Rapt in a chariot drawn by fiery steeds." Ibid. 
 
 " liapt into future times the bard begun." Fori:. 
 
 " High rapt ambition." Savage.
 
 332 PARTICIPLES ENDING IN 1 .V. TNG, J:i>, T. 
 
 Wrapt, i ni'i loj'i </. 
 
 "Go less than woman in the fonn of man, 
 I our wall-, to wrap <>ur tow*rs in flames, 
 
 To leml in exile the fair Phrygian dames.* 1 Paw 
 
 •• Nol with more rage a conflagration rolls, 
 Wrapt the *ast mountains, and involves tli<- poles.* 1 Ibid. 
 
 It may be observed thai rapt is used in the participial 
 form only, there being no English rool in the sense of 
 to rap, derived from rapio. 
 
 We may say " Eajit hy tin- (io<l : "" hut we cannot -ay 
 
 that the (i«.il rapt him, in the dame sense. In the case 
 
 of wrap we have the root to icrap. 
 
 Time not expressed by th> Participle abstractedly. 
 
 English participles, whether ending in ing, or ed, or 
 - //. or t, <lo not express time abstractedly. I can Bay, 
   I \s;i- reading j I am reading, I will be reading; tin- 
 hook \a printed, it was printed, it will be printed," The 
 participles reading and printed, whether past, present, 
 or future, have undergone oo variation. The tense of 
 participles U thus expressed by con litanl auxiliaries)
 
 NATURE OF THE ADVERB. 333 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 ADVERB. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ITS NATURE. 
 
 The term adverb is derived from the two Latin words 
 ad, to, and verhum, word. The Greek term STnpprjfiahas 
 also precisely the same signification as adverbium in 
 Latin, and adverb in English. As its name denotes, it 
 is used as an attributive to some other word, cither in 
 order to qualify its simple intension, oi*, when used com- 
 paratively or superlatively, its relative intension. The 
 word, to which it is joined, is not necessarily a verb, in 
 the limited acceptation of the term verb ; for it may be 
 joined to a participle, as bitterly hating; to an adjective, 
 as exceedingly fair ; as well as to the verb : as, he spoke 
 fluently. It is obvious that an adverb, being an attri- 
 butive, and springing out of the nature or condition of 
 some object or action, cannot stand alone. Hence the 
 word adverb. Besides expressing a simple and an abso- 
 lute condition, when joined to another word, the adverb 
 expresses also a relative condition; as, A. speaks fluently ; 
 B. more fluently ; ('. most fluently. Variation of intensity 
 is as necessary in an adverb as in an adjective. We speak 
 of any thing done, either abstractedly and without re- 
 ference to the manner in which it may lie dune else- 
 where, or we speak comparatively, and with reference to
 
 334 POSITION OF rHB ADVEEB8. 
 
 the mode in which it may be done elsewhere. The Bame 
 principle applies to the adverb, when it is an attribu- 
 tive of the adjective or of the participle. In these also 
 there must be emulations of condition and of action. 
 
 The position <>i' an adverb, and it- proper use in a 
 sentence, Le often an object of the greatest moment, and 
 tlil— position and use 1 shall proceed to illustrate by a 
 variety i f examples, proper and improper. 
 
 chap. ii. 
 
 i \ \mu i - ci ai>\ i i;r.-. 
 
 POSI i [OH "i I hi Ai>\ i BBS. 
 
 Not. 
 
 The negative adverb not follows, and in modern usa 
 never precedes, the principa] verb to which it refers. 
 We cannol aow Bay " 1 not offend," ae in Dryden, or 
   Sh( not denies it." as in Shakepeare. 
 
 Only, Mi rely. 
 
   i;. i on informed us only of the necessity of the thing, revels* 
 tion baa prescribed the terms. Philosophy conjectured merely it* 
 
 Dounced the mode of it- consummation " 
 
 — Id urn I. 
 
 Tli, adverbs only and merely are in their propel 
 places in tlii- pases •• In the former sentence the 
 antithesis is nol between 1 1 » « - terms informed and />r<- 
 ,/>'</, l»iit between the necessity of the thing and tht 
 terms of the thing. In the latter the antithe ie is not
 
 POSITION OF THE ADVEKBS 335 
 
 between the terms conjectured and announced, but 
 between the. existence of the thing, and the mode of its 
 consummation ; and this is properly expressed. At 
 least, if we place only in any other position than that 
 in which we find it, the passage would be more liable to 
 ambiguity than it is at present. If properly read, a 
 slight pause ought to take place after informed, by 
 Avhich the meaning would be defined ; and an emphasis 
 laid on only. In print the pause may be indicated 
 visibly as above. Merely is subject to the same re- 
 marks. Both sentences are tricky, and ought to be 
 remodelled. 
 
 "But on inquiry Ave find that the words were not only uttered 
 by a mortal man like ourselves, but by one who was more than 
 most others constantly exposed to death, and expecting it." — Pub- 
 lished Sermon. 
 
 From the position of only before uttered, we expect 
 the sentence to run, that the words were not only uttered 
 by a mortal man, but something more than uttered ; 
 whereas the antithesis is between a mortal man, simply 
 as such, and a man constantly exposed to death, and 
 expecting it. Place not only after uttered, and all is 
 clear. These words were uttered not only by a mortal 
 man, like ourselves, but, &c. The sentence would, how- 
 ever, be still more distinct by the arrangement, " These 
 words were uttered by a man, not only mortal like our- 
 selves, but by one who was more than most others con- 
 stantly exposed to death, and expecting it." 
 
 If we take the following sentence we shall find that 
 it is susceptible of three different meanings, according 
 to the situation of the adverb only : " I only am left to
 
 33G r< )g] i i"\ • • ;• i n i: \i.\ i BBS. 
 
 tell thee," L e. I. and no one besides; •• I am left only 
 to tell thee," /. < . I am Left for //" <»//<'•/• purpose than t<> 
 tell thee; " I am left to tell thee only, w i. e. and to tell 
 //(/ »///»•/• person than thyself. The position of the adverb 
 onljfi which so materially affects the meaning of a 
 sentence, is worthy of much more consideration than it 
 usually receives. In conversation mere emphasis will 
 often come in aid of the meaning intended; but in 
 written language the arrangemenl of o Bentence ou 
 to be Buch as not to 1"' Busceptible of any other meaning 
 than that which it i- intended to convey. 
 
 \ _i . i i 1 1 , in the following Bentence, the adverb only, 
 from it- position, gives a turn to the meaning quite dif- 
 ferent from that which the author intended : — 
 
   II   had suffered the woodward only t<> use lii> discretion in the 
 ili-t.uii woods. In ili'- groves about lii> bouse be allowed no 
 marking-hammer but bis own.**— Oilp\ I s /•;/. 
 
 The Bentence means that he had Buffered the wood- 
 ward, and no other person than the woodward, to | 
 his discretion in the distanl woods; whereas, from tin 
 Bentence that follows! it i- evident that Mr. Gilpin 
 meant to aay, "he had Buffered the woodward to use his 
 
 discretion in the distanl w I- only." The Bentence, 
 
 arranged as follows, would he dear: "It was in the 
 distanl woods only that he suffered the woodward to 
 ii-e hi- discretion. In tin groves aboul his house he 
 allowed no marking-iron but his own." 
 
 " Her bosom to the view was only 1 Dbtobm 
 
 •• Her bosom "/'/'/ to the \ ie >\ was ba
 
 TOSITION OF THE ADVERBS. 337 
 
 " The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an ex- 
 ception to this universal toleration." — Gibbon, Decl. c. ii. 
 
 Mr. Gibbon id here speaking of the religions toleration 
 which all the nations under the dominion of Home en- 
 joyed. He then adds, " The province of Gaul seems, 
 and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal 
 toleration." As the passage stands, it means that Gaul 
 was in reality no exception at all ; but that it only 
 seemed so — only seems an exception ; whereas Mr. 
 Gibbon means that the sanguinary religious rites of the 
 Gauls, under the Druids, were not tolerated by the 
 Romans, and that the restraint imposed upon the exer- 
 cise of those rites was the only exception to the tolera- 
 tion which the whole Roman world freely enjoyed. 
 
 " The first (pestilence) could be only imputed to the just indig- 
 nation of the gods." — Gibbon. 
 
 According to this form of expi*ession, the pestilence of 
 which the author is here speaking could be imputed, and 
 nothiny more than imputed, to the just indignation of the 
 gods; whereas he means to say that the pestilence could 
 not be attributed to the wicked administration of Com- 
 i nodus, but solely, and ml inly, to the just indignation 
 of the gods — only to the just indignation of the gods. 
 
 " But, by learning, the Apostle does not mean empty and barren 
 speculation, but learning unto salvation; not merely to render us 
 better scholars, but better men ; not only to satisfy us in useless 
 curiosity, but to confirm us in the belief of Christianity." — Bet 
 Sermon 24. 
 
 The words merely and only arc both mischievous. It 
 was no part of the object of Scripture to make ua 
 
 Q
 
 ?38 PR0MI8< l "l - ADVERBS. 
 
 better scholars, and most certainly no part of it to sal 
 u- in u i ariosity. 
 
 Ajnongst writers of a certain date it ia not unusual to 
 
 find ;i double negative, which in the presi al age would 
 
 not be admissible ; as, 
 
 •• I never was nor never will be fall Sh lksf. Rich, II. 
 
 Vor /In/ net with nnbashful forehead woo 
 The means of weakness and debility." Shaxbti vm . 
 
 "He '.'/•-■/• yet no vilanii- ne seyde." Chaw i 
 
 u She mounts her chariot in a trice, 
 \ ■/■ would Bhe -tav for no ; i < 1 \ i •   <   . 
 I'ntil her maids, w 1 1 » . were bo nice, 
 
 To wait on her were fitted." Dbai ton's Nymphidia. 
 
 Such expressions as these ought, perhaps, to be « — t i — 
 mated by the age in which they were used ; but they 
 cannot be used with propriety now. 
 
 * II all along bounded by lofty mountain-ranges on both Bid* 
 never narrows into :i defile, n>>r never expands into a plain.' 1 — 
 
 Inglia, '/)// 
 
 '1 he Bame excuse cannot be made for the //<>/• never ol 
 "Mr. [nglis, which i- applicable to authors of a much 
 older d 
 
 I \rively t Exceedingly, 
 
 •■ I -lv drunk." - Goldi ' drunk." 
 
 lingl) fair." Not ' 
 inhart, who w   I tries lb< I came 
 
   .pillar." — Spectator, No. 1 v I
 
 PROMISCUOUS ADVERBS. 339 
 
 An attempt is made to justify the expression exceeding 
 fair, and others of a similar kind, by supposing exceeding, 
 in such a case, to be a participle, — as exceeding that 
 which is fair. It savours, however, very strongly of error, 
 and may be ranked with such expressions as the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 " The sellers of the newest patterns at present give exti-eme good 
 bargains." — Goldsmith, Citizen. 
 
 " In a word his speech was all excellent good in itself." — Fuller s 
 Andronicus. 
 
 Exceedinglg is usually applied in a good sense, — 
 excessively in a bad sense ; as, exceedingly beautiful, 
 excessively ugly. 
 
 Pec u lia rly, Pa rtic vlar ly. 
 
 Peculiar and peculiarly, particular and particularly, 
 have distinct significations, and cannot, without impro- 
 priety, be confounded ; as was briefly noticed under the 
 head Adjective. Peculiar may be said to mark a 
 property absolutely, particular the degree of a property 
 common to more objects than that to which it is applied. 
 For, as Harris justly observes, 
 
 " Every thing in a manner, whether natural or artificial, is in its 
 constitution compounded of something common, and something 
 peculiar, of something common, and belonging to many other things, 
 and of something peculiar, by which it is distinguished, and made 
 to be its true and proper self. Hence language, it compared 
 according t < » tliis notion to the murmurs of a fountain, >>v tin' dash- 
 ings of a cataract, has in common tliis. that like them it i^ sound. 
 But then, on the contrary, it basin peculiar this, thai when 
 those sounds have no meaning, or signification, to Language a 
 moaning or signification is essential." — Hermes, >■. i. li. :t. 
 
 Q -1
 
 340 PROMISE l "I - \1'\ BR] -. 
 
 •• This bappj region Beemed peculiarly sequestered by nature for 
 Ms abode." — Goldsmith. 
 
 Peculiarly not particularly. Cashmere possessed ad- 
 vantages in this respect] of a kind peculiar (propria) to 
 itself — advantages Bucb as no other country possessed. 
 
 '• lint the far greater part retained t T 1 « « — . - arms to which the 
 nature of their country, or their earlj habits of life, more peculiarly 
 adapted them." —Gibbon, Decl. c. i. 
 
 Mere Mr. Gibbon presumes thai the difference ol 
 country and of the habits of early life had produced, in 
 Borne of the auxiliaries of the Romans, an aptitude for 
 the use of certain arms, which aptitude did not exist in 
 any other part of these auxiliary , This aptitude, oi 
 < I . _i i - « « - iii' aptitude, belonged to them distinctly, and not 
 in common with the rest, and was therefore peculiar to 
 them* 
 
 Farther, Further, Farther. 
 
 Farther, further, and farther. All these forma have 
 1 in the same Bense, though further is the word 
 now generally in use. Prom far would regularly b< 
 d<ii\ rd /"/•/•'/• andfarrest, notfart/ter andfarthest, unl 
 ut suppose the th to be u>r<\ for the Bake of euphony. 
 Further and furthest are justified by custom only, and 
 not by analogy. It is a corruption of forth, farther, 
 farthest, i I rth,forther, farthest In tlii- Bense it 
 
 i- used by Chaucer in his "Canterbury Tales": — 
 
   I; ,t nathleaa, while I have time and bj 
 Or thai Iforther in thii tali pace." 
 
 But Chaucer does not write far butter: — 
 
   \\ ide a u bis pariah, and l>i^ bou
 
 PROMISCUOUS ADVERBS. 341 
 
 And from this he deduces ferrest: — 
 
 " In sikenesse and in niischiefe to visite 
 The ferrest in his parish." 
 
 Hey wood, also, in his "Epigrams," as quoted by Lower, 
 writes ye-r: — 
 
 " A foole's bolt is soon shot, and flceth oftimes y<?r; 
 But a foole's bolt and the mark cum few times ner." 
 
 But the Scotch poet, William Dunbar, who was born 
 about 1465, in his poem of " The Thistle and the Rose," 
 writes, 
 
 " In field go furth, and fend the laif." 
 
 And Johnson, in his " History of Early English 
 Poetry," observes that " the Scotch of both Douglas 
 and Dunbar was not materially different from the 
 language of the best contemporary English writers." 
 
 Sir David Lindsay, a Scotch poet of a period some- 
 what later, being born in 1490, in his tale of " Squire 
 Meldrun," writes furth : — 
 
 " She slippit in or evir he wist, 
 And f'eynitlie past till ane kist, 
 And with her keys oppenit the lokkis, 
 And made her to take furth ane boxe." 
 
 It would appear, therefore, from these authorities, 
 that the word written for by Chaucer and Hey wood 
 was used in the sense of the modern term far, and that 
 from for was derived the superlative for rest, and that 
 the comparative would, if regularly formed, be fern r .- 
 for, ferrer, ferrest : but the word forther } used by 
 Chaucer, is a different word, and derived from furth, a 
 term still holding its place in the Engli.-h language
 
 342 PBOMIS4 UOUfl \h\ BBB& 
 
 though, so far back as Dunbar ami Lindsay, written/'/// - ///. 
 It is clear, therefore, thai the word which now fluctuates 
 between further andfarther ought t<> be written further* 
 Custom will have \t further. Far is a corruption of 
 
 fer s leading to other corruptions, fartTier, and farthest 
 in the place of fer t ferrer, ferrestj now obsolete. To go 
 
 forth implies no particular distance; to go far ia so Par 
 definite that it excludes nearni 
 
 A" <-, r, Ever. 
 
 "It produces (bat riow Alexandrian air, which is finely suited to 
 a close, and for ilii- reason such lines almost never occur togethi r, 
 but are used in finishing the couplet." — Blair's "Rhetoric. 
 
 Better, "very seldom occur." 
 
 "The Lord is king, be the people never ao impatient." — Psalm 
 \<]\. i . 
 
 r, though ;i man be net* \ rfeel among the children of 
 
 :i." — Wisdom^ c i.\. 6. 
 
 •• [f I wash myself with Bnow-water, and make myself n 
 in." — ./"/'. ix. .'30. 
 
 i barm he o wisely." — Psalm Iviii. ■">. 
 
 •■Hi- face was easily taken, 1 • « » 1 1 1 in painting and sculpture, and 
 iiv •.in-, though never so indifferently skilled, in their (his) 
 art. failed to liit it."-- Wei wood's Memoirs, 
   B i slave would no( have been admitted into thai 
 
 he had luch opportunities."— Hrnthtj, l>   • 
 
 Phiilur 
 
   Let the ofl< ace be ol never so high a nature." — Spectator, 181. 
 
 lint Harris, whose authority ia worth a thousand au- 
 thorit h aa those above mentioned, writes, — 
 
   I".- the ! upon the whole ever so perfect.** — Hern 
 P is
 
 PROMISCUOUS ADVERBS. 343 
 
 Dr. Carey, in his " Treatise on English Prosody," 
 page 6-4. note, has the following observations on the 
 subjoined couplet : — 
 
 " Though ne'er so rich, we scorn the elf 
 Whose only praise is sordid pelf." 
 
 "Never so rich.'''' — "Some modern grammarians," says 
 he, "condemn phrases of this kind as improper, and 
 recommend ever so. I would very cheerfully subscribe 
 to their opinion, if I only could understand the 
 latter phrase, so as to extract from it a satisfactory 
 meaning; but that I own is a task which exceeds my 
 abilities. For example, ' It is a fine day, — will you take 
 a walk?' ' No ; if it were ever so fine a day I would not 
 go out.' To discover the meaning of this reply, I first 
 consider that ever signifies always." 
 
 After begging the question, and assuming that ever 
 signifies always, he proceeds to argue the case, and 
 paraphrases the expression thus : " If this day were fine 
 to such degree that never so fine a day has smiled from 
 the heavens, I would not go out." But ever, in such 
 a situation, has nothing to do with time. It is an 
 adverb of degree, and not of time, and is constantly 
 used as such under analogous circumstances; as, "If I 
 take ever so little of this drug it will kill me." That is, 
 however little. " If I take ever so much of this, it will 
 not hurt me." " How much soever I may take of it, it 
 will not hurt me." Let any one translate one of tli 
 phrases into another language, and he will find that ever 
 presents itself as a term expressive of degree, and not of 
 time at all. "('harm he ever bo wisely:" — Quamvis
 
 344 ADVERBS in I T. 
 
 incantandi at peritus, ant peritissimus. In the second 
 quotation (from Wisdom, iz. 6.) the Greek has reXecos, 
 the Latin perfectut, and the French cmuommL In the 
 fourth quotation i Psalm IviiL •">. I, the Latin has " vocatis 
 incantationibus peritisrimu" The doctor's fallacy lies in 
 the assumption that i >•' /• must signify <ihr<n/.<. and nothing 
 else. In Buch cases, then, i tn /■ and not n< vt /•, is required. 
 
 The doctor's explanation is circuitous and linn y. 
 
 • Seldom if ever" not " seldom "/• never," " Beldom ot 
 
 ev( i'." 
 
 Adverbs in \y 9 formed from Adjectives in ly. 
 
 Though an adjective may end in ly, the usual termi- 
 nation of the English adverb, yet this ought not to deteT 
 ns from adding /// to the end of an adverb formed 
 from Buch adjective, and changing the first ///into//: 
 and tlii— in order to distinguish it from the adjective, out 
 of which it i- formed. In the Old Tcstnmcnl we find 
 wilily from wily, and in the New linlili/ from holy. The 
 combination of the syllables li, ly, it i.- tine, on bo 
 
 isions may have a disagreeable effect ; but, where the 
 exact similitude of the adjective is preserved in the 
 adverb there is ale i something offensive, as a matter of 
 It is a question, therefore, between sense and 
 in tin- second collect for Good Friday, "May 
 truly and godly serve tl vYhenever a decidedly in- 
 
 harmonious effect is produced bj Buch :i word as godlily, 
 masterlily, the phrase ought to he recast. It was 
 masterly done, i bad; It was masterlily done, no better: 
 hnt we can say. It was d ! in a masterly way or manner.
 
 NATURE OF THE PREPOSITION. 345 
 
 No, Not. 
 
 " If that be all, there's no need of paying for that, since I am 
 resolved to have that pleasure, whether I am there or no" — Gold- 
 smith, Citizen, 105. 
 
 •' Whether love be natural or no, replied my friend gravely, it 
 contributes to the happiness of every society into which it is in- 
 troduced." — Ibid. 
 
 If we supply what is wanting we shall see that ex- 
 pressions of this description require not in the place of 
 no. Whether I am there,, or not there. Whether love 
 be natural, or not natural. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 PREPOSITION. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ITS NATURE. 
 
 The English preposition is simple and easy of appli- 
 cation. In the Greek language some prepositions are 
 followed by one case only, some by two, some by three, 
 according to circumstances. The use of the Greek 
 prepositions often, therefore, rests upon shades of dis- 
 tinction not very strongly marked. In English the 
 preposition is always followed by the objective case ; 
 and, as the objective case of the noun never varies from 
 the nominative, the chance of error is reduced within a 
 very small compass. The old Anglo-Saxon genitive 
 
 u 5
 
 Alx'i'i |..\ OF I. a I IN. GREEK, 
 
 case, resolved into of before the noun, ceases to be a 
 : as, Thomasu book, or the book of Thomas. The 
 term TTtomas undergoes no change, whether we Baj 
 this is Thomas, tlii- is the book of Thomas, or give it 
 tn Thomat. 
 
 But though the absence of variation in the English 
 noun reduces the chances of error in connecting it with 
 the preposition, -till there may be misapplications of 
 the prepositions themselves, either when Btanding alone, 
 or in composition. The variation of the pronoun ac- 
 cording to its use in the nominative, i — - ssive, or ob- 
 
 tive case, is frequently the source of error, though 
 that kind of error which a very slender Btockof gram- 
 matical knowledge, with ordinary attention at Least, 
 oughl t" avoid. Such expressions as, "Take it Prom 
 the, and give it t" /. arc by no means uncommon 
 
 irthern provincialisms, and these nol always confined 
 to the farmyard or the Btable. Under the head of 
 Pronoi n Borne examples of this kind may he found, 
 
 in a former part of this work. 
 
 ( MAI'. II. 
 
 ADOPTION "i LATIN, GREEK, \M' ii;i\<ii PBErO81T10 
 
 Pri positions taken from the Latin and Greek enter 
 
 rely int<> the present constitution of the English 
 
 Inn In the | r< >enl Btate of our literature and 
 
 thej cannot b< <li pensed with. They have
 
 AND FRENCH PREPOSITIONS. 347 
 
 become necessaries of life. About twenty Latin prepo- 
 sitions, capable of standing alone, coalesce readily with 
 words that now form an undisputed part of the English 
 language. Five more, which may be regarded as in- 
 separable prepositions, that is, not found alone but in 
 composition only, have also become children of adop- 
 tion. To these may be added fourteen prepositions 
 from the Greek, easily combining with different parts 
 of speech. These, with our own indigenous prepositions, 
 arc amply sufficient to supply all our wants ; and if in 
 this respect, and as far as the use of prepositions is con- 
 cerned, we do not express our meaning with sufficient 
 perspicuity, it is not from the want of terms, but from 
 our own ignorance or negligence in their application. 
 In some cases we have recourse both to Latin and 
 Greek prepositions in composition, and adopt two 
 words, both signifying the same thing, as, periphenj 
 and circumference. Sometimes we combine an English 
 preposition with a Latin term, as, overplus ; sometimes 
 a French preposition with an English term, as, sur- 
 charge, that is, overcharge; surpass, to pass over or 
 beyond. We even adopt a Latin preposition, and 
 form a noun from it, as, " lie is an Ultra;" yet custom 
 will not allow us to say " He is a Beyond ;" so entirely 
 is language in the power of this earthly deity. Pre- 
 positions of foreign origin cannot, of course, be duly 
 appreciated, without reference to the languages from 
 which they are derived. They perpetually minister to 
 the u-i\ the precision, or the elegance of the language, 
 andj as such, arc worthy of minute attention. 
 
 y G
 
 348 PLACE OF i in. rwi i"-i I u>x. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 PLA( i .ni i in. PR] POS1 1 tON. 
 
 Tin. mtv term preposition indicates thai il is con- 
 nected with something that follows; otherwise it could 
 not be a prefix, or preposition. JTe1 the preposition 
 Bometimea ostensibly becomea an adverb, and in Buch 
 casee it has no object expressed, as, above, beneath, — the 
 heavens above, the earth beneath. It would appear, 
 however, thai a noun is here tacitly implied. The 
 heaven abovt ia the heaven above something. The earth 
 beneath is the earth beneath something} though that 
 something may not be expressed. 
 
 \ gain, prepositiona sometimea serve the place ••! 
 adjectives, as, an ofh rethought, an undt n-current, " thi 
 o/fcn-infirmitii 
 
 Bui though the term preposition indicates something 
 placed before, it ie not bo on all occasions. Formally 
 the pi- position may be far separated from ita dependent 
 noun, or pronoun, though in grammatical construction 
 it necessarily precedea it. By an idiom, peculiar, 
 perhaps, to the English language, theprepositi . /", 
 
 in, for, &c are sometimea placed at the end of a 
 sentence, and quite apart from the noun thai depends 
 upon them. \ . "These are mattere which he ia 
 entirely ignoranl oj ':" or, •• \\ ha1 he is an entire jtran 
 to; n "Which he is ( "Th am which he sold 
 
 it for:" i. r. of which, to which, in which, for which. 
 
 The particle of, w hether looked upon u a preposition.
 
 PLACE OF THE PREPOSITION. 349 
 
 or the sio-n of the genitive case, admits the same con- 
 struction. 
 
 " These more sterling qualities of strict moral conduct, regular 
 religious habits, temperate and prudent behaviour, sober industrious 
 life, — qualities which are generally required of public men, even 
 if more superficial accomplishments should be dispensed with, — he 
 had absolutely nothing of." — Lord Brougham's Statesmen, Life of 
 Wilkes. 
 
 Here the particle of is placed at the end of the sen- 
 tence; in the following sentence, at the beginning: — 
 
 " Of the lighter but very important accomplishments, which fill 
 so prominent a place in the patriotic character, great eloquence and 
 a strong and masculine style in writing, he had but little." — Hid. 
 
 The first and last words of each of these sentences are 
 grammatically connected; as, " he had absolutely nothing 
 of those more sterling qualities ; " and " he had but 
 little of the lighter," &c. 
 
 The particle of, in such a position as we find it, at 
 the end of the former sentence, and also the wide inter- 
 val between of'm the beginning of the latter sentence, 
 and the term little, with which it is grammatically con- 
 nected, are quite consistent with the idiom of the 
 English language. 
 
 The following sentence from Bentlcy, exhibiting the 
 same position of the preposition is grammatically 
 faulty : — 
 
 •■ And so begin his examination in such articles as lie could raise 
 the greatest bustle in" 
 
 The relative being here supplied by the particle as, 
 the preposition in lias nothing to which it can adhere. 
 The sentence might have inn: ''And so begin his 
 examination in those articles in which lie could raise 
 the greatest bustle;'' or, "which he could make the
 
 350 PI \< i. Oi i in: vi:i i'"-i i ii'N. 
 
 greatest bustle in." To Bay, " And bo begin his exami- 
 nation in those articles in as he could make the 
 greatest bustle " is nonsense. Yet this is the grammati- 
 cal resolution of the passage. So again : 
 
 •■ThU surely vu too slender a thread to trust a business of 
 that weight to." 
 
 ThU sentence requires to be reconstructed: "This 
 Burely was too Blender a thread to be trusted in a busi- 
 
 iii -- oi' that weight. '' 
 
 The following phrase is colloquial, but nothing 
 
 more : — 
 
 "The only animal we saw for Bome time was an opossum, which 
 the native discovered in a tree, and climbed up for? — Landor'a 
 
 iiinuii. 
 
 The relative which here depends upon two different 
 parts of speech, discovered said for, a verb and a prepo- 
 sition. Though the Bentence is oot grammatically 
 faulty, yet in its construction ii certainly presents 
 nothing \\ orthy of imitation. 
 
 There may. however, be cases in which the disjunc- 
 tion of the preposition and its dependent noun not only 
 causes an inharmonious cadence, but where, as a gram- 
 matical principle, it is inadmissible; as, 
 
 u He bethrothea himself oftener to the devil in one day, than 
 VI ia <li'l in a week to his wife, that he waa married m thousand 
 
 timet to." — Butler' i Remains. 
 
 Here we see the preposition to placed :it the end of 
 the sentence ; \<t we cannot convert 1 1 1 « - phrase, "his 
 wife, that he was married a thousand times to" into 
 ••hi- wife to that he was married a thousand timi 
 \ < \ this is the real tesl of its propriety . In a case like 
 tin-, //in/ must give way to which or whom.
 
 DOUBLE PREPOSITIONS. 351 
 
 When that is demonstrative, it will admit a prepo- 
 sition before it ; as, " Give it to that man," " Take it from 
 that man." But when that is a relative we cannot say, 
 " This is the man to that the book belongs ; " or,. " This 
 is the man from that he took the book." 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 DOUBLE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The following passage affords the unusual application 
 of two prepositions, one before and the other after the 
 noun to which they have reference: — 
 
 " With noise like the sound of the distant thunder, 
 Roaring they rushed from the black gulf under." 
 
 Translation from Schiller. 
 
 That is, from under the black gulf. There is nothing 
 here that offends against the idiom of the English Ian- 
 guage ; but ambiguity lurks in the phrase, "from the 
 black gulf under." "From wider the black gulf" con- 
 veys a meaning different from that which is conveyed 
 by "from the black gulf that is under," supposing the 
 phrase to be elliptical. 
 
 AVhen two prepositions come before the noun to 
 which they refer, the meaning may be quite clear and 
 quite consistent with the structure of our language; as, 
 "From about the age of twenty years." In this a 
 the terms "about the age of twenty years." though 
 verbally distinct, form a concrete noun grammatically
 
 COMPOl M- PREPOSITIONS, 
 
 ami logically in the objective case, and depending upon 
 the former preposition from. We cannot, however. 
 
 place the latt-r preposition ulmitt at the end <>t' the 
 
 sentence. 
 
 In Mich a phrase as " <»;■/• tit/tiinst the church,*' the 
 
 prepositions have reference to two distinct nouns: as, 
 "over the \\a_\. against or opposite to the church.'' 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 I . .Ml". • I \l> AM' MMI'I.I PR] Pi 181 I [ON8. 
 
 In, To, Into. 
 
 Lx implies a stab of being ; into, an act We pour 
 
 water into the pail ; when there, it is 171 the pail Thia 
 
 distinction in Greek and Latin requires a different case. 
 
 II. .race has been censured by Borne critics for writing 
 
 ••in igne," when he meant of the lire: hut as QO motion 
 
 toward* or to the fire was meant, the expression is 
 
 .. : : and, it' he had -aid "in ijiie///." it would ha 
 
 l.« en equivalent in English to " they roasted thru-lie- to 
 
 the |i|, 
 
 \ the preposition in implies rest, and into, motion to, 
 it is obvious that win u two verbs have ;i diversity of 
 meaning, one implying motion, and the other the pla 
 where, they cannot properly l>e followed by one and the 
 - une preposition. Thus : 
 
 .t killinL' lii- wife and children, be laid them upon a pile 
 which he bad era ted for that purpose, and thui setting fire to the
 
 COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS. 353 
 
 whole, rushed and expii-ed in the midst of the flames." — Goldsmith" s 
 History of Greece. 
 
 That is, " rushed into, and expired in, the midst of the 
 flames." The preposition in is not applicable, in com- 
 mon, to both these verbs, and the terms are inconsistent. 
 The preposition in, when used in composition, denotes 
 negation; as, indirect, indecent, inhuman, &c. ; that is, 
 not direct, not decent, not human. Words of this kind 
 are derived from the Latin ; yet in words clearly of 
 Latin origin we have not in all cases been satisfied 
 with a correct example. Ovid says, 
 
 "Xon est habitabilis a?stu." 
 
 We also say, "the habitable globe;" and if "habit- 
 able globe " signifies a globe capable of being inhabited, 
 why should not inhabitable, on the same principle, 
 signify incapable of habitation ? To effect this sig- 
 nification we have prefixed to it un, and thus get 
 " Uninhabitable. Yet Sandys, in his annotations on 
 Ovid's " Metamorphoses," writes, " The frigid zone, 
 held inhabitable for extremitie of cold : " inhabitable then 
 having the same signification as uninhabitable has now. 
 
 In the case of immortal, we have mortal and im- 
 mortal opposed to each other ; an un prefixed to immortal 
 would reduce the meaning of the term to mortal ; un- 
 immortal, that is mortal. Milton has it so : — 
 
 " Unimmortal made 
 All kinds." Paradise Lost, 1). x. 
 
 The addition of un to an epithet already compounded, 
 in the following passage from Milton, is a magnificent 
 conception: —
 
 354 < OMPOl M> PBEPOS1 1 IONS. 
 
   Ail too liu!'- -' emi 
 Xo st nil* hi- man — this vast mhidebound oorpee." 
 
 The epithet unhid* bowid, applied to the Bin-born monster 
 Death, la Bingulaiiy happy, — a monster not ct>n ti i n» 1 
 within superficies, and therefore by nature insatiable. 
 
 / '/'. (hi. I 'i'oii. 
 
 On and upon oughl at leasl to have different signifi- 
 cations, on the Bame principle as the signification of in 
 differs from that of into. The pn>mi.-ruous use of on 
 and upon is, however, sufficiently prevalent, if not to 
 constitute a rule, at Leasl to establish a legalised con- 
 fusion. Vet do not such phrases as the following 
 involve a difference in the meaning of these prepositions ? 
 "The bird flew upon (up on) the house, and when there 
 sal on the roof." In the firsl case, motion t<> is 
 implied; in the second, simple a state of rest. Again, 
 ii/i mi (upon) would properly signifj elevation and a 
 state of rest. The Greek preposition ova seems t<> have 
 the Bame import as our preposition up; and euSsi mn 
 o-kuttt'i' (Pindar), thai is, ava (ai) aKanrrtp corresponds 
 with our phi . "sleeps up on {upon) the sceptre.* 1 
 / '/«.//, however, in its pr< enl use does col always imply 
 motion up, or even elevation : for we ly, " He threv« 
 himself upon the ground;" "Send down upon our 
 bishops and curates;" •• Pour upon them the continual 
 * 1 . u of thy blessing." 
 
 Custom has, in fact, irretrievably confounded the use 
 of on and upon; though i//>/nut, the old form, seems 
 always to have had reference to elevation, as, " Uppan
 
 SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. 355 
 
 Sisne stan," "upon this stone" (Matt. xxi. 44.): "uppan 
 hys heafod," "upon his head" (Matt. xxvi. 7.): Uppc- 
 land, w/>-land ; up-r'ic, wp-kingdom, heavenly kingdom. 
 
 The preposition on is sometimes confounded with of, 
 as, " Take hold on it." We lay hold on a thing, but 
 we take hold of\t. 
 
 " Blessed is the man that doeth this, and the son of man that 
 layeth hold on it." — Isaiah, v. 6. 
 
 "Every one that keepeth the sabbath from polluting it, and 
 taketh hold of my covenant." — Ibid. hi. 6. 
 
 With and By. 
 
 With properly denotes concomitancy or assistance ; 
 by, the proximate cause ; as, " The soldiers entered the 
 breach with loaded muskets : their leader full mortally 
 wounded by a musket-ball." In the former case, with 
 is adjunctive; in the latter, by is instrumental. 
 
 When Ovid says, 
 
 " Terrificam capitis concussit tcrque quaterque 
 Caesariem, cum qua terrain, mare, Bidera movit," 
 
 Metamorph. i. 179. 
 
 he does not mean, that the shaking of Jupiter's hair 
 was the cause which moved the earth, sea, and 
 stars ; but that the shaking of his hair accompanied this 
 act of power. We may say, " With prayers and tears 
 he supplicated pardon ; " but in such a ease prayers and 
 tears would not be instruments, but adjuncts or con- 
 comitants, cum precibus et laerymis. " He drew water 
 from the well with a rope." The man (he) is the 
 instrument, the rope an adjunct.
 
 356 TERMS COMrOLNDE)» WITH PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 rERMB COMPOUNDED Willi PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 As a genera] rule, a term compounded with a prepo- 
 sition will require after it a preposition of similar 
 import, ahould :i preposition be required :it alL Thus 
 we say, in compliance with ; not in compliance to, as in 
 Swift, " It was perfectly in compliance /</ somt' person 
 nor, as in Bacon, "Diminution /" (of) their greatness." 
 
 The Bame principle will apply to verbs compounded 
 with prepositions; and we dissent from a proposition, 
 nol cf dissent with it," as in Addison, " Wnig Examiner." 
 
 Practically, however, this principle is not always 
 strictly carried out. The secret operations of the mind 
 will sometimes exert their influence, and modify et rtain 
 phrases at pleasure. Tim- custom will have the prepo- 
 sition to and not from alter averst : a practice altogether 
 at variance with the etymology <>l" the term averto, •• to 
 1 11 rn j'n mi." Thus Bentley follows custom when he says, 
 ■• < )ut of a natural aversion /" all quarrels.* 1 
 
 In the phrase " aversion /"." -Mr. ( rranl has uoticed that 
 a similar phrase is found both in French ami Spanish : a-, 
 " J'ai une grande aversion pour (ou ft) cette maniere de 
 vivre;" and " Tengo una aversione grande a Jte 
 
 modo de \i\ir." We must look, then, to the secret 
 operations of the mind for this form of expression. Now 
 aversion, or u turning away, isonlj the result of a feeling, 
 and not the feeling itself. Dislike is the feeling, and 
 aversion, or turning awa\ from, i- the consequence of
 
 ERRORS IN USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 357 
 
 dislike. We have a dislike to — cherish a dislike towards 
 — an object, and we turn from it. In the expression, 
 " aversion to" we therefore fall back upon the primary 
 operation of the mind, and we embody the result of the 
 feeling with that primary operation dislike. " Aversion 
 from" might in fact, in particular circumstances, convey a 
 meaning different from that of " aversion to ; " as, " From 
 these considerations I have an aversion to the journey." 
 In more ancient authorities, however, we find the 
 preposition following aversion consistent with the ety- 
 mology of the noun ; as, 
 
 "There grew in the Brittaines a great aversion from their 
 king." — Verstegan. 
 
 " Aversion to " seems now to have fully established 
 itself. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 I KNOW nothing on (of) it. 
 
 More than I thought for (of). 
 
 I was thinking on (of) that. 
 
 I changed to (for) the better. 
 
 Depending of (on) his relations. 
 
 In compliance to (with) your request. 
 
 Agreeable with (to) your request. 
 
 The master irith (and) his servant were lost.
 
 :;.*»s BBB0B8 IN" I -1 OF PBEP081 I [ON8, 
 
 Without ( nnlese j on jee mirach -. 
 
 They quarrel amongst <>n< another (themselves). 
 ongst refers to cumbers collectively, :ui<l does do1 
 apply to one individually : hence nol one another, bul 
 themselvi a. 
 
 Among (in) r nation bo civilised. 
 Nation ie here a unity, and amongst a unity would be 
 non 
 
 M ide much on 1 of). 
 
 No needybr I of I that. 
 
 Free of{ from I blame. 
 
 Differenl to (from) what i> said. 
 
 It was divided between (among) fifty. 
 Between has reference to two parties ovlyiamong s t>> 
 any number more than two. /!<.'ir,,/i i- compounded <>t' 
 the Anglo-Saxon be s by, and ttoam, or toom, the dative 
 case of twa } two. It was divided between two; it \ 
 < li \ i < 1 1 •< 1 amongst twenty. 
 
 II iwever phrases 1 1 K « • the following may have b 
 sanctioned or tolerated in the use of the preposition at 
 the time, custom and etymological propriety, in most 
 t them qow : — 
 
 •• \ 1 1 in- ourselves by (upon) drawin s vift. 
 
 ••I: ! your favours to" (upon). Ibid. 
 
 fell into (under) their cognizance."— Ibid. 
 i\ of Pactions into (in) which we are still 1 I." — 
 
 Bid 
   I store myself mto (to) thi I my fair criti 
 
 •■ Accused the minister > I betraying the Dutch." — Swift. 
 
 < mgratulate to themselves." /' To nperflui 
 
 "II olved "/ <"n) going to thi Persian court.* 1 — 
 
 //. ntley. 
 
 1 in. in i BoUngbroke,
 
 REPETITION OF THE PREPOSITION. 359 
 
 "Prevail upon" (over). — Addison. 
 " Observance after" (of). — Svrift. 
 
 Let it not be supposed that attention to these con- 
 necting particles is a matter of indifference. It is pre- 
 cisely from the improper use of them that ambiguity and 
 obscurity generally arise; and, unfortunately, authors 
 of high character, who have been so repeatedly referred 
 to in the course of this work, instead of serving for 
 unerring guides, often sink us more deeply into error 
 by their unhallowed example. Particles are the cement 
 of sentences, and bind them into order, consistency, 
 and stability. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 REPETITION OF THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 '• EXHAUSTED by the abuse of her strength, by America, and by 
 superstition, her pride might possibly be confounded, if we re- 
 quired Buch a list of three hundred cities, as Pliny has exhibited 
 under the reign of Vespasian." — Globoid Decline, c ii. 
 
 The particle of is used with similar effect in the 
 following sentence : — 
 
 " In their dress, their table, their houses, and their furniture, the 
 
 favourites of fortune united every refinemeni of conveniency, of 
 elegance, and of splendour, whatever could soothe their pride, or 
 gratify their sensuality." — Ibid. e. ii. 
 
 " In journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, 
 in perils by mine own countrymen, tn perils by the beathei . 
 perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils on the sea, in 
 perils amongst false brethren, in weariness and painfulness, in
 
 360 REPETITION OF Mil. PREPOSITION. 
 
 watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in cold and nakedness." — 
 2 Cor. si. -J-;. 
 
 !'.-. the repetition of the preposition in these ]>a 
 
 the mind is made t<> dwell emphatically on each object 
 
 of interest. 
 
 In the Litany of the Church of England, (one <»t 
 the iii« » - 1 tender, beautiful, and forcible <>t' human com- 
 positions,) the preposition yrom occurs sixteen times in 
 four short clauses; and what an earnestness is thrown 
 into the other two clauses following, by the repetition 
 of the preposition by before each separate member of 
 prayer ! 
 
   /.'./ the mystery of thy holy incarnation ; /"/ thy holy nativity 
 and circumcision; by thy baptism, fasting, and temptation, Good 
 1 I deliver us." 
 
 " By thine agony and 1 »1 Ij Bweal ; by thy cross and passion; 
 
 by thy precious death and burial; by thy glorious resurrection :m<l 
 nsion ; and by 1 1 1 « - coming of the Holy < rhost." 
 
 Examples of this Kind mighl l" 1 greatly multiplied. 
 The principle is founded on the natural impulse of our 
 affections — it is the language of nature. 
 
 When Livy describes the melancholy reflections of 
 the Romans, on being obliged to deliver up their arms 
 to tli' Samnites, and pass under the yoke, be amplifi 
 and diversifies their grief by the repetition of the pre- 
 position or the adverb, as the Bense might require: — 
 
 •■ Qi loloa tint \ iiIik i • . rim ferro, sin acic victos; aibi n 
 stringere licuiase gladios, nan manum cum hoste conserere; -il»i 
 nequicquam anna, nequicquam vires, nequicquam animos dates." — 
 Lib. ix. 
 
 8 • in ( IsBsar, " I ><• Bello < rallico   " — 
 
 • It pane nun tempore, el ad lilvas, el in ftumine, el jam "< 
 tria, hostel \ iderentur."
 
 NATURE OF THE CONJUNCTION. 361 
 
 SECTION X. 
 THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ITS NATURE. 
 
 The object of a conjunction, as it name indicates, is to 
 join together, con-jungo. In plain English, it might be 
 denominated a hind-word. Conjunctions then connect 
 either two or more words in a sentence, or they form 
 one compound out of two simple sentences. Conjunc- 
 tions are either copulative, that is, they unite, or they 
 are disjunctive, that is, they separate. Disjunctive 
 conjunctions seem to be a contradiction of terms. In 
 form, at least, they are so, but in bringing two or more 
 objects under consideration, the opei'ation of the mind 
 will either unite or disunite them, in the process of 
 comparison, and disjunction may be as natural a result 
 as conjunction. Two objects brought conjointly before 
 the mind may be disunited by their inherent differences; 
 hence, the objection to disjunctive conjunctions is formal 
 rather than real. Home Tooke maintains that many of 
 our conjunctions are the imperatives of Anglo-Saxon 
 verbs, as, for example, if from gif, and that from gifan, 
 to give. If, however, was spelt in at least a dozen 
 different ways, some of them deviating from ffiffan much 
 more than if in its present form. In this case, at least, 
 the conjecture wears an air of probability. Thus, we 
 
 B
 
 
 COKKLLAI 1\ 1. t - iNMl'M 1 Io.NS. 
 
 may say, " If he take Bllfficient pain-, iii all probability 
 ho will succeed." Thai i-. give, grant that he will take 
 sufficient pains, in all probability he will sneered. 
 Many of out conjunctions, however, are not so probable 
 in their etymology as ti 
 
 The moods required by conjunctions under particular 
 circumstances have already been explained under the 
 head, I r erb. As, however, the position of a conjunction 
 
 in a sentence will often nimbly, and sometimes entirely 
 alter the meaning of BUCh Bentence, and a- there are 
 
 lain conjunctions, whose correlatives ought to be 
 carefully attended to, the conjunction, as regards 
 correctness and effect, is well worthy of grammatical 
 
 nsideration. And first, of correlatives. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 « ORRl LATIV1 ' "VU N( I i< 
 
 1 am the same to-day 
 It v. ictly such 
 
 The same man . 
 
 This man is as tall 
 I [e is not to worthy 
 li th this 
 
 11' h> i In r this 
 Eitlu r this 
 
 A tin r this 
 
 as yesterday. 
 us this. 
 
 tlmt | Ibl. I 'r. >ii. i, not 
 
 as I Bpoke of. 
 as that. i. e. as thai is. 
 as .-he, - as she is. 
 
 and that. 
 
 /• that. 
 "/• that. 
 
 nor that.
 
 COPULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 363 
 
 No other .... than (not but) this. 
 Though degraded . . yet, nevertheless. 
 
 All comparatives require to be followed by than, or 
 as, or because, according to circumstances ; as, 
 
 " This man is stronger than that. 
 
 The more acceptable, as being unexpected. 
 The more valuable, because unasked. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS COrULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE. 
 
 As conjunctions couple like cases of nouns, we cannot 
 say, " The measure was acceptable to my friend and 1, 
 but to my friend and me," that is, to me. " He 
 blamed her more than him," that is, " He blamed her 
 more than he blamed him." " He runs faster than I,'' 
 that is, " than I do." Simple and obvious as this 
 principle is, yet it is perpetually violated. 
 
 Nor can we, with propriety, couple together different 
 parts of speech. As, " men sincerely loving their 
 fellow-creatures, and wlio hate oppression, will," &c. The 
 terms who hate, in such a situation, ought to be hating ; 
 otherwise we couple together discordant materials. 
 Nor can we, with propriety, couple together an adverb 
 and an adjective, though poets sometime-; take liberties 
 in this respect, as Shakspearc (Richard III.), 
 
 " Scarce half made up, 
 Ami that so lamely and unfashionable." 
 
 K '2
 
 3G4 ( "I'll i I EVE \n D M8J1 N' i ivi. 
 
 We must suppose such phrases to be elliptical — made 
 
 up so hunch/, and. \\ hen made up, unfashionable. 
 
 The disjunctive conjunctions are of course subject t<> a 
 Bimilar construction. Though formally they may disjoin, 
 \r\ intellectually they conjoin. 
 
 And and An. 
 
 And and an at a certain period were used in the place 
 of# 
 
   N'm marry (quoth bej thai wol I well enough, but what mul 
 li-- call it an home, where am I then?" — Thomas 1/ 
 
 •• I trust to God, and her teeth were well graft, to have her 
 grace in another fashion than -In- i- yet." — Lady Byron's Letter to 
 /.■in! < TomweU. 
 
 "Ha! Baid the rling, I have so long desired to fight with the 
 I achmen, and now I will fight with some of them, bj tin:.' 
 of God and St. < reorge ; for truly they have done me v " many >li^- 
 rares, that I shall In- revenged, an 1 may." — Southey'u Naval 
 History, Quotation. 
 
 • I must give over this lit'', ami I will give it over by the Lord, 
 I do i'"t I am a villain." — Shakspeore, 
 
 This form "i expression is now obsolete, though I 
 believe it Lb to be heard occasionally among our 
 
 nit ry . 
 
 At 
 
 80. 
 
   An'l Ban! -'Hi "I' to take David, and when th< j 
 
 the companies of the Prophets prophesying, and Samuel standing 
 as appointed over them, the spirit of God was upon the messengers 
 • B ml, and they also prophesied." 1 Samuel, aix. 
 
 The word also i- here in it*, proper place, conveying 
 the meaning that not only Samuel, and the companies
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 365 
 
 of the prophets prophesied, but the messengers also. 
 
 Yet in the next verse we find, 
 
 " And Saul sent messengers again the third time, and they pro- 
 phesied also." 
 
 They also prophesied — that is, they, the third set of 
 
 messengers, as well as the preceding sets of messengers, 
 
 also prophesied. 
 
 The introduction of also in the following passage 
 
 renders it absurd : — 
 
 " And when they found not his body they came, saying, that 
 they had also seen a vision of angels, which said that he was alive." 
 — Luke, xxiv. 25. 
 
 We cannot connect an entity with a non-entity. 
 The sentence amounts to this. They did not do a 
 certain thing, and they did something besides. If we 
 strike out also, the passage is clear and consistent' 
 " But when they found not his body, they came, saying, 
 that they had seen a vision of angels, which said that 
 he was alive." The Greek and Latin of this passage 
 both, however, require also to be in the position in 
 which we find it : Aeyovcrai nai oirraaiav ayysXwv 
 soopaxsvai, " dicentes se etiani apparitionem angelorum 
 vidisse." 
 
 It may here be incidentally mentioned, that the term 
 was, in this passage, is capable of a meaning not in- 
 tended, and indeed, strictly speaking, distinctly conveys 
 that meaning. If I say, he icas alive, I confine the 
 act of living to a certain time passed, and not con- 
 tinuing up to the present time. lie was alive at that 
 particular time. The meaning ought to have been 
 expressed in the form which the angels would make use 
 
 It 3
 
 306 COPULATIVE LOT) DISJUNCTIVE 
 
 of in speaking of a present Btate, Baying, " he if ali\ 
 • inn vivere, avrov %gv. 
 
 LUu iri.o . 
 
 ■• And when it wu told Saul, he Bent other i and tli<-v 
 
 prophesied Kfcic 
 
 And ///'// likewist prophesied. The meaning of tin 
 passage 1-. that not only Samuel, and the companies <>t 
 tin' prophets, and the mi it en a former 
 
 occasion; but these messengers likewise, they <tls,> pro- 
 phesied, [fwe 8aj they prophesied 7*7 . we implj 
 that the messengers did something or other, and pro- 
 phesied Uht wi 
 
 Both. 
 
 Give onto thy servants thai peace which the world cannot 
 that both our hearti may be sel to obey thy commandments, and 
   I', ng Prayt 
 
 The term A"/A is ambiguous, for it may signify the 
 hearts <>i' t„,/h of us. Better, " Give unto thy servants 
 that peace which the world cannot give, that our hei 
 may both be ael to obey thy commandments, and als< 
 
 / 
 
 M But if il G innol overthrow 
 
 foun ' rod." - !• '•■ v 
 
 L i \   >ur attempts t" j » i * t down and Bilence the dis- 
 ciples of Jesu I uch a nature, with reference to 
 timed position] bibil you in the charactei 
 i of fighters against God, and not against man on!
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 367 
 
 fxrjTrors teat, $£Ofia-%oi evpr)6i]T£, lest you shoul J prove even 
 God-fighters. 
 
 It is evident that, according to the sense of this 
 passage, the term even should have followed, and not 
 preceded the words to fight — " lest haply ye be found 
 to fight even against God." 
 
 So, Such, in the place of So. 
 
 The use of such in the place of so is a very common 
 error. Such denotes quality, so degree. If I say " I 
 never saw so high a spire," the term so denotes degree 
 of height, but I cannot say " I never saw a spire such 
 high;" for as so denotes the degree of a quality, and 
 such a quality itself, they cannot be applicable in the 
 same sense. In this case, the quality or condition i- 
 expressed by the term high, the degree of that quality 
 by the term so. I might say, " I never saw such a tree, 
 so high ; " because such then denotes the qtiality, and so 
 the degree ; that is, I never saw a tree of this kind so 
 high — a phrase which conveys a meaning very different 
 from " I never saw so high a ti'ce." The former phrasi 
 relates to trees of a particular class, the latter com- 
 prehends trees of every kind. 
 
 " Such a great character being given of it." — Bentley. 
 That is, " so great a character being given of it." 
 
 But in the place of Thau. 
 
 I'm)- tin' Btm is no sooner risen with a burning heat, hut it 
 withereth the grass." — James, i. 11. 
 
   I hi- i- none other but the house of God." — Gen. xxxvii. 17. 
 " Yet no sooner does the morning dawn, and daylight enter his 
 
 B 1
 
 368 COPULATIVE AND Dl-ll N< livr CONJUN« |[<>N-. 
 
 room, but this strange enchantment vanishes."— Hervey's Mnlitu- 
 
   They hare bo sooner fetched them* Ivea to the fashion of the 
 polite world, but the town has dropped them.* 1 — Spectator. 
 
 In all these cum-, than is required in the place of but 
 
 But. 
 
 In the Following passage, but is ased antithetically 
 
 sording to it.- usual acceptation, where no antithesis 
 
 i- required : — 
 
 " The Arabian Nights' Entertainments are the production <>f a 
 romantic invention, but <>!' a rich and amusing imagination.' 1 — 
 
 liluirs nil, toric. 
 
 Romantic invention and rich and amusing imagination 
 arc not opposed to cadi other, but on the contrary arc 
 perfectly compatible. 
 
 In the firsl commandment, but is used as a preposition, 
 followed, ae usual, by the objective case: — 
 
 " TIhiu shall have aone other Gods but me " 
 The i , however, ought to have been translated 
 
 Insiili s in.-, pra to r me. 
 
 .///-/, Or. 
 
 The conjunctive nature of and, and the disjunctive 
 nature of or, musl I"- kepi in view throughout a aentence. 
 
 \ hi in ii.. metaphor, or an allegory in a picture, as well 
 
 read them in :i description."- -Adduorit Dialogue* on Medals, 
 •• It must indeed !»• confessed tli.it a lampoon or .\ *:itin- do not 
 carry in them robberj or murder. 11 S tor, No 29. 
 
 Or, in both these lentences being disjunctive, requires
 
 OMISSION OF CONJUNCTION. 3 09 
 
 it in the place of them, and in the latter sentence does in 
 the place of do. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 OMISSION OF CONJUNCTION. 
 
 Many passages in the classics, as well as in English 
 authors, depend very much for their vividness, energy, 
 and propriety of description, on the omission or repetition 
 of the conjunction, as circumstances may require. 
 
 If Caesar, in his celebrated despatch, had said et veni. 
 et vidi, et vici, the connecting particles would have 
 given an air of tardy deliberation to the execution of 
 the victory. 
 
 Again, Virgil — 
 
 " Ferte citi flammas, date tela, scandite muros." 
 
 Virgil. JEneid. ix. ^7. 
 
 Again, 
 
 " For there is wrath gone out from the Lord — the plague is 
 begun." — Numbei'S, xvi. 46. 
 
 Here, there is no lingering. The wrath of God and 
 the plague — its effects are simultaneous and coincident. 
 
 " Thou didst blow with thy wind — the sea covered them, they 
 sank like lead in the mighty waters." — Exodus, adv. 10. 
 
 "Thou stretchedsl out thy right hand — tin- earth swallowed 
 
 thein." — Ibid. xiv. 12. 
 
 A sublime description of God's power, and of the 
 prompt connection of cause and effect. 
 
 R 5
 
 i'.TO OMISSION OF < "V'l v i i->\. 
 
 Whrn St. Paul Baya oJ (. harity, thai v> she beareth 
 all things, believeth all things, hopeth all thin] 
 endureth nil things," he gives a beautiful summary and 
 condensation of the properties of this maternal virtue. 
 The introduction of the copulative between each member 
 of the Bentence would have spoiled the effect 
 
 I low fearfully does the absence of the conjunction 
 represent the horror and <•■ ofusion of thai dismal world, 
 in which tin- damned spirits, when fallen from heaven, 
 were doomed to wander ! 
 
 •• Through manj a dark and dreary vale, 
 They pass'd, and many a region doloro 
 O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 
 Rocks, covets lakes, fens, b •. and Bhades of death, 
 
 A universe of death." Paradisi /. ■•>'. i>- ii. 
 
 '. y eye 
 
 • ■■I light'nin li"i pernicious fire, 
 
 Among tli' accursed, thai \\ ither'd all their strength, 
 Ami of their wonted vigour lefl them drairid, 
 Exha h." \\. 
 
 \\ hat a concentration of calamity is here pictured! 
 
 drain* d\ 
 I. I, fallen" 
 
 rider tb< uprerae, 
 
 7'/,, . I reduce." 
 
 Ilntl. I 
 
 Her the absence "I tin- copula U i" mark a cl 
 concentration "I poi* er. 
 
 A the i"'- nl ii connection 1> tween the ro< mbers i 
 
 of the copula, would mark order ami
 
 OMISSION OF CONJUNCTION. 371 
 
 regularity ; so its absence in the following passage is 
 descriptive of wild confusion : — 
 
 " Then might ye see 
 Cowls, hoods, and habits with their wearers toss'd, 
 And flutter' d into rags — then reliques, beads; 
 Indulgences, dispenses, pardons, bulls, 
 The sport of winds." Paradise Lost, b. iii. 
 
 " Yet when I approach 
 Her loveliness, so absolute she seems, 
 And in herself compleat, so well to know 
 Her own, that what she wills to do or say 
 Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best." Ibid. 
 
 In this passage, the affection of Adam for Eve, and 
 the acknowledgment of the ascendancy which she had 
 gained over him, very naturally vents itself in an un- 
 interrupted series of superlatives, which disdain a mix- 
 ture of any thing that might diminish their intensity. 
 We recognize the same principle in the following 
 lines : —   
 
 " O fairest of creation, last and best 
 Of all God's works, creatures in whom excell'd 
 Whatever ran to sight or thought be form'd, 
 Holy, divine, good, amiable, street." Ibid. 
 
 The desperate energy of a murderous contention is 
 forcibly expressed in the following lines from Byron, 
 " Corsair," canto 2d : — 
 
 " One effort, one to break the circling host, 
 They form, unite, charge, waver — all is lost! 
 Within a narrow ring compressed, beset, 
 Hopeless, not heartless, Btrive and Btruggle ; 
 And now they fight in foremost file do more, 
 Hemrrid in, cut off, cleft down, and trampled o' 
 
 R 6
 
 372 OMISSION OF Con H \< I [Off. 
 
 When Timon gives v. m to his bitter and furious hate, 
 the violence «'t hie fe< Lings hurriea him <>n. and ran 
 him to disregard those connecting particles, which a 
 calmer state of mind and orderly arrangement would 
 naturally dictate : — 
 
   Piety and fear, 
 I! ligion to the gods, peace, justice, truth. 
 Dorm it e awe, itight-rett, and neighbourhood — 
 / . minuter.", mysteries, and trades, 
 
 /■ r, observances, customs, :m<l laws, 
 Decline i" roar confounding contraries." Sn lkspi ins. 
 
 In fact, wherever Btrong emotions <>f love or hate or 
 vengeance are struggling for immediate utterance, we 
 cannot expect that the words expressive of such emo- 
 tions will be clogged with expletives. On the other 
 hand, an affectionate remembrance would rather dwell 
 upon the Bubject, there being nothing acting im- 
 tnediatel} upon the Ben» 3, so as to produce s sudden 
 
 atement; accordingly, when Adam -peak- of 1. 
 and contrasts her loveliness with the -in to which she 
 bad Bedua d him, he is mad< to say : 
 
 ■• This w an, whom i!><>ti mad'sl to l>" naj help, 
 
 And gav'sl at thy perfecl gift, 00 good, 
 
 So Hi. >■' acceptable, sn <li\ ine, 
 I I1.1i from her hand I could suspect ii'» ill, 
 •   
 
 Shi ie "i the tree and I did eat.' 1 
 
 lutiful picture of a generous confidence, and of 
 the affection which, in Bpite of adi rse circumstano 
 
 -till It 1 1 : ; < rs in the breasl of A. him !
 
 REPETITION OF THE CONJUNCTION. 373 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 REPETITION OP THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 When Milton wishes to exhibit the effect which sin 
 had wrought upon our first parents, he places, in order, 
 the different passions that had been engendered to 
 their breasts, and exhibits them in a series, link by- 
 link : — 
 
 " Love was not in their looks, either to God, 
 Or to each other, but apparent guilt, 
 And shame, and perturbation, and despair, 
 Anger and obstinacy, and hate, and guile." 
 
 Again, when the poet, in that sublime hymn to light, 
 
 speaks of the different objects from which he had been 
 
 cut off by blindness, those objects seem multiplied by 
 
 the interposition of the particle or, and a lingering 
 
 sorrow is attached to the consciousness of each individual 
 
 privation : — 
 
 " Thus with the year 
 Seasons n't urn, but not to me returns 
 Day, or the sweet approach of cv'n, or morn, 
 Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
 Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine." 
 
 Paradise Lost, b. ii. 
 
 " If there be a royal solitude, it is a sick bed. How the patient 
 lords it there! What caprices he acts without control! How 
 king-like he sways his pillow, tumbling, and tossing, and shifting, 
 and lowering, and thumping, and flatting, and moulding it to the 
 ever-varying requisitions of his throbbing temples."— Elia, Essays. 
 
 This is a graphic description. The repetition of the 
 conjunction diffuses the action, and presents it under a 
 variety of forms. The royal patient is exhibited under
 
 T4 REPETITION OF nil. CONJUNCTION; 
 
 :i wearisome and distressing multiplicity of efforts in 
 
 rch of rep 
 
 The conjunction is repeated before each member ol 
 the following sentence for the Bake of amplification : — 
 
 Italy teems with recollections of every kiml \ for courage, and 
 wisdom, and power, and arts and sciences, and beauty, and mu 
 and desolation, bave all in their turn made it their dwelling-pin 
 
 — A .1/ ''.',. \... LI 
 
 "They brought beds, and lu-<>iis, and earthen vessels, and 
 
 wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, <n,<I 
 
 lentils, «//'/ parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and Bheep, and 
 
 ofkine for David, and for the people that were with him." 
 
 — 2 Samuel, xsii. 
 
 What a profuse variety <»l necessaries '1" these thirteen 
 
 njunctions scatter over the camp of David! Tak 
 again, the following passage, and see how beautifully 
 th article and the conjunction arc interwoven with the 
 narrative, and how forcibly they depicl under various 
 aspects the lovelin< — of the promised land : 
 
 he Lord thj <""! bringeth thee int< l land, a land 
 
 of water, of fountains and depths thai Bpring out of valleys and 
 hills; :i land of wheat :i 1 1 • 1 barley, and vines, and fig-trees, and 
 pomegranates; a land ofoil-olh -Deut, viiL 7 
 
 The attention and kindness Bhown 1»\ the <r,„„l 
 
 - 
 
 laritan towards the wounded traveller, arc Bet forth 
 tttcsl advantage by the repetition of the con- 
 junction b< fore each mi tuber of the sentence. His good 
 <»H'.' in multiplied in every direction. Bumanitv, 
 
 like a guardian angel, Beems t" flutter over the wounded 
 
 man u ith an < > 11 i < • i   » 1 1 - kin ■: .. 
 
 M But a certain Sainai 
 when he saw him he had compu »ion ou him, and went to him,
 
 REPETITION OF THE CONJUNCTION. 375 
 
 and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on 
 his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took cai-e of him." 
 — Luke, x. 30. 
 
 " The Lord shall smite thee with a consumption, and with a 
 fever, arad with an inflammation, and with an extreme burning, and 
 with the'sword, and with blasting, and with mildew, and they will 
 pursue thee until thou perish." — Deut. xxviii. 22. 
 
 What an awful extent of calamity is here presented, 
 afflictions multiplied, amplified, worked up, exaggerated, 
 and operating with individualized energy in the work 
 of destruction ! For this the passage in all its sublimity 
 is, in a great measure, indebted to the repetition of the 
 conjunction, the preposition, and the article. 
 
 The Adjective, the Article, and the Pronoun, in the Place 
 of the Conjunction. 
 
 These different parts of speech are sometimes used 
 with great effect in the place of the conjunction. 
 
 " Tell him all terms, all commerce I decline 
 NT or share his council, nor his battle join." Popes Iliad. 
 
 Again, 
 
 " Go then to Greece, report our fix'd design, 
 Bid all your councils, all your armies join, 
 Let all your forces, all your arts conspire, 
 To save the ships, the troops, the chiefs from fire." 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 " For thankless Greece Buch hardships have I brav'd, 
 Her wives, her infants by my labour sav'd." 
 
 In this last case, her in the place of and i> more 
 forcible than the copulative, because it expresses per- 
 sonality, and depicts ( i recce under a tender and feminine 
 character.
 
 376 l ii. in REJECTION. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 Till. IN I ERJE( l [ON. 
 
 An interjection is ;> mere exclamation, arising out <>t 
 a peculiar condition of the mind, ae affected by joy or 
 grief, or --in.- Less definite emotion. A- Buch it La ca- 
 pable of indefinite variety. It will stand alone, at the 
 befrinning* in the middle, or at tin- end of a sentence ; 
 hut tlu- sentence will not he affected by it, whatever 
 may be the position of the interjection. 
 
 An interjection i- oot significant by compact, ex m- 
 ttituto, and in no way enters int.. the artificial texture 
 of language. It ie an effort i r Nature t.» unburden her- 
 scli .I.' pressing emotion. Ae its name indicates, 
 
 it is thrown in among the members of a aentence, and 
 i- altogether adventitious. The English interjections 
 are such as Oh 1 Alas! Ah: The Latin such as Oh 1 Heul 
 1 1, i ' Vae I In I rre< b they arc more oumerous than they 
 are either in Latin or English. These inarticulate or 
 unjointed sounds arc common even t<> the brute creation. 
 
 Tin- expression of pain would probably oot differ ?ery 
 materially in individuals of the same Bpecies, to what- 
 ever country tins mighl belong; whilst laughter, 
 peculiar to th. hiiinan species, may he considered a con- 
 tinuous "i- protracted interjection. In the " Persai" of 
 
 JEschylue wc meel with various modifications of the in- 
 terjections. The poel has resorted to almost everj form 
 of ejaculation, in which abject misery could i»- i \-
 
 THE INTERJECTION. 377 
 
 pressed, in order to furnish gratification to the Athe- 
 nians, in beholding their once proud enemy humbled to 
 the dust, and pouring out the bitterness of affliction, to 
 the very last dregs. 
 
 Such words as Farewell ! Adieu ! Welcome ! are not 
 inarticulate sounds, and are to be looked upon as ellipti- 
 cal forms of speech rather than interjections : as, fare- 
 well! may you fare well, adieu ! d Dieu, to God, I 
 commend you to God. Can Good-by or bye, be a 
 corruption and contraction of God be with you ? Wel- 
 come, well or opportunely come ? 
 
 The following words enter into the composition of a 
 sentence, and properly speaking, therefore, cannot be 
 looked upon as mere interjections : AVoe is me ! That 
 is, woe is to me! 
 
 " O well is thee." — Psalm cxxviii. 2. 
 To thee 
 " Well is Aim, that hath found prudence." — Ecclus. xxv. 9. 
 
 To him. Yet in Ecclesiasticus, xxviii. 19., we find, 
 " Well is he, that is defended from it;" which phrase, 
 having abandoned its basis as an objective case, has no 
 grammatical standing at all, unless we suppose the phrase 
 to be an inversion of " He is well."
 
 
 >ni uium; remarks 
 
 \ bpoeleb language is Bubject to perpetual chang< 
 W ords gradually and imperceptibly Lose their meani 
 and become antiquated and inapplicable; not perhaps 
 from any etymological impropriety, but from 1 1 1 « - caprice, 
 of cuetom, and Bometimes from the passive obstinacy 
 and tenacity of downright ignorance. -V sluggish, 
 stolid, and doltish indifference to propriety is a far more 
 dangerous enemy t<» encounter than a lively, erratic ima- 
 gination. Human efforts and human patience sink 
 under the daily and hourly pressure of a dead weight, 
 and conviction r< If helplessly and hopelessly t" 
 
 the rude tyranny of popular caprice. This doea not, 
 however, always furnish an apology for the numerous 
 errors which are bo profusely scattered over tun- litera- 
 ture. We must look for them in the want of attention 
 to the peculiarities of the English language, and t.> the 
 foolish supposition, that the grammatical construction of 
 languages, wide as 1 1 1 » - poles asunder from thai of our 
 
 own. will prove a Safe and unerring guide in the anal;. 
 
 of the English tongue. Foolish, indeed, else why 
 should thr literary giants of preceding ages, imbued, 
 a- tiny doubtlessly ucif, with classic information in a 
 Midi dcjrrce, 1><' exhibited under :i load "I" ncgligei 
 
   
 
 and error, vat< I by th i minenoe "l their 
 
 ition. The purification of the English language is 
 
 worthy <»t "in - holiest and never-ceasing devotion. It 
 
 will bear t" future <>i a free, gene-
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 379 
 
 rous, and singularly energetic race of men. It already 
 overspreads a large portion of the world, and is diffusing 
 itself, east, west, north, and south. It carries with it 
 the cherished and sanctified institutions of its native soil, 
 and under the influence and adventurous spirit of the 
 parent and her vigorous offspring in America is mate- 
 rially changing, or modifying the destinies of mankind. 
 
 In all the crcat essentials of lanr>-uao;e we have arrived 
 at a degree of copiousness, such as few languages 
 possess. But English literature furnishes us with no 
 positive and recognized standard of grammatical accu- 
 racy. What was the result of the well-founded pride of 
 Greece in the excellency of her own language ? What 
 the result of the unwearied pains, which her orators 
 poets, historians, and philosophers, bestowed upon their 
 compositions? The delicate perceptions of the Grecian 
 ear would not allow a word, a syllable, a letter, to be 
 out of its place, to form a disagreeable collision of sounds, 
 or a cadence, which did not leave a pleasing effect upon 
 the senses. The result was a language, which perhaps 
 will never again be equalled in the future generations 
 of mankind ; a language which has become as necessary 
 to the intellectual wants of European civilization, as 
 bread is for their bodily support. 
 
 The French and Italians have paid great and praise- 
 worthy attention to the formation and accuracy of then- 
 respective languages, and Germany is following their 
 example. We have societies of various descriptions 
 founded on the intellectual, social, or physical wants of 
 the community ; but we have no society of a purely 
 literary character, to which the language can appeal in
 
 380 CON* 1. 1 i>iv; i: 1 m \i:k-. 
 
 the case of doubl <»r difficulty. The consequence is that 
 the vagaries of affectation, and Bometimee even of igno- 
 rance, will be seized <>n as authorities worthy of confi- 
 dence and imitation, words will be moulded in their 
 spelling to accord with the transitory and ever-varying 
 pronunciation of the day, etymology will In- lost -i-ht 
 of, and error presenl a front of brass against the hand 
 ion. But if the rery "jsall .-hall have lost its 
 flavour," i! men of high literary character Bhall think the 
 grammatical structure of the English language a secon- 
 dary consideration only, we must n<»t be surprised if the 
 Bicknese of the head should communicate itself to each 
 individual member. It is no unusual thing for men of 
 great classical attainments to say : •• 1 ran understand the 
 grammatical construction of a Gre< k or a Latin sentence, 
 I can comprehend its syntactical arrangement, and the 
 mutual dependence of its aeveral parts; bul in English 
 I 9ee nothing bu1 the force of custom, and the unbridled 
 licentiousness of idiom." But, it may be asked, have 
 these gentlemen ever paid a fiftieth pari of the attention 
 to the construction of the English Language, which they 
 have paid to thai of classical literature? The Greek 
 and Latin languages t" them have been the -mdy of 
 a Life; the English frequently Little more than an inci- 
 dental acquisiti a matter of ear and imitation rather 
 
 than cit' grammal ical principle. 
 
 lint surely there is much in our native English 
 which deservi parate attention <>n the pari of thi 
 
 to whom the education of youth ie entrusted : and no 
 tin n would '■> more likely to apply themselves with 
 success t" the grammatical analysis of their native
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 381 
 
 tongue, than those who already have made language 
 their study, and pondered over the exquisite concate- 
 nations of Greek and Roman sentences. 
 
 The errors which have been brought forward in the 
 course of this work are but as grains of sand picked from 
 countless and immeasurable heaps. The difficulty has 
 been in rejecting rather than finding examples of error. 
 The author has frequently been apprehensive of over- 
 loading a position with testimony ; at the same time he 
 is well aware, that many things worthy of attention 
 must have altogether escaped his observation. He is 
 indeed sensible of the imperfection of his labours ; not 
 only as far as his own individual ability is concerned ; 
 but he feels that a work made up from a variety of se- 
 parate parts must, from its very nature, remain imper- 
 fect, and capable of indefinite addition and improvement. 
 Literaiy error is infinite in its forms. It meets us 
 under a variety of aspects, sometimes presenting a bold 
 and unblushing front, sometimes shy and retiring, some- 
 times of doubtful character. It slips from the mind 
 unperceived, it eludes investigation, it goes forth before 
 the public, and when too late, we perhaps feel obliged 
 to acknowledge the force of the trite maxim "fugit 
 irrevocabile verbum." 
 
 THE END.
 
 I 0K9OM : 
 
 1 Shaw, 
 ^-struct- Square.
 
 WORKS IX GENERAL LITERATURE. 
 
 On the ORIGIN and RAMIFICATIONS of the 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By H. Welsford. 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 MITHRIDATES MINOR; or, an ESSAY on 
 
 LANGUAGE. By II . Welsford. 8vo. 14s. 
 
 ENGLISH; or, the ART of COMPOSITION Ex- 
 plained. By G. F. Graham. Fcp. 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ENGLISH SYNONYMES CLASSIFIED and 
 
 EXPLAINED. By G. F. Graham. Fcp. Svo. 7s. 
 
 TEXT BOOK of ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By 
 
 'the Rev. John Hunter. 12mo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 The DEBATER; a SERIES of COMPLETE 
 
 DEBATES, OUTLINES, and TOPICS. By F. Rowton. 
 Fcp. Svo. 6s. 
 
 The Rey. J. PYCROFT'SCOURSE of ENGLISH 
 
 RE A DING adapted to every Taste and Capacity. Fcp. 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
 The Ret. J. PYCROFT'S COLLEGIAN'S 
 
 GUIDE; or, Recollections of College Days. Post Svo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Mme. NECKER De SAUSSURE on PROGRES- 
 SIVE EDUCATION". Translated by Miss Holland. 3 vols. 
 Fcp. Svo. 19s 6d. 
 
 LEV AN A; or, the DOCTRINE of EDUCATION. 
 
 From the German of Jean Paul F. Richter. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Mb. MAUNDER'S TREASURY of KNOW- 
 
 LEDGE ami LIBRARY of REFERENCE. Fcp. 8vo. 10s.; 
 
 bound, 1 2$. 
 
 Mr. MAUNDER'S LITERARY and SCIEN- 
 TIFIC TREASURY. Fcp. 8vo. 10*. ; bound, 12«.
 
 ks in ('<< i" nil l.ih inline. 
 
 Mb. MAUNDER'S BIOGRAPHICAL TEE A- 
 
 SUB1 compri ig l 2,0O i Memoirs. Ftp. Bvo. lOt,; bommd, lit 
 
 Mb. MAUNDER'S HISTORICAL TREASURY i 
 
 comprising the History of ever) Nation, 7'./'. IOi ; bommd, 
 
 l Be. 
 
 Mb. MAUNDER'S TREASURY of NATURAL 
 
 HISTOB1 with 900 Woodcuta. Fep. Bvo. 10* ; />o»,i</, 12*. 
 
 Mb. J. ECCLESTON*S [NTRODUCTIOH to 
 
 ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES. Wood Engraving*. Beo. 81*. 
 
 Mb. A. RICH'S COMPANION to the LATIN 
 
 D1CTIONABY. With 2000 Woodcuta from the Antique. 
 
 POlt I 90. 21*. 
 
 TheFOUNTAIN of ARETHUSA. By Robbbi 
 
 I I mm, M. A. •_' volt, pott Bvo. 
 
 SOUTHEY'S DOCTOR, &c Complete in One 
 
 Volume. Portrait, Vignette, Bust. Crown Bvo. '_'1». 
 
 The Rev. SYDNEY SMITH'S WORKS. New 
 
 Edition, with Addition t, Svolt. G   ■. P 
 
 FRANCIS LORD JEFFREYS CONTRIBU- 
 
 riONS to the EDINBUBGH REVIEW. Svolt. Bvo. Me, 
 
 Sib .1. MACKINTOSH'S MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 WOBKS Edited bj R. J. Mackintosh. B volt. Bvo. 48*. 
 
 Mb, M\( LULAY'S ( l:l ll» \L and BISTORI- 
 
 CAL I ^ s \ ^ s contributed t" the Edinburgh Review. :t i 
 
 Mi.. M \( Ml. LY'S HISTORY of ENGLAND; 
 
 from t F Jamct II. Volt, I. and 1 1 
 
 LONDON: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, \M> LONGMANS
 
 A CATALOGUE 
 
 OF 
 
 NEW WORKS 
 
 IN GENERAL LITERATURE, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS, 
 
 39, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 
 
 CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 Agriculture and Rural Affairs. 
 
 7 
 7 
 
 I i 
 
 I I 
 14 
 
 Bayldon on Valuing Rents, etc. 
 Caird's Letters on Agriculture . 
 Cecil'i Stud Farm . • • • 
 Loudon's Kncvclopiedin of Agriculture 
 Low's Elements of Agriculture 
 
 ,, Domesticated Animals . • 
 
 M'lntosl. and Kemp's Year Book for the 
 
 Country   . • •   
 
 Arts, Manufactures, and 
 Architecture. 
 
 Arnott on Ventilation . • 
 
 Bourne on the Screw Propeller 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, etc. 
 Chevicul on Colour . • • , • 
 Cresy's Bucyclo. of Civil Engineering 
 Eastlakc on Oil Painting • , . • . • 
 Gwilt's Encvclopa-dia of Architecture 
 Herring on Paper Making . . • 
 Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art 
 
 Commonplace Book 
 Loudon's Rural Architecture . 
 Moseley's Engineering and Architecture 
 Piesse's Art of Perfumery . • • 
 Richardson's Art Of Horsemanship . 
 Scrivenor on the Iron Trade 
 Stark's Printing . . • • • 
 Steam Engine, by the Artisan Club 
 Tate on Strength of Material! 
 Ure'i Dictionary of Arts, etc. 
 
 Biography. 
 
 Arago'i Autobiography . . 
 ,, Lives of Scientific Men 
 Bodeustedt and Wagner's Schamyl 
 Buckingham's (J. S.) Memoirs 
 Bnnien i Hippolymi • • 
 
 Clinton'! (Kvnes) Autobingrapby . 
 Cockavuv's Marshal Turcnne . • 
 Dennlitonn'i Stnuije and l.umi»den 
 Forster's De Foe and Churchill . 
 
 Haydon'a Autobiography, by Tom Taylo 
 Hayward's Chesterfield and Selwyn . 
 Holcroft's Memoirs .... 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia 
 Maunder's Biographical Treasury . 
 
 He It of the Duke of Wellington 
 
 Memoir! of Jamei Montgomery 
 Mcrivalc's Memoirs of Cicero . 
 
 Russell's Memoirs of Moore 
 
 ,, Life of Lonl William Ruliell 
 St. John's Audubon the Naturalist . 
 Southey's Life of Wesley 
 Soulhey's Life and Correspondent'! 
 Select Correspondence 
 
 IS 
 
 ys 
 
 Pages 
 
 . 21 
 
 . 21 
 
 . HI 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 Stephen's Ecclcilaitlcal Biography 
 Taylor'! Lovola 
 
 ,, Wesley . • • 
 Waterton's Autobiography and Ell 
 Wheeler's Life of Herudotm . 
 
 Books of General Utility. 
 
 Acton's Modern Cookery Book 
 Black's Treatise on Brewing 
 Cubinet Gazetteer 
 
 Cust's Invalid's Own Book 
 Gilbart's Ixigic for the Million 
 Hints on Etiquette 
 How to Nurse Sick Children 
 Hudson's Executor'sGuide 
 
 ,, On Making Wills 
 Kestcven's Domestic Medicine 
 Lariiner's Cabinet Cyclopedia . 
 Mauuder'l Treasury of Km.wlcdg 
 Biographical Treasury 
 Scientific Treasury 
 Treasury of History 
 
 ,, Natural History 
 
 Piscator's Cookery of Fish 
 Pocket and the Stud 
 Pycrofl's English Reading 
 Reece's Medical Guide 
 Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary 
 Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries 
 Boget'l English Thesaurua 
 Row toll's Debater . 
 Short Whist . . . 
 
 Tin, nison's Interest Table! 
 Webster's Domeitic Economy 
 Welt on Children's Disease! . 
 Wi Hick's Popular Tables . . 
 
 Wilmot's Blackstone's Commcntanei 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 111 • 
 11 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 10 
 16 I 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 IS 
 lti 
 IS 
 IS 
 18 
 19 
 IS) 
 IS 
 IS 
 20 
 S3 
 53 
 2-1 
 24 
 24 
 
 Botany and Gardening. 
 
 Hooker's British Flora . 
 
 Guide to Kew Gardens 
 
 ,, Kcw Museum . 
 Lindl'ey's Introduction to Botany . 
 
 „ Theory of Horticulture 
 London's HortusBritaunicus . 
 
 ,, (Mrs.) Amateur Gardener 
 
 Eucyclopmdiaof Trees \ Shrnbl 
 Gardening 
 " " Plants . 
 
 MMii'toah and Kcinpl Yiax Book for th« 
 
 Country   
 
 Percira's Materia Mcdiea .... 
 Rivera's Rose Amateur's Guide 
 Wilson's british Mussel • 
 
 Ifi 
 10 
 1U 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 
 IS 
 
 u 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 Loudon: l'riuted by M. Mason. Ivy Lnuo, 1'nUiuotUr llow-
 
 CLAs-.II II l> I Ml \ 
 
 Chronology. 
 
 Blair's Chronologic"! Tables 
 Bunscn's Ancient Kgrpt . • 
 Heydu's Bestsnn's Index 
 Jliqurmft '• ' 
 
 Johns and Nicolsa'i Calender el 
 Nicolas »r "I History 
 
 Pages 
 
 • d 
 
 Commerce be. Mercantile Affairs. 
 
 Kraiirls nn the Stock Kxchange » | 
 
 Gilbert's I'ra.tu ar'rcaii.r m. Banking . 'j 
 
 I   tier, in «Y ..uh-MmIci Mariner 14 
 
 MM ellocb'e I .■miiicric end Narigetmu . 1* 
 
 Banking I 
 
 n the Iron Trad* . .IV 
 
 1 101 * Interest Tablet 
 
 Tooke's Hlitiirr of I'riics . . . - 
 
 Criticism, History, & Memoirs. 
 
 Au.llu's tirrmany 
 
 Blair'. Chron. and Historical Tables . 6 
 
 Butiscu's Am icnl Kgypt ... 6 
 
 ,, HlppOlytlU .... 7 
 
 Burton'. HI I Scotland' * 
 
 C bapman'a CiustaTiiB Adolphus 
 
 .re and II sTOOB'l He. I'aul . . 
 Kaatlakc'i n :l Palming . N 
 
 Krskinr's Hi-lory ol India y 
 
 II unpalgn • . 
 
 . MUtorlcal .--ketches . 
 Hamilton'* IMacaaal in Pbiloaophr. etc. 10 
 
 Peg" 
 
 Turner's Anglo-Saxons . • • . -3 
 
 ,, Middle Ages . ... 33 
 
 Sacred History of the World . 13 
 
 Vrhae's Austrian Court ... 23 
 
 Whltrlockc's Swedish K.rnbeeey . . 34 
 
 Woodl* Crimean Campaign . • s M 
 
 Youug's < Unit of History . • • M 
 
 Geography and Atlases. 
 
 Arrow. mill.'. ( of the Bible . » 
 
 Brewer's lll.torlral Atlas .... 6 
 
 Bullrr's ticograpby and Atlaaes . . 7 
 
 Cabinet Uaaetleer . 
 
 < 'oinwall, it. Mines, Sccnety, etc. . 32 
 
 Durrleu's Morocco 22 
 
 Hughes's Australian Colnuice . •   "J 
 
 John. ton '. t.rnrral t.aicltt er . . .12 
 
 I Bogllafa Risers . . 12 
 
 M't ullo, i,'. i, r. graphical Dictionary . 16 
 
 It ii.. i a and Turkey . . 13 
 
 Millicr'. Haltic Scs 16 
 
 ,, Crimea .   . « . M 
 
 Murray's Kncyclopsrdia ofTieography . 17 
 Sharp's llriti.ii t.aicllcrr . . . .20 
 
 Wheeler's Geography of Herodotus . 24 
 
 Juvenile Books. 
 
 Dffmphy, bj Tom Tavlor 
 botlone 
 and Noola.'s Calaadv of victory 
 Ketnble's Ahtrlo-Saxnn. in Kngland 
 i-r's Cabinet Cyclopowill 
 • snr's Hi. tory of Jersey . 
 
 Macaulay'a Ks.ays 
 
 u tli.tory of Kngland . , 
 
 .. .... 
 
 Mi kintn.h'. Mi. i eitaatOfU Works 
 
 ,. HUt .ii.i . . 
 
 M'Cullock'a Geographical Dli tionary 
 Mm oira of ltu.«ia . . 
 
 Maunder*. Trea.urr ol Hi. tore 
 
 ■>.e Duke of Wellington 
 Men. ale's III. tor. ol It. BM 
 
 n Roman Itrpubllc . . 
 
 Mllncr's Chun h History . . . . 
 
 e'» It. ..in.. Memoirs, etc. 
 Murr's t.rrrk Literature . . . . 
 
 Kaikra's Journal 
 
 Hankr*. Kf-rdiuatid and Maximilian . 
 
 • I oapaoloa to l.alm Do to. nary 
 le's Latin On lion arias 
 
 is'. K..ai. from Kdlobafgb It' M- w 
 
 rlosret's Boi • l-irii. 
 
 It. i. .ell'. [Lady Rackeli Lottori 
 
 lam Kus.rll . 
 
 ' i '. HI. tor. ..( i,i. 
 red Annals 
 
 . 
 Stephen's Ki I lesiestli al Biography 
 
 LOCI   : • • r y 
 
 Sidney Smith's Works .... 
 
 ,, t "A • Iks 
 
 H . < . on MorslPhllosophy 
 
 If. . 
 
 ' I da II 
 
 W.slcr >| 
 
 all'l Hilton of lirrrrr . . . II 
 
 I .......... Kngland . '.3 
 
 I 'ownsen ■!'■ -tat. I llal Jt 
 
 Turkey and I hrlslrudoin . V2 
 
 ij 
 u 
 
 is 
 
 19 
 
 l'i 
 
 19 
 19 
 19 
 
 91 
 
 '.'i 
 
 . 
 '." 
 
 Amr Herbert .... 
 
 Hall 
 
 Karl's Daughter (The) 
 Kxpericncc of Life . . • 
 Oertrodi ..... 
 (iilbart's Logic for the Yonng . 
 11. mitt's llnv'iCiiuiiIrr Book . 
 ,, (Man) Children's Year 
 Katharine Asbtou . . . 
 
 d Pmnooogw . . • 
 
 Mrs. Marcet't ('niiversallont • 
 
 Margaret P. i. n nl . . . 
 
   . Kiiglish Reading . 
 
 Medicine and Surgery. 
 
 ttroilu'. I'. ii liolo>;ical Inquiries 
 
 Bull's Mint. In Mothers . . . . 
 
 Managrmentof Children 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine . 
 
 I u.C. Invalid'. (I.u Book 
 
 Holland's M - and flrdeetlons 
 
 ,, Mental Phrslology . 
 
 How to Nut olir 
 
 K- On. n's Dono oc 
 
 Latham On Dlsra.rs of the Heart 
 
 .. Oq Health, Di.ra.r, and Remedy , 
 raOi l- i sad Dli t . . . 
 
 ,, Materia Medll a 
 Rerre'a Mcilli el tniide . . . . 
 
 W. .t ..n is.. Di.ea.es of Infancy 
 
 '■ 
 I 
 I 
 t 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 II 
 II 
 
 i: 
 I) 
 
 I- 
 
 Is 
 
 ll 
 
 Miscellaneous and General 
 Literature. 
 
 •matin's Ske' ...an Life . . I 
 
 C.rli.le'a l.eilures and ,\.|.|re..es , 22 
 
 Cbalrba-ii.'a Spn ulatlrr I'hllo.ophy H 
 
 l.reg'a Political and S Ilii.il . . • 
 
 fjflrser'i Beaming Rocrratlooi . V 
 
 Has. all nn Adulteration of loo. 1 . |u 
 
 iBoOkol I'. .-nine. . , III 
 
 . Mental I .... Ill 
 
 r'l Kit Oa . . . .in 
 
 II... ill's Itursl life of Kngland . II 
 
 ,. Visits In llruisrkahle riaees . II 
 
 Jsmes.     . Book . 12 
 
 •.1 . . . .11 
 
 LaUl ,uire. .17 
 
 . ) Mlscellai . >
 
 to Messrs. LONGMAN and Co.'s CATALOGUE. 
 
 Man 
 
 ght 
 
 Martineau's Miscellanies . . . 
 Memoirs of a Maitre d'Armss • 
 
 Pascal's Works, by Pearce . . 
 Pycroft'e English Reading 
 Rowton's Debater .... 
 Sir Roger De Coverley 
 Smith's (Rev. Sydney) Works . 
 Soutbey'a Common-Place Books 
 
 ,, Doctor . . . 
 
 Souvestre's Attic Philosopher 
 
 ,, Confessions of u Working 
 
 Spencer's Principles of Psychology 
 ,, Railway Morals and Policy 
 Steplien's Essays 
 Stow's Training System 
 Strachey's Hebrew Politics 
 Tagart on Locke's Philosophy . 
 Thomaon'sOutlineofthe LawsofThou 
 Townsend's State Trials 
 Tuaon's British Consul's Manual 
 Willich's Popular Tables . 
 Yonge's English Greek Lexicon 
 
 ,, Latin Gradua 
 Zumpt'sLatiuGrammar • 
 
 Natural History in General. 
 
 Callow's Popular Conchology ... 7 
 
 Ephemera and Young on the Salmon . 9 
 
 Gossc's Natural History of Jamaica . 9 
 
 Kemp's Natural History of Creation . 22 
 
 Kirby and Speuce's Entomology . . 12 
 
 Lee's Elements of Natural History . 12 
 Mann on Reproduction ... .15 
 
 Maunder'sTreasury of Natural History . 16 
 
 Turton's Shellsof the British Islands . 23 
 
 Von Tscbudi's Animat Life in the Alpl . 22 
 
 Waterton's Essays ou Natural History . 23 
 
 Youatt'sThe Dog . ... 24 
 
 ,, The Horse 24 
 
 Pages i 
 
 • 16 i 
 
 • 18 ! 
 
 • I 8 
 . 19 
 . JO 
 . 20 
 
 22 
 SI 
 21 
 '.I 
 21 
 21 
 21 
 23 
 23 
 
 HI 
 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 Pages 
 
 1-Volume Encyclopaedias and 
 Dictionaries. 
 
 Arrowsmith'g Geog. Diet, of the Bible 
 Blaine's Rural Sports 
 Brande's Science, Literature, and Art 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine . 
 Cresy'a Civil Engineering 
 Gwilt's Architecture .... 
 Johnston's Geographical Dictionary 
 Loudon's Agriculture . 
 
 ,, Rural Architecture 
 ,, Gardening . • • 
 
 ,, Plants .... 
 
 ,, Trees and Shrubs . 
 
 Vi*C ulloch's Geographical Dictionary 
 
 ,, Dictionaiy of Commerce 
 
 Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography 
 Sharp's British Gazetteer . 
 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, etc. . • 
 Webater'sDomestic Economy 
 
 Religious and Moral Works. 
 
 Amy Herbert 19 
 
 Arrowsmith's Geog. Diet, of the Bible . 5 
 Bloomfield's Greek Testaments 
 Bode's Bampton Lectures . 
 Culvert's Wife's Manual . 
 
 Cleve Hall 
 
 I'onybeare's Essays 
 '"'Mivbeare and Hnwaon's St. Paul 
 Dale's Domestic Liturgy . . 
 Defence of Kcliptt of Faith 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 f. 
 8 
 8 
 9 
 12 
 II 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 
 u 
 
 IS 
 
 15 
 17 
 20 
 
 ■.':< 
 
 a 
 
 Desprea's Apocalypse Fulfilled . 
 Discipline ....... 
 
 Earl's Daughter (The) .... 
 
 Eclipse of Faith 
 
 Englishman's Greek Concordance . i 
 
 ., Heb. and Chald. Concord. 
 
 Experience of Life (The) .... 
 
 Gertrude 
 
 Harrison's Light of the Forge . 
 
 Hook's (Dr.) Lectures on Passion Week 
 
 Home's Introduction to Script urea , 
 
 m Abridgment of ditto . . , 
 
 ii Communicant's Companion . 
 
 Jameson's Sacred Legends 
 
 „ Monastic Legends 
 
 ,, Legends of the Madonna 
 
 ■i Sisters of Charity 
 
 Jeremy Taylor's Works 
 
 Kalisch's Commentary on Exodus 
 
 Katharine Ashton 
 
 Laoeton Parsonage . . . 
 
 Letters to my Unknown Friends 
 
 II on Happiness 
 Long's Inquiry concerning Religion 
 Lyra Gcrnianica .... 
 Maitland's Church in the Catacombs 
 Margaret Pcrcival 
 Martincau's Christian Life 
 Milner's Church of Christ . 
 Montgomery's Original llvmns 
 Moore On the Use of the Body . 
 II .a Son] and Body 
 
 ii 'a Man and his Motives . 
 Monnonism .... 
 
 Scale's Closing Scene 
 Newman's (J. H.) Discourses . 
 Rauke's Ferdinand and Maximilian 
 Readings for Lent 
 
 as Confirmation . 
 
 Robins against the Roman Church 
 Robinson's Lexicon to Greek Testament 
 
 Saints our Example 
 
 Sermon in the Mount . 
 
 Sinclair's Journey of Life . 
 
 Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy . 
 
 ii (G.) Sacred Annals 
 Southey's Life of Wesley ... . 
 
 Stephen's (Sir J.) Ecclesiastical Biography 
 Taylcr's (J. J.) Discourses 
 
 Taylor's Loyola 
 
 II Wesley 
 
 Theologla Germanlca . 
 
 Thumb Bible (The) 
 
 Turner's Sacred History • 
 Twining'! Bible Typei . 
 Wheeler's Popular Bible Harmony . 
 Young's Christ ol History 
 ,i Mystery of Time . 
 
 Poetry and the Drama. 
 
 Arnold's Poems .... 
 Aikiu's (Dr.) British Poets 
 Baillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works 
 Bode's Ballads from Herodotus 
 Calvert's Wife's Manual . 
 
 ii Pneuma .... 
 Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts 
 Goldsmith's Poemii illustrated 
 1.. ¥.. L.'s Poetical Works 
 Llnwood's Authologia Oxoniensis 
 Lvra Germanii a . 
 afacaulay's Lavs of Ancient Rome 
 HacDonald'e within and Without 
 Montgomery's Port teal Works 
 It Origin] Hymns 
 
 8 
 s 
 19 
 
 8 
 9 
 9 
 SO 
 19 
 10 
 10 
 11 
 II 
 11 
 11 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 20 
 JO 
 12 
 12 
 14 
 7 
 15 
 20 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 22 
 17 
 17 
 22 
 
 19 
 19 
 19 
 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 20 
 21 
 21 
 21 
 21 
 '.'I 
 7 
 23 
 23 
 
 ■:a 
 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 S 
 5 
 i 
 
 6 
 7 
 
 7 
 12 
 
 9 
 12 
 14 
 
 15 
 15 
 17 
 IS
 
 .--11 111' INDEX. 
 
 Muore'i r<irtlr>l Wnrki 
 
 . lada 
 
 st.»W 
 
   Poetical Work! 
 
 Tbomtou'a Scatona, illustrated 
 
 ir 
 II 
 17 
 
 T 
 |s 
 
 to 
 
 ■-•i 
 
 II 
 M 
 
 Political Economy & Statistics. 
 
 .'.urc . . 
 
 »l Knarl 
 . ..| « Traveller 
 
   ihpli il Dit ti'in»r.T 
 ,, Itii tl-marj of Commerce . 
 ,. London .... 
 Marrrt'a P».lil i*-»l Kconomr 
 
 r.ki'« Itu. .Ian Statistic! 
 i'i I'onular Tablet . 
 
 The Sciences in General and 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Arafn'- icical Kaaaya • 
 
 Popular Aairuooaiy . 
 Boarn w Propeller 
 
 ttraiide** Dletloaar] r.ete. 
 
 ,. 1. 1 I luo -. irmlstrr 
 
 Broarujaara "'"I U"uih'. I'rtuapia 
 | 
 . I'ornwall, etc 
 
 De la n ... 
 
 i n'e lofonnaUon fur Kng 
 
 rarail ill . 
 
 f Pbj steal I 
 
 llrr.i hrl't OolUnei •>! A.lrntHimT . 
 
 Dial l'hi.i.,1,.. . 
 
 t . of Nature 
 i. ... 
 
 .lit 
 
 opndli 
 
 Ma nt 
 
   itiOB 
 
   rlti|{ anil Architecture 
 
 n.tDtiir 
 
 ' l and ' ' nal I'lts 
 
 Polariaasl Lla*Bt 
 
 • • 
 Phllllpa'a i....il. ol Cornwall, eta. . 
 •■'"Kr 
 
 ' °aT 
 
 ■nderrr 
 . . 
 . 
 
 I fir \ M , .nii I luh 
 
 I Material! 
 
 I clrlr 
 
 
 Rural Sports. 
 
 • Rifle and lliiutui In ( - 
 
   ' • 
 
 . i.a.r 
 Mini rami .... 
 l . . . . 
 
 lla»i Ira 
 
 . 
 ,. 
 Hawker*! I   . I'lt.ian 
 
 H mini* rlrl.1 .... 
 
 .■. 
 .'. 
 f- 
 f. 
 
 I. 
 f. 
 >> 
 8 
 K 
 •i 
 V 
 
 10 
 
 in 
 I" 
 II 
 II 
 II 
 II 
 II 
 
 17 
 
 i- 
 
 ia 
 
 la 
 
 Is 
 
 II 
 
 IS 
 1M 
 
 I 
 
 Idlc's Hints on Shooting . 
 
 nl tin- siud . . . 
 1 llnr-rmanahlp . . 
 
 RIckartleoD'i llor.i-n.an.hlp 
 Stable Talk an.l Table Tail 
 Stonekenge on tkeGreykoond . 
 The Bsail|foi Practical PvrpoMl 
 
 Pa^es 
 
 . II 
 
 . 10 
 
 . II' 
 
 . 19 
 
 . 10 
 
 . Jl 
 
 . 10 
 
 Veterinary Medicine, etca 
 
 Cecll'a Btable Practice .... 7 
 
 ,, Stint I'unii 7 
 
 The Hunting r- > ^ 1 .1 I" 
 
 Miles*! ll.irme Bhoelnf . . i 16 
 
 oa tl ■■! . . 1 
 
 Poc art ami thr Sluil 10 
 
 Practical Horaemanaklp .... 10 
 
 Rlchardai ' II- ruanthlp . . • II 
 Btable Talk and Table Talk . . .1" 
 
 Thr Stuil for Practical Purpolce . • 10 
 
 Youatt'aThr Dog N 
 
 ,, The Mori U 
 
 Voyages and Travels. 
 
 Allrn'i Dead Baa   
 
 Balnee'r Vandoli ifPtedntoal . £ . .33 
 
 Baker'e Wanderiara in Ceelea   . . * 
 Barrow*! Continental I "ur . . .33 
 
 Barth*a African Trarela .... A 
 
 Barton*! Medina ami Mi-rra ... 7 
 
 .1 ami Greece ... 7 
 
   Ine'i Rniala "'- 
 
 Puberty 1 ! Journal of the War . • 
 
 Hthea 22 
 
 i ii ami Mountain! . S3 
 • iway . .33 
 
 (.ir kre'i Pklllpplm ..... 33 
 
 ca .... 33 
 
 trell In Siberia . . . 1«» 
 
 Uope'i Brittanjr and tbe Bible ... 33 
 
 ,, i kaaa in Brittany . . . 23 
 
 Bowltt'e Art Student la Munltb . " 
 
 Victoria II 
 
   •■.... I I 
 
 Mur ami Oabet'e Tartar* ami Thibet . 23 
 
 5 1 '» Auetrallan -- 
 
 H iirr . . II 
 
 Hntchlnaon'i African Kzploratloa 
 
 Jainr.i.n*. < anaila ..... 33 
 
 Jrrrmaiiii'. I'titurri fn.ni St. I'rtrribarf 33 
 
 Knuiaiii'. Kaetem Tow . . .13 
 
 l.ailif's Norway ...... 23 
 
 fa Tra-rellei . . 31 
 
 11*1 lurra Narrative ol An Ur Ulscovery . I& 
 
 Marryat'. I alumina 11 
 
 Ma. no*. Zulu, nf Natal .13 
 
 Dill .■>! lira 
 
 Mllea' Raatblae In Iceland . . . BJ 
 
 M-u.trlth'. Kar. anil i i /rrniini . . 16 
 
 ! Voyage rovad the World . . BJ 
 
 ,, Sr. mill ditto . . . IH 
 
 BCOtt I l>anr« anil Swrilra . . . IP 
 
 Beatrard'i Narrative of bit Sklpurreca' . IP 
 
 I M.ir. .mi Caaada 33 
 
 IVkeeler'o Travel! of Herodotoe . '.a 
 vVemo'e Africae WaBderlagi . 
 
 ■it . ?4 
 
 llranl ami tl r Mn r Trade Sj 
 
 Works ol" Fiction. 
 
 Armilil'i OaklaM 4 
 
 Ladf Vi llloagbbi '• Diary . . . . H 
 
 . It 
 
   .... 30 
 
 » I '■   t..r J| 
 
 • Warden JJ
 
 ALPHABETICAL CATALOGUE 
 
 OP 
 
 NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS. 
 
 Modern Cookery for Private 
 
 Families, reduced to   System of Easy Prac- 
 tice in a Series of carefully tested Receipts, 
 in which the principles of Baron Liebig and 
 other eminent Writers have been as much 
 as possible applied and explained. By Eliza 
 Acton. Newly revised and much enlarged 
 Edition; with S Plates, comprising 27 Figures 
 ami 150 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. price /»• 6rf. 
 
 Aikin. — Select Works of the 
 
 British Poets, from Ben Jousou to Beattie. 
 With Biographical and Critical Prefaces by 
 Dr. Aikin. New Edition, with Supplement 
 by Lucy Aikin ; consisting of Selections 
 from more receut Poets. Svo. price 13s. 
 
 Allen.— The Dead Sea a New 
 
 Route to India: with other Fragments and 
 Gleanings in the East. By Captain W. 
 Allen, R.N., F.R.S., etc. With Maps, 
 Woodcnta, and coloured Plates. 2 vols, 
 post Svo. price 2oa. 
 
 Arago (r.)-Meteorological Es- 
 says. By Francis Auaoo. With an Intro- 
 duction by Baron Humboldt. Translated 
 under the superintendence of Lieut. -Col. 
 E. Sabine, K.A. 8to. ls«. 
 
 Arago's Popular Astronomy.— 
 
 Translated and edited by Admiral W. H. 
 S-jviii. For. Sec. U. S. ; and Robert 
 Grant, M A., F.R.A.S. In Two Volumes. 
 Vol. I. 8vo. with Plates and Woodcuts, 2\s. 
 
 Arago's Lives of Distinguished 
 
 Scientific Men. Translated by the Rev. 
 Badkn Powell, M.A., Rear-Admiral W. 
 H. Smyth; and R. Grant, M . \. B»0. 
 
 [/« the prclt. 
 
 Arnold. — Poems. By Matthew 
 
 Arnold. First Series | See.nid Edition. 
 
 I i Mro.5».6rf.— Second Series. Fcp. 8vo. 
 price 5i. 
 
 Arnold. — Oakfield ; or, Fellow- 
 
 ahip in the East. By \V. I). A h s i n. 
 Lieutenant 5Sth Regiment, Bengal Native 
 
 Infant rv. The Second Edition, revised. 
 3 vols, post 8vo. price 'lis. 
 
 Arnott.— On the smokelessPire- 
 
 placr, Cliiinfiev Valves, and other mean*, 
 old and new* of obtaining Healthful Warmth 
 
 Uid V. -iitilmi.nl. liv NeilAb.nott, .M.I'., 
 r U.S., F.G.S. 8vo! 6#. 
 
 Arrowsmith.— A Geographical 
 
 Dictionary of the Holy Scriptures: lnclud 
 ing also Notices of the Chief Places and 
 People mentioned in the Apocrypha. By 
 the Rev. A. Arrowsmith, M.A. 8vo. 15*. 
 
 Austin.— Germany from 1760 to 
 
 1814; Or, Sketches of German Life from the 
 Decay of the Empire to the Expulsion of the 
 French. _ By Mrs. Austin. Post 8vo. 12*. 
 
 Joanna Baillie's Dramatic and 
 
 Poetical Works, complete in One Volume. 
 Second Edition, including a new Life of 
 Joanna Baillie; with Portrait and Vignette. 
 Square crown Svo. 21s. cloth, or 42*. bound 
 in morocco. 
 
 Baker-— Eight Years' Wander- 
 ings in Ceylon. By S. \V. Bakbk, Esq. 
 With 6 coloured Plates. 8vo. price 15*. 
 
 Baker.— The Rifle and the Hound 
 
 in Ceylon. By S. W. Baker, Esq. With 
 Plates and Woodcuts. 8vo. price 145. 
 
 Barth.— Travels and Discove- 
 ries in Africa. By Dr. Barth. With Maps 
 and Illustrations. Comprising Journeys 
 from Tripoli to Kmika , from Kouka to 
 Yola, the Capital of Adamawa, and hm k ; 
 to Kanem, accompanying a Slave-Hunting 
 Expedition to Musgo ; tmd his Journey to 
 and Residence in Bagirm'). Also, a Journey 
 from Koiika to TlmOUCtOO ; his Residence 
 in Timbuctoo ; and his Journey back to 
 Kouka. [in the press. 
 
 Bayldon's Art of Valuing Rents 
 
 and Tillages, and Tenant's Right <if Enter- 
 ing and Quitting Farms, explained !■ v 
 Bevenl Specimens of Valuations ; with 
 Remarks on the Cultivation pursued on 
 Soils in different Situations. Adapted to 
 the Use of Landlords, Land Agents* Ap- 
 praisers, Farmers, mid Tenants. New Edi- 
 tion. revised by J. Donaldson. Svo. 10*. Go* 
 
 Berkeley.— Reminiscences of a 
 
 Huntsman. By the Honourable (.kantlet 
 F. Berkeley. With four Etchings by 
 John Leech. Svo. price 14i. 
 
 Black's Practical Treatise on 
 
 Brewing, ba and Econo- 
 
 mical Principle! i With Formula for Public 
 Brewers, nnii Instructions for Privet* 
 lies. Several lllustratloni printed in Co- 
 lour*. New Edition, enlarged. Svo. 10|. i.rf.
 
 6 
 
 WORKS tHD \rw EDI I [ON8 
 
 Blaine's Encyclopaedia of Rural Professor Brande's Lectures on 
 
   
 
 U, and l». - ri olive, oi H 
 
 tlBgi Kikblhtf, ttn in*, kiiil old' 
 
 merit* of tli.- 
 present da*. \\ ih . rardi 
 
 CUt*. .\ nCW I rertned 
 
 brlliHHT (In ran, Ki-HiMRHt. >nii Mr 
 A. GUUHM I With liumri.iui additional 
 lllutt; 
 
 Blair's Chronological and His- 
 
 ■l Table*, li to the 
 
 preirnt I'juir with Addition* W 
 rcctioo* from ittc mmi aulto 
 luitu i'aul, II 
 
 tin* the |'. 
 the Temple. 1'iidcr I 
 
 Himnt aVIXte, 1* H. New Kdltlou, with 
 i -i o. price 31*. 64. 
 
 Bloomfield.-Thc Greek Testa- 
 
 mem : With 
 Phllol 
 
 formed tor the u»r ol adf tOCed StutlriiU alii 
 
 Candldatea fot Hoi Order*. U\ the tin 
 si Bi wmu>, D.D. K.8.A. Ninth Kdl- 
 . throne bom . with Dr I 
 
 field'! Suftiilrmn. t ■; t y A n«..f ullo'i* wi..t- 
 
 porated. ItoU. Bra with llftp, prli 
 
 Dr. Bloomficld's College fcSchool 
 
 H Itfe 
 
 Note*, rKlrflv Pbllolngii al and Kxplana- 
 tor*. Seventh i"rf ekrnprr Kditinn. witfa 
 
   ud indri. Ftp, s * ". price 7 1. 6*f. 
 Dr.Bloomfield'sCollege<fc School 
 
 .laiucut. I 
 
 price lu*. fief. 
 
 Bode.— The Absence of Prcci- 
 
 ■n h ol 
 
 r lpturat an \ State 
 
 I "fon t. return 
 
 J r- Boos, M.A., 
 . pro, prto j 
 
 Bode. -Ballads from Herodotus : 
 
 I 
 
 Sods. M \ , lata Btadt at of I 
 
 Kdltl with four additi- 
 
 -., M applied t<t Manu- 
 facts i „ , lllekt hint; . 
 
 Su^ar Manufacture, the 
 Prctcn *ti<>n "t W....1, Tannine, etc. deli 
 Tered before tbe Member* of th- 
 liiititution. Amifn by pcrmi»»loii from 
 torer'a Notre b) J s. ipihx, M.U. 
 1 p. peo. a with vYoodt uu, price 7*. 6*\ 
 
 Brewer.— An Atlas of History 
 
 Mud (ieoifraph) , fiom the Comin-r. >no ut ol 
 the Cbmllma hra to the Pie— I Time i 
 CoBBf - - -doured 
 
 Mm... arranged in CbroBi logit *.! order, 
 with lllu»traiiirc Maaaoire. by the IWt J. 
 H I- ten. M.A., Prof< *»->r oJ KoeUah 
 Literature in K o<*»< olt 
 M tp* corapUi i d or B . 
 
 Wcllcr.F.K.li.s. RoyalSvo l.i.o*. half bd. 
 
 B r o d i e. — Psychological In- 
 
 Keea*i intended to 
 Uloetrmte thr Influent r i Ice) Or- 
 
 ation on tin- Mental Pecutlea. By 
 Blr Ban • Latin " Baooia, Bert., D ' I. . 
 
 V I' ll.s, i | ol the 
 
 •,c ol rraiur, >tC, Third Kdtttou. 
 I   1' BfO. prlco 6*. 
 
 Brougham and Routh.— Analy- 
 
 • View of Sir Isaac N wtun'i Pi 
 l»» II t i rd B DouiM, F.R.8 . Mi ■- 
 the National Inatltttta of France and 
 Of the Hoval AcadaBa] ol \aplr* ; a 
 
 .« ol Bt, Peter*t College, 
 Cambridge. b*o.prnc If. 
 
 Autobiography of James Silk 
 
 Bocklnprhejo i [nclodlog hie V->^ *«< ■„ rta> 
 
 *cl», Ad* enturea, Spet ulatloi I 
 
 >' ,urr », dai.Uh and laithfullt narrated: 
 
 with » harecterlatli sL« t< bee 
 
 with whom h< haa hail peraonal tntn i <<ur*e 
 during * pi rlod «'< more than Fifty Year*. 
 
 Vol*. |. and 11 | 
 
 *.• Vola. HI. and IV edited by the Au- 
 thor** Son, and eoeaoletbafl tbc work* arc 
 
 preparing fur publu an 
 
 A Treatise on the Steam Engine, Bull.-The Maternal Manage- 
 
   
 
 Navigation, and Rallwaya B] the Artlaan 
 
 .. t Y 
 
 i, and 
 
 Bourne A Treatise on the 
 
 **. tr<m Proptllav : With vartot 
 
   
 
 Brandc.— A Dictionary of Sci- 
 
 »' uir, Hid 
 
 U lory, U 
 
 , ' .,rr, llriii.l, f M 
 . will. 111*- i ' 
 
 P'lrrOO). 
 
 ililrrn lii (!«,ltli »ii'l Ihktiiar. 
 
 n< T Boll, M4>. Nn h.iiiiuu, >t«ii. 
 - jj. 
 
 Dr. Bull's Hints to Mothers for 
 
 thr Man* r Health vtvteg 
 
 thr Period ol Pregnancy and In iht 
 
 in Houtn i With an Kipoiun 
 
 In • eilon with tl 
 
 • in I II i ill a on Ntmlng New KUktmu 
 prtt e 6*. 
 
 Bunscn.— Egypt's Place in Uni- 
 I I J. I III 
 
 D.O.L., 1» Ph rrmntlaud i ; 
 
 H.I -iiii.il , Fa., M fVrth 
 
 nun.fiiiiii llluatration*. Vol I. H»o. 3S*. j 
 
 Il.tvo.wOr.
 
 Bunsen.— Lyra Germanica : 
 
 Hymns for the Sundays mid chief Festivals 
 of the Christian Year. Translated from the 
 German by Catherine \Viaswo»lH.- 
 Stcond Edition. Fcp.8vo. 5«. 
 
 • .• This selection of German Hymns has 
 been made from a collection published in 
 Germany by the Chevalier liuuscu i audit 
 forms a companion volume to 
 
 Theologia Germanica : which 
 
 setteth forth many fair lineaments of Divine 
 Truth, and saithvcry lofty and lovely things 
 touching a Perfect Life. Translated by 
 Susanna Winkworth. With a Preface by 
 the Rev. Charles Ki.nosley ; and a Letter 
 by Chevalier Bunsen. Second Edition. 
 Fcp. 8vo. of. 
 
 Bunsen.— Christianity & Man- 
 kind j Their Beginnings and Prospects. 
 By C.C.J. Bonsen, D.D., D.C.L., D.Ph. 
 Being a NewKdition, corrected, remodelled, 
 and extended, of Hippolytut and hit Age. 
 7 vols. 8vo. price 5/. Of. 
 
 • .• ThisSecond F.dition of the Hippoly- 
 tnt is composed of three distinct works, 
 which may be had separately, as follows: — 
 
 1. Hippolytus ana his Aire; or, the Be- 
 ginnings and Prospects of Christianity. 
 % vols. 8vo. price II. Wj. 
 
 2. Outlines ofthe Philosophy of Universal 
 History applied to Language and Religion] 
 Containing au Account of the Alphabetical 
 Conferences. e;2 vols. Svo. price 1/. 13». 
 
 S. Analecta Ante-Nica;ua. 3 vols. 8vo. 
 price 2f. -». 
 
 Burton, 'R. P.)— Personal Nar- 
 rative of a Pilgrimage to El Mediimh and 
 Mcccah. BvUk-hardF. Burton, Lieut. 
 Bombay Armv. With Map, Plan, Woodcuts, 
 and coloured Plates. 3 vols. 8vo. 2J. 3«. 
 
 Burton.— The History of Scot- 
 land, from the Revolution to the Extinction 
 of the last Jacobite Insurrection (1689— 
 1748.) By John H. Burton. 2 vols. 8vo. 26*. 
 
 Bishop Butler's General Atlas 
 
 of Modern and Ancient Geography ; com- 
 prising Fifty-two full-coloured Maps ; with 
 complete Indexes. New Edition, nearly all 
 re*engraved, enlarged, and greatly im- 
 proved . Koyal 4to., price 24«. half-bound. 
 
 Bishop Butler's Sketch of Mo- 
 dem and Ancient Geography. NewKdition, 
 thoroughly revised, with such Alteration*. 
 Introduced as continually progressive l>is- 
 coveries and the latest Information have 
 rendered necessary. Post 8vo. price 7». 6d 
 
 The Cabinet Gazetteer: A Popu- 
 lar Exposition of all the Countries ol the 
 World ; their Government, Population, 
 Revenues, Commerce and Industries; 
 Agricultural, Manufactured, and Mineral 
 Products ; Religion, Laws, Manners, and 
 Social State. By the Author of The (alii- 
 nit Lawyer. Fcap. Svo. price lOi.Grf. 
 
 The Cabinet Lawyer : A Popu- 
 lar Digest of the Laws of England, Civil 
 and Criminal ; with a Dictionary of Law 
 Terms, Maxims, Statutes, and Judicial Anti- 
 quities ; Correct Tables of Assessed Taxes, 
 Stamp Duties, Excise Licences, and Post- 
 Horse Duties ; Post-Office Regulations, and 
 Prison Discipline. 16th Edition, compris- 
 ing the Public Acts of the Session 1855. 
 Fcap. 8vo. price 10# . 6o*. 
 
 Caird.— English Agriculture in 
 
 1S50 and 1851 ; Its Condition and Prospects. 
 By James Caird, Esq., of Baldoon, Agri- 
 cultural Commissioner of The Times. The 
 Second Edition. 8vo. price 14*. 
 
 Calvert.— Pneuma( or, the Wan- 
 dering Soul. A Parable, in Rhyme and Out- 
 line, liv the IUv; W. Calvert, M.A., 
 Rector of St, Antholin'i, and Minor Canon 
 of St. Paul's Cathedral. With 20 Etchings 
 by the Author. Square crown 8vo. 10j. 6d. 
 
 Calvert.— The Wife's Manual? 
 
 or. Prayers, Thoughts, and Songs on Seve- 
 ral Occasions of a Matron's Life. With 
 Designs by the Author in the style of Queen 
 Klixabetli'i Prayer Book. By the Rev. W. 
 Calvert, M.A. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6o". 
 
 Carlisle (Lord). — A Diary in 
 
 Turkish and Greek Waters. By the RitrLt 
 Hon. the Earl of Carlisle. Fifth Edition. 
 Post8vo. \0i.6d. 
 
 Catlow. — Popular Conchology ; 
 
 or, the Sin- 1 1 Cabinet arranged according 
 to the Modern System; With a detailed ac- 
 count of the Animals ; and a complete De- 
 scriptive List of the Families and Genera of 
 the Recent and Fossil Shells. By Aones 
 Catlow. Second Edition, much improved ; 
 with 405 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. price 14«. 
 
 Cecil. — The Stud Parm 5 or, 
 
 Hints OH Breeding; Horses for the Turf, 
 the Chase, and the Road. By Cecil. Fcp. 
 8vo.with Frontispiece, price 5s. 
 
 Cecil.— Records of the Chase, 
 
 and Memoirs of Celebrated Sportsmen; 
 illustrating some of the Usages of Olden 
 Times and comparing them with prevailing 
 Customs: Together with au introduction 
 to most of the Fashionable Hunting 
 Countries; and Comments. By Cecil. 
 Fcp. 8vo. with two Plates, price 7«. 6d. 
 
 Cecil.— Stable Practice 5 or Hints 
 
 011 Training for the Turf, the Chase, and the 
 Road : With Observations on Racing and 
 Hunting, Wasting, Race Riding, and Han- 
 dicapping. By Cecil. Fcap. 8vo. with 
 Plate, price 5». half-bound. 
 
 The Census of Great Britain in 
 
 1S51 ; Comprising an ACI "'Hit "f the Num- 
 bers and Distribution "f the People ; their 
 Ages, C.iiiugal CondltlOtti H, , upntinns, 
 and Birth-place I with Returns ofthe Blind, 
 the Deaf-and-Domb, and the Inmates of 
 Poblic Institutions; and au Analytical In- 
 dex. Royal 8vo. 5».
 
 NEW WORKS IHD n I W ll'I 1 rON8 
 
 Chalybaeus's Historical Survey Lady Gust's Invalid's Book.— 
 
 ul«titr Pbllotophr, fn-in 
 Kant l 'i He iff I , dealgnrd • » an 1 utr 
 l<» tb> Ihi lit rent B 
 
 Trentlstrd from the German br ALrnsu 
 Tilk. Po»i S»o. prfc f Si. 6sf. 
 
 Chapman.— History of Gusta- 
 
 »u» Adolphas,an< t j Years ' War, 
 
 .if \ri OUBl "I 
 
 IW( ItphaUa. 
 
 Bj Bj iuiu.h.M A ,V». ■rofLctheTBtad. 
 
 [/*• the mrr$s. 
 
 ChevTeul's Principles of Har- 
 
 1 oloara, and their 
 
 • 
 log, i 
 
 i i   lerpreai 
 
   is Coloaring, l>rr»i. Landscape 
 sad >   raatlatad be 
 C'mahi » > M*ttTk.t. s< ( oad Edition , with 
 4 pistes. Crovo Bro. IOi. Grf. 
 
 Clinton.— Literary Remains of 
 
   n, M A Author of las 
 
 Fiitt f/riirnici thr ftart rSeasanf, sic. 
 
 igraphv snd Literary 
 
 j.nrnil, aad brief Bsaayi on Theological 
 
 i J Pt h as 
 
 • lot -n, M.a. Peal | i. fid. 
 
 Conybeare.— Essays, Ecclesias- 
 
 itCd, Willi n. 
 
 view. h   
 
 « ITfUlli M A., Utr r'cllnw ot 
 
   Irge, l'smbrnli*e. Bro i 
 
 Conybeare and Howson.— The 
 
 .1 : <*"iu- 
 I 
 
 • -• I - I rtr-i 
 In   i order. Bi t he Rer. VV, J 
 
 • i \ ». i , >1 \ , aad Ism Rev. J. fl 
 
 ! . a l*lales snd 
 
 - tuli. sto. i 
 
 Dr. Copland's Dictionary of 
 
 Pre • ' -■■ral 
 
 Pal ki men i of 
 
 Dli truclares, snd t :.» D 
 
   
 i , and to t bi 
 vita avaieroai *i'i» f » 
 
 M Vnif 1 snd 1 1 
 
 * . , sad Parti X. to XVI I. prii r 
 4f»M.afl 
 
 •.• Pari XVIII., completing tbc work, li 
 tm the prrtt 
 
 Crtsy's Encyclopaedia of Civil 
 
 %|, ft III) 
 
 illustrated i.t apwsrdi 
 W 
 
 The Cricket-Fi.ld; or, the Sci- 
 
 iii>l llm.irT of (lir It.mr of i 
 
 i Prlmeiplti t/SHrmll/lt 
 II tiling. > il> ruici ud 
 
 Thr Invalid'! Own Book : A( 
 Rtclptl Irmn vnrlMui Bookl »iiJ l.lUl.l 
 Coutriw. Br ihr llonour»blr I.aut Ciii. 
 ■d Kuitiuu. Fi | - U. W. 
 
 The Rev. T. Dale's Domestic 
 
 I and Kftfu.lv Chaplain . I 
 
 rstPartbclne, ( bui adapted 
 
 for Domestic Use, srlth Pr ay e r s, for rTcrr 
 
 l>ar of the Week, select* -It from 
 
 tha B   isson Pi ■»* bt« PsVt 1 1 . 
 an appropriate Sermon for every 
 
 Bandar lo the Yeai n Post 4lu. 
 
 .i >li. Crf . nil . 
 
 Srpsrsle.TjT"' * AV ' .. 
 
 1 iTlls UoMi.li ;''J 6d. 
 
 Davy Dr. J. The Angler and 
 
 lead ; or i Piscatory Colloaalai snd 
 Pishing Kxcarsloos. It ..M.D., 
 
 F.U.S., el 
 
 Delabcche.— Report on the Geo- 
 
 ■•. Cornwall, Devon, and 
 
 ' ' in i 1 i i, F.R.8, 
 
 Will, Haps, Woodcut*, and LI Pistes. b*vo. 
 prii i Mj. 
 
 De la Rive.— A Treatise on Elec- 
 tridrj . in Thaon aad Pi tli ii>- A 
 
 Di i\ Him. i Icoir of 
 
 Uaaera. Trsoslated for the Anthor by U.V, 
 ^Aihiii. F.R.8. In Seols. with nai 
 Vol. I §eo, las. . Vol. I 
 
 Dennistoun. -Memoirs of Sir 
 
 Hnii' rt str«ii k 'f. Kui.. Bagntfar. Maabaj 
 
 of tc* • I 
 
 mill of bit Brother-ln>Law, Andrea Lam la- 
 den, Prieate Serretsrr locbr Stusii Pi 
 sad Author of Thr AmtifmUlti «/ Home. 
 
 i '. . . . ■■: 1 1, i - 
 
 . Miiii lUastraXloaa, Ha, 
 
 Disprcz.— The Apocalypse Ful- 
 
 i ( be Mn.nir 
 
 tnj andtheCumlne of the Son of Maai 
 An Ai.»*fr to the .-#> •0ml gstffe Saefc4ei «»d 
 The Bad, bj Dr. Cummlti| it^ lha Rav, 
 
 I' . S - I »r it- it i i. H.I I. ,Sre"ud ffalf (MS, en 
 Mvo.prii 
 
 Discipline. By the Author of 
 
 i Fnltaon n i 
 
 J K.lnion, enlarged 18a 
 
 Dodd. The Food of Loudon: A 
 
 h of thfl | 1.1 r, r» of 
 
 U 
 rival, I'ro, sssei of MftUufai ! 
 Adulterstlnn t snd Mai bli 
 
 1 ftiol * Half. D 
 
 Hrtttih bfaaM/ai turn, 
 
 Dubcrly.— Journal kepi during 
 
 . artara of the 
 * nffland In I, to the 
 
 i   i hi Mrs lit m 
 
 , Srswad / HitiuH . Poal 
 
 Eastlaki . Materials for a His- 
 
 ' .141,11, 
 
 East i ana, r R.S., I > \ . I'. 
 
  
 
 The Eclipse of Faith ; or, a Visit 
 
 to a BellgtOUfl Sceptic. Seveuth Edition. 
 Fcap.Svo. price 5*. 
 
 A Defence of The Eclipse of 
 
 Faith, by its Author : Belli? a Rejoinder to 
 Professor Newman's Reply. Stcond Edi- 
 tion, revised. Post 8vo. price 5*. 6<f. 
 
 The Englishman's Greek Con- 
 cordance of the New Testament: Being an 
 attempt at a Verbal Connexion between 
 the Greek and the English Texts l Including 
 
 a Concordance to the Proper Names, with 
 Indexes Greek-English and English-Greek. 
 New Edition. Royal 8vo. price 42*. 
 
 The Englishman's Hebrew and 
 
 Chaldee Concordance of the Old Testa- 
 ment: Being an attempt at a Verbal Con- 
 nexion between the Original and the 
 English Translations : with Indexes, a List 
 of the Proper Names and their Occurrences, 
 etc. 2 vols, royal Svo. price £3. 13*. Cd. ; 
 large paper , j£4. 14*. Gd. 
 
 Ephemera. — A Handbook of 
 
 Angling; Teaching Fly Fishing, Trolling, 
 Bottom Fishing, and Salmon Fishing ; with 
 the Natural History of River Fish, and the 
 best Modes of Catching them. By Ephb- 
 hbha. Third Edition, corrected and im 
 proved ; with Woodcuts. Fcp. Svo. price 5*. 
 
 Ephemera.— The Book of the 
 
 Salmon: Comprising the Theory, Principles, 
 and Practice of Fly-Fishing for Salmon; 
 Lists of good Salmon Flies for every good 
 River in the Empire ; the Natural History 
 of the Salmon i all Its k&OWn Habits de- 
 scribed, and the best way of artificially 
 Breeding it explained. With numerous 
 coloured Engravings of Salmon Flies and 
 Salmon Fry. By £pkf.mkka; assisted by 
 Andriw Yocno, Fcp. Bvo.with coloured 
 Plates, price 14*. 
 
 W. Erskine, Esq.— History of 
 
 India under Baberand Hnmnynn • the First 
 
 Two Sovereigns of the House of Talmuc 
 By Wii-liam Ehskine,Es'i. Sto1s.8to.82s. 
 
 Fairbairn— Useful Information 
 
 for Engineer! i Being   Series of Lectures 
 
 delivered to the Work iug Engineers of York- 
 shire and Lancashire . With a Series of Ap- 
 pendices, containing the Hesults of Experi- 
 mental Inquiries Into the Strength of Mate 
 n lis, the Cause* of Boiler Explosions, etc . 
 Br Wiiimm Foi.iimiis, p. U.S., F.G.8, 
 With Plates and Woodcuts. Royal Svo. 15*. 
 
 Faraday Professor .—The Sub- 
 
 ji-i i-Matler of Six Lectures on the Non- 
 Metallic Elements, delivered before the 
 Members of the lloyal Institution i»v 
 Prolesior Faraday, P.C.L., r.U.s. 
 etc. Arranged by permission from the 
 Lecturer's Notes by J. ScoFFKny, M.B 
 Fcp. Svo. price 5*. tid. 
 
 Francis.- Chronicles and Cha- 
 
 racteri of the Stock Exchange. By John 
 ii. New Edition. Hro. price M't. Od 
 
 Gilbart.— A Practical Treatise 
 
 on Banking. By JamEs Wii.li.vm Gubart, 
 E.R .S., General Manager of the London and 
 Westminster Bank. Sixth Edition, revised 
 and enlarged ; with Portrait of the Author. 
 2 vols . 12mo. price 16*. 
 
 Gilbart.— Logic for the Million: 
 
 A Familiar Exposition of the Art of Reason- 
 ing. By J. W. Gilbiut, F.K.S. Fourth 
 Edition. 12mo. price 3*. 6rf . 
 
 Gilbart.— Logic for the Young : 
 
 Consisting of Twenty-five Lessons in trie 
 Art of Reasoning. Selected from the Logic 
 of Dr. Isaac Watts. By J. W. Gilbart. 
 F.R.S. l'Jmo. price 1*. 
 
 Goldsmith's Poetical Works. 
 
 Edited by Bolton Cornet, Esq. Illus- 
 trated by Wood Engravings, from Designs 
 by Members of the Etching Club. Square 
 crown Svo. cloth, 21*.; morocco, £l. 16*. 
 
 Gosse.— A Naturalist's Sojourn 
 
 in Jamaica. By P. H. Gossb, Esq. With 
 Plates. Post 8vo. price 14*. 
 
 Essays on Political and Social 
 
 Science. Contributed chiefly to the Edin- 
 burgh Review. By William R. Ghsu, 
 2 vols. 8vo. price 24*. 
 
 Grove.— The Correlation of Phy- 
 sical Forres. Bv W. H. G&OTX.Q.C, M.A. 
 F.K.S. TAirrf Edition, 8vo. price 7*. 
 
 Gurney. — Historical Sketches 
 
 Illustrating some Memorable Events and 
 Epochs, from a.d. MOO to a.d. 1546. Bv the 
 Rev. John Hampden Gobnbt, M.A. 
 Aew Edition. Fcp. ttvo. [In the preat. 
 
 Gurney.— St. Louis and Henri 
 
 IV. Being a second Series of Historical 
 
 Sketches. Bv the Rev. J. Hampdbn Gcr- 
 NiiY, M.A. Fcp. Svo. 6*. 
 
 Evening Recreations \ or, Sam- 
 pies from the Lecture-Room. Edited by the 
 Kev. J. H. GvBJtSYj M . \ . Crown Svo. 5*. 
 
 Subjectt. Lecturert. 
 
 English Descriptive Poetry— 
 
 The Rev. Mi Hal ford, B.D. 
 Recollections of St . Petersburg — 
 
 The Rev.C.M.Birrell. 
 Sir Thomas More — 
 
 Charles Buxton, Esq. 
 The Fall of Mexico— 
 
 The Rev. J. H. Gurney, M.A. 
 The House of Commons; its Struggles 
 and Triumphs — 
 
 G. K. Rlckards, Esq. 
 John Bunyan — 
 
 The Rev. E.J. Rose, M.A. 
 The Reformation — 
 
 The Rev. A. P. Stanley, M .A. 
 
 Gwilt. — An Encyclopaedia of 
 
 Architecture, Historical. Theoretical, and 
 Practical. Bj Jou PB Qwtxt. Illustrated 
 with more than 1 ,t n m i Kngravings on 
 from Designs by J. S. Gw ilt. Third and 
 cheaper Edition. 8vo. price l.v
 
 LO 
 
 NEW WORKS am. M.u EDI flONA 
 
 Hamilton.— Discussions in Phi- 
 
 i Kdoi aliun and 
 
 • f.'rfiw- 
 
 ♦■r< I i .) , en- 
 
 \M Hamilton. Bart. Sound Edi- 
 tion, with Addttloni. 8»o. price llf. 
 
 Hare Archdeacon '.— The Life 
 
 1 1 i . i - - 
 
 «Vi*awuMru. Squire crown Seo.28f. 
 
 Haydon.— The Life of Benjamin 
 
 Historical Puint' 
 <rapbv an. I JournaU. HtUd 
 upiled bjr Tom Tatlob, MA ...I 
 ncr Temple, h.q. Second E 
 roll, poiis.o. price 3li.6d. 
 
 Herring.- Paper and Paper- 
 
 ■aUng, Ancient >n,l Mo. I. m . Ilr R 
 
 VfU an Introdu 
 Ret. G r, 111". Stfmu Edl- 
 
 rita Corrections and Additions | Sped 
 
 mtiii end PUtei. 810. 
 
 Harrison. — The Light of the Sir John Herschel. — Outlines 
 
 -unscis .In" Sick Bed 
 
 I. II. •.!.■ i   Humid*. 
 
 M.A. : atl tl y -»■•■ price if. 
 
 Harry Hieover.— The Hunting- 
 
 liinitY Hinovau. With Two 
 
 PUt.-' >l. 
 
 Harry Hieover. — Practical 
 
 ..41. .hip. Bf IllltllT illMoVBK. 
 
 • . « lb J PUtMi I 
 
 ■i ■- .n.l. 
 
 Harry Hieover.— The Stud, for 
 
 \l Porpoaes nod IV. 
 belli* • t.uiJc in t 
 
 ihoWi Br H * nit r lln- 
 "Ti n Wilb S I'Ulcs. Fcp.Bro. price 6*. 
 
 Harry Hieover. — The Pocket 
 
 • ml Hie Mud i nr. Practical : 
 
 ment of tl.e MiMr. Hv Ilium 
 
 HiaoTBB. Becond Kdil with Portrait. 
 
 < i. price Si. ball-bound. 
 
 Harry Hieover. — Stable Talk 
 
 . - . v . I i young 
 
 iw II aii k i lliaovi 
 
 rtr-ut, :,«. 
 
 Hassall, Dr. -Food and its 
 
 l.anerl tat the Vein 11.il t.. l-.il in. lu.l.r, 
 
 a ll:M 
 
 . nil', l it WToodi in, 'J»«. 
 
 Col. Hawker's Instructions to 
 
 in ill tint relatei to iium 
 
 led in. I 
 
 down In tbr Pl Uj |he 
 
 . Nr» Portrait. end 
 
 i 
 
 *.'c and 
 Being • New Kdlllou, Ire- 
 
 I. Ull'l- N8 . I K.» 
 
 New K. mm ii, arllh nomi • \\ 
 
 Krtnugt. Itino. ptlci 
 
 Hooker. Museum ot'Economic 
 
 . 
 
 maiaablr '. 
 
 MUsKUM In "lie if.,, ,1 Gardens ..I Kcw. 
 •• J II , .„. h.ll . I" i i 
 I m'.I ,H '.Villi It 
 
 of Atlr.iiii.iDT. U> BlrJoBN ■>, \v 11,,,,- 
 CH1L. U.i ,„ ; »,|h Pine, 
 
 and Wood Engraving*. 8ro. price Ua, 
 
 Hill. -Travels in Siberia. By 
 
 B B Mm.. Anii.i.r ..( rVaweli M Mr 
 
     I'.- I: -,e. With a lares 
 coloured Map ol and Asiatic 
 
 Hu.m. 1 roll, poll 8*0. pri. 
 
 Hints on Etiquette and the 
 
 U*<     .-I v.i. lent Wltb a Glance al Had 
 
 It. Nea - 
 illliom) br aLadvof Itnnk. i 
 
 Holland.-Mcdical Notes and 
 Refection*. Br Sir Hanar Holland. Bert, 
 
 M. p.. r. R.8.. Phyi . Ian ll 
 the Queen and i" Pi 
 
 , »nh Allcratluui aud Addition*. 
 8»o. pric. 
 
 Holland.— Chapters on Mental 
 
 .Hi.l.. 
 HI v. Pi u 
 
 tune. I in iirdfil .V.lei urij Hrjt 
 Hi Ibc lame An' . r.rf. 
 
 Hook. — The Last Days of Our 
 
 ibe principal Kvents of Pessloi 
 
 W. V. II. ...a, D.D., Chaplain la Ordinary 
 
 tolbcUi.ru New Kdll ' 
 
 Hooker and Arnott's British 
 
 1 re . Ci iniprlslne; the Phn i 
 
 . I'll. 
 lion, with Additions and I 
 i, an. I nnaerotti PlgvreSi illuttratlre 
 . Plants, t" 
 i 'r Plaull, tli.- Qraaai ., ami llie Kerm 
 wilt IS Plate., price lie., with Ihc 
 PI aie. coloured, prii i lie, 
 
 B Book Of Dignities i SirW.J.Hookcr'sPopularGuidc
 
 publishbd dy LONGMAN, BROWN, and Co. 
 
 11 
 
 Home's Introduction to the 
 
 Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy 
 Scriptures. A New Edition, revised, cor- 
 rected, and brought down to the present 
 time, by T. Hartwell Hohne, B.D. (the 
 Author) ; the Rev. Samuel Davidson, L).l>. 
 of the Universitv of Halle, and LL.D. i ""d 
 S. Pridbaux Treoelles, LL.L). 4 vols. 
 8vo. [/n the press. 
 
 Home's Compendious Introduc- 
 tion to the Study of the Bible. Btin< an 
 Abridgment of the Author's Introduction 
 to the Critical Study and Knowledge ot 
 the Holy Scriptures. New Edition ; with 
 Maps and other Engravings. |2mO, price 'Js. 
 
 Home.— The Communicant's 
 
 Companion : Comprising an Historical 
 Essay on the Lord's Supper; Meditations 
 and Prayers for the Use of Communicants ; 
 and the Order of the Administration of the 
 Lord's Supper or Holy Communion. Uy 
 the Rev. T. IIartwell IIoknf, B.D. 
 Royal 3-mo. 2s. 64. ; morocco, 4*. tid. 
 
 How to Nurse Sick Children: 
 
 Intended especially as a Help to the Nurses 
 in the Hospital for Sick Children ; but con- 
 taining Directions of service to all who have 
 the charge of the Young. Fcp. 8vo. It. 6</. 
 
 Hewitt. -(A. M.) An Art Stu- 
 
 dent in Munich, By Anna Ma it r lluwnr, 
 2 vols. postSvo. price 14*. 
 
 Howitt.-The Children's Year. 
 
 By Mary Howitt. Wilh Poar Illustrations, 
 
 from Designs bj Anna Mary Uowitt. 
 Square 1 Ohio, price >s, 
 
 Howitt. — Land, Labour, and 
 
 Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria. With 
 Visits to Sydney and Van Pi. men's Land. 
 By William Howitt. 2 vols, post 8vo.2li. 
 
 William Howitt's Boy's Coun- 
 try Hook. Being the real Life of a Country 
 Boy, written by Himself: Exhibiting nil 
 the Amusements, Pleasures, and Pursuits 
 of Children in the Country. New Edition ; 
 with 40 Woodcut*. Ftp. 8vo. price Gs. 
 
 Howitt.— The Rural Life of Eng- 
 land. By William Howitt. New Edition, 
 corrected and revised ; with Woodcuts by 
 Bewick and Williams. Medium 8vo. 21*. 
 
 Howitt.- Visits to Remarkable 
 
 Places; Old Halls, Battle-Fields, aud 
 Scenes illustrative of Striking Passages in 
 English History aud Poetry. By William 
 1 [i.witt. New Edition ; frith upwards of 80 
 WoodcntS. First and Second Series, me- 
 dium 8vo. price 21 f* each. 
 
 Hue— The Chinese Empire : a 
 
 Sequel to Hue and (iabet's Journey through 
 Tartar? and Thibet. By the Abbe" Hue, 
 many years Missionary Apostolic in China, 
 right Translation , with the Author's 
 ■Miction, Second fcdition, with coloured 
 Map aud Index. 2 vols. 8vo. 24*. 
 
 Hudson's Plain Directions for 
 
 Making Wills in conformity with the Law i 
 with a clear Reposition of the Law relating 
 to the Distribution of Personal Kstate in 
 the case of Intestacy, two Forms of Wills, 
 and much useful Information. New and 
 enlarged Edition ; including the provision! 
 of the Wills Act Amendment Act. rip. 
 Svo.piice 2s. Od. 
 
 Hudson's Executor's Guide. 
 
 New and enlarged Edition ; with the Addi- 
 tion of Directions for paying Succession 
 Duties on Heal Property under Wills and 
 Intestacies, and a Table for finding the 
 Values of Annuities and the Amount of 
 Legacy and Succession Duty thereon. Fcp. 
 8vo. price G* . 
 
 Humboldt's Cosmos. — Trans- 
 lated with the Author's authority, by Mrs. 
 Sabinb. Vols. I. and II. l6mo. Half-a- 
 Crown each, sewed ; 3*. (id. each cloth : or 
 in post 8vo. 12*. 6rf. each cloth. Vol. III. 
 post 8vo. 12*. firf. cloth: or in lGmo. Part 
 
 I. 2*. 6rf. sewed, 3*. 6d. cloth; aud Part 
 
 II. 3*. sewed, 4*. cloth. 
 
 Humboldt's Aspects of Nature. 
 
 Translated, with the Author's authority, by 
 ftlrs. Sabinb. New Edition. Ifimo. price 
 6*.: or in 2 vols. 3s. Gd. each cloth; 2*.Gd. 
 each sewed. 
 
 Hunt. — Researches on Light in 
 
 its Chemical Relations; Embracing a Con- 
 sideration of all the Photographic Proces- 
 ses. Bv KoniRT Hunt, F.R.S., Professor 
 of Physics in the Metropolitan School of 
 Seience. Second Edition ; with Plate and 
 Woodcuts. 6vo. price I0*.6tf. 
 
 Idle.— Hints on Shooting, Pish- 
 ing, etc. both on Sea and Land, and in the 
 Freshwater Lochs of Scotlaud : being the 
 Experiences of Christopher. Idle, Esq. 
 Fcp.8ro.6i. 
 
 Mrs. Jameson's Legends of the 
 
 Saints and Martyrs. Forming rhe First 
 Serus of Sacred and Legendary Art. 
 Second Edition ; with numerous Wo. Mi- 
 cuts, and Ifl Etchings by the Author. Square 
 crown 8vo price 28*. 
 
 Mrs. Jameson's Legends of the 
 
 Mm nasi ic Orders, as represented in the 
 Fine Arts. Forming the Sueoiid Series of 
 Sacred and Legendary Art. BfiCOl 
 lion, corrected aud enlarged ; with 11 Etch- 
 ings by the Author, ami 88 Woodcut.-. 
 Square crown 8vo. price 28*. 
 
 Mrs. Jameson's Legends of the 
 
 M ad i hi n », us represented in the Fine Arts. 
 
 Forming the Third Srriei • <( Saired and 
 Legendary Art. With 55 Drawings by the 
 Author, sad 162 Wood Engravings. Square 
 crowu 8to. price 28*.
 
 12 
 
 NEW WOBKB AND NE^ EDITIONS 
 
 Mrs. Jameson.- Sisters of Cha- Kemp. -The Phasis of Matter: 
 
 lu an. I Prolr.faM, Abroad »nd 
 at il<im(. Wv Mrs. Jaukimid. B*i 
 Kdllloo. Fcp.'ft' 
 
 Jameson.— A Commonplace Book 
 
 '•Irmitrici, Ud Kaliric, I ' 
 
 r«n I. Bthlci ud 
 
 ira. Icr ; Part II Literature- and Alt. By 
 Mil Jiki, |t. Nrroaaf MIMea, wltB Rich- 
 
 Jaquemet.— A Compendium of 
 
 Cbronolotrrt Oonialninc the moat Important 
 Dal 
 
 tiaiti.al. and I llfrarr, from lie Cr alloc of 
 the World 10 thr cud of Ihr Y. «r ISM. By 
 
 t II .!». • Ic.i lir Ihe Hcr.JolIM 
 
 . M A- Pott ->" 7r-6d. 
 
 Lord Jeffrey's Contributions to 
 
 u.c BdlBbarfB Rerlaw. A Nob I llttoo. 
 complete In One Volumr ; with Portrait and 
 
 ••.e. s.|<iir.- ran 
 Jui. calf.— Library Kd. lion, in 3 Tula. Hro.-K'l. 
 
 Bishop Jeremy Taylor's Entire 
 mth ■!• Life, bj Bishop H 
 
 > II A II 1 BJ 
 
 . I .. ..i Orttl 
 ford. Complete lu IOtoIi.Htu . lot. 6d. each. 
 
 rtnnc an Outline of thr lii.rnTcrlet and I 
 Application of Modem Chrmlattr. Bv T. 
 l.iM.lai Knur, M.D., Author of Tkt 
 .Vnfur.,/ Hi. for» "J I rrntlun. etc. Willi 
 
 140 W.....U uu. -'toll, erown S'o. si i. 
 
 Kennard.— Eastern Experi- 
 
 encri collettrd during a Winter'* Tour in 
 and thr Holy 1-and By Adam 
   >»o. io«. M. 
 
 Kestcven.— A Manual of the 
 
 Hi W. II. 
 
 Klilni>,I.H.l'.> ^ua/epuit Sto. ~t ' .' 
 
 Kirby ckSpence's Introduction 
 
 i.. I- atoamol ■■mentt of • 
 
 tural Hlitory of In tacit I rompn- 
 a. . oiu.l o| noxious an.l im lui InBtCta, of 
 
 t In i r Uetamorphntea, Food, stratagem., 
 
 . - . 
 
 H mailoBf Initloct, etc. NrwEdJtloa. 
 
 2 irolt.8TO.witb Platct, price Sit. Gat. 
 
 L. E. L.— The Poetical Works 
 
 of Latttla Rllaabetl I MowBdltloai 
 
 with I Tlfoetuiby Richard Doyla. •: rob. 
 
 lCino. price IUi. clulb | morocco, '.'1 1. 
 
 Johns and Nicolas -The Calen- Dr> Latham on Diseases of the 
 
 ' H»«t. Lecture, on Subject 
 
 with Clint* *l M INuftMt of tht 
 
 Hr»rt Bi l* Mi Lath *.m, M.D , PI 
 Kxirnur.hnarv to the Wucru. New Editiuii 
 S vol*, l.'inij. price In*. 
 
 Mrs. R. Lee's Elements of Na- 
 
 tural II Lstoi 
 
 Itlttf the Prl I CIamI- 
 
   tl with amuilng and 
 
 ru   »t rrmti 
 
 • hi. 
 
 i :*ii"t; I li r i i r I UtM- 
 
 r*ed with amuilng 4.1.1' 
 Itntru - 1 rrtittk- 
 
 ible Animal*. New 1 
 with numrrmi* additional Wuutlcuti 
 , 1   64. . 
 
 A Sr rlr- «>' 
 Mimu. Hi Mahv A] vVltfc 
 
 ful llltutrationa ol Plover Bad. 
 
 and BJUCattfd In Illuminated I'r n 1 
 OwcnJuuc*. Imperial Hvu. Sli Sd 
 
 rep. 
 
   : Being ►. H-   "r«l ■■! .intuit 
 Valour Mid * Sr * '•"'I 1- I 
 
   -r, in- in the Karli. *t 
 
 thr B»lUa "' Ink* rm*lili. I'r ... 
 
 .nnriuni b* the Wte Majm 
 
 J.,ii>., KM P. H 
 
 41. lt.M. r- p, *•»■' pi It I W*\ 6rf. 
 
 Johnston.— A New Dictionary of 
 
 pd, Btatla- 
 mplete 
 Central «•* 
 
 Ujr, 18i5. 8vo. ,Vn 1 l-.it. , 
 -bound lu rut.it, III. 
 
 Jones Owen -Flowers and Le Que s ne.-Constitutional 
 
 Hlitoi l.i'Wi riM, 
 
 Jurat of the RovaH nurt, and Member 
 
 of the Mates. t>« 
 
 ini: t-« 
 
 tall. 
 
 Kilisch.— Historical andCriti- 
 
 ll l la 
 
 Ml. HI 
 
 , Willi 
 
 il, ami 
 
 : fllab Trai.-Utl-'i., »ii»'l an » 
 Conn 
 
 Kemblc.-Thc Saxons in Eng- 
 
 1 
 
 till thr |.«   
 '»ur,t, |li J..111 M - iipil KlMKLl 
 
 Letters to myUnknownFriends 
 
 Bv a 1-^dT, Aulli r ..( I '(t"i M llampi- 
 mnt It.ufib and raeu/iar 
 
 rs on Hai'iMncss, ad- 
 
 dreaatd t<> • It. t.-i h» « I ■«. » , Atttkot ol 
 
 t ttt'tt t • m$ I'm known Fritmmt, \ 
 
 Lewis's Book ofEnglishRivers. 
 
 . Ltad and 
 VVaJta, partlrula 
 
 -\ fttrlklng Het t.rr » , and 
 'i.it Btaki, 
 
 ) Hvu.Hj.4d.
 
 published BY LONGMAN, BROWN, and Co. 
 
 ia 
 
 LARDNER'S CABINET CYCLOP/EDIA 
 
 Of History, Biography, Literature, the Arts and Sciences, Natural History, and Manu- 
 factures : A Series of Original Works by 
 
 SIR JOHN HERSCHEL, 
 SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH, 
 ROBERT SOUTHEY, 
 Sill DAVID URKtt'STER, 
 THOMAS KE1GHTLEY, 
 JOHN FORSTER, 
 
 SIR WALTER SCOTT, 
 THOMAS MOORE, 
 BISHOP THIRLWALL, 
 THE REV G. R. GLE1G, 
 J. C. L. DE S1SMONDI, 
 JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S., G. 8. 
 
 And other Eminent Writers. 
 
 Complete in 132 vols. Fcp. Svo. with Vignette Titles, price, in cloth. Nineteen Guineas. 
 
 The Works $eparately f ia Sets or Series, price Three Shillings and Sixpence each Volume. 
 
 A Lift of the WORKS computing the CABINET CYCLOPjEDI A:- 
 
 Bell's History of Russia . 3 vols. 
 
 Belli Lives of British Poets, 2 vols. 
 
 Brewster's Optics, . . 1 vol. 
 
 Cooley's Maritime and In- 
 land Discovery . . 3 vols. 
 
 Crowe's History of France, 3vols. 
 
 De Morgan on Probabilities, 1 vol. 
 
 De Sisraoudi's History of 
 the Italian Republics . 1 vol. 
 
 De Sismondi's Fall of the 
 
 Roman Empire . . 2 vols. 
 
 Donovan's Chemistry . 1vol. 
 
 Donovan's Domestic Eco- 
 nomy . . 2 vols. 
 
 Dunham's Spain and Por- 
 tugal . . 5 vols. 
 
 Dunham's History of Den- 
 mark, Sweden, and Nor- 
 way .... 3 vols. 
 
 Dnnham's History of Po- 
 land .... 1vol. 
 
 Dunham's Germanic Em- 
 pire .... 3vols. 
 
 Dunham's Europe during 
 
 the Middle Ages . . 4 vols. 
 
 Dunham's British Drama. 
 
 lists .... 2 vols. 
 
 Dunham's Lives of Early 
 
 Writers ofGreat Britain, 1 vol. 
 
 Fergus's History of the 
 
 United States . . 2 vols. 
 
 Fosbroke's Greek and Ro- 
 man Antiquities . . 2vols. 
 
 Forster's Lives of the 
 Statesmen of the Com* 
 mouwealth . . 5 vols. 
 
 Gleig's Lives of British 
 
 Military Commanders 3 vols, 
 
 Grattan's History of the 
 
 Netherlands . " . .1 vol. 
 Henslow's Botany . . 1 vol. 
 Herschtl'i* Astronomy . 1 vol. 
 HerBchel's Discourse ou 
 
 Natural Philosophy . 1 vol. 
 History of Rome . 2 vols. 
 
 History of Switzerland . 1 vol. 
 Holland's Manufactures in 
 
 Metal, .... 3vols. 
 James's Lives of Foreign 
 
 Statesmen . . 5 vols, 
 
 Kater and Lardncr's Me- 
 
 chanics . . .1 vol. 
 
 . Keightlcy's Outlines of 
 
 History .... 1 vol. 
 Laidner's Arithmetic . 1 vol. 
 Lardner's Geometry . 1 vol. 
 
 10l. 
 
 It 
 Sf. 
 
 6d. 
 6rf. 
 
 10.. 
 
 Ill* 
 3«. 
 
 6d. 
 fid. 
 6d. 
 
 Sj. 
 
 fid. 
 
 7» 
 
 3l. 
 
 6d. 
 
 7: 
 
 
 17t. 
 
 64. 
 
 10». 
 
 6d. 
 
 St. 
 
 6<f. 
 
 lOt. 
 
 6<f. 
 
 14.. 
 
 
 7». 
 
 
 St. 
 
 6d. 
 
 7t. 
 
 
 7t 
 
 
 ir« 
 
 6<f. 
 
 10t 
 
 6d. 
 
 St 
 
 8i 
 
 St 
 
 fid. 
 
 e,d. 
 
 Cd. 
 
 St 
 7t 
 
 3t 
 
 fid. 
 
 fid. 
 
 lOt 
 
 Cd. 
 
 17t 
 
 .6d. 
 
 3. 
 
 6d. 
 
 St 
 St 
 St 
 
 fid. 
 6d. 
 
 i.d 
 
 34. Lard n er on Heat . . ] vol. 
 
 35. Lardner's Hydrostatics and 
 
 Pneumatlei . .1 vol. 
 
 36. Lardncrand Walker's Elec- 
 
 tricity and Magnetism, 2 vols* 
 
 37. Mackintosh, Forstcr, and 
 
 Cnurtenay'sLives ofBri- 
 
 tish Statesmen • . 7 vols. 
 
 38. Mackintosh, Wallace, and 
 
 Bell's History of Eng- 
 land . 10 vols. 
 
 39. Montgomery and Shelley's 
 
 Eminent Italian, Spanish, 
 
 and Portuguese An tbors ,8 vols. 
 
 40. Moore's History of I r eland, 4 vols, 
 
 41. Nil -dlas's Chronology of 
 
 History . . .1 vol. 
 
 42. PbiMips'Treatise on Geo- 
 
 logy .... 2 vols. 
 
 43. Powell'sHistoryofNatural 
 
 Philosophy . . . 1 vol. 
 
 44. Porter's Treatise on the 
 
 Manufacture of Silk . 1 vol. 
 
 45. Porter's Manufacture of 
 
 Porcelain and Glass . 1 vol. 
 
 46. Roscoe's British Lawyers, 1 vol. 
 4/. Scott's History of Scot- 
 land .... 2 vols. 
 
 48. Shelley's Llvesof Eminent 
 
 French Authors 2 vols. 
 
 49. Shuckard and Swainson's 
 
 Insects .... 1 vol. 
 
 50. Southcy's Lives of British 
 
 Admirals . . 5 vols. 
 
 51. Stebhiug's Church History, 2 vols. 
 
 52. Stebbing's History of the 
 
 Reformation . . 2 vols. 
 
 53. Swainson's Discourse on 
 
 Natural History . 1 vol. 
 
 54. Swainson's Natural His- 
 
 tory and Classification of 
 Animals . . , ] vol. 
 
 55. Swainson's Habits and In- 
 
 stincts of Animals . 1vol. 
 
 56. Swainson's Birds . . 2vols. 
 
 57. Swainson's Fish, Reptiles, 
 
 etc 2vols, 
 
 68. Swainson'sQuadrupcds . 1 vol. 
 
 59. Swainson's Shells and 
 
 Shell-fish ... I vol. 
 
 60. Swainson's Aniroalsin Me- 
 
 nageries . . . 1 vol. 
 
 61. Swainson's Taxidermy and 
 
 BlOfTajphy o( Zoologists 1 vol. 
 
 62. Thirlwsll's History of 
 
 Greece . . . 8 vols 
 
 3i . 6rf. 
 3*. fid. 
 7«- 
 
 24s. Cd. 
 
 35s. 
 
 10*. fid 
 14*. 
 
 3*. 6d. 
 
 7«. 
 
 3*. 6d. 
 
 3*. Cd 
 
 3b. Cd. 
 3*.6d. 
 
 It. 
 
 7*. 
 
 3*. 6a*. 
 
 17s. Cd. 
 7*. 
 
 7#. 
 
 3i.6d. 
 
 3*.6d. 
 
 3t 
 7« 
 
 (d 
 
 7t 
 
 3. 
 
 fd 
 
 St 
 
 M 
 
 St 
 
 id 
 
 St 
 
 M 
 
 28t 

 
 1 1 
 
 NEW W0RK8 an;, m.u tin noHfl 
 
 Lindley.— The Theory and Prac- 
 
 I Hofth ulturc- | ..r, an Alt 
   
 In* u; Grounds : Brio* the 
 
 Imrt, mu. h rl..»i. 1. ut.. 
 
 Bjr J.LiKULir, l'h II , I.H.S. eto.au. 
 
 Dr. John Lindley's Introduction 
 
 ' »HT. Nr * Kdlll all 
 
 and eopaOnj ; Six Pl.trs an.! 
 
 numerous Woo I trice Mf, 
 
 Linwood.— Anthologia Oxonien- 
 
 • it c lu«ibui poctti u <ii- 
 
 Ui » l«*tlnli 
 
 drrff|i|ijiii ( ur.ii'. (,i l.llLMuLlNH 
 
 KJL Hvu prue Hi. 
 
 Long.— An Inquiry concerning 
 
 Religion* ] Authiir   ►/ 
 
 ' o/ .Wan, *■ The Conduct 
 of Life/' etc. 8to. price 'J*. 64. 
 
 Lorimer's C. Letters toaYoung 
 
 Mltlrr H »rinr r 01 MHO* Hi 
 
 with UtCalUaf. New KdiUuu. r.j. 
 
 price 6f. 64. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Cot- 
 Form, and Villa Ari hilecturr and 
 Furniture ; CODUUniDg numerous Detent, 
 (r..m the Villa to t! ud the 
 
 Farm, Indodioa; Farm Hooeea. K.rmerlcs, 
 and ether Agricultural Boll. 
 trv Inni, Public Hornet, and Parorhial 
 
 ., »itl. tin- requisite Flm 
 
 Fixtures, and Furniture, atid ap| I 
 
 irdl n<, and (iardru S 
 
 New led br Mil hut' Dux l| 
 
 with iuuu Woodcuts. 810. price 63*. 
 
 Loudon's Hortus Britannicus ] 
 
 Or, Cotnloarsua uf all the Plan: 
 
 t..,i ultlYat. 1 In, or tnlr.i.lui'ed int.. Itrllaln. 
 
 An entir.-lv New Kdll trecled i 
 
 ..ut: Wit!, a Bappltarat, lodadliu all 
 the New Plants, and a New GooeraJ 
 
 lo the «h..lr Wink. Kdlt. .1 
 
 aaalated br W. II lUnea and 
 David Woost«r. 8»o. prti e (If, tid.— Th« 
 SurrLiatonr acparatclr, piice Wt. 
 
 Mrs. Loudon's Amateur Gar- 
 
 xteiBg a Mnuthlr Ouide 
 an (o what should be ftroldoa as well aa 
 what should be done In a Garden In each 
 Month: with plain Itules Aoaf lo do what 
 
 ii r. ,u..iu. |i,i. i.,. witb Woodemt* t 7*>M. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gar- T ._ _ « T „ .. „ mmm ., -, 
     ir ,,d iv... Low.- A Treatise on the Do 
 
 . 
 
 }I ..i n- uit.r*-, fl<Ti. ulturc, Ari>uri- 
 culturc, and l-«iiiJ»t »pi- ti*r'li nun; : Includ- 
 lug al> | With in (in y 
 
 bundr U. Nr* Kditioii, COITOCtvd 
 
 and impruTcd. by Mr». Lui'DuM. 8?o. 
 pricr 
 
 lUd Annual* >>i ihi BriUah liUndfi 
 
 COnprvhendloK the Natural and r- 
 roical HlatQT] "f Bpeclea mid Varieties ; the 
 i tin- Prop rtlea ol cxMrnaJ 
 Forou and Obierratlom oo the Prlnclplei 
 and Prai U< e of Bret ding-. tt* l». !,,.« . 
 r 11 U. btu. with U'.ivdiut- 
 
 an<l IHbniht ; or I J   't wn rt I i utter • 
 
 tmm Hrttannieum i 
 the IUt I i     • | 
 
 I D, N»litr | ithrallr 
 
 •Uid Popularly 1> 
 parati n, Callarri and UtM in the Art- ; 
 
 with Kiibrf-JMink,'* "f ifarlr all the B| 
 cles. With :imi \Vuudcuti. 8tu.60«. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agri- 
 
 culiare: eOmprii tt ami ,'ra< - 
 
 of tha VaJuaUou ( Tnuitfer l LajrUi| 
 
 I . ir-i-rmriil , and M ..( I.nii'lrd 
 
 1' r .   i     r '. . . 
 
 la P?o- 
 oai •••' AfHcwJtw 
 
 with ll'aj W.m. ■]. ut. |0«, 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of 
 
   
 
 In th 
 
 * 
 , utlaled bj 
   I' n. K.L.H., and David M 
 
 lac I'unl'ir lo tba lpaw/ll b Miiinim, Wit I. 
 
 rt t h an 
 
 u Ai-i't- 
 i ii mi it, w.tb abu* 
 
 - i 
 
 Loudon'sEncyclopaedia of Trees Low . s Ei eme nts of Practical 
 
 .   
 
 i Plant., thi Husbandry ol I 
 i.ir.tw Animals, and t 
 Para. New K lltiun : •■ 
 
 n»o. n*. 
 
 Macaulay. —Speeches of the 
 
 iii h i,t Ho*, r. ii. M...UU- . m p. t 
 
 reeled br Jlisosi r. M... |niu- l.i 
 
 Macaulay. The History of Eng- 
 
 Uad I ... I Junta II. Mr 
 
 v. ■.. II. ■utoron M >. >. i.ii. M 
 
 V.. I. I. .ml II. (,,,,. uric* 1... 
 
 Vula. III. and IV Sol. 
 
 Mr. Macaulay's Critical and 
 
 Hlatorii .1 Baa. •   .,„. 
 
 hurjl. II. . • i 
 
 I 1 "i. im KdiTIOH the /. i 
 
 ». r..n.|.irtr in ii, a Vouma, with r..r- 
 
 tralt and "• 
 
 . . all. 
 
 I A a..Ttian Epmoit, In 3 rola. fep.9vo. 
 
 * l'a i   <■ • I - . In 3 r..ls. riown 
 
 S»o. price Ut cloth.
 
 PUBLISHBD BY LONGMAN, BROWN, AND Co. 
 
 15 
 
 Macaulay. — Lays of Ancient 
 
 Rome, Ivry, and the Arniada. By Thomas 
 Babinoton Macaulay. New Edition 
 |6mO. price 4*. 6d. cloth; or 10*. 64. 
 bound in morocco. 
 
 Mr. Macaulay's Lays of Ancient 
 
 Rome. With numerous Illustrations, Ori- 
 ginal and from the Antique, drawn on 
 Wood by George Scarf, jun. New Edition. 
 Fcp.4to. price 21*. boards; or 42*. bound 
 in morocco. 
 
 MacDonald.— Within and With- 
 out*. A Dramatic Poem. By Georgb Mac 
 Donald. Crown Svo. It. 6rf. 
 
 Macdonald. — Villa Verocchio \ 
 
 or the Youth of Leonardo da Vinci : A 
 Tale. By the late DiAKA Lodisa Mac- 
 donald. Ftp. 8vo. price 6*. 
 
 Sir James Mackintosh's History 
 
 of England from the Earliest Times to the 
 final Establishment of tin* Reformation. 
 Library Edition, revised by the Author's 
 Sou. 2 vols. 8vo. price 21*. 
 
 Mackintosh.— Sir James Mack- 
 intosh's Miscellaneous Works: Including 
 his Contributions to the Edinburgh Review. 
 Complete in One Volume ; with Portrait 
 and vignette. Square crowuSvo. price Slfi 
 cloth ; or M$. bound in calf. An Edition La 
 I vols. ftp. Svo. price 21*. 
 
 M'lntosh and Kemp. — The 
 
 British Year-Book for the Country* for 1866 : 
 Being an Annual of Agriculture, Horti- 
 culture, Floriculture, and Arboriculture. 
 Edited U v C. M'Intosb, Esq. Author of 
 The Book of the Garden^ etc.; and T. 
 Lindlev Kemp, M.D., Author of Aeri- 
 eulturat Phytiulogy. Fcp.Svo. price 4*.6rf. 
 
 Macleod.— The Theory and 
 
 Practice of Banking: With the Elementary 
 Principles of Currency, Prices, Credit, and 
 Exchanges. By Hknrv Dunning Mac- 
 LK"D, Of the Inner Temple, Esq., Barrister- 
 at-Lavi'; Fellow of the Cambridge Philoso- 
 phical Society. 2 vols, royal Svo. price 30s. 
 
 M'Clure. — A Narrative of the 
 
 Discovery of the North- West Passage by 
 
 II. M.S. fni'Citigator, Sir It. M'Ci.i m , 
 
 R.N. Edited by Captain: BbjjkabdOsb n -• . 
 R.N., from the Ixig 1 *, Jtiurnals, and Private 
 Letters of Sir H. ft'Clure ; and illustrated 
 from Sketches taken by Commander 8. 
 Gurucy Cresswell. 8vo. [Just ready. 
 
 M'Culloch.— A Dictionary, 
 
 Practical, Theoretical, and Historical, of 
 Commerce ami Commercial Navigation. 
 Illustrated with Maps and Plans. By J. R. 
 li'l oxxoj ii, Esq. New Edition, corrected 
 to the Present Tim--, with   Supplement. 
 Svo. pril . 60s. clou ; half-ruima, with 
 flexible back, 55*. 
 
 M'Culloch.— A Dictionary, 
 
 Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, 
 of the various Countries, Places, and Prin- 
 cipal Natuial Objects in the World. By 
 J. R. M'Culloch, Esq. Illustrated with 
 Six large Maps. New Edition, revised, with 
 a Supplement. 2 vols. Svo. price 63*. 
 
 Maitland.— The Church in the 
 
 Catacombs: A Description of the Primi- 
 tive Church of Rome, illustrated by its 
 Sepulchral Remains. By the Uev. <- u.uu h.-. 
 Maitland. 8vo. price 14*. 
 
 Mann.- The Philosophy of Re- 
 production. By Robert James Mann, 
 Ml), F.U.A.S., Author of The Guide to 
 the Knowledge of Life ,the Hook of Healthy 
 Lesnorit in tirnftal Knuwlvdge, etc. With 
 Engravings ou Wood. Fcp. 8vo. 4*. Cd. 
 
 Manstein's (General) Memoirs 
 
 of Russia, Historical, Political, and Mili- 
 tary, from the Year \7>7 to l~44; a period 
 comprising many remarkable EveDts, in 
 eluding the first Conquest of the Crimea 
 and Finland by the Russian Arms. First 
 edited (in 1770) by David Hume: and now 
 re-edited, carefully compared with the 
 original French, and briefly illustrated 
 with Notes. By a " Hebtpokdsbirb In- 
 cumbent.'* Post 8vo. 
 
 Mrs. Marcet's Conversations on 
 
 Chemistry, in which the Elements of that 
 Science are familiarly Explained anil Illus- 
 trated by Experiments. New and improved 
 Edition. 2 vols. fcp. 8vo. price 14*. 
 
 Mrs. Marcet's Conversations on 
 
 Natural Philosophy, in v. liich the Elements 
 of that Science are familiarly explained. 
 New Edition, enlarged and corrected ; with 
 38 Plates. Fcp. 8vo. price lU*. 6d. 
 
 Mrs. Marcet's Conversations on 
 
 Political Economy, in which the Element* 
 of thit Science are familiarly explained. 
 New Editiou. Fcp. 8vo. price 7$. 6d. 
 
 Mrs. Marcet's Conversations on 
 
 Vegetable Physiology; comprehending the 
 Elements of Botany, with their Application 
 to Agriculture. New Edition ; with Four 
 Plates. Fcp. Svo. price 9*. 
 
 Mrs. Marcet's Conversations on 
 
 Laud and Water. New Edition, revised 
 and corrected ; with a coloured Map, shew- 
 ing the comparative Altitude of Mountains. 
 Fcp. Svo. price 5*. Od. 
 
 Marryat.— Mountains andMole- 
 
 hlllsi or, Etecollectlonsof a Burnt Journal, 
 
 By F'nANK Maiuivw. With many Illus- 
 i on Wood and In Colours, from 
 Drawings by the Author. 8vo. pries -1*.
 
 10 
 
 \ l.w WORKS .NO NKW 1 Ml [ON8 
 
 Martineau J. -Endeavours Mcrivalc. — An Account of the 
 
 »f-.i r th.- Chrlttljui l.itv : D hcm mi l* ^ 
 JiMiiMiKii^Liu. Svult. putt Stu. price 
 
 Tl. ''id. 
 
 Martinca u.— Miscellanies. 
 
 ComprUinr. K,,aiti on llr. Prldlcr, Ar- 
 nold's l.ij < .'irf t'',Tmp»nd*nrr , ( BOTC. 
 aihIMai., rheodort Ptrker'i D4»c.rf. »t 
 
 Hrliginn, " I'l.A.c. of ► alt li .*' the < 'hun I, 
 . land, And the lUltle of the thurcbei. 
 DfJouMilinMu. PoitXto.Ui. 
 
 Maunder's Biographical Trea- 
 
 iuri ; tea, and 
 
 brirf Noti.eiol i iKmlncnlPer- 
 
 snd reatlons, tr<>n\ i be 
 K*rlirtt Ported ,,f History. Furhih Kdltlon, 
 rnitr-i throasjhoat, and broasral down t«i 
 the.; *r IH54. rep. Hrn. IOf. 
 
 cloth; bouud in ruan, LSf.| calf, 12*. 6s*. 
 
 Llfl kii.I I.rtt, ft ol Cll I rO I r %li»latcd 
 
 from th< drniuii of tbekeo | andKditedbr 
 the Kc». C. Mikivalb, b.l>. IJui 
 
 Miles. The Horse's Toot, and 
 
 Ho* t" Keep It SOU ! r I ^ kit b 
 
 i ; with an Appendix on Bh< 
 general, and Hunter* in particular, IS 
 Plate* ami II *7oodeate. II r William 
 Wild, Esq.,, Imperial Bto. price l.'i. '"d. 
 
 •„• rvo Cants M Models of Off Fore 
 No l . Skod /•" Ml Poroses! 
 
 Sht>d*ett\ t.tnthfr , on Mr. M<lra*i plan, mar 
 he bid, price If. each. 
 
 Miles.— A Plain Treatise on 
 
 Horse Shoeing. By Wnmw H 
 
 With rintca and WuudiuU. SiuallStu. &l. 
 
 Maunder's Historical Treasury ( Milner.-Russia, its Rise and 
 
 riling a lieneral I nlrod iut'»ry Outline 
 
 ^i-r»nl History,, Ancient ami H 
 
 and » - <>f every 
 
 principal Nation. Neai rtdltlonj .revised 
 
 . boat, and brought dOWB 10 the Prc- 
 
 r , BTO, 10*. cluth; ruan, 
 
 B*.j calf, 1. 
 
 Maunder's Scientific and Lite- 
 rary Treasury : A New and Popular Kn- 
 C\t lopa-'lift a rul ihl tie lie* 
 
 LattfOa ; Including all Bran. :, 
 and cTerj » l 
 l-.rr an.l \rt, Nov BdltlOB, Fcp. eVO. 
 
 fries IQf. Clotb | bound La ruan, l-#. ; calf 
 clteicd, l.i I d. 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Natural 
 
 History i Or, a Popular I'm tlonerr of Ani- 
 mated N »tirr i In wh 
 
 - Urlatlca that dlttlnroUh the d 
 
 ClassSI , linirri, al , are rombiiird 
 
 with a variety of Interacting Inrorssatloa 
 
 llluitratire of thr Animal K i 
 
 Bditloa | vlth BOO Woe Fe*. 8vo. 
 
 price lDj. cluth ; ruan, l-i.; Cal/j l-». Crf. 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Know- 
 
 ' oatprli* 
 luga: nary end (•minmir, 
 
 rerseJGssetteer, a Classical Diction- 
 ary, » ' , • I^a* l>n cionary, a 
 
 » u*eful 
 
 vlatd A'tdl- 
 
 lOtb ; bound in 
 
 roam. . -* i '-d. 
 
 Merivale. — A History of the 
 
 % j • .   
 
 - : at MrpiMii, B.D.. !«'*■ I   
 
 10 III • and V. 
 
 I *tu» •lit) ' 
 ' «|.'|r|, ir 
 
 Merivale. -The Tall of the Ro- 
 
 u.aii Bt * 'II. I thr lA,t 
 
 • ilia I* I 
 < .1.1,1 ■• Hmii ah. 'i li !3mo. 7i M. 
 
 I r«. l. 
 
 ♦.• '. - .11. .-uiplrtlm th. 
 
 work, url, r**- yrtti. 
 
 Montgomery. Original HymnB 
 
 I, mil I'rlvAlr l> 
 
 Bf Jam >i.64. 
 
 Profre.i, Tr^cdiei Mil KeTolntioat. iu 
 
 the II. > . T. Mn >> it. M A., r.H.O - 
 Sto. wilb Plate, price lOl 
 
 Milncr.— The Crimea, its An- 
 
 . I. 1. 1 ud Modi mil.! l nit; the 
 
 S li 1 1 mi A, Hi. ' :   wild Sk.tch.tOf III 
 
 m and PopulcUion. Bf lb. Iter. T. 
 
 Musi... U.A.i l.ll.u.S. r,i>t Mn. »itb 
 3 Hap., 1 > . 
 
 Milner.— The Baltic j Its Gates, 
 
 .. no. I Cltl.l : Willi « \ollrc of tin 
 Uh.lrS.A. llvtli.lt.. T Mn mi,, M A, 
 
 tJiJB.B Poll 8to. nub Ma|,, prlt . 
 
 Milner's History of the Church 
 
   I i in:. i \\ It. i I'loii, by thcUtc Her. 
 
 I . . Miimii, im, l li. \ N 
 
 With A.l.lili.iiAl Nolr. 
 
 bjr the II". T. CJMA>rUi«i, U.U. 
 8ro. , 
 
 Montcith. — Kars and Erze- 
 
 r.iiini : W'ub the t Aitl|.AI k " . .if Prtl 
 
 Puklvwltcb lii the VcAr, I82X ,ml 16 
 Ami An Ar.ount of thr Hiii.iaii COBQMMi 
 •..\i. down lo the iVeAir 
 
 of TurroiiiAii t'liir aim I AilriAiiopl.-. 11* 
 
 : ii . •! the 
 
 Ma.Ii.. -ii. AltAi-he.l 10 tin 
 
 PrrAlAii Knil.A,.r. Willi Map .ud liluktr.- 
 
 ti.in, . hi ... |.| ,. c 1 '.I. 
 
 Montgomery. — Memoirs of the 
 
 I. II. ah. I Wr.tiiii{. Of jAiur, Mont. 
 In. lu.lui^ S. lei 1 1. in. from lii. I lii 
 
 . ItfiiiAiii, In I'lo.i- ah. I V'.iir, And 
 
 Bt JllS II l i . s 11 Alol 
 
 J, m, Bv.aarr, With Portralu And 
 
 1. i . IV. p.., I
 
 published BY LONGMAN, BROWN, and Co. 
 
 17 
 
 James Montgomery's Poetical 
 
 Works: Collective Edition; with the 
 Author's Autobiographical Prefaces, com- 
 plete in One Volume; with Portrait and 
 Vignette. Square crown 8vo. price 10i.6rf. 
 cloth ; morocco, 21*. —Or in 4 vols. fcp.Svo. 
 with Portrait, and seveu Plates, price Us. 
 
 Moore.— Man and his Motives. 
 
 By Okobob Moore, M.D., Member of the 
 Royal College of Physicians. Third and 
 cheaper Edition. Fcp. 8vo. price 6#. 
 
 Moore.— The Power of the Soul 
 
 over the Body, considered in relation to 
 Health and Morals. By Georoe Moore, 
 M.D., Member of the Royal College of 
 Physicians, etc. Fifth Edition. Fcp.8vo.6s. 
 
 Moore.— The Use of the Body in 
 
 relation to the Mind. By Geokob Moore, 
 M.D., Member of the Royal College of 
 Physicians. Third Edition. Fcp.8vo.6s. 
 
 Moore. — Health, Disease, and 
 
 Remedy, familiarly and practically con- 
 sidered in a few of their Relations to the 
 Blood. By George Moore, M.L>. Post 
 8vo. It. od. 
 
 Thomas Moore's Poetical Works. 
 
 Containing the Author's recent I ntroduc- 
 tion and Notes. Complete in One Volume, 
 printed in Ruby Type ; with a Portrait en- 
 graved bv \V. Holl, from a Picture by T. 
 Phillips, R.A. Crown Svo. 12l. 64. cloth; 
 morocco by Hayday, 2ls.— Also an Edition 
 Complete in 1 vol. medium Svo. with Portrait 
 and Vignette, 'ill. cloth ; morocco by Hay- 
 day, 42*. — Another, in lOvols. fcp.8vo. with 
 Portrait, and 19 Plates, price 35s. 
 
 Moore.— Memoirs, Journal, and 
 
 Correspondence of Thomas Moore. Edited 
 by the Right Hnn. Lord Joh.v Russell, 
 MP. With Portraits and Vignette Illustra- 
 tions. 8 vols, post Svo. price 4/. 4s. 
 
 Moore. — Songs, Ballads, and 
 
 Sacred Songs. ByTllo.MAS M""i;l:, Author 
 Of Lnll'i RoobhfttC. Kirst collected Edition, 
 with Vignette by R, Doyle. ltiino. price 
 6i . cloth ; 12s. 6d bound in morocco. — An 
 Bdition in Ruby Type, with Frontispiece, is 
 in the press. 
 
 Moore's Irish Melodies Illus- 
 trated. A New Edition ol Moore's Iriih 
 Melodies, illustrated with Thirteen Steel 
 Plates, engraved from Original Designs by 
 
 C. W. COPE, R.A. D. MACLISP., It. A. 
 T.CRBSWIUK.R.A. J.B.M I LLA I s, A.l! . A. 
 A. L. BOO. A. R.A, VT. M I I.HK AD Y.K.A. 
 W. P. FRITH, It. A. J. SAN'T. 
 W. B. I- HOST, A. It. A. I. STONE, A. R.A. 
 J. C. BORBLBY. P.. M. WAItli, It. A. 
 
 Uniform with the Illustrated Bdition of 
 Moore's L ilia Rookh. Square crown 8vo. 
 price 21'. i loth, or 31f. Od . handsomely 
 bound in morocco. 
 
 Moore's Irish Melodies. New 
 
 Edition, printed in Ruby Type ; with the 
 Preface and Notes from the collective edition 
 of Moore's Poetical Work*, the Advertise- 
 ments originally prefixed to the Melodies^ 
 and a Portrait of the Author. 32mo. 2f . 6d. 
 — An Edition in Ifhno.with Viguette, 5s.; 
 or 12#. od. morocco, by Hayday. 
 
 Moore's Irish Melodies. Illus- 
 trated by D. Maclise, R.A. New and 
 cheaper Edition; with 161 Designs, and 
 the whole of the Letter-press engraved on 
 Steel, by F. P. Becker. Super-royal 8vo . 
 price 31a. 6o\ boards ; morocco, 52s. 6d. 
 
 Moore's Lalla Rookh: An Ori- 
 ental Romance. With 13 highly-finished 
 Steel Plates, from Designs bv Corbould, 
 Meadows, and Stephauoff. New Edition. 
 Square crown 8vo . 15». cloth ; morocco, 28* . 
 
 Moore's Lalla Rookh. New Edi- 
 tion, printed in Ruby Type ; with the Pre- 
 face and Notes from the collective Edi- 
 tion of Moore's Poetical Works, and a 
 Frontispiece from a Design by Kenny 
 Meadows. 32mo. 2». 6d.— Au Edition in 
 16mo. with Vignette, 5|. ; or I3f. 6<f. mo- 
 rocco, by Hayday. 
 
 Moseley.— The Mechanical Prin- 
 ciples of Engineering and Architecture, 
 bv the Rtv. H. Moselrv, M.A., F.R.S., 
 Canon of Bristol, Corresponding Member 
 of the Institute of France. Second Edition, 
 enlarged ; with numerous Corrections and 
 Woodcuts, mu. 24s. 
 
 Mure.— A Critical History of 
 
 the Language and Literature of Ancient 
 Greece. Bv William More, M.P. of 
 Caldwell. Second Edition. Vols. I. to 
 III. Svo. price 36s.— Vol. IV. price 15«. 
 
 Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geo- 
 
 graphy: ComprUinga complete Description 
 of the Earth: exhibiting it- Relation to the 
 Heavenly Bodies, its Physical Structure, 
 the Natural History of ™ h Country, ami 
 the ludustry, Commerce, Political Institu- 
 tions, and Civil and Social State of All 
 Nations. Second Edition : with S2 Maps, 
 and upwards of 1,000 other Woodcuts. 
 Svo. price 60s. 
 
 Neale.— The Closing Scene \ or 
 
 ChrUtianltrand Infidelity contraated in the 
 Laal Hnurs of Remarkable Persons. By the 
 Rev. EnsKi.NB Neale, M.A. New Edi- 
 tion. 2 vols. fcp. 8vo. price 12».; or sepa- 
 rately, 6i. each. 
 
 Newman.— Discourses addressed 
 
 to .Mixed Congregations. By JoHK IIimu 
 Nrwm in, Priest "f tbeOratory Oi St. Philip 
 Nerl. Second Edition. 8vo. price 12s. 
 
 Oldacre.— The Last of the Old 
 
 Squires \ A Sketch. Bv Cbdhic i >i,oa< k>, 
 Esq., oi Bai-Normanbnry, sometime of 
 Christ Church, Oxon. Crown Svo. Be. Bd~.
 
 18 
 
 NI.W WHKK-. vm. M.W 1 HI 1 [ON8 
 
 Owen.— Lectures on the Com- Phillips.— Figures andDescrip- 
 
 paratirr Anat-.uir and PhTtlologY ol thr 
 IIWIlllUN Ai.lruai,. 11 v Hi. it , hi. I >»' 
 F.R.S. Huntrriau Proftaaor »u thr Koral 
 College ol Bargrona. Bi - '.ion, 
 
 cjiUr k 'tJ ; with 131 Wuoilcull. BVO.ll* 
 
 Professor Owen's Lectures on 
 
 tb< -:<.inv and I 
 
 of the vertabanlc tnlavaia. With naj 
 
 Ona W'ouJt mi. Vol. I Mo, jricc I li. 
 
 The Complete Works of Blaise 
 
 Pal « I       .' , tl.< h'rrlii I., xilli 
 
 i t<> thr varloua 
 I 
 br Gaoaoi Pbabxb, Baa. 3 toU. putt mto. 
 ailh Portrait, ill. 6d. 
 
 Dr. Pereira's Lectures on Po- 
 
 lari.. .-thrr with ft Lcrturr on 
 
 thr Mi. r..«. ..(.r, delivered brforr thr I'h*r- 
 
 macr ..Mirr.t Britain, and »t 
 
 thr Hadli . - 
 
 I K.titioii. niUn'nl Ir tn M 
 left bjr thr Author, hv thr ll.». liiim, 
 l'.»»i L, M..\. Fep. Bro. ptici 7«. 
 
 Dr. Pereira's Elements of Ma- Po , w . el VT :Essa J s , on . th ? ?P irit . 
 i rli Mtdlca mo I rherapaatlca. Third 
 
 l.'iitiot, rulnrtc.-.l nn. I Improved i. 
 Aataor'i Mai , in, M.n , 
 
 > g n i. . . , M.n. w 
 
 R • i ■!». ItoIb.Bto, atli   ...'. 13*. 
 
 Dr. Pereira's Treatise on Food 
 and i>i'< Wltb Obearvailona on t> 
 deal K.-^'imni tali IStataa 
 
 Dlgealrva Orgaaaiaad an Aceoantol 
 the IHatarlea ofaoaaa >>/ thr prini I 
 
 Ian and othai Katabllabmenta for 
 
 ra, l.un«ti. ..I riu.iuaii.t. hilur. i.,lhi 
 Hick, etc. Hvo. 16a. 
 
 Pcschel's Elements of Physics. 
 
 I r«n .i .*.- i fr i.i i he <tf miMi, wltl 
 
 1-t K. VV«%t With Dta4rraa.11 aod . 
 
 Clltl. 3 toll ftf lit, 
 
 PfeilTcr A Lady's Second Jour- 
 
 iiiil tl.r \V.. r i.l : r ri'in LjOndofl I" th<- 
 
 Capa ..( Rood M"(.r, Borneo, Jar*. Boao- 
 
 tr». ' . ' -run, thr MoloCCaa, itC.a 
 
 nl«. r-.n-.ma.. Peril, Bl iioiinr, «n.| tht 
 
 -Matea, Bj Ma iirroa. 
 
 t »■ i 
 
 Phillips.- A Guide to Geology. 
 
 I»» ; .. - I'll | M.A P.R.B.   (a.S f 
 
 Itrailf r i 
 
 . ttdUiOB, with 4 PlaU - 
 
 Phillips's Elementary Intro- 
 
 ilofy. A Ni » I 
 with txleaalra Alteration* and A-' 
 
 . r. r.8. , r.ofl 
 
 i ru, M \ . Mf.8., ProlNMI ■•( 
 
 U i h nunrriiui W. •••ill ut». I" » '■ 
 
 1 the PaalaTui I Of < O T II » « 1 1 , 
 
 DeVM, mi.I Witt Somcrirt; observed in 
 the counr of the Ordaaaci tieoloflcal Bar- 
 
 *rr of that l.iHri.t. Bv John PitiLLir., 
 M.A. etc. »TO.wlth60 Plate*, price Bt, 
 
 Piesse's Art of Perfumery, and 
 
 -.otliof ObtmloiBf thaOdooTtoJ riant - : 
 With laatractioafl for thr Manufacture * » f 
 Prrfumr* (..r thr Handkerealaf, Boasted 
 
 Powder*. Oduroui Vtn. ^iri, I »cnt ifrirci , 
 Pomatum*. », l*rrfiimr>t BOOO*. 
 
 tti .; and an Appeodli mi thr (oloura of 
 
 rlu-rri, ArttBcwl Fruit K»*en,c*. etc. 
 
 With ;w Wuodcuu. Crowa S?o, ;•. 6a\ 
 
 Piscator.— The Choice and Cook- 
 ery ..f fith. .\ i . .. ati»c. U.vPii- 
 catou. r • - rf. 
 
 Captain Portlock's Report on 
 
 thi (ieolof/y >>t the County «»f Lt)tidonderrv t ) 
 and of Parti ol Tyrone ami PtrmuiaU 
 
 ex am I tint anil «lr*t r il> rtl untlrr the Auth>>- 
 
 I the Muttr-Ocunl and Board •■( 
 Orduance. Svu.witl. i8PUto«,pri 
 
 of the Induct! re PhtLoaophr, thr Initrof 
 Woi Ida, and ill > Pn la of C rofttion, 
 
 IW the l\vr. BaDBM PoWI i L, M. \., F.R.8.. 
 
 P.R.A.8.! fjQ.& Crowa Bro. l.'j.Crf. 
 Pycroft's Course of English 
 
 B— dlrur, adopto d to p»rrr Ta»te tad Ca- 
 pacity ; With I. it. rat ». New 
 and cheaper Bdldott. h\y. ivo. price or. 
 
 Raikes.-APortion ofthe Jour- 
 nal tupt by Thonaa Balkas, Baa , fn 
 t<- I f i . * ..f Bo* 
 
 rial and PoltticaJ L«tl« la [a-nadoo aad Pari* 
 darloa laal '-l.aml 11. pool 
 
 Hro. with Portrait! prlca IU. 
 
 Rcade. - Man in Paradise t A 
 
 I'-- i Wt. With I »n. al Pot • 
 
 By J. mm BAMOHB Hiu-f. Author >>l 
 l *Itel».* *' Kitelatioua u( IJfta" . - 
 Hro. price &i. 
 
 Dr. Recce's Medical Guide i for 
 
 t.ar of tb* CI '. , If. fed I of raniillr*, 
 
 .Mi.i., and Junlui M. dli al Pra< III 
 
 iprlalng a complate Modern Dlapaaaa* 
 
 lory, aad * I'rai tt> al Praailaa oa ttir tii.tin- 
 
 hla| rtymptotni, Caataa, PraraaUoa, 
 
 . aad Pallia) deal 
 
 tii tin f I mo sn Frame, hrvrntceitth Kdltion, 
 
 • nrrri t. .| and rnlari-rd by the Autl. 
 
 Bro. acta. 
 Rich's Illustrated Companion 
 
 • try of all thr Worda rrjiic- 
 arntlnax Vliitilr (»bjr. I. . ni.iin tnl with the 
 
 Art*, Uanafi rj day Ufi of 
 
 th« All* iruta. With W li nt Repl • 
 
 • »l Ur»rlT -'.".■I Hl.ji Cll 1< 
 
 Antigua. PoatBvo artootit.
 
 published BY LONGMAN, BROWN, and Co. 
 
 19 
 
 Horsemanship 5 or, the Art of 
 
 Riding and Managing a Hone, adapted to 
 the Guidance of Ladies and Gentlemen on 
 the Koad and in the Field : With Instruc- 
 tion! for Breaking in Colts and Young 
 Horses. By Captain Richarosox, late of 
 the 4th Light Dragoons. With 5 Line En- 
 gravings. Square crown Svo. price 11*. 
 
 Ric k a rds.— Population and 
 
 Capital : Being a Course of Lectures de- 
 livered before the University of Oxford in 
 1853 and 1864. By Gborcie K. Rickarus, 
 M.A., ProfeBSOr of Political Economy. 
 Post 8vo. 6«. 
 
 Riddle's Complete Latin-Eng- 
 
 lish and English-Latin Dictionary, for the 
 use of Colleges and Schools. New and 
 cheaper Edition, revised and corrected. 
 Bra. lit, 
 
 Q , /TheEnglish-Latin Dictionary, "it. 
 
 separately ^ ThcLa ,i n .iiuglishl)ictiouary,15» 
 
 Riddle's Copious and Critical 
 
 Latin-English Lexicon, founded on the 
 German-Latin Dictionaries of Dr. William 
 Freuud. New Edition. Post 4to.3lf.6rf. 
 
 Riddle's Diamond Latin-Eng- 
 
 lish Dictionary: A Guide to the Meaning, 
 Quality, and right Accentuation of Latin 
 Classical Words. Royal 32mo. price 4i. 
 
 Rivers'sRose- Amateur's Guide: 
 
 Containing ample Descriptions of all the 
 fine leading varieties of Koses, regularly 
 classed in their respective Families; their 
 History and Mode of Culture. Fifth and 
 cheaper Edition. Fcp.8vo. price il.dd. 
 
 Robins.— The Whole Evidence 
 
 ■gaiMt the Claims of the Roman Church: 
 By the Rev. SisDrui'N Roiiins, M.A., 
 Rector of St. James's, Dover. Svo. IOi. 6d. 
 
 Dr. E. Robinson's Greek and 
 
 English Lexicon of the Greek Testament. 
 A New Edition, revised and iu great part 
 re-written. Svo. price 18». 
 
 Mr. Henry Rogers's Essays, se- 
 lected from Contribution i to the Edinburgh 
 
 lieview. Second and cheaper Edition, with 
 Additions. 3 vols. ftp. Svo. ill. 
 
 Dr. Roget's Thesaurus of Eng- 
 lish Words and Phrases classified and ar 
 ranged so as to facilitate the Expression 
 of Ideas and assist in Literary Composi- 
 tion. Fourth Edition.; revised and improved . 
 Crown Svo. l"i. 6<f. 
 
 Rowton's Debater: A Series of 
 
 complete Debates, Outlines of Dchates,and 
 Questions for Discussion ; with ample 
 references to the best Sources of Information 
 on each particular Topic. New Edition. 
 Fcp. Svo. price 6«. 
 
 Letters of Rachael Lady Rus- 
 
 sell. A New Edition, including several 
 unpublished Letters. With Portraits, Vig- 
 nettes, and Facsimile. 2 vols, post 8vo. 
 price 15s. 
 
 The Life of William Lord Rus- 
 
 Bell. Bv the Right Hon. Lord Johh Rus- 
 sell. MP. The Fourth Edition, complete iu 
 One Volume; with a Portrait engraved on 
 Steel by S. Bellin. Post 8vo. price 10«. 6<f. 
 
 St. John (Mrs.)— Audubon the 
 
 Naturalist in the New World : His Adven- 
 tures and Discoveries. By Mrs. HobajCB 
 Sr. John. Fcp. 8vo. price 2i. 6d. 
 
 The Saints our Example. By 
 
 the Author of Letters to my Unknown 
 friends, etc. Fcp. Svo. price ?»• 
 
 Schmitz. — History of Greece, 
 
 from the Earliest Times to the Taking of 
 Corinth by the Romans, B.C. 146, mainly 
 based upon Bishop ThirlwaH's History of 
 Greece. By Dr. Leoxhard Scbmiti, 
 F'.R.S.E. New Edition. 12mo. ~,i. <•■:. 
 
 Scot t.— The Danes and the 
 
 Swedes : Being an Account of a Visit to 
 Denmark, includingSrhleiwig-Holstein and 
 the Danish Islands : with a Peep into Jut- 
 laud, and a Journey across the Peninsula of 
 Sweden. Embracing a Sketch of the most 
 interesting Points in the History of those 
 Countries. By Chaiii.es Henut S, tt, 
 Author of The Baltic,, the Black Sea, and 
 the Crimea. Post Svo. price IOi. Od. 
 
 Scrivenor.— History of the Iron 
 
 Trade, from the Karlieat Records to the 
 Present Period. By IIahrv Souvenir. 
 Author of The Railway) of the United 
 Kingdom. New Editiou, revised and cor- 
 rected. Svo. 10*. 6d. 
 
 Sir Edward Seaward's Narra- 
 tive of his Shipwreck, and consequent Dis- 
 covery of certain Islands in the Caribbean 
 Sea. Third Edition. 2 vols, post Svo. 21«. 
 — An Anuim. mi. Nr, in 16mo. price it.dd. 
 
 The Sermon in the Mount. 
 
 Printed by C. Whittingham, uniformly 
 with the Thumb Bible ; hound and clasped. 
 64mo. price Eighleeupence. 
 
 Sewell.— Amy Herbert. By a 
 
 Lady. Edited by the Rev. W. Sbwbll, 
 B.D. Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, 
 Oxford. New Edition. Fcp. Svo. price 6s. 
 
 Sewell.— The Earl's Daughter. 
 
 By the Author of Amy Herbert. Edited 
 by the Rev. W. Sbwell. B. D. 2 vols. fcp. 
 8vn.9«. 
 
 Sewell.-Gertrude : A Tale. By 
 
 the Author of Ami/ Herbert. F.ilitid by 
 the Kev. W. SawBLL, B.D. New Edition. 
 Fcp. Svo. price 6i.
 
 20 
 
 M.w WORKS and NEW EDITIONS 
 
 S«well.- Lancton Parsonage : A 
 
 T.I* for Children, on the practical Use of 
   Poftl.. ..f th. Church ('ftlr.hltra. By 
 the Author Amu Hrrirrt. Kdited br the 
 B". ST. BaWBU. B. I). New Edition 
 
 1 roll, fcp.sro. pilc« 16t. 
 
 Sewell.— Margaret Percival. By 
 
 tkt \uth. r >l A-, lirrbrrt. Kilitedby 
 
 the Her. W. Si«. i ; . B.O. Maw Kdltloa. 
 
 2 roll. fcp. 8ro. price lir. 
 
 Bf far fmt Amtkor, 
 
 Cleve Hall. | vote, fcp. Bvo. ISt. 
 
 Katharine Ashton. v * i:,iition. 
 
 1 vol.. (cp. .Hru. price r_'f. 
 
 The Experience of Life. 
 
 Udltloo. Fcp. S.o. price 7*. 6«\ 
 
 Readings for Every Day in 
 
 P '■ I fr..iii !i,, Writ 
 lli.itur Jihhm v Tat Loit. Vc p. Hro. 6r. 
 
 Readings for a Month Prepara- 
 
 lory to .'in, ftnutb in : CotnpUod from tht 
 i of Writers of tbe Rarly and ol the 
 
 b Church. Secvnd Edition, Pep. 8vo. 
 price Iff, 
 
 Bowdler's Family Shakspcare * 
 
 In whl. h BOtkiOg Iff added If thr Original 
 
 vYordl and   i 
 %Tf <.**ittrd which rmuii.l «il 
 be rca<) al- lines '<•' 
 
 krt ; with 
 
 • bjr Smirke, Howard, and other 
 Am.t.. 6 »oli, ftp. i»..- prl 
 
 I.iriiiAur Eorrtofr. with the ■«m« Iliu»- 
 
 traiio..*, in 1 vol. medium 8vo. -1#. 
 
 Sharp's New British Gazetteer, 
 
 lilanai ud PJexrt 
 
 cits D f about Bistj Thousand 
 
 Pl». r», Si-4l». Nrtloral K. *turr», mi. t Ob* 
 
 led on |bff b«Bl Autho- 
 
 title*; full I'*rt.. uUn of the Boanrfariffl, 
 
 ■1 thr P«illa- 
 
 mrniarr Borough* j with a referenre under 
 
 Um 1'riliitinr 
 .. SI far fcl COmpUUdl fend in ,\p- 
 
 Ri   renerftl Vis - 
 
 fi'iutm ol the United Kin. 
 
   nd «n Abstract ol eertnln 
 
   bf ift«t < cmui. 'jr 
 i I 1 6* . 
 
 Short Whist t. Its Rise, Pro- 
 
 sjtvm, •!'■■ Lnwi i fTh Obion 
 
 I 
 
 .,*r, |1« i kgaminnn hi Major A. 
 
   
 ► » 
 
 Sinclair.— The Journey of Life. 
 
 Itv < iTtirKtK > >ni i \m. Author of TKr 
 HmtiTtnt a) li}' <rrcctcd 
 
 atid enlarged. Pep. Pro. price bt. 
 
 Sir Roger De Coverley. Trom 
 
 The Sptctmtor, Mid lllu.tra- 
 
 itunt br W, Hikri Wilu; and I] 
 
 Engraving*, from 1 TaiiIH. 
 
 I and ckraprr r v» u Bvo 
 
 1 dty, -Ml. — An 
 
 Kdition, without Woo.], ■U.lftocaO.pricM l». 
 
 Smith G. Sacred Annals \ or, 
 
 PtJffaMchffff into thr History and It. . 
 
 Mankind. B] OaoftOJ > w 1 1 m . r . A 
 
 3 volt, crown B*o. price 1/ It*.; or -epa- 
 
 rately, aa follows: — 
 
 Vol. I.- TBI PATH! tRCHAL At. 
 
 the Creation to thr Death of I MAC. 
 
 Crown Hvo. price 10*, 
 v ii ihk HEBREW PKOPLB, from 
 
 the Origin i tbi Itra 
 
 Tlmool Cbtiat, CrowrsSro.lsH Pmrti, 
 
 pnee llr. 
 
 in. rai gen i'n i n 1 novs- 
 
 KeA'pii.m-.. \t»vii»i.», Babylonlns 
 
 . Persians, Greeks, mot lloniam. 
 Crown BrO, in I l*art«, piiCfl Utff, 
 
 Smee's Elements of Electro- 
 
 Mrtalluriry. Third Edition, 
 
 I, tod considerably ealsjwww | with 
 I ami nuincroui V\'. 
 Pool Bl Dff.tfft 
 
 A Memoir of the Rev. Sydney 
 
 Smith. II. hi. Daughter, I . H 
 
 With i 
 
 l<r Ml*. A i %i i>. I'uurth hdttmtt. 2 tuli. 
 
 The Works of the Rev. Sydney 
 
 * In tbe 
 
 Kiiiiiburuh Review. Three KUiUoost— 
 
 1. I.iiiiiiiii I - the l'o»rH 
 
 .ol.. sru \% it ii Portrait, price !■•• 
 1. Complete In IKi 'oUHI, »lth Por- 
 
 trkit rad Vicncttt. Htnrari rru.n 
 *.., prli fill   ill, 
 
 I. ANawBpmoa.lal roll. fcp. pi 
 The Rev. Sydney Smith's Ele- 
 
   
 
 red at thr Royal Institution In thr 
 Yr.o Third a«i-f 
 
 ckraprr r ,"#. 
 
 Southcy's Correspondence. 
 
 Srlr. tiODS froi,, thr I.. Ill r. ol 
 
 »w, the 
 Raw Josm vVoop v\ «..ti ». i* D 
 
 StMthtfl In 4 vulumti. 
 
   
 
 The Lift and Correspondence of 
 
 thr \y ; by hi* 
 
 .»... MA, Vir»r 
 
 hrsyb With Portraits i *nd l.n>«i 
 l Uoslratloni 6 vols post Si
 
 published by LONGMAN, BllOWN, and Co. 
 
 21 
 
 Southey's Life of Wesley; and 
 
 Rise and Progress of Methodism. New 
 Edition, wiih Notes and Additions, by the 
 late Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Ksq., and the 
 late Alexander Knox, F.sq Edited by the 
 Rev. C. C. Southry.M.A. 2 toIs. Svo. with 
 2 Portraits, price 38t« 
 
 Southey's Commonplace Books. 
 
 Comprising — 1. Choice Passages: with Col- 
 lections for the History of Manners and 
 Literature in England j 2. Special Collec- 
 tion! on various Historical and Theological 
 Subjects; S. Analytical Readings In various 
 branches of Literature ; and 4. Original 
 Memoranda, Literary and Miscellaneous 
 Edited by the Rev. J W.Wahteb, B.D. 
 4 vols, square crown Svo. price £3 IS*. 
 Each Commonplace Hook, complete in It- 
 self, may be had separately a.s tollows ; — 
 
 First Sebies-CHOICE PASSAGES. 18*. 
 So Series- SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, 18*. 
 3d Series-ANALYTICAL READINGS, 21j. 
 •IthSbribs-ORIGINAL MEMORANDA, 21*. 
 
 Robert Southey's Poetical 
 
 Works; containing all the Author's last 
 Introductions and Notes. Complete in One 
 Volume, with Portrait and Vignette. Me- 
 dium 8vo. price 21*. cloth; 42*. hound in 
 morocco. Orin 10 vols. ftp. Svo. with Por 
 trait and 19 Plates, price 35*. 
 
 Select Works of the British 
 
 Poets; from Chaucer to Lovelace, inclu- 
 sive. With Biographical Sketches by the 
 late Robert Soutukv. Medium Svo. 3U*. 
 
 Southey's Doctor, complete in 
 
 One Volume. Edited by the Rev. J. \V. 
 Warteh, B.D. With Portrait, Vignette, 
 Bust, atol coloured Plate. New Edition. 
 Square crown Svo. price Jl*. 
 
 Spencer-— The Principles of 
 
 Pyschology. By Herbert Spencku, Au- 
 thor of Social Static*, 8vo. 16*. 
 
 Sir James Stephen's Lectures 
 
 on the History of France. Secoud Edition. 
 2 vols. Svo. price 24*. 
 
 Sir James Stephen's Essays in 
 
 Ecclesiastical Bingraphv; from the Edin- 
 burgh Review. Third Edition. 2 vols. Svo. 
 price 24*. 
 
 Stonehenge. — The Greyhound : 
 
 being a Treatise on the Art of Breeding, 
 Rearing, and Training Greyhounds for Pub- 
 lic Running; their Diseases and Treat- 
 ment: Containing also, Rules for the Ma- 
 naecment of Coursing Meetings, and for 
 the Decision of Conner. By Stunehbnob. 
 With many Illustrations. Square crown 
 Svo. price 21*. 
 
 Stow. — The Training System, 
 
 the Moml Training Bchool, nnd the Normal 
 
 Seminary foj pveparine Bchool TralOCTI and 
 Governesses. By Dwid Btow* BtQj., 
 Honorary Secretary to the tilangow Normal 
 Free Bern! nary. Tenth Edition ; with Piatt* 
 and Woodcuts. Post Svo. price 6*. 
 
 Strachey.— Hebrew Politics in 
 
 the Times of Sargon and Sennacherib : An 
 Inquiry into the Historical Meaning and 
 Purpose of the Prophecies of Isaiah, with 
 some Notice of their hearings on the Social 
 and Political Life of England. By Edward 
 Stbachev, Esq. Svo. price 8*. 64. 
 
 •„* This volume attempts to investigate, 
 critically, the questions of the authorship 
 of the Book of Isaiah, and its writer'* own 
 meaning: hiitorically, the Jewish, and non- 
 Jewish, records, including all the yet de- 
 cyphered C unciform Inscriptions, of the 
 period : politically, the constitution and 
 condition of the Jewish Kingdom, and the 
 working of the former at home by states- 
 manship and popular opinion, and abroad 
 by Wars, alliances, and commerce: and re- 
 ttgiouiljft the lessons which (applicable to 
 all mankind) were deduced from the events 
 of their own times by the Prophets, whose 
 office is illustrated by its analogies with 
 that of the Greek and Roman orators, and 
 the modern speakers, preachers, and writers, 
 
 ** The production of a man of learning 
 aud hide pendent thinking.. . .The historian, 
 the politician, and the divine, may read it 
 with advantage*"— British Quarterly Re- 
 view . 
 
 By the same Author, in post 8vo. price 1*. 
 MIRACLES and SCIENCE. 
 
 Tagart.— Locke's Writings and 
 
 Philosophy historically considered, and vin- 
 dicated from the Charge of contributing to 
 the Scepticism of Hume. By Edward Ta- 
 oarT) r. S.A.i F.L.S. 8vo. IS*. 6d. 
 
 Tate.— On the Strength of Ma- 
 terials ; coutainingvariuus original and use- 
 ful Formula;, specially applied to Tubular 
 Bridges, Wrought 1 ron and Cast Iron 
 Beams, etc. By Thomas Tate, F.R.A.S. 
 Svo. price 5*. 6rf. 
 
 Tayler.— Christian Aspects of 
 
 Faith and Duty: Twenty Discourses. By 
 John Jvmes Tavlkr, B.A. Second Edi- 
 tion. Post Svo. 7*. ocf. 
 
 Taylor-— Loyola : and Jesuitism 
 
 in Its Rudiments. By Isaac Taylor. 
 Post Svo with a Medallion, price 10*. 6<f. 
 
 Taylor.-WesleyandMethodism. 
 
 By itAAC Taylor. Post Svo. with a Por- 
 trait, price ID*. 6d*. 
 
 Tegoborski.— Commentaries on 
 
 the Productive Forces of Russia. By L. 
 I)e Teoobohski, Privy-Councillor and | 
 Member ol the Imperial Council of Russia. 
 Vol. I. Svo. price 14*. 
 
 Thirlwall.-The History of 
 
 Greece. By Itae Right Rev. the Lord 
 
 i ..( m Datuvi (the U. % Conm n 
 Thirlwali). An Improved Library Edition ; 
 ■lib Maps. 8 vols. Svo. prloc *.<i. 
 
 Also, an Bdltlon in H vols. fcp.8vo.. with 
 Vignette Title*, price 28*.
 
 22 M.w tVOKKfl mo M.w BDl I ION8 
 
 THE TRAVELLER'S LIBRARY, 
 
 To bt completed la 10 Volamct, price I».6d. each. ComprWInf books o( »aluable Inf.irmation 
 
 •ml tikhi. virilism mrnl, lo a lorn adapted (or reading while I'rarclling, and alio of a 
 character lhatwillrcudcrtbein worthy ofprclcrr at Ion. 
 
 Vol. ». *■ 
 
 I. MACAULAY'B ESSAYS oa WARREN HASTINGS Bad LORD CLIV1 3 « 
 
 I. ESSAYS on PITT « CHATHAM, RANKS * OLAOSTONI ..3 8 
 
 I. LA1NC8 RESIDENCE la NORWAY * 6 
 
 \. IDA PFEIFFER'S LADY'S VOYAGE ROUND the WORLD 3 « 
 
 ». BOTH EN i or, TRACES of IIIAVKI. tnm ti.r RAST 3 « 
 
 8. MACAULAY'B RS8AYS oa ADDISON, WALPO LB, Bad LORD BACON 3 6 
 
 7. HUCtJ rRAVRLS IN TARTARY and THIllF.T 3 6 
 
 8. THOMAS HOLCROFTS MEMOIB8 3 8 
 
 9. WBRNB'S AFRICAN WANDRRING8 3 8 
 
 10. Mr*. JAMESON'S SKETCHES lo CANADA 3 « 
 
 11. JKHUM \N.\".> PICTURBS boa ST. PRTKBSBORa 3 8 
 
 II. The R»r.<i. B. OLRIG'S LRIP8IC CAMPAIGN 3 6 
 
 13. HUGHRS'S AUSTRALIAN COLONIES 3 8 
 
 14. BIB BDWARD BEAWARD'B BHIPWRBCB 3 8 
 
 14. ALEXANDRE DUMAS' MEMOIRS ■>( « MAITRE-D'ARMBS 3 8 
 
 15. OUR COAL-FIELDS tad OUR COALPITS I 8 
 
 17. -• H'S LONDON i BBdGIRONIERR'S PHILIPPINES 3 8 
 
 18. Mil BOGEB DB COVERLEYiasd SOUTH KY*8 LOVE STORY 3 6 
 
 'LORD CARLISLE'S LRCTURRS AND VDDRRSBBSiaad JKHIIKVm , . 
 
 IWI FT and RICHARDSON f 3 
 
 NY aad CHASK Ib BRITTANY 3 8 
 
 II. THEELECTRII rELEGRAPH | aad NATURAL HISTORY of CREATION .... - 
 MEMOIR ol DUR1 i WBLLINOTONi aad I. UK ol MARSHAL TUBRNNE 3 8 
 
 33. RANK K'8 FERDINAND aad MAXIMILIAN; aad TURKEY « HRISTENDOM 3 8 
 
 .. (BARROW'S CONTINENTAL TOUR i aad FERGUSON'S SWISS MENl . « 
 
 «• \ aad SWISS MOUNTAINS [ * * 
 
 fSoiVr-no PHILOSOPHER la PARIS ' aad WOBKING1 , . 
 
 - i MAN'S CONFESSIONS ) * * 
 
 (MACAULAY'B i-mvv ..„ LORD BYRON, aad Ih'a COMli DRAMATI8TB|\ . , 
 
 aad hU SPEECHES on PARLIAMENTARY R8FORM . j 3 " 
 
 SHIRLEY Bl KS'S RUSSIANS ..I the SOUTH | aad Da KKMP»81 . . 
 
 */• V INDICATIONS of INSTINCT J * ' 
 
 l>VENTURI '.in.- of NORTH AMERICA*'!! i I 
 
 .,. 1U I Hyi I- Dl CU8TINI 3 8 
 
 IONS fi it..- lUe. 8YDNEY SMITH'S WRITINGS. Vol. I. ,.,., 
 
 „ iBODKNBTEDT aad WAGNER'S BCHAMYL i and M'CULLOCH'Bl . « 
 
 «■ \ RUSSIA aad iniKh' ' 
 
 INCS NOTES of a TRAVELLER, Flrat SarUl *...".* "", ..3 8 
 
 33. DURRIEU'B MOROCCO | aad aa Ivmv ..,, MORMONI8M 3 8 
 
 3i. BAMBU NO Bf PLINY MILES .' ,...., 2 e 
 
 If, BELBl riONS fi Ibt IU> 8YDNKY SMITH'S WRITINGS, V..i 11 3 « 
 
 (HAYWARUS ESSAYS! KSTRR FIELD and BRLWYN.aad MI881 , f 
 
 1 , FANN1 MAYNKH ARCTK VOYAGES and DISCOVF.RIBS . 3 ° 
 
 37. CORNWALLi IU MINES, MINBBB, «..■! Bl ENERY 3 8 
 
 3i DANIEL DB FOE aad CHARLES CHURCHILL. Br JOHN PORSTEREbo! 3 • 
 
 IBKGOROVIUB'B CORSICA. Traaalalod by R. MARTINRAU, M.A ' 1 8 
 
 (HiW'l-. iAB roBIOGRAPHV I lalad or tai Rai B. POWELL) . . 
 
 * J \ PRINTINGi Ita ANTECEDENTS. ORIGIN, and RESULTS B) \ suhk J * 
 
 41. MASON'S LIFI ZULUS ol NATAL, SOUTH AFB -x « 
 
 UR| iTKR'S R kMBI - . n.iiiw \y ' , 
 
 .. fSAINEK'S VIBI1 l.i Mil : m HOIS ol PIBl'' " V" 
 
 RAILWAY MOHAI a t Ml ,W \Y POLICY | 3 
 
 8 
 
 M. IH " <• NIGER, TSHADDA.aadBINUI EXPLORA1 a 8 
 
 FILBERFORCR'B BRAZIL ai lliun- j o 
 
 4, IMa.M II I. MiH h ,, .', fi \\ I iii'sV" ' 
 
 ;i riONAL HISTORI * " } .. 3 r. 
 
 17. vi'N iM HI '"■ j 
 
 4_ I ' I ER'B EDITION oi'oosWKLL's'LVjVjK' 
 
 •"• \ a/SOHJVfONi WllaMai. PIOZZI'B ANK ir-.M, JOHNSON ..j '•
 
 Thomson, (The Rev. W.)— The 
 
 Atoning Work of Christ, viewed in relation 
 to some current theories ; in eight Bamptim 
 Lectures, with numerous Notes. By the 
 Rev. W.Thomson, M. A. t Provost of Queen's 
 College, Oxford . 8vo. price 8», 
 
 Thomson (The Rev.W.)— An Out- 
 line of the Laws of Thought : Being a 
 Treatise on Pure and Applied Lugic. By 
 the Rev.W. Thomson, M. A. Third Edition, 
 enlarged. Fcp. Svo. price 7*. 6rf. 
 
 Sharon Turner's History of the 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, from the Rarlleit Period to 
 the Norman Conquest. The Seventh Edi- 
 tion, revised by the Rev. S. Tlkkek. 
 3 vols. 8vo. price 36*. 
 
 Dr. Turton's Manual ofthe Land 
 
 and Freshwater Shells of the British Is- 
 lands. New Kdition with considerable Ad- 
 ditions ; by John Kdwvrd Gray. With 
 Woodcuts, and 12 coloured Plate*. Post 
 Svo. price 15*. 
 
 Thomson's Tables of Interest, j Tuson.-The British Consul's 
 
 at Three, Four, Four-and-a-half, and Five 
 per Cent., from One Pound to Ten Thou- 
 sand, and from 1 to 3oo Days, in a regular 
 progression of Single U;iys; with Interest 
 at all the above Rates, from One toTwelve 
 Months, and from One to Ten Vears. Also, 
 iHiiinroiisotherTables of Kx< fiances, Time, 
 and Discounts. New Edition. l"rno. 8*. 
 
 Thomson's Seasons. Edited by 
 
 Bolton Cornev, Esq. Illustrated with 
 Seventh-seven 6ue Wood Engravings from 
 Designs by Members of the EtchingClub. 
 Square crown Svo. price "21*. cloth ; or, 36*. 
 bound in morocco. 
 
 Thornbury. — Shakspeare's 
 
 England: or, a Sketch of our Social His- 
 tory during the Reign of Elizabeth. By 
 G.'W. Thornbury, Esq., Author of His- 
 tury of the Buccaneers, etc. 2 vols. 
 crown Svo. [Just ready. 
 
 The Thumb Bible ; or, Verbum 
 
 Sempiter:ium. By J. Taylor. Being an 
 Epitome of the Old and New Testaments 
 in English Verse. Reprinted from tbc 
 Edition, of 1693, bound and clasped. In 
 64mo. price Eighteenpence. 
 
 Tooke.— History of Prices and 
 
 ol the State ofthe CirruUti from 18-17 to 
 
 the close of 1H55. By Thomas T i ».. 
 F.R.S. With Contribution! by William 
 NnwMARCH. Being the Fifth and conclud- 
 ing Volume of the work ; with an Index to 
 tbe whole work. Svo. [Just ready. 
 
 Townsend-— Modern State Tri- 
 als, revised find illustrated with Essays and 
 Notes. By W.C. Townsbnd, Esq., M.A. 
 Q.G. 2 vols. Svo. price 30*. 
 
 Trollope. — The Warden. By 
 
 Asmu.H v Trollops . Post Svo. 10s. 6rf. 
 
 Sharon Turner's Sacred His- 
 tory of the World, attempted to be Philo- 
 sophically considered, in a Series of Letters 
 to a Son. New Edition, revised by the 
 Author's Son t the Her. S. Turner. 
 3 vols, post Svo. price 31*. 6tf. 
 
 Sharon Turner's History ofEng- 
 
 land during the Middle Ages: Comprising 
 the Reigns from the Norman Cooqpi st to 
 the Accession of Henry VIII. Fifth Edition, 
 revised by the Rev. S. TckMiit. 4 vol* 
 8vo. price 60*. 
 
 Manual; Being a Praetical Guide for Con< 
 suls, as well as for the Merchant, Ship- 
 owner, and M-ister Mariner, in all their 
 Consular Transactions ; and containing the 
 Commercial Treaties between Great Bri- 
 taiu and Foreign Countries, brought down 
 to the present date. By E. W. A. Tlson, 
 of the Inner Temple; Cliaucellor of the 
 Imperial Austrian Consulate-General in 
 London. Svo. price 16*. 
 
 Twining. -Types and Figures 
 
 of the Bible, illustrated by the Art of the 
 Early and Middle Ages. By Miss Louisa 
 Twining, Author of Sytnboln and Kmbtems 
 of Mediaeval Christian Art. With 54 Plates, 
 comprising 20/ Figures. Post 4lo. 21*. 
 
 Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Arts, 
 
 Manufactures and Mines; Containing a 
 clear Exposition of their Principles and 
 Prac tiee. Fourth Edition, much enlarged; 
 with all the Information comprised in the 
 Supplement of Recent improvements 
 brought down to the Present Time, and 
 incorporated : most of the Articles beiug 
 entirely re-written, and many New Articles 
 now 6rst added. With nearly 1,600 Wood- 
 cuts. 2 vols. Svo. price 60*. 
 
 Vehse.— Memoirs of the Court, 
 
 Aristocracy, and Diplomacy of Austria. By 
 Dr. E. Vkiisk. Trauslated from theGerman 
 
 by Frani Uemmler. 2 vols, pout Svo. 
 
 I)Or>t Svo. 
 [Srurly 
 
 ready. 
 
 Waterton.— Essays on Natural 
 
 History, chiefly Ornithology. By C. Wa- 
 terton, Bgq, With an Autobiography of 
 the Author and Views of Walton Hall. New 
 and cheaper Edition. 2 vols. fcp. Svo. 10*. 
 
 Separately: Vol. I. (First Series),©*, fid. 
 Vol.11. (Second Series), 4*. 6rf. 
 
 Webster and Parkes's Ency- 
 
 clopffidiaof Domestic Kcoiioiuy; Comprising 
 such subjects as are BMMt immediately 
 connected with Housekeeping ; As, The 
 Construction of Domestic Edlficea, with 
 the Modes of Warming, Ventilating, and 
 Lighting them — A DeM-ription of the vari- 
 ous Artielesof Furniture, with tbe Nature 
 of their Materials -Duties Of Servants, etc. 
 New Edition, with nearly 1,000 Wooduiits, 
 Svo. price 60*. 
 
 Weld.— A Vacation Tour in the 
 
 United States and (minds. By C.B, Wn i>, 
 Barrister-at-Lnn. Post 8to.' with Rout« 
 Map, IDi.tJrf.
 
 24 
 
 M.W W0BK8 PUBLISHED l'V 1 • iMi Co. 
 
 West Dr. — Lectures on the 
 
 Diatanrl of Inf.i ■'■ By 
 
 '•III. Phi .Irian 
 I 
 
 • cd and cnln . ill. 
 
 Wheeler H. M. — A Popular 
 
 Hum. B I . Hlati rti . Ilv ud 
 
 Bj II i mii M. 
 U . ol Hebrrir Jut AJulti. 
 
 > u. .'il. 
 
 Wheeler J. T. -The Life and 
 
 Travel, of Herodoru la Ike Plftn CaMnry 
 
 brfoi. In in. nun... 
 
 Inauatne ..i tin- HUtorj , 
 M.i.i, .i>. R i. 'ii. Literature, An.. end 
 
 rptlana, 
 Una, llrbrr... Bcjrtblana, 
 
 •n<J • ■' • ' 
 
 111 J.I 
 • h.i..m. -Tola.poatbvo. .111. 
 Mi|. t price II i   
 
 Wheeler. -The Geography of 
 
 . .1. nii.1 lllu-- 
 
 ll.MII Ml ■!• Ml It' '• HI' I.'"   
 
 Bj J. I'u ii. .n Wiiiiiiu, 
 Maps ud Plana. Bro.lle. 
 
 Whitelocke. - Journal of the 
 
 ..lina.v in lha >">'» II 
 Impartial!] » rltlen bj I 
 
 M.I III- I 
 ..Ul.li.lM 'I (I Il 
 
 S.A., Librarian o( the linn, I, 
 ,ii. ANcw Kdllli   "• UfJ 
 
 11. , i, . I i.|.. 1 -S.A. - >■ '■-■ -'•'• -'•■ 
 
 Whittingham.— Notes on the 
 
 late Bapi , ni.'ii agalnal 'tic Bnaalan 
 
 ,,.; .Ull • Vl.ll I" 
 
 .lid t.. thr !>hori • "I T.rl.rv .ud ..I 
 Mil 111 111 iHli 
 
 WniTTixouaai.Hoye] Bnglneem. '"•■ ,> " 
 mil. Cbai ' ' I'd. 
 
 Willich's Popular Tables for 
 il !■"• bold, Um 
 ■old, and •   rty, Renew 
 
 •i. ..'.in •! I" 1,1 ' '■ 
 
 • iral ..r II-.; I rnritnnia, In- 
 
 p„,i t\ • Bl iri i "i ■»!. I'" 1 c >'• 
 
 Lady Willoughby's Diary 1685 
 
 . ornamented, i.,,i bonnn 
 
 in ii,. i. / »« 
 
 In Two Parta. 
 
 l,,boardi ; or. 
 b.iuii.i iii i. to • nuch, 
 
 Wilmot's Abridgment of Black- 
 
 ,. Il.r | ... 
 , 1 1., u.r Ol • 
 .,,,1 , ,.„,|,|,.. .1 I,, 
 
 Iron .1.' 
 
 ., , .,,,r. ird .ud broafbl d. ■» 
 ,.i li.r. b>   I. rUnuLar 
 
 \S ii.m..i li.n- I'.mo. 6».od. 
 
 Wilson.— Britannica Bryologia: 
 
 lulng il..- Mi Grant llnt.ni mid 
 
 Ireland ay atrmatii .Ilv .rr.iiif.d .ml de- 
 
 BCrlbi '*,",! nl lirmrk 
 
 and \cSimprr: with CI illustrative I'l.lr., 
 
 Including Ji new onei •ngraTtd   
 prceeut work. II, lux , n.with 
 
 in. in Addlilnne and Alteration!, ul the 
 Brllmmmlcm >•( Mraara. Hooai ' 
 and Taylor. Ilv A'iui m N 
 
 drnl ',.l«l lli.turv 
 
 .j. ; or, with the Plaice 
 
 coloun-d, r. I. If. 
 
 Woods.— The Past Campaign: 
 
 A sketch ,,i i be War In Ibc r aal 
 
 td Raglan t.. the Hednrtlon 
 u oa, la 
 clal Correapondnni t«> the Aferafnf HrralJ 
 at the Seat ol War. I Tola, pi 
 
 Yonge.— A New English-Greek 
 
 I * lalnlng .11 tin- i., , , l. n 
 
 i I, i Wrlti • • •■ ' • 
 
 |ii .... 11 i Second / dillim, re   
 and corrected. Poat 4to. prlci 
 
 Yonge's New Latin Gradus i 
 
 Word ,.v, ,| I,. ti,r Pi 
 By Authority and 
 
 I l l \\'i nIiiiiii.i, r. \\ in, l.r.lrr. 
 
 ,ii rhoute,and Rugbj Si 
 Klng'e College, I ondon ; and Mai 
 
 Third Kilm i 
 
 an, i , .in, , led Poai s i". prire lev— <rn>. 
 ,,,» ,,| I- pill d act ..nliiiK to tbclt 
 
 I inh meaning, price ii. !.«•.. 
 
 Youatt.-The Horse. By Wil- 
 
 I I IX YoC.TT. !■ >>>. -1 1 I' "Ii' ''II' 
 
 A N . v. K'liii-.i, ; with ni 
 
 ur.i ii. t . from I William Hat 
 
 (Meaera I groan and I n abould 
 
 r 101. 
 
 Youatt.-The Dog. By William 
 
 r A N-ii r-.m with numeruua 
 
 ,. Inge front |lr.i|jin by W illi.in ll.r 
 
 i 
 
 Young.- The Mystery of Time « 
 
 or, the All In All i A Search lor tight and 
 
 Hl|tbt. Ilv tlir Urv J. .ii-. V. Mil. 
 
 i Albion Chapel, 
 I',,.. [Juit read*. 
 
 Young.- TheChrist of History : 
 
 An Argument groundi .1 In II 
 
 ,. K.rtli. Ilv Ibr Hrv. JoNI) ' 
 
 i.i ii.. formerly ..( Albion Chapel i Moor. 
 
 6rld>. Poal ii". ,f. M. 
 
 Zumpt's Larger Grammar of 
 
 ' ,n Language. Tranalaiod .ml adapted 
 
 I »,,i,l HM .Ii 
 
 loua Ad- 
 ' . ll.r Author .lid 
 Tranele ii.ii, tbfiougbly 
 
 . lit. 
 
 ch, 1856. 
 
 Laiudom I-Miiuu by m. WUmm i<y '•»•'«■ *t*na*m u«»-
 
 I MMKM M Ol ( W.IMIK.MA I. IKK \Kt 
 [ (is V 1 1 u < \t» 
 
 I bit hook is DUE on the Isui date stamped below. 
 
 
 DEC 2 6 
 
 1971 
 
 Form I.
 
 /(? 
 
 3 1158 00531 9719 
 
 MRS. JAMESON'S WORKS. 
 
 A COMMONPLACE BOOK 
 
 Of THOUGHTS, MEMORIES, and FANCIES, Original and Selected, 
 rani. msi*. ,,„,/ Character ; Part II. Literature and Art. 
 
 The Second Edition, revised throughout and corrected. 
 With Etchings and Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo. price 18«. 
 
 LEGENDS of the MADONNA, 
 
 As represented in the FINE ARTS, forming the Third Series of Sacred and 
 Legendary Art. With 55 Drawings by the Author, and 152 Woodcuts. 
 
 Square crown 8vo. 28s. 
 From the Morning 
 
 Or a 
 
 
 As 
 
 iion 
 'iiiii 
 
 or 1 
 f M 
 
 id : 
 
     
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 AA 000 353 819 6 
 
 LEGENDS of the MONASTIC ORDERS, 
 
 presented in the FINE ARTS, forming the Second Series of Sacred and 
 Legendary Art. Second Edition, corrected and enlarged. 
 
 With 11 Etchings by the Author, and 88 Woodcuts. Square crown 8vo. 28s. 
 
 SACRED and LEGENDARY ART. 
 
 Second Edition, complete in One Volume, containing LEGENDS of 
 The Angel* and Archangels, 
 The Evangelists, 
 The Apostles, 
 
 The Doctors of the Church, 
 St. Mary Magdalene, 
 
 The Patron Saints, 
 The Martyrs, 
 The Early Bishops, 
 The Hermits, 
 
 The Warrior Saints of Chris- 
 tendom, 
 
 As represented in the FINE ARTS. With many Woodcuts, and 16 Etchings 
 by the Author. Square crown 8vo. 28s. 
 
 SISTERS of CHARITY, 
 
 CATHOLIC and PROTESTANT, ABROAD and AT HOME. 
 Second Edition, enlarged ; with h h e. r*cp. 8vo. 4s. 
 
 SKETCHES IN CANADA, 
 
 And RAMBLES among the RED Mi 
 16mo. price 3s. 6d. cloth ; or, in Two Parts, One Shilling each. 
 
 London: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS. 
 
 6