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 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 I N DUSTRIA L 
 HOUSING
 
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 Ilk, QrawJ/ili 'Book (h. 7m 
 
 PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS FOPo 
 
 Coal Age v Electric Railway Journal 
 Electrical World v Engineering News-Record 
 American Machinist v Ingenierfa Internacional 
 Engineering & Mining Journal ^ Power 
 Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering 
 Electrical Merchandising
 
 INDUSTRIAL 
 HOUSING 
 
 With Discussion of Accompanying Activities; Such as 
 
 Town Planning— Street Systems— Development of 
 
 Utility Services — and Related Engineering 
 
 and Construction Features. 
 
 BY 
 MORRIS KNOWLES 
 
 BOMETIME SUPERVISING ENGINEER, CAMP MEADE, MARYLAND, AND CAMP m'i'LELLAN, 
 ALABAMA; AND CHIEF ENGINEER, DIVISION OF PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION AND 
 HOUSING, EMEP.GENCY FLEET CORPORATION, UNITED STATES SHIPPING BOARD; 
 MEMBER AMERICAN INSTITUTE CONSULTING ENGINEERS; MEMBER AMER- 
 ICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS; MEMBER AMERICAN CITY PLANNING 
 INSTITUTE; MEMBER INTERNATIONAL GARDEN CITIES AND TOWN- 
 PLANNING ASSOCIATION; MEMBER TOWN PLANNING INSTI- 
 TUTE (GT. BRIT.); MEMBER NATIONAL HOUSING ASSOCIA- 
 TION; DIRECTOR, DEPT. OF MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY 
 ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH. 
 
 First Edition 
 
 McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 
 NEW YORK: 239 WEST 39TH STREET 
 
 LONDON; (i & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4 
 
 19 20
 
 Copyright, 1 ( .)20, uy the 
 McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 
 
 T 11 K M X V I . ir I • I* i: H S V I I M K 1 ■
 
 
 I\ I R( »DI < I l< »\ 
 
 Thi* book h 
 author and I of the 
 
 in the developmei town plan and in the up-build- 
 
 ing i 
 
 Unusual and m 
 
 U 'I with and tak<- |»:irt u 
 
 :il worker*. Th( i -I from the < 
 
 oompi :iiil' for man- 
 
 <.f smaller mining 
 
 groups of ill— r»- — • •* t..i -ii.ni!!. a. They also 
 from the beginning of investigations for determinii g 
 fnl til In i<m of a completed program. Thus the need of ' ; 
 
 luiremei 
 from bcginnii the enti 
 
 ity . 
 
 • ■ • 
 linn ipment <>( housing pi 
 
 Pint — followini 
 
 workmen during t h«- livii . 
 
 at Ira 
 
 I surroundji 
 
 and ham i 
 
 mmunit} 
 
 All of tl 
 
 ■urroundii 
 
 I
 
 vi INTRODUCTION 
 
 planned for economy and efficiency, but also the utilities and 
 facilities that go to make up the town and its business and 
 social life. 
 
 The author and his organization had the good fortune to 
 participate in the early months of our entrance into the war, in 
 the creation of quarters for troops at one of the National Army 
 cantonments, and one of the National Guard tent camps, built 
 dining 1917. Later, being called to assist in the building of 
 towns for the housing of ship workers, it was his good fortune to 
 sit in on the consideration of the plan and scope of the program 
 for this purpose. Both were unique experiences and intensified 
 the belief (if this were necessary) that no one profession is com- 
 petent to cope with the difficulties of housing. 
 
 Gathered together from all parts of the country were men from 
 all walks of life; imbued with the idea of helping to build homes, 
 to attract to ship yards, to build ships, to send the troops and 
 supplies to France, to help win the war. Many had never heard 
 of each other and several only knew of the other's reputation in 
 his chosen line. Most of the recruits were strong individualists, 
 had done things worth while; and many had not, at least for 
 years, worked under the direction of others or in multiple harness. 
 What wonder, then, that it took some time to settle down and get 
 up speed, which later so characterized the work as to win the 
 commendation of the Senate Committee, which was called upon 
 to investigate these activities of the Emergency Fleet Corpora- 
 tion of the United States Shipping Board. The writer would not 
 have missed this opportunity for service, nor this development of 
 new experience, for all of the chapters in his life which had gone 
 before. 
 
 He deems it a stroke of good fortune that he had the privilege 
 of associating with the pioneers who were the leaders in the pro- 
 gram and who, with all the background of personal accomplish- 
 ments, sank personality in the common purpose. Early and 
 always then- wns an appreciation by all that team work, esprit 
 de corps, fitting of endeavors as well as of abilities together, were 
 Deeded to bring about the result. And the result was achieved. 
 Witness Hie home-like communities from Maine to the Gulf, 
 along the Atlantic and OD the< rreal hakes and even on the Pacific, 
 which testify to the wisdom and excellence of the program. It is 
 also a tribute to the far-sightedness of the planning and the per- 
 sonal magnetism of the leaders of the organization.
 
 comi 
 
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 l>iit 1.. 
 
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 will ! 
 
 I 
 
 I
 
 viii INTRODUCTION 
 
 the author is a practicing engineer himself, this book is not writ- 
 ten solely for the engineer or from his point of view alone; neither 
 is it a tn-atisc on technical practice. It has been written in the 
 realization of a fad now generally acknowledged that, in addi- 
 tion to the architect, who is first thought of because we are 
 thinking in terms of houses and homes, there must be present the 
 town planner, the landscape gardener, the engineer, the sani- 
 tarian, the utility designer, the constructor, the realtor, the civi- 
 cist ami the public spirited business representative. 
 
 To all of these and to city officials — particularly the City 
 Managers, Directors of Public Works and Municipal Engineers 
 and Architects- this book is dedicated, with an earnest hope 
 that it will appeal as filling a need where no adequate treatise 
 has heretofore existed. 
 
 Pittsburgh, Penna., Morris Knowles. 
 
 August, 1920.
 
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 11 

 
 xii CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Cost of Modern Industrial Towns 16 
 
 Elements Considered 16 
 
 Hypothetical Example 17 
 
 Another Example 10 
 
 Average of I. S. Housing ( orporation 20 
 
 Lorain, Emergency Fieri Corporation 20 
 
 Marginal Deficit or Necessity for Subsidy 21 
 
 Statement of Requirements ■■ 21 
 
 Income Available for Kent 22 
 
 Means to Meel Deficit 23 
 
 Procedure of Organization and Finance 25 
 
 Policy as to Home Ownership 25 
 
 Company-Owned Houses 25 
 
 Privately Owned Houses 26 
 
 Cooperatively Owned Houses 27 
 
 Forms of Building Organizations 27 
 
 Loan and Realty Associations 28 
 
 Housing Corporation - >s - 
 
 Company Housing Bureau : >0 
 
 Technical Program : *0 
 
 ycc<\ for a Program 31 
 
 Preliminary Work 32 
 
 Number and Types of Houses Required 32 
 
 Selection of Site 32 
 
 Projected Development of the Site W 
 
 Budget and Program ;i;{ 
 
 Design and Construction 33 
 
 Building Staff 34 
 
 CHAPTER 111 
 Selection of Site 
 
 Introduction 36 
 
 Hot m no Site in Relation to Industrial Location 30 
 
 Industrial and Economic Requirements of Planl 37 
 
 Housing a* a Factor in Planl Location 38 
 
 [DERATIONS AFFECTING ToWNSlTE LOCATION 40 
 
 Distance Between Planl and Town 40 
 
 Factors which Relieve Distances 10 
 
 Map Showing Area of Choice 
 
 Advantages of Town and Planl Adjacent . . . . .11 
 
 Di ^vantages of Town and Planl Adjacent 42 
 
 Decision Rests upon Many Factors 42 
 
 Urban Versue Rural 'Towns '-' 
 
 Policy of Home Ownerships '- 
 
 I nidion and Maintenance Considerations ,: < 
 
 D advantages of Company Towns *3
 
 
 1 
 I I 
 
 Mi ' 
 
 i 
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 i \i-i I i: l\ 
 
 i » 
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 i : ■ 
 

 
 xiv CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Improvements 75 
 
 Playgrounds 76 
 
 Location and Area 76 
 
 Improvements 77 
 
 Athletic Fields 77 
 
 Cemeteries 78 
 
 The Street System 79 
 
 Types of Street Systems 79 
 
 Rectangular or Gridiron 79 
 
 Radial or Diagonal 81 
 
 Formal or Geometrical 81 
 
 Irregular or Haphazard 82 
 
 Contour Streets 82 
 
 Rational Layout of Streets 84 
 
 Classification of Streets 85 
 
 Arterial Streets or Main Thoroughfares 85 
 
 Subarterial or Secondary Streets 87 
 
 Residential Streets 88 
 
 Business Streets 89 
 
 Streets with Car Tracks 90 
 
 Parkways and Boulevards 90 
 
 Alleys 91 
 
 Details of Street. Design 93 
 
 Width of Roadway 93 
 
 Sidewalks 95 
 
 Court Streets 95 
 
 Orientation 96 
 
 Intersections 97 
 
 Profile and Grade 97 
 
 Easements 190 
 
 Location of Street Railways 191 
 
 Utility Location a Factor 192 
 
 Cost of Utilities Affected by Lot Sizes 193 
 
 Sr.M.M Aitv of Procedure 197 
 
 Topographical Survey and Map 198 
 
 Regional Maps 199 
 
 Site Investigation 199 
 
 Preliminary Town Plan 119 
 
 Final Plan of Development H9 
 
 Detail and Working Plans Ill 
 
 Recent CoMMxrNin Developments Ill 
 
 Ojibway, Ontario m 
 
 Loveland Farms 113 
 
 Yorkship Village u4
 
 ( II \l-l I 
 

 
 \vi CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER \ I 
 
 Water Supply 
 
 Page 
 
 Preface 160 
 
 Quantity of Water Reqi [red . . 150 
 
 Influences Affecting Consumption 150 
 
 Metering 160 
 
 Detection of Leakage .-111(1 Waste 151 
 
 Other Factors 152 
 
 Consumption of Water for Various Purposes 153 
 
 Domestic Use 153 
 
 Commercial Use 153 
 
 Public Use 155 
 
 Loss and Waste 155 
 
 Total Consumption 156 
 
 Variations in Consumption 157 
 
 Standards of Quality 157 
 
 General 157 
 
 Sanitary Quality 158 
 
 U. S. Treasury Standard 158 
 
 Classification of Great Lakes Water 158 
 
 General Standard 158 
 
 Physical Quality 158 
 
 Color 158 
 
 Turbidity L59 
 
 Odor 159 
 
 Chemical Quality 159 
 
 Organic 160 
 
 Mineral 160 
 
 Selection op Source of Supply 161 
 
 Extensions of Existing Supply 161 
 
 Quantity 161 
 
 Quality 161 
 
 Pressure 161 
 
 New Supply System 162 
 
 Ground Water Supplies 162 
 
 Surface Water Supplies 163 
 
 Summary of Factors Affecting Choice of Supply 166 
 
 Purification Systems 166 
 
 Preface L66 
 
 Plain Sedimentation 167 
 
 Results 167 
 
 Filtration 167 
 
 Slow Sand Filters 168 
 
 Rapid Sand Filtera 168 
 
 < Coagulation 169 
 
 Sterilization .... I""
 
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 Pipe La) iiik ... 
 
 I IN X ' 
 
 
 181 

 
 xviii CONTEXTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Quantity of Domestic Sewage 193 
 
 Flow from Commercial and Industrial Districts 194 
 
 Leakage or Infiltration 195 
 
 Design of System 196 
 
 General Considerations 1^6 
 
 Rate of Flow to Provide 197 
 
 Details of Computations 199 
 
 Velocities and Grades 20 ° 
 
 Minimum Sizes -"- 
 
 Depth and Location 202 
 
 Appurtenances ^ "* 
 
 House Connections 204 
 
 Manholes 206 
 
 Joints and Fillers 208 
 
 Flush Tanks and Manholes 208 
 
 Inverted Siphons 209 
 
 Foundations 209 
 
 Pumping Stations 209 
 
 Storm Drainage Systems 219 
 
 General Considerations 21U 
 
 Rainfall and Run-off 21 ° 
 
 Rates to Provide for 211 
 
 Run-off 212 
 
 Extent of System '• • ■ 214 
 
 Roof Water 214 
 
 Street Water 215 
 
 Details of Design 216 
 
 Discharge Formula 21 ^ 
 
 Velocities and Grades 217 
 
 Minimum Size 217 
 
 Depth and Location **• 
 
 Joints and Filler ' .217 
 
 House Connections "*' 
 
 Manholes 2l8 
 
 Catch Basins and Inlets 218 
 
 2 1 'i 
 Location 
 
 Combined Sewers 219 
 
 Quantity and Capacity 220 
 
 Velocities and Grade 
 
 220 
 
 Depth and Location 221 
 
 Catch Baeins 221 
 
 Sewage Treatment and Disposai - >J1 
 
 General Considerationfl • -- 
 
 Purposes of Sewage Disposal "** 
 
 Character and Constituents of Sewage 224 
 
 Decomposition of Sewage ~~ 
 
 Disposal by Dilution and Diffusion -'-'' 
 
 1 227 
 
 Authoritative Opinions
 
 I 
 
 n 
 
 I > 
 
 < ii \ri i R \ in 
 
 IB 
 
 i 
 I
 
 xx CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Reduction 252 
 
 Incineration it,u 
 
 Type Required 253 
 
 Capacity 253 
 
 General Purposes zo ° 
 
 Rubbish Only 254 
 
 Station Design 254 
 
 Summary and Conclusions 254 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Gas and Electric Service 
 
 Gas Service 256 
 
 Introduction . 
 
 256 
 
 Advantages of Gas Service 256 
 
 Supply op Gas — Character and Sources 257 
 
 Natural Gas 257 
 
 Artificial Gas 257 
 
 Coal Gas 257 
 
 Water Gas 258 
 
 Producer Gas 258 
 
 Coke Oven Gas 258 
 
 Source of Supply 258 
 
 Public Service 258 
 
 Industrial Supply 259 
 
 By-Product Ovens 259 
 
 Utilization of Gas 259 
 
 Heating 26 ° 
 
 Cooking 26 ° 
 
 Lighting 26 ° 
 
 Amount of Gas Used 261 
 
 Average and Maximum 261 
 
 Allowance for Artificial Gas 261 
 
 Transmission 
 
 Pressures • 
 
 Pipe Sizes 2 ^ 2 
 
 Kind of Pipe 263 
 
 Drips 264 
 
 Regulators 264 
 
 Distribution System 
 
 Low Pressure Distribution 265 
 
 Regulators. 2( J 5 
 
 Size of Mains 2( J 6 
 
 High Pressure Distribution 2 ^ 7 
 
 Design of Distribution ■ 267 
 
 General 268 
 
 Slope and Drips 268
 
 CONTENTS xxi 
 
 Valves and Bags 
 
 Depth of Laying 269 
 
 Size of Pipes. 268 
 
 Services . . 269 
 
 Tapping Main . 269 
 
 Si/.- 269 
 
 Curl. Cooks 270 
 
 Slope and I hip . . 270 
 
 Plans and Specificul ion - 270 
 
 Plans .... -'7<i 
 
 Specification!*, 271 
 
 I lbc rnic \i. Sbbvk 1. -'7 I 
 
 Introduction. 271 
 
 Soi R< i "i Po\t i H Si I'i'i.i 
 
 Purchase from Existing I tilitj 273 
 Local ' ienera1 ing Stal i<>n 
 
 271 
 
 Steam Plants 274 
 
 Internal < Jombusl ion I nil i 
 
 Hydro-Electric Units . 27 1 
 
 Capacity -7 1 
 
 I i; IN8MIS8K >M 275 
 
 Righl of Way .... 275 
 
 Voltage ... 275 
 
 Line ( !ons1 rucl ion 276 
 
 1 tasTRmi itoh Ststi i 276 
 
 Substations 276 
 
 Simple Transfoi iner. 276 
 
 Rotary < Converter, 276 
 
 Primary 1 nstribution 277 
 
 Voltage ami Phase 277 
 
 Location 277 
 
 Overhead or I ndergrounii -" 
 Overhead . • 278 
 Underground . . 
 
 ( Sombination ' lircuits 279 
 i I distribution 
 
 Voltage 280 
 
 Pb Lint 280 
 
 I nderground 281 
 
 Ben ices. 281 
 
 Illustration of Types of Distribution 281 
 
 Noreg V Qlage 28 1 
 
 I I II 1/ ITION ....... . 
 
 ■ i Lighting 
 Histon. 
 Methods 
 < Sonst in' * i.i kiii 
 
 ! 28 '•
 
 xxii CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Spacing 284 
 
 Poles 285 
 
 Transformers 285 
 
 Residence Service 285 
 
 Lighting 285 
 
 Power Application 286 
 
 Miscellaneous Service 286 
 
 Fire and Police Call 286 
 
 Telephone and Telegraph 286 
 
 Plans and Specifications 287 
 
 Instruction for Plans 287 
 
 Specifications 287 
 
 Illustrations of Installations 288 
 
 Buckman Village 288 
 
 Atlantic Heights 290 
 
 Loveland Farms 292 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Houses for Families 
 
 Introduction 293 
 
 Standards and Requirements 293 
 
 Basis for Standards 293 
 
 Permissible Rental 294 
 
 Cost a Factor 294 
 
 Other Influences on Standards 295 
 
 Standards from Experience 295 
 
 Number of Rooms 296 
 
 Furniture Requirements 297 
 
 Minimum Room Sizes 297 
 
 Recommendations of Authorities 298 
 
 Veiller's Views 299 
 
 Groben's Recommendations 299 
 
 Allen's Ideas 299 
 
 Kilham's Opinions 300 
 
 U. S. Dept. Labor Standards 300 
 
 Albany Health Dept. Regulations 300 
 
 Ontario Housing Committee Objects 300 
 
 Data of U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 301 
 
 Recommended Minimum Requirements 302 
 
 Grading of Houses 304 
 
 Types and Grouping of Houses and Accessories 308 
 
 Types of Houses 308 
 
 Effect on Cost 308 
 
 Explanation of Types 308 
 
 Grouping of Types 314 
 
 The Garage 316
 
 CONTENTS xxiii 
 
 Paoi 
 
 Sing Garage ... . :;ic, 
 
 3 1 7 
 
 1 ■ I onsl ruction :; 1 7 
 
 Hi ii in -... I i i ii m... i i 317 
 
 318 
 
 Building Materials ;!1 s 
 
 1 .ii \ ir< m iin-n t. .... ;;h 
 
 I Maintenance Persona] Preferei ..^n 
 I • ■ ( Joncrcte I [ouae ... 
 
 Del if Cons! ruction ... 321 
 of Materials in < kmstrucl ion 
 
 Tabulation of House Costi 324 
 
 I )| i ERMIN ITION Ol \' I I IMKOD \ I [ON R i Ql I K i .' • 
 
 I orec i ted Pa) roll 
 
 Number and < !rad< 1 1 • Requin <\ 327 
 
 Quarters Required for Single Workmen . ;;js 
 Quarters for \\ omen and Minors 
 Summary II tusesand Rooms Required 
 
 CHAPTEH XI 
 
 Buildings Other Than Houses 
 
 Introduction 
 
 ( !haract< r of Special Buildings 
 
 Building Materials :;:::: 
 
 i ■ ir Single Mem 
 
 Boarding Bouses 
 
 Small Boarding Houses 
 
 • r Boarding 1 1 
 uremente I at i !rades I .7 
 
 1 ide F Buildings . . 
 Grade E Buildings . . 
 Ie 1) Buildings . . 
 
 Qfl \l. ~ 
 
 M magemenl of Boarding 11" -• 
 
 Boarding Ho 341 
 
 Storm wi> Atari mints . .; 1 1 
 
 liremente of Store Rooms :\ 13 
 Ri quirements of Apartmi nl 
 
 I prior Appearance . 344 
 
 nbined Building 
 
 l..iiiin!r\ Capacity 
 Baker) Vrrangemenl 
 Plant 
 
 II ispital. . . . 
 
 Hi ii ;•
 
 xxiv CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Churches 350 
 
 School Houses 350 
 
 Theatres 352 
 
 Community House 352 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Administration and Supervision of Construction 
 
 Organization and Planning 354 
 
 Character and Scope 354 
 
 Group Management 354 
 
 Executive Control 354 
 
 Organization Chart 355 
 
 Method of Procedure 355 
 
 Elements of Program 357 
 
 Necessity for Budget 358 
 
 Suggested Contents 358 
 
 Construction Policies 359 
 
 Force Account 360 
 
 Contract 360 
 
 Selection of Contractor 362 
 
 Contract and Specifications 363 
 
 Purpose of Contract 363 
 
 General Provisions 363 
 
 Specifications 364 
 
 Supervision of Construction 364 
 
 Construction Problems 364 
 
 Program 365 
 
 Yards and Delivery of Materials 365 
 
 Sanitation 366 
 
 Fire Protection 366 
 
 Temporary Water Supply 367 
 
 Construction Roads 367 
 
 Progress and Cost Reports 368 
 
 Record Plans and Reports 369 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 Management of Industrial Towns 
 
 Types of Towns 370 
 
 Company-controlled Towns 370 
 
 Isolated Company Towns .' 371 
 
 Suburban Industrial Towns 371 
 
 Isolated Industrial Towns 372 
 
 Usually Company Towns 372 
 
 Supposed Advantages 373
 
 COM' I \'T. 
 
 
 I tuque < umlii i • - 1 1 
 I ui venal rcuauti 
 « )im- I. uidlord 
 Identity of Landlurd tuid Km ploy er. 
 
 1*1 1 1 1 • 1 1 »1< - •>! I OW I, \| im:i|_'i -Mil-Ill . . 
 
 ill III III I I 'I.I II I . . . 
 Supporting 
 Functions of Town Management 
 
 1'iililn- Ben ices. . . . 
 
 II'. nin 
 
 1 nmcrcial In'- rpria - 
 
 Policing 
 
 I Protection 
 
 il >-. -i. in 
 
 in.. nil Activities, . . . 
 
 Town Managership 
 
 Suburban Industrial Towns . . . . 
 
 Usually Independent 
 
 Mi-i hods nf Belling Houses. 
 Revenue- Producing 
 Non-Revenue-Producinj S 
 < Mint- Public Activities 
 BlBLIOGB \i'in 
 
 - 
 -
 
 [NDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 Origin oi Industrial Housing Examples oj I rial 
 
 Hoi bing Tb i Pri sen r Pr< »bli m 
 
 ORIGIN OF INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The housing problem is as old as the human race, for it has its 
 origin in that "first law <>f nature" self preservation. Food, 
 Bhelter and raiment are essential bo the satisfaction of this primi- 
 tive instinct, and ever since the firsl man sought Bhelter in his 
 cave, the housing problem has been a vital part of the human life. 
 
 Si \ 1 1. mi \ r OP PrOBLI U 
 
 I ',ut the need for Bhelter is only the origin of the problem. The 
 Dormal man has other healthy instincts; for work — t ho chance 
 to express himself in creative activity; for play -the opportunity 
 to re-create himself during the leisure hours when he is free from 
 mployment; for love and the making of a home in which he 
 can express his affections and his devotion to his wife and in the 
 raising of his children; and for religion the establishment of a 
 righl relation between himself and his Creator. Somuchofthe 
 time of the man and of the members of his family is Bpent in the 
 home, that the latter reacts upon the satisfaction of all of these 
 instincts, and the housing problem thus becomes the home prob- 
 lem, the problem of surrounding the home with an environment 
 conducive to a full and healthy lit''-. 
 
 Moreover, the housing problem is not one of the house alone. 
 Man is a Bocial animal, and early exchanged his normal life for a 
 gathering in settlements, the growth of which hae 
 the most marked characteristics of the growth of civilisation. 
 The environment of the home, therefore, includes the homi 
 other human beings, the methods of passing to and from them, 
 
 i
 
 2 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and to and from the working places of their occupants. And 
 so the housing problem has become related to a vast complexity 
 of other problems, all of which must be taken into account in its 
 solution. 
 
 The Individualistic Era. — Prior to our present industrial age, 
 the provision of houses, and the determination of whether they and 
 their environment should fulfill the requirements outlined above 
 or not, depended largely upon the intelligence, energy and thrift 
 of the individual. During, and for a long time after the primi- 
 tive age and the period of serfdom, the family supplied all of 
 its own needs — food, raiment, and shelter. And later, even when 
 specialization began to be well developed, production was car- 
 ried on in small units. Men were largely capitalists as well as 
 workers, house builders as well as home makers, so that any man 
 of energy and thrift could have the opportunity of exercising a 
 measure of control over his destiny. 
 
 The Factory System. — The invention of the steam engine and 
 the development of the factory system, however, completely 
 changed the housing problem, as they likewise altered all the 
 other factors in life. Specialization has been carried to a 
 point where some of our workers spend their working hours re- 
 peating, times without number, a single mechanical operation. 
 And out of the wages he receives for devoting his energies to this 
 single function in the supply of the wants of the social organism, 
 he must provide for himself and for his family food, clothing, 
 shelter, recreation and all the needs which once were provided 
 within the family itself, and which must be fulfilled in-order to 
 promote a normal family life. 
 
 At the same time, specialization applies to all the other ele- 
 ments in production. One man devotes himself to the designing 
 of the machines, which permit the workman, by his thousands 
 of repetitions of a single task, to vastly increase his output. 
 Still another tends the boilers, which supply the force to the 
 machines; a separate group mine the coal to operate the boilers; 
 others supply the skill in management, which co-ordinates the 
 efforts of the workers and still others control and direct the use of 
 capital and credit, which supply the life blood of the whole 
 industrial organism. 
 
 Therefore, even though wages were sufficient to meet the legiti- 
 mate needs of the worker and his family, and even though he 
 should be thrifty enough to save the cost of providing himself
 
 HISTORICAL /.'/.l //.'ii 
 
 witli a home, the factory system and its specialization do not 
 conduce to the development of his initiative and activity along 
 lines bo far removed from the j"l> which In- knows, as i- house 
 building. House design and construction, and t In- plannij 
 groups of houses have themselves become highly specialized 
 have all the building trades and supply lines, as well as the <i«< lit 
 and financial machinery in use in connection with such opera- 
 tions. Small wonder, then, that the time has long passed when 
 individual action can hope in maintain a supply of homes equal 
 to the demand, or thai the law of supply and demand and the 
 need of specialization should have called into being tin- real 
 be operator, the speculative builder, the industrial housing 
 problem, and the necessity of intervention by governments and 
 industries, in order to attempt a solution. 
 
 I >i \ '\n \ l ni | \i»i 8TR1 \l. I I"i SING 
 
 The recognition of the existence of this problem came early in 
 the history of tin- factory system. Hut . as frequently happens, 
 Buch recognition was sporadic .• t r » < 1 partial, and no! Lr<rn r.i 1 and 
 complete. Thus, the problem has grown out of all proportion 
 id remedial measures, and the resull has been the unhealthy ;in<l 
 anti-social housing conditions in our cities and industrial towns, 
 with which all are familiar; and a description of which is no part 
 of i li«' subject of i hi^ hook. 
 
 Looking back, with the discernmenl born of experience, it is 
 see the reason for these conditions. The factorj syst< m 
 required the concentration of the working population in cities, 
 and those cities have grown by leaps and bounds. Workers have 
 come into the ted areas from rural districts, with habits 
 
 and standards of living entirely unsuited to the new conditions, 
 and with no realization of 1 1 1 « - effect of these circun upon 
 
 their health, comfort and efficiency. At the same time, " la 
 
 was the order of the day, and house and town building 
 • private greed and unenlightened self-int< 
 thus our cities grew, without intelligent planning,— a hel 
 
 geneous mixture of the L r I and bad and with a disregard for 
 
 consequences which threatened social Buicide, through the 
 growth of the congestion and the resulting insanitary surround- 
 ings and evil social condit ions. 
 
 Early Efforts ami Improvement. Three distinct pi 
 be distinguished in the history of the movement to
 
 4 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 conditions, which may be designated as periods of criticism, 
 study and construction. 
 
 The first includes the recognition of the problem, and some 
 attempts clouded by other policies, by such early humanitarians 
 as Robert Owen; and the work of civic and social workers and 
 charitable organizations, in bringing home to the world the im- 
 portance of the problem, the dangers of the conditions which 
 were developing and the opportunities for social progress through 
 better housing. In this phase, data and opinions were compiled, 
 and much light thrown upon the relation of the housing problem 
 to the individual, to industry and to the state. At the same time, 
 various unrelated and often groping efforts were made to improve 
 conditions, many of them dictated by philanthropy, and a begin- 
 ning was made in corrective legislation, requiring the abolition 
 of slums. 
 
 Study of More Complete Remedies. — In the second phase 
 of the movement, ways and means for solving the problem more 
 completely were studied and discussed, and the industrial housing 
 problem began to be distinguished as a special form of the general 
 housing question. Restrictive legislation — fixing minimum 
 standards for light, air, sanitation and convenience — and the 
 establishment of municipal housing bureaus, to pass on plans 
 and to make inspections, were characteristic of this period. 
 
 Various pioneer attempts were made to solve the problem in 
 some of its phases, by the construction of the early industrial 
 towns and mining camps, and by building of mill tenements and 
 company boarding houses in early New England developments. 
 The period was characterized by incorrect social hypotheses and a 
 complete lack of consideration of this all-important aspect of the 
 industrial housing problem. A direct result was too often an 
 academic paternalism, and misdirected charity which produced 
 its most dismal failures in America, where native individualism 
 and independence are directly opposed. 
 
 During this stage, progress was facilitated by co-ordination 
 with other movements and influences, such as better sani- 
 tary standards and practice, and the development of the town 
 planning idea. A powerful influence has been directed upon the 
 movement for better housing by the development of public 
 health, sanitary science and engineering, and of the art of town 
 planning.
 
 HISTORH \l REVIEW 
 
 The discovery <•! the germ theory of disease made possible 
 tl,,. exacl definition of the dangers of conditions which had long 
 been condemned as evil. It also permitted the formulation, in 
 exact terms, of the requirements of health with reaped to light, 
 air, cleanliness, quality of water Bupply, disposition of human 
 wastes, etc. A.I the same time, the relation of the arrangemenl of 
 Mocks and streets to health, convenience and amenity, 
 and the possibilil ies of attractive as well as practical town I.-. 
 have become so clearly demonstrated thai h is do longer possible 
 parate the housing problem from that of city and regional 
 planning. 
 
 \ third tendency, which has had powerful influence upon the 
 development of the industrial housing problem, has been the 
 movement of some of our largest industries out of existing 
 cities into suburban or self-contained town-, created for the 
 purpose of housing the labor Bupply. Graham R. Taylor 1 
 has well expressed this movemenl as the resultant of centrifugal 
 ami centripetal forces of cheap land, low taxes and room for 
 growth, pushing industry out of the <■« >n lt« - » • •■ 1 city area; and 
 railroad facilities and proximity to markets and labor supply, 
 holding industrj in the ueighborh I of urban oent< 
 
 The effect of this lasl tendency has been to open up an entire, 
 new field of opportunity in designing industrial vill.m.-. down 
 to the last detail; thus they may best serve the needs of the 
 human elements, and of the industry through which these latter 
 make their economic contribution to society. 
 
 Construction and Prevention. — The present the 
 
 movement for better housing may be described as one of pre- 
 ventive, constructive and economic activity. The value of the 
 proverbial ounce of prevention has been recognized and the 
 criticism of existing conditions is being com Lined with the results 
 of academic studies and with the practical lessons learned from 
 pioneer attempts al improvement. < >n this basis, the solution 
 of the indust rial housing problem is being sought in the co-ordina- 
 tion <>f the industrial, civic, municipal, and national 
 agen< o bring about the construction of sanitary and 
 
 attractive homes, grouped in convenient and healthful t< 
 
 under conditions which will permit the workingman to rent or 
 buy a home within the limits of his resoui 
 
 • "Satellite < 'itii ." 1915.
 
 6 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 Before the War 
 
 The earliest examples of industrial housing were of two 
 types, the mill tenements and boarding houses, and the mining 
 "camps." 
 
 Mill Tenements. — The first textile mills were established in 
 towns, where a labor supply existed and could be drawn upon. 
 As congestion led to bad conditions, men like Robert Owen, at 
 New Lanark in Scotland, and Francis Cabot Lowell, in Massa- 
 chusetts, endeavored to improve conditions by constructing 
 "model" mill tenements and boarding houses; "model," that is, 
 for those days, about the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
 They would not compare favorably with one of our modern in- 
 dustrial villages. Thus these earliest examples were primarily 
 philanthropic in origin. 
 
 Mining Camps. — The mining industry, however, differs from 
 others in that it usually is carried on in isolated, uninhabited 
 localities where, just as on construction jobs, some type of shelter 
 for the labor force must necessarily be provided. Under these 
 conditions, and without the ideals that were back of the first 
 mill tenements, the first mining villages (and many of the later 
 ones) grew up as garish groups of shanties, without adequate 
 sanitary facilities; and absolutely devoid of comfort, attractive- 
 ness and opportunity for recreation. Such villages have been 
 deservedly called "camps" and "patches," and whether they 
 have existed at mines or factories, they have done incalculable 
 damage to the spirit of American industrial labor. 
 
 Early Industrial Towns. — During the latter part of the nine- 
 teenth century, and at the beginning of the twentieth, industrial 
 concentration and the movement of factories to the suburbs had 
 progressed far enough, so that industrial housing experiments 
 began to appear on a more important scale than the early mill 
 villages and mining camps. 
 
 Pullman, constructed between 1880 and 1885, and Gary, 
 started about 1906, are typical as well as two of the most impor- 
 tant examples. In each case, a great industrial corporation 
 created, out of undeveloped nature, a complete city, where va- 
 cant fields had been before. And in each case failure to solve 
 the human problem and to promote sound conditions resulted 
 at Pullman, because of the unwise paternalism of I lie company's
 
 HISTORH AL HI. \ II. ll 7 
 
 attitude toward its employees; and al Garj because there was 
 left i«> exploiting speculators the most difficult pari of the 
 problem, the housing of the unskilled worker, and because 
 nothing adequate was done to relieve the monotony <»t" the 
 [ndiana Band dunes. 
 
 Other equally effective examples could readily be cited, but as 
 the object of this review is to trace the history of the develop- 
 ment of the industrial housing problem and its solution and no! 
 to catalogue the experiments thai have been tried, these typical 
 examples w ill serve i he purpo 
 
 The Garden City Movement. During the period when these 
 early experiments were being tried, the garden city movement in 
 England and on the continenl was gaining headway, and began 
 to make its influence felt in America. Such attractive develop- 
 ments as rlampstead, Bounville, Harbourne and Letchworth 
 were widely pictured to our industrial companies and town 
 planners as models. Impetus was thus given i«> the idea of 
 planning industrial villages in their entirety, and to the accen- 
 tuation <>i' attractiveness as an element in prompting healthy 
 life and a productive industrial spirit. 
 
 At 1 1 1< - same time, the example of Port Sunlight strengthened 
 the recognition that paternalism could not succeed in democratic 
 America. The organization and growth of Co-partnership 
 Tenants Limited, in England, however, brought out in a >>.- 
 tiv<- way the possibility of making use of cooperative methods of 
 organization. 
 
 Newer Industrial Towns. Under the influence of all these 
 examples and forces, the early mistakes were followed, in the 
 early pari of i he t went iel li century, by ot her towns which showed 
 progressive growth toward higher and better ideals in industrial 
 housing. The United States Steel Corporation has built at 
 Fairfield, Alabama, a town which still stands as an ex- 
 ample, in many ways, of the attractive possibilities of town 
 building under centralized control and intelligent planning. 
 . at Morgan Park, Minnesota, the Bame corporation built 
 an equally attractive development, and at the beginning of the 
 \\ ar plans had been completed ' I city at » >jibway, 
 
 ye1 built). All of these represent the best efforts 
 
 id f the best trained town planners, engineers and archi- 
 
 in the country, and give promise of results which will p> 
 far toward the solution of the housing problem.
 
 8 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The work of this greatest of industrial corporations has been 
 more important, and has resulted in the development of a more 
 comprehensive program than that of any other company. But 
 many others have taken part in the movement, and before the 
 War there were already many attractive developments, lo- 
 cated in all sections of the country. Complete lists will be 
 found in the bibliography in the Appendix, but the later develop- 
 ments of some of the villages of the New England textile mills 
 and of the Ohio rubber industries are particularly notable. 
 
 Effect of the Great War 
 
 No field of human endeavor escaped the profound effect of 
 the great cataclysm of the Great War, and the industrial hous- 
 ing movement was entirely altered and made over by it. 
 
 Cantonment Construction. — The most pressing housing need, 
 upon our entrance into the War, was the provision of shelter for 
 the millions who were to be called to the colors during their 
 period of training. The construction of the National Army can- 
 tonments and the National Guard camps resulted; the greatest 
 building construction program ever undertaken. 
 
 While the work of the Construction Division of the Army can- 
 not properly be considered as a part of the industrial housing 
 movement, nevertheless, it could not fail to exercise an important 
 influence upon the latter. For it gave us, a new experience in 
 comprehensive planning and organization, and demonstrated 
 anew the fundamental character and advantage of large scale 
 production and many of the principles upon which the modern 
 art of housing and town planning are founded. 
 
 Governmental Housing. — The most direct influence of the 
 War upon industrial housing, however, grows out of the house 
 and town construction undertaken by the Government itself. 
 Equally important with the training of our soldiers was re-or- 
 ganization of our industries, so as to increase vastly the produc- 
 tion of those things which are most needed for the supply of 
 troops in modern warfare. 
 
 The effect of this imperative necessity was deep seated. 
 Workmen had to be concentrated in the vicinity of mills and 
 factories and shipyards, and removed from sections where the}' 
 were established in less essential industries. Huge additions 
 had to be built to existing and new plants, and shipyards were
 
 HISTORICAL i;i:\ JEW 
 
 thrown up over night in nru localities, many of them <»f a size 
 er the imagination. The distribution of materials of 
 all kind-, and the control of transportation had to be taken i 
 by the central Government, in order i<» make possible the carry- 
 ing out of this stupendous program. 
 
 Under these circumstances, 1 1 * « - ordinary machinery for sup- 
 plying dwellings for workingmen and their families, through 
 private initiative and through the activity of industrial corpora- 
 tions, could nut but break down. The Government, then 
 
 compelled to undertake house and town construction in 
 order to provide for this unprecedented shift in population. 
 
 The United States Housing Corporation and the Housing 
 Division of the Emergency Fleet Corporation were the result. 
 The former planned 128 towns or groups, an estimated co 
 whirl, was si 12,000,000, which contained 19,100 dwellings, suffi- 
 cient to house a total of 21,000 families. The latter made a 
 total expenditure of about $71,000,000 and built 27 towns, 
 containing 8,841 houses, with a total capacity of 9,493 families. 
 
 Mistakes were made, of course, by both organizations, as 
 mistakes were made by every agency which worked under the 
 
 lire of tlie conditions created by the Great War. and i 
 were greater than they would have been in construction carried 
 out under more normal conditions. Hut in general, the work of 
 the United State- Sousing Corporation and the Emergency 
 Fleet Corporation cannot fail to have a lasting and beneficial 
 effect upon industrial housing in America. For, taking advan- 
 of the experience '«» which reference has been made above, 
 both of these services called to their aid skilled archit 
 engineers, town planners, landscape developers, realtors and 
 members of all the other professions, whose work i- involved in 
 industrial housing. The result has Keen that these developm< 
 scattered throughout the country, have set standards for compari- 
 son which will doom to failure any less carefully planned housing 
 
 project ill t he flit life. 
 
 The House Famine. — However, it i- not only by these in- 
 structive experiences that the War has affected industrial housing. 
 The< rovernment program was only just begun when the Armistice 
 i rigned, and only a fraction of it was carried to completion. 
 H en if it had been entirely completed, there would 
 
 Ktill have been a shortage of homes. As it is. the famine has 
 >l>read to every city and town in the land, and it i- estin
 
 10 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 that there is a deficiency below actual needs of about 2,000,000 
 homes in the country today. 
 
 The causes of this situation are evident. First, the shifting 
 of population, incident to the industrial reorganization during 
 the War, was only partly temporary. Our shipyards are con- 
 tinuing to build for our New Merchant Marine, and many 
 munitions plants have been converted into peace-time industrial 
 plants. A permanent increase in the population of our industrial 
 cities has therefore resulted. 
 
 At the same time, the construction of dwellings, even including 
 the Government construction, far from being sufficient to meet 
 this abnormal increase in demand, did not even keep pace with 
 the normal, peace-time increase in requirements, and in fact, 
 for three years, was practically at a standstill. 
 
 A serious deficit therefore exists, as is evidenced by the dis- 
 tress of home-seekers in all parts of the country, by the countless 
 industries being forced into the housing field, and by the nu- 
 merous "housing corporations" being organized all over the 
 land. 
 
 Construction Costs. — A further effect of the War, and the 
 financial upheaval accompanying it, has been the great increase 
 of construction costs above all previous levels. The inflation 
 of currency and the expansion of credit, together with other 
 influences affecting the supply of and the demand for goods and 
 labor, have decreased the purchasing power of the dollar to a 
 fraction of that before the War. Prices have thus risen to a 
 point that has practically destroyed the usefulness of all past 
 experience in construction costs, and that has introduced an 
 element of uncertainty which tends to retard all influences look- 
 ing to the restoration of normal supply of dwelling houses. 
 
 At the same time, the lag which always accompanies changes 
 in price levels, and the unwillingness of tenants to pay increased 
 rents, coupled with the readiness to single out the landlord who 
 increases rents as a "profiteer," have combined to destroy the 
 incentive to private builders to build, while making financially 
 more difficult the carrying out of housing programs by industries 
 and housing corporations. 
 
 Governmental Aid. — The breakdown of the usual economic 
 machinery for securing the construction of houses had led to an 
 increasing pressure on Governments, both here and abroad to 
 subsidize house construction by tax exemption, by loans at low
 
 HISTORICAL I: l VII H I 1 
 
 rate of interest, and in other ways. In tlii- country, "home 
 loan bank" legislation haw been introduced and strongly ui 
 upon Congn Both in G Britain and in Canada, funds 
 
 have been provided and loans for the construction of low priced 
 houses have been aut horized. 
 
 THE PRESENT PROBLEM 
 
 Ai the present time, therefore, ili«' industrial housing problem 
 promises to reach its full developmenl . A general, acute Bhoi 
 of li(.mr<, and the price situation, have made impossible tne 
 solution of the probU'm \>\ indivi dual action, and have made 
 large scale house produ ctio n by specialized agents] nbl only 
 desirable, but absolut ely necessarj . 
 
 c of experience has evinced the value to industry of a 
 supply of homes qoI only sufficient in quantity bul satisfactory 
 in quality. The beneficent eflfeel thereof on the stability, con- 
 tentment and loyalty of labor is well known. 
 
 In solving these problems, the incomes, habits and desires 
 of the employees; the requirements of the industry and the 
 interests of the community and the Btate all must be taken into 
 account. Subsidy by industry, philanthropy, or by the Govern- 
 ment may possibly be helpful agencies, but in any case industry 
 vitally interested, it must achieve Borne successful solution 
 in order to attract and keep suitable labor. The numerous 
 experiments that have been made, and the experience during 
 i • • War, have demonstrated that in order to fulfill these require- 
 ments, full consideration musl 1"' given to the health, comfort, 
 convenience and amenity, and finances of the prospective 
 occupants. 
 
 The present day problem of industrial housing, therefore, - 
 organize the necessary professional services,— together with 
 the employer, the employee, the municipality, the state and the 
 natioi to secure the construction of homes for our work- 
 
 men, of such kind, in Buch surroundings and on such terms as \\ ill 
 promote their loyalty, and as will cultivate an industrial spirit 
 that will lead to the increased production which is the 
 need of our country and of tin- world.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 FUNDAMENTAL PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 Advantages of Modern Industrial Housing — Cost of 
 Modern Industrial Towns — Marginal Deficit or 
 Necessity For Subsidy — Procedure of Organization 
 and Finance — Technical Program 
 
 Introduction. — The industrial housing question may be con- 
 sidered to have two phases; one in connect ion with urban indus- 
 tries and one for rural industries. By far the greatest number of 
 industries have been established in existing communities and the 
 housing of workmen in such circumstances has followed channels 
 which have been largely undirected and uncontrolled by the 
 promoters of the industry. 
 
 Frequently, in connection with modern plants, correct lighting, 
 ventilation and sanitary facilities have been installed, in order to 
 maintain efficiency and health among the workers. Thus 
 working conditions within the plants have improved constantly 
 and steadily, while housing conditions of the families in the 
 adjoining communities have been forgotten and too frequently 
 have grown steadily worse. Private enterprise and personal 
 effort have failed to create wholesome or adequate homes and 
 living conditions for workers and their families; large concerns, 
 therefore, now generally realize that the housing of employees 
 must be considered a problem of industrial development. It 
 cannot be evaded or solved by merely establishing the industry 
 within an existent community. It is incumbent upon the 
 management to see that satisfactory homes are available for the 
 workmen, if not by independent agencies, then by the assistance 
 or initiative of industrial executives. 
 
 In the second classification, the industry is to be situated in a 
 rural or isolated section and hence demands the creation of a 
 new community with all of its multifarious details. It has some 
 of the elements of the foregoing situation but in many features 
 is peculiar to itself. 
 
 12
 
 II NDAMENTAL PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 13 
 
 Certain ind or yean have boused their workmen in 
 
 isolated "company towns." In man} cases these towns have 
 consisted of a garish group of houses, withoul adequate sanitary, 
 recreational or livable facilities. They have frequently and 
 deservedly been called "camps." To. infuse the vital brea th of 
 111',.; to convert patches of houses into a community of homes; 
 to make the ft* 1 * 1 p u town; t hi- i.- tin.- sucond phase of thejndus- 
 uial housing problem. 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF MODERN INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Does It Pay. — No new enterprise will meril favorable re* 
 nition until the eminently practical and sensible question- 
 it pay? — is given consideration. Whatarethei andwhal 
 
 are the returns on modern industrial housing? 
 
 Unfortunately, like many influences dealing with human be- 
 ingBj the returns from wh obso me hous ing cannol be accurately 
 expressed in dollars and cents. The stresses and strains of hu- 
 man nature follow no exact law, as do those in concrete and steel. 
 i-.- returns are immeasurablej however, does not indicate 
 thai they are nol real. Favorable influences and reactions 
 resulting from good housing are easily discerned by those who 
 seek them. 
 
 Many a community may al firsl wonder why, accordu 
 the Fourteenth Census, it takes a place lower in the rank of 
 populations than formerly accorded to it. As a result there 
 may possibly l>e a more general re lization of the discriminating 
 elimination by labor of such places as do not provide comfortable 
 and convenient homes, plea-am surroundings, adequate trans- 
 portation, | mi a Me water, ami educational and recreative facilities. 
 and why labor, therefore avoids unsatisfactory living conditions, 
 insofar ae possible. This reaction of labor to environment is 
 
 none the less real 1 ause it may be only vaguely felt rather 
 
 than ronscioush reasoned. 
 
 Plant and Town Compared. — An illustration of the need of 
 wholesome living conditions maj be exhibited by a comparison 
 
 Of the number Of hour- -pent in the plant by the worker-, with 
 
 the number of hours spent in the community by the family. 
 Assuming an eight-hour working day and •'!<•<> working da} 
 
 year, it can be Computed that the in.lu-trial worker i- in the plant 
 only L'7.1 per cent, of hi- time. M if in the a\
 
 14 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 family of five, we assume that l}i members are engaged at the 
 plant, it is seen that only 8.2 per cent, of the entire family's time 
 is spent in the plant. The remainder, or 91.8 per cent., is spent 
 under influences considered under the subject of "Industrial 
 Housing." 
 
 To the average man the most interesting and important con- 
 sideration in life is himself and his immediate family. He works 
 for a wage simply that he may be enabled to obtain the neces- 
 sities of existence and enjoy the pleasures of life. The wage it- 
 self is merely the medium in the barter. It is true that while 
 the workman derives his all important livelihood while at the 
 plant, the expenditure of this income on house rent, food, clothes 
 and recreation is directly affected by townsite conditions. And 
 surely the conditions under which the income is expended to 
 obtain the necessities and pleasures that are demanded should be 
 as carefully considered as are those under which the pay is ob- 
 tained. While the plant is the mean of livelihood, the home and 
 the^town are th e tangible means~oT~ expressing life; whatever 
 improves living conditions reacts upon the individual as potently 
 as do improved working surroundings. Labor unrest is not due 
 entirely to lack of sufficient ^yrijutrin many cases to the psy- 
 chological effect of the laborer's family upon himself, due to poor 
 living conditions. 
 
 Labor Turnover. — Wholesome living conditions have gen- 
 erally been highly effective as an aid in preventing or reducing 
 labor turnover, with its enormous costs. The recent experiences 
 of our war industries convincingly proved that unsatisfactory 
 and inadequate housing was one of the principal causes of the 
 enormous labor turnover, which in the early stages of the work, 
 so interfered with their productive efficiency. Even unusually 
 high wages failed to hold the workers, and as a consequence the 
 United States Government was forced to appropriate $190,000, 
 000 to provide good houses for the workers. 
 
 Alexander, in 1913, found no fewer than five distinct elements of 
 cost in hiring and training new employees. These were: — cleri- 
 cal work in connection with the hiring process; instruction of new 
 employees by foremen and assistants; increased wear and tear 
 of machinery and tools by new employees; reduced rate of pro- 
 duction during early period of employment; increased amount of 
 spoiled work by new employees.
 
 // WDAMENTAL PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 1 ". 
 
 The same in studied 
 
 emplo i hired in t of hiring 
 
 a m-w man was bel • 00. 
 
 , in 1914, made i 
 aew employees were hired to main tail 00 : i j :i t « -« 1 
 
 the cost of hiring to bi er man en 
 
 In L918, the cost of bi est [mated to 
 
 Im- fri 1 1 50) by the ( rem impany. 
 
 The I ord < iompany, 
 turnover of U6 per cent., and I this turnover was 
 
 said to b< 000. 
 
 During 1916, a rubber company in Ohio, employing 16,000 men, 
 found thai it had a turnovi r i f 31 md thai v 
 
 cent, of these were single men, between 21 and 30 - . and 
 
 mostly Americans. 
 
 [f the same position must be refilled three times in one year 
 
 n<>t .-Hi unusual turnover at the < 240 per year, 
 
 these changes would constitute a loss licit would pay the int< 
 on an investment <>!' ■ t,000, a sum which would go far toward 
 supplying a satisfactory house. 
 
 Regulated Payrolls. -A modern industrial town, planned in 
 proper relation with the plant, permits a conscious control over 
 the selection of the ■ : employees, impossible of attain- 
 
 ment when the town is uot "buill to order." industrial n 
 :m<l foremen know only !<><> well that tin- percentag 
 pn arried i<> single rn< n carried on the payroll js often affected by 
 the , casual a\ ir houses in the nei ghborhood . 
 
 The correct percentage can be maintained by providing the 
 right proportion of houses and rooms. 
 
 I :ewise tTie penvi skill ed to unskilled workers ; the 
 
 to native workers, the aumber of women 
 workers and minors can be regulated to produce maxim un 
 ciency, by building tlie tmvn to suit tin- plant. The modern 
 industrial town has all the ad^ of the home built 
 
 compared with ili<- house purchased ready built. This 
 9< rikinglj show n l>y an example given in < 'hap' 
 where the method of computing the Dumber and i\ ouses 
 
 and rooi cusse I. 
 
 Loyalty and Efficiency. The value of long service <>ii the part 
 of employees i- only partly i ted by the I 
 
 of labor i urno> er. The skill I loy-
 
 16 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 alty that accompany long steady service-are of inestimable value 
 to the industry. 
 
 The contentment that results from wholesome living condi- 
 tions goes far toward producing plant efficiency, and in promoting 
 that esprit de corps which is so indispensable to any properly 
 functioning organization. No matter how well organized the 
 industry or how modern the e quipment, successful operation de- 
 pends largely on the attitude of mind of the invididual worker. 
 An ounce of loyalty is worth a ton of time clocks^ 
 
 Bad living conditions have their greatest effect on the work- 
 man's family; but the discontent, ill health , and irritability of 
 his family surely react upon the wage earner himself, who gene- 
 rally thus becomes thoroughly infected with dissatisfaction, and 
 frequently resentful at the entire environment which caused it, 
 and no workman in such a frame of mind can really be an effec- 
 tive producer or an harmonious part of the organization. Many 
 a disagreement culminating at the plant had its origin and 
 nurture in the unsatisfactory living conditions outside of the 
 plant. 
 
 Health. — Clean and comfortable living quarters unquestion- 
 ably conserve the health of the worker. Pure water, efficient 
 sewerage, means for maintaining clean streets and premises, and 
 hygienic houses are essential. A cheerful, healthy, virile and effi- 
 cient community will not develop out of the filth and disease of 
 an insanitary environment. 
 
 Modern Practice and Aims. — Aside from the above elements, 
 what more practical evidence is needed than the fact that our 
 largest and most successful business concerns are investing large 
 sums of money in modern industrial housing; though the return 
 on such invested capital cannot be segregated and expressed in 
 dollars and cents. 
 
 Big business has given birth to big conceptions as to the pur- 
 pose and province of large industrial enterprises. Its service 
 concept, as well as its role as an instrument of profit, is now re- 
 cognized as a worth-while motive for large corporate under- 
 takings. 
 
 COST OF MODERN INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 
 
 Elements Considered.— Though the returns on good housing 
 are indefinite, the estimated investment can be expressed in dol- 
 lars and cents. Every industrial executive should know the
 
 // VDAMENTAL PRELIMIS Iff] CONSIDERATIONS 17 
 
 approximate outlay required to gauge intelligently the wisdom 
 of the expendil lire. 
 
 A modern industrial townsite is more than a group of houses; 
 a vital, breathing community of homes. Tin- physical 
 elements contributing to Buch a community are the land; the 
 houses; the buildings other than houses, a£ quarters for Bingle 
 men, Bchools, Btores, clubs, churches, etc.; the utilities, Buch as 
 water supply, Bewerage, drain • electrical and transporta- 
 
 tion systems; the Btreet improvements; and, finally, tin- parks, 
 playgrounds and reserval ions. 
 
 Figures relative to the <•"-' of these various items are of limited 
 value without full information concerning the given project. 
 To afford an approximate conception, however, estimates for 
 Beveral modern towns are given in the following paj 
 
 Hypothetical Example. The author recently (1920 computed 
 the cos! of an hypothetical town in which the following conditions 
 were assumed: 
 
 A site of approximately 130 acres, with flat topography in the 
 vicinity of but no! immediately adjacen! to a city: 1000 detached 
 houses, 22 ft. wide and 26 ft. deep; lots, 12 ft. fron! by LOO ft. 
 deep, with 1") ft . of set-back. Main streets, 50 ft. wide, improved 
 with 26 ft. wide, water-bound, macadam roadway,with concrete 
 curbs, :i ti-ft. planting strip, and a I'-j-ft. concrete sidewalk on 
 each side <>t' tin- -tint. Minor Btreets, l<> ft. wide, with i- 
 
 r-bound, macadam roadway, furnished with concrete curbs, 
 ."> • _» - f t . planting strip and ;i 1-ft. concrete sidewalk on each side 
 of the street. Gridiron street systems, with no alleys. Length 
 of each block, 588 ft., width 200 ft., with 28 houses in each 
 block. 
 
 \ filtration plant and pumping station were assumed, two 
 mile- distanl from the townsite; a sewage disposal plant lot 
 one niilr away; an electric transmission line two milt- Long, ami a 
 •link feeder one and one-half miles long, each considered t<> 
 derive it- Bupprj from an existing plant. 
 
 With this assumed town Bite ami using unit prices current in 
 January, L920, the following relative costs of house ami improve- 
 ments per house were computed. The cos! of Land was arbitra- 
 rily fixed • -<i- ft.; and the house itself, suitable 
 for a Bemi-unskilled worker, was assumed to 1><- built U 
 
 The itemized est im I in' he follov 
 
 table, together wit h the | h item.
 
 18 
 
 / A I) [ *,S TBI A L HO USING 
 
 Table 1. — Estimated Cost of Improved House and Lot in an Hypothe- 
 
 thetical Town 
 
 Xos. Items 
 
 Cost per house 
 and lot 
 
 Per cent, of 
 total 
 cost 
 
 Per cent, 
 including 
 overhead 
 
 1. House (average cost) 
 
 2. Land in lot 
 
 3. Land in streets 
 
 4. Lot improvements 
 
 03,500.00 
 
 105 . 00 
 
 35.18 
 
 264.71 
 
 308 . 27 
 
 149.44 
 
 19.31 
 
 74.67 
 
 162 . 96 
 
 125 . 60 
 
 63.4 
 1.9 
 0.6 
 4.7 
 5.6 
 2.7 
 0.3 
 1.3 
 3.0 
 2.2 
 
 8.6 
 5.7 
 
 73.7 
 2.2 
 0.7 
 5.6 
 6.5 
 
 6. Water supply and distribution . . 
 
 7. Electrical lines and lighting .... 
 
 8. Gas supply and distribution .... 
 
 9. Sewers (storm and sanitary) .... 
 10 House connections 
 
 3.2 
 0.4 
 1.6 
 3.5 
 2.6 
 
 
 
 11. Supervision and engineering, @ 
 
 10 per cent 
 
 12. Interest during construction, @ 
 
 $4,745.14 
 474 . 51 
 313.18 
 
 
 
 
 
 $5,532.83 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 Summarizing the foregoing, it will be noted that the house 
 is 78.5 per cent, of the total cost, including a distribution of 
 overhead; land with lot improvements is 8.3 per cent.; street 
 improvements, with land for these, are 7.7 per cent.; water, 
 electrical, gas and sewer improvements with house connections 
 constitute 11.5 per cent.; engineering, supervision and interest 
 charges, which are distributed in these statements, are 14.3 per 
 cent, of the whole. 
 
 The foregoing estimated t otal cost of $5,532 .83 is to be con- 
 sidered the gross co st of land and all imp rovements. The net 
 cost will depend on local conditions and may be arrived at, by- 
 deducting from the gross, such costs as are borne by public 
 utility companies and paid for in rates or assumed by munici- 
 palities and paid for by them out of general taxation. Local 
 custom is this regard differs; generally public utility companies 
 are required to extend service, providing the return warrants; 
 municipalities frequently pay for the entire water supply and dis- 
 tribution s stem, for sewer outfalls, approximately ten percent. 
 of sower and storm drains; from 10 to 15 per cent, of cost of 
 pavements, and the entire cost of sewage disposal plants.
 
 FUNDAMEh TAL PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 LO 
 
 Another Example. The author, during L919, planned a new- 
 semi-industria] town in Eastern Pennsylvania. The Bite, with 
 Blightly sloping topography, contained LOO acres, and was divided 
 into 263 lots and four Industrial sites. The principal streets 
 
 were 50 ft. wide; minor sheets, !() ft. wide The lots varied in 
 wi.Ii h from H» to 50 H ., wit h an average depl h of 150 ft.; average 
 area of lots aboul 0.000 sq. ft. The lengths of the blocks were 
 about 600 ft. Alleys were omit ted. Electrical and gas utilities 
 
 were not included. 
 
 Table 2. — Cost of House, Land \\i> I'tiutiks 
 (Number designation is the same as in Table 1). 
 
 No8. [terns 
 
 Basis of estimate 
 
 i Per cent, 
 house of 
 
 ;iiid lot total 
 
 cos! 
 
 1. Eouse 
 
 2. Land 
 
 5. Street grading 
 
 ."). Si reel paving 
 
 5. Sidewalks . . . 
 
 6. Water works 
 
 9. Sanitary sew- 
 er system 
 
 9. Storm sewers 
 
 11. 
 
 12 
 
 Werage for medium paid workers. 
 
 Based <>n cosl plus carrying charges 
 
 for three years; no improvements. . 
 
 Based on cost of excavation and fil- 
 ling to sub-grade 
 
 Based on tar-bound macadam 
 
 Based on concrete walk 4 '-i feet 
 a\ erage width, on both sides of 
 si reet 
 
 Based on wells, pumping station, 
 e|c\ ated steel storage tank, and 1, 
 (i and 8-inch cast iron pipe distribu- 
 iilt ion system 
 
 Based on 8-inch tile pipe, at depl b of 
 9 feet, with manholes, and sewage 
 disposal works 
 
 Based on 15-inch tile pipe, with :> 
 feet cover, discharge at edge of 
 town 
 
 $4,000 
 
 '.10 
 
 90 
 210 
 
 100 
 
 170 
 
 150 
 
 60 
 
 Sub-total S4,S70 
 
 Supervision and engineering, (" to 
 per cent 487 
 
 Sub-total $5,351 
 
 Interest during construction. (" 6 per 
 
 cent 32] 
 
 Total 
 
 J5.768 
 
 70.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 3.7 
 
 1.7 
 3.0 
 
 2.6 
 1.1 
 
 8.6 
 
 5.7 
 
 100 no
 
 20 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Average of U. S. Housing Corporation. — The following table 
 presents a summary of the estimated costs per family for 97 
 housing projects planned by the United States Housing Corpora- 
 tion during 1917-1918. Only 22 of these were built. These 97 
 projects included accommodations for 21,005 families, and were 
 situated all over the United States, most of these being east of 
 the Mississippi River. As a general rule, the houses were 
 designed for the higher paid skilled workers. The layouts include 
 detached, semi-detached, terrace or row, and apartment houses. 
 
 Table 3. Cost of Housing per Family Average 97 Projects — U. S. 
 
 Housing Corporation 
 (Number Designation same as used in Table 1. Based on Assumed Unit 
 
 Costs) 
 
 Xos. 
 
 Iter 
 
 Cost -per 
 family 
 
 Per cent, of 
 total 
 cost 
 
 1 House 
 
 \-a Other buildings 
 
 2 & 3 Land 
 
 4 Lot improvements 
 
 5 & 10 General improvements. 
 
 $4,374.70 
 185.85 
 192.14 
 147 . 80 
 497 . 62 
 
 Total $5,398.11 
 
 81.0 
 3.4 
 3.6 
 
 2.8 
 9.2 
 
 100.0 
 
 (The above figures were obtained from Page 434, Vol. 2, of the Report of 
 the United States Housing Corporation published June 21, 1919.) 
 
 Lorain, Emergency Fleet Corporation.— A typical example of 
 the industrial housing developments built by the Emergency 
 Fleet Corporation, Division of Passenger Transportation and 
 Housing, is given in the following table, which presents the 
 approximate itemized cost of the village of the American Ship- 
 building Company, completed in 1919 at Lorain, Ohio. 
 
 The total area of the project was 43.8 acres; it contained 
 133 detached houses, 44 semi-detached houses, 2 apartment 
 houses and 2 stores. All were of frame construction. While the 
 village was built within the municipal limits of the City of Lorain, 
 it included a complete' layout of streets, all lateral and distrib- 
 uting utility lines, but no feeders, trunks or main transmission 
 lines.
 
 Ii VDAMENTAL PRELIMINAR] CONSIDERATIONS 21 
 
 I Mill. I AtPPBOXI \1 \ I 1 ' li \Ml.llli AN' 
 
 Shipbuilding Company, Lobain, Ohio. 
 
 
 
 I House 
 
 Land 
 :> eel improvements 
 
 '. \\ iter supply : i r 1 • t distribute 
 
 Q Sew era Banitary and storm 
 3 ( leneral improvements 
 
 -S.I I I K»H II 
 
 1 The mi cos) i- somewhal less, owing t<> paymenl by the municipality for 
 it> iicirmiil Bhare of municipal improvements. 
 
 MARGINAL DEFICIT OR NECESSITY FOR SUBSIDY 
 
 Statement of Requirements. A consideration of elements 
 affecting the oosl of a modem industrial town at once presents 
 the concrete question Wh.it conjjliiiites a. house? The mater- 
 ials of construction; the oumber and Bjze of the comas; tin* 
 number of families under one roof and finally the exteni of the 
 improvements and conveniences pmvirlftd to guarantee health 
 and comfort ; all of t hese affect t he cost . 
 
 In Chapter X there are given various views upon the features 
 ami requirements of a satisfactory house, expressed by men who 
 have devoted much time and thought to the subject. It is 
 perhaps only natural that there should be a wide divergen 
 opinion upon such a topic, since, in common with most other 
 typically human questions, it is incapable of exact computation. 
 
 However, do doubt .-ill will agree th&l the house should be 
 Bjichas to coj Jtli f safety and welfare of its occupants . 
 
 The features making for the t wo former objects are distinctively 
 technical, capable of more or less exact analysis in thepn 
 state of the art, and therefore are relatively easy of specification. 
 It i- concerning the question of welfare that the greatest differ- 
 ence of opinion occurs. Included in such desideratum arc the 
 more obscure factors in home production, such as attractive 
 amenities, comfort, provision for amusement and helpful Bocial 
 intercourse, and constructive or preventative measures, both in 
 house construction and in town building, making for b 
 moral standards of living. While the -
 
 22 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 various items will no doubt depend upon the comprehension or 
 bias of the judge, such have, at least to a reasonable degree, a 
 direct bearing upon health, and consequently may be considered 
 in the class of the necessities. 
 
 It is a comparatively simple task to talk about what should and 
 what should not be considered essential and desirable features of a 
 workman's house. A more difficult task is to devise ways and 
 means whereby these features may be obtained and still keep 
 the house within the rent and purchase price that can be afforded 
 by the occupant. Before reaching any final conclusions on the 
 necessary and desirable features of a workman's house, one should 
 investigate, as a basic starting point, the question — What can 
 the workman afford to pay for rent? — assuming that it is neces- 
 sary for the house with its improvements to yield a reasonable 
 return on the investment. 
 
 Income Available for Rent. — The United States Department 
 of Labor made investigations on the cost of living in the United 
 States, from July 31, 1918, to February 28, 1919, and reported 
 these results in detail in the Monthly Labor Review, for the 
 months of May, June and July, 1919, in Volumes 7, 8 and 9. 
 Nearly thirteen thousand family schedules were obtained in 
 92 localities, in the different geographical sections of the country, 
 for family incomes ranging from less than $900.00 to $2,100.00 
 and more. The information thus secured was by personal inter- 
 view, and in many instances by a review of daily expense accounts, 
 which many housewives were prevailed upon to keep over a 
 period of not less than five weeks. The expenditures were 
 subdivided into — food; clothing; rent; fuel and light; furniture; 
 miscellaneous expenditures and surplus. 
 
 The following table, showing only the percentage of income 
 spent on rent, was prepared from the statistics given in the re- 
 ports mentioned above. 
 
 Table 5. — Per Cent, of Income Spent on Rent (1918-1919) From 
 Monthly Labor Review — Volumes 7, 8 and 9. 
 
 Annual income 
 
 Under 
 
 $900 
 
 $900 
 
 to 
 $1,200 
 
 $1,200 
 
 to 
 $1,500 
 
 $1,500 
 
 to 
 $1,800 
 
 S1.S00 
 
 to 
 $2,100 
 
 $2,100 
 
 and 
 over 
 
 Per cent, spent on rent . . 
 Number of families in- 
 vestigated 
 
 19^4 
 
 488 
 
 13.65 
 2769 
 
 13.12 
 4152 
 
 12.64 
 
 2751 
 
 12.52 
 1622 
 
 10.36 
 1062
 
 / I SDA Ml. \ TAL VltELl MINAPA ( ON, IDERA TW 
 
 The average percentage of income paid i 
 
 ■nt., while 75 per cent. <»f thi mily im< >m«- was 
 
 from the earnings o? tEe principal breadwinner. Thei 
 obtain the approximate percen the principal breadwinner's 
 
 wage that may be available f<>r rent, the figure directly conni 
 wi'.li the v \:i^i aid I"- 18.2 per cent. 
 
 1 rge industriea have found by actual experience that 
 
 when hou jold to the workers, a larger proportion of the 
 
 income is available for the purch te house than for 
 
 the rental of the house. This i I do <li>ul>i by the 
 
 extra frugality stimulated by the desire for home ownership. 
 < Mm- large industry recently developed its housing project <>n the 
 that 17 per cent, of the wort rould be av ailable 
 
 for houses Wi- 1 l:iic«I for rental purposes, whereas 25 per cent, could 
 be dej <-iii|i-iI upon foi i«li were fo Be sold. 
 
 genera] purposes, howeve^20 per cent, of the wage income i- a 
 fair figure to use in estimating the amount of wage availabli 
 
 With the percentage ot wage available for rent, and knowing 
 the wage rate; the amount of money that can be invested in a 
 house and appurtenances that could be self-financed is readily 
 computed. It immediately becomes apparent that forthelo 
 priced wage earner this amount is insufficient to build a - 
 factory house with the presenl day cost of land, building materials 
 and labor. A marginal deficit exis 
 
 V this point we arc brought \:i>- t - to face with the mosl diffi- 
 cult feature of the industrial housing problem. Stripping it <<\ 
 its Don-essentials, the problem is exemplified by the following 
 three financial statements: 
 
 1. With its minimum requirements, a detached five-roon 
 
 u nli proper yard room and air Bpace and with all appurtenj 
 cannot be built in most part- of the Unit 3 - than 
 
 2. With a lo per cent, return on the 
 maintenance and depreciaton, this house mu 
 month. 
 
 8. Wit! at. of tin- woi I 
 
 require 1210 per month, oi v a un- 
 
 skilled worker. 
 
 Means to Meet Deficit. The resources to meet thet 
 are
 
 24 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 1. To increase the wages or income of the family. 
 
 2. To subsidize the cost of the house, either in capital, account, or 
 by accepting less than the legal rate of interest in return. 
 
 3. To reduce the cost of the house by quantity production, by group- 
 ing and by intensified development, such as the use of row houses or 
 other type of multiple family dwellings. 
 
 All three are questions of inter-related expenditures. The 
 first two are matters of company policy and bookkeeping. The 
 last is a question of judicious town building, savings in which 
 can be achieved only by the careful, experienced, economical 
 consideration of the design, construction and maintenance of the 
 industrial town. 
 
 It should clearly be understood that the foregoing is based on 
 renting a detached house to the lower paid wage earners. If a 
 selling plan is adopted, then about 25 per cent, of the worker's 
 income may safely be assumed to be available for reduction of 
 principle, interest and ordinary maintenance of the house. In 
 this case, the proposed five-room, minimum house could be pur- 
 chased by a breadwinner, making about $6.50 per day. Impor- 
 tant progress toward a solution of the difficulty may be gained by 
 the use of row or terrace houses, duplex and other multiple family 
 dwellings, or of the older, partly depreciated houses which have 
 been vacated by a more productive worker; upon the basis that 
 the needs of the minimum wage earning class may be satisfied 
 by the minimum space allotments dictated by sanitation and 
 hygiene. Such dwellings, although requiring a high order of 
 designing skill, not only reduce building costs, but conserve land 
 and lessen the cost of utilties per family unit. 
 
 The gravity of the financial problem presented by industrial 
 housing has caused it to assume transcendent importance in the 
 program of industrial developments. Once considered a side 
 issue, it is now in the fore-front of the important questions, 
 moulding the policies and procedures of industrial expansion. 
 The new attitude, essential to an economical procedure and now 
 fully realized, allows town builders wider latitude and affords 
 greater opportunities for successfully solving the problem than 
 ever before. Often decided advantages may be obtained for 
 the town with no consequent disadvantage to the plant, if 
 final policies regarding the plant location are formulated only 
 after townsite possibilities are carefully investigated and 
 considered.
 
 PUNDAMBNTA1 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 PROCEDURE OF ORGANIZATION AND FINANCE 
 
 Policy as to Home Ownership. The policy of ownership and 
 town control is one of the moel far-reaching considerations which 
 MllM be faced in the development of a modern industrial town, 
 affecting as il does the entire scheme of financing, the selection 
 of the Bite, the design of the houses, the order of the construc- 
 tion program, and the administration of the town. Three dis- 
 tincl systems are practised in industrial towns, the third being 
 a compromise of the other two. 
 
 In one a company, either the manufacturing concern or a 
 special charter organization subsidiary thereto, maintains <\- 
 clusive ownership of the houses and improvements. 
 
 1,, the second, the ownership of thehoua intothe j 
 
 npn of the workers, with or without the financial assistance 
 of the company by some cooperative Bales arrangement. 
 
 In the third Bystem the houses are owned cooperativejy by 
 ,1„. tenanj and landlord through the medium of :. copartner- 
 ship, or, more commonly, a corporation. 
 
 Company-owned Houses.— This is distinctively 9 
 arrangement. Under it. the. housea are financed, built, owned, 
 maintained and operated whoUy l>y the company , and out 
 a ppropriations from company funds, together with Buch asf 
 , alll ,. j^ ,,m be. gained from the rentals. Ordinarily, when 
 large amount of unskilled labor is involved, the development can- 
 not be financed entirely from these rentals. 
 
 . (I „i if the housing development be a separate com- 
 munity, the entire scheme of operation, including policing, health 
 regulations, fighting, fire protection, etc. must remain the 
 burden of the company. En order to escape Borne oi thes 
 Bponsibilities, as well as in order to conform to a more democratic 
 .vernment, it has been customary to incorporate Buch company 
 towns and to adininister operation by a regularly constituted 
 public government. 
 
 In this Bystem the selection of the type or Bites and the dev< 
 menl thereof, is not affected materially by the Baleabilil 
 the houses. M • - of construction and general design ol the 
 house Bhould be such as to reduce maintenance and operation 
 plusthefixedcl toaniinimum. The irresponsibility 
 
 ,. character of interior finish and fixl 
 The changeability of tenants calls for designs and improvements 
 acceptable to general, rather than to individual tai
 
 26 IX DC ST RIM, HOUSING 
 
 The organization can control directly the designs and stages 
 of construction throughout the development, utilizing therefore 
 an efficient town building organization, whereby all the advan- 
 tages of quantity and standardized production methods may be 
 realized. The system affords freedom and easy mobility to the 
 workers. 
 
 Privately Owned Houses. — By this sytem, while the company 
 or an entirely separate corporation bears the financial burden of 
 initiating the project, it is eventually reimbursed by the sale 
 price of the house paid in installments extending over a period 
 of years. The maintenance, taxes, and assessments become the 
 burden of the owner upon receiving title to the property. 
 
 The selection of site in connection with this class of house 
 ownership is affected by the saleability of houses. More money 
 as a rule can be invested in the single "houses under this system, 
 as the buyers will devote a higher percentage of their wages to 
 the purchase of a house than to the rental of one. Individual, 
 rather than group tastes must be catered to, in order to improve 
 the selling value, a requirement which generally results in a more 
 liveable home. The prospective purchaser is generally allowed 
 some latitude in choice of location, and in the choice of one from 
 among several standard types and sizes of house. Some organi- 
 zations permit the purchaser to select an original design for 
 his house. Occasionally the lot is simply purchased from the 
 company and the purchaser employs his own architect and con- 
 tractor. Either of these latter two methods of operation tends 
 to reduce the savings which results from standardization and 
 quantity production methods. 
 
 The development of the townsite may be placed in the hands 
 of an independent realty company or privately formed housing 
 company. In this case certain restrictions should be enforced 
 to prevent building speculation which will work a hardship upon 
 the workers. This plan has the distinctive advantage of avoiding 
 paternalism, with all of its attendant evils. It removes a large 
 share of the expense and burden of overhead from the company, 
 and, by reason of its democratic and fundamentally sound econo- 
 mics, has a tonic effect upon the entire community which it 
 fosters. 
 
 Where a company assumes the dual role of employer and of 
 landlord or real estate agent, it has generally been found that 
 the worker, unable or unwilling to give fine discrimination, takes
 
 // VDAMENTAL PRELIMINAR] >i.l:\il<>\- 27 
 
 advantage of the rather complex situation, by balancing 
 vancee as an employee againsl demands ae a purchaser or tenant 
 (or vice ad will thus insist on far 1 1 1« » r< - than his just due. 
 
 Indeed, there are numerous instances where 'In- company has 
 had to maintain and repair houses for ; er they I 
 
 sold and paid for. No matter what good intentions both parties 
 have, differences frequently arise in the process of build ii 
 paying for the house which, with company control, ma 
 permanently discontented worker. 
 
 The construction program, in connection with a non-company 
 o\ ned townsite, however, may and often does follow the same 
 course as with company controlled town-, the Bales policy being 
 initiated at the completion of the first house. 
 
 Cooperatively Owned Houses. < ^operative house ownership 
 is the result of an endeavor to solve the housing problem, avoid 
 landlordism and paternalism and share the burdens and tx ■ 
 of ;i house renting business by providing Bexvice-at-cost living 
 quarters to the members of the organization The idea has had 
 its fullesl development in England, although some example* 
 to be found in thi> conn! py. 
 
 This (vpfi of organization conducts a strictly renting busii 
 it may and often doc- operate partially on borrowed c.,; 
 giving mortg; ■■.. cunt y. 1 he system is particularly app 
 
 ble to Bmall housing developments where apartment or multiple 
 family houses predominate, and. in fact it loses much ol 
 advantage where detached houses are the rule. The more 
 important technical considerations are similar to th< ribed 
 
 for " ( 'otnpativ owned 1 louses. " 
 
 When applied in industrial housing, the industry generally 
 hold- the majority of the stock and receives therefor divid< 
 in the form of rentals. It has the advantage of relit 
 industry of a considerable part of the burden of fin 
 operation, holds a somewhat better pron returning 
 
 adequate rate of interest, and in addition it. has son 
 advantage in promoting a more wholesome independei 
 self-reliance among the tenant- than in the i ompany- 
 
 ow ncd houst 
 
 Forms of Building Organizations. Bu nisation 
 
 is here taken to mean that financial agency which initiates and i< 
 •onsible for the construction of the housii . 
 
 The Bchemee and * that ha
 
 28 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 to finance and promote real estate housing developments are 
 manifold as to details of execution and operation. However, 
 for the purposes of industrial housing, they are represented by 
 not over three fundamental types. 
 
 Loan and Realty Associations. — This form of organization 
 l oans money to individuals for building purposes or for the 
 purchase of land only, up to a specified percentage of the total 
 value of the property either unimproved, improved, or about to 
 be improved, taki ng as security therefor either first or second 
 mortgages, or both. 
 
 The more usual procedure begins with a borrower who has his 
 land paid for and who desires to erect a dwelling thereon. In this 
 case the borrower would obtain a loan from a bank, or from an 
 ordinary building and loan association, secured by a first mortgage 
 on his property. The realty corporation would then make the borr- 
 ower a loan upon his second mortgage, for the difference between the 
 cost of the proposed dwelling and the amount of the first mortgage, 
 the second mortgage to be paid in monthly installments, or, 
 payable at the end of a term of years, maturing when the first 
 mortgage is sufficiently reduced to absorb the second. 
 
 As an alternative, the realty corporation may make a loan for 
 the full value of the house, taking as security a first and second 
 mortgage on the lot and proposed building, the first mortgage 
 being payable at the end of a term of years and of such form 
 as to render it easily marketable, the second mortgage being 
 payable in monthly installments. The corporation then liq- 
 uidates its mortgages to the fullest extent, as fast as received, and 
 uses the money thus obtained as a revolving fund to continue 
 operations. Its invested capital will thus amount to between 10 
 and 25 per cent, of the total value of mortgages held. The 
 stock of the corporation may be held wholly or in part by the 
 parent industry or industries, although the latter is the more 
 customary procedure. 
 
 Responsibility for carrying on building operations generally 
 rests with the borrower. However, in order fully to protect its 
 interests, such an organization should exercise a watchful supervi- 
 sion over construction work, even to the extent of supplying 
 technical skill, approval of plans and inspection of workmanship. 
 
 Housing Corporation. — This is essentially a building organiza- 
 tion. A chartered corporation is organized with a stock issue 
 so proportioned as to finance the required rate of building houses.
 
 PUXDAMEN1 i/. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIOy 
 
 Stock i- taken by the Industrial concerns interested, by public- 
 Bpirited organizations, if anj are involved, and to thi 
 extent possible by the public al large. The charter of the 
 corporation Bhould contain a limited dividend clause. With the 
 capital thus obtained, a group of houses is built under the ad- 
 ministration of the corporation. These bouses are sold to men 
 of good health and Btanding regularly employed by the industry 
 or industries concerned, and of proven integrity. 
 
 Bales are made on a cash payment of a specified per cent . of the 
 sales price, such price including .-ill of the expense whatsoever or 
 the allocation thereof necessary to produce and deliver the house; 
 n would comprise interesl charges, administration, overhead, 
 taxes and insurance, proper allowance for guarantees to public 
 Bervice <•< ir| >< .el i ii .11- . etc. Ai the time of sale the purchaser 
 executes two morgages in behalf of the housing corporation; 
 the first mortgage for 50 to 70 per cent, of the sale price and the 
 Becond mortgage for a face value which is the difference between 
 the total Bale price and the Bum of the first mortgage and the 
 initial cash payment. The purchaser further pays a specified 
 sum per month, usually about one per cent., to cover interest and 
 insurance, (fire and life), the balance being applied to the reduc- 
 tion of i he mortgage. 
 
 The corporation then negotiates the first mortgage and liqui- 
 date- the Becond mortgage, insofar as possible, using the funds 
 thereby obtained to continue building operations. As a varia- 
 tion, in large housing corporations, mortgage bonds may be is- 
 sued against the first mortgages and sold to the public in small 
 denominations, thus distributing and absorbing the financial 
 burden. 
 
 A typical plan of this sort was outlined in :i Bulletin issued by 
 the 1'. S. Department of Labor, Information and Education 
 nee, May 19, 1919. 
 
 "The plan involves an incroporated company with a capib 
 Slid) workmen as can pay down 10 per 
 house and lot will be loaned 50 per cent, by banket 
 and the remaining l<> per cent, will be provided bj pany, 
 
 which will take a cond mi i 
 
 [on have agreed to loan the company funds up 
 of the Becond mort 
 the company tied up in any one prop 
 of the value of that property and the capital rill l»e
 
 30 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 .adequate for the promotion of homes up to the value of $250,000. In 
 the meantime, those who build (or purchase) the houses pay off their 
 indebtedness at the rate of one per cent, per month. Thus, the com- 
 pany will have availabe additional funds for further operations." 
 
 Company Housing Bureau. — In this case a housing organiza- 
 tion, generally a corporation, is formed by the parent industry 
 which owns or controls all stock in such organization. It may 
 be chartered with powers broad enough not only to deal in real 
 estate, but to build, sell, rent and to operate. Where the house 
 enterprise must be subsidized, either directly by capital invest- 
 ment or by acceptance of a rate of return less than a legal rate 
 of interest, this type of organization is generally the only practi- 
 cable one. 
 
 Such an organization sometimes has been employed as a loan 
 and realty corporation, through which the company will offer to 
 loan money, up to as much as 90 per cent, of the proposed value of 
 a house and lot, to any one of its employees who is a prospective 
 builder and borrower. It has been found however, in practically 
 every instance where tried, that this plan encourages purchase 
 of houses already existing, rather than the building of more 
 homes to relieve housing shortage which is the real object of the 
 plan. 
 
 In case houses were actually to be built at the borrower's ini- 
 tiative, under this plan, the same reservations as described under 
 "Loan and Realty Associations" should be exercised by the 
 company housing bureau. 
 
 In conclusion it may be stated that the tendency is away from 
 rather than toward a close control over the housing corporation 
 by the parent industry, for the reason that too close a relation- 
 ship between the industry and its subsidiary organisation in- 
 volves complexities which lessen the advantages of separate 
 organizations as discussed in Chapter XIII. 
 
 TECHNICAL PROGRAM 
 
 The broader practical considerations in the initiation of a 
 housing enterprise should receive proper attention early in the 
 initial stage of the project. In fact, the preliminary surveys for 
 the project should be contemporaneous with, or even precede, the 
 equally important matters of policy having to do with methods of 
 organization and finance and with house ownership. This phase 
 of the procedure will require special attention to the following: —
 
 // WDAMBNTA1 PRBLIMINAR] CONSIDERATIONS 31 
 
 An inquiry into the type and Dumber of houset required 
 with an estimate «'f the range and proper Belling prices and 
 
 An investigation "t" location! and rites suitable f< r housing purp 
 
 A plan for economically developing the rite ■ 
 
 rthy estimate of cost and budgel of expenditure, 
 t>.ii«-t ln-r with ut least an approximate program for construction, which 
 will serve for a basil of financing the propostion. 
 
 Need for a Program. The procedure to be followed in estab- 
 lishing a modern ami industrial town cannot be haphazard. 
 Too much i- at -take to permit a community to plunge into it. 
 without careful ami searching inquiry. The issue is not only 
 thr expense «>i tin- initial outlay for houses ami towns, but is 
 
 one of re paramount importance having to <1«» with the 
 
 smooth functioning of the development throughout it< life in 
 relation to the plant. bo that both may achieve the purpose for 
 which i hey are intended. 
 
 It has been unfortunate that many industrial concerns h 
 built workingmen's houses, not only without mature thought 
 an. I Btudy <>n 'he part of executives, hut- also without any ade- 
 quate assistance from those whose experience has fitted them to 
 give it. Without doubt it' an industrial corporation were to 
 inaugurates new system in the manufacture of it- product or were 
 to institute a new department in its work, this would be done 
 only after a due Btudy, in which specialists on the installation oi 
 the improvements in question would be called upon for the bene- 
 fit of advice ami judgement . 
 
 In many actual instances however, when the only hope <»t ob- 
 taining men to work in the plant lay in providing them with pro- 
 per living quarters, it has happened t hat officials whoshowed 
 common sense in matters pertaining to their own business, the 
 intricacies of which they well understood, have rushed into the 
 problem of housing, a prey to unscrupulous or incompetent 
 buildi Lb a result they have had foisted upon themselves and 
 
 their communities nondescript development-, which later have 
 failed signally to achieve the desired results. In some cases, the 
 fact that all of the new dwellings were occupied, immediately 
 after completion, led to the erroneous belief that an ideal village 
 had at last been built; hut a- discontent later became mai 
 ami it grew apparent that the only reason for occupancy of the 
 houses was that they offered the only shelter available, tl ■ 
 responsible charge awakened to the fact that somewhi
 
 32 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 thing was wrong. In the careful investigations which have 
 followed such instances, much valuable information has been 
 developed, which has raised the standards of later developments 
 built by the organizations concerned, while the experience thus 
 gained has proved valuable to others. 
 
 The lessons of experience, at least in connection with the 
 house, as a unit, have been learned fairly well, but the importance 
 of study and careful planning of the housing enterprise as a com- 
 prehensive and completely unified project, has yet to be fully 
 appreciated. 
 
 Preliminary Work. — Number and Types of Houses Required. — 
 The existing or prospective payroll, together with the number of 
 satisfactory houses available will furnish the basis for determining, 
 with a hi gh degree of assurance, the requirements as to number 
 and types o f hou ses and the range of satisfactory selling or rent- 
 i ng prices. The proportion of skilled to unskilled labor and the 
 most desirable ratio of married to single men may be ascertained 
 by an analysis of the needs of the various departments, based 
 either upon the recommendations and opinions of the depart- 
 ment managers, or upon a study of the kind of labor and labor 
 processes best adapted to each. The percentage of women to 
 be employed will determine the necessity or extent of women's 
 dormitories. 
 
 The nativity and racial characteristics of the prospective 
 working force will, when learned and forecasted, be one of the 
 governing features in selecting the type of house and in district- 
 ing the site. The mountaineer of Kentucky will require different 
 treatment from the native of a Massachusetts city; the Mexicans 
 of Arizona and New Mexico will demand accommodations and 
 conditions different from those required by the Slavs and Swedes 
 of Minnesota; the Italians of California have customs to be satis- 
 fied contrasting with those of the Negroes of Alabama. 
 
 Knowing the number of the various classes of employees, the 
 ranks and standings, and something of their personal character- 
 istics, the number and type of living quarters may be fixed. The 
 wage scale will obviously affect if not control the total cost of the 
 several types of houses as well as the total capital investment of 
 the enterprise. This subject is presented as a definite problem in 
 Chapter X. 
 
 Selection of Site. — If the industry is not established and if 
 essential requirements do not fix the location, so that widest
 
 ii \ DA Ml. \ / 1/ -"/.'// / Ml\ ARY < ONSIDERA I TONS 
 
 latitude is allowed, tin- subject requires great breadth of vision 
 and ability of a high order. < Ilimatic, political and labor condi- 
 tions existing in the different Btates and regions must be known 
 and weighed, in connection with the special requirement* of the 
 industry. The cost of living and wages, the ■■ »n, trans- 
 
 portation and health conditions must be known. I g in- 
 
 dustries and the law of attraction of Bimilar industries Bhould 
 l«- considered. 
 
 Whether the town is to be .- 1 1 1 urban addition or an isol 
 rural community greatly affects the choice of site. iphy 
 
 inn! soil conditions, pleasing vistas, freedom from local nui- 
 sances, Buch as mosquito Bwamps, factory smoke etc. 
 land, political boundries, ownership of sites; nearness to existing 
 communities, accessibility to and from the plant, transporta- 
 tion facilities; highways; availability and cost of developing 
 water, sewerage, drainage, gas and electrical utilities; all must 
 be given due weight and adequate conclusions drawn. 
 
 Projected Development oj the Site.— A preliminary develop- 
 ment of the site -elected Bhould next be undertaken, for the 
 purpose of determining more carefully the number of building 
 lots and various types available, the approximate districtu 
 the land, the location or relocation of thoroughfares and arterial 
 streets, the availability and location of area- for park-, recreation 
 and civic center- and the availability or location of the principal 
 utilities. This stage of the woik will serve to outline the nature 
 and the most economical disposition of the housing development, 
 and will form an adequate basis for the preparation of a budget 
 and a practical program. 
 
 Budget and Program. -The final Btage of the preliminary work 
 should be tit*- preparation of a budget of cost and a program of 
 expenditure. The budget will l>e based upon a preliminary 
 estimate of the cost of the project, a knowledge of the met! i 
 financing, the amount of money that is or may be made available 
 and the program of construction. The program of expenditure 
 will be correlated with the program of construction and the si 
 sequence and periods in which the various Bections of develop- 
 ment aie to l.<- completed will in turn depend upon the demand for 
 home-. 
 
 Design and Construction. The preliminaries concluded, 
 policies determined, budgets made up and fund- procun 
 
 appropriated, the project may then logically enter m 1 ' 
 
 Btructioi
 
 34 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 It cannot be emphasized too strongly, however, that construc- 
 tion should be preceded by the preparation of detailed plans 
 and specifications, a precept which seems obvious enough, but 
 which nevertheless is too frequently disregarded. The funda- 
 mental reason for planning any undertaking is obviously economy 
 and the assurance of actually accomplishing the desired end. 
 Perhaps nowhere in the construction field are there more fertile 
 opportunities for accomplishing better results, frequently at an 
 astonishing saving in expenditure, through planning, than in the 
 construction of the large scale housing development with its 
 manifold needs and activities, and therefore its manifold oppor- 
 tunities for waste. 
 
 Coordination of these various building activities, organization 
 methods as applied to the construction program and the main- 
 tenance of an effective liaison can be made to yield returns, in 
 savings, well worth while. For example, the relation between 
 street and lot grading; the use of specialized squads of workmen 
 successively, in house construction; the opportunities for sav- 
 ing in utility construction by use of a common trench and many 
 other details; quantity purchases and the correct routing of 
 materials; and in short the avoiding of all the mistakes of hap- 
 hazard, time-to-time building. 
 
 Building Staff— Town building, in its entirety, requires the 
 services of various professions. No one of these can properly 
 function without the cooperation of the others. 
 
 In connection with its war housing work, the United States 
 Government found it necessary to organize the services of in- 
 dustrial managers, engi neers, architects, town planners, trans- 
 portation experts, realtors, sociologists and contractors, in order- 
 to achieve its purpose. All the phases represented by these 
 different professions must be carefully coordinated and balanced, 
 if an economical, comfortable, attractive, hygienic town is to 
 result. All too often it has been found, even in recently con- 
 structed industrial towns, that certain phases have been over- 
 weighted to the detriment of the project as a whole. 
 
 Until very recently no town building organizations, containing 
 men trained in the various professional branches essential to 
 successful town construction, have been available. It has usually 
 been necessary to engage independent specialists who in spite of a 
 desire to cooperate, often worked at cross purposes; frequently 
 causing delays, duplication of efforts, and unnecessary expense.
 
 // WDAMENTAL PBELIMINAR] CONSIDERATIONS 35 
 
 Industrial managere can readily understand the complications 
 inherent in such an arrangement. Elappily, especially during 
 the War, the complexity of town building has been recognised; 
 and comprehensive town building organizal ions have been formed 
 which include, in their varied personnel, men trained in the 
 particular branches essential to successful and economical 
 town building. The field ifi large and the appreciation of th<- 
 problem and of the advantages of Buch codrdinated Bervice u 
 growing.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 SELECTION OF SITE 
 
 Housing Site in Relation to Location of Industries — 
 General Considerations Affecting Town Site Loca- 
 TION — Investigations and Studies Preliminary to Site 
 Selection 
 
 Introduction. — The success which attends the solution of the 
 industrial housing problem will depend in a great measure upon 
 the character and location of the site selected for the building 
 operations. Irrespective of the merits of the housing policy 
 which the company is desirous of following, that which may 
 actually be accomplished will be determined in many wa ys by ,the 
 restrictions andjmiitations imposed by the site7"~The selection 
 oTthis i must, therefore, receive very careful consideration and 
 it should not be made until the general policies have been con- 
 sidered and the chief requirements for housing formulated. 
 
 HOUSING SITE IN RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL LOCATION 
 
 The selection of the building site may be subject to a variety of 
 controlling and limiting conditions. It may arise as one of the 
 elements assoc'ated with and related to other factors which deter- 
 mine the definite selection of a plant site; or, in very broad terms, 
 housing conditions and opportunities for their expansion, may 
 be a factor in regional location for an industry. 
 
 The two general conditions under which housing sites are usu- 
 ally selected are; first, where the industry itself is a p roject ed on e 
 a.nrl n. spW .inn for its location lias_.not_beeiLJnad.e, and second, 
 where housing is to be provided for going and established plants. 
 The investigation which should precede site selection in tEeTfirst 
 instance is more involved and complex than in the latter, since 
 there are more cond tions, often conflicting, to be satisfied. 
 
 When a new industrial plant is to be located, the housing of the 
 industrial workers must receive just as careful consideration at 
 the outset as the other factors which affect or concern the loca- 
 
 36
 
 SELEi TIOS "I SITE 
 
 37 
 
 
 < 
 
 t i, ,11 of the plant and the problems of operation and production. 
 The opportunity is then present to Bolve the housing problem in a 
 satisfactory manner. It' left to chance, or to later determina- 
 tion, this may prevent the development or successful operation 
 of the industry in its illy chosen location; or, it may make the 
 i housing very expensive. Housing is therefore to be «•<•"- 
 sidered as one of the important factors concerned in plant loca- 
 t ions .- 1 r i < 1 in product ion. 
 
 Industrial and Economic Requirements of Plant. Theseleo-i 
 Ition of the region, the vicinity, and finally the definite site, in 
 which the proposed plant is to be built, involves in man 
 the fulfillment of certain requirements peculiar to that industry, 
 and conformity to various economic and business conditions that! 
 enter in varied measure into the operation of all industries. 
 Special requirements for certain industries will operate to limit 
 the location, either to definite situations or to regions r> 
 
 g peculiar requirements which are absolutely oecessary for the 
 londuct of that industry. Mining plant-, for instance, are 
 necessarily restricted to those districts where the ore or mineral 
 deposits are found; the shipbuilding industry musl perforce be 
 located on a site possessing a navigable water fronl ot sufficient 
 depth and width. For certain industries, using large quantit 
 of water in it- processes, the plant site must be adjacent to a suffi- 
 cient body of water. <>r to economical possibilities for the develop- 
 ment of a sufficient water supply. Tl ^e cheapness and availabi lity 
 o f fuel or power will exerl a Btrong influence and be a deter- 
 
 / mining factor in the -election 67 BlMJH fuVuiany mdustnes. In- 
 dustries which are hazardous in their nature, or productive of 
 unavoidable odors, noxiouc and other auisances will seek 
 
 
 
 ►sullied locat lolis. 
 
 I conomic locat 
 
 ion with regard to transportation of raw ma- 
 
 terial roduct, 
 
 will be the detennining factor in the selection of the location of 
 many industries. As to whether n earness 1 of raw ma- 
 
 terial, or location at point- favorable for distribution will pre- 
 dominate, will depend upon the nature of the industry, and be 
 largely influenced by the form and hulk of the product manu- 
 factured. Industries inherently reductive in their pi 
 iquiring hulk of raw material which becomes greatly reduced in 
 weight and volume in process of manufacture, will have - 
 
 dency to locate in proximity to the boui rial.!
 
 38 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Where raw materials of several kinds are used in bulk, the loca- 
 tion may be made at any one of the sources of supply, or at 
 points where convenient transportation facilities are available 
 for all of them. In any event transportation and terminal facili- 
 ties will be most important considerations. 
 
 In some industries climatic conditions, the amount of rainfall, 
 *Jhumidity, the extremes and variations of temperature will have 
 /an important influence on the plant operation and will so affect 
 ^j the choice of site. 
 
 The location of many manufacturing industries, particularly 
 those where skilled workmanship enters into the final manufac- 
 ture and assembling of the finished product, will be to a great 
 extent controlled by labor conditions. This factor is perhaps 
 best expressed as that of the operation of the law of "The Attrac- 
 tion of Similar Industries." This may be a controlling factor 
 even chough conditions in the locality are not otherwise relatively 
 ■ as favorable as others for economic production. The location of 
 ,0 S* the New England cotton manufacturing industry, in a region far 
 removed from the source of supply, is a well known early instance 
 of the operation of this law. It therefore follows that where a 
 section has become a leading industrial center for a given kind 
 of manufacture, the availability of specialized and skilled labor 
 at that point will continue to attract new enterprises of the same 
 or related kind. 
 
 The particular requirements of an industry, which determine 
 the definite selection of its site will depend upon the nature of the 
 works and the size and capacity of the plant. The require- 
 ments as to the topography of the site and its size, shape, and 
 the possibility of future extension must be fully considered. 
 Where the requirements are such as to demand location immedi- 
 ately on the line of a railroad, or where there must be opportuni- 
 ties for convenient and cheap disposal of waste product, these 
 conditions must be met. 
 
 Housing as a Factor in Plant Location. — Housing has been re- 
 cognized as one of the factors which must, of necessity, enter 
 into the selection of the location of the industry. The problem 
 is to select such a location for the industry as will fulfill the indus- 
 trial and economic requirements of the industry itself and at the 
 same time make ample provision for a supply of efficient and loyal 
 workmen. 
 
 There are a number of ways in which this may be accomplished.
 
 SELEi TWh 01 SITE 
 
 The more oommon method, prior to the present day conditions, 
 was to Locate the industrj in or close to a populated district, 
 under conditions in which the housing requirements would take 
 care of themselves bj becoming merged with those of the com- 
 munity. This policy can be followed only where there is either 
 a sufficient Dumber of suitable houses available for occupancy . or 
 where building and business conditions are Buch afi to insure 
 eonstruction by individuals. I Such a plan conveys do assurance 
 of satisfactory housing conditions and failure of realization may 
 react to the detriment of the industry^ 
 
 \' other plan is to locate the plant in a district where many of 
 
 t,*the utihties and aecessities and community advantages are 
 
 available, and ran be in part used, and then to build either di- 
 
 rectly, or in conjunction with other manufacturers, suitable 
 
 housing facit [lit 
 
 The third plan which has been followed in recent years by several 
 of the larger industries, has been to select a site in a rural region, 
 bo far removed from existing facilitii i constitute the devel- 
 
 opment of an isolated site. 
 
 Whatever may be the plan adopted for housing, the underlying 
 factors of the housing problem will include consideration for 
 requisite area; suitable topography; accessibility to the plant 
 and to any Deighboring communities, whose facilities for recrea- 
 tion and religion are to be depended upon: the possibilit 
 tablishing proper health conditions and of providing a reasonable 
 measure of amenity and attractivem 
 
 The requirements of a site suitable for housing are hereafter dis- 
 cussed in some detail and it is proposed to point out in thi> 
 chapter only the chief requirements as to housing, which must be 
 considered conjointly with the other factors when the selection of 
 the Bite of the plant, i^ made. These fundamental factors will 
 include the ( . thfi land, t he the develop ment of the 
 
 BJtfiJvith all improvements ami utilities ami the erection thereon 
 of building ami the cost of transportation; the extent to which 
 
 mmunity facilities, such as schools, chuxebj ttion pla 
 
 He must 1"' provided, will also have an important bearing. The 
 if providing housing, as comprehended by the foregoing 
 classification, together with other of industrial con- 
 
 truction Bhould he weighed for possible location in ordei 
 determine that which i- best adaptable and u omical to 
 
 const ruct . 
 
 »tt
 
 40 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING TOWNSITE LOCATIONS 
 
 Working conditions within the plant and living conditions within 
 the town greatly affect the stability of labor. Phases dealing 
 with such working conditions : as hours of labor, wages, bonuses, 
 piece payments, labor saving devices, safety devices, elimination 
 of disagreeable tasks, etc., all lie within the sphere of the indus- 
 trial engineer and plant expert, as do all the previous considera- 
 tions heretofore mentioned. Factors affecting living conditions 
 — as houses, stores, other buildings, sanitation, utilities, and re- 
 creational and educational facilities, etc. — are phases which call 
 for the consideration of town building specialists. 
 
 The selection of a town site is both a technical and economic 
 problem ; it is complex because of the number and interrelation- 
 ship of the various factors involved; and there is just as much 
 necessity for the exercise of skill and experience in the deter- 
 mination of the site as in any of the many problems of produc- 
 tion or operation of industry which require the services of 
 specialists for their proper solution. 
 
 Distance Between Plant and Town. — The location of the plant, 
 fixed either by technical plant considerations, commercial advan- 
 tages, climatic conditions or presence of similar industries, may be 
 established either in or adjacent to a town, or in an isolated 
 location. 
 
 The choice of a site for the industrial town, to serve either of the 
 above plant locations, is limjled by.ajinje^zone, any area within 
 which is within a certain time distance from the plant. The 
 town preferably sjiould not be more than 15 to 20 minutes walking 
 distance from the plant, or not more than 30 to 40 minutes3y 
 convenient and dependable transportation service. 
 
 Factors which Relieve Distances. — The allowable distance from 
 the plant to the worker's home will be affected by conditions 
 other than the time it takes to cover it in walking. When access 
 to the plant from the home may be made in a comfortable, agree- 
 able and convenient manner, the lessening of fatigue will tend 
 to minimize the effect of distance. Tliere should, jheref ore, be 
 providedwe lt planne d routesleadi ng fro m the homes to the plant, 
 where walking conditions will be good, safe "and convenient. 
 Where approach paths or roadways are provided, they should be 
 laid out in easy grades, be well drained and surfaced and grade 
 crossings should be avoided.
 
 / / - / i<>\ OP si 1 1: I i 
 
 Bhower bathe at the plan! alleviate the fatigue of long tripe 
 home and many companies have now established modern wash- 
 ing and kitliin^ facilities for thie reason. Most workmen 
 nowaday - like to go to and from their work dry and 'Iran. Such 
 self-respect ie commendable and should !"■ encouraged by provid- 
 ing Buitable means whereby it. may !»<• satisfied. In addition to 
 i<- cleansing effect the Bhower bath refreshes the tired workman, 
 bo that he makce the journey home after a hard day'e work 
 in a iih ire agreeable frame of mind. 
 
 Many companies, employing large numbers of women woi I 
 have facilitated the movement between homes and the plant 
 by allowing the women to quit work before the men. Thia 
 avoids much of the rush and jostle for women workere at the 
 plan' ■-. hen t he w hist Ie blow b. 
 
 In isolated town- t fye compam should gee, where transportati on 
 
 a ccomi lations are necessary, thai they are provided at 
 
 inable cost, ami are adequate an3 comionablc; tabor 
 trains have frequently Been neglected feuturea; tJiupluyweiil 
 will be made more attractive it' measures are taken to insure 
 cleanliness and protect overcrowding. 
 
 Map Showing .1 l With the plant site fixed and 
 
 knowing the time limits between plant and townsite, an area 
 can be Bhown which will include tin' limiting possibilitii 
 choice for the tow osite. The size and Bhape of this area will 1 c 
 affected, not only by the topography, but by the type and charac- 
 ter of the transportation facilities thai exisl or that may l< 
 economically developed. The distance from the plant to th< 
 outer limits may vary from one to fifteen miles, according to th< 
 
 mean- ■>!" t tan-it. 
 
 After ascertaining the limiting area for town site possibilitie 
 by means of the map. a general question to be considered, i • 
 the particular site for the town is Belected, is whether or nol it is 
 expedient and advisable t < » locate the plant and town adjacenl 
 i o each < it her or to have ' hem apart . 
 
 Advantages of Town and Plant Adjacent. A town buill close 
 to the factory permits the empl to walk to and from 
 
 their work. It reduces the cost of living, as it cuts out 
 daily transportation expense. Jt eliminates, <>n the part ol t !»»• 
 company, the necessity of building or meddling with transit 
 facilities, rtjpermits the woi to their homes for their 
 
 mid-day meal, thereby saving and perhape securing
 
 42 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 more to their tastes. It obviates the necessity of conducting 
 lunch rooms for most of the men at the plant. It provides that 
 workmen are close at hand in case of 'accidents, breakdowns 
 or other emergencies. It may permit less costly construction, 
 as erection of the town and plant at one location simplifies the 
 shipment and hauling of building materials and may reduce the 
 cost of supervision. The proximity of the town to the plant 
 will generally reduce somewhat the cost of lighting, heating and 
 fire protection for the town and other utilities. It permits the 
 company to have all its holdings contiguous, possibly simplifying 
 the acquirement of land. 
 
 Disadvantages of Town and Plant Adjacent. — Such proximity 
 restricts the choice of sites. Frequently land suitable for an 
 industry may be unsuitable for the town, or at least much more 
 adaptable, and attractive spacious townsite areas may be ac- 
 quired if the choice is not so restricted. Adjacency permits the 
 atmosphere of the plant to pervade the home. It fails to 
 furnish the daily break between working and living which is so 
 advantageous to both. Many of the dangers and nuisances 
 and necessarily unsightly features incident to the factory are not 
 escaped. Noise, smoke and odors from the plant may make the 
 town less attractive. 
 
 Decision Rests upon Many Factors. — No definite general 
 recommendation can be made in regard to this question of proxi- 
 mity. The decision must depend upon the character of the plant, 
 the nature of the plant site, the character of the country within 
 suitable distance of the factory, and the status of the transporta- 
 tion facilities. Both possibilities should be carefully investigated 
 with an open mind. While first costs should be kept in mind, 
 economical and agreeable living conditions throughout the life 
 of the town are of greater importance. As a general rule, a 
 townsite reasonably removed from the plant is conducive to 
 the best and most wholesome living conditions. 
 
 Urban versus Rural Towns. — There may be a choice of build- 
 ing the industrial townsite in such a position that it may be 
 annexed to a growing city; or of establishing the town in an 
 isolated location, so that it will remain a strictly self contained, 
 separate town. 
 
 Policy of Home Ownership. — The decision in this matter 
 hinges largely upon whether or not the policy of the company
 
 ELECTION OF SITE !■' 
 
 i- to maintain ownership of the houses or to -'-II them. An 
 urban or Buburban development lends itself more favorably 
 Bale's policy, because Buch a Bite affords diverse occupations to 
 members of the workingman's family. Moreover, the urban rite 
 provides a wider opportunity for greater social and recreational 
 activities, and less expense to the local community. 
 
 < nstruction tut'l Maintenance Consider aliot . h spite of 
 higher land value, the cost of developing within or adjacent to an 
 existing community will generally be less than that of an Isolated 
 town, it occasions less expenditures for Bchools, churches, 
 theatres, hot* etc. The installation of (Ik- 
 
 utilities such as water Buppry, sewerage, gas, and electrical ser- 
 
 . can be carried out as a rule less expensively. Mon 
 the upkeep and maintenance cost of municipal utilities may be 
 assumed, if within it- limits, by the municipality. 
 
 Disadvantages of Company Towns. — If the houses are sold to 
 the workers and the industrial housing project is within or i- later 
 annexed to an established community, the company is relit 
 of all the trouble connected with the administration of th<- town. 
 At its best the duty «>t" managing an Industrial town is an onerous 
 one; it complicates rather than simplifies plant administration; 
 it gives rise to a multitude of situations involving not only the 
 
 workman hut his family. It multiplies points of contact a 
 hundred fold, and unfortunately these an- productive of friction 
 rather than good will; the dual role of landlord and employer 
 in large industries is a difficult on.- to till; it brings the plant. 
 atmosphere into the home. It i- perhaps the very reason why 
 so many industries have held aloof from the whole question of 
 
 in. In-trial town-. "Enough difficulties iur in the plant." 
 
 •In- Manager, "without adding to our trial-.*' 
 i he above reasons it will be found advisable to select i 
 arnl follow a policy that will guarantee wholesome living condi- 
 tion- for the workers, with the smallest possible amount of 
 
 company intervention. This can be ami ha- been done bu 
 fully; it generally mean- the establishment of a subsidiary land 
 or real estate company, whose functioning ami officials an 
 arable from the industry. Generally speaking, other conditions 
 being favorable, ami urban or suburban industrial townsite, is 
 to be preferred, [solated n iM be chosen only a- a matter 
 
 of necessity.
 
 44 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 INVESTIGATIONS AND STUDIES PRELIMINARY TO 
 SITE SELECTION 
 
 With the limiting area for sites of the town established and 
 when such questions as the advisability of building an urban 
 addition or an isolated town, and of location relative to the plant 
 have been considered, other factors affecting the details of selec- 
 tion of a definite site follow in consideration. 
 
 It may well be that the determination as to the above will not 
 be settled finally until data on a number of sites are presented. 
 Thus it may prove advisable to consider a site best suitable for 
 an urban addition; another in a location most suitable if the 
 town is to be close to the plant; and, finally, a third, most adapt- 
 able for an isolated town site. 
 
 Necessary Acreage. — To determine the area necessary, the 
 number and types of houses to be built, and the requirements 
 as to size of lot, must be known; the quarters necessary for single 
 men, the number and size of public buildings, stores, parks, etc., 
 must be approximately predetermined and to the area thus found 
 there must be added the space necessary for reasonable future 
 expansion. Knowing these facts the minimum area required 
 for a complete townsite is found. So much for minimum acreage 
 required. 
 
 General Statement. — Irrespective of the acreage actually neces- 
 sary, the acquisition of additional land is generally advisable. 
 Future unforeseen developments are thus protected. The 
 general tendency is for such land to increase in value and it may 
 be sold later at a profit if advisable. It protects the develop- 
 ment from undesirable conditions growing up at its borders. A 
 practical procedure to follow is to determine the minimum acreage 
 required and then to acquire as much more as possibilities of 
 future expansion warrant and as can be conveniently obtained 
 and financed. 
 
 Government Examples. — As a suggestion in determining the 
 minimum acreage, interest attaches to the average building 
 density per acre provided for in the 128 town site projects origin- 
 ally planned by the United States Housing Corporation which 
 was 5.6 families per acre of gross area. The type of houses 
 built affect the density per acre; thus rows of group houses 
 furnish a larger number of families per acre than semi-detached 
 or single detached houses.
 
 < ll<>\ OF SITE 
 
 !.-> 
 
 Tabl 6 and 7 give the details for some of the proji 
 built by the United States Shipping Board, Emergency Flee! 
 CorporatioD and the United States Housing < Jorporation. 
 
 Tabu 6. Btai 
 
 ,\. r,,. i 1 1 1 . i ..i Typi "i l >\\ i ii-i"- Miu.it 
 
 ri.it A. BE 
 
 
 1 ). \ . I 
 
 Dumb) r 
 
 . umber 
 
 
 
 
 Bath, M< 
 Camden, V .1. 
 Dundalk, Md. 
 ( Sloucestcr, N , I 
 Lorain, < >hio. 
 Newburgh, N. , > 
 
 mouth, N. 11 
 Bun Mill. Cheater, Pa 
 Wilmington, 1 >el 
 lotti . Mich 
 
 1.. I ! 
 
 L80 1,386 
 70 9 529 
 
 ' 
 
 711 ii 
 
 II I 
 
 17 2 
 
 :,7 1 
 
 l:; 1 
 
 :, i 3 
 
 117 
 22] Q 
 
 1_'7 it 
 271 
 270 
 
 1.-, :, 
 
 1 .". 
 
 24 3 
 
 60 i 
 
 ii ii 
 9. 1 
 
 i. o 
 1 
 
 L 00 
 
 84 . S 
 21 8 
 
 _'s :; 
 37 5 
 
 17 2 
 
 -1 J 
 1 1 i) 
 
 it ii 
 
 394 6 
 
 22.] :\7.r> 
 
 II 
 
 '» 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 'J 
 
 II 
 
 i) 
 
 .".-• 
 
 N 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 U 
 
 78 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 6. l 
 
 5 l 
 
 6 B 
 L2 1 
 
 7. 1 
 
 i [ncludi >pen Bpacea and area devoted to Bchool and re- 
 
 onal purpo 
 
 The following Btatemenl ia quoted from the Ontario Housing 
 
 ( '.,1111111! tee's Reporl . issued in 1918. 
 
 iving ample allowance for Btr< i te and open Bpaces, 12 houses j er 
 acre would permit lota of 2500 Bq. ft. In comparison it i- interesting 
 to note that tin- Federal (Canadian) Standard* minim u m l<>t 
 
 ,,i' L800 Bq. ft. in cities an. I towns, an. I 1500 Bq. ft. in villagi 
 
 Allowing tin- area required for the streets, lots and parks in 
 tin- residenl ial Beotion of an industrial town, the fore-going allow- 
 ances will result in a density of from eight to families 
 per built-up acre. \ ! twelve families per occupied 
 acre will nut necessarily cause i i conditions. 
 
 Table 8 denotes the average distribution of area in tern 
 percentage of total area of various townaite projects planned 
 by the United - i i rnment during the recent '•
 
 46 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 97 contemplated by the United States Housing Corporation and 
 12 of those built by the Emergency Fleet Corporation. 
 
 Table 7. — Statistics of Some United States Housing Corporation 
 Developments Showing Effect of Type of Dwellings on Number 
 
 per Acre 
 
 Project 
 
 Devel- 
 oped 
 area 
 
 Total 
 
 number 
 
 of 
 
 dwellings 
 
 Per cent, of types of houses 
 
 De- 
 tached 
 
 Semi- 
 detached 
 
 Rows 
 
 Number 
 of houses 
 per devel- 
 oped 
 acre. 
 
 Aberdeen, Md 
 
 Alliance, Ohio 
 
 Butler, Pa 
 
 Charleston, S. C 
 
 Charleston, W. Va 
 
 Elizabeth, N. J 
 
 Lylcs, Tenn 
 
 Muskegon, Mich 
 
 New Brunswick, N. J. . 
 
 New Castle, Del 
 
 New London, Conn .... 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 Newport, R. I 
 
 Newport News, Va .... 
 Niagara Falls, N. Y . . . 
 
 Niles, Ohio 
 
 Quincy, Mass 
 
 Rock Island, 111., District 
 
 Average 51.3 
 
 26.5 
 71.4 
 21.5 
 30.6 
 16.3 
 19.0 
 61.1 
 50.8 
 43.0 
 14.7 
 23.2 
 42.9 
 9.4 
 
 192.5 
 53.2 
 25.3 
 62.1 
 
 161.1 
 
 80.0 
 265.0 
 167.0 
 136.0 
 
 87.0 
 204.0 
 125.0 
 278.0 
 397.0 
 
 46.0 
 188.0 
 209.0 
 
 78.0 
 1,015.0 
 401.0 
 117.0 
 398.0 
 997.0 
 
 287.1 
 
 81.3 
 
 100.0 
 
 17.4 
 
 100.0 
 
 54.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100. 
 
 10.3 
 
 43.5 
 
 10.7 
 
 100.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 30.2 
 
 24.3 
 
 88.0 
 
 82.1 
 
 82.4 
 
 57.6 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 82.6 
 
 0.0 
 46.0 
 50.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 38.1 
 22.1 
 89.3 
 
 0.0 
 87.2 
 30.7 
 20.5 
 12.0 
 17.9 
 17.6 
 
 28.6 
 
 18.7 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 49.9 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 51.6 
 
 34.4 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 39.1 
 
 55.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 13.8 
 
 3.9 
 6.3 
 
 10.3 
 8.0 
 9.6 
 
 15.0 
 6.7 
 8.1 
 7.8 
 5.1 
 
 11.8 
 7.7 
 
 12.0 
 9.9 
 
 12.7 
 6.5 
 9.7 
 9.4 
 
 8.9 
 
 Table 8. — Subdivision of Acreage — Governmental Housing Projects 
 
 
 Per cenl 
 
 . of area 
 
 
 E. F. C. 
 
 U. S. H. C. 
 
 Residential lots 
 
 55.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 26.8 
 
 12.9 
 
 62.3 
 
 
 2.2 
 
 Streets and alleys 
 
 25.5 
 
 Public grounds 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.0 
 

 
 SEl ECTION OF SITE 17 
 
 Shape and Costs. Having determined, from a study of the 
 requirements tentatively considered as controlling, the area 
 needed for the development, the nexl question arising undi 
 lection of aite us to compare different possible areas on the basis 
 of shape i.e., adaptabilit} I, cost to secure and possible method of 
 aoquisil ion. 
 
 Boundaries. The suitability of a possible Bite may be les- 
 sened bj reason of the Bhape of the available tract which can 
 cquired. The boundaries may be determined by the ability 
 to make reasonable purchase bo thai the development of the 
 tract may l>e carried <nn in :i satisfactory manner. Otherwise, 
 considerable expense may be incurred without adequate return. 
 The possibility of being unable to .1 < •« 1 1 1 i r< * rights of way for a< 
 or For utility Lines, etc., at reasonable rates should be inquired 
 into and will likely affect Belect ion. Precaut ions should be taken 
 tn determine the possibility of damage to abutting or nearby 
 property arising from drainage or other cause. The situation 
 can often be improved by inducing :t<lj<»iriiri«_r owner- to partici- 
 pate in bearing part of the cost of those improvements which 
 I h -iiel it their properties: Buch joint distribution of costs may make 
 desirable the development of a site which otherwise could not 
 be considered. 
 
 It must, however, not be supposed from the :il><>ve thai the 
 
 ngular or regular shaped piece of ground is most economical 
 
 or desirable in all cases, as many other factors affect the decision 
 
 and some of the physical characteristics mentioned in the next 
 
 Beet ion play & greater pari . 
 
 ' ' of LandJ Cosl of securing land is an important fa 
 lnit again not controlling, as thai which i- cheap in first 
 may be expensive to develop and to provide the facilities required 
 t herefor. 
 
 Land in isolated, rural territory is generally less expensive 
 than that adjacent to cities, particularly if purchased b 
 knowledge of the location of the industry has Keen made public. 
 
 Method I [*wo methods of acquiring land pn 
 
 them one in which opt ions upon or purchase of ground are 
 
 obtained before announcmenl of factory location; second, by 
 codperative action and pooling of interests in land for the common 
 good, in order to secure the establishment of an industry. 
 
 The first is the common, well-known method of optioninj 
 purchasing through an agent and so getting control of sufficient 
 land at reasonable and normal pi the identity and
 
 48 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 intent of the future promoter is revealed. In the second, the 
 possibility of competition of sites both for factory and town is 
 held out to the people and owner, and thus an interest stimulated 
 to combine interests and present the favored grouping of lands 
 for consideration at the most reasonable price. 
 
 Physical Characteristics. — The natural conditions of the 
 ground affect profoundly the relative desirability of sites, not 
 only as to first cost and up-keep, but also as to comfort and con- 
 venience. 
 
 Topography. — It has been stated previously that rugged hills 
 and like barriers may control a development and it is well known 
 that the utilization of river bank and bottom land for factories 
 has frequently left only the hills and gullies as a chance for houses, 
 and added much to the expense and unpleasantness of life. 
 On the other hand monotonously level ground is not ideal, either 
 from the investment or attractive point of view. A slightly 
 rolling area permits of less expensive drainage than one with a 
 generally flat surface, as well as affording more variety in treat- 
 ment of allotment and division into streets, lots and open spaces. 
 
 Soil Conditions. — The kind and depth of soil available affects 
 the beautification of the town and horticultural developments of 
 lawns, playgrounds and parks. The depth to rock and the char- 
 acter and stability of the earth will greatly affect the cost of 
 utilities, site grading and building cellars and foundations. The 
 depth of water table not only affects cost of trenching and laying 
 pipes, but involves the added costs of sub-drainage of building 
 foundations, and other precautions to obviate wet cellars. It 
 also is a large factor in infiltration into sewer systems and may 
 thus affect not only the cost of treatment works but also the 
 maintenance thereof. 
 
 Climatology. — The average and extreme ranges of temperature 
 and precipitation determine to a large extent the character of 
 house required. It is readily appreciated that the materials of 
 house construction in Canada differ from those of the Tropics, 
 but it is' also quite as true that use of shutters and overhanging 
 of eaves also varies with amounts and frequency of precipitation. 
 Other items of climate affect location. 
 
 The prevailing direction of winds, especially in connection 
 with the subject of nuisance, frequently plays an important part 
 in the desirability of a site. The topography affects this 
 also, as ravines or steep hillsides may and frequently do cause 
 accumulation of smoke and fog banks, so as to render unavailing
 
 fifj I l.i I h>\ 01 SITE 19 
 
 the ordinary currents of air which dissipate and break up such 
 objectionable features. The availability and frequency of sun- 
 light are important, as ii adds to tin- cheerfulni . Vegetation, 
 Bomewhal akin to this Bubject, may affect the location to an 
 I , a~ heavily wooded areas add to 1 li<- expei >f the 
 
 aecessity of clearing. Bui Borne woods and retention of such 
 
 as will not interfere with construction, are an advantagi 
 breathing parks and residential Btreets. The existing 
 
 types of plant life indicate those which will grow easily in tin- 
 on. 
 
 Demography. The recorded -n ! I <l<:itli rates of the 
 
 adjacent settlements, i.e. the known reputation of the com- 
 munity as to healthfulnese have an importanl bearing on the 
 desirability of a Bite. So likewise the appearance of the ground 
 and water courses, as to sanitary condition and tli<- prevalence 
 of tli«' mosquito nuisance, although controllable, affects pro- 
 foundly the genera] suitability of a tract at leasl in the minds of 
 the early visitors ;m<l prospective inhabitants. 
 
 Nuisances. All of the factors thai cause nuisance, Buch as 
 objectionable noises, smoke, fog, odors and noxious gases are 
 interrelated to topography and climate. Frequently, however, 
 local conditions of proximity of certain types of indusl ry making 
 objectionable noises, such as boiler Bhops, rolling mills, etc., or 
 uncomfortable odors or vapors, Buch as laundries, canneries, re- 
 duction or metal furnaces, may make nearby locations fortown- 
 decidedly unsuitable unless these be on the leeward side. The 
 noxious gases from certain industries may not only be injurious 
 brics an<l to health, but also to vegetation. Such are not 
 to be permitted in the vicinity of attractive townsil 
 
 Means of Communication. All available mean- of transporta- 
 tion, whether by water, Bteam railroads, electric traction lines, 
 highways or foot-paths, aid in determining the selection of 
 between two or more available ones. Such conveniences may 
 even affed t 1 1 « - question of embarking upon Bchemes of amuse- 
 menl and recreation; for if available at a place not inn far away 
 by means of easy communication, it is nol necessary to build 
 new ones. 
 
 The distances and gradi 
 thoroughfares to present railroads, the possibility of location of 
 branch lines, availability of terminal facilities, Bchcduli 
 vice and fares to important centers of population are leading 
 criteria in selecting townsites. Facilities for interchangi
 
 50 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 traffic and freight between available means, such as water ways 
 as well as railroads and highways, are valuable adjuncts to any 
 town. Then, too, an available water-front affords means of 
 suitable development for parks and recreation and large bodies 
 of water present opportunity for disposal of waste which with 
 present means of treatment, may be without objectionable re- 
 sults. 
 
 Highways. — The character, exent and width of highways in 
 furnishing adequate and convenient means of communication 
 between village and factory and even the not too far distant 
 city, are becoming more and more important in the selection 
 of housing areas. 
 
 In the present days of automobile trucking, industry even 
 may locate away from a railroad siding and have its hauling of 
 supplies and product done by the use of motor trucks. 
 
 Existing Facilities. — The selection of a townsite in many cases, 
 especially when rapidity of completion is important, is deter- 
 mined by the question of whether there be available various pub- 
 lic utility systems of sufficient capacity for extension into new 
 territory. This of course arises particularly where the industry 
 is considering a location near or adjacent to a city. 
 
 The possibility of extending existing utility systems furnishing 
 a satisfactory water, gas, or electric supply, and of utilizing or 
 connecting with existing sewerage and drainage works, should be 
 carefully investigated and the relative advantages of various 
 available sites should be compared.'^ It will be found upon in- 
 vestigation that many sites, otherwise suitable will be relatively 
 much more expensive to develop than others on account of their 
 location relative to the existing utilities. In this connection 
 feasibility, cost and length of time required to afford service 
 must be considered and given due weight. 
 
 The existence of the nearby city, with all of its public out-door 
 and in-door recreative, and educational facilities within reach, 
 means that the needs of the new settlement can be met without 
 building for it alone. Proximity to such facilities has a consider- 
 able money value, since the necessity of creating them— and they 
 are generally of non-revenue nature — is avoided. 
 
 Many other factors affect the determination of location and, 
 like the above, simply play their part in the weight of opinion. 
 Not all will be found of a favorable character in any one place 
 but each should be considered.
 
 8ELBi TJON 01 UTS 51 
 
 Attractiveru It' there be choice without undue additional 
 expense a site mosl adaptable i<» the attractive development of 
 uatural advantages should be chosen; thus pleasantness and 
 attractiveness and al i In- same time opportunity for out-door 
 enjoymenl and exercise ma} readily be obtained. Locations 
 near lakes or streams, interesting vistas, and pleasing topography 
 may sometimes appropriately dictate final selection. While it 
 be realized thai attractiveness has a positive value, care 
 should be taken uol to allow F ulfillm ent of interesting scenic 
 
 bilities i itweigh the ever present consideratioi 
 
 economic costs for the development of the area. 
 
 Prejudices and Customs. Cognizance should be trivial to any 
 local prejudices particularly in respecl to the race question. A 
 forecast with respect to the type of labor to be employed is 
 necessary t<> avoid this. Social and religious and political cus- 
 toms of the people must be considered. For exam pie; the strong 
 religious feelings of the Kentucky mountaineers and their 
 aversion for work on Sundays in the coal mines recently developed 
 there, is in contrast with the indifferent attitude of the miners 
 in Borne of the western states. 
 
 Preference for house types, frequently unexplainable except 
 l>v custom of peoples or community must be reckoned with 
 and planned for; the California bungalows, the Philadelphia 
 rows or groups, the New England cottage, seem to | local 
 
 attract ion not common everyw here. 
 
 Surroundings. Care must be exercised in passing upon the 
 suitability of a given Bite to insure that the attractiveness and 
 value of the property, and the living and social condition of the 
 inhabitants will not be diminished by the nature of the sur- 
 roundings. The existence of nearby 1 milt -up districts of undesir- 
 able character is to be particularly avoided as detrimental to 
 attractive rmanency of value and as neutralizing efforts 
 
 to maintain good Bocial and moral conditions. 
 
 / iws and /,' Building restrictions, plumbing and 
 
 health regulations, etc., frequently control the construction 
 details of ho. metimes to an unnecessary and expensive 
 
 degree. This may In- bo onerous in certain incorporated com- 
 munities as to dictate a location outside of their political bound- 
 aries. Legal powers, permitting the accomplishment of certain 
 aims in ti„. development of housing plan- and utilities are favor- 
 able in some place- and not so well adapted in others, thus
 
 52 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 vitally influencing the decision between different locations. 
 Local customs and business restrictions may often cause con- 
 struction to be unduly expensive. 
 
 Conclusions. — The selection of a town site for housing industrial 
 workers is a many sided problem. It should neither be decided 
 precipitously without taking in account all of the factors, nor 
 should the location of the proposed plant be decided without a 
 study and a determination conjointly made where labor is to 
 be housed. With a given type of plant and number of workers, 
 character of product. and market conditions, and kinds of labor 
 required, the general range of locations can be found. 
 
 The next group of determinations cover those coming under the 
 head of urban or rural selection and those like adjacency and 
 remoteness. These two are affected by policies of ownership 
 and renting which must be decided at the same time. 
 
 Then come the various detail factors that should be con- 
 sidered and weighed in the balance of judgment in selecting 
 an industrial site. Too often in the past decisions have rested 
 upon the influence of too few, sometimes even upon whims and 
 aesthetic tastes, much to the increase of final cost and occasionally 
 with the result of complete failure of the project. 
 
 The definite selection of the site should be based upon some- 
 thing more than mere weight of opinion. The relative advan- 
 tages of the available sites should be compared by means of 
 preliminary estimates of the comparative cost of their develop- 
 ment combined with the cost of purchase. This will involve 
 making estimates, necessarily hurried and incomplete, but, suffi- 
 ciently close and dependable to indicate true comparisons. 
 It must be realized that there are large differences in cost of 
 developing various sites, in excavating cellars, installing utilities, 
 etc. ; that some sites will require much more to transform into a 
 community than others. The cheaper land will not always be 
 the most economical in the end as the amount saved in its pur- 
 chase may be absorbed in expenditures which better located 
 and more expensive land may not require. 
 
 It is the hope and expectation that the remaining chapters of 
 this book will not only show the need of studying all factors but 
 the probable weight needed to be given to each; with the result 
 that a happy and judicious decision will result in any given case 
 after a review of all the conditions.
 
 ( ii \ i • ri i: i\ 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 
 Allotment "i Areas The Btbbbt Btstem— Summabt <•» 
 
 I 1 ,;,,, i ix ki Ki I i.m I "\imi M n I )ia BLOPMENT8 
 
 Introduction. While a well developed town plan i- the 
 omrmtinl in the preparation <'i" a definite program for a project, 
 M i,-li a plan ,-an be worked <>nt ami finally adopted "iily after 
 many underlying problems and relationships have been con- 
 sidered ami solved. 
 
 A completely evolved town plan will ordinarily include the 
 
 following main feat n 
 
 Division of the ares into districts according to character of use. 
 (6) Bystem «>!' main or arterial Btreets. 
 
 oondary or Bub-arterial, business, and residential 
 
 e trei 
 
 (,h Bub-division of the blocks into building ! 
 
 Transportation facilities; including Btreet and trunk railway.-, 
 and railroad Btations, or both. 
 (/) Parks, playgrounds, civic or community centers, Bchools, public 
 i i-i >■ 1 1 >1 i< - buildings and Bpecial featun [uired, Buch a- 1.. ea- 
 
 tions for public utility structures. 
 
 (,i) Gardens or yard developments, either in rear yards or allotn 
 
 The extent "> which the various foregoing features are U 
 introduced into the plan <>i" a housing development will depend 
 very largely upon its mse and its location relative t<> other ami 
 adjoining communities. The various elements ami their under- 
 lying requirements heretofore noted are more <"• less interrelated; 
 their incorporation in a town plan i» a problem of codrdination 
 and adaptation. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the 
 importance "i" consistent and coordinated planning, upon the 
 for careful consideration <>i' the essentials of each ••le- 
 nient «»r feature; an- 1 upon the merging <>i" the whole into a well 
 balanced program. 
 
 The simple, hut often neglected, relationship 1"
 
 54 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 grading and house location will serve as an illustration of the 
 interdependence between different items of the plan. Thus 
 streets should not only be located and graded so as to fulfill the 
 requirements of traffic, access and drainage — their prime func- 
 tions — but also should be fixed, with proper regard for economic 
 and desirable house location, particularly to minimize the cost 
 of lot grading. The surplus or deficiency of materials in street 
 excavation may well be a factor in the development of designs for 
 lot grading. Also the use of alleys, with their attendant expense 
 of construction and maintenance, will depend very largely upon 
 the type and grouping of the buildings. Illustrations, such as the 
 foregoing, could be multiplied indefinitely, showing the necessity 
 and the practical benefits to be gained by the working out of a 
 carefully considered and comprehensive town plan. 
 
 There is an opportunity for accomplishment in the planning 
 of an entirely new community which is not presented by ordinary 
 municipal subdivisions or real estate developments. Many of 
 the factors, such as the character of buildings, or the amount and 
 movement of traffic which are frequently problematical in the 
 latter instances, can be made determinate in the planning of an 
 independent, industrial town. The new community can, there- 
 fore, be intelligently planned to meet definite requirements and 
 conditions, and again, the problems and the order of their con- 
 sideration will be quite different than in the revision or re- 
 planning of older communities. 
 
 On account of the great variance in the physical, economic 
 and other conditions vitally affecting the town plan, it is im- 
 possible to lay down hard and fast rules for general application. 
 There are, however, certain criteria which may be applied and 
 certain standards which must be met. 
 
 The street system must be so planned that it will answer the 
 every-day requirements of traffic, business and access to the 
 houses. The physical well being and health of the community 
 must be assured by providing sufficient light, open space and air, 
 and by arrangements and utilities which will promote good 
 sanitary conditions. The limitations of cost and financial return 
 must be kept in mind, and the expenditure so proportioned be- 
 tween the various requirements that it will be most effective in 
 promoting the health, convenience, amenity and contentment of 
 the inhabitants. In other words the plan must make complete 
 and economical provision for all needs of the residents.
 
 DB\ ELOPME \ 1 OF THE TOW a PLAN 
 
 ALLOTMENT OP AMI 
 
 General. The initial Btep in the development of the plan, after 
 securing the topographical and other fundamental information, 
 i- the division of the area into districts according to characb 
 
 Suitable areas must be reserved for industrial, commercial 
 and residential developments, for parks, schools and other 
 recreational and community purposes, and Bites must be sel< 
 for public and Bemi-public purposes such as the civic center and 
 its buildings, railroad stations and public worl 
 
 I,, such districting, topography, elevation and existing or 
 projected transportation lines, will exerl grea1 influence. The 
 Bhape and location of the various districts will often depend, to a 
 considerable extent, upon the development of a satisfactory 
 -n of arterial Btreets for through traffic and connection with 
 other areas or communities. The work of division must, there- 
 fore, 1"' carried oul in close connection with the arrangement 
 of the arterial Btreel system. 
 
 Districting and Zoning. -The number and kind of districts 
 and residential Bub-districts which will be required will be 
 controlled by the contemplated size of town ami variety in type 
 of industries and houses, the required size and Bhape of 1"'-. and 
 the cost of land. Districting consists, primarily, in utilizing the 
 various portions of the town and parcels of land in Buch 
 manner as b rve the health, welfare and f the 
 
 the community tothe besl purpose. [1 furthermore should include 
 definition of restrictions or zoning, to establish the districting 
 policy and to insure permanency in the use of property. 
 
 It is necessary, aot only to make the most effective use of the 
 property and to build on the most, adaptable ground, but also 
 bo protect tin- future purchaser. Zoning regulations should 
 be promulgated and enforced from the beginning, and Bhould 
 ict, among ether thjngs, the percentage of 1"' occupied, the 
 height of buildings and the use and occupancy of buildings. This 
 will detine the development of districts for many ;• to come. 
 Such regulations ate uow being enforced in a Dumber of American 
 cities and are l»inL r upheld by the courts. They insure that the 
 purposes of the development will be attained and at the Bame 
 time protect the inter the community and the individual. 
 
 Buch regulations while an ex< the police power mu 
 
 the first place, mn-sirily be based upon careful designing
 
 56 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 study of probable use. The separation between various districts 
 should not be made too evident, in order to avoid the creation 
 of a prejudice against the property of lower value. A water 
 course, ridge line, woodland strip, park or other topographical 
 feature may be employed for the purpose. The various resi- 
 dential districts should preferably be contiguous to each other, 
 thereby reducing the outlay for schools, fire protection and, 
 generally, the cost of utilities. 
 
 The more expensive houses will naturally be built where the 
 values will be affected the least by nuisances from the plant, such 
 as noise, smoke or odors. The relative advantages of exposure, 
 prevailing winds and similar physical factors should also be taken 
 into account in selecting areas adaptable for the various types 
 of houses. 
 
 If the plant is adjacent, its relation to the several residential 
 districts deserves serious consideration. The proximity of the 
 various districts to the main lines of transit, railroad or street 
 railways, or both, must also be taken into account; especially 
 the latter, if transportation must be used by the workers to reach 
 the plant. In making this study, an important consideration is 
 the time required to walk from the work to the homes. The 
 higher paid employees will generally be found willing to travel a 
 considerable distance to obtain a more attractive home and en- 
 vironment. The growing extensive use of the automobile by 
 the well paid is also to be considered. On the other hand, the 
 unskilled workman prefers to live as close to the plant as possible. 
 It is preferable that the walking distance from the houses of the 
 the lower paid men, particularly the laborers, should not exceed 
 fifteen minutes. 
 
 Districting is an essential element of the town plan, and is inti- 
 mately related to the arrangement, width and character of the 
 streets. 
 
 Sub-division of Property. — Property sub-division embraces 
 the determination of the shape, size and proportions of the lot 
 and block, and also the division into sub-areas, according to the 
 character of the proposed improvements. 
 
 In deciding upon the best use to which the various parts of the 
 area may be assigned, topography and physical conditions of 
 the ground must be fully taken into account. These affect the 
 grades of the streets and cost of site grading for buildings. For 
 instance, detached or semi-detached dwellings can be built
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 57 
 
 frequently on land which may be unduly expensive to develop 
 for row or group buildings, or for business blocks. Extension 
 to adjoining areas of suitable ground should also be considered, 
 in locating the various sub- districts, particular study being given 
 to the probability and extent of such future developments. 
 
 Where conditions are such as to make immediate improve- 
 ments inadvisable or unduly costly, the disposition of such parts 
 of the area as are unsuitable for building purposes should be 
 determined when the tract is districted. These conditions may 
 obtain upon account of inaccessibility, rough topography with 
 ledges or rock strata close to the surface; or the presence of low 
 lying ground, swampy, difficult to drain, or subject to flooding. 
 Examples of making such areas available for use include the 
 filling Of low land from surplus street, trench and cellar excava- 
 tions, or by hydraulic fill from an adjacent river, and drainage of 
 swampy ground by trenching. 
 
 Allowance per House. — The net cost of the land required for 
 each building lot and improvements must necessarily be a 
 governing consideration in determining the size of the lot. This 
 can be determined only after all allowances and deductions 
 have been made for land used for non-return purposes and for 
 that which is unsuitable for improvements. It will be helpful, 
 in studying the problem, to form an idea of the extent and rea- 
 sons for such deductions. 
 
 The area reserved for streets and alleys will vary with the 
 topography and the depth and length of the blocks, and will 
 depend upon the depth of the individual lot and hence upon the 
 type and grouping of the proposed buildings. In this connection, 
 the statistics of eleven typical villages planned and constructed 
 by the Emergency Fleet Corporation, as given in Table 8, 
 Chap. Ill, will be of interest. 
 
 It will be noted that the percentage of the area devoted to 
 streets and alleys in these projects ranges from 20.1 to 44.2 
 per cent., and that the average for all projects was 26.8 per cent. 
 The average of twenty town plans, selected as typical from those 
 made by the United States Housing Corporation indicate that 
 25.5 per cent, of the area was set aside for streets and alleys. 
 Provision must also be made for parks and open spaces, and 
 for schools, churches and other public and semi-public buildings. 
 The area set aside for these purposes will vary widely depend- 
 ing to some extent upon the isolation of the new development
 
 58 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and upon the degree to which facilities for recreation and diver- 
 sion, especially large park areas, are afforded by adjoining com- 
 munities. An average of 14.3 per cent, was set aside for such 
 purposes in the above mentioned Emergency Fleet Corporation 
 towns, while about 9 per cent, was reserved in the towns laid 
 out by the United States Housing Corporation. It will gener- 
 ally be found advisable to set aside from eight to twelve per 
 cent, of the total area for parks, open spaces, playgrounds and 
 similar purposes. The land devoted to these purposes should 
 not be considered as a loss of saleable property. This is par- 
 ticularly true, when land unsuitable for building purposes is 
 taken, but in any event, this cost is often more than compen- 
 sated for by the enhancement in value of the adjacent property 
 and by better living conditions. 
 
 After all deductions have been made and the unsaleable por- 
 tion excluded, from 60 to 65 per cent, of the original area of the 
 tract will constitute the saleable lot area for building use. This 
 will indicate, in general terms, the extent to which the acreage 
 cost will have to be increased to cover the net cost of the land 
 when subdivided into building lots. 
 
 Densities. — The number of dwellings per acre, or the building 
 density, is of general interest, as its shows the degree to which the 
 property can be occupied and affords a common basis of compari- 
 son. The number of houses per acre is therefore the measure- 
 ment of the saturation of the plan and also an index of housing 
 conditions. This is best expressed as the number of families 
 housed per gross acre, including the street area, but excluding 
 parks and open spaces. In any particular case, the greater the 
 number of families housed per acre, the less the cost per unit 
 will result from the plan. But a high density, brought about 
 by crowding a large number of families on small lots with nar- 
 row streets and lack of open spaces, is poor economy. It leads 
 to undesirable living conditions, the correction or prevention of 
 which is the object of industrial housing and a necessity of our 
 industrial system. 
 
 An allotment of less than six families per gross acre, unless 
 the topography is unusually difficult, or an especially expensive 
 development is planned, will generally indicate a wasteful 
 subdivision of the land and a lot size in excess of ordinary re- 
 quirements. On the other hand, a compactness of over twelve 
 families per gross acre, unless some are housed in rows or apart-
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 59 
 
 ments, will indicate too intensive use of the land and unfavorable 
 conditions, on account of insufficient light, air and open space. 
 
 Density will be influenced by the type and grouping of the 
 houses, the width of the street, and the space allowed for front 
 yard, back yard, and between houses, rows or groups of buildings. 
 A comparison of building densities will indicate the real situation 
 only in a general way, as the disposition of the open space pro- 
 vided and the degree in which it is useful is as important as the 
 amount. Detached houses, placed too close together, may afford 
 a greater amount of open space than row houses, but the side 
 yard space may not be useful in adding to the convenience and 
 in providing necessary light and air, — in fact it may be 
 detrimental. 
 
 When the cost of land is high, the number of families housed 
 per acre must be increased, and this can best be done by building 
 row houses, apartments, or two or four-family flat houses, 
 rather than by crowding detached or semi-detached houses 
 upon small lots. Group or row houses may frequently present 
 developments equally as attractive as single or twin houses,, as 
 shown in Chapter X. 
 
 Residential Districts. — Dimensions of Blocks. — The shape and 
 dimensions of residential blocks will depend partly on the 
 influence exerted by topography and traffic requirements upon 
 street locations and partly upon the depth which is best suited 
 or required for the houses and yards. It is therefore essential, 
 in laying out streets and thus fixing the shape, length and depth 
 of the blocks, that they be located in such manner that the block 
 can be subdivided into the proper size lots without waste of 
 land. Unless there is an important reason, such as allotment 
 gardens or playgrounds in the interior of the block, the depth of 
 the block should be that required by the normal depth of the 
 lots, with an allowance for an alley or easement.. 
 
 The principal dimension, or length of the block, will then be on 
 the main street and, if advantage of the topography is taken, the 
 ui< >s1 favorable and economic locations for buildings will be afforded. 
 In this way, the necessity for building on the cross streets, which 
 will be undesirable and expensive if their grades are excessive, 
 will be avoided and the cost of utilities will be reduced. The 
 layout of Buckman Village (see Fig. 1) is a good example of 
 this arrangement. 
 
 The length of the block will be determined by the frequency
 
 60 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 BLOCK PL AN 
 
 FiQ. 1. — Plan of the Buekman Village Project of the Emergency Fleet Cor- 
 poration at Chester, Pa,
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 61 
 
 with which cross streets must be located, in conformity with the 
 traffic or topographical requirements. The minimum and maxi- 
 mum lengths will be regulated by economical considerations and 
 by that of convenience of access. A block length of from 600 
 to 800 feet will be found desirable, when topographic con- 
 ditions permit. If the blocks are shorter, the area of the 
 land taken for street purposes, and hence the cost of lots, will be 
 increased, as will be the cost of street improvements and utility 
 installations. If the blocks are too long, access from one main 
 street to another becomes inconvenient and the street system 
 will fail in one of its main requisites, that of affording reasonably 
 good and convenient access to and from the houses. 
 
 When long blocks are used of necessity, as in hillside locations, 
 where cross streets cannot be provided at sufficient intervals on 
 account of topographical difficulties and the cost of improvements, 
 the situation may in part be relieved, as far as pedestrians are 
 concerned, by providing cross walks, with flights of steps where 
 necessary, leading across the block from one street to the other. 
 An example of this solution is shown in the plan of Loveland 
 Farms, Fig. 2. 
 
 There is a further objection to abnormally long blocks, in that 
 the appearance is likely to become monotonous, particularly if 
 the streets are straight, and the houses are small and located 
 close to the street line. Cross streets, particularly where the 
 intersections are carefully planned, both with regard to the 
 streets themselves and to the grouping of the houses at the 
 intersections, add interest and variety and hence enhance the 
 attractiveness. This will be observable in the illustration (see 
 Fig. 43) of the Yorkship Village project built by the Emergency 
 Fleet Corporation at Camden, N. J. Attractive results were 
 obtained by providing a small park space at an intersection and 
 by effective grouping of the buildings which are of the row type. 
 
 The length of the block, as well as the size and shape of the 
 lots, should be adapted to the character of the residential dis- 
 trict. Where the building density is low, as it will be in the 
 better class residential districts, the block lengths may be in- 
 creased with less likelihood of congestion and inconvenience. 
 
 In districting residence areas in accordance with the grades of 
 houses, three general types will be considered: 
 
 (a) The more expensive detached and semi-detached houses, usu- 
 ally occupied by the salaried employees and the higher paid skilled
 
 62 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 It ^S 
 
 ! ! | IT "O w^y v 
 
 \ c 
 
 
 \ fit t^^'YAV-^/* 
 
 
 # 
 
 
 Fig. 2. — Plan of the Loveland Farms Development of the Buckeye Land 
 Company (Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company) at Youngstown, Oliio, illustrat- 
 ing the development of a hillside site with contour streets.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 63 
 
 mechanics and clerical force, which will generally require larger lots 
 than the other types. 
 
 (b) Two and four-family houses and the better class of row houses, 
 where the requirements of the prospective occupants and the antici- 
 pated returns will warrant a lot somewhat in excess of the minimum. 
 
 (c) Row and group houses, where compactness is desirable, in order 
 to reduce the cost of land and improvements. 
 
 There may be a further subdivision of the area according to 
 the proposed disposition of the property. For instance it may 
 be found desirable to group together houses to be sold, similarly 
 those to be rented and again those to be handled upon a coopera- 
 tive plan. It may further be desirable to segregate hotels, 
 boarding houses and apartments. 
 
 Residence Lots. — The residential lot is the unit of the town 
 plan, and much depends, both as to the effectiveness of housing 
 and the living conditions which will be established, upon pro- 
 viding building lots of suitable size and shape. Bad housing 
 has been due frequently to wasteful use of land in the original 
 subdivision of the property, which has laid a heavy burden of 
 increased cost upon the development. 
 
 If the lots are too deep, the property at the rear is wasted and 
 there is a natural tendency to make the lots narrow and to fail 
 to provide sufficient space between houses, thus preventing 
 proper living conditions. On the other hand, if the lots are of 
 insufficient depth, the frontage must be necessarily increased, 
 and this, as will be hereafter demonstrated, will greatly increase 
 the cost of street improvements and utility installation. 
 
 The size and proportions of the lot will depend upon a number 
 of factors but should meet certain minimum conditions. The 
 general requirements should be studied and decided upon be- 
 fore the street layout is made; and the subdivision of the 
 property in the block should conform thereto as closely as to- 
 pography and other factors influencing the location of streets 
 will permit. The dimensions will be affected by the following: 
 
 («) The cost of land. 
 
 (b) The type and dimensions of the house, the location of the house 
 on the lot, and the grouping of the house units. 
 
 (c) The required set-hack in the front and the distance back of the 
 houses, to answer the requirements of light, air and open space. 
 
 (rf) The required clearance between the sides of houses or the ends 
 of rows of houses.
 
 64 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 (e) Rear yard requirements for household purposes, for kitchen 
 gardens and for garages. 
 
 (/) The cost of street improvements and utilities. 
 
 (g) The cost of lot improvements, such as grading, house walks, 
 planting, fences and hedges. 
 
 Cost of Land. — The influence of the cost of land upon the size 
 of lot, and its relation to the housing problem has hitherto been 
 mentioned, and attention called to the relation between the gross 
 and the net saleable acreage. Even where land in acreage 
 is comparatively cheap, much of it may be unsuitable for build- 
 ing, on account of soil or foundation conditions, or by reason of 
 topography. After deductions have been made for the street 
 area, open spaces, and for special purposes, the saleable portion 
 will be considerably less than the general average of 60 per cent, 
 of the gross area. This condition will increase the cost of the 
 usable land. 
 
 The Sun Village development of the Emergency Fleet Corpora- 
 tion was located on expensive land within the City of Chester 
 and adjoining the built-up section. Although nearly twenty-two 
 families were housed per net acre of block area (exclusive of all 
 streets and open spaces and undeveloped territory included with 
 the tract), the number of families housed per gross area of the 
 developed tract was about twelve families per acre. About 
 86 per cent, of the dwellings were of the row type, the balance 
 being semi-detached houses. Although the individual lots 
 generally have 20 feet frontage and 75 feet depth, or an area of 
 about 1500 square feet, the actual average area of the lots, due 
 to loss of land chiefly on account of topographical reasons, is in 
 excess of 2,000 square feet. It is evident, therefore, that 
 topographical features frequently render it impossible to develop 
 the building intensity of the standard block. 
 
 Where land values are high, the type and dimensions of the 
 house will necessarily have to be subordinated to the economic 
 size and dimensions of the lot. This will ordinarily lead to the 
 adoption of row houses built on comparatively shallow lots. The 
 appearance of overcrowding will be avoided by providing streets 
 of ample width, and by allowing a moderate set-back from the 
 street line to the house front. 
 
 The effects of the size of the lot on saleability must fully be 
 taken into account. Preferences and requirements in regard to 
 size of lots vary widely, and are largely dependent on local custom
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 65 
 
 and the habits of different classes. If the lots are smaller than 
 the usual custom of the locality, the full value of the improved 
 property may not be realized. The size of the lot must therefore 
 be adjusted to conform to the purchasing power and the pre- 
 ferences of the people for whom homes are built. 
 
 Requirements of House. — The type and character of the house, 
 particularly the number, size and arrangement of the rooms, 
 will to a great extent determine the size and proportions of the 
 lot. These must be fixed to meet the requirements of frontage 
 and depth of the building in such manner as to provide sufficient 
 open spaces about the building. 
 
 Row dwellings will require from 16 to 20 feet, semi-detached 
 dwellings from 20 to 25 feet and detached dwellings from 25 to 
 30 feet of house frontage. 
 
 Requirements of Light, Air and Access. — Reasonably good hous- 
 ing standards command the observance of the following minimum 
 requirements : 
 
 The area of the lot in no event should be less than 1,000 square 
 feet, and should preferably be at least 1,500 square feet. The 
 distance between houses should not be less than 16 feet for two- 
 story dwellings, and it is preferable to make the side yard space 
 at least 20 feet. For higher buildings, this distance should be 
 proportionally increased. The foregoing minimum spacings 
 would apply also to the distance between the ends of row houses, 
 although 20 or 25 feet is preferable in such cases. 
 
 The distance between fronts of houses should not be less than 
 50 feet, and 60 feet is preferable. There should be a space in the 
 rear of at least 50 feet between houses. The foregoing distances 
 should be increased if the dwellings are to be of more than two 
 stories. If garages be used the depth of rear yards should be 
 not less than 35 to 40 feet. A set-back from the street line to the 
 fronts of the houses of 10 to 20 feet is generally desirable, as it 
 increases the distance between the fronts of the houses, affords 
 room for porches, adds to privacy and provides desirable open 
 space. 
 
 Average practice in planning industrial residential develop- 
 ments is in the direction of moderately shallow lots; street 
 widths of 50 feet, set-back ranging from 10 to 15 feet, with the 
 minor cross streets 40 feet in width. With 20-foot fronts, this 
 will allow a building density of about 12 families per gross acre, 
 including the street and sidewalk area, but not including allow- 
 
 5
 
 66 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 ances for parks or special purposes. If further economy in the 
 use of land is necessary, it should be obtained by decreasing the 
 frontage or by building two-family or four-family flats. 
 
 In determining the amount of set-back, the width of the street 
 and that of the planting space in the street area should be taken 
 into account. Where the houses are to be rented and the 
 manners and customs of the prospective tenant do not warrant 
 the expectations that they will maintain attractive yards, con- 
 sideration should be given to increasing the planting space in 
 the streets, and decreasing the set-back to the minimum re- 
 quired for the front porch. By this means control over street 
 appearance may be maintained. 
 
 Lot Improvements. — The various items required in the improve- 
 ment of the lot, including grading, seeding, planting and fences 
 or hedges, are all related to the size of the lot. The cost of lot 
 improvements will be high where the topography is broken, 
 and considerable grading is required, especially where slopes 
 must be terraced, retaining walls built, or filling of low land 
 is required. 
 
 Under some conditions the aggregate cost of these items may 
 well have an influence on the size of the lots to be provided. A 
 decision must also be reached regarding the provision of rear 
 yard gardens or allotment gardens. Where kitchen gardens are 
 provided, they should be of moderate size and may range from 
 500 to 1000 square feet in area, unless the land is unusually 
 steep or cannot be used to advantage for more essential purposes. 
 
 Manufacturing Districts. — The manufacturing or industrial 
 district will be located on the most level ground available and in 
 pr oximity to the existing or projected railroad and transpor tation 
 lines. Where there is latitude in choice, consideration" should 
 be given to the direction of the prevailing winds, in order to 
 minimize the smoke nuisance. Such districts may in certain 
 cases, be divided or zoned into light and heavy manufacturing; 
 objectionable trades or industries being thus restricted to certain 
 areas. 
 
 While a definite separation is desired between the residential 
 and the industrial or majmiaiituiing_districts, this result should 
 not be obtained at the expense of coji yenien ce_of. access t o and 
 from the homes of the workmen. A water course, a wooded park, 
 a special street, a railroad, or other feature of the plan may form 
 the line of separation.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 67 
 
 In planning the village of East Valley Forge (See Fig. 4) a 
 30-foot drive was provided along the boundary of the area set 
 aside for manufacturing purposes. This street has a sidewalk 
 on but one side, and the adjoining property is so subdivided 
 that only the rear yards of dwellings front thereon. The plan 
 of the town of Ojibway provides for a business street one hun- 
 dred feet in width separating the steel plant from the town (see 
 Fig. 3). 
 
 In large communities, it may be necessary to zone or sub- 
 divide the commercial area into wholesale and retail, or ware- 
 house and small store district. 
 
 Commercial Districts. — The commercial or business district 
 will ordinarily be located with reference first to the projected 
 system of arterial streets; second, to ac cessibility to the residen- 
 tial district; and third, to the jnoy ement of traffi c, f rom t he 
 manufacturing plants, and adjoining communities. Due regard 
 must also be given to the topography, which affects the grades 
 of streets, and the cost of the erection of buildings. Where 
 railroad sidings can be located within easy hauling distance of 
 the commercial district, the cost of handling merchandise will 
 be a minimum. It may even be feasible, if grade crossings 
 and interference with the street system can be avoided, to 
 locate a siding directly in the rear of the business properties, 
 and thus eliminate truck hauling entirely. 
 
 The required area for the commercial district can be approxi- 
 mated on the assumption that about one acre will be required 
 for stores and business purposes for each 2500 inhabitants. The 
 length of the block in the commercial district should generally 
 be shorter than that recommended for residential blocks. In 
 such districts, a block length of about 400 feet will generally be 
 found to be satisfactory. Short blocks will provide better 
 facilities for traffic and decrease the fire risk. The additional 
 cost will be in part covered by the increased value of corner 
 properties for business purposes. Where there is to be a con- 
 centration of large business establishments in the block, the depth 
 of the lots should be such as to make ample provision for a 
 service court in the rear of the buildings, in order to relieve con- 
 gestion on the streets. 
 
 In minor developments, the community or civic center and the 
 business district may be merged , as has often occured in small 
 communities, where the joint coTintry store and the post office
 
 68 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 •jt^j/r 
 
 i00 l 42Z->~4£ musA3S-ft U2M ±
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 
 
 69
 
 70 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 have formed the nucleus of the growing business and public social 
 life of the residents. In larger towns, a more interesting and 
 attractive plan can be developed by separating these features, 
 but in such cases they should be located with relation to each 
 other, and connected by adequate streets. 
 
 As the development of the business section will preferably and 
 generally be left in the hands of individuals, it will follow, rather 
 than be contemporaneous with the development of the remainder 
 of the town. It will be both advantageous and possible for the 
 management of the town to arrange for the use of certain prop- 
 erty, subject to restrictions regarding the architectural appear- 
 ance of the buildings. Furthermore, it will generally be good 
 business to erect some store buildings, possibly in conjunction 
 with apartments, for rental, with the plan of later selling the 
 properties after the business concerns have become established. 
 In such ways the development of the town can be, in a measure, 
 
 Table. 9. — List of Kind and Number of Business Enterprises in 
 Average Community 
 
 Kind of Enterprise 
 
 Number 
 
 Bakeries 
 
 Barber shops 
 
 Boot & shoe stores 
 
 Bowling alleys 
 
 Butcher market 
 
 Butter & creamery stores 
 
 Drug stores 
 
 Fruit stands 
 
 Garages (public) 
 
 General stores (groceries & dry goods) 
 
 Haberdasheries 
 
 Hardware stores 
 
 Hotels 
 
 Ice cream and confectionery stores. . 
 
 Laundries 
 
 Milliners 
 
 Printing establishments 
 
 Refrigerating plant 
 
 Restaurants 
 
 Shoe repair shops 
 
 Stationery stores 
 
 Tailor shops 
 
 Undertaking establishments
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 71 
 
 controlled, and at the same time progress in such a way that 
 the buildings will be adapted to enhance the appearance of the 
 ultimate arrangement. 
 
 The number and variety of enterprises, which will be required 
 in any community will vary through a wide range, and will 
 depend to a great extent upon the comparative isolation of the 
 town, and its dependence on larger nearby communities. The 
 preceding table gives a list of the kind and probable number of 
 different business enterprises that may well be required in an 
 average community of 10,000 people, assuming that the town is 
 comparatively isolated and inhabitated by people of average pur- 
 chasing power. Some of the enterprises, as bakeries and grocery 
 stores, may frequently be combined in the same business. 
 
 Civic Center. — In order that the town may have a pleasing, 
 convenient and appropriate center for its public activities, it 
 will usually be found desirable, unless the town is~exceptionally 
 large, to group public and semi-public buildings together. The 
 elements of this group may well include town hall, post office, 
 central school, library, theatre or public hall, churches, hotels 
 and community club buildings. By assembling these buildings 
 together, or such of them as it is necessary to provide, better 
 architectural treatment can be given, particularly where a suit- 
 able site is available. The location, grouping and architecture 
 of the public and semi-public buildings will often largely be the 
 measure of the interest, attractiveness and convenience of the 
 plan. 
 
 Where a complete and independent town is to be developed, 
 the civic center may well be separated from the general commer- 
 cial or store district. However, convenience may require the 
 nearby location of small stores or restaurants to take care of the 
 neighborhood and family demands. The predominating req- 
 uisites of the commercial district' — utility and compactness — 
 are somewhat different from those of the civic center — spacious- 
 ness, beauty and convenience — and it will therefore be found 
 difficult to combine the two. 
 
 The civic center should be reasonably convenient to most of 
 the residential subdivisions and to the main thoroughfare of the 
 town. The requirements of traffic, particularly directness, are 
 not so important that they cannot be subordinated to a reason- 
 able extent, in order that the natural features of the site may be 
 made available in locating and laying out the center. A park-
 
 72 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 way, however, located and planned for pleasure traffic, may be 
 used in connection with the civic center, and the latter, made one 
 of the prominent, dominating features of a formally organized 
 plan. If due regard be paid to the topographical require- 
 ments, effective landscape and architectural features may-Jaa_ 
 obtained. 
 
 It is not necessary, and generally not advisable tolocate a main 
 artery, particularly where it carries heavy commercial traffic, 
 passing through a civic or community center. Frequently the 
 civic center is developed about a park or plaza, the open space 
 affording the necessary distance, so desirable for interesting and 
 attractive views. It may be advantageous, where the buildings 
 of the civic center group are located about a square or open 
 space, to utilize a main thoroughfare as one of the sides of the 
 square, or to provide a broad avenue leading from the square to 
 the main thoroughfare. 
 
 The civic center should be planned on generous lines, even 
 though not completely developed immediately, and the plans 
 should provide for the requirements of the future as to the size, 
 character, and architectural treatment of the necessary buildings. 
 
 Parks and Parkways. — -Well designed parks are essen- 
 tial to the town plan. They provide places of recre ation ; 
 contribute to the beautification of the town; improve living 
 conditions, by affording light, air and open space, and furnish 
 interesting drives for pleasure travel. The cost of land devoted 
 to parks will often to a great extent be met by the increased 
 valuation of the adjoining residential property. If a park system 
 is definitely planned and the properties required are reserved, 
 prior to the development of the surrounding territory, the cost 
 will be moderate and desirable results may be obtained by 
 selecting land properly located with regard to the highway 
 system. Parks must be accessible to the people, or they will 
 not be used, and the park system should therefore be planned 
 with proper relation to the highway system. 
 
 For the present purpose, two types of parks will be discussed. 
 The first type consists of urban parks of relatively small area, 
 located within the developed parts of the town, and generally 
 planned in a formal manner and highly improved. The second 
 type consists of natural parks, generally located on the outskirts 
 of the town, with improvements chiefly to provide access and to 
 develop natural beauty and scenic features.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 73 
 
 Area Required. — The amount of area devoted to parks will 
 depend upon the cost of the land and the character of the resi- 
 dential districts they are to serve. Where row houses on com- 
 paratively small lots predominate, there should be liberal 
 provision for urban parks, in order to provide the necessary open 
 space. Congestion demands parks as a necessity rather than 
 primarily as a means of beautification. 
 
 In residential districts of the most expensive type, parks are 
 added for the purpose of beautification and increasing the 
 attractiveness of the district. Very often it is preferable, not 
 only as an economy of construction and maintenance, but also 
 as a desirable effect secured, to reduce the width of the streets 
 and depth of lots and combine the land area saved into small 
 park areas. 
 
 An analysis of the areas in the villages, planned by the Fleet 
 Corporation and the United States Housing Corporation indi- 
 cates 13 per cent, and 10 per cent, respectively, of the developed 
 area, dedicated to school, recreational and community purposes. 
 
 The areas set aside for paries and other open spaces should 
 range from 5 to 10 per cent, of the total area. This includes 
 small parks at street intersections and the civic center. 
 
 The necessity for the more extensive natural parks, lying 
 bej^ond the built-up districts, depends very largely upon the 
 size and character of the development and the cost and avail- 
 ability of land. They are not to be regarded as so essential to 
 good living or the well being of the community, as urban parks, 
 open spaces and playgrounds but they are highly desirable as 
 they supplement such features and help to make the town more 
 attractive and increase the feeling of contentment and attach- 
 ment of the residents to the town and promote health, comfort 
 and pleasure of the people. It is one of the ways of giving char- 
 acter and individuality to a town, without which it may be 
 simply a monotonous place in which to five. Provided road- 
 ways be constructed to make the park accessible, rough and 
 broken topography, that would be unsuitable for building pur- 
 poses, may be utilized to advantage for such natural parks. 
 
 Location. — It will generally be advantageous, to industrial 
 communities, to have a number of small urban parks readily 
 accessible to various parts of the town, rather than one large 
 one. While the latter maybe more pretentious and more sus- 
 ceptible of improvement, it will not properly serve the needs
 
 74 • INDUSTRIAL HOUSISU 
 
 of the residents. Natural parks, on the other hand, should be of 
 comparatively large area in one unit. Otherwise the appearance 
 of natural beauty cannot be carried out. 
 
 The completely developed plan will ordinarily include the 
 following: 
 
 A parked area in connection with, and as part of, the civic or 
 community center; 
 
 A small park or square in connection with the commercial or 
 business district; such parks, to be developed primarily to relieve 
 congestion and to provide a breathing space in the busy section of 
 the town; 
 
 A park area adjoining the industrial plant, providing land is 
 available, in order to afford convenient separation between the town 
 and the plant and for the use of the employees during the lunch 
 hour; parks of this kind are frequently placed under the direction 
 and control of the plant management; 
 
 Local parks in the various residential districts, placed with reference 
 to the main street system and the convenience of the residents; 
 
 Small park areas at street intersections, as elements of the land- 
 scape treatment and to form islands for the regulation and diversion 
 of the flow of traffic; 
 
 Parkways and boulevards, which include wide and specially de- 
 signed streets, with park areas either at each side or in the center, 
 or both. These will form an integral part of the main highway sys- 
 tem and frequently connect the park or plaza of the civic center and 
 some of the playgrounds with a larger park area or other important 
 and prominent points of interest. 
 
 The reservation of strips of land along ravines and rivers and 
 of low-lying land along small watercourses for park purposes 
 will often utilize property that is unsuitable or expensive for 
 building purposes, and, at the same time serve, after develop- 
 ment, as a natural beauty spot for recreation and public use. 
 High ground, particularly if it overlooks a lake or river or affords 
 a far-reaching view of the surrounding territory, will add much 
 to the attractiveness and the charm of the park. Good examples 
 of the foregoing are the reservation of the bottom land for park 
 purposes in the Buckman Development at Chester, Pa., and the 
 setting aside of a grove of trees on a bluff overlooking the Piscata- 
 qua River, in Portsmouth Development, both of the Emergency 
 Fleet Corporation (Fig. 1 and 5).
 
 DEVEWPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 
 
 75 
 
 Improvements.— Improvement of small parks in the interior of a 
 development should be undertaken at the time the houses are 
 erected, in order that the tracts may have a finished appearance 
 
 BLOCK P LAN ^ 
 
 Fig. 5.— Plan of the Atlantic Heights Project of the Emergency Fleet Cor- 
 poration at Portsmouth, N. H. The area between the Piscataqua River and 
 the village is reserved for park purposes. 
 
 and relieve the feeling of newness and incompleteness that 
 detracts from the appearance of a recently built town. A natural 
 park may with advantage be developed gradually. 
 
 The drives and walks through parks in the built-up areas of the
 
 76 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 town should be laid out, not with the idea of having a symmetrical 
 and interesting plan on paper, as is so often the case ; but in such 
 manner as will best serve convenience of traffic, necessary in 
 parks adjoining the business center and in the smaller parks laid 
 out in connection with the arterial street system. Curved walks 
 should be avoided when their use may lead to the inconvenience 
 and annoyance of the busy pedestrian ; curvature should therefore 
 be used with moderation unless there is clear necessity by 
 reason of topography. 
 
 The drives in natural parks will be used largely for pleasure 
 traffic, and directness, grade and alignment, while they should 
 be kept within reasonable limits, may be subordinated to the 
 requirements of topography, economy of development, or scenic 
 beauty. In developing such larger parks, it is desirable that 
 separate ways be provided for vehicle and pedestrian travel. 
 Care should be exercised to obviate the possibility of accident, 
 particularly in providing clear views at points where pedestrian 
 and vehicle travel cross. Walks and paths should be laid out so 
 that the public may reach various points of interest by following 
 attractive and interesting routes of natural beauty. 
 
 Playgrounds.— The necessity for public playgrounds, is no 
 longer a question — the movement has passed beyond the experi- 
 mental stage. As evidence of their extensive adoption, it was 
 reported that in the summer of 1917, 52 cities had established 
 playground work, this being an increase of 21 per cent, over the 
 number that had done so the previous year. There is further 
 a tendency to adopt yearj^£Ojrnd^orjeration, with a permanently 
 employed supervising force. Duringthe year ending November, 
 1917, 481 cities reported a total of 3,944 playgrounds and neigh- 
 borhood recreation centers, which were operated by regularly 
 employed supervisors and teachers. The method of control 
 varied, about 60 per cent, being operated by the municipality, 
 and the balance by private and civic associations. 
 
 Location and Area. — Playgrounds should be located so that 
 children can reach them with a walk of not more than one-half 
 mile. Small open spaces, perhaps in the interior of the block, 
 should be provided for the very small children. Playgrounds 
 should be provided at all scho.olhouses, particularly for the pri- 
 mary grades, and should be serviceable not only during the 
 school hours but also at other periods. Particular care should 
 be taken in locating playgrounds, not only that they be readily
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 77 
 
 accessible to the area which they are to servo, but also that 
 dangerous street and railroad crossings be avoided in reaching 
 them. 
 
 The study of the playgrounds of 41 cities, ranging from 60,000 
 to 1,700,000 inhabitants, indicates a present average provision 
 of one acre of playground for every 4,000 people. It is considered 
 good practice to allow at least two acres of playground for every 
 1,000 children. 
 
 Improvements. — The playground area should be graded, to 
 provide good drainage and to permit full opportunity for play 
 and games. Experience in construction, indicates that the best 
 general plan of grading is to provide a ground slope from a central 
 point, with a grade of about 4 inches per 100 feet. Wading 
 pools and sandboxes should be located so that the ground will 
 drain away from them in every direction. 
 
 If the area is sufficient to avoid concentration in play, the 
 surface may be in lawn. A gravel surface will also be found desir- 
 able for some areas; tanbark — a layer about two inches in 
 depth — has at times been used and found satisfactory, but 
 requires replacement every two years. The play ground should 
 be fenced, for which purpose wire fencing, with substantial pipe 
 or wooden posts, is recommended. The appearance may be 
 improved by planting a hedge just inside the fence. In addition 
 to the regular playground apparatus, trees, shrubbery, benches, 
 fountains, comfort stations and trash receptacles should be 
 provided. 
 
 Apparatus should be arranged at one end of the grounds or 
 about the edges, to provide the largest possible space for un- 
 hampered play. It is also well to provide for segregation of 
 children by ages. There should be a periodic and responsible in- 
 spection of the equipment and apparatus at frequent intervals 
 in order to avoid the possibility of accident. 
 
 Athletic Fields. — Athletic fields, with facilities for baseball, 
 football, tennis and other outdoor sports, are essential for the 
 older boys and men. Plans for large industrial developments 
 generally make adequate provision for such requirements. It is 
 found to be an important factor in building up community spirit 
 and the feeling of attachment by the residents for the town. 
 How far and to what extent the improvements and facilities 
 should be carried by the builder of the project or left to the 
 initiative of the community is a question. Interest may possibly
 
 78 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 be stimulated by active participation in providing the facilities, 
 but in any event it will be necessary to reserve a suitable area 
 in the original plans and to do the preliminary work of grading 
 and drainage. 
 
 While not absolutely necessary, a recreation building or club- 
 house, provided with showers, lockers and gymnasium apparatus, 
 will be found highly desirable; particularly if the town is of suffi- 
 cient size, as to warrant the expenditure. Such a feature can be 
 made self-sustaining if properly managed and community interest 
 is aroused. 
 
 The location of the athletic field must, of necessity, be largely 
 dictated by topography, as approximately level ground is 
 necessary. While it should be convenient to the town, its 
 removal, within reasonable walking distance, will not be particu- 
 larly objectionable, if adjacent to a good highway. 
 
 Cemeteries. — The reservation of a suitable area of land for 
 development as a cemetery will be necessary where the housing 
 development is separated from other communities. Its develop- 
 ment may generally be left to the control of the community, 
 particularly that of the churches, but land should be reserved 
 for the purpose. An attractive site is desirable and the appear- 
 ance and plan of improvement should, as nearly as possible, 
 resemble those of a park. Places of natural beauty, and groves 
 of trees should not be unnecessarily disturbed. 
 
 Cemeteries should be separated from, and preferably not in 
 view of, the residential district. Topographical features or 
 distance may be utilized, and nearby sites, if chosen, may be 
 screened by appropriate fencing and hedge planting. 
 
 Location should be carefully chosen. Marshes, swampy 
 ground, or areas of high ground water level are unsuitable; 
 nor should the cemetery be located on ground from which drain- 
 age will pass into water courses which may be incidentally used 
 without filtering for drinking water. 
 
 The sizgjjf the cemetery can be estimated from the anticipated 
 population and the average annual death rate, the general 
 average being about 20 deaths per annum per thousand popula- 
 tion. The area should not be entirely laid out for graves, as a 
 portion should be developed for park purposes. Cemeteries 
 should be carefully planned and laid out, with location of drives, 
 lots and areas for individual graves, fully designated to enable 
 the keeping of proper records.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWS PLAN 79 
 
 Surface drainage should be provided to prevent erosion. 
 Careful investigation should be made regarding soil and subdrain- 
 
 age conditions and subdrains of broken stone or pipe should be 
 constructed in order to prevent seepage to adjoining areas. 
 
 The development of a cemetery will include driveways, prefer- 
 ably on grades not exceeding six per cent., surfaced with materials 
 suitable for light traffic. A water distribution system following 
 the drives will also be required to furnish a supply for the sprink- 
 ling of roads, lawns and planting. 
 
 THE STREET SYSTEM 
 
 The function of the streets is: (1) to provide for through 
 traffic from the town to adjoining communities and centers; 
 (2) to take care of and facilitate inter-communication; (3) to 
 afford access to the buildings; and (4) to provide subdivision 
 of the property into blocks These are the primary uses, but 
 they also serve to afford light and air to the buildings fronting 
 thereon, contribute to attractiveness and order and provide 
 locations for the various systems of utilities. 
 
 The street system should therefore serve a number of uses and 
 requirements, which will influence its design in proportion to 
 their relative value and necessities. The classification of kinds 
 and importance of various streets and thoroughfares will be 
 presented later, after considering methods and types of street 
 layouts. 
 
 Types of Street Systems.— For ready reference and comparison, 
 a classification of street systems is convenient. Various 
 types of street systems have been devised to answer different 
 requirements and conditions, and very often their use, particularly 
 that of the rectangular system, has been perpetuated largely 
 for reason of convenience and simplicity, and as a matter of 
 habit. The predominating influence leading to the adoption 
 of some systems, has been that of convenient subdivision- of 
 property, in others, the requirements of traffic, or economy of 
 construction has governed. 
 
 Rectangular or Gridiron.— With a few notable exceptions the 
 rectangular, or gridiron street system has been generally used in 
 the development of American cities. It is composed of streets 
 located parallel and at right angles to each other, or approxi- 
 mately so, except when modifications or deviations are caused 
 by topography, or by natural or artificial barriers.
 
 80 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Its natural and great advantage is that of simplicity and order, 
 particularly where topographical features are not prominent, 
 and the resulting convenience and simplicity of block subdivi- 
 sion. The rectangular blocks can easily be divided into rec- 
 tangular building lots, and the surveying, recording and description 
 of property is rendered inexpensive and simple. 
 
 As affording a system of arterial streets, this type is almost 
 universally open to serious objections and disadvantages. 
 Through traffic cannot adequately be provided for, nor controlled, 
 and inter-communication between districts is necessarily re- 
 stricted, and made more or less indirect. Traffic cannot be 
 diverted from the residential streets and will often use as thor- 
 oughfares, streets not designed or intended for such purpose. 
 The introduction of occasional main or secondary diagonal 
 arterial thoroughfares, while it may minimize in some respects 
 these disadvantages, does not remove some of the inherent objec- 
 tions to this type. 
 
 There is a further great objection and inherent disadvantage 
 of the rectangular street system in that, unless the topography 
 be uniform and fairly level, the extent and cost of grading is 
 likely to be excessive. Poor junctions result with connecting 
 streets, and there is danger that the grade of streets, where fills 
 or cuts are necessary, will not fit the adjoining ground and will 
 make the development of the abutting property expensive or 
 perhaps impracticable. Where the topography is rolling or 
 rugged in character the disadvantage of this system is more 
 prominent, and the expense of sewering and draining is greatly 
 increased. 
 
 Nevertheless, there has been a persistence in the use of the 
 rectangular system, regardless of topography and the attendant 
 costs of street improvement, installation of utilities and site 
 development. Where the rectangular system is used on fairly level 
 territory, and consequently not subject to the foregoing serious 
 economic drawbacks, its use is often characterized by excessive 
 monotony, particularly where row houses are built in more or 
 less unbroken lines. 
 
 It is not to be assumed, however that the rectangular system, 
 cannot be used with advantage, particularly for residential and 
 minor streets, under proper topographical conditions and with 
 occasional modifications. Where used, care must be exercised 
 to avoid monotony by breaking the continuity of the streets, by
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN J 'LAN 81 
 
 open spaces, offsets, or landscape features; by giving variety in 
 the grouping and placement of the houses, by set-backs and by 
 variations in the design and treatment of the street. 
 
 Radial or Diagonal. — The radial street system consists of main 
 arteries, which radiate from local points, or "hubs"; thus pro- 
 viding for the requirements of through traffic between various 
 centers and points of importance. 
 
 The particular disadvantage, from the standpoint of traffic, 
 is that communication between points, not adjacent to one of 
 the "hubs" or focal points, is likely to be indirect and incon- 
 venient. Rigidly adhered to as a system, particularly where 
 the main arteries are located in straight lines, with little regard 
 for the requirements of topography, it will naturally have the 
 same disadvantages with regard to cost of construction and 
 failure to fit the ground, as pertain to the rectangular system. 
 
 In fairly level ground, a system of main arteries on the radial 
 plan, with well arranged secondary arteries, can often be used 
 effectively. The areas between the various radiating arter- 
 ies will be irregular, often triangular, in shape and can be sub- 
 divided with secondaiy and residential streets upon various 
 plans. The plan of the Ojibway Project (Fig. 3) will illustrate 
 the use of diagonal main thoroughfares with the secondary and 
 residential streets on the rectangular plan. 
 
 Formal or Geometrical. — The formal or geometrical plan of 
 streets is one in which symmetiy of arrangement and formal 
 design predominate. Very often such a plan will consist of a 
 main axis, possibly a parkway or boulevard along which are 
 located landscape features, prominent groups of buildings, 
 monuments or open spaces; all of which are intended to give a 
 formal landscape effect. There will often be sub-axes located 
 with reference to the main way, oroviding for the requirements 
 of through traffic and intercommunication and also intended 
 to enhance the landscape effects. 
 
 The various residential streets are then laid out to maintain 
 the symmetiy and geometry of the plan. Often such a plan, 
 will consist very largely of curvilinear streets and be characterized 
 by the development of the plan around various geometrical 
 forms, such as circles, squares or octagons. 
 
 The chief advantages of the formal plan are in attractiveness, 
 interest and order obtained by careful street planning, house 
 grouping, special features and landscape treatment. But formal
 
 82 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 appearance, and an over emphasized idea of symmetry in plan, 
 often predominates to such an extent that economy, access and 
 intercommunication are sacrificed without achieving any decided 
 advantage. The formal plan will not, therefore, except to a 
 limited and modified extent, lend itself to the development of the 
 plans for industrial towns. 
 
 It is not intended to give the impression that there are not 
 places where the formal plan may well be used, but to advise 
 caution rather than too rigid adherence to formality and 
 symmetry. Waste of frontage, depth, shallow or irregular blocks, 
 poor circulation and intercommunication, are some of the defects 
 often found in formal plans. An overemphasis is further 
 particularly objectionable and futile when the style, size and 
 grouping of the houses is not in keeping with such formality. 
 In planning large projects, the employment of the formal 
 plan, in designing the important thoroughfares and main fea- 
 tures of the town, will not only be possible but advisable when 
 topography permits. The town plan of Yorkship Village, here- 
 after discussed in some detail, (Fig. 16) is an illustration of a 
 well considered application of the formal plan which was not 
 carried out to an undue extent. It is further to be noted in 
 making plans of this kind, that departure from symmetry in 
 order to meet topographical conditions, while not particularly 
 attractive on the map, can be carried out on the ground without 
 noticeably detracting from appearance. 
 
 Irregular or Haphazard. — Where a street system develops in a 
 piecemeal fashion, without intelligent planning or control, as has 
 been the case in so many of our American cities, the resulting 
 street system often can be classified as irregular. 
 
 It has all of the faults and disadvantages that obtain with any 
 of the preceding systems; and because of its lack of idea gener- 
 ally has more instances of them. Examples are everywhere 
 present of such lack of care and foresight, and the resultant 
 expenses for correction appear in municipal budgets year after 
 year. 
 
 Contour Streets. — Where streets are located with reference 
 to obtaining easy grades, a minimum of cut and fill, and with 
 the idea of fitting the ground so that little lot grading will be 
 required, the streets will roughly parallel the contours of the 
 ground. This may for convenience be described as a contour 
 system of streets.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN I 'LAN 83 
 
 The grades of main streets will generally be low compared 
 to the natural cross slopes of the surface, and the cross streets, 
 approximately normal to the slope, will have steeper grades. 
 For this reason cross streets cannot be introduced into the plan 
 as frequently as desired, thus making it necessary for local traffic 
 to detour more or less. In so far as residential and particularly 
 the minor residential streets are concerned, the requirements 
 of through traffic do not obtain, and if good access be provided, 
 indirectness, if not excessive, does not detract from the prac- 
 ticability of the plan. 
 
 The contour system is, therefore, more applicable in the 
 development of the residential subdistricts of the tract than 
 for the planning of the main system of streets, wherein it will 
 be necessary to consider the requirements of through traffic, 
 especially that of directness. Important connecting thorough- 
 fares, where the contour street system is used quite generally 
 for the residential streets, will not necessarily follow such a plan 
 rigidly. They will deflect therefrom, as required to obtain direct- 
 ness and as permitted by the limits of permissible grades. 
 
 As both contour streets and the formal plan will require or 
 employ curvilinear streets, it will be of value to consider the 
 advantages and disadvantages of such streets. Curved contour 
 streets are frequently justified by the topography, as by their use, 
 earthwork and the grade will be reduced. It will be recognized 
 that under some conditions the use of curved streets is dictated 
 irrespective of any disadvantages. However, unless their 
 adoption is warranted, either by physical conditions or great 
 attractiveness, the excessive use of curvilinear streets is ques- 
 tionable and they should not be so employed without due con- 
 sideration of the extra costs involved. The cost of both the 
 preliminary and construction, field and office engineering work 
 will necessarily be greater than where the rectangular system is 
 used. Such work involves the laying out of the property, 
 locating streets, block subdivisions, line and grade for street 
 improvements, utilities, buildings, lot grading, the preparation 
 of record drawings and the description and recording of the 
 individual lots. 
 
 The increased cost of utility construction will be the largest 
 item of expense in building curved streets. It will cost more, 
 particularly if the curves are so sharp that trenching machines 
 cannot be used, to excavate, sheath and shore a 1 rench on a curve
 
 84 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 than in a straight line. Sanitary sewers, where the sizes are 
 small and grades low, will be laid on chords, thus increasing the 
 number of manholes required. As a larger part of the continuous 
 street cross-section will thus be occupied, there is greater prob- 
 ability of interference with other substructures. If overhead 
 pole lines are to be located on the streets, sharp curves and 
 angles will require excessive guying. 
 
 A reasonable amount of curvature, introduced for specific 
 purposes, will not have the striking effects herein described, 
 or at least such will be comparatively negligible. But the 
 increased cost occasioned by the excessive use of curvilinear 
 streets cannot be ignored, and must be balanced against the 
 saving in street and lot grading, the omission of retaining walls 
 and bridges, the reduction in grade and other advantages. 
 
 The plans of Buckman Village, at Chester, Pa., (Fig. 1) 
 built by the Emergency Fleet Corporation, and that of the Love- 
 land Farms Development, at Youngstown, Ohio, built by the 
 Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company, are typical of the extensive 
 employment of contour streets. In the former development, 
 the slopes, although short, are generally uniform, and the 
 blocks are approximately rectangular, so that the system may 
 be classed as rectangular with modifications to conform with the 
 topography. The irregularity of the topography in the case of 
 the Loveland Farms plan, (see Fig. 2). made such an approxi- 
 mately rectangular arrangement impossible, uneconomical and 
 undesirable. Much better results were secured, in obtaining 
 good grades, in low cost of street and lot grading, and also in 
 obtaining a large number of good building lots, than would have 
 been possible had the rectangular system been used. 
 
 Rational Layout of Streets. — The street system should be 
 designed to answer its primary and essential requirements as to 
 traffic, access, cost and property subdivision. A rational method 
 of planning is advised, rather than unquestioned adoption of 
 any particular system. The questions of purpose and use should 
 predominate and dictate in working out the plan and its details, 
 and there should be good reason and definite objectives 
 for the designation of each street and each element and feature 
 of the layout. Formality and symmetry should be employed 
 to the extent that the importance of the project and its general 
 scheme warrant, and topographical features permit. Radial 
 streets, connecting the important centers and making due provi-
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 85 
 
 sion for the requirements of through traffic, should be located 
 with regard to this prime requisite and with only subordinate 
 attention to the size and shape of the intervening tracts. 
 
 The system of streets to be adopted need not be of any particu- 
 lar type, but should utilize any of the foregoing systems in whole 
 or in part, to the extent which conditions warrant and which will 
 accomplish the desired results. The plan of arterial highways 
 will necessarily depend upon traffic requirements, and the number 
 and location of important centers and strategic points, so that 
 advice which will be generally applicable cannot be formulated, 
 except in regard to general principles. The location, grades and 
 width of arterial highways should be fixed in conformity with the 
 requirements of through traffic. 
 
 In the business or commercial district the rectangular plan of 
 streets, and policy of avoiding curves and steep gradients should 
 generally be followed. The residential streets will be arranged 
 on either the rectangular, the formal or the contour system, in 
 such manner as to conform with the type of development, house 
 building, lot subdivision and topography. In residential dis- 
 tricts attractiveness, economy of construction and conformity 
 with lot grades will take precedence over the requirements of 
 traffic. 
 
 Classification of Streets.— Streets may be classified with refer- 
 ence to importance and character of use. Such a classification 
 having in mind a completely developed street system, is as 
 follows: 
 
 1. Arterial streets, or main thoroughfares, which are essentially 
 through traffic streets. 
 
 2. Secondary streets, being important links between arterial streets 
 and forming connections with the various districts or centers. 
 
 3. Major and minor residential streets, provided primarily to afford 
 access to the houses and carrying only local traffic. 
 
 4. Industrial and business streets. 
 
 5. Special streets, such as boulevards, parkways, etc. 
 
 In such a classification as the foregoing, the amount of traffic 
 is kept more or less in mind. The use of the several kinds of 
 streets will now be discussed. 
 
 Arterial Streets or Main Thoroughfares. — Main or arterial 
 streets must be located and designed with particular reference 
 to their principal function, that of providing as direct, con-
 
 86 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 venient and economical facilities for through traffic as the require- 
 ments demand and the topographical conditions permit. 
 
 Where an arterial street or thoroughfare is not to pass through 
 the project, a primary street should be located with proper 
 relation to the street system and in such manner as to afford a 
 good connection to existing or projected arteries. Where an 
 arterial highway passes through the project, that section within 
 the project should be designed, not only to care for the require- 
 ments of through traffic, but also the particular requirements 
 created within the project itself. Particular attention should 
 be given to the frequency and manner of making connections with 
 the street system of the project, to the parking of vehicles along 
 the curb and to other uses required of an urban street. 
 
 Streets of this class should be so located that they will connect 
 the various centers as directly as possible. Modifications and 
 deviations from the straight line will necessarily be made, in 
 order to keep cuts and fills within reasonable limits and prevent 
 damage to adjoining properties. If the topograph}^ is generally 
 flat or uniform, long tangents may be used; making only such 
 modifications as may be necessary to avoid undesirable sub- 
 division of property. It must be borne in mind, however, in 
 locating traffic thoroughfares that the effect upon the subdivi- 
 sion of property is of relatively minor importance. 
 
 Where changes in alignment are necessary, the deflections 
 should be made by means of easy curves, as the flow of traffic 
 will be obstructed if sharp angles must be turned or if vision is 
 lessened by such turns. Many roadways of ample width lose 
 their effectiveness and their capacity, on account of obstructions 
 and delay occasioned by sharp turns and awkward junctions with 
 other streets. 
 
 The width of an arterial street should be based upon the 
 estimated volume of future traffic, with suitable provision for 
 local requirements and uses. Streets of this class should not be 
 less than 60 feet in width, which will provide for a roadway width 
 of 36 feet. In large projects, where the arterial street is one of 
 the primary streets of the town it will often be found desirable to 
 increase the width, to 80 or 120 feet. 
 
 The distance between property lines, definingthe width of the 
 street, should be made ample, even though a comparatively 
 narrow roadway will answer immediate requirements. This is 
 for the reason that this traveled way may be widened, without
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 87 
 
 incurring excessive property damage or construction cost; thus 
 the elastic street and possible future use is provided. A later 
 widening, involving setting back and changing the property 
 lines, will generally be very costly and difficult to execute 
 
 The grade of arterial streets and of the primary streets of the 
 town should not exceed five per cent., otherwise greatly increased 
 cost will result. The United States Housing Corporation 
 recommended that the grade of main thoroughfares and first- 
 class business streets should net, if possible, exceed three per 
 cent The Emergency Fleet Corporation indicated a desirable 
 maximum of not over five per cent, for streets of this class. 
 Whatever may be the desired maximum grade, the limitations 
 imposed by topography may make it necessary to adopt grad- 
 ients considerably in excess of those hitherto recommended. 
 The ruling grades of highways in the vicinity, and particularly 
 that of arterial highways, should be fully considered and no un- 
 due expense or deviation from direct line resorted torn an 
 endeavor to obtain grades less than the limiting grades of con- 
 necting highways. 
 
 Grade crossings should be avoided, as they are not only a 
 menace to life but they seriously obstruct traffic as well. Even 
 though a grade crossing must be maintained for the present, 
 arterial and main thorough fares should be so located on the plan, 
 that the elimination of such crossings can be subsequently 
 accomplished without undue expense or disturbance of conditions. 
 Subarterial or Secondary Streets. -Streets which form import- 
 ant traffic links between or to arterial streets are classed as 
 secondary, or subarterial streets. The requirements of these 
 are intermediate between those of arterial and of residential 
 streets As traffic requirements are not so important, the mini- 
 mum gradient can be increased but should not exceed eight per 
 
 CC The principal street of the development, if through traffic is 
 not to be provided for, and if the development is of compara- 
 tively smaU size, will fall into the class of secondary streets, 
 although the street in question is the major one m the develop- 
 ment itself. The requirements of heavy hauling to and from 
 industrial plants must, however, be taken into account m 
 
 fixing the grade. . 
 
 The width of secondary streets, varied to suit requirements 
 will range from 50 to 80 feet, Secondary thoroughfares should
 
 88 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 be planned with some reference to the subdivision of property, 
 particularly to avoid division into awkwardly shaped blocks. 
 Directness, however, should not be unduly sacrificed, although it 
 is not as important as in the case of arterial thoroughfares. Ad- 
 vantage, to a reasonable extent, may be taken of adjusting the 
 location to the topography. Seondary streets should be laid out 
 with the idea of diverting through traffic from residential streets. 
 Commercial traffic and heavy hauling, particularly, should be 
 confined to streets located and built for that purpose. 
 
 Residential Streets. — The planning and location of residential 
 streets is closely connected with property subdivision. The 
 principal purpose of such streets is to provide access, vehicu- 
 
 Fig. 6. — An interesting street view in the Union Park development of the 
 Emergency Fleet Corporation at Wilmington, Del. ; a contour street in the plan- 
 ning of which, care was exercised to preserve the trees. 
 
 lar and pedestrian, to and from the houses; and to afford an 
 open space between the houses thus providing light and air. 
 They are to be located and the grades to be fixed in accordance 
 with the foregoing requirements, and in a manner permitting the 
 property abutting thereon to be conveniently and economically 
 developed for residential purposes. Attention must further be 
 given to the appearance and attractiveness which will be obtained 
 when the proper relationship exists between the location, design 
 and treatment of the streets, and the planning, grouping an 
 architectural treatment of the houses. 
 
 The relation of the residential streets to the primary and
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF 'I1IE TOWN PLAN 89 
 
 secondary streets of the town is of great importance. It is 
 desirable, for a number of reasons, so to plan the former and 
 their connections with the secondary and major streets that 
 a free outlet to traffic will be afforded, without attracting through 
 traffic and heavy hauling to the residential streets. This is not 
 to be accomplished by imposing objectionable difficulty in the 
 way, such as excessive grades, narrow widths or poor paving, 
 but by inviting traffic to the main highway, by the superior 
 facilities and convenience offered. Such regulation of traffic can 
 further be effected by making traffic routes through the residen- 
 tial streets relatively indirect when compared with those obtain- 
 ing on the main highways. 
 
 Monotonous continuity is neither necessary nor desirable. 
 Where the rectangular system of streets is laid out, variety and 
 attractiveness should be obtained by the occasional use of curves, 
 open spaces and special treatment of intersections, and by 
 breaking the continuity of the streets in such a manner as to 
 afford attractive vistas and interesting views. 
 
 The width of residential streets will vary with the practical 
 requirements. It is related to the minimum desirable distance 
 between the fronts of houses, and with the design of landscape 
 treatment. Widths of 50 and 40 feet are ordinarily used for 
 residential streets and 60 feet in high class developments. When 
 special emphasis is desired, wider streets with central park 
 spaces are used. At times it may be desirable to reduce the 
 cost of grading by the use of hillside streets of narrow widths. 
 Where it is planned to erect houses upon the upper side only, the 
 width may be made even less than 40 feet. Streets of this type 
 with a width of 30 feet, and a sidewalk on the upper side, have 
 given satisfaction. 
 
 It is desirable that the grades of residence streets should not 
 exceed twelve per cent., both on account of the increased cost 
 of paving and maintenance on steeper gradients, and of the 
 difficulty and expense of building on the abutting frontage. 
 Although the maximum gradient may be used where necessary, 
 it will be generally desirable to limit the grade to the neighbor- 
 hood of eight per cent., especially on long slopes. 
 
 Business Streets. — Business streets should be located and 
 planned for the particular requirements to which they will be 
 subjected. The following recommendations apply to streets of 
 this character.
 
 90 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The alignment should preferably be straight, as the buildings, 
 facing thereon will ordinarily be solid business blocks abutting 
 on the street line. The grade should preferably not exceed 
 three per cent. 
 
 The width must be ample to take care of the requirements 
 of through vehicular, street car and pedestrian traffic, and to 
 permit of vehicles standing at the curb without impeding the 
 movement of traffic. A minimum width of 36 feet of roadway 
 and an overall width of 60 feet is indicated, but this width will 
 be insufficient if the street be characterized as an important 
 thoroughfare. In such cases the requirements of through 
 traffic, convenience and use would indicate a width of at least 
 80 feet. The width, however, should not exceed 100 feet as 
 excessively wide streets tend to discourage business. 
 
 The width of the sidewalk and planting strip should be ample 
 and not less than 12 feet. If there is any concentration of 
 business upon the streets, the planting space between the curb 
 and paved walk should be omitted and the sidewalk extended 
 from the property line to the curb. 
 
 Streets with Car Tracks. — When a street or thoroughfare is to 
 be occupied by a street railway line, it will be either a main or 
 secondary traffic thoroughfare and will therefore be planned both 
 to serve the general requirements of such highways and also 
 the particular requirements of the street railway. When a 
 double track is to be laid, the minimum width of streets should 
 be 60 feet, which will allow for a 36-foot roadway. A 54-foot 
 roadway, and a total width of street of 80 feet will be much better, 
 as it affords room for vehicular passage on each side of the tracks 
 with standing room at the curbs. 
 
 Parkways and Boulevards. — Parkways and boulevards may be 
 classed as specialized streets. They will be provided primarily 
 to afford attractive and pleasing routes for fast-moving pleasure 
 traffic, and as features in the landscape design. They should be 
 located with proper relation, to points or centers of interest, and 
 should be carefully coordinated with the design of parks, public 
 buildings, the civic center, and other main features of the town 
 plan. 
 
 In cases of this kind, there is naturally great variety in methods 
 of treatment and in the factors of the design such as width, arrange- 
 ment and general plan. They generally provide for street car 
 tracks, if used, in an unpaved and grassed strip either in the center
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN ( J1 
 
 with a drive on each side, or else at one side, removed from the 
 travelled way; the latter is particularly useful on side lull 
 
 construction. 
 
 Alleys.— Alleys should be provided when necessary to attord 
 access to the rear of row-dwellings, apartments or business 
 blocks They should, in all cases, be public thoroughfares, at 
 least 12 feet in width, paved for 8 feet; or if two-way traffic 
 be required the minimum width should he 1G feet. Alleys 
 should be located to afford a clear view from both ends, 
 thus facilitating lighting, inspection and policing. Where 
 narrow alleys are provided, change in direction, if required, 
 should be made on easy curves, permitting vehicles to turn 
 without damaging fences and hedges. The erection of board 
 fences or of buildings abutting directly on the alleys should be 
 prohibited by restrictions and by the building code. 
 
 There has been much discussion for and against alleys, and 
 there has been a marked tendency in recent years to largely 
 discontinue their establishment wherever possible in municipal 
 and town planning practice. Alleys will generally be necessary 
 as service roads where houses are built in long rows. Their use 
 in other circumstances will depend upon the relative advantages 
 and disadvantages accruing therefrom. 
 
 Their principal advantage will be to promote convenient 
 access for the delivery of household supplies, as food stuffs, 
 and coal, and the removal of household waste, as garbage, rub- 
 bish and ashes. They may serve to make possible the effective 
 sanitary inspection of rear lots, and the character and habits of 
 the occupants may make alleys desirable for this reason. They 
 may provide access in case of fire, which is an important element 
 if long rows are to be built, The modern demands for space 
 for the automobile garage, even for the smaller homes and all 
 classes of occupants, may make alleys desirable, particularly if 
 the houses are to be sold. 
 
 Alleys may often be used to advantage for the location of 
 overhead and underground utilities; and, although easements 
 will serve such purposes as well, public utility companies are 
 often disinclined to locate in the latter, on account of the diffi- 
 culty of access and their preference for a public highway. 
 
 The first objection to alleys is the cost of construction and 
 maintenance. Such improvements as grading, paving, draining
 
 92 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and lighting will appreciably increase the total cost of the pro- 
 ject. They will also add to the lot cost where the abutting 
 property has to be graded to the alley, and where fencing on the 
 rear lot line, and a rear house walk, may be required. 
 
 The cost of operation embraced in the upkeep and main- 
 tenance, is a further item of importance. Alleys must be cleaned 
 with the same care as the streets; they must be lighted and 
 policed; and the pavement must be kept in repair. Undesirable 
 living and sanitary conditions often obtain in alleys of urban 
 districts; this should be kept in mind and avoided by intelligent 
 planning. The cost and disadvantages of alleys are such that it 
 
 Yia. 7. — A concrete service alley in the Dundalk Project of the Emergency Fleet 
 Corporation, near Baltimore, Md. 
 
 may be wise to consider building semi-detached, or small groups 
 of houses, and providing passages between the groups or rows, 
 rather than constructing alleys. 
 
 The author made an estimate in 1913 of the cost of construct- 
 ing alleys for a large project for five thousand houses. The 
 results of this study showed that the additional net cost for 
 alleys twelve feet wide was about $200,000 or $40.00 per lot. 
 The estimated increase in annual maintenance expense per lot 
 was $5.30. The increase in house rental to cover the cost of 
 constructing and maintaining alleys, according to the above 
 figures, would be about 44 cents per month. Present day costs
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 
 
 93 
 
 of construction would greatly increase the foregoing. In this 
 particular instance, the recommendation that alleys be omitted 
 from the plan was made and adopted. 
 
 Details of Street Design. — Width of Roadway. — The width of 
 roadway must be fixed to accommodate the traffic, to permit 
 the temporary parking of vehicles along the curb and to permit 
 the turning of vehicles from the street into private driveways 
 without unduly interfering with the movement of traffic. The 
 width of the street, which includes, in addition to the road- 
 
 Fig. 8. — Rear yards of row houses of the Sun Hill Project of the Emergency 
 Fleet Corporation at Chester, Pa. Access to the rear is gained by the concrete 
 walk, located on an easement, and which has a dished cross-section and serves to 
 facilitate surface drainage. 
 
 way, the sidewalks and planting strips, should be planned to 
 take care of the future requirements, rather than those of the 
 present. 
 
 It will be unnecessary and uneconomical to make the present 
 roadway of greater width than the traffic requirements will 
 demand at the end of the fife of the initial surfacing. This 
 suggests the so-called "elastic street," which contemplates 
 the laying down of pavements adequate for present requirements 
 in such way that the roadway can later be widened, when resur- 
 faced, by moving back the curbs.
 
 94 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 -tzo-o ■ 
 -- so'-o"- 
 
 ® J 
 
 iU-u >j 
 
 T — "V • *^ I 
 
 ?'-<7----x r> 
 
 ^-'>i kr'>U ,?'->! 
 
 — ! ' ■ ' *, ; — httt 
 
 V$-bA4'-d'*.-—20'-0 44-6*5** 
 
 k- •SV-0- ->* 
 
 4z Wfcfcfc- 2i'-o'~-~ --As L 6 U'-Azl ^ Property Line tyW* &< 
 
 Ur - SO'-O- ->l k- — - 
 
 - 36 '-0 - ■>*<*& ^kf 
 
 <B> 
 
 A 
 
 i|— , * I asa- r7T = R~ / 
 
 k /<?'-0"- >! 
 
 £\ 
 
 K-- 60'-0-~- 
 
 Q) ,J 
 
 feJBL 
 
 /'JU'ii''*!*- — 2o'-o ! -4ts'^4^Vi' B s. ,- m 
 
 \. _... Wv-"- .-if —Property Line 
 
 Fig. 9. — Typical and sugqcsicd examples in street subdivision. (A) A park- 
 way in Yorkship Village. (B) 40-foot street with 18-foot roadway. (C) 50-foot 
 street with 20-foot roadway. (D) 40-foot street with 20-foot roadway. (E) 
 50-foot street with 26-foot, roadway. (F) 60-foot street with 36-foot roadway. 
 (G) 85-foot street with 56-foot roadway designed for four lines of vehicular traffic 
 and two street car tracks. (H) 50-foot street with 28-foot roadway and single 
 track. (I) 60-foot street with double track. (J) Alternative design of 40-toot 
 street with tree line set hack of street line.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWS PLAN 95 
 
 Detail recommendations on the subject of widths is presented 
 in Chapter V. 
 
 Sidewalks. — The width of the paved sidewalk should be fixed 
 to meet the requirements of pedestrian ( ravel. It will range from 
 a minimum of four feet to six feet for residential streets, and from 
 eight to twelve feet in business districts. Such width of side- 
 walk should be paved as early as the requirements appear to 
 make necessary. The paved width may later be increased with 
 little difficulty, provided the distance from the curb line to the 
 property fine has been made of adequate width. 
 
 The sidewalk space includes not only the paved sidewalks, 
 but the planting strip, and the space reserved, if any, to permit 
 of future roadway widening. The ordinary practice is to allow 
 a narrow strip, generally two feet in width, between the property 
 line and the edge of the sidewalk, and a planting strip, between 
 the sidewalk and the curb. This main planting strip should 
 be at least five feet wide, in order to give requisite space for the 
 planting of trees,. and to discourage pedestrians from encroaching 
 upon it by giving it sufficient emphasis. A 40-foot street, with 
 a 20-foot roadway, will allow for two 10-foot side widths, each 
 width providing space for a one-foot strip between the property 
 line and sidewalk, a 4-foot paved sidewalk, and a 5-foot plant- 
 ing strip. If there is occasion to make some of the minor streets 
 less than 40 feet in width, the planting strip must be decreased, 
 and it may be advisable to lay the paved sidewalk directly 
 against the curb; thus placing the planting strip between the 
 inner edge of the sidewalk and the property line. This plan 
 was followed with pleasing effect in improving some of the 
 minor streets of the Dundalk development at St. Helena, Md. 
 built by the Emergency Fleet Corporation. 
 
 Court Streets. — -Dead-end streets are to be avoided, as objec- 
 tionable from the standpoint of traffic requirements and par- 
 ticularly from the standpoint of fire protection and policing. 
 Desire for variety and special grouping for expensive residences 
 or apartments and where the contour of the land dictates, may, 
 however, make it advisable to develop part of the tract with court 
 streets, by extending a minor residential street from the main 
 street and providing an ample circular turn at the extremity. 
 Such streets or courts have been frequently used to advantage 
 in the development of high-class property, and are of value in 
 that they add to attractiveness and individuality.
 
 96 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Court streets may further be used to develop those portions 
 of the tract, where it is difficult or impossible to locate a through 
 street; and can particularly be used advantageously in sub- 
 divisions where the topography is broken and steep slopes 
 predominate. This idea was employed to a considerable extent 
 
 
 t~* 
 
 
 ■*-'■&< J, ^ , 
 
 
 1 =» »^ 
 
 
 Fig. 10. — Typical study of planting for housing development; proposed plant- 
 ing for the housing project of the Emergency Fleet Corporation at Newburgh, 
 N. Y. 
 
 in the subdivision of the Loveland Farms project (See Fig. 2) 
 and made possible a far more economical subdivision of the 
 property, particularly in the case of deep and irregular blocks, 
 than would have been the cage if through streets had been located. 
 Orientation. — As it is desirable that each room of a dwelling 
 should receive direct sunlight during some part of the day, the
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 97 
 
 question of exposure should be carefully considered where then; 
 is choice in the orientation of the streets, particularly in northern 
 climates. Streets should be located in such a way as to give the 
 largest amount of building frontage having good exposure, 
 especially in case row houses are to be built. 
 
 If topographical or other conditions require that some of the 
 building streets extend east and west, conditions can be greatly 
 improved by suitable lot subdivision. Preference should be 
 given to building detached houses, with side windows in the 
 rooms having northerly exposure, rather than group or row 
 houses. 
 
 Intersections. — Intersections and junctions of important traffic 
 thoroughfares must be planned in such a manner that the move- 
 ment of traffic will not be interrupted nor collisions occur. This 
 will generally involve, with narrow roadways, 'the enlargement 
 of the intersection, the rounding off of the corners, or the occa- 
 sional employment of central park spaces of circular or of curved 
 form. The latter should be designed with care, in order to facili- 
 tate and direct rather than obstruct, traffic movement, and 
 should be planned to favor traffic on the more important street. 
 The grades of important intersections should also be carefully 
 designed, those of the more important highways being given the 
 preference. 
 
 It is desirable to reduce the number of intersections of minor 
 and arterial streets to a minimum consistent with good circulation 
 and access, so that the movement of high speed traffic on the 
 thoroughfare will not be subject to frequent interruptions. 
 Suggested designs for typical intersection problems are illustrated 
 in Fig. 11. 
 
 The intersections of residential streets, insofar as traffic is 
 concerned, do not ordinarily require any special study, except to 
 insure that good platform grades are used, and that the corners 
 ' are eased off with curves of sufficient radius to permit the easy 
 turning of vehicles. Such intersections, however, may be 
 utilized in developing the landscape scheme, by employing street 
 offsets, central parked areas, and special designs of interest, 
 individuality and attractiveness. 
 
 Profile and Grade. — The profile of the street and its elevation 
 relative to that of the finished surface and adjoining lots and 
 floor levels of buildings is of great practical importance and also 
 affects appearance and attractiveness. For the sake of appear-
 
 98 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 JIL 
 "1 f© ^ 
 
 JL 
 
 2m AVE. 
 
 ® 
 
 F JL 
 
 Fu. li. — Typical street intersections: (1) An enlargement at a five-way 
 intersection. (2) Rounding of radius at acute intersection. (3) Typical parked 
 area or island, at intersection. (4) A small parked square in a residential plan. 
 (5,6) Intersections designed to facilitate traffic movement. (7) A court street
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 
 
 99 
 
 ance, the first floor level of the buildings should be at least two 
 feet above the street, depending, however, upon the set-back 
 and the topography. In some instances down-hill depressions 
 are used, and need special treatment. The requirements of lot 
 and block drainage must be considered, together with those of 
 gutter capacity and traffic as outlined in a following chapter. 
 Such determinations should be made at the time of preparing 
 the design and fixing the grades of houses, walks and lots, in 
 order to insure suitable drainage and promote economy in 
 construction. 
 
 Fig. 12. — Street view in Buekman Village, Chester, Pa. 
 
 The curb grades must be fixed so that sufficient fall will be 
 provided to drain the sidewalk and planting strip, and the finished 
 surface of the adjoining lots. This will require slopes of not less 
 than one-quarter inch per foot for paved sidewalk surfaces, and 
 from three-eights to one-half inch per foot for lawns. It is 
 advisable, topography and cost permitting, to have the front 
 lawn drain to the sidewalk. The manner in which the drainage 
 
 with turning circle and connecting walk. (8) An intersection design from York 
 ship Village. (9) ( Conventional four-way rectangular intersection. (10) Donley 
 Square in the Lorain Project of the Emergency Meet Corporation. (11) Usual 
 three-way intersection. (12) Intersection designed to prevent traffic congestion 
 at intersection of minor streets with main thoroughfare. (13) A circular or 
 gyratory intersection of three streets. (14) An informal design of an offset in- 
 tersection with easy curves. (15) An intersection park in a minor residential 
 street.
 
 100 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 of the side and rear yard can best and most economically be 
 effected will depend upon the topography and the comparative 
 amount of grading required. In fact, the whole grading problem, 
 including street improvements, lot grading and cellar excavation 
 must be considered as a single problem. 
 
 The amount of cutting and filling that can be done on street 
 and lot improvement will depend, to a considerable extent, upon 
 the surplus or deficiency of material that will be available. If 
 there is a deficiency in filling material, additional cutting on the 
 streets, in order to improve grades or appearance, or excavation 
 of lots which are above grade, will be indicated. On the other 
 hand, if there is a surplus of excavation, the material may be 
 used to advantage in filling up low areas. The most economi- 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 mm 
 
 
 
 „..- . 
 
 
 \<jJkv 1w S 
 
 ^R^ff'^B 
 
 I 
 
 121 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 flifi 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 j^^^"^^ 5 - 1 — 
 
 P^^ 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H^fc^^^^r 
 
 Fig. 13. — A street in the Dundalk Housing Project, illustrating effect of curvature 
 and wide planting strips. 
 
 cal results will be obtained when the necessary cutting and filling 
 balance over short lengths of haul. 
 
 With regard to the street profile, it is important that changes 
 in slope should be made by easy vertical curves, rather than by 
 abrupt changes. Appearance, particularly the view obtained 
 by looking along the street, must be kept in mind, and it is 
 important to remember that a too frequent repetition of vertical 
 curves on straight streets, giving the effect of an undulating sur- 
 face, is particularly displeasing. Sumps, or low places, without 
 surface outlet for the drainage, should be avoided if possible, to 
 obviate possibility of flooding. 
 
 Easements. — Easements may be reserved, extending through 
 the block along the rear lot line, for the specific purpose of erect-
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 101 
 
 ing or constructing, using and maintaining underground utilities 
 and pole lines. The rear lot lines of the adjoining property will 
 extend to the center of the easement, and the title of the land 
 covered by casement will be vested in the abutting owners. 
 The provisions of the deeds, however, should restrict the property 
 owners from erecting buildings upon the easement, and will give 
 the owner or builder of the development, or the municipality, 
 the right to construct, or to give official authorization to a cor- 
 poration or individual to enter upon and construct or erect the 
 utilities. Thereafter the right will exist to use, maintain and 
 replace the same, or the right may be given directly to a public 
 utility company or companies, as the case may be. The rights 
 and restrictions of the easement should be definitely shown upon 
 the property map and should be fully described in the deeds. 
 
 Easements should be of ample width, depending on the space 
 required by the utility, to enable substructures to be repaired 
 and maintained, without encroaching upon the unrestricted 
 private property adjoining, and should be located to conform as 
 well as possible to the requirements of alignment of the various 
 utilities. Sharp turns and irregular alignment will be particu- 
 larly objectionable, in the case of sewers or pole lines, and there- 
 fore should be avoided. 
 
 Location of Street Railways. — Ordinarily street railways will 
 be located in the center of the paved roadway. Where a wide 
 street, however, is planned and warranted, the track may be 
 placed in a special right of way, with a small planting strip 
 between the tracks and the parkway curbing. Driveways of 
 the required width will then be located, one on each side of the 
 (lack with cross-overs at important street intersections. It 
 will be preferable for the municipality, or the builder of the 
 project, to retain ownership of the track area, unless the railway 
 company engages to maintain the same. In the latter case, the 
 necessary crossings over the right of way should be reserved as 
 public highways. 
 
 It may also be advisable to consider -an alternative location 
 of placing the track on one side of the street between the curb 
 and the sidewalk, but this is possible only when a wide street, 
 is planned. There are many advantages accruing if the street 
 car track can be located away from t he paved roadway. Neither 
 vehicular nor street railway traffic will be obstructed by inter- 
 ference, and the cost of the maintenance of the pavement will he
 
 102 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 materially lessened. Typical and suggestive cross-sections of 
 streets carrying car tracks are shown in Fig. 9. 
 
 Utility Location a Factor. — The close relationship which exists 
 between the location, design and cost of the utility systems and 
 the development of the town plan is a most important consider- 
 tion that must not be forgotten if maximum economy is to be 
 obtained. An important illustration of this relationship will 
 hereafter be discussed, showing the relation of frontage and 
 depth of lots to the cost of utilities and street improvements. 
 It will be evident, when the requirements of the various utilities 
 are considered in detail, neglecting the variations caused by 
 
 Fig. 14. — A street in the Sun Hill Project of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. 
 
 topographical and soil conditions, that there will be a great 
 difference in the cost of development and provision of utilities 
 for different town layouts of the same tract of land. 
 
 Drainage and sewerage can be effected far more economically 
 if reasonable, consideration is given to the requirements of lines 
 and grades. The location of a street in a valley in such a manner 
 that it unnecessarily crosses the drainage line, and introduces 
 rising grades, may require excessively deep cutting for the sewer. 
 Again, it may be possible to locate a cross street on a line which will 
 serve not only the requirements of traffic and access, but also 
 afford the best available location for the sewers or drains. If 
 this is not done, it may be necessary to undergo extra cost, to
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 103 
 
 lay the sewers or drains on private easements, or to follow an 
 indirect route, both of which are objectionable for many reasons. 
 
 The location of overhead pole lines on easements or on alleys 
 extending through the blocks, and the relationship with house 
 location as brought out in Chapter IX, is a most important factor 
 in regard to the installation of these utilities. There is a growing 
 realization of the fact that a large part of pavement maintenance 
 is chargeable to the utilities located under the street pavements. 
 Accordingly, there is a tendency to remove underground struc- 
 tures from beneath the paved roadway to the greatest possible 
 extent. 
 
 Further discussion of recommended practice in the location 
 of utilities and substructures, and the relation to street location 
 and kind of surfacing will be presented in other chapters. 
 
 Cost of Utilities Affected by Lot Sizes. — There is a direct relation 
 netween the size and dimensions of the lot and the cost of street 
 improvements and utilities, the full importance of which is often 
 not fully realized. The relative effect of increasing the frontage 
 and depth of lots on cost of improvements and utilities should be 
 taken into account in determining the location and placement 
 of the house on the lot. The following, presented by the author 
 at the Ottawa meeting of the American City Planning Institute, 
 December, 1919, is a brief discussion of the factors concerned, 
 illustrated by an assumed concrete example: — 
 
 "There are many elements, even of street improvements and utilities, 
 that in no way affect the size of the lot, or are affected by the size of the 
 lot. For example, there might be mentioned: 
 
 "First. — Certain portions of the public utilities not commonly located 
 in streets, such as the water supply, pumping station and filtration 
 plant; sewage treatment and disposal works; the power plant to gene- 
 rate electricity; the steam plant, in the event that the houses are to be 
 heated from a central heating station; and in some cases a gas plant. 
 
 "Second. — Various trunk supply lines which lead from their respective 
 plants to the town site. These include the water supply trunk lines; 
 gas and steam trunk lines; electrical transmission lines; and the sewer 
 and storm drain outfalls. 
 
 "Third. — Those street improvements and utilities that lie directly 
 in front of the house and that parallel the depth of the house. These 
 portions of the utilities and street improvements are really more affected 
 by the size and arrangement of the house than by the dimensions of the 
 lot. Likewise, there are certain elements of the house connections which 
 are not affected by the size of the lot; for example, the house meters
 
 104 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and the portion of the house services that lies within the street. In 
 other words, only that portion of the house connection that lies within 
 the yard is affected by the size of the lot. 
 
 "Fourth. — The street improvements and utilities which lie within the 
 street intersection are not directly affected by the size of the lot, but 
 are primarily a function of the block sub-division." 
 
 As a result of the above processes of elimination, it is possible 
 to make a clear, well-defined statement of those elements which 
 directly affect the size and depth of lots. 
 
 1. They include the street improvements and utilities located di- 
 rectly in front of the space lying between the houses. 
 
 2. They include the street improvements and utilities located on the 
 minor streets and lying opposite the space occupied by the front yards 
 and by the rear yards. 
 
 3. They include those portions of the house service connections 
 which are located in the front yards and in the rear yards. 
 
 Figures shown in Table 10 are the cost per lineal front foot 
 of side yard and per lineal foot of depth of front and rear yards. 
 Cost per lineal foot of lot frontage and depth would be greater, 
 as the cost of house meters, shut-off valves, etc., would be 
 included in the latter cost. These are based upon the same 
 data and assumed town site as used in the preparation of 
 Table 1. 
 
 Table 10. — Cost of Utilities and Street Improvements Parallel to 
 Front and Side Yard Spaces 
 
 Items 
 
 Charge- ] Charge- 
 able to 20 able to 15 
 feet of 1 feet of 
 side front 
 yard yard 
 
 Charge- 
 able to 59 Per lin. 
 feet of :foot of 
 rear side 
 yard yard 
 
 Per lin. 
 foot 
 front 
 yard 
 
 Per lin. 
 foot 
 rear 
 yarb 
 
 Street improvements 
 
 (with land). 
 
 $117.67 
 
 IS. 00 
 0.40 
 15.00 
 19 . 00 
 10 . 50 
 0.00 
 
 $10.25 
 
 2.6S 
 0.00 
 1.61 
 0.94 
 2.73 
 27.60 
 
 $40.30 
 
 10.54 
 0.00 
 6.32 
 3.69 
 
 10.74 
 0.00 
 
 S5.S8 
 
 0.90 
 0.02 
 0.75 
 0.95 
 0.53 
 0.00 
 
 $9.03 
 
 $0.68 
 
 0.18 
 0.00 
 0.11 
 0.06 
 0.18 
 1.84 
 
 $0.68 
 0.18 
 
 
 0.00 
 
 
 0.11 
 
 
 0.06 
 
 
 0.18 
 
 House connections 
 
 00 
 
 
 $180.57 
 
 $45.81 
 
 $71.59 
 
 $3.05 
 
 $1.21 
 
 Results in Table 10 show that if the space between houses 
 on main streets is increased one foot, the cost of streets and
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 
 
 105 
 
 utilities per house is increased $9.03. Also, if the front yard 
 is increased one foot in depth, the cost of street improvements 
 and utilities per house is increased $3.05, and if the rear yard is 
 increased one foot in depth, the cost of street improvements and 
 utilities per house is increased $1.21. These computations also 
 bring out the fact that insofar as street improvements and 
 utilities are concerned, 2.96 feet can be added to the depth of 
 front yard, or 7.46 feet to the depth of rear yard, for the cost of 
 adding one foot to the width of side yard; and that 2.52 feet can 
 be added to the depth of rear yard for the cost of adding one foot 
 to the depth of front yard. 
 
 6200 
 
 6000 
 
 o 5800 
 
 S600 
 
 o 5400 
 
 5200 
 
 5000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ — ^JooJ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " I 
 
 oJ3S^- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 y, 
 
 36 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 38 40 42 
 
 Lot Frontage in Feet 
 
 Fig. 15. — Diagram showing relation between lot frontage and cost per house, 
 including land, for lot depths of from SO to 160 feet; based on assumed average 
 
 costs. 
 
 In a lot 42 feet front by 100 feet depth, the combined cost of 
 land and lot improvements is equal to $369.71 or $8.80 per front 
 foot. (See Table 1, Chapter II). If to this cost of land and 
 lot improvements be added the cost of utilitites and street im- 
 provements on the main street per foot of side yard, the total 
 cost per lineal foot of side yard is $17.83 (obtained by adding 
 $8.80 to $9.03). Assuming rents are based on 12 per cent, of 
 gross return, the cost, in rent for each front, foot of side yard 
 is 18 cents per month. The relation between lot frontage and 
 the cost per house is graphically shown in Fig. 15.
 
 106 INDUSTRIAL 'HOUSING 
 
 Although no general conclusions are justified, because only 
 one assumed industrial town site has been discussed, it is interest- 
 ing to note that cost per lot for "Street Improvements and 
 Utilities" in this case is $875.43, compared with $369.71 for 
 "Land and Lot Improvements"; — the latter being 42 per cent, 
 of the former. 
 
 If, however, the cost of street improvements and utilities is 
 compared with cost of lot improvements and land, each directly 
 chargeable to the 20 feet of side yard, they are respectively 
 $180.57 and $176.05 (Computed from Table 10). In other 
 words, granted that complete utilities and street improvements 
 are to be installed, and with the conditions assumed for the 
 purposes of this discussion, the additional cost due to the separa- 
 tion of the houses to provide side yards, is due in an equal extent 
 to the additional cost of lot improvements and land, and to the 
 additional cost of utilities and street improvements. It is thus 
 clear that the cost of utilities and street improvements alone does 
 not control the effect on cost of the spacing of houses, but does 
 maintain a direct relation to the lot sizes. 
 
 The foregoing example is a problem in the total or community 
 economy in the size and shape of lots, and for this reason the 
 estimates include all items affecting the gross cost of the lot. 
 An important distinction should be drawn between such gross 
 costs, and the selling price or ordinary cost of the house and lot 
 to the purchaser. 
 
 In computing the latter, the cost of all self-supporting utility 
 lines, including gas systems, electrical transmission and distribu- 
 tion systems, water supply works and water distribution systems, 
 and telephone trunks and lines should be deducted from the 
 foregoing estimates, for the reason that the utility rates paid by 
 the house owner (or tenant) cover the expense of these services in 
 any well regulated community. A part of the cost of the water 
 works system may be paid out of municipal tax levy, 1 in which 
 case such charge would be added to the rental, but not to the 
 selling price. 
 
 In many cases, particularly where the development is not 
 directly adjacent to existing utility systems, the land company 
 may be required to advance all or a certain percentage .of the cost 
 of installing transmission and distribution lines, such cost later 
 to be returned out of revenues; or perchance at an arbitrary 
 
 1 See page 188, Chapter VI,
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 107 
 
 refund rate per year. In such contingency only the actual cost of 
 the transaction to the land company should be chargeable against 
 the selling price of the lot. 
 
 If the development is organized as a municipality, or is located 
 in an existing municipality, it is customary to pay the cost of 
 such trunk sewers, sewer outfalls, and treatment works as may 
 be required out of tax levy, together with a certain percentage 
 of the cost of the laterals, usually from 10 to 35 per cent. The 
 same plan generally applies to street surfacing and improvements, 
 where the municipality may pay from 10 to 66% per cent, of 
 the total cost of such work. In these cases only the actual cost 
 assessed against the adjoining properties is to be directly charged 
 into the selling price of the lot, although all such charges should 
 be represented in the rental figure, which includes taxes. 
 
 All other expenses of development, however, including cost of 
 land in the lot, proportionate cost of public land in the streets, 
 etc., original cost of laying out and grading streets, lot improve- 
 ments, house connections, the cost of the house itself, all adminis- 
 trative, superintendence and overhead charges in connection 
 with the same, together with interest during construction and 
 carrying charges thereafter, are directly chargeable into the cost 
 of the lot and house. 
 
 SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE 
 
 It will be found that the town plan can be most effectively 
 prepared if a program substantially in accord with the following 
 is adopted. 
 
 a. Secure an accurate topographical map, based on a careful survey. 
 
 b. Make a careful inspection of the site, and an examination of all 
 physical and local conditions that will influence the plan. 
 
 c. Collect and consider all available information and data bearing 
 upon the development of the plan, the growth of the community, and 
 districting. 
 
 d. Make preliminary study and prepare general plans of utility 
 systems. 
 
 e. Make a preliminary study or general plan of the street system 
 including main thoroughfares and arterial streets, which may be con- 
 veniently prepared upon a reproduction of the topographical map. 
 
 /. Prepare a general plan showing Mock and lot subdivisions. 
 
 g. Make study for districting or zoning of the area with regard to 
 character of use, area occupied, height of buildings, and prepare building 
 and sanitary regulations.
 
 108 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 h. Make a house location plan, showing the placement or spotting of 
 the houses on the lots. 
 
 i. Prepare a landscape and planting plan, showing the parks, boule- 
 vards and parkways, playgrounds and planting of these areas, streets 
 and individual lots. 
 
 j. Prepare working and detail drawings of all parts, including streets 
 and utility systems, modifying as relationships develop. 
 
 If the projected development is of relatively small size, it 
 may be advisable to reduce the number of plans above suggested, 
 either by omission or by combination. 
 
 Topographical Survey and Map. — The first step in the pro- 
 cedure is to make a topographical survey and prepare a map of 
 the area to be improved. If the plan is to be satisfactory in all 
 its details, the underlying information must be reasonably 
 complete and accurate, and for this reason, as the topographical 
 map will be the basis for the whole design, it should receive the 
 early and constant attention it deserves. 
 
 A reasonable degree of accuracy should be fixed and thereafter 
 maintained. Triangulation and the running of control lines 
 will depend as to extent and accuracy upon the character of the 
 topography and the size of the tract. Important points and 
 lines should be well referenced, so that they may thereafter be 
 easily located and identified. 
 
 The contour intervals to be adopted will depend upon the 
 character of the topography. Where steep slopes predominate, 
 and where there is considerable variation in elevation, a five-foot 
 contour interval, which is the maximum, should be used; where 
 the area is generally level, a one-foot contour interval will be 
 required. Frequently a two-foot contour interval will suffice. 
 
 The maps should be drawn on a scale of from 1 inch = 40 
 feet, to 1 inch = 200 feet; the scale being dependent upon 
 the size of the tract and character of the topography. Preferably 
 the scale should not exceed 100 feet to the inch. Duplication 
 of work in replotting on various scales should be avoided, if 
 possible, by adopting a scale that can be used with convenience 
 for different purposes. It frequently will be necessary to extend 
 the topography somewhat beyond the boundaries of the develop- 
 ment, in order that the improvements within the site may be 
 planned with due regard to the possibility of extension into 
 adjoining areas. 
 
 The topographical map should show the following:
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 109 
 
 (a) Boundaries of property lines of the trad and existing subdivi- 
 sions, if any, with distances and bearings or deflections indicated. 
 
 (6) Wooded areas, indicating outlines of large groups or groves of 
 trees; individual trees, five inches or larger; indication of species and 
 condition. 
 
 (r) Natural features, as water courses, with high and low water lines; 
 swamps and rock out-crops; sand and gravel banks; stone -quarries; 
 nature of top soil, etc. 
 
 (d) Soil and foundation conditions; test pits and borings; ground 
 water elevations. 
 
 (e) Fence and wall lines; existing roads and drives; bridges; culverts; 
 street improvements and utilities; buildings; steam and electric railroad 
 lines and sidings, with elevations at base of rail. 
 
 (/) Contour lines. 
 
 The foregoing should be indicated by easily distinguished 
 legends or conventions. 
 
 Regional Maps. — It will generally be advisable, particularly 
 when new street and utility systems are to be planned, to prepare 
 a map of the region, wherein the development is located. This 
 is for the purpose of studying the relation of the project to 
 the surrounding district, the extension of existing utilities, and 
 the influence and relation of existing and projected highways 
 and streets to those of the proposed town. It is not the purpose 
 of such regional maps to portray conditions in minute detail, 
 but rather in such a way as to enable a study to be made of 
 problems and interrelationships between the new town and the 
 surrounding territory and neighboring communities. 
 
 It will further be convenient to show T on the regional map im- 
 portant features of existing water supply and sewerage systems, 
 main traffic lines; freight stations and yards, and other informa- 
 tion of like kind. 
 
 The labor and cost of preparing the regional map may be 
 reduced by utilizing and collating existing available maps and 
 plans of the municipal and public service companies. Frequently 
 the topographical sheets of the United States Geological 
 Survey may be used to advantage, as a base or general map for 
 assembling data thereon. 
 
 Site Investigation. — Serious delays and confusion will be 
 avoided and better coordination in design obtained if a thorough, 
 and preferably a joint investigation, of the site is made by those 
 in responsible charge of the town planning, architectural and
 
 110 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 engineering features of the work. There is no better way to 
 sense and evaluate the main features, conditions and problems 
 than by such investigations. Many mistakes and misconcep- 
 tions will thereby be avoided. 
 
 The main purpose will be to obtain first hand information and 
 impressions to serve as a guide in later formulating the planning 
 and construction policies, and to aid in the interpretation of maps 
 and data. The soil conditions, for instance, will be of interest 
 to the engineer and the architect alike. There will further be 
 many points relative to opportunities for location of sidings and 
 yards, the planning of construction roads and similar features, 
 that will be of value in planning the town and the construction 
 program. 
 
 Preliminary Town Plan. — The preliminary town plan will be 
 developed to determine the main features, especially those which 
 are dictated by the existing conditions and topography, existing 
 highways, transportation and utility systems. In forming 
 the plan, not only the principal requirements of the street 
 system, but those of the best utilization of the land as to commer- 
 cial and residence districts, larger parks, the utilities and of the 
 various types of buildings are to be considered. 
 
 It will be convenient to project this study on a positive Van 
 Dyke or gelatine reproduction of the base topographical map, 
 so that copies can be used for revision and for the development 
 of the utilities systems. Trial profiles and cross-sections of the 
 streets should be worked up at the same time. 
 
 Final Plan of Development. — The preliminary town plan will 
 be subjected to such modifications and revisions as may be neces- 
 sary to produce a well balanced, consistent, efficient and econo- 
 mic plan. This will require adjustment, the degree depending 
 upon the relative importance of the design of the street system, 
 those of the various utilities, and, particularly, the requirements 
 of the houses, as has been hitherto discussed under property sub- 
 division. 
 
 The complete town plan should show the street system in detail, 
 including the name, widths and grades of the highways; the various 
 features of the plan, including the civic center, schools, etc. ; the 
 subdivision of the property into blocks and lots; set-back lines, 
 open spaces, parks, etc. The plan should contain essential 
 information as to distances and geometry which will enable it to 
 be staked on the ground. Frequently such plan can be later
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 111 
 
 filed in the office of record in connection with the dedication of 
 streets and the recording of the sub-division and the decision as 
 to scale should be based on such a use. 
 
 The adopted town plan will include profiles of the various 
 streets showing the established grades thereof. The latter is 
 important on account of the legal significance and practical 
 value. 
 
 Detail and Working Plans. — Detail and working plans will be 
 required for the various parts of the work. The number, variety 
 and scale of these plans will depend upon the scope of the work 
 and upon conditions and variety of detail. 
 
 Grading plans for the general improvement of the site and final 
 grading of the lots will be essential to determine the best ele- 
 vation of the houses and the quantity and disposition of material. 
 The topographic map may be used for working out the general 
 scheme and to determine approximate quantities, but to be 
 efficacious for field use should be on a scale of not less than one 
 inch to 100 feet; preferably one inch to 50 feet. Detail cross- 
 sections of cellars, lots, sidewalks and streets may be required 
 for this purpose. 
 
 It will often be economical to prepare working drawings to a 
 scale of forty feet to the inch or less, to show the lines and ele- 
 vations for lot grading, planting, house walks and house location. 
 The same sheets, or reproductions thereof, can later be used 
 as a base plan for record drawings of utilities. 
 
 RECENT COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENTS 
 
 Ojibway, Ontario. — -The plan of the projected town of Ojib- 
 way, Canada, contains a number of interesting features which 
 will serve to illustrate some of the points heretofore discussed. 
 This plan was prepared by the late Owen Brainard, with 
 Carrere and Hastings as Town Planners, in association with the 
 author as Engineer, to provide housing for employees of the 
 new plant of the Canadian Steel Company, Limited, at Ojibway 
 near Windsor, Ontario, Canada. 
 
 As will be seen in Fig. 3, the street system is on the rec- 
 tangular plan, with a radiating system of diagonal streets, serv- 
 ing as main and secondary arteries. The tract reserved for the 
 town consists of about 650 acres of nearly level ground, 
 the maximum difference in elevation of the surface being about 
 8 feet. When fully developed, the town will provide for about
 
 112 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 21,000 people, housed in detached houses, on lots generally of 
 35 feet frontage and 120 feet in depth. The towns of Windsor 
 and Walkerville he to the north, and the steel plant to the west, 
 between the town and the Detroit River. An electric railway 
 line is located on Main Street and provides rapid transit to Wind- 
 sor, Walkerville and other local points. The tracks of the Essex 
 Terminal Railroad are parallel to and located directly in the rear 
 of the blocks fronting on the west side of Main Street. Import- 
 ant existing through highways include a road lying some distance 
 east of and roughly paralleling the town site, and Machette 
 Road, also an important highway, which passes through the de- 
 velopment approximately on the line of H Street. 
 
 The principal features in the plan are as follows: — 
 
 Main Street, with a width of 100 feet, will provide for business 
 and small local industries which will be attracted there by reason 
 of the street railway, the siding facilities of the properties on the 
 west side of the street, and the proximity to the plant. The 
 higher class commercial establishments and amusements, to- 
 gether with the community or civic center, will be located in the 
 area immediately east of Main Street and bounded by 16th 
 Street, G Street and 12th Street. 
 
 Ample provision is made in the planning of the main thorough- 
 fares for the requirements of through traffic and inter-communi- 
 cation, not only as concerns the development, but also the 
 undeveloped territory adjoining to the east and south. Through 
 traffic from the southeast, coming over the existing Machette 
 Road, by following the line of South Avenue and G Street, will 
 be diverted from the business center. 
 
 The main thoroughfares are from 100 to 160 feet in width, and 
 are generally provided with central parkways. The secondary 
 streets are 86 feet in width, with central parking area. A fur- 
 ther prominent feature of the street system is a parkway 300 feet 
 in width, with a wide central parked area extending from the 
 commercial district to G Street, the main north and south 
 street. The residential districts are laid out with 50-foot streets. 
 Alleys are not provided except in the commercial district. 
 
 The street system was adopted only after thorough investi- 
 gation had been made of the requirements of traffic and utility 
 location, particularly that of sewerage and drainage; the radiat- 
 ing system of main highways lends itself readily to these requir- 
 ments.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 113 
 
 Loveland Farms.— The street plan of Loveland Farms is an 
 excellent example of the adaptability and economy of the use of 
 contour streets in the development of a site characterized by 
 rugged and broken topography. This development was designed 
 by John Nolen, as Planner, with the author as Engineer. The 
 project was built by the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company, 
 for the purpose of providing modern type homes for skilled em- 
 ployees, foremen and superintendents. The site is just beyond 
 the city limits of Youngstown, Ohio, and south of the Mahoning 
 River. The gross area of the tract is 220 acres; area of streets 
 24" acres; gross area of parks and open spaces, 5 per cent.; net 
 building or saleable area, 71 per cent., or 156 acres; approxi- 
 mate number of lots, 1,000; average lot area, 0.158 acres, or 
 about 6,500 square feet. 
 
 It will be noted that the street plan, which is shown in Fig. 
 2, is composed very largely of curvilinear streets ; in fact about 
 67 per cent, of the streets are so designed. The plan of the 
 streets was dictated by the topography, which is severe, and by 
 the adjoining existing roads. Poland Avenue, Loveland Road, 
 Midlothian Boulevard and Oakland Avenue were existing 
 improved streets and form the boundaries of the site. Poland 
 Avenue, a main thoroughfare occupied by a 2-track street 
 railway, furnishing transportation facilities from Youngstown 
 to the site and points beyond, is the northerly boundary. 
 
 The ground rises from Poland Avenue, which has an elevation 
 of from 860 to 870 feet to a maximum elevation of 1030 at the 
 southwest corner of the plot. The ground surface is further 
 broken by ravines extending back from Poland Avenue. The 
 main streets, following the contours, are laid out on approxi- 
 mately concentric circular arcs, with an approximate center at 
 the summit of Ridge wood Road near the southwestern corner of 
 the plot. Streets leading to Poland Avenue generally follow the 
 line of ravines, which afford the most favorable location, and 
 make possible an effective subdivision of the adjoining property, 
 which otherwise would be difficult. 
 
 The chief features of this plan are the economy of site develop- 
 ment and improvement, the effective subdivision of the property 
 and good street grades obtained on a very hilly site. The use 
 of court streets, to develop deep blocks upon steep hillsides, will 
 be noted. 
 
 As the facilities offered by existing highways and topographical
 
 114 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 barriers made a minor consideration of the necessity for providing 
 for through traffic, the streets within the development are mainly 
 laid out to provide good building frontage, access, and inter- 
 communication, with reasonable facilities for traffic passing 
 through the plot in an easterly direction from Powers Way and 
 other connections. The character of the development will be 
 entirely residential, except for a small business district to be 
 located in the vicinity of Ridge wood Road and Ohio Square. 
 The street widths are 40, 50 and 60 feet, with roadways of 18, 
 24 and 32 feet, respectively. Sidewalks are 4 feet wide on the 
 40-foot streets and 5 feet in width on the other streets. 
 
 Yorkship Village. — Yorkship Village was the largest govern- 
 mental housing project constructed during the War. It is of 
 great interest not only on account of its size, but for the reason 
 that the plan contains many unique features and represents great 
 advance in the planning and development of large towns for 
 industrial workers. The town was planned under the general 
 supervision of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, for the Fairview 
 Realty Company, a subsidiary of the New York Shipbuilding 
 Company, for the shipyard employees of that company in Cam- 
 den, N. J. Electus Litchfield was Architect and Town Planner, 
 and Lockwood, Green & Company, the Engineers. (For street 
 and block plan see Fig. 16.) 
 
 The tract lies at the southerly extremity of Camden, N. J., and 
 has recently been annexed to that municipality. The site is a 
 practically level tract of land bordered on the north, south and 
 west by small tidal streams, or estuaries, whose marginal mud 
 flats and high water fines limited and defined the useful area in 
 these directions. The Mt. Ephriam Pike, an improved high- 
 way, is the easterly boundary of the plan, and affords a highway 
 connection to Camden. Collings Road traverses the site from 
 east to west and provides an existing highway leading directly 
 to Broadway, a main thoroughfare in Gloucester which extends 
 along the river from Camden. An extension of a street railway 
 on a private right of way, from the main line on Broadway in 
 Gloucester to the project, which it enters on Collings Road, 
 affords street car service to the shipyard, Camden and local 
 points. 
 
 By reason of the foregoing condition, and with the exception 
 of the existing highways before noted, whose influence on the 
 organization of the plan will be apparent, the site was isolated
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWN PLAN 
 
 115 
 
 from Camden and was therefore to be developed as an independ- 
 ent community. The necessity of providing a more direct 
 
 route for pedestrian and vehicular traffic from the town to the 
 shipyard, which lies within walking distance to the northwest,
 
 116 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 imposed a further condition which greatly influenced the develop- 
 ment of the town plan. This connection was accomplished by 
 building a concrete arch bridge, crossing the branch of Newton 
 Creek to the north of the town, and opening up a new street 
 leading to Morgan Street in Camden. This latter street leads 
 to Broadway and the shipyard plant. 
 
 The main approach street, which is also the main axis of the 
 layout, is a parkway 120 feet in width, extending from the bridge 
 to a central square, which was planned to be the social and 
 community center of the town. About this square are located 
 the more pretentious buildings, including apartment houses, 
 stores and a projected community building. A park area 140 
 
 Fig. 17. — Yorkship Village; the central square and parkway. 
 
 feet in width extends westward from the square and constitutes 
 the minor axis of the plan, and affords an excellent location for 
 churches. Radial streets extend from the southwestern and 
 southeastern corners of the square to Collings Road. 
 
 The central features of the plan have a decided element of 
 formal organization which does not predominate in the outlying 
 section. While curved streets are used to a limited extent, 
 frequent angles, combined with effective placement of dwellings 
 and features, make for attractiveness and interest. The easterly 
 section, the streets of which are laid out as concentric circular 
 arcs, was designed after the plans of the main portion of the town 
 had been adopted. 
 
 The total developed area is 179.1 acres; area of lots is 80.4
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOWS PL AS 117 
 
 acres, or 44.9 per cent.; sites for special buildings, 1.8 acres, or 
 1 per cent.; schools, recreational and community purposes, in- 
 cluding parks and playgrounds, 35.6 acres, or 19.8 per cent.; 
 area of streets and alleys, 61.3 acres, or 34.3 per cent. 
 
 The town includes 1,386 dwellings, of which 1,018 are in rows 
 and the balance detached and semi-detached houses. There are 
 also four apartment buildings, one hotel, and eight stores. There 
 are 16.45 dwellings per acre of lot area, the average lot containing 
 2,526 square feet. The gross building density is 7.8 dwellings 
 per acre of the developed land, including lots, streets and other 
 areas.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 
 
 Classification of Streets — Pavement Design — Type and 
 Materials of Pavements — Accessory Structures 
 
 The paving and appearance of the streets of a community is 
 one of the first things which attracts the attention of the visitor 
 and also greatly affects the comfort and convenience of the resi- 
 dents. It is an item on which either too great or too small a 
 sum may readily be spent, and a very careful engineering study 
 and planning are necessary to determine the proper design so that 
 the utmost utility and economy is subserved. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF STREETS 
 
 The general plan of the street system, together with the classi- 
 fication of streets and their location has already been considered 
 in the preceding chapter. 
 
 Widths for Different Services. — The importance of streets is 
 determined by the character of the expected traffic. Width, 
 even more than the character of the pavement, indicates this 
 importance. WidJhs^^Lstreets are determined by the volume 
 and character of the traffic winch will use them. American 
 municipal practice in fixing street and roadway widths has been, 
 to a very large extent, controlled by local practice and by too 
 strict adherence to artificial standards. ^Street widths cannot be 
 standardized, although the maximum and minimum may be 
 defined, which should not be departed from except under unusual 
 circumstances. See Fig. 9 for typical street widths and cross- 
 sections. 
 
 In some communities there has been a tendency to make widths 
 of streets and roadways entirely too narrow; in others, particu- 
 larly in the middle west, roadways of unusual widths are often 
 required by municipal ordinance. The latter are objectionable, 
 as they increase the cost of improvements, street cleaning and 
 replacement. Arterial or main traffic streets often become con- 
 gested and sub-arterial and residential streets frequently are of 
 greater width than economy requires. Traffic may be forced to 
 
 118
 
 STREETS AND PA VEMEN TS 119 
 
 seek streets which are designed to care for the lightest travel only, 
 thus causing a rapid deterioration of the surface. The results 
 of such a policy will prove expensive to the community and waste 
 valuable space. The logical method is to base the required 
 width of roadway upon the number of traffic lines which the 
 roadway pavement must accomniqdatej_d.ue consideration bein g 
 given to the gradual increase in recent^ years of both the width 
 and~spee_cLpfjv r ehicles. 
 
 Arterial or Main Traffic- — Such main thoroughfares will be 
 required to carry the street cars and bus lines, in addition to the 
 usual vehicles; and provision for these should be made at the 
 time of the design, wherever they will be required in the future. 
 Street car tracks should preferably be placed in the center of the 
 roadway, and it is desirable that they be on a separate right of 
 way, which may be divided from the rest of the street by a curb. 
 This will allow the cars to move at a greater speed and with 
 less danger to other traffic. The increased speed thus made 
 possible will extend the available zone of residences for the com- 
 munity, by lessening the time required for transit from home to 
 the business district. 
 
 On arterial and main business streets provision should be 
 made for two, four or more lines of traffic and either a single 
 or double track car line. In addition to this a sidewalk should 
 of course, be provided on each side of the street. The increased 
 speed, at which traffic moves in well regulated communities, re- 
 quires a comfortable clearance. This indicates a minimum width 
 for each line of vehicular traffic of at least eight feet, and pre- 
 ferably nine feet. The lower figure can be used where several 
 lines are provided for, and the latter on the narrower streets. 
 
 The width of sidewalks on a business street should never be 
 less than 12 ft. and in larger communities, and on important 
 streets, may exceed this amount. This entire width need not 
 be paved in the early period of the life of the community, but 
 this space should be reserved for public use. 
 
 A typical determination of the width of an arterial street is 
 as follows : 
 
 Two lines of parked vehicles 1G feet 
 
 Four lines of traffic 36 feet 
 
 Two car tracks 20 feet 
 
 Two sidewalks 28 feet 
 
 Total 100 feet
 
 120 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 This example indicates the width for a street of this 
 class in a community where growth may be expected; lesser 
 widths may be used in certain cases by using fewer multiples. 
 The whole breadth need not be paved until the volume of traffic 
 demands it. A planting space may be reserved on each side of 
 the paved section of the street, which later may be assigned to 
 the use of traffic when required; or the additional width may be 
 temporarily allotted to the abutters for front yards, with reser- 
 vations requiring that the building lines be kept back the desired 
 distance. 
 
 Subarterial or Secondary. — Subarterial streets may vary con- 
 siderably in width, because of the different sizes and character of 
 the districts which they serve. 
 
 The roadway should contain space for at least two lines of 
 traffic and parking space at either side, and it may often be 
 necessary to provide for four lines of traffic. Very frequently 
 a single track car line will be required to lead from the main 
 thoroughfare to the subsidiary district. The sidewalks should 
 be allowed a space of at least 12 ft., part of which may be utilized 
 as a planting space. A typical design of the width of a sub- 
 arterial street is given below: 
 
 One car track 10 feet 
 
 Two lines of traffic 20 feet 
 
 Two parking lines 16 feet 
 
 Two sidewalks and margins 24 feet 
 
 Total 70 feet 
 
 In the smaller industrial communities, which are adjacent 
 to larger towns, the streets here classified as subarterial may 
 be then called the principal streets. In such cases the car 
 track is frequently not required, and occasionally the total width 
 between property lines may not exceed 50 ft. This is the ab- 
 solute minimum which is to be recommended for streets serving 
 more than the lightest residential traffic. This width may be 
 divided as follows: 
 
 Two sidewalks and margins 24 feet 
 
 One parking line 8 feet 
 
 Two lines of traffic 18 feet 
 
 Total 50 feet
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 121 
 
 This gives a roadway 26 ft. in width, with a 12-ft. space on 
 each side for sidewalk and planting. 
 
 Ordinarily subarterial streets should not be designed less than 
 60 ft. in width and usually they will not exceed 80 ft. 
 
 Residential Streets.- — -The function of the residential street is 
 to furnish access, light and air to the abutters. Traffic should 
 be confined to pleasure vehicles and the delivery of domestic 
 supplies. 
 
 In the industrial community residential streets may vary some- 
 what in character. A large part of the buildings facing on one 
 street may be apartment dwellings, on another the larger homes 
 of superintendents, foremen and the like, and on another the 
 less expensive homes of the unskilled laborer. The residents 
 on the first two streets will desire and will be able to pay for 
 wider streets, and consequently it may be desirable to give 
 them extra width to allow for planting and for the larger 
 amount of traffic which such districts will require. Such streets 
 may be from 50 to 80 ft. in width but ordinarily will not exceed 
 60 ft. The design given below is well adapted to the more 
 important residential streets in many industrial developments. 
 
 Two sidewalks and planting strips 26 feet 
 
 Two lines of parked vehicles 16 feet 
 
 Two lines of traffic 18 feet 
 
 Total 60 feet 
 
 This design provides a roadway of 34 ft., with a sidewalk 
 and planting space on each side of 13 ft. 
 A more pretentious design is as follows: 
 
 Two sidewalks and planting strips 26 feet 
 
 Two lines of parked vehicles 16 feet 
 
 Two lines of traffic 18 feet 
 
 Central planting strip 20 feet 
 
 Total 80 feet 
 
 By far the greater number of people live on what may be 
 called minor residential streets, which are side streets leading 
 from arterial, sub-arterial and principal residence streets. These 
 streets should seldom be less than 40 ft. in width, except in 
 special cases, such as hillside streets with dwellings facing on 
 one side only. This width of 40 ft. is required in order to give 
 a desirable amount of light and air and to present a desirable 
 appearance.
 
 122 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The paved portion of such a street should never be less than 
 18 ft. in width and many engineers are recommending 20 ft. as 
 a desirable minimum. This width allows two vehicles to pass at 
 a fair rate of speeds without danger of crowding the curb. In 
 a typical 40-ft. minor residential street, 20 ft. is allotted to paved 
 surface and 20 ft. to planting strips and sidewalks. 
 
 PAVEMENT DESIGN 
 
 The principal details of design center about the important 
 items of grade, foundation, subsurface and surface drainage. 
 
 Grades. — The subject of grades has been touched on in the 
 preceding chapter but will be discussed here in more detail. 
 This question must of course be considered in making the lay- 
 out for a town, but it again becomes one of the important engi- 
 neering considerations in the design of the pavement. This 
 illustrates the necessity of developing all parts of the design of 
 an industrial community under one organization and head, in 
 order that such problems may be well coordinated and the utmost 
 economy secured. 
 
 jX While much of the present day hauling is done by motor 
 trucks, which can climb grades that are too steep for heavy 
 horse-drawn vehicles, the latter are still used to some extent. 
 Therefore, on arterial streets, subject to this kind of traffic, the 
 heavy horse-drawn vehicle limits the maximum grade. For a 
 heavy team, operating without brakes, 5 per cent, is the steepest 
 grade which can safely be used, and this should not be exceeded 
 on streets carrying heavy traffic in localities where it is not 
 customary to use brakes. 
 
 The cost of hauling also enters into the determination of 
 the maximum grade of arterial streets, as this increases very 
 rapidly as the grade increases. Wherever it is at all possible, 
 5 per cent, should be set as the maximum for arterial streets, 
 and this grade should be exceeded only for very short distances 
 on sub-arterial streets; less than this is of course very desirable. 
 
 Important residential streets should not be laid out where 
 it is not possible to keep the grade down to about the limit 
 mentioned above. On minor residential streets the grades may 
 at times be as great as 10 per cent, for a short distance, but, 
 except under very unusual circumstances, should not exceed this. 
 Seven or eight per cent, is considered a desirable maximum for 
 such streets.
 
 STREETS AND PA VEMENTS 123 
 
 In some industrial communities, the selection of the type of 
 pavement is restricted, due to some special condition such as 
 availability of certain materials. The maximum allowable grade 
 then will be determined as that which is suitable for the 
 indicated type of pavement. The following table gives the 
 maximum allowable grades for different kinds of pavement, as 
 recommended by the Special Committee on Materials for Road 
 Construction and on Standards for their Test and Use of the 
 American Society of Civil Engineers in its final report: 
 
 Table 11. — Maximum Allowable Grades for Pavements 
 
 Kind of pavement 
 
 Maximum allowable 
 grade, per 
 cent. 
 
 Broken stone 
 
 Bituminous concrete 
 
 Bituminous macadam 
 
 Cement concrete 
 
 Bituminous surface on gravel . 
 
 Sheet asphalt 
 
 Brick — bituminous filler 
 
 Brick — cement grout filler. . . . 
 Stone block — grout filler 
 
 12 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 6 
 5 
 
 12 
 6 
 9 
 
 Foundations. — The stability and permanence of a pavement 
 depends to a great extent on the stability of the foundation. If 
 the foundation is weak or unstable, ruts and depressions form, 
 and the pavement deteriorates rapidly. 
 
 The essential precautions which must be taken in order to 
 insure a good foundation are as follows: 
 
 1. Removal of vegetable, perishable and yielding material. 
 
 2. Thorough compacting of the subsoil with heavy roller. 
 
 3. Drainage of the subsoil. 
 
 The first two items are self-explanatory. The third, which is 
 of prime importance, will be covered in the next section. Every 
 load which comes upon the pavement must be carried ultimately 
 by the subgrade. Hence it is of the greatest importance that 
 this be sufficiently strong and stable to carry the greatest load 
 which it will be called upon to bear. 
 
 Very few States have as yet fixed the allowable loads on high- 
 ways, but many are now considering this problem. In a short
 
 124 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 time we may expect to see reasonable limits established, which 
 will prevent the occasional extremely heavy loads which have 
 destroyed a large number of pavements and foundations. 
 
 It is often necessary to use an artificial foundation, due to fills, 
 yielding or spongy material, or material of a perishable nature, 
 or to support a wearing surface incapable of taking bending 
 stresses. The materials frequently used for such foundations 
 are lump slag, broken stone, gravel, rough stone, or cement con- 
 crete. The first three are ordinarily used as in a macadam road, 
 being well consolidated under the roller; the wearing surface is 
 then laid upon the foundations. Rough stone is not to be recom- 
 mended, except in special cases. The present high cost of 
 Telford construction, together with its disadvantages cause it to 
 be less favorably considered in most sections of this country. 
 
 Cement concrete is the most widely used artificial foundation, 
 and a most satisfactory one. It furnishes a smooth unyielding 
 surface for the laying of the wearing course, is strong enough to 
 properly distribute the imposed load on the subsoil, and under 
 proper conditions is practically permanent. It is used to a great 
 extent as a foundation for asphalt, bituminous concrete, and 
 brick and block pavements which would rapidly break up if not 
 supported by a rigid base. Concrete for a foundation need not 
 be of as good quality as when used for a pavement without a 
 wearing surface, and it need not be so well finished. Mixtures 
 as lean as 1:3^:7 have been used, although 1:2^:5 is recom- 
 mended, except under unusually favorable conditions. It is 
 constructed as later described under "Cement Concrete Pave- 
 ments." 
 
 Subdrainage. — As previously stated, no matter what the 
 paving surface of a street may be, the load which the traffic 
 imposes on it must ultimately be carried by the subgrade. This 
 must be stable or the pavement will ultimately break up, and the 
 money expended for it will be lost. The supporting power of the 
 subgrade is to. a great extent reduced when it becomes wet, and 
 hence it is necessary to keep it as nearly dry as possible at all 
 times. This is true in all climates, and especially so in those sub- 
 ject to severe frosts, as a wet subgrade which freezes expands 
 sufficiently to break the strongest pavement. It cannot be too 
 strongly emphasized that it is useless to build good pavements 
 without making careful provision for carrying off the ground 
 water as rapidly as it accumulates.
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 125 
 
 To take care of the water that reaches the subgrade, a system 
 of drainage is needed. This should be carefully designed by a 
 competent engineer, in order to be sure that it will serve the 
 purpose for which it is intended. There are several types of 
 drainage; such as simple ditches, or an elaborate system of 
 side and cross drains, consisting of pipe laid in some material 
 like broken stone, which readily conducts water. 
 
 Underdrains are especially important where the soil is of such 
 a nature as to hold water, or to prevent its draining off naturally, 
 such as clay. On a sand or gravel foundation the drain at times 
 may be omitted, but only when this is sanctioned by competent 
 engineering advice. Details of the method of subdrainage 
 adopted in the Loveland Farms Development are given in 
 Fig. 18; effective subdrainage is provided for by constructing 
 a broken stone and tile drain under each curb, which dis- 
 charges into the storm inlets and to which the sidewalk sub- 
 base is connected at frequent intervals. 
 
 On unsurfaced streets, not completely improved, like lanes or 
 country roads, the surface and subgrade drainage is ordinarily 
 taken care of by means of deep ditches on each side of the pave- 
 ment. If "the street is on a side hill, it is, of course, necessary to 
 construct the ditch on the upper side only, thus cutting off the 
 ground water which would otherwise seep under the pavement. 
 These ditches should be kept to grade and should have enough 
 slope to carry off the water quickly; otherwise it will pool and 
 saturate the road bed, making conditions worse than as if no 
 ditches had been constructed. On the other hand, precaution 
 must also be taken not to carry water too great a distance in 
 side ditches with steep grades, as there will be serious danger of 
 undermining the roadbed. In a flat country, it is often difficult 
 to secure sufficient fall to provide a good run-off without making 
 the ditches very deep, unsightly and dangerous. It may then 
 be preferable to construct pipe drains. 
 
 A common method is to construct blind side drains, connecting 
 with a tile pipe laid with open joints, leading to the storm water 
 inlet. These drains may be about 18 in. wide and 24 in. deep, 
 and filled with broken stone, slag, gravel or some other porous 
 material. The size of pipe which is used in these trenches is 
 ordinarily 4 in. or 6 in., the former being the more common. 
 The size may be calculated in the usual manner, from the amount 
 of water to be carried and the grade available. If water origi-
 
 126 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 nates under the street or road, the drains may start at the center 
 and run to the side in the shape of a V, i.e., in a herring-bone 
 system. Drains must also be constructed along the sides to 
 carry off the water. 
 
 Frequently large drains are constructed along the side of the 
 pavement, which are the same as the side drains described above, 
 except that the pipe is omitted, and that larger stone is used in 
 the lower part of the drain. The system is cheaper than the 
 tile drain system, but is more likely to clog up with silt and 
 become ineffective. 
 
 Surface Drainage. — Surface drainage is taken care of by slop- 
 ing the pavements, so that water will run along it longitudinally, 
 and by crowning the pavement, so that water will be carried 
 to the sides of the roadway. The minimum longitudinal grade, 
 which is sanctioned by American practice, is 0.25 per cent.; 
 less than this will not provide for removal of surface water and 
 deterioration of pavement will result. For water-bound maca- 
 dam construction, it is advisable to make this minimum 0.5 
 per cent. 
 
 The camber or crown which throws the water to the sides of 
 the roadway varies with the type of pavement, and in water- 
 bound macadam also varies with the grade of the street. The 
 maximum and minimum crowns recommended by the Special 
 Committee on Materials for Road Construction and on 
 Standards for their Test and Use of the American Society of 
 Civil Engineers are given in the following table: 
 
 Table 12. — Maximum and Minimum Crowns for Pavements 
 
 Kind of roadway 
 
 Recommended crown — inches to 
 foot width 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Broken stone 
 
 Stone block 
 
 Bituminous surface. . 
 Bituminous macadam 
 Bituminous concrete. 
 
 Cement concrete 
 
 Brick 
 
 Sheet asphalt 
 
 Wood block 
 
 y% 
 y% 
 y 
 y 
 y 
 y 
 y 
 y
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 
 
 127 
 
 Catch Basins and Inlets. — Catch basins and drop inlets are 
 necessary to intercept the water carried by the gutters and 
 deliver it to the storm water drains. The design and construc- 
 tion of these are covered under Chapter VII. 
 
 TYPE AND MATERIALS OF PAVEMENT 
 
 The object of a pavement is to secure a watertight covering for 
 the foundation, and to provide a smooth surface on which traffic 
 may move easily, safely and at a low cost. 
 
 Selection. — The qualities of a good pavement may be stated 
 as follows: 
 
 Low first cost and low maintenance. 
 
 Durability. 
 
 Sanitary and easily cleaned. 
 
 Smooth but not slippery, offering low resistance to traffic. 
 
 In addition to these qualities, it should be acceptable to those 
 residing or doing business on the street. The term "acceptable" 
 includes also "noiselessness" of the pavement. This is often a 
 very important consideration, especially along residential streets 
 and to a less degree on certain retail business streets. For 
 example, a stone block pavement, although it possesses many 
 desirable qualities, would not be desirable for a residential 
 street. 
 
 No pavement perfectly meets all the requirements stated 
 above, and it is necessary to carefully select the pavement which 
 
 Table 13. — Relative Weights of Various Items in the Ideal Pavement 
 
 Qualities 
 
 Relative values for resid- 
 dential streets 
 
 Main 
 
 First cost 
 
 Durability 
 
 Low cost of maintenance 
 
 Ease of cleaning 
 
 Sanitary quality 
 
 Non-slipperiness 
 
 Low tractive resistance. . 
 Acceptability 
 
 Total 
 
 23 
 21 
 13 
 12 
 10 
 5 
 
 100
 
 128 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 most nearly approaches these requirements under the conditions 
 which exist. In order to make this comparison, a table for the 
 ideal pavement may be worked out, assigning a certain percentage 
 to each of the qualities in proportion to the relative importance 
 of each. The sum of these percentages will, for the ideal pave- 
 ment, be 100, and the various types may be compared to this 
 standard, and thus the most suitable one selected. The preceding 
 table indicates these relative values for the residential streets 
 of an industrial development. The values which are assigned 
 below are not absolute, and should be modified to suit conditions. 
 As an example of the use of this method in determining the 
 type of pavement to be used, a cement concrete and a bituminous 
 concrete pavement for use on a residential street will be considered 
 in the table below: 
 
 Table 14. — Comparative Values of Items for a Cement Concrete 
 and a Bituminous Concrete Pavement 
 
 Qualities 
 
 Cement 
 concrete 
 
 Bituminous 
 concrete 
 
 First cost 
 
 Durability 
 
 Ease of maintenance . . 
 
 Ease of cleaning 
 
 Sanitary qualities 
 
 Non-slipperiness 
 
 Low tractive resistance 
 Acceptability 
 
 Total 
 
 17 
 9 
 
 12 
 9 
 5 
 9 
 9 
 
 78 
 
 It will be noted that the above statement for these pavements 
 compared with the ideal is good only for the conditions assumed 
 in rating the various qualities of the ideal pavement. The 
 value obtained for these assumed conditions is very high, for 
 cement concrete and may not be exceeded by any other pavement. 
 If the conditions were changed somewhat, so as to give "Accept- 
 ability" a higher value and "First Cost" a lower value in the 
 rating of the ideal pavement, asphalt or bituminous concrete on a 
 cement concrete base might be about as great as the concrete 
 pavement. The selection of the type of pavement to be used 
 under each set of conditions should be made only after a careful 
 engineering study of the various items affecting it, but the
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 129 
 
 method outlined above indicates the manner in which the final 
 selection should he made. 
 
 Local Materials. — Frequently the material readily found in 
 the vicinity may be used for street surfacing, particularly for 
 those not designed for heavy traffic or in the early beginning of 
 a new development. Imposed conditions on industrial War towns 
 made such imperative many times. 
 
 Earth Roads.— Where first cost is of the utmost importance it 
 may be necessary to utilize the existing soil as the roadway sur- 
 face. The disadvantages of this are obvious. The street will 
 be muddy in wet weather and, unless oiled, dusty in dry; it ruts 
 badly even under favorable conditions; it offers a high resistance 
 to traction; is insanitary and presents a poor appearance; and 
 the cost of maintenance necessary to keep the road passible is 
 as great as for a more satisfactory pavement. 
 
 Its first cost is of course low, as it is only necessary to construct 
 drains and prepare and shape the road as for a foundation, re- 
 moving the softer material and the stones. On a gravelly soil 
 fair results may be obtained by this method, but in clay it is 
 usually quite unsatisfactory. 
 
 Sand-clay Roads. — When clay or sandy soils predominate, and 
 it is necessary to keep costs to the lowest possible point, a sand- 
 clay surface may at times be built. This type is open to the 
 same objections as the earth to a lesser degree. The success 
 or failure of these roads depends upon the mixture of sand and 
 clay. Field and laboratory examinations should be made to 
 determine the proper proportions. 
 
 Sand-clay roads should be located so that they will receive 
 several hours of sunlight during the day, in order that they may 
 dry quickly. They should be thoroughly drained, and the crown 
 should be sufficient to carry all water quickly to the side of the 
 road. The subgrade should be left flat, or nearly so. 
 
 The clay and sand are mixed by ploughing; the sand is spread 
 on the ploughed clay or vice versa, and the surface is harrowed, 
 shaped and sometimes rolled with a light roller. The mixture 
 should be 5 or 6 inches thick at the sides and 7 or 8 inches at the 
 center. 
 
 The sand-clay road is nut durable nor very satisfactory for 
 a town or village, and can only be considered as a temporary 
 expedient. The hauling incidental to the construction of the 
 utilities and houses is heavy enough to necessitate the. entire 
 
 9
 
 130 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 rebuilding of such a road surface, and hence it is not to be recom- 
 mended except under unusual conditions. 
 
 Gravel Roads. — The gravel road is low in cost and may. fre- 
 quently be recommended for minor residential streets as best 
 suiting all conditions where first cost is a predominating factor. 
 Gravel is locally obtainable in many places; is cheap; and by 
 proper proportioning may be made fairly satisf atory as a surfacing 
 material. Beach, lake or river gravel is not suitable for this pur- 
 pose, due to its smooth surfaces and lack of binding material. 
 Unscreened bank gravel is often used, but this should only be 
 done when approved by a competent highway engineer. 
 
 In constructing a gravel street surface the subgrade should be 
 prepared, as for other types, by removing all soft or vegetable 
 material, and by thorough rolling. Close attention should be 
 paid to the drainage of the subsoil and to the removal of surface 
 water. The gravel is then spread on the street, care being taken 
 to spread it evenly. Stone larger than 1^ in. should not be used. 
 A crown of % in. per foot is ordinarily used, though this is 
 sometimes decreased somewhat. The material is then wetted 
 and rolled until thoroughly compacted. 
 
 This type of pavement is not suitable for any considerable 
 amount of motor traffic. When this does not occur it can be 
 maintained quite cheaply, but this requirement rules it out for 
 all except the less important residential streets. 
 
 Miscellaneous Materials. — In various sections of the country 
 other natural materials have been used to considerable extent 
 and with more or less success. Among these may be mentioned 
 chert, beach shells and shale. These as a rule have been em- 
 ployed more extensively on country roads than on town or city 
 streets, and are in fact better adapted to such use. 
 
 Prepared Material. — Water-bound Macadam. — Water-bound 
 macadam is similar to gravel surfacing, but constructed with 
 crushed stone of suitable sizes in place of gravel. It is not a 
 durable type where subjected to a considerable amount of motor 
 traffic, as the fast moving wheels suck the fine binding material 
 from between the stones and cause the pavement to ravel and 
 disintegrate. It may be used for minor residential streets, 
 where such traffic is light, but under any other conditions the 
 cost of maintenance is excessive, and the annual cost per square 
 yard is much higher than for more durable types of pavement. 
 
 In laying water-bound macadam the interstices are filled with
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 131 
 
 small particles and with stone dust, sprinkled and rolled until 
 firm and hard. It is ordinarily constructed in two layers. The 
 lower layer is of larger stone, and of a thickness of from 4 to 8 
 in. depending upon the subsoil and the amount and character 
 of the traffic. The upper course is usually about 3 in. thick. 
 The. size of the crushed stone may range from l}i to 3 in., ac- 
 cording to the quality and character of the stone, and the type 
 and amount of traffic. In the selection of the broken stone or 
 slag for the upper course, toughness, resistance to abrasion, 
 shape, cementing quality, and cleanliness should be considered. 
 Laboratory tests to determine these qualities should be made on 
 a stone whose characteristics are not known. 
 
 A crown of % or % in. per foot is used. On steep grades the 
 greater crown is recommended, in order that water may be car- 
 ried to the gutters quickly and not run down the street on the 
 macadam surface, causing the binding material to wash out and 
 the surface to disintegrate. Although sometimes used, it is 
 not desirable that this type be employed on grades greater than 
 5 per cent., because of this tendency. 
 
 A surface treatment of light refined tar or asphaltic oil is of 
 value in tending to prevent the pavement from ravelling. The 
 oil should be applied by a pressure sprinkler, and then covered 
 with sharp coarse sand. 
 
 Macadam with Tar or Asphaltic Surface.— This type of surface 
 on water-bound macadam makes it better able to withstand the 
 effects of rapid motor vehicles. It is rather slippery, and should 
 not be used on grades above 4 per cent It also tends to creep, 
 forming ridges across the roadway, unless very carefully con- 
 structed under competent control. 
 
 In order to apply a surface of this kind, the roadway must be 
 swept clean, in order to remove all the surface dirt and the stone 
 dust filler, to a depth of K to l A inch below the top of the large 
 stone fragments. On this cleaned surface, a heavy refined tar 
 or an asphaltic residuum is spread hot, and the roadway is then 
 covered with a layer of stone screenings, and thoroughly rolled. 
 
 Bituminous Macadam.— Thin type has a wearing course of 
 macadam with the interstices of the stone filled with a bitumin- 
 ous binder. It is usually constructed on a broken stone base, 
 prepared in the same manner as the lower course of water-bound 
 macadam. Pavements of this class have also been constructed 
 having both courses bound with a bituminous filler. The qualit les
 
 132 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 of the stone for the wearing course should be considered as for 
 water-bound macadam, except for cementing power. The stone 
 should also have a rough surface, so that the bituminous material 
 will adhere to it. The larger stone fragments should be 1 to 2^ 
 inches in size, depending on the depth of the course. This is 
 spread and rolled. Then a heavy grade of refined tar, bitumin- 
 ous residuum, or fluxed asphalt is poured hot into the voids, so 
 that each stone is cqvered with a thin layer of bituminous ma- 
 terial. Care should be taken that an excessive amount is not 
 used, as this causes the surface to creep, forming waves which 
 are extremely unpleasant to ride over. 
 
 A laj r er of ^ inch stone or dustless screenings, is spread over 
 the surface, and broomed and rolled until the voids are filled. 
 A thick coat of bituminous material is then usually applied, and 
 a thin layer of sand or fine screenings is then scattered on this. 
 The depth of the top course is usually 2}^ to 3 inches. The 
 crown should be from }>■£ in. to \^ in. per ft. 
 
 Bituminous macadam does not wash, is comparatively dustless, 
 and is fairly easy to maintain. It makes a very comfortable 
 riding road for fast vehicles, and if a flush coat is not used it is 
 not slippery. It is not durable enough for heavy traffic, but 
 stands up well under moderate loads. 
 
 Bituminous Concrete. — This type of pavement is composed of 
 a mixture of broken stone, trap rock, gravel, gneiss, or slag ag- 
 gregate and a bituminous cement, laid as a wearing course over 
 a base of water bound or bituminous macadam or cement con- 
 crete. The mixture is prepared in specially designed equipment 
 and mixed after heating the bitumen to the proper temperature, 
 and preferably after heating the aggregate. 
 
 There are three distinct classes of bituminous concrete pave- 
 ments in use today, which may be briefly described as follows: 
 
 First. — A bitiminous concrete pavement, having a mineral aggregate 
 varying in size from about Y± in. to \ l /i in., or as the material is re- 
 ceived from the crushing plant after screening out larger sizes. 
 
 Second. — A bituminous concrete pavement having a mineral aggre- 
 gate similar to the first class but with the addition of sand, stone screen- 
 ings or similar material. 
 
 Third. — A bituminous concrete pavement having a definite mechani- 
 cally graded aggregate of broken stone, slag, etc., with or without sand 
 or other fine inert material. The sizes of mineral aggregate in this 
 class vary by definite percentage from dust to about 1 in.
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 133 
 
 The first class represents perhaps the most common form of 
 this type of pavement in use and requires somewhat less skill in 
 preparation to get satisfactory results than do either of the other 
 two. The second class is harder to control in securing uniform 
 results and therefore is not so extensively used. The third class 
 has found extensive and satisfactory use and includes several 
 kinds of patented pavements. The scientific grading of 
 mineral aggregate as called for in this class, produces a pavement 
 of greater density and more uniform quality than the other two. 
 
 To secure the best results, the bituminous materials must be 
 carefully selected in the light of past experience, and used under 
 laboratory control, the material used generally being asphalt 
 cements or refined tars. This phase of the subject is highly 
 technical, and will not now be expanded. The materials for 
 bituminous concrete paving may be mixed by hand, but it is 
 better to use machine heating and mixing methods, as a more 
 uniform product is obtained. It is impracticable to lay this 
 surfacing in wet or cold weather. 
 
 After the material is placed on the road it is rolled, while still 
 warm and pliable, to the desired thickness, usually 2 or 2}^ 
 inches. Rolling should begin at the edges and continue toward 
 the center, and should be done with a 10-ton tandem roller. 
 When the roller makes no ridges on the concrete, a seal coat of 
 bituminous cement is usually applied to the surface, in quanti- 
 ties of }-2 to 1 gallon per square yard, and the surface is then 
 covered with stone chips and again rolled. 
 
 Bituminous concrete on a cement concrete base makes an 
 excellent pavement. It is smooth, attractive in appearance, 
 and when properly built is fairly easy to maintain. It is not 
 so slipppery as sheet asphalt, which it resembles in many of its 
 characteristics. It is comparatively high in first cost, which 
 often prevents its use in industrial developments, and is not suit- 
 able for extremely heavy traffic, but under the usual traffic of resi- 
 dential streets stands up well. 
 
 It is often constructed on a base of macadam or bituminous 
 concrete differently proportioned, but the results are not quite 
 as satisfactory, and the annual maintenance cost per square yard 
 is greater, as the foundation must be renewed from time to time. 
 
 Cement Concrete. — Cement concrete pavements have been 
 rapidly coming into favor in the last few years, and at the pres- 
 ent time large quantities of this type are being constructed.
 
 134 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 From past records, it has been evident that cheap pavements are 
 much too expensive to maintain on streets carrying any consider- 
 able amount of traffic, and the concrete pavement, probably 
 more nearly than any other, represents the mean between maca- 
 dam surfacing with high maintenance costs, and the expensive 
 block pavements, and sheet surfacing over heavy foundations. 
 
 Concrete pavements may be made in either one or two courses, 
 but the present tendency is to use the former. In two course 
 work, the bottom course usually has an aggregate of a larger size 
 and is sometimes of a leaner mixture. In this method of con- 
 struction there is some danger of the upper course separating 
 from the lower, with consequent disintegration. Concrete pave- 
 ments of the one course type are usually built from 5 to 8 inches 
 thick, common practice being to make them 6 in. thick at the 
 outside and 8 in. thick at the center of the road. 
 
 Concrete is usually mixed in the proportion of one part Port- 
 land cement to two parts sand and three parts crushed stone or 
 gravel. It should be emphasized that in the construction of 
 cement concrete pavements the selection of only the best of 
 aggregates is of prime importance. In order to wear uniformly 
 the mixture must be as dense and strong as possible and this 
 means that only good clean material, showing high abrasion test 
 and graded in sizes, must be secured. Crushed trap-rock, granite 
 or hard limestone are better than gravel for this purpose. The 
 cement should be subjected to laboratory tests to insure best 
 quality. 
 
 After grading and compacting the subgrade, it is placed 
 on the road, where it is spread to the required depth and 
 lightly tamped at the same time. After the concrete has started 
 to set, it is finished either by hand, by the use of a roller and belt, 
 or by a tamping and finishing machine. The use of a finishing 
 machine is desirable, but excellent pavements may be constructed 
 by the roller and belt method. Hand finishing by floats is not 
 quite so satisfactory, as slight depressions in the pavements are 
 unavoidable when this method of construction is used. 
 
 In city and town work the curb is often poured integral with 
 the pavement itself. This is considerably cheaper than using 
 a stone curb, as well as presenting a better appearance. The 
 crown of a concrete pavement should preferably not exceed 3^ 
 in. to the foot, and may be as little as 3^6 m « to the ft. 
 
 Vertical joints to take care of temperature changes are ordi-
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 
 
 135 
 
 narily placed from 30 to 50 ft. apart, depending on climatic 
 conditions. These joints should be about ^ in. wide and filled 
 with a bituminous compound. There seems, however, to be 
 
 4*wp.* ^IjffiJ*"" 2 
 
 some tendency, away from using such joints, except where it is 
 necessary to stop the work for a time, and at the end of a day's 
 
 run. 
 
 Concrete pavements are constructed both with and wkhout
 
 136 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 steel reinforcement. In climates having considerable range of 
 temperature, or where the subgrade conditions are not the best, 
 it is commonly used. The weight and amount of the reinforce- 
 ment is a matter for careful engineering study. This is usually 
 in the form of woven wire or expanded metal and is placed 
 near the center of the slab. 
 
 Details and typical cross-sections of plain and reinforced 
 concrete pavement, constructed in the Loveland Farms Devel- 
 opment, are shown in Fig. 18. A somewhat different design of 
 cross-section and curb, is shown in Fig. 19, giving the details 
 
 7-0- * . 
 
 ^..'stinc 
 CATCH BASIHS Cinders 
 
 „H-- » -, J SECTION AT txiitina' r 
 ;«TW-3Tile r ATru racunc "JL"?'^-~?Jti/eDram 
 
 lf'-0^4'-O l ^--- 7'-0''---^'-0$-----W l -o"----^-^rr-IO L 
 
 k— s'-o-—- >| __ 2 ' ' 
 
 tfV./?5amf«ry--.J ) 
 Sewer ™ 
 
 5 L 0"or, 
 
 Typical section between"™" 7 ," p™ --9-0-— m 
 
 STREET INTERSECTIONS f'Oastiain St 6 " t 
 5J3 FT.STREET-Looking North 
 
 60'-0"- 
 
 6 Water Mam 
 
 .l2'-o'l-—->\2'-V*r -IO L 0--->f- -y-IQ'-O '--■ ->j?-^<- -, 12 '-0 - 
 
 ?f-4'-0" *< 
 
 X^TT/leWa/'n- 
 
 -,4'-6"- 
 
 foisting 
 Cinders 
 
 j-'Tik-m'- k * : 
 
 'H/affr Matin 
 
 MKtmsas'irSfs.' 60 FT.STREET-Look.ng North or West *""^ ) 8 % z? '>jt t ,rmPra;n 
 
 7*| *"**"*■ 
 
 ■>t^^*l .-Stone Slab Sidewalk 
 
 i 
 
 (K 'J 'Gas flam TYPICAL SECTION BETWEEtf ,„ „ />0 . LJ 
 
 k— -$'<?-— ->F^V/'5ff/7/f«ryJ^er STREET INTERSECTIONS 6 M»*"~"; in r\<~—3'-o''-—4 
 
 .12 or 
 24" 
 
 u 14-0- 
 
 ^ Y-4'-0^- — S'-t?"-—^— ■?'<??- 
 
 3'TilePramJl c F rTION AT fir/i: 
 
 SECTION AT 
 SIDEWALK CROSSING 
 
 '~3"TilePrain 
 
 Fig. 19. — Details of street improvement and sub-structure location; Lorain 
 Project of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. 
 
 of the pavements laid in the Lorain Project of the Emergency 
 Fleet Corporation. In this latter case provision is made for 
 later widening of the pavement and for future surfacing with 
 sheet asphalt. 
 
 Concrete pavements are durable under heavy traffic and give 
 a smooth, even surface which offers small resistance to traffic. 
 The first cost is not high and the cost of maintenance is low if well 
 designed and constructed. Concrete is easy to clean and is 
 practically dustless. A disadvantage of concrete is that it 
 cannot readily be cut to obtain access to subsurface structures.
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 
 
 137 
 
 Sheet Asphalt. — Sheet asphalt pavements have a wearing 
 surface of asphalt cement combined with an inert aggregate of 
 graded sand and filler, laid upon a foundation which is 
 usually cement concrete, although bituminous concrete, old 
 macadam, brick or stone block are sometimes used. The 
 thickness of this wearing surface is usually from 1% in. to 2}^ in. 
 depending upon amount of traffic to be carried. 
 
 The pavement is ordinarily built in two courses. The first 
 course, called the binder course, is of asphalt and graded crushed 
 stone, and varies in thickness from 1 in. to l}^ in. The aggre- 
 gate is heated and then mixed in a rotary mixer, with a minimum 
 
 Fig. 20. — A suggested design for the intersection of a service road, or alley, 
 with a street; the enlargement of the alley pavement at the intersection, and the 
 flush sidewalk crossing are desirable features. 
 
 quantity, about 6 per cent., of refined asphalt. It is then spread 
 on the foundation with shovels or rakes and rolled with a 5 to 7 
 ton roller. Sometimes the binder course is replaced by a paint 
 coat, consisting of asphalt dissolved in naphtha, which is applied 
 to the concrete foundation. The wearing course is placed 
 directly on the binder or paint coat. 
 
 The aggregate of the wearing course consists of carefully 
 graded particles of sand, ranging from the size of dust grains to 
 about % in. in size. The sand constitutes nearly 80 per cent, 
 of the surface mixture, and takes nearly all of the wear of the 
 traffic. It should therefore be hard, clean, moderately sharp, and 
 have a suitable surface for the asphalt to adhere to. It should be
 
 138 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 free from organic matter, and should pack together well when 
 dry. 
 
 With the sand there should be used a filler of very fine material, 
 such as powdered limestone or Portland cement. This should 
 be fine enough to pass a 200 mesh screen, in order to properly fill 
 the voids in the sand. After mixing the sand and filler, the 
 material should be heated to about 350°F. and then mixed with 
 asphalt cement heated to about 300°F. It is then carefully 
 spread on the binder course with hot rakes, taking care to loosen 
 the material and to keep it uniform in character. It is then 
 rolled, sprinkled with stone dust or Portland cement, and re-rolled. 
 
 Asphalt is smooth, dustless, almost noiseless, and is easily 
 cleaned. It offers little resistance to traffic, is easily repaired, 
 and is well adapted to residence streets and to business streets 
 not carrying any considerable amount of heavy slow moving 
 traffic. It is not suitable for streets which do not have a fairly 
 uniform volume of travel, as it develops cracks if not ironed out 
 by traffic. Concrete or brick gutters should always be used with 
 sheet asphalt pavements, as asphalt subjected to continual mois- 
 ture has a tendency to disintegrate. 
 
 It is not suitable for heavy grades on account of its smoothness. 
 It is desirable to limit its use to grades of 5 per cent, or less, 
 and on heavy traffic streets 4 per cent, is a desirable maximum. 
 Sheet asphalt has not sufficient strength or stability to bridge 
 over soft spots, hence the foundation must be rigid. Around car 
 tracks it must be protected, or the constant jarring will cause 
 it to break up. The cost of sheet asphalt pavements is about 
 the same as bituminous concrete and not as high as block 
 pavements. 
 
 Brick PaucmojJLs- — Modern brick pavements are usually built 
 on a foundation of Portland cement concrete. They are oc- 
 casionally laid directly on the subgrade, or on a foundation of 
 broken stone or slag macadam, but ordinarily this is not to be 
 recommended, as serious settlement is almost sure to take place 
 and maintenance is excessively high. 
 
 There are three types of brick pavement laid on a concrete 
 base, namely, the sand cushion, semi-monolithic and monolithic 
 types. These differ only in the method of joining the brick sur- 
 facing to the concrete base. 
 
 The sand cushion brick pavement is constructed by spreading 
 a layer of clean, coarse sand, about 1 in. thick, upon the concrete
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 139 
 
 base, and laying the brick directly on this sand cushion, on edge 
 and at right angles to the line of the street. After each course 
 is laid, the bricks are driven together before the next course is 
 started. The joints in the brick may be filled, either with 
 Portland cement grout or with a bituminous filler. On hillside 
 work, the bituminous filler is preferred, as it offers a better foot- 
 hold for horses. Where grades are low, the Portland cement 
 grout is ordinarily to be preferred. 
 
 If a bituminous filler is used, the material, usually either refined 
 asphalt or tar, is heated to the required temperature and poured 
 into the joints by means of a special pouring can. This is best 
 done on a warm day, and the brick must be perfectly dry, so as to 
 allow the bitumen to adhere to them. 
 
 The cement grout filler should be very carefully mixed in the 
 proportion of one part cement to one part clean sand, and should 
 be kept continually in agitation until swept on the pavement. Suf- 
 ficient water should be used to make the grout the consistency of 
 pea soup. To avoid thickening of the grout, the surface ahead 
 of the sweeper should be well sprinkled. The material is then 
 poured on the pavement and thoroughly swept into the joints 
 with stiff brooms. Care should be taken that it is not swept too 
 far, as segregation of the sand and cement will then take place. 
 After initial set of the grout has taken place, a layer of sand about 
 y 2 in. deep should be spread on the surface which should be 
 sprinkled frequently for about ten days. 
 
 In the semi-monolithic type of construction, the sand cushion 
 is replaced by a dry mixture of one part cement to three or four 
 parts sand. This is apread over the surface of the concrete 
 base to a depth of Y 2 in. and the brick laid, lightly sprinkled, 
 rolled and grouted as before. 
 
 The monolithic type of brick pavement is built by placing the 
 brick directly on the concrete foundation before the concrete 
 has had time to set. It is then rolled and grouted as soon as 
 possible. Where the brick are grouted in place expansion joints 
 of bituminous material extending through the base are placed 
 against each curb, in order to take care of expansion and 
 contraction due to temperature changes. They are also some- 
 times provided across the pavement at intervals of 30 to 50 feet, 
 but the tendency is toward eliminating these. 
 
 The monolithic and semi-monolithic types are tending to 
 displace the sand cushion method of construction, which has not
 
 140 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 stood up as well under traffic. The sand alone is not sufficiently- 
 stable to remain in the same position. The cement mixed with 
 the sand in the semi-monolithic type overcomes this tendency, 
 and a very satisfactory and durable pavement is obtained in this 
 way. The monolithic type of construction is frequently used 
 for country roads and even for streets in a town or city, and has 
 given entire satisfaction. A monolithic brick pavement does not 
 require as thick a foundation of concerto as the other two types, 
 as the brick themselves add materially to the beam strength of 
 the structure. 
 
 The paving brick now in general use are vitrified shale brick, 
 vitrified fire-clay brick and slag, or scoria blocks. Of these the 
 shale brick is most extensively used. They are made of the 
 proper mixture of shale and clay, ground and mixed carefully. 
 Water is added to bring the mixture to the desired consistency, 
 when it is pressed through dies and cut to form the blocks. These 
 blocks are heated in kilns, almost to the point of vitrification and 
 then gradually cooled. The size of shale brick is usually S}^ X 
 4 X 83^ in. Slag or scoria blocks are made from iron furnace 
 slag, and, while being used in England, only a limited use has 
 been made of these in this country. Hillside brick having one 
 edge beveled are used on steep grades. 
 
 The use of brick pavement has increased considerably in the 
 last decade, and it is now extensively used on city streets and 
 country roads. The first cost is relatively high, but the cost of 
 maintenance is low. It offers a low resistance to traffic, is sani- 
 tary and easily cleaned. It presents a smooth surface, is dustless 
 and gives an attractive appearance. Brick pavement is rather 
 hard on horses, however, and is noisy, in this respect being second 
 only to stone block. In industrial communities, its high initial 
 cost will tend to prevent its use except on hillsides or on heavily 
 traveled streets. 
 
 Stone and Wood Block. — Stone and wood block pavements are 
 used in cities where the traffic is extremely heavy. But in in- 
 dustrial towns there will seldom be any need for them, except 
 possibly near the manufacturing plant itself. Block pave- 
 ments should be laid on a concrete base. 
 
 The wood blocks in most common use are of long leaf yellow 
 pine, impregnated with from 16 to 20 pounds of coal tar paving 
 oil or coal tar distillate oil per cubic foot of block. The blocks 
 may be either 3 or 4 in. in depth and are laid with tie grain
 
 STREETS AND PA VEMENTS 141 
 
 vertical. The blocks may be laid on a cement sand cushion, as 
 in the semi-monolithic brick pavement with a sand cushion, or 
 the concrete base may be painted with tar or asphalt and the 
 blocks laid directly on it. The blocks may be grouted in place 
 with a Portland cement grout or bonded with pitch or tar thor- 
 oughly mopped into the joints. 
 
 Wood block properly laid gives a smooth and durable surface. 
 This type of surfacing is expensive, and if not kept perfectly clean 
 is extremely slippery when wet. Trouble is sometimes ex- 
 perienced during the first year or two with the blocks "bleeding" 
 in warm weather, covering the pavement with a sticky coat of 
 tarry material. 
 
 Stone blocks may be laid either on a sand or dry mortar 
 cushion, or directly on the green concrete, as described under 
 Brick Pavements. The method of construction is similar to 
 that heretofore described. Stone for good paving block should 
 be of even texture, hard, durable and tough. It should break 
 smoothly, so that good joints may be obtained, and should wear 
 evenly, so that the road may retain a good surface. It should not 
 wear slippery, nor break off at the corners. The best stone 
 for the purpose are granite and sandstone. Limestone has been 
 sometimes used, and certain grades are satisfactory, but fre- 
 quently it is too soft and tends to cobble. 
 
 The grouted block stone pavement is the type recommended 
 for most requirements, except on heavy grades; in this type 
 the joints are filled and the surface covered, with Portland 
 cement grout, giving a smooth, and, if properly proportioned 
 and applied, a good wearing surface. 
 
 Stone block pavements are expensive and comparatively 
 noisy. They are not as smooth as most modern types of pave- 
 ment, and do not present an attractive appearance. They are, 
 however, durable and should be used on streets which are re- 
 quired to carry a large amount of very heavy hauling and may 
 be used on steep grades. 
 
 Miscellaneous Types. — In addition to the types of pavement 
 which have been described are others which are in more or less 
 use in various localities. Among these may be mentioned rock 
 asphalt, asphalt blocks, cobblestone, burnt clay and straw. 
 The latter two are of very minor importance and are still in use 
 only in scattered sections. 
 
 Rock asphalt pavements differ from sheet asphalt pavements
 
 142 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 in that the mineral aggregate has been impregnated by nature 
 with a bituminous cementing material, the mineral aggregate 
 consisting of sand or limestone. This pavement has found only 
 a limited use in this country and cannot compete in cost with 
 sheet asphalt if laid on a concrete foundation. The natural 
 material, in the form of soft rock is run through a crusher in order 
 to pulverize it and is then shipped in open cars to the point of use. 
 In the earlier pavements of this type constructed in America 
 the principal objection found was that the percentage of bitumen 
 was not uniform, and soft and hard crumbly spots would soon 
 appear in the surface of the pavement, and its use was practically 
 discontinued in most sections. Recently, in the south eastern 
 states, this material has again been put on the market. It is 
 claimed that the trouble formerly experienced in bitumen content 
 is being corrected and the percentage made constant by analsyis 
 and tests, and by re-mixing and proportioning the pulverized 
 material. One of the most important advantages claimed for 
 this material is that it does not have to be heated before laying, 
 as do all other bituminous pavements, and therefore can be laid 
 in isolated communities where an expensive heating plant is 
 not available. 
 
 Asphalt blocks consist of blocks made by compressing under 
 heavy stress a mixture of asphaltic cement and fine mineral 
 aggregate. The mixture is practically the same as that used for 
 bituminous concrete pavements. The blocks usually are about 
 5 in. by 12 in. in surface dimension and 2 to 3 in. in depth, and 
 are laid on a macadam or cement concrete foundation and a 
 fresh mortar bed }<2 m - thick. The surface is then swept with 
 fine sand to thoroughly fill the joints. This type of pavement 
 has about the same appearance and service characteristics as 
 a bituminous concrete pavement, and is easy to lay, but has not 
 been found satisfactory on account of its poor wearing quality 
 and difficulty of making repairs. 
 
 Cobblestone pavements are in use in many places, although 
 few new pavements of this type are being built. They are con- 
 structed of selected natural hard sandstone of 4 to 8 in. diameter 
 and laid on a prepared subgrade and cushion of sand. Care is 
 necessary to wedge the stones together by use of smaller stones 
 and a sand or gravel filler. 
 
 The actual construction of this type of pavement is similar 
 to sheet asphalt except that the rolling of the surface must be
 
 STREETS AND PA VEMENTS 143 
 
 continued for a short period each day for several days. While 
 in some cases the pavement is laid on a loose stone base, this 
 practice is to be condemned and it is recommended that a cement 
 concrete base be used wherever rock asphalt is considered for a 
 wearing surface. The final appearance of a rock asphalt pave- 
 ment is very similar to sheet asphalt and laid under similar con- 
 ditions and uniformity of bitumen, should give service equally 
 as good. 
 
 ACCESSORY STRUCTURES 
 
 Sidewalks. — The same qualities which are required in a good 
 pavement are also necessary for a good sidewalk. It should be 
 smooth, but not slippery, afford, a good foothold at all times, 
 be durable, non-absorptive, clean, wear uniformly and be low in 
 first cost and in maintenance. 
 
 Widths- and Slopes.— The width of the sidewalk should be de- 
 termined in the same way as the width of a street and should not 
 be considered merely as a function of the street width, as is 
 quite commonly done. For example, in wholesale districts little 
 sidewalk space is ordinarily required, although the streets need 
 to be very wide. On residential streets, the walk is usually 
 kept 1 or 2 ft. from the property line, and a width not greater 
 than 5 ft. is ordinarily sufficient. On minor residential streets, 
 4 feet is often quite enough. Usually, the whole space between 
 the curb and the property line in residential districts is not 
 paved, part of it being reserved for a planting strips. 
 
 In order to shed ^ater quickly, walks should be given a slope 
 of K to X A in. per foot towards the roadway. It is very undesira- 
 able to slope the sidewalk toward the abutting property. Slopes 
 above }£ in. are likely to be slippery and should not be used ordi- 
 narily; but slopes as great as % in. per foot may be used for 
 gravel and broken stone. A slope of >^ in. to the foot is recom- 
 mended for concrete and flagstone sidwalk paving. 
 
 Subgrade.— The subgrade should be prepared by removing 
 perishable and spongy material, and by rolling and thoroughly 
 compacting fills. Fills should be made in layers of about 6 
 inches, and should extend at least one foot beyond the edge of the 
 pavement, in order to keep the foundation from being under- 
 mined by washing. 
 
 In the central and northern sections of this country, except 
 when the subsoil is porous and conducts water readily, a porous
 
 144 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 foundation of cinders, gravel, crushed stone, or slag should be 
 laid under the paved sidewalk. This porous base should be 
 connected to a drain, so that water which reaches it will be lead 
 away. This may be done by building blind drains from the side- 
 walk to the underdrain to the curb. A thickness of 4 to 6 in. for 
 the foundation is used, depending upon soil condition and tem- 
 perature. For typical design see Fig. 18. 
 
 Concrete Walks. — Cement concrete is the most commonly used 
 material for sidewalks, as it closely approaches the ideal. The 
 first cost is moderately low, it can be made smooth but not 
 slippery, and is durable, clean and attractive. The concrete 
 pavement is laid directly on the prepared sub-base; it may be 
 one or two courses. In the two-course method, a layer of con- 
 crete 3 to 4 in. thick is first placed. This concrete is of a mix, 
 varying from 1:3^:7 to 1:2:4, a common proportion being 
 one part cement, two and one-half parts sand and five parts 
 crushed stone or gravel. After placing it should be thoroughly 
 tamped and the top course placed immediately. 
 
 The top course is made of a rich mixture, with stone or gravel 
 screenings for the coarse aggregate. A proportion commonly 
 used is one part cement, one part sand, and one and a half parts 
 stone screenings. Often a mixture of one part cement and two 
 parts coarse sand is used with equally satisfactory results. The 
 thickness of this course should be from 1 to 1^ in. The surface 
 is then "floated "with a wood float, leaving it just rough enough 
 to afford a good foothold, and is divided into squares. These 
 squares may vary in size from 3 ft. X 3 ft. to 6 ft. X 6 ft., but 
 should never exceed 36 sq. ft. in area. Care should be taken 
 that the joints extend entirely through the pavement. 
 
 In the one-course method a 1 :2 :4 mix is used, the entire thick- 
 ness of pavement being laid at once. This thickness may vary 
 from 4 to 6 in., 5 in. being a common thickness. It is then 
 finished and jointed as described above. One course construc- 
 tion is recommended, as it is less expensive, easier to lay, and 
 not so liable to disintegrate as two-course work; besides, it is 
 not so likely to be slippery, a common defect of two-course 
 walks. 
 
 Where the walk meets the curb at street intersections expan- 
 sion joints filled with a bituminous filler should be employed. 
 Similar joints should be provided at intervals of 50 to 100 ft. 
 along the walk. Coloring matter or lampblack is sometimes
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 145 
 
 added to the surface to take off the glare of natural concrete. 
 Two pounds of lampblack to a barrel of cement will give the pave- 
 ment a light slate color, and 10 pounds a dark bluish slate. 
 
 A concrete walk constructed as outlined above will prove 
 entirely satisfactory. Failures of concrete walks are usually 
 due to slumping of materials, poor workmanship, or inadequate 
 provision for contraction and expansion and drainage. 
 
 Brick Walks. — Brick walks are laid in some localities, dark red 
 building brick being ordinarily used. The foundation is prepared 
 in the same manner as for concrete walks. About 2 in. of 
 clean sand is spread on the base, and the brick laid on side either 
 at right angles to the line of the walk or in a herringbone pattern. 
 
 The brick are then sprinkled with sand and then tamped under 
 a plank, or with a broad-surfaced wooden rammer. Sand is 
 then swept into the joints. Brick sidewalks have a tendency to 
 become uneven, and are more difficult to keep clean than cement 
 concrete. 
 
 Miscellaneous Types. — Slabs of granite or sandstone are still 
 occasionally used in some localities, but their use is being rapidly 
 superseded by concrete. They are expensive, unless local 
 material is available, and it is difficult to prevent unevenness 
 at the joints, by settlement. They also frequently spall and 
 break. 
 
 In New England tar concrete is quite extensively used. This 
 type of walk is built in two courses. The lower course consists 
 of about 4 in. of coarse gravel, thoroughly coated with tar. 
 The wearing course is of coarse sand and tar, mixed hot, laid 
 about 1 in. thick. Each course is tamped and rolled as soon 
 as laid. The walk is covered with a thin layer of sand as soon 
 as completed. These walks are not very satisfactory and are 
 being replaced today by cement concrete. 
 
 A type of walk known as asphalt mastic has been used in 
 France and to some extent in certain localities in this country. 
 A mastic is prepared from a combination of rock asphalt and a 
 refined asphalt, fluxed with an asphaltic base petroleum. Suffici- 
 ent fluxed asphalt is mixed with the ground rock asphalt to give 
 about 20 per cent, of bitumen, and a layer'of this mixture about 
 1 in. thick is placed on a 4 to 6-in. concrete base. A small amount 
 of fine gravel or coarse sand is then rolled into the surface of the 
 warm material. This form of walk has been used quite exten- 
 sively in at least one large American city, for walks over side- 
 
 10
 
 Y* 
 
 146 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 walk basements, on bridges and in parks and apparently has 
 given very good results. The life of the wearing surface is not 
 as great as cement concrete, but is easier to walk on and the 
 cost, including base, in the instance cited was about the same as 
 that of cement concrete. 
 
 Sheet asphalt surface, similar in many respects to sheet asphalt 
 paving has been used in parks and residential districts but is not 
 as durable as the mastic or other types already mentioned. 
 
 Bituminous macadam walks constructed similar to bituminous 
 macadam pavements, although much thinner have been used in 
 a few cases but these are not very satisfactory due to uneven 
 wear and settlement. 
 
 Asphalt tile walks, consisting of tiles or blocks of compressed 
 asphalt and mineral aggregate, laid with or without a concrete 
 base, have been used in New York and Boston parks and else- 
 where but have not found general use in smaller towns and cities. 
 
 Where it is necessary to keep costs down to the lowest possible 
 point, cinder, gravel or slag walks may at times be built. They 
 are cheap and give fairly satisfactory results, and later on may 
 serve as the foundation of a permanent pavement. The prin- 
 cipal objections are difficulty in cleaning and in snow and ice 
 removal. 
 
 Clean, coarse cinders should be used. They should be placed 
 in layers, wetted and tamped. The total thickness may vary from 
 6 £o ^2sin., depending on the character of the subsoil. 
 ' Curbs and Gutters. — Curbs are built to form the backs of 
 gutters and to protect sidewalks or planting spaces from the 
 encroachment of vehicles. They must be of sufficient strength 
 to resist the overturning thrust of the sidewalk or frost action, 
 and sufficiently strong and tough to withstand the shock and 
 abrasion of steel tires. Curbing is made of cement concrete, 
 granite, limestone or sandstone. Of these, cement concrete is 
 now the most widely used, the materials being universally avail- 
 able, the cost comparatively low, and concrete being easily 
 adaptable to various conditions. 
 
 Stone Curbs. — Stone curbs are usually 4 to 8 in. wide and 12 to 
 20 in. deep. The projection of the curb above the gutter may 
 be from 4 to 8 in., 6 in. being the standard in most places. 
 Shallow stone curbs are usually set in a 6-in. bed of concrete. 
 Deep curbs should be set on broken stone or gravel foundations, 
 unless the subsoil is naturally well drained.
 
 STREETS AND PAVEMENTS 147 
 
 The top and exposed face should be dressed to plane surfaces, 
 and the joints and other faces should be pointed, so as to permit 
 close joints between the individual stones and between the 
 curb and sidewalk pavement or gutter. Stone curbs are ex- 
 pensive, unless local stone of the proper quality is available, 
 and do not give as good appearance as concrete. 
 
 Combined Concrete Curbs and Gutters. — Concrete curbs are 
 usually built in place, using a concrete mixture similar to that 
 used for sidewalks. The practice of surfacing the exposed 
 faces with mortar has been generally used, but to an increas- 
 ing extent, some curbs are now poured in one piece, omitting 
 the mortar surfacing. Steel forms are much better than wood, 
 as they are more economical and give a much better line and 
 surface to the concrete, requiring less finishing. Concrete curbs 
 are usually 5 to 6 in. wide, 18'to 24 in. deep, with joints spaced 
 6 to 12 ft. apart. They are built in the trench on compacted 
 gravel, stone or cinders, or on an underdrain as described in an 
 earlier part of this chapter. 
 
 The combined curb and gutter has come into favor on account 
 of its cheapness and attractive appearance. A typical design 
 of this is shown in Fig. 18. This design gives a pleasing appear- 
 ance, does not cause damage to automobile tires, and actually 
 adds to the effective width of the street, by cutting down the 
 space required for parking, as the motorist is not afraid to drive 
 close to it. 
 
 Gutters. — When the integral concrete curb and gutter is not 
 used, gutters of flag-stones, brick, stone block and concrete are 
 commonly built. Gutters should always be built on a paved 
 street and especially on steep grades or fills where washouts are 
 liable. On paved streets the gutter should have a shallow depth 
 and the cross-section should conform to the finished pavement 
 and the gutter need not be more than 2 ft. wide. On unpaved 
 streets or macadam streets, the gutter should be deeper and 
 wider, as wide as 36 in. having been used, in order that the gutter 
 will carry all the water and thereby prevent washing of the 
 roadway along the sides. 
 
 Flag stone gutters laid in a sand cushion may be the 
 cheapest. Brick gutters may be built in the same way, but they 
 are not entirely satisfactory unless a concrete base is employed. 
 Stone blocks have been frequently used in the past, but all these 
 types are rapidly being superseded by concrete for residential
 
 148 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 developments. Concrete gutters are extensively used where curbs 
 are built of stone or separate concrete section. They are used more 
 extensively than brick on unpaved or macadam streets as they 
 can be more easily shaped to the required section and will not 
 loosen up as quickly as brick when not supported by the pave- 
 ment backing. They are usually about 6 in. thick and built 
 similar to a one course concrete roadway paving. 
 
 In suburban sections, where it is desired to avoid the use 
 of a curb, the type of gutter shown in Fig. 19, has often 
 been used with very satisfactory results, from the standpoints 
 of economy and utility. When a wide planting strip is used, 
 this gutter gives a very pleasing park-like appearance to the 
 street. 
 
 Maintenance and Repairs. — Cleaning. — Street cleaning may 
 be preventive as well as corrective, and the former may well be 
 the more important. Preventive street cleaning may be carried 
 out at small cost by the enforcement of local ordinances for- 
 bidding such things as sweeping of rubbish, paper and the like 
 on the streets; disposal of this material in dumps where it may 
 be scattered by the wind; storing of material on the highway by 
 builders unless properly supervised; and failure to use proper 
 receptacles for ashes, garbage and rubbish. These things are of 
 major importance. The sanitary condition of a community is 
 affected by the cleanliness of the streets, and this item should 
 not be neglected. 
 
 Corrective street cleaning in industrial communities will 
 usually be carried out by one or more men assigned to it, possibly 
 combining this work with other duties. Police officers should 
 be instructed to report promptly any violation of ordinances. 
 When hard surfaced pavements are built, this should be supple- 
 mented by periodical flushings with a hose or power flushing 
 machine. The condition of the pavements and the character of 
 traffic attracted by the streets is also influenced to a marked 
 degree by their cleanliness. 
 
 Repairs. — It cannot be too strongly emphasized that no pave- 
 ment will give satisfactory service unless properly maintained. 
 The amount of maintenance required for the different types of 
 surfacings varies widely, but even for the more permanent types 
 some work is necessary every year if the best results are to be 
 obtained. It is very important also that breaks or holes in
 
 STREETS AND- PAVEMENTS 149 
 
 the pavement should be repaired promptly, otherwise delay 
 will mean multiple expense. 
 
 Expansion joints should be cleaned and refilled, cracks should 
 be filled with bituminous material, holes and depressions should 
 be repaired. It should be noted that holes should never be filled 
 with harder material than that which makes up the rest of the 
 pavement, as the final result of this practice will be two holes 
 instead of one, or a little later, a hump in the pavement. 
 
 In conclusion it is pointed out that as are the streets, so is the 
 town. A poor town never has good streets, and a good town 
 seldom has poor ones.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 Quantity of Water Required — Standards of Quality — 
 Selection of Source of Supply — Purification Systems — 
 Distribution of Water — Piping System — Contract 
 Plans and Specifications — Financial 
 
 Preface. — Water is a prime requisite to existence, — therefore, 
 before the site for a housing development is finally chosen, an 
 adequate supply of pure, potable water should be assured within 
 a reasonable distance of the future community. 
 
 The most important use of a public water supply is that of 
 furnishing water for domestic use, including that used for drink- 
 ing and culinary purposes, for washing, showers, lavatories, and 
 flushing closets. The essential requirements for such a supply 
 are: first, quality which is of fundamental importance; next, 
 adequacy, dependability and reasonableness of cost. 
 
 Second in importance is the use of water for fire extinguish- 
 ment, the chief requisites being quantity, pressure and dependa- 
 bility. The third use is that for public requirements, among 
 which are street cleaning, sewer flushing, street sprinkling and all 
 water used by public institutions. The fourth use is for indus- 
 try. The primary requirements of a water for these purposes 
 are quantity and dependability. 
 
 QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED 
 
 Influences Affecting Consumption. — Metering. — It is probable 
 that the most important factor in determining the consumption 
 is whether the water is sold by measure or otherwise. The gen- 
 eral tendency of metering is to reduce, to a large extent, unneces- 
 sary waste and, therefore, the installation of meters in industrial 
 villages and housing developments is to be strongly recommended. 
 
 The marked reduction in consumption following the installation 
 of meters in various cities is shown in Fig. 21. This relation 
 between metering and consumption is presented in the form of 
 
 150
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 151 
 
 the per cent, that metering in various amounts reduces the use of 
 water. The data are based on records of use in 85 American 
 cities. 
 
 Detection of Leakage a?id Waste. — Another factor, almost as 
 important as metering in its effect on consumption, is the care 
 
 fc 0.80 
 
 ft 
 
 :3 
 75 
 | 
 
 E 0.E.0 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.10 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 60 80 
 
 Percentage of Taps Metered 
 
 Fig. 21. — Effect of metering on the use of water. 
 
 I 'J0 
 
 1908 
 
 Fig. 22. — Effect of summer temperature on the per capita water consumption 
 in thoroughly metered cities; 1908. 
 
 used in the avoidance of leakage and waste. Leaks in mains and 
 services cannot be entirely eliminated. It would be next to 
 impossible to find many of the smaller ones and even if located 
 it would not pay to uncover the pipes and repair them. The
 
 152 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 larger leaks, however, can, by the exercise of care in conducting 
 leakage tests, be located and stopped; thus one of the most 
 important items of waste can be eliminated. 
 
 150 J? 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 -Effect of winter temperature on the per capita water consumption in 
 highly metered cities; 1917-18. 
 
 Milwaukee, in 1916, had reduced leakage by care in detecting 
 and stopping waste to approximately 17 gallons per capita per 
 day; and Cleveland, in 1914, reported also a reduction to about 
 11 gallons per capita. 
 
 |'40 
 
 | 35 
 
 ,5 30 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 .1 15 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 
 Years After Water Wa$ Introduced 
 
 II \l 13 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 -Relation between the age of water works and the daily per capita 
 consumption. 
 
 Other Factors.— The wealth and habits of the people have a 
 more or less indefinite but nevertheless direct bearing on the 
 question of consumption. Climate also has a very considerable 
 influence, especially upon the amount used for lawn and street
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 153 
 
 sprinkling and public purposes and that which is used to prevent 
 freezing. The effect of high and low temperature is shown on 
 Figs. 22 and 23, covering the period of high temperature in 1908 
 and the cold winter of 1917-1918, respectively. 
 
 The age of the water supply and the piping system exerts a 
 considerable influence on consumption. As the consumers be- 
 come more and more accustomed to the comvenience and uses 
 of an abundant supply, they indulge in a more liberal use and 
 often at the same time, in greater wastefulness. Age of street 
 mains and services plays its part in contributing to opportunities 
 for leakage by deterioration at joints, connections and in pipes 
 themselves. The typical effect of age of service on water con- 
 sumption is shown for a large number of towns on Fig. 24 here- 
 with. 
 
 Consumption of Water for Various Purposes. — Domestic Use. — 
 The consumption of water for domestic purposes varies between 
 wide limits, dependent upon the type of town served and upon 
 the class of houses. The average domestic use in various cities 
 is given below, showing the wide variation in quantity of water 
 used. 
 
 Table 15. — Consumption per Capita for Domestic Purposes, as Deter- 
 mined by Meter Measurements 
 
 City 
 
 Consumption 
 
 gallons per 
 
 day 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Boston, Mass. . . 
 Brookline, Mass. 
 Newton, Mass . . . 
 Belmont, Mass . . 
 Maiden, Mass. . . 
 Milton, Mass . . . 
 Watertown, Mas, 
 Fall River, Mass 
 Worcester, Mass 
 Yonkers, N. Y 
 
 16. 
 
 .6-59.0 
 
 Residential 
 
 44.3 
 
 Residential 
 
 26.5 
 
 Residential 
 
 17.7 
 
 Residential 
 
 19.6 
 
 Residential 
 
 16.8 
 
 Residential 
 
 15.3 
 
 Residential 
 
 11.2 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 16.8 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 20.6 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 The variations in domestic consumption corresponding with 
 various types of houses are shown in the records of the Metro- 
 politan Water District of Boston, Mass. 1 given in Table 16. 
 
 Commercial Use. — Under this head, there should be included 
 all uses for mechanical, trade and manufacturing purposes. Large 
 
 1 .11. N. E. \V. \Y. Assoc, Vol. 27, P. 56.
 
 154 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Table 16. — Water Consumption in Dwellings of Different Classes 
 in the Metropolitan Water District Boston, Mass. — 1908 
 
 Kind of houses 
 
 Consumption 
 
 in gallons per 
 
 capita per 
 
 day 
 
 Single (.including some sta- 
 bles and garages) 
 
 2 family 
 
 3 family 
 
 4 family 
 
 5 family 
 
 6 family 
 
 7 family 
 
 8 family 
 
 9 family 
 
 10 family 
 
 11 to 20 family 
 
 21 to 30 family 
 
 Over 30 family 
 
 Combined house and store . 
 
 Total . 
 
 9 
 20 
 25 
 36 
 31 
 
 278 
 86 
 65 
 
 113 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 505 
 
 1,208 
 
 37 
 
 48 
 
 129 
 
 382 
 
 598 
 
 1,032 
 
 1,037 
 
 10,631 
 
 3,700 
 
 3,107 
 
 7,849 
 
 2,199 
 
 1,640 
 
 21,410 
 
 53,799 
 
 140.9 
 37.5 
 61.2 
 29.5 
 76.2 
 52.2 
 35.5 
 28.0 
 27.5 
 50.3 
 35.3 
 44.3 
 25.1 
 29.9 
 
 Average 33 . 
 
 amounts of water are used in office buildings, stores, hotels, 
 factories, elevators and railroads. The use for these purposes 
 varies greatly in different communities. In 1902, it varied from 
 12 to 46 gal. per capita in large American cities. In small 
 housing developments, however, the amount, of water used for 
 such purposes is relatively small and it probably is fair to esti- 
 mate the consumption for commercial purposes at from 5 to 
 20 gal. per capita, depending on local conditions. 
 
 Table 17. — Water Used forPublic Purposes- 
 District in 1902 
 
 -Boston Metropolitan 
 
 Public buildings 
 
 Drinking and ornamental fountains. . 
 
 Street sprinkling 
 
 Flushing pipes and extinguishing tires 
 
 Gallons per 
 
 capita per 
 
 day 
 
 3.8 
 1.0 
 
 2.1 
 0.2 
 
 7.1
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 155 
 
 Public Use. — Water used for schools and other public buildings, 
 street sprinkling, sewer and water main flushing, fire extinguish- 
 ment and other occasional uses comes under this classification. 
 In the Boston Metropolitan Water District, water was used, 
 in 1902, as shown in Table 17. 
 
 It is difficult to make a close estimate of the quantity used for 
 flushing water pipes and sewers and for extinguishing fires. 
 Although large quantities are used occasionally for these purposes, 
 the total quantity consumed during a year is comparatively 
 small. An allowance of 5 to 7 gal. per capita for public use will, 
 in most cases, prove ample. 
 
 Loss and Waste. — The enormous quantities of water used by 
 some of the large cities of the United States, when compared 
 with the actual metered use, indicate that a very large percent- 
 age of the water furnished is lost through leakage or is wasted 
 by the consumer. Even in highly metered communities the 
 percent of water pumped which is not accounted for may easily 
 equal from 30 to 50 per cent, of the total consumption, as is 
 shown in Table 18. 
 
 Table 18. — Use of Water and Percentage Unaccounted for in Well 
 
 Metered Cities 1 
 
 City 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 taps 
 
 metered 
 
 Consumption 
 
 per capita 
 
 gallons 
 
 Per cent, not 
 
 accounted 
 
 for 
 
 Brockton, Mass. . . 
 Cleveland, Ohio . . . 
 Englewoocl, N. J . . 
 Fall River, Mass . . 
 Hackensack, N. J. 
 Lawrence, Mass . . . 
 Ridgefield, N. J... 
 
 Ware, Mass 
 
 Wellesley, Mass . . . 
 West Orange, N. J 
 Yonkers, N. Y . . . . 
 
 100 
 49 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 92 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 34 
 96 
 
 37 
 
 46 
 
 163 
 
 44 
 
 52 
 
 83 
 
 30 
 21 
 52 
 13 
 
 40 
 39 
 18 
 39 
 43 
 20 
 17 
 
 1 1906, J. II. Fuertes; with revisions. 
 
 According to the State Department of Health of Massachu- 
 setts, in 1900, no city of that state, having over 90 per cent, of 
 taps metered, accounts for over 62 per cent, of the water furnished; 
 while one fully metered city finds but 37 per cent, of its supply 
 registered by such devices.
 
 156 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The water lost through waste and leakage may be divided into 
 two general classes: — that lost by leaks in the main pipes and 
 distribution system, and that lost on the premises of the con- 
 sumer through leaks in service pipes and plumbing. The 
 amount of leakage from these sources is dependent upon the care 
 used in laying the pipe and the effort made to locate and repair 
 leaks. All in turn are more or less dependent upon the total 
 length of lines to be maintained. This relation is amply demon- 
 strated by Fig. 25, based upon records of 14 well metered cities. 
 
 Loss from well constructed distribution systems of 2,500 to 
 3,000 gal. per day per mile was deduced by Emil Kuichling. 1 
 It is probable that leakage in a new system will not be materially 
 
 25,000 
 
 » 20,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 c 5,000 
 
 / 
 
 o/ 
 / 
 
 V- 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 y< 
 
 / 
 
 -^~ 
 
 y 
 
 ,s 
 
 / 
 
 100 
 
 ?00 300 400 
 
 Length of Distribution System in Miles 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 Fig. 25. — Leakage and waste of water in thoroughly metered cities. 
 
 less than 3,000 gal. per mile daily, unless special care is used in 
 testing and all defects remedied. In new work, 200 to 250 gal. 
 daily per mile per inch of diameter of pipe probably represents 
 the permissible leakage, and it is likely to run higher. 
 
 Total Consumption— In the case of a new supply, where the 
 immediate installation of meters is not contemplated, a daily 
 quantity of not less than 100 gallons per capita should be pro- 
 vided for, based upon the approximate quantities shown in 
 Table 19. 
 
 i Tians. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 38.
 
 WATER SUPPLY 157 
 
 Table 19. — Average Consumption in Unmetered Cities. 
 
 Types for use 
 
 Gallons per capita per day 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Average 
 
 Domestic . . . 
 Commercial 
 
 Public 
 
 Loss 
 
 Total.. 
 
 30 
 5 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 58 
 
 80 
 30 
 10 
 35 
 
 155 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 Should the supply be metered, the average per capita consump- 
 tion might be reduced to 50 or 75 gal., most of the reduction 
 coining in the domestic and commercial classes. 
 
 Variations in Consumption. — The probable maximum con- 
 sumption which must be provided for depends almost wholly on 
 local conditions. The average variation in use of water, based 
 on records of 67 Massachusetts cities, is shown in Table 20. 
 
 Table 20. — Maximum Water Consumption Based on Average of 67 
 Massachusetts Cities and Towns 1 
 
 Gallons per 
 
 capita per 
 
 day 
 
 Per cent, of 
 yearly 
 average 
 
 Average daily for the year. . . 
 
 Maximum month 
 
 Maximum week 
 
 Maximum daily use of water. 
 
 63 
 
 81 
 
 93 
 
 123 
 
 100 
 128 
 147 
 198 
 
 1 Jl. N.E.W.W. Assoc, Vol. 27, p. 98. 
 
 Although in exceptional cases the maximum daily consumption 
 may equal 300 per cent, of the average, the figures quoted above 
 may be taken as representative of general conditions. The 
 hourly demand rate, however, which may occur twice a day may 
 very likely be as high as 300 per cent, of the average daily. 
 
 STANDARDS OF QUALITY 
 
 General. — Those qualities which distinguish a good "safe" 
 water may be summed up in a negative way as follows: 
 
 First: The water should be free from bacterial contamination, 
 sewage pollution and all other waste products.
 
 158 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Second : It should not contain an excessive amount of mineral 
 matter. 
 
 Third : It should be free from color, odor, taste and suspended 
 matter, and preferably should be delivered at a temperature of 
 not over 60 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Sanitary Quality. — U. S. Treasury Standard. — The standard 
 adopted by the United States Treasury Department, in determin- 
 ing the allowable limits of contamination, are briefly: the 37°C. 
 bacteriological count on nutrient agar at 24 hours, shall not 
 exceed 100 per c.c; and that not more than one out of five 
 10 c.c. samples of the water shall show the presence of Bacillus 
 Coli. 
 
 Classification of Great Lakes Water. — The progress report of 
 the International Joint Commission, covering its investigation 
 of the Pollution of Boundary Waters, contains the sanitary 
 classification given in Table 21. 
 
 Table 21. — Classification of Great Lakes Waters 1 
 
 Classification 
 
 Bacillus Coli 
 
 per 100 cubic 
 
 centimeters 
 
 Total bacteria 
 on agar at 37° 
 
 Centigrade 
 per cubic 
 
 centimeter 
 
 Unpolluted Less than 2 
 
 2 to 10 
 10 to 20 
 20 to 50 
 Over 50 
 
 Slight pollution 
 
 Considerable pollution . 
 
 Serious pollution 
 
 Gross pollution 
 
 Less than 10 
 
 10 to 25 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 50 to 100 
 
 Over 100 
 
 1 Progress Report, International Joint Commission on Pollution of 
 Boundary Waters, June 16, 1914, p. 20. 
 
 General Standard. — The sanitary standard as to B. Coli, as re- 
 quired by the U. S. Treasury Department is extremely severe 
 and is difficult and generally considered impossible of continuous 
 attainment in ordinary water works practice. General practice 
 appears to permit 50 to 75 total bacteria per c.c. at 37°C. and 
 2 to 5 Bacilli Coli per 100 c.c. sample, subject to restriction, 
 however, when considered in conjunction with each other and a 
 knowledge of the condition of the source of supply. 
 
 Physical Quality. — Color. — The allowable concentration of 
 color in a water supply is subject to wide limits in different locali- 
 ties, due to differences in custom and habits. In general, in 
 the East and particularly in New England, whore highly colored
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 159 
 
 waters are common, an amber color of 20 parts per million is not 
 objectionable; while in Central and Western United States, a 
 color of even 10 parts per million would not be tolerated. 
 
 Turbidity. — The reverse is true of turbidity, since in the West, 
 waters of 100 parts per million turbidity are frequently counte- 
 nanced; while in the East, a water with a turbidity of over 20 
 parts per million would not be allowed. However, the tendency 
 in modern water supply practice is everywhere toward a clear, 
 brilliant and sparkling water. 
 
 Odor. — There is universal repugnance against drinking water 
 with an odor. A very faint odor, as listed in standard classifica- 
 tions, is not particularly noticeable, but the number of object- 
 ing consumers increases rapidly when forced to use a water of 
 a faint to decided odor. 
 
 Chemical Quality. — The characteristics of a "good" water 
 from a chemical standpoint are given in Table 20. 
 
 Table 22. — Allowable Organic and Mineral Constituents in Good 
 
 Water 1 
 
 In Parts per Million 
 
 Constituent 
 
 Allowable quantities 
 
 Surface water Ground water 
 
 Organic Content 
 
 Albuminoid ammonia 0.15 0.4 
 
 Free ammonia 0.15 0.2 
 
 Nitrites 0.01 0.02 
 
 Dissolved oxygen Not less than 40 per cent. 
 
 saturation 
 
 Chlorine. 
 Iron 
 
 Hardness. 
 Alkalinity . 
 
 Sulphates. 
 
 Mineral Content 
 
 1 to 10 parts above nor- 
 mal 
 0.1 to 0.5 according to 
 
 condition 
 Dependent on locality 
 Not less than 10 parts 
 
 per million 
 Not more than 60 parts 
 
 per million 
 
 1 Woodman-Norton; Air, Water and hood, 1914, pp. 56-6S.
 
 160 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Organic. — The ammonias and nitrites are indices of recent 
 pollution and therefore their presence, even in minute quantities, 
 casts suspicion on the source of supply. Nitrates, however, indi- 
 cate past pollution except in deep ground waters, with always 
 the possibility of renewed pollution in the future. Their presence, 
 per se, is not sufficient cause for condemnation, particularly in a 
 supply wholly from subsurface sources. 
 
 The lack of oxygen dissolved in a water indicates organic 
 matter has been or is present in a decomposed form, which is 
 using up the oxygen in the water for its oxidization. Water 
 which is less than 40 per cent, saturated with oxygen should be 
 condemned as unfit for use. 
 
 Mineral. — The presence of iron in a supply is objectionable, 
 because of the stains imparted to clothing in laundering, or to 
 fixtures or utensils, as well as to the unpleasant metallic tastes 
 when present in quantity. 
 
 Chlorine is found in all natural waters. Its source may be 
 salt deposits in the soil, or sea salt carried inland from the sea 
 by wind, precipitated with the rain. Where the normal chlorine 
 is known, an excess, in the absence of soil deposits, is a sure 
 indication of pollution. 
 
 The allowable hardness, like color and turbidity, depends on 
 the location of the supply. In Eastern United States, waters 
 with a hardness of 50 parts per million are rare, while in the 
 West 300 parts of hardness is not uncommon. In general, 
 however, 10 parts per million of hardness characterizes a soft 
 water, 25 to 30 parts an average water, 50 parts and over a hard 
 water, and a hardness of 150 parts per million or more is said to 
 be "excessive." 
 
 The chief objection of the domestic consumer to excessive 
 hardness is the amount of soap required to soften the water — 
 eight parts of soap being required to counteract one part of hard- 
 ness. Where the hardness is less than 10 parts per million, 
 however, considerable trouble is experienced from the corrosive 
 action of the C0 2 in the water on the plumbing fixtures. The 
 most desirable water for general use contains not less than 10 
 or more than 30 parts per million of hardness. 
 
 Alkalinity and sulphates are indices of particular value in the 
 coal mining regions, where water may be contaminated by mine 
 drainage.
 
 WATER SUPPLY 161 
 
 SELECTION OF SOURCE OF SUPPLY 
 
 Extensions cf Existing Supply. — Quantity. — Inmost instances, 
 housing developments are constructed either adjacent to or near 
 existing cities or towns; so that connections to the existing utili- 
 ties can be economically made. In extending the existing water 
 supply to embrace the new community, it is desirable, before 
 entering into contractual relations with the water works organiza- 
 tion, to be assured that the water plant already existing, or to be 
 enlarged, can, in addition to the supply of the present population, 
 take on the additional population of the housing development. 
 
 The existing community should be content to be supplied, in all 
 probability, at the rate of use already established (if reasonable). 
 The additional population will be supplied at the amounts pre- 
 viously discussed and dependent upon character of service and 
 allowance for habits and use. 
 
 Quality. — Water furnished to a housing development from 
 an adjacent system should at all times correspond and be in 
 accordance with the sanitary, physical and chemical require- 
 ments previously set forth. To this end, laboratory control 
 and checks should be made from time to time, if not already 
 introduced, to assure continued purity and safety. 
 
 In case the water is drawn from a surface supply unfiltered or 
 unprotected, the installation of filtration or sterilization, or both, 
 should be strongly urged. Such may be an absolute necessity 
 if there be visible contamination. Cooperation with the local 
 health authorities should be sought, to enforce the adoption of 
 proper safeguarding measures. 
 
 In general, waters from deep artesian wells, or from carefully 
 developed ground water supplies in their natural state are 
 acceptable, if protected, and provided the mineral content is 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Pressure. — Where extension of existing water supplies is neces- 
 sary, it is desirable to have some reasonable standard of pressure. 
 While housing developments are largely residential, high business 
 or other public buildings may occur and proper fire protection 
 should be provided therefor. 
 
 In general, 40 pounds per sq. in. is the minimum domestic fire 
 pressure that should be provided in mains. This is further 
 discussed under the subject of "Distribution of Water.'"' 
 
 Where fire pressures are now maintained by fire service pumps, 
 ample and duplicate pumping machinery should be present.
 
 162 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 New Supply System. — Where a water supply necessitates the 
 development of new sources, problems arise in the consideration 
 of this important subject which are extremely complex and deeply 
 technical, involving the sciences of bacteriology, chemistry, 
 hydraulics and engineering. The same questions of quantity 
 and quality arise as in the consideration of an existing system. 
 It is intended here to point out, only, the various factors affecting 
 the choice of a source of supply; together with general principles 
 concerning the requisite size of works to adequately care for the 
 present demands for water and also such increase as may be 
 required by the future growth of the development. 
 
 The two main divisions into which water supplies may be 
 separated are ground water supplies and surface supplies. It 
 is unusual that both a ground and surface supply, capable of 
 full development, are available. Should such a situation arise, 
 the choice of the most suitable supply may be determined readily 
 by a comparative estimate of the first cost, annual charges of 
 each development and a study of the relative advantages and 
 disadvantages. 
 
 Ground Water Supplies. — To procure water economically in 
 the large quantities required for public supplies from a well 
 system, there must be present a water-bearing formation of con- 
 siderable extent and porosity. The location of such a deposit 
 cannot readily be determined from surface indications, but re- 
 quires either an extensive study of the geological strata under- 
 lying the well site, coupled with borings and tests; or the random 
 sinking of wells in various localities, with properly conducted 
 pump tests, which is a rather expensive experiment. In many 
 localities, considerable data on water-bearing strata have been 
 collected by the United States Geological Survey and various 
 state agencies, which are available for public use, and are a 
 valuable aid in selecting a possible site for a well field. 
 
 A favorable location for a well plant will be at a point 
 where the. ground water is reached with the least lift of the 
 pumps. This will ordinarily be on low ground and often in the 
 vicinity of surface streams. If wells thus placed are pumped too 
 low, they may draw water from the stream as well as from the 
 ground water, a result sometimes undesirable, particularly when 
 such a stream is polluted. 
 
 The best method of estimating the capacity of a well field is 
 by means of actual pumping tests carried on for a sufficient length
 
 WATER SUPPLY 163 
 
 of time to bring about an approximate state of equilibrium be- 
 tween the supply and demand, as determined by the status of the 
 ground water level. Pumping tests of short duration are apt to be 
 very deceptive, since the source may be an underground basin or 
 reservoir with very Little movement, corresponding to a surface 
 pond with small watershed. An approximate idea of the amount 
 of water actually flowing per unit of time through the area in 
 question may be had by estimating the velocity of flow, by means 
 of electrical and salt tests, the cross section of the porous stratum, 
 and the percentage of porous space; or by estimating the prob- 
 able percolation on the tributary area. 
 
 The bacteriological quality of groimd waters is in general 
 excellent, where proper precautions are taken to prevent con- 
 tamination by surface water from too close proximity of polluted 
 sources. The water passing through the soil layers, which act 
 as a natural filter, usually renders the water in deep wells quite 
 satisfactory. On the other hand, the percolating water, by 
 virtue of contained carbon dioxide obtained from the air, dis- 
 solves large quantities of both organic and inorganic salts, 
 often rendering the water unfit for use on account of excessive 
 hardness, or high content of iron or manganese. In the presence 
 of humus and absence of oxygen, the sulphates may be reduced 
 to hydrogen sulphide and the nitrogen compounds to ammonia, 
 thereby rendering the water nauseous. Ordinarily the quality 
 of ground water is impaired by storage. 
 
 Where the hardness of the subsurface waters is excessive, as 
 is likely to be the case in the limestone regions of the central 
 states, softeniag treatment by means of chemicals and filtration 
 may be prerequisite. In the majority of cases, however, no 
 form of purification other than aeration and perhaps subsequent 
 settling is required with a ground water supply, — an item of 
 considerable importance when compared with a surface supply. 
 This advantage is somewhat affected, however, by the fact that 
 with a well supply, pumping is invariably necessary, usually 
 requiring two sets of pumps to lift the water from the ground to 
 the distribution system; while with a surface supply it is some 
 times possible to obtain a gravity supply requiring no pumping at 
 all. 
 
 Surface Water Supplies. — When a stream is under consideration 
 as a source of water supply, the peculiarities of its flow — the 
 minimum, maximum and total flow for various periods of time —
 
 164 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 are among the first things to be determined. The most accurate 
 and direct method of determining these is by means of careful 
 gagings extending over several years; which, to be of the greatest 
 value, must include periods of high flood and periods of drought. 
 The United States Geological Survey, in cooperation with various 
 States Commissions, maintains gaging stations on most of the 
 principal streams in the United States, with records available to 
 the public. 
 
 Where gagings are not available, or where they are very 
 limited in extejtt, estimates must be made from rainfall records, 
 absorption and run-off, and from a comparison with other streams 
 whose flows are known. 
 
 The dry weather flow of streams is maintained entirely from 
 ground and surface storage; and as facilities for such storage 
 vary in different watersheds, so will the minimum flows be unlike. 
 For streams in the Atlantic Coast States, records indicate that, 
 for watersheds of less than 200 sq. mi. in area, the minimum flow 
 varies from nearly 0.05 to about 0.9 second feet per square mile, 
 averaging 0.10 or 0.12. In the upper Mississippi Valley the 
 minimum flow of streams is much less, and it sometimes becomes 
 zero for watersheds of several hundred square miles drainage 
 area, while further west the same is true of much larger streams. 
 In general, to supply a population of 5,000 persons, a drainage 
 area, without artificial storage, of 10 to 40 sq. mi. will be required. 
 
 Naturally the availability of running streams has led to their 
 adoption as sources of water supply more frequently than any 
 other kind of surface water; but it must be remembered that this 
 is not because they are of better quality. The use of surface 
 waters, particularly those of flowing streams in densely popu- 
 lated watersheds, is a menace to public health, unless they are 
 first subjected to some method of artificial purification. 
 
 Wherever the minimum rate of yield of a source of water 
 supply is less than the demand, the excess of demand over supply 
 may often be provided for by storing the surplus waters during 
 periods of greater yields in impounding reservoirs. Such reser- 
 voirs are usually formed by constructing a dam across the valley 
 of the stream. Natural ponds or lakes, however, can frequently 
 be used as reservoirs. The value of ponds or lakes for storage 
 will depend upon the available (net) storage or amount the sur- 
 face can be varied in elevation, and not upon their total capacity. 
 
 The safe yield is based upon considerations of rainfall, run-off
 
 WA TER S UPPL Y 165 
 
 and storage; or, if the run-off is not available, upon like data for 
 a similar drainage area properly weighed for local conditions. 
 Considerable study has been given to the yield of watersheds in 
 New England, and some elsewhere on large supplies, and experi- 
 ence shows that only small storage is necessary to obtain 200,000 
 to 300,000 gal. daily per square mile, but for larger yields much 
 larger relative storage must be provided. In general, the storage 
 which will be required to supply a constant draft of 100,000 gal. 
 daily per square mile from a given area will vary between 10 and 
 35 mil. gal. per square mile, in the Eastern and Central parts of 
 the United States, while in the West and South a much greater 
 quantity is required. It is generally found inexpedient to at- 
 tempt to secure more than 80 per cent, of the average run-off; 
 or develop more than 500,000 gallons per square mile of 
 drainage area. Swamp lands detract from the storage value of 
 a watershed, as they promote evaporation. 
 
 Having decided upon the area which may be available, the next 
 step is to select a suitable reservoir site. The location is largely 
 determined by the distance of the reservoir from, and elevation 
 above, the point of distribution. Long distances require heavy 
 expenditures for conduits or pipe lines, but these expenditures 
 are relatively less the larger the quantity of water furnished. 
 For larger communities, it will be practicable to go much further 
 for water than for small cities. It is desirable that the reservoir 
 shall be at sufficient elevation to enable all or at least a part of 
 the consumers to be served by gravity alone, and it will be 
 economy to spend a realtively large sum of money for conduits to 
 secure this advantage. The size of conduits conducting water 
 from the source of supply to the point of distribution should be 
 such as to deliver the requisite quantity of water without undue 
 loss of head. 
 
 The same remarks regarding quality of surface waters apply 
 as in the previous discussion; but, in the case of large impounded 
 supplies, considerable purification takes place in the reservoir 
 itself. In the storage of surface waters, sedimentation is effec- 
 ive in eliminating much of the suspended matter, including liv- 
 ing organisms as well as a portion of the organic matter. Where 
 considerable mineral matter is in suspension, as in many rivers 
 especially during flood seasons, the degree of purification by 
 subsidence is even greater than where the suspended solids are 
 less. The color of waters, especially when due to organic mat-
 
 1GG INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 tcr, is lessened by storage, although the bleaching action of the 
 sun's rays does not extend rapidly to great depths. In general, 
 about 10 to 30 per cent, reduction in color may be expected. 
 The watershed should be subject to strict sanitary inspection 
 and supervision, and even where filtration is not necessary, some 
 type of sterilization apparatus, such as that employing liquid 
 chlorine, should be installed for emergency use. 
 
 Summary of Factors Affecting Choice of Supply. — Where a 
 housing development is adjacent to a city, there is little choice in 
 the selection of a source of supply, since it is usually cheaper to 
 obtain water by the extension of the city system. Where a new 
 supply must be sought, the choice between a ground water sup- 
 ply and a surface supply is usualty dependent upon the availa- 
 bility or the existence of such supplies. 
 
 The quantity of water available is perhaps the most potent 
 factor in the choice of supply. The size of tributary watershed 
 of a surface supply, or the extent of the water-bearing stratum 
 for a ground water supply, is of fundamental importance, since 
 it determines the possibility of economical future extensions to 
 the supply. The cost of development of a surface water supply, 
 by the construction of impounding reservoirs, is usually prohibi- 
 tive for a small housing development ; so that unless the water- 
 shed of a natural stream near the site is of sufficient size to supply 
 the requisite quantity of water without impounding, the de- 
 velopment of a ground water supply if available will usually be 
 found most economical. 
 
 Concerning the relative quality of supplies, a clear, soft, cool, 
 ground water supply of known purity is most acceptable. 
 Where such is not available, the relative costs of a distant un- 
 polluted or an adjacent contaminated supply must be fully 
 weighed. The cost of softening or removing iron must be taken 
 into account in considering alternate supplies. 
 
 A gravity supply, even for a portion of the total housing 
 development, is very desirable, since the cost of pumping even 
 small quantities of water amounts to considerable. 
 
 PURIFICATION SYSTEMS 
 
 Preface. — The various processes of purification may be 
 divided into two groups, (1) those for the removal of suspended 
 impurities, and (2) those for the removal of dissolved impurities.
 
 WATER SUPPLY 167 
 
 Of the first class there are two general processes, sedimentation 
 and filtration, both of which may be called natural processes. 
 In the second class are the removal of dissolved impurities by- 
 coagulation or aeration, usually involving subsequent sedimenta- 
 tion or filtration for the removal of the precipitate- 
 Other methods of purification are by distillation, in which 
 practically all impurities are removed, and the various methods 
 of sterilization, in which the bacteria are simply destroyed. 
 
 It will readily be seen that each problem in water purification 
 demands individual treatment; and that the best method to 
 adopt in any case will depend upon the character of the water, 
 the use to which it is to be put, and the relative costs of the 
 various treatments. No one process is universally applicable; 
 furthermore, of two processes for removing the same kind of 
 impurity, the most efficient may not in all cases be the best. 
 The highest efficiency is not always necessary, and in such cases 
 economy may properly be secured by the adoption of a system of 
 less efficiency but of lower cost. 
 
 Plain Sedimentation. — Plain subsidence, or sedimentation, is 
 adapted to the purification of a water containing a subsidable 
 silt or clay. It is the cheapest method of removing particles 
 which would clog an ordinary filter and which settle out in a 
 moderately short time. The process is effected in open basins, 
 with concrete floors, or in impounding reservoirs which are 
 designed to hold from a few hours' to several day's supply. 
 Cleaning is usually accomplished, in the case of artificial basins, 
 by the use of hose streams which flush the sediment through 
 specially designed drains. The size of sedimentation basins to 
 effect the requisite subsidence is dependent mainly upon the 
 size of particles to be removed and somewhat upon their specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Results. — In general, well baffled basins without too great 
 velocity having a capacity equal to 6 hours' flow, will remove 
 particles less than 0.02 mm. in diameter; while a capacity equal 
 to 24 hours' flow will remove particles less than 0.007 mm. 
 Collodial suspended matter in clay-bearing streams cannot 
 be removed even after weeks of sedimentation. The efficiency 
 of sedimentation is a function of the area and of the specific 
 gravity and shape of the particles. 
 
 Filtration. — The two principal classes of filters are "Slow 
 Sand," or "English," and "Rapid Sand," or "Mechanical"
 
 168 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 filters. Each is particularly adapted to the purification of cer- 
 tain types of water, both are used with preliminary sedimentation. 
 
 Slow Sand Filters. — For a water having a turbidity generally 
 less than 50 parts per million, or a color less than 20 parts 
 per million, slow sand filters, without coagulation, give excellent 
 results. They consist of artificial sand-filter beds contained in 
 masonry basins. The size of units is large compared with the 
 rapid sand filter, each unit containing about one acre. 
 
 The influent containing impurities is applied to the top of 
 the sand layer at a rate of 2 to 6 million gallons per acre per 
 day, dependent upon the character of the water. The filter 
 acts primarily as a strainer, the interstices between the sand 
 grains being small and serving to stop all particles too large to 
 pass through them. The effluent is drawn off the filter through 
 a system of underdrains, constructed of tile pipe with open 
 joints. 
 
 When the accumulation of impurities on top of the sand layer 
 has become so great that the loss of head through the filter 
 equals 3 to 4 ft., the filter is cleaned by scraping ^ in. to % m . 
 of sand from the top; a process which must be repeated every 
 1 to 3 months. About once a year the sand so removed is re- 
 placed after it has been washed and cleaned of gross impurities. 
 
 The bacteriological efficiency of the slow sand filter varies 
 between 95 and 99 per cent. Some typical results are shown in 
 Table 23 below. 
 
 Table 23. — Bacteriological 
 
 Efficiency of Slow Sand Filter 
 
 Location 
 
 Year of record 
 
 Efficiency per cent. 
 
 Lawrence, Mass. . 
 
 Ave.— 1909-1916 
 Ave.— 1909-1916 
 Ave.— 1907-1912 
 Ave.— 1917-1918 
 
 
 Old filter 
 
 97.5 
 
 New filter 
 
 96.9 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 98.4 
 
 Albany, N. Y 
 
 
 95.6 
 
 About one-third of the color can be removed in the process of 
 filtration, while 25 to 50 parts per million of turbidity can be 
 successfully applied to the filter. 
 
 Rapid Sand Filters. — The chief use of the "Rapid Sand" or 
 "Mechanical" filter is in the purification of waters having a 
 turbidity of more than 50 parts per million or a color of more
 
 WATER SUPPLY 169 
 
 than 30 parts per million. In contradistinction to the slow sand 
 filter, the influent is applied to the sand layer at a rate of about 
 125 million gallons per acre per day, after addition of coagulating 
 chemicals such as aluminum sulphate, or lime and iron. The 
 size of sand particles is somewhat larger in the rapid than in the 
 slow sand filter, their effective sizes being 0.45 to 0.50 mm. and 
 0.25 to 0.30 mm. respectively. The effluent is drawn off through 
 a specially designed strainer-system, which also serves as an inlet 
 to the wash water. 
 
 Washing the filter, which becomes necessary when the lost 
 head equals 7 to 10 ft., or every 12 to 24 hrs., is accomplished by 
 reversing the direction of flow through the filter. The "mat" 
 on the surface is lifted by the rapid flow of water and is carried 
 off through special gutters which connect with the sewer. The 
 quantity of wash water required varies from 0.4 per cent, to 
 1.0 per cent, of the total quantity filtered. The filter "mat" 
 in this case is formed by the flocculent precipitate resulting from 
 the addition of chemicals prior to the filtration process. 
 
 The bacteriological efficiency of rapid sand filters is about 
 the same as the slow sand type. Some typical results are 
 shown in Table 24 below. These results are apparently higher 
 than in the case of slow sand filters; however, the growth of 
 bacteria in the underdrains of the latter reduces the apparent 
 percentage removal. 
 
 Table 24. — Bacteriological Efficiency of Rapid Sand Filters 
 
 ! i •- ation 
 
 Year of record Efficiency per cent. 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 Ave. 1909-1918 
 
 Ave. 1918 
 Ave. 1917-1918 
 Ave. 1917 
 
 98.9 
 99.1 
 99.8 
 99.8 
 
 The removal of high color and turbidity is practically without 
 limit, since it is dependent upon the addition of chemicals, the 
 greater turbidity requiring more precipitant. 
 
 Coagulation. — The purposes of coagulation are to collect the 
 fine suspended matter in the water into clots or masses of a size 
 which will settle to the bottom of the sedimentation basins, and 
 also to form a film over the filter sand preventing even the finest
 
 170 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 suspended particles from passing through. Coagulation also 
 assists in removing color, odors and tastes from the water. 
 
 The process of coagulation, principally used with rapid filtra- 
 tion, consists in the addition of salts of aluminum or iron to a 
 water containing solutions of hydroxides, carbonates or bicar- 
 bonates of the alkalis or alkaline earths, thereby forming gela- 
 tinous precipitates of the hydroxides of the metals. As is 
 commonly the case of solutions in water, such floe tends to form 
 about the particles of silt, bacteria, etc., present in the water; 
 and, uniting with other flakes of coagulum the masses thus formed, 
 either settle to the bottom of the sedimentation basin or are finally 
 caught on the filter surface. Coagulation with alum, without 
 subsequent filtration is not to be recommended for a ♦potable 
 water supply. 
 
 Aluminum sulphate is very successful in removing color caused 
 by the tannates and gailates in swamp water. 17 parts per mil- 
 lion will remove about 10 parts per million of color. In the 
 removal of turbidity the amount required depends on the 
 fineness and amount of turbidity. Aluminum sulphate will 
 react directly with the natural alkalinity of the water, if there is 
 sufficient of the latter. Each part per million requires for com- 
 plete reaction from 0.3 to 0.45 part per million of natural alka- 
 linity, unless there be large amounts of organic matter. De- 
 ficiencies in alkalinity may be corrected by the addition of lime 
 or soda ash. 
 
 The advantages of the use of ferrous sulphate over "alum" 
 are : — the cost of treatment is generally cheaper, especially with 
 very turbid waters; and the coagulum formed is of greater spe- 
 cific gravity than in the case of alum, causing a more rapid sedi- 
 mentation. It cannot, however, well be used with colored 
 swamp water. 
 
 Sterilization. — While properly treated and filtered water is 
 practically free from bacteria, it has of late years become custo- 
 mary to treat the filtrate with a germicide as an additional 
 piecaution. 
 
 Hypochlorite of lime has been very extensively used for this 
 purpose but is being replaced by the use of liquid chlorine. The 
 latter is easier to control, more exact in application and is not 
 so likely to cause tastes and odors. Sodium hypochlorite and 
 ultra violet rays have been used to some extent. Ozone and 
 copper sulphate have also been tried.
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 171 
 
 Hypochlorite exerts a destructive action on the bacteria in 
 the water, readily destroying such pathological bacteria as B. 
 Typhosus and the cholera spirillum. The bleach may be ap- 
 plied to the raw, settled or filtered water, but is least effectively 
 applied to the raw water. 
 
 The germicidal effect of liquid chlorine results from the libera- 
 tion of nascent oxygen in solutions as well as from its action as 
 a specific germ poison. 
 
 1870 " 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 
 
 Fig. 26. — Growth of water filtration in the United States 
 
 Summary. — The constantly increasing pollution of sources of 
 water supply is making necessary the purification of practically 
 all supplies. The trend of the times appears to be toward the 
 adoption of rapid sand filters for general purification. Fig. 26 
 herewith shows the increasing popularity of the rapid sand filters 
 in the United States. 
 
 The various chemicals employed by 124 filtration plants in 
 Pennsylvania is typical of plants throughout the country. A 
 summary is shown below in Table 25.
 
 172 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Table 25. — Chemicals Used in Water Purification in Pennsylvania 
 Based upon a Study op 124 Filtration Plants 
 
 Chemical employed 
 
 Number of 
 plants em- 
 ploying 
 chemicals 
 
 Sulphate of aluminum. 
 
 Hydrated lime 
 
 Iron sulphate 
 
 Chlorinated lime 
 
 Chlorine gas 
 
 Sodium thiosulphatc . . . 
 
 Copper sulphate 
 
 None 
 
 102 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 104 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER 
 
 Pressure Requirements. — Domestic Use. — For domestic use, 
 it is generally found that a minimum service pressure of 20 pounds 
 per square inch on the top floor of a dwelling house will give a flow of 
 water that is completely satisfactory. Where houses are not 
 more than three stories in height, this means that a pressure of 
 about 35 pounds at the street level is required. A pressure of 
 50 pounds per square inch at the curb would generally supply 
 buildings six stories in height with satisfactory water pressures. 
 Pressures of 75 to 100 pounds are required in business districts. 
 
 At the highest point in the development, pressures somewhat 
 lower than the above limit may be permitted. In special in- 
 stances of this kind, in strictly residence districts where water is 
 not used above the second floor, pressures at the curb as low as 
 25 pounds per square inch have been and are used with reasonable 
 results, provided the service pipe and inside plumbing are ca- 
 pacious enough. 
 
 Fire Service. — For fighting fires, where fire engines are used, 
 the only demand upon the piping system is to supply water to 
 the engines without requiring them to work under a suction lift. 
 For this purpose, an actual pressure of 20 lb. per sq. in. at fire 
 hydrants is as good as more, providing such a pressure be consist- 
 ently maintained underdraft. 
 
 It is common practice in small systems to so arrange the pump- 
 ing works that pressures in the distribution system may be raised 
 temporarily during times of fire, thus avoiding the use of fire
 
 WATER SUPPLY 173 
 
 engines. This subject of fire protection facilities is one fully 
 covered under "Piping System". 
 
 Fire Protection.— Value.— The value of fire protection is not 
 only shown in the lessened property damage, but is also evident 
 in the decreased insurance rates resulting from the installation 
 of adequate fire fighting facilities. Installation of better fire 
 fighting facilities will bring about a reduction in rates of insur- 
 ance, other things being equal. 
 
 Cost.— The cost of furnishing water for fire protection to 
 property is out of all proportion to the amount of water used, for, 
 while the cost of construction is greatly affected, the amount of 
 water consumed is slight. The extra cost involved in furnishing 
 adequate fire protection is due largely to increased pumping 
 capacity, size of mains, reservoirs or standpipes, and to hydrants 
 and connections. 
 
 Careful estimates place the proportion of interest, depreciation 
 and fixed charges chargeable against fire protection at one- 
 quarter to one-half of those of the entire water works system, 
 inversely dependent upon the size. Comparative studies have 
 shown that, except in a few of our largest cities, it is impracti- 
 cable to maintain a separate high pressure distribution system 
 for fire protection. However, cases may arise in housing develop- 
 ments where it is possible to secure a limited amount of pure 
 water for domestic purposes and to supply water for fire pur- 
 poses pumped directly from a polluted source; a dual system may 
 thus prove economical and wise. 
 
 The use of horse or motor driven fire engines is usually more 
 economical than the attempt to maintain high pressures through- 
 out the combined domestic and fire service system. 
 
 Pumping Works.— Design. — Where water cannot be obtained 
 at an elevation sufficient to produce a satisfactory gravity pres- 
 sure at the points where it is to be used, it becomes necessary 
 to provide a pumping plant for this purpose. 
 
 This design involves the selection of: 
 
 (1) Best source of energy for power purposes. 
 
 (2) Most economical means of generation and transmission. 
 
 (3) Type of pump best adapted for the conditions. 
 
 These factors are often largely affected by the nature of the 
 source of water supply, and by various other features of the water 
 works system. 
 
 Pumping units seldom operate at full normal capacity all the
 
 174 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 time. Efficiency at half load is much less than at rated capacity; 
 hence, the theoretical duty obtained on test is not a true measure 
 of results which will be obtained in actual operation. A common 
 error in the design of pumping stations is to subdivide the 
 maximum total pumping capacity required into units of equal 
 capacity. It is usual that a subdivision into different sizes will 
 allow each unit to be operated at full capacity, and thus the result 
 will be more economical than would otherwise be possible. 
 
 Reciprocating Pumps. — In pumps of this type, a piston or 
 plunger (which is the displacing agency) reciprocates in a closed 
 cylinder, provided with the necessary inlet and outlet valves, 
 and alternately inspires and discharges the water from the 
 chamber. Pumps of the piston type, owing to the facility with 
 which the packing can be renewed, and the smaller clearance 
 spaces in the pump cylinders, are particularly efficient for 
 lifting water by suction, especially where it is impossible to 
 prime the suction piping before starting the pump. 
 
 A comparison of the volume of water pumped and the theo- 
 retical displacement of the piston gives the loss of water due to 
 "slippage." Few pumps operate with less than 4 to 5 per cent, 
 "slip", while it is not unusual to find 10 to 30 per cent. The 
 ordinary efficiency of reciprocating pumps varies from 60 to 85 
 per cent. 
 
 Centrifugal Pumps. — In impeller pumps, of which the centri- 
 fugal is a familiar example, the volume of water is moved by the 
 continuous application of power through some mechanical 
 agency or medium. The centrifugal pump consists of a set of 
 straight or bent vanes or impellers mounted on a shaft, the whole 
 rotating in a specially designed case. The water which enters 
 between the vanes, through an annular orifice surrounding the 
 shaft, is thrown outward toward the periphery by the centrifugal 
 force developed by the rotation of the shaft. 
 
 As the apparatus contains no valves or parts, it is particularly 
 adapted to the .handling of water containing sand or grit. As 
 its discharge is continuous, it has an advantage over reciprocating 
 pumps in freedom from water hammer in the suction and dis- 
 charge pipes. 
 
 Each centrifugal pump is designed for special conditions of 
 head and speed and operates at maximum efficiency only when 
 these conditions are fulfilled. When any alteration occurs in 
 these two factors, a corresponding drop in efficiency is noted.
 
 WATERS UPPL Y 175 
 
 The ordinary efficiency of a centrifugal pump varies between a 
 minimum of 50 per cent, and a maximum of 80 per cent, 
 
 Deep Well Pumps.— There are three principal types of deep 
 well pumps adapted to small water works installation, namely: 
 the reciprocating, centrifugal and air lift. The first two are 
 similar in principle to the respective types discussed above and 
 need no further discussion. 
 
 The air lift involves the discharge at the bottom of the well, 
 or at least a considerable distance below the water surface, of 
 air into the mouth of the delivery tube. The air mixes with the 
 water and the specific gravity of the mixture is so reduced that 
 the pressure of water outside the delivery tube causes the mix- 
 ture to overflow at the top. Evidently, the greater the length 
 of pipe below the surface, the greater the difference between the 
 weight of the columns within and without the tube, i.e., the 
 greater the submergence and the higher the water can be lifted. 
 Generally the depth of submergence is made 1.5 to 2 times the lift. 
 
 The air lift is especially adapted to raising water from great 
 depths. The efficiency varies between a minimum of 15 per 
 cent, and a maximum of 45 to 50 per cent. 
 
 PIPING SYSTEM 
 
 General. — The piping system includes all mains and lateral 
 pipes, standpipes and distributing reservoirs, gates, meters, and 
 all services and connections. The piping in a distribution system 
 must be designed so that water can be supplied to any point 
 at any time at the greatest rate that may fairly be demanded 
 at that place. 
 
 Reservoirs. — The purposes and functions of a service reservoir 
 
 are : 
 
 1. To equalize pressures in the distribution system, by providing a 
 nearly constant level water surface from which these take their source. 
 
 2. To equalize, or to reduce to a uniform rate, the draft upon the 
 transmission lines leading from the source of supply and in this way to 
 increase their adequacy and thus postpone the necessary increases in 
 the capacity of such lines. 
 
 3. To provide a reserve supply of water to be used in such emergencies 
 as conflagrations, or failure of the transmission lines by rupture, or to 
 tide over supply troubles of short duration. 
 
 4. To equalize the momentary variations between supply and demand 
 and fluctuations in pressure. 
 
 5. To allow more uniform operation of pumping machinery.
 
 176 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The proper size of reservoir to meet the above conditions is 
 determined by the fluctuations in domestic draft and fire fighting 
 uses. In general, in small communities, especially where water 
 is supplied from a distance, the service reservoir should hold at 
 least one day's supply. For fire protection, the National Board 
 of Fire Underwriters recommends a capacity sufficient to main- 
 tain the total number of required fire streams for a period of 
 from 6 to 10 hours. 
 
 There are three general types of service reservoir, namely; — 
 basins, usually constructed in cut and fill and generally lined with 
 masonry; standpipes of concrete or steel; and tanks of wood or 
 steel. 
 
 Basins are usually constructed on the top or side of a hill 
 of sufficient elevation to give the requisite pressure. The most 
 economical shape is determined by its location, the round reser- 
 voir often being used on a hilltop, while an oval shape is better 
 suited to side hill locations. It is not unusual to cover the reser- 
 voir with a concrete roof of the groined arch type. 
 
 Standpipes are well suited to the use of small communities, 
 especially where the consideration of pressure is vital. The 
 general practice has been to install standpipes and elevated tanks 
 of sufficient capacity to properly protect the small community. 
 A capacity of 30,000 gal. is a minimum even for the smallest 
 community. Reinforced concrete has been used successfully 
 for tanks of a variety of diameters and heights, as large as 100 ft. 
 and 150 ft., respectively. Some difficulty has been experienced 
 in obtaining waterproof joints in the concrete, especially in the 
 higher standpipes. 
 
 Steel standpipes were much used until about 1910, but owing 
 to their greater cost and the great danger of failure of high stand- 
 pipes, few are being built now. Elevated wood and steel tanks 
 are largely replacing standpipes in small communities. 
 
 Fire Service. — Quantity Required. — The amount of water to 
 be provided for fire service depends upon many circumstances; 
 among others, the size and proximity of buildings, the materials 
 and methods of construction, the available pressure, the avail- 
 ability of auxiliary fire systems, the probable loss of life and 
 property from a bad fire, the cost of making a given quantity 
 of water available and the financial ability of the system or 
 community to pay for doing it. 
 
 Authorities differ somewhat in the number of fire streams
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 177 
 
 required simultaneously to quench fires in various sizes of 
 American cities, as shown below in Table 26. 
 
 Table 26.— Estimated Number of Fire Streams Required Simulta- 
 neously in American Cities of Various Magnitudes 1 
 
 Population of 
 .(immunity 
 
 Number of fire streams required simultaneously 
 
 Freeman 
 
 Fanning 
 
 Shedd 
 
 Kuichling 
 
 1,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 4 to S 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 8 to 15 
 
 12 to 18 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 10 
 14 
 
 3 
 6 
 6 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 » Turneaure & Russell: Public Water Supplies, 1916, p. 745. 
 The values as given by Mr. Kuichling, which have been widely 
 used, may be expressed by the formula y = 2.8\/z> where "y" 
 equals the number of streams and "x" equals the population 
 in thousands. 
 
 Another method of computation used by the United States 
 Shipping Board, Emergency Fleet Corporation, Passenger 
 Transportation and Housing Division, in its recent housing 
 developments, was to provide, in addition to the domestic 
 supply, fire protection capacity at a rate computed in million 
 gallons per day equivalent to the square root of the population in 
 thousands. 
 
 During fires, however, it should be possible to maintain the 
 draft on the distribution system without seriously interrupting 
 the domestic or industrial service. In other words, the system 
 must be adequate to care for a conflagration, plus normal indus- 
 trial and domestic demand, and this mark must be set as the goal 
 in the design of a proper distribution system. 
 
 Pressure Required.— For fighting fires directly from the mains, 
 without the use of auxiliary fire engines, the National Board of 
 Fire Underwriters requires not less than 90 lb. per sq. in. at the 
 curb, where the length of hose is not to be more than 300 ft. 
 Greater pressures are required for longer lengths of hose. How- 
 ever, medium pressures of 45 to 70 lb. per sq. in. are permissible 
 and quite useful for moderate streams with short hose lengths; 
 for inside work in buildings of three or four stories; also for 
 sprinkler systems in buildings of small to medium height. 
 
 12
 
 178 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Fire service pressures of 100 lb. per sq. in. and over cause leaks 
 in plumbing and increased waste ; water pumped at high pressures 
 contains air bubbles as drawn from the faucet, making water 
 uninviting for drinking. Few cities in the United States carrying 
 fire and domestic supply in the same pipes have hydrant pressure 
 of 100 lb. 
 
 Standard Fire Streams. — A stream flowing 250 gal. per minute, 
 through a smooth nozzle 1}?6 in. in diameter, with a pressure at 
 the base of the tip of 45 lb. per sq. in., constitutes a standard 
 fire stream. Such a stream is effective to a height of 70 ft. above 
 the ground with a horizontal carry not exceeding 63 ft. When 
 fed through the best quality of 2}^ in. rubber-lined hose, the 
 hydrant pressure required to throw such a stream, taken while 
 the stream is running, is as follows : 
 
 Feet of Hose 50 100 200 400 600 
 
 Pounds per sq. in 56 63 77 106 135 
 
 Hydrants. — Hydrants are attached to pipes in the distribution 
 system to allow water to be drawn for fire purposes. They are 
 of two general types; the post hydrant, in which the barrel of 
 the hydrant extends 2 or 3 ft. above the ground surface; and the 
 flush hydrant, in which the barrel and nozzle are covered by a 
 cast iron box, flush with the surface. The former is more com- 
 monly used and as it is much more readily found and more con- 
 veniently operated, it is to be preferred. 
 
 The branch supplying the hydrant should be of a size cor- 
 responding to the number of streams to be carried. For one 
 fire stream, the branch may be 4-in., for two streams, 6-in., etc. 
 In general, valves should be placed on all hydrant branches 
 where the main is 10 in. in diameter or larger. The barrel or 
 standpipe of the hydrant should have an area about 20 to 40 
 per cent, greater than the area of all its nozzles. 
 
 The committee of the American Water Works Association 
 recommends that in thickly built-up mercantile and manufactur- 
 ing sections, hydrants should be spaced about 200 ft. apart and 
 not more than 500 to 600 ft. apart as the maximum anywhere. 
 
 In fixing the exact location of the hydrant and the side of the 
 street on which each should be placed, a detailed examination 
 should be made and the location determined with reference to 
 important buildings and convenience of access in case of confla- 
 gration. The most convenient location for hydrants is generally
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 179 
 
 at the street intersections, as they are then readily accessible 
 from four directions. General practice appears to be to place 
 the hydrant 5 to 10 ft. inside the range of the property line about 
 1 ft. back of the curb, as shown in Fig. 27 herewith. 
 
 Design of Pipe System. — Minimum Sizes. — The National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters specifies that six-inch pipe is to be 
 considered the minimum size satisfactory for hydrant supply 
 in residential districts, to be closely gridironed with 6-in. cross- 
 connecting mains at intervals of not exceeding 600 ft.; but where 
 initial pressures are high, a satisfactory gridiron system may be 
 obtained by a liberal per cent, of larger mains cross-connecting 
 the G-in. at greater intervals. In new construction, 8-in. should 
 
 
 3 
 
 Valve when connected 
 with main 10 "or larger 
 
 Fig. 27. — Standard firo hydrant connection. 
 
 be used, where dead ends and poor gridironing are likely to exist 
 for some time. In high value districts, the minimum size should 
 be 8-in., with suitable cross-connecting mains; 12-in. and larger 
 mains to be used on the principal streets and for all long lines 
 not cross-connected at frequent intervals. 
 
 In general, in small housing developments, 4-in. cast iron pipe 
 may be used for short lengths not requiring hydrants directly 
 attached, and especially where well connected into the rest of 
 the system at both ends. Galvanized iron pipe, of 2-in. and 
 upward to 3)^-in., may be used occasionally in streets for house 
 supply only, where hydrant service is not imperative, where 
 population is sparse, or where the cost must be kept to a mini- 
 mum. A typical piping system is shown in Fig. 28.
 
 180 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Fig. 28.— Plan of water distribution system installed in the Loveland Farms 
 housing development.
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 181 
 
 General Design. — While no absolute rule will apply in all eases 
 for the design of the distribution system pipe sizes, the following 
 data used by the Division of Passenger Transportation and 
 Housing, United States Shipping Board, as a guide to pipe sizes 
 may be helpful. 
 
 Table 27. — Population that can be Supplied by Pipes of Various 
 
 Sizfs — Based on an Average Use of 100 Gallons per Capita Daily, 
 
 with Average Amount of Fire Protection 
 
 Diameter 
 in inches 
 
 Sectional 
 
 area, 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 Flat slopes 
 
 long lines, 
 
 V = 2 ft.-sec. 
 
 Average 
 conditions, 
 V = 3 ft.-sec. 
 
 'Steep slopes 
 short lines, 
 7 = 4 ft.-sec. 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 61 
 
 132 
 
 226 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 182 
 
 392 
 
 666 
 
 10 
 
 79 
 
 425 
 
 900 
 
 1,500 
 
 12 
 
 113 
 
 835 
 
 1,720 ' 
 
 2,850 
 
 16 
 
 201 
 
 2,320 
 
 4,620 
 
 7,400 
 
 20 
 
 314 
 
 4,940 
 
 9,520 
 
 14,900 
 
 24 
 
 452 
 
 8,900 
 
 16,700 
 
 25,500 
 
 Length of Mains. — Little can be gained from a study of the 
 length of mains per consumer, as much depends on the shape 
 and size of the town. However, it will be of interest that in 
 developments of the United States Housing Corporation the 
 average length was 0.75 ft. per front foot of lot, or 1.50 ft. per lin- 
 ear foot of street. 
 
 Depth and Location. — The depths to which mains must be 
 laid to prevent freezing is dependent upon several factors, namely, 
 the temperature, the character of cover and the size of main and 
 velocity of flow. The report of the Committee on Depth of Water 
 Pipe of the New England Water Works Association 1 shows, 
 as a result of a questionnaire sent to 90 communities sup- 
 plied by water works, that, in general, pipes are laid from 3 to 10 
 ft. deep, according to the latitude, and that freezing occurs mainly 
 on dead ends and at night when the velocity is low. All but 
 three cases of freezing were reported on mains smaller than 10 
 in. in diameter, and in all cases the ground was frozen below the 
 axis of the pipe. In general, freezing extends 1 ft. deeper in 
 streets than in fields; also, in streets, frost will reach about 1}-% 
 ft. deeper in gravel than in clay. 
 
 1 Jl. N.E.W.W. Assoc, Vol. 23-24, p. 435.
 
 182 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 A summary of the results of the work of the committee is 
 shown in Figs. 29 and 30, giving the relation between latitude 
 and the mean temperature of the coldest month and the relation 
 
 Fig. 29. — Map indicating the mean temperatare of the coldest month of an 
 „ average year. 
 
 between the mean temperature and practice in laying mains. 
 The median line represents general practice only, and as little 
 
 10 15 20 IS 30 35 
 
 Mean Temperature, Degrees -Coldest Month 
 
 4-0 
 
 45 
 
 Fiq. 30. — Relation between required depth of water pipes and mean tempera- 
 ture of coldest month in average year. 
 
 or no trouble at these depths has been experienced from frost, it 
 is probable that the data may be used as a "safe guide. 
 
 Water pipes are usually located in the streets at a uniform
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 183 
 
 distance from the curb or property line, although in some cases 
 considerable economy may be effected by running the pipe lines 
 through easements in the rear of lots. 
 
 Valves. — Valves should be introduced in the system at fre- 
 quent intervals, so that comparatively small sections can be 
 shut off for purposes of repairs, connections, etc. As a general 
 rule, whenever a small pipe branches from a large one, the former 
 should.be provided with a valve. At intersections of large 
 pipes, a valve in each branch is usually desirable. 
 
 Valves should be located systematically. They are usually 
 placed in range, either with the property line or the curb line, 
 but sometimes they are placed in the cross walks. 
 
 The United States Shipping Board, in its housing develop- 
 ments, recommended a valve spacing such that only three blocks 
 of pipe are thrown out of service at one time, in case of a break or 
 need for repairs. 
 
 Specials.— The percentage of the total cost of a distribution 
 system which may be chargeable to specials varies considerably 
 in individual cases, but, in general, lies between 4 and 6 per cent, 
 of the total cost. In supply lines the number of specials required; 
 and hence the percentage of the total cost, is less, representing 
 only from 1 to 2 per cent. 
 
 House Services. — The connection between the street main and 
 the consumer's premises is made by means of a service pipe. 
 Just within the cellar wall of the consumer's building a stop- 
 and-waste cock is provided. Usually the municipality or water 
 company installs a curb cock, protected by a suitable box under 
 the sidewalk close to the curb. 
 
 The practice of tapping the mains to receive the corporation 
 cock varies in different localities. The small mains are usually 
 tapped on top, while the larger mains are tapped on the side. 
 
 Table 28. — Common Practice in Tapping Mains in Various Localities 
 
 Place in tapping 
 
 Top of main . 
 Side of main. 
 45° point. ... 
 
 Various parts 
 
 Total... 
 
 Per cent, of 
 whole 
 
 32.6 
 45.3 
 14.0 
 
 8.1 
 
 100.0
 
 184 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Reports from 86 communities solicited by the New England 
 Water Works Association 1 show the preceding practices. 
 
 Unless the service pipe is made of lead, a lead goose neck about 
 2 ft. long should be placed between the corporation cock and the 
 
 y 
 
 4 '4 
 
 Sites of Service Pipes 
 
 Sites of Service Pipes 
 
 Fig. 31. — Size of water house services; the practice of cities and towns as 
 to the size of service is shown diagrammatically in the upper illustration; the 
 lower diagram indicates the extent of the use of the various sizes in terms of the 
 total number of services. Note : Data based on records from 305 cities and towns. 
 
 service pipe to enable the latter to adapt itself to any settling 
 that may occur. 
 
 In selecting the kind of service pipe to be used in any particular 
 case, the points to be considered . are : (1) the chemical action 
 the water may have on the pipe; (2) the cost of laying and main- 
 taining the pipe; (3) its durability. 
 
 There are few, if any, places where it is advisable to use un- 
 
 ' Jl. N.E.W.W. Assoc, Vol. 23, p. 436.
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 185 
 
 coated iron or steel in service pipe construction. The use of 
 galvanized pipe decreases very materially in most cases the 
 troubles experienced from the use of plain wrought iron or steel. 
 
 Lead pipe is mechanically an almost ideal pipe for services 
 on account of its pliability and the ease of laying in places where 
 there are obstructions. The chief objection to lead is the chance 
 of lead poisoning which in certain localities with certain kinds 
 of water is extremely serious. 
 
 Cement lined pipes are the most satisfactory, so far as the 
 action of the water is concerned, of any which are now used for 
 services. The difficulties which arise from the use of this 
 material are solely mechanical, although corrosion will take 
 place on the outside of the pipe unless this be protected. 
 
 General practice appears to favor the installation of ^-in. 
 diameter services, as is shown by a study of records of 305 cities 
 
 Table 29. x — Portion of House Services Laid and Paid forbythe Water 
 Department in Various Communities 
 
 
 Number of places 
 
 Place or amount laid 
 
 New England 
 
 Other states 
 
 Total 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 None 
 
 27 
 94 
 
 117 
 
 2 
 
 240 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 118 
 
 123 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 293 
 
 15.0 
 
 Curb or property line . . 
 To cellar wall 
 
 40.2 
 42.0 
 
 Corporation cock only. 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of places 
 
 
 Place or amount paid 
 
 New England 
 
 Other states 
 
 Total 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 None 
 
 Curb or property line . . 
 
 Corporation cock only. 
 
 Corporation and curb 
 
 cock 
 
 41 
 
 174 
 8 
 
 3 
 15 
 
 241 
 
 38 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 78 
 
 184 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 17 
 
 295 
 
 26.8 
 
 62.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 5.8 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 .11. N.E.W.W. Assoc. Vol. 31, p. 342.
 
 186 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and towns on Fig. 31. herewith. The portion of the house 
 service which is laid and paid for by the water department in 
 various communities is shown in Table 29 herewith. 
 
 Some economy is effected by laying the house service in the 
 same trench as the sewer connection. The depth below the 
 surface is usually the same as that of the street mains. 
 
 CONTRACT PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS 
 
 Contract Plans. — The contract plans should consist of a 
 general plan showing the location of the system in its entirety 
 and a set of detail plans of a standard scale, each covering a 
 portion of the total layout. 
 
 The general plan may or may not include the source of supply 
 on the same sheet, but should give a comprehensive view of the 
 whole distribution system. A scale of from 200 to 400 ft. per in. 
 is well suited for this work. 
 
 The detail plans should be on a 40 or 50 ft. per in. scale, giving 
 the approximate location and size of all mains and specials, 
 together with a tabulation on each sheet of all specials to be used. 
 The exact location of the mains may or may not be shown on the 
 detail plans. 
 
 In addition, the contract plans should contain drawings of 
 typical sections of house services and hydrants, showing the 
 location of corporation cocks, curb boxes, valves, etc., in their 
 relation to sidewalks, property lines and street mains. 
 
 Specifications. — Pipe and Specials. — Specifications for pipe and 
 specials have been adopted by the New England Water Works 
 Association and the American Water Works Association and 
 foundries are prepared to furnish pipe as specified. These are 
 complete and the result of careful thought and coordination of 
 all interests. However, the specifications should include sections 
 on Special Markings, Tests and Weighing, and such special 
 requirements for the particular shop as appear necessary to 
 prescribe. 
 
 Pipe Laying. — Sections covering the following items should 
 be included in the specifications under this head: Care in 
 Handling, Cleaning and Inspection, Laying, Cutting, Joints 
 and Caulking, Joint Materials, Wall Pipes, Field Testing, Allow- 
 able Leakage, Painting and Correction of Defects. 
 
 Under this head may also be included the minimum cover over 
 pipes.
 
 WATER SUPPLY 187 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Under this head may be included specifica- 
 tions for Excavation and Backfilling, Hydrants, Valves, etc., 
 Work to be Included, Measurement and Compensation; the 
 latter should be carefully detailed and made explicit. 
 
 FINANCIAL 
 
 General Considerations. — The cost of supplying water to the 
 consumer depends upon so many factors which in turn are so 
 variable, that data on the total cost of supplying water would be 
 of little value. It is the intention here to point out only the 
 various items of revenue and expense which constitute the 
 financial end of water works management, together with such 
 information on the cost of the various factors as may be applicable 
 to industrial housing developments. Such information, even 
 though of very general application, will yet serve as a guide 
 in estimating in a preliminary way the cost of a water supply. 
 
 Yearly Expenses. — The yearly charges and expenses to be met 
 will include some or all of the following items: 
 
 1. Interest on bonded debt incurred for construction. 
 
 2. Yearly payment into a sinking fund for liquidating the bonded 
 debt, 
 
 3. Yearly payment into a depreciation fund, to provide for the 
 renewal of various parts of the work when worn out or otherwise rendered 
 valueless. 
 
 4. Yearly operating and maintenance expenses. 
 
 5. Yearly cost of extensions and improvements. 
 G. Profit, or income for surplus. 
 
 Items (1),(2) and (4) must evidently be met year by year by 
 the annual income and not by borrowing, if the department is to 
 remain solvent. Some cpiestions may arise as to what items are 
 chargeable against maintenance, but in general it is better to 
 include under that head only the regular up-keep and the cost 
 of ordinary repairs. 
 
 To provide for both items (2) and (3) simultaneously is usually 
 considered too liberal toward the future generations, but occa- 
 sionally may be adopted in part. In municipal practice, the 
 sinking fund usually receives the only consideration. If such 
 is not provided, then a depreciation fund is necessary. This 
 should be sufficient to furnish funds for the renewal or replace- 
 ment of worn out and discarded parts.
 
 188 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The cost of extensions (5) may properly be met by issuing 
 bonds or new securities, and at the. same time providing a corre- 
 sponding increase in the sinking or the depreciation fund. Such 
 expenses are, however, frequently paid in part from the annual 
 receipts or by general or special taxation in the case of municipal 
 works. 
 
 Sources of Revenue. — The sources of revenue are the water 
 rates and the funds received by general taxation, if any, for 
 building portions of the system. The former are paid by con- 
 sumers of water; the latter are paid by assessment on all taxable 
 property. Ordinarily from 25 to 50 per cent, of the total fixed 
 charge, (the part of the service chargeable for fire protection), 
 plus the cost of water for public purposes, should be met. by 
 general taxation; and the remainder of the revenue obtained 
 from the water rates. 
 
 The question of rate schedules is a subject demanding a 
 separate treatise, and it is sufficient to say here only that such 
 should be prepared by one thoroughly trained in the subject, 
 and provide among other things: 
 
 First. — It shall produce the required gross income. 
 
 Second. — It shall distribute that gross income equitably among the 
 various consumers. 
 
 Third. — It shall tend to develop the business and should not drive 
 away large, long hour consumers. 
 
 Fourth. — It shall not sell water to any consumer at a cost so low that 
 it is necessary to collect an unfair excess from other consumers, or so 
 low that it is necessary to collect more from the other consumers than 
 would be the cost if the large consumer in question were not served at all. 
 
 Fifth. — The schedule must be practical and workable. 
 
 ft
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 General Considerations- — Separate Sanitary Sewers — 
 Storm Drainage Systems — Combined Sewers — Sewage 
 Treatment and Disposal — Contract Plans and 
 Specifications 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 Sewerage and drainage are not only important elements in first 
 cost and upkeep but are closely related to the health and well 
 being of the community. When such are not properly planned 
 and constructed the health of the town, or that of adjoining 
 communities, may be menaced; property may be subjected to 
 damage, and excessive, and perhaps otherwise avoidable mainte- 
 nance or upkeep costs incurred directly or indirectly. The day 
 has gone by when the self-respecting worker will permit his family 
 to live in a community with privy vaults and with poorly drained 
 land and wet cellars. 
 
 Objects to be Attained. — The object sought, with respect to 
 sewerage — is the prompt and effectual collection and disposal 
 of domestic sewage and trade waste; with respect to drainage — 
 is the collection and removal of rain water or surface drainage. 
 There may also be the problem of enclosing small water courses, 
 to an extent necessary to make possible the improvement of the 
 property. 
 
 The first subject, sewerage, is essentially one of health and 
 public convenience, and is of prime importance. The second, 
 drainage, is related chiefly to the physical requirements of mainte- 
 nance and upkeep of property, and is provided for the purpose 
 of preventing erosion of lawns and pavements, flooding and 
 drainage to public and private property and to conserve public 
 convenience. 
 
 The following points must be kept ever in mind: first cost; 
 maintenance and operation costs, both direct and indirect; 
 health and sanitation; the requirements of public convenience 
 and satisfactory and adequate service. These are of great im- 
 
 189
 
 1 90 IND US TRIAL HO USING 
 
 portance and failure to make proper provision may react to the 
 detriment of the property, to the dissatisfaction of owners and 
 tenants, and so limit or restrict the most profitable development 
 of the town site. It may not be out of place here to point out 
 the fact that the rule-of-thumb methods, generally prevailing 
 a generation ago, the use of which has necessitated costly recon- 
 struction and replacement of sewerage and drainage systems in 
 many American communities, have given way to more exact and 
 reliable methods of planning and design. With the prevailing 
 high costs, and scarcity of labor and materials, the necessity for 
 attention to economical considerations is more than ever urgently 
 necessary. 
 
 While a number of years ago it was possible to construct a 
 sewerage system which would render satisfactory and adequate 
 service at a rental charge of not over $6.00 per annum per house 
 (provided treatment costs were not excessive), it is doubtful 
 at the present time if a satisfactory system can be installed to ren- 
 der service at a rental charge of less than $12.00 per year. 
 Irrespective of whether or not this charge falls upon the owner, 
 tenant or the municipality, it is, in the last analysis, an item of 
 rental, and must be kept to the minimum consistent with proper 
 standards of health and service. 
 
 The major problems to be considered are type and general 
 arrangement of system, the method of disposal, and necessity 
 for treatment, the capacity, general location and plan, and finally 
 the detail design. At the outset, inquiry should be made as to 
 the state and municipal requirements with regard to sewage treat- 
 ment and disposal, and house plumbing, and a conclusion reached 
 as to the nature and degree of treatment, if any, which may be 
 required, and local conditions to be met. 
 
 Types of Systems. — Sewage and drainage may be effected by 
 collection and removal in one system of conduits, in which case 
 the system is called the combined system, or by the alternative 
 plan, the separate system, wherein the domestic sewage is carried 
 in a separate sanitary sewerage system, and the storm drainage 
 in an additional and distinct system of storm drains. 
 
 The first question to be settled is that of type of system. Nei- 
 ther the combined nor the separate system have inherent ad- 
 vantages which render either preferable in all cases. The one to 
 be selected is that which will render the required service at the 
 least cost. As a condition precedent to making a decision on this
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 191 
 
 point, the method of sewage disposal, and the nature and degree 
 of treatment required, if any, must be studied and solved in 
 general terms, as it has a most important bearing on the selection 
 and design of the type of system. The economical considerations 
 concerned are susceptible of analytical study, dependent for 
 their value upon the reliability of the underlying data. 
 
 As the rate of storm discharge, although intermittent, is 
 much greater than the flow of sanitary or domestic sewage, the 
 latter being ordinarily and approximately but one per cent, of the 
 former, the separate system requires the laying of storm drains 
 of approximately the same size as that required in the combined 
 set. In addition, a system of small size sewers, is required, which 
 ordinarily range from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, the greater 
 part of the system being composed of 8-in. pipe. If the roof 
 drainage is to be carried directly to the storm sewer, two sets of 
 house connections are necessary for the separate system, one to 
 carry the domestic sewage and the other the roof water. It 
 therefore follows that, if all the streets are to be sewered and all 
 houses connected both for domestic sewage and roof water, under 
 most conditions the cost of the separate system would exceed 
 that of the combined system. There are, however, other practi- 
 cal and economical considerations which may make it possible, 
 in some cases, to install the separate systems at less cost than 
 the combined. These are chiefly due to the comparatively 
 lesser depth at which the storm drains may be laid, if separate, 
 as compared to those required for the larger sized combined 
 pipes when placed low enough to receive house wastes. 
 
 Many of the older communities are now sewered on the com- 
 bined plan, by reason of the fact that until comparatively recent 
 years the necessity of separate sewers, due to treatment required, 
 had not arisen, and further, little attention had been given to 
 the economical advantages to be secured in many cases by the 
 adoption of the separate system. Where sewage and drainage 
 may be effected by the extension of, or by connection with an 
 existing system of combined sewers, it will generally be found 
 advisable to install the combined system, unless the develop- 
 ment of state or local sanitary policies may alter the conditions 
 and requirements. It may, however, for economical reasons be 
 found desirable to install the separate system in developing 
 new areas, and make connection with the existing combined 
 system, for the purpose of securing an outlet.
 
 192 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 If sewage treatment works, or long and expensive outfall con- 
 struction is found necessary, either the separate system is gen- 
 erally most economical, or the quantity of flow to be handled 
 must be reduced by diversion of the surplus discharge during 
 heavy rain by means of overflows into nearby water courses. 
 If this latter procedure is permissible, the combined system, other 
 conditions being favorable, may be installed; otherwise the sepa- 
 rate system is clearly indicated. Where overflows are permissible, 
 collection may be made in the combined system and the excess 
 storm flow discharged at one or more points before the outfall 
 or the treatment works are reached. Or, an alternative plan 
 may be followed, wherein the dry weather flow, composed almost 
 entirely of house sewage, is diverted into so-called interceptors. 
 In some cases, and to an extent determined generally by the sani- 
 tary regulation of the state, two or three times the dry weather 
 flow may be carried in the interceptor, in order to take care of 
 the first wash of the streets. This will result in the development 
 of an intercepting system which, however, is more often resorted 
 to where sewer extensions and disposal of the sewage of a town 
 already sewered on the combined system, is under contemplation. 
 
 Having determined the sewage disposal problem and where the 
 selection of the type of sewerage system is not dictated or con- 
 trolled by the local sanitary or health requirements, the con- 
 clusion will rest upon the relative estimates of the first costs of 
 construction, and of maintenance and upkeep, with respect to the 
 following factors; the depth of trench, and the character and 
 quantity of excavation ; length and size of the various sewers and 
 drains; extent to which storm drains must be installed if the 
 separate system is used; number and length of house connections. 
 Topography and conditions of soil play an important part in 
 these studies and estimates. 
 
 An economic advantage in favor of the separate system will 
 result if the extent of the storm drainage system can be materially 
 reduced. The conditions permitting and the manner in which 
 this may be done, are later considered in the section bearing 
 upon the design of storm drainage systems. The storm drains 
 of a separate system may be designed for a somewhat less capa- 
 city than required at corresponding places in the combined sys- 
 tem. This is being made possible by the elimination of the danger 
 of backing up through house connections during excessive rains, 
 and the unsanitary effects of flooding. Where the area to be
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 193 
 
 sewered is low-lying and flat, better results can generally be 
 obtained by installing separate sanitary sewers. Self-cleansing 
 velocities generally can be obtained at less cost, and with less 
 pumping, on account of the better flow conditions which may be 
 obtained with the smaller or flatter gradients; hence excessive 
 maintenance cost and the nuisance of clogged sewers is avoided. 
 
 SEPARATE SANITARY SEWERS 
 
 The quantity of sewage to be provided for in the sewerage sys- 
 tem and treatment works must be ascertained in order to fix their 
 capacity. This involves a determination of the average daily 
 maximum and minimum rates of discharge. The sources from 
 which the flow is contributed are: — House or domestic sewage, 
 emanating from the water closets, wash-stands and cellar sumps, 
 carrying the discharge from dwellings and places of business; 
 trade wastes, which include waste products and waste water 
 used in processes of manufacture; leakage or infiltration into 
 the sewers. With respect to the different districts contributing 
 sewage the areas may be classified as residential, commercial, and 
 manufacturing or industrial; each with its peculiar features and 
 characteristics as to quantity and quality of sewage, and fluctua- 
 tion in rate of discharge. 
 
 Quantity of Domestic Sewage. — The average daily quantity of 
 domestic sewage contributed bears a close relationship to the 
 use of water, is proportional to the population and is the 
 product of the population and the per capita contribution. 
 
 Where an isolated development of known extent is under 
 consideration, the number of dwellings being known, the popula- 
 tion to be provided for may be ascertained by allowing an average 
 of five persons per family, making suitable allowance for boarding 
 houses, hotels and any public use of water. More thorough 
 studies will be required, where an existing population is to be 
 taken care of, or where there are undeveloped adjoining areas 
 for which provision is to be made for future development. 
 Under such circumstances the probable future growth of the 
 community, as affected by local conditions and the expected 
 growth of industry, and other factors, must be considered. 
 
 While it is desirable to ascertain the probable future popula- 
 tion, it is not necessarily desirable and economical to make too 
 great a provision for unknown conditions of the future which
 
 194 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 may, or may not, eventuate. It may be more economical to 
 provide additional and duplicate construction when the necessity 
 arises. Street sewers, or laterals, and the smaller mains for 
 built-up territory should be designed for ultimate conditions, 
 regardless of the extent of the immediate building program. In 
 the absence of more specific data an allowance of at least 45 
 persons per acre should be made for residential districts. 
 
 The average daily use of water not only varies largely in dif- 
 ferent cities but also in different parts of the same city or com- 
 munity. It is determined and affected by local customs and 
 habits, and varies with the type or character of the district, 
 reflecting in this manner the standard of living of the residents, 
 and restrictions in the use of water. There is also a tendency 
 for the use of water to increase with the age of the city. As the 
 sewers must be designed to carry the maximum average daily 
 flow at its maximum rate, we are concerned with this maximum 
 rather than the yearly average, daily flow. 
 
 The average daily water supply in residential districts will 
 range from 25 to 160 gallons per capita per day, with a general 
 average of 100 gallons. In deducing the average daily sewage 
 flow from water supply data an allowance must be made for 
 losses and uses not reaching the sewers; and additions made 
 for contributions from plants having private sources of water 
 supply, and for leakage into the system. 
 
 Flow from Commercial and Industrial Districts. — The quan- 
 tity of sewage to be contributed by stores and factories must 
 receive special attention. The flow from small business or 
 industrial sections can be assumed to be absorbed in the general 
 average, insofar as the capacity of the mains are concerned; but 
 care should be exercised that the lateral, or street sewers, into 
 which such contributions are directly discharged, are of ample 
 size to carry off the discharges at their maximum rates and deliver 
 the same to the main sewer. The discharge from local groups of 
 store buildings incident to the planning of any industrial town 
 will therefore not introduce any important problems, except 
 as to the required depth to remove sewage from deep basements. 
 
 When the commercial district is extensive, special study must 
 be made of the probable requirements. The estimated flow to be 
 provided for may then be based upon the number of employees, 
 not resident in the district, using water at an assumed average 
 rate. This may vary from 10 to 25 gallons per capita, with
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 195 
 
 suitable allowance for fluctuation so as to obtain the maximum 
 rate, to which must be added the flow contributed by the residents. 
 
 The discharge of domestic sewage and trade waste from indus- 
 trial and manufacturing plants varies through such a wide range, 
 depending upon the size of the plant and the nature of the industry, 
 and also upon the extent of sanitary facilities provided, that a 
 conclusion as to the quantity can be reached only after a study of 
 the particular existing conditions. The flow of domestic sewage 
 can be estimated in the same manner as indicated for industrial 
 districts; namely, upon the number of the employees and the 
 average daily use of water, with special consideration as to the 
 maximum rate of discharge. The latter is influenced greatly 
 by the toilet provisions and the general habits of the employees. 
 
 Water is extensively used in many of the various processes _ 
 of manufacture, and is ordinarily referred to as trade wastes. 
 If included in the sewage discharge this will require special study 
 as to quantity and rate of discharge. It is some times consider- 
 able and an estimate can be made only after a full investigation 
 as to the particular processes and uses of water. 
 
 Leakage or Infiltration. — Provision should be made, in fixing 
 the capacity of the sewers, to cover leakage, or infiltration, of 
 ground and surface water into the system. Such leakage is due 
 to ingress of water through the pipe joints, defects in house con- 
 nections, defective construction of manholes and other appurten- 
 ances. It may be aggravated and become progressive by lack 
 of proper maintenance, and by improper construction which 
 causes subsequent settlement. 
 
 The quantity of leakage depends on the height of ground water, 
 the nature of the soil, the features of design, particularly the 
 materials and methods used in making the joints, and the care 
 with which the construction is carried out. Defective house 
 connections as installed, and later extended, replaced or repaired, 
 are frequent sources of high rates of ground water leakage. In 
 any event, there will be a normal amount of leakage which it is 
 not practicable to prevent, and it is wise to provide a sufficient 
 factor of safety to cover lapses in construction beyond the control 
 of the designer. 
 
 As leakage is a factor primarily of the length and size of the 
 pipes, and of the number of house connections; assuming good 
 design and construction, the rational method of estimating its 
 quantity is to estimate the same on the basis of the leakage per
 
 196 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 inch of diameter per mile of system. The allowances made, to 
 be on the side of safety, should be liberal. The following are 
 recommended : 
 
 Under favorable soil and ground water conditions, 25,000 
 gal. per mi. of sewer for pipe not over 12 in. in diameter; and 
 30,000 to 50,000 gal. per mi. in excess of 12 in. in diameter. 
 Under unfavorable soil and ground water conditions, an allow- 
 ance from 50,000 to 100,000 gal. per mi. should be made. 
 The latter figure will be used where ground water, in quantity, 
 has a tendency to follow the line of the trench ; also in low-lying, 
 flat areas where the ground water level is above the top of the 
 sewer. The above figures may be reduced 50 per cent, by use of 
 bituminous joints. 
 
 For simplicity of computation it is convenient to convert the 
 leakage allowance in gallons per mile of sewer, to gallons per 
 capita per day. This may be done by using the assumed or 
 ascertained density of population per acre and the lineal feet of 
 sewer per acre. This latter quantity in the absence of specific 
 data, may be taken to range from 175 to 340 lin. ft. per acre, 
 with an average of 200 lineal feet. 
 
 Design of System. — Designs, even of a preliminary character, 
 should be based upon adequate data, and upon suitable maps and 
 plans. Reliable topography is of importance, in order to fix the 
 approximate location, grades, and elevation of the main lines. 
 The type and principal features of the system should be deter- 
 mined and known before the final adoption of the street plan of 
 the development as sewerage and drainage are factors to be 
 considered in developing such a layout. It is extremely diffi- 
 cult to make any changes in street locations after early ideas 
 become fixed; accordingly necessity for early consideration of 
 sewerage is indicated. 
 
 General Considerations. — The general arrangement of the 
 system is, therefore, necessarily fixed within the developed area 
 by the adopted street location, which in turn is affected largely 
 by topography. The sewers should be located as far as possible 
 in public thoroughfares, or in easements, where the latter are 
 used instead of alleys. Outside of the developed area, location 
 will frequently be made on private rights of way, or easements. 
 These should be selected with reference to economy of con- 
 struction, minimization of property damage and future street 
 locations. Definite agreement for these should be early
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 197 
 
 obtained, covering the width, location, and the rights of the 
 parlies interested. 
 
 One of the objects sought in design is the elimination of large 
 size pipes or conduits, as far as possible. To some extent this 
 means the utilization of the smaller sizes to the limit of their 
 capacity. The arrangement, however, will be limited and 
 affected by other controlling factors, as the depth of cut and 
 available grade. Where alternative location of large sewers is 
 possible, determination of the character of the excavation is 
 frequently desirable, in order to avoid difficult work in soft 
 ground, or in rock. 
 
 Where there is a possibility of extending an existing sewerage 
 system it should be thoroughly examined as to location of mains, 
 grade, capacity and condition. In case of such extensions or 
 where the housing site is within municipal limits, the local 
 practice of the city should be followed, insofar as good practice 
 and the requirements of the situation will permit. 
 
 Rate of Flow to Provide. — The quantity to be provided for is 
 the maximum rate at which the flow will be discharged through 
 the system at any time. It consists of the aggregate of the flows 
 from the various sources previously discussed. The actual rate 
 of flow Varies from day to day and from hour to hour, and is also 
 subject to seasonal changes and to progressive increase or decrease. 
 The values for maximum rates used by various engineers vary 
 widely; it is a matter of the application of general principles to the 
 individual case. Care must therefore be used, in applying any 
 recommendation, to suit local circumstances and requirements. 
 
 Laterals and street sewers, up to 15 in. in diameter, should be 
 designed for a total capacity, running full, of between 375 and 
 550 gal. per capita daily; good average practice for residential 
 sections, indicates about 500 gal. per capita. In ordinary muni- 
 cipal practice somewhat higher values are used. Sewers in 
 excess of 15 in. in diameter may be designed for somewhat less 
 capacity, which can be reduced for the reason that the fluctuation 
 of flow decreases with the increase in number of persons contribut- 
 ing. An allowance of from 250 to 350 gal. per capita in the design 
 of main and outfalls is good practice; 300 gal. per capita is the 
 general practice in the design of many large and important inter- 
 ceptors and long sanitary outfalls. 
 
 An analysis of the ordinary maximum rate for a lateral system 
 should be made along the lines indicated in Table 30.
 
 198 . 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 Table 30. — -Estimated Sewage Flow 
 
 From various source 
 
 Average daily flow, based on the average daily use of water 
 
 Leakage or infiltration, estimated 
 
 Manufacturing purposes 
 
 Commercial purposes 
 
 Total sewage daily flow 
 
 Add 50 per cent, for fluctuation, to obtain maximum rate. 
 
 Total maximum rate 
 
 Gallons per 
 capita 
 daily 
 
 100.0 
 
 50.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 165.0 
 82.5 
 
 247.5 
 
 In computing the total capacity of the sewer along the fore- 
 going lines, further allowance must be made for excessive fluctua- 
 tions and contingencies, both present and future. To make such 
 provisions, sewers of from 8 in. to 15 in. in diameter should be 
 proportioned to run one-half, and the larger sizes should be 
 designed to run two-thirds full. When the design of long inter- 
 ceptors or large mains is under consideration, special study should 
 be given to the question of fluctuation and maximum rate. It 
 should be borne in mind that, in designing sewers for a housing 
 development, a somewhat less factor of safety may be used than 
 in ordinary municipal practice, for the reason that some of the 
 factors which are ordinarily a matter of estimate can be definitely 
 ascertained in the former case. 
 
 The United States Housing Corporation issued the following 
 instructions and suggestions: design to be based upon two 
 families every 20 ft. of street, five persons per family; average 
 daily use of water 125 gal. per capita; an allowance of 50 per 
 cent, for daily fluctuation in flow; ground water leakage 25 
 per cent, to 75 per cent, of the average daily flow. This gives 
 totals from 218.75 to 281.25 gal. per capita daily as maximum 
 safe working units. This was stated to be applicable to small 
 districts of 40 acres, or under, in area. Further suggestion is 
 made that sewers, of from 8 to 15 in. in diameter, should be 
 proportioned to run one-half full; so that the total maximum rate 
 provided for is raised from 437.5 to 562.5 gal. per capita per day. 
 
 The United States Shipping Board, Emergency Fleet Corpora- 
 tion, Division of Passenger Transportation and Housing, in its 
 instructions and recommendations for the design of sewers and 
 drainage systems, recommended somewhat lower values. The
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 199 
 
 average daily flow, except in special conditions was assumed at 
 75 gal. per capita. The following rates were suggested as the 
 basis of design for the sizes indicated. 
 
 For 8-inch sewer, 400 gallons per capita. 
 
 For 10 and 12-inch sewers, 350 gallons per capita. 
 
 For larger sizes, 300 gallons per capita. 
 All sewers flowing full. 
 
 Additional allowance for ground water, from 25,000 gal. per 
 mi. per day for 8 and 10-in. sewers, and 30,000 to 50,000 gal. 
 per mi. per day for the larger sizes, was further recommended 
 and was to be added to the foregoing where cement joints were 
 used. With bituminous joints, leakage was taken as one-half 
 of the foregoing. 
 
 Details of Computation.— The well known Kutter or the Willi- 
 ams-Hazen formulae may be used for computations. The value 
 of the coefficient "n," should be taken as 0.013 for pipe sewers 
 and 0.015 for brick or masonry sewers; and "C" should be taken 
 as 100 for terra cotta pipe sewers and 110 for brick or masonry 
 sewers. Suitable hydraulic tables and diagrams are available, 
 giving on inspection the velocity and discharge corresponding 
 to the various slopes and sizes. 
 
 The data and results of the design should be arranged in 
 tabular form, giving the location (usually taken at a point where 
 additional flow is received from a connection, at an assumed 
 point of concentration, or a change in slope) of the station or 
 reference point; the elevation of flow line; quantity to provide 
 for; grade; size; velocity and capacity. 
 
 Profiles of the lines should be prepared, showing the elevation 
 of present surface, both on the center line of the proposed sewer 
 and on the side lines of the street if the location be in a street. 
 Where the depths of cellars of existing or proposed houses are 
 likely to control the location of the sewers, their elevation and 
 location should also be shown. The finished, or established grade, 
 of the street should likewise be shown as well as existing surface 
 and subsurface structures, where clearances or obstructions are 
 involved. 
 
 Starting at the upper end the sizes are determined progres- 
 sively, investigation for change of size being made at all points 
 where there is sufficient increase expected in the quantity of flow. 
 Such points will occur where branch sewers connect and as the 
 contributions from house connections accrue.
 
 200 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Velocities and Grades. — The grades of a given size sewer cannot 
 be reduced below a certain minimum without a corresponding 
 increase in the probability, or necessity, for frequent cleansing, 
 together with liability of serious clogging. When grades are not 
 sufficient, sewer maintenance in opening up clogged sewers and in 
 flushing, either with automatic devices or street hose, will be 
 incurred, thus throwing an additional or needless item of cost 
 upon operation. 
 
 Where possible a self-cleansing velocity of not less than 3 ft- 
 per second, with sewers running full, should be obtained and 
 adhered to as a minimum. This will obviate the necessity of 
 flushing or cleaning. When pumping or excessive cost can be 
 avoided by so doing the minimum velocity may be reduced to 
 23^ ft. per second; or even to 2 ft. per second in certain extreme 
 cases, which will probably require some provision for flushing. 
 The relative economy and desirability of velocities of less than 
 2 ft. per second should be compared with those of pumping; 
 the factors to be considered being the cost of pumping, compara- 
 tive amounts and depths of trench excavation, which are reflected 
 in cost of construction, and the cost of cleaning and flushing in 
 operation. 
 
 While some existing systems with velocities of 1 ft. per second 
 have worked out without any large amount of deposit, such 
 practice should not be followed without thorough investigation 
 and consideration. In such cases flushing the dead ends and 
 at points along the line of the sewer will be required. 
 
 An analytical consideration of the actual minimum velocity 
 and of the shape of the sewer section is involved in consideration 
 of the minimum flow in larger sewers and outfalls. The mini- 
 mum flow may be taken as a proportion of the average daily 
 sewage flow, or may be determined by analysis. It is composed 
 of leakage or infiltration, which is fairly uniform throughout 
 the day; the legitimate night use of water, ranging from 7% to 
 15 gal. per capita, depending upon the habits of the residents; 
 and the night use of water in manufacturing plants. It further 
 includes the waste of water through defective fixtures, and such 
 flow as arises from the habit of leaving fixtures open in freezing 
 weather. The minimum flow, usually occurring at night, ranges 
 as a rule, from 25 to 50 gal. per capita per day. Satisfactory flow 
 conditions must obtain for carrying off the minimum flow. The 
 velocity half full is equivalent to that when flowing full and as
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 201 
 
 the depth of flow decreases below one-half full, the velocity 
 likewise decreases. 
 
 While the conclusions reached as to minimum discharge 
 conditions in the smaller size sewers can be ordinarily relied upon, 
 the design of the larger sanitary sewers, and of important out- 
 falls and interceptors will necessitate more thorough study 
 of the actual rate of minimum flow and the design of a special 
 section, if sufficient velocity cannot be otherwise obtained. 
 Such sections are so designed that the depth of flow and hence 
 the velocity does not decrease as rapidly with a given quantity, 
 as in the case of a circular sewer. Various shapes are used, of 
 which the egg-shape, elliptical, and parabolic, with modifications, 
 are common examples. Sewer sections of this kind are generally 
 more expensive to build, require more head room and greater 
 depth of trench and consequently take up more of the available 
 fall than circular sewers; their offsetting disadvantages from this 
 standpoint must therefore be considered. A maximum velocity 
 of over 6 ft. per second is undesirable unless the normal flow is 
 large, as otherwise there is a tendency for floating matters to 
 be left behind. 
 
 For convelnent reference the following table giving minimum 
 permissible grades for various size terra cotta pipe sewers, is 
 offered; this being based on a value of 0.013 for the coefficient 
 n of the Kutter formula. 
 
 Table 31. 
 
 — M 
 
 nimum Permissible Grades of Sewers 
 
 Diameter of 
 sewer in 
 inches 
 
 Slope in feet per 100 for 
 
 veloeity of 2 feet 
 
 per second 
 
 running 
 
 full 
 
 Slope in feet per 100 for 
 
 velocity of 3 feet 
 
 per second 
 
 running 
 
 full 
 
 6 
 
 
 0.05 
 
 1.40 
 
 8 
 
 
 10 
 
 . 90 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 28 
 I) 22 
 
 IS 
 
 15 
 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.34 
 
 18 
 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.26 
 
 20 
 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.22 
 
 24 
 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.17 
 
 27 
 
 
 . 0GG 
 
 0.143 
 
 30 
 
 
 0.058 
 
 0.122 
 
 Changes in grade and in alignment should be made only at 
 manholes, so as to facilitate inspection and cleaning. Where
 
 202 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 the street alignment is curved, the deflection should be made 
 on chords, except when the diameter is 30 in. or more. This 
 practice can be departed from only when the grades are such that 
 self-cleansing velocities are absolutely assured. Changes in 
 direction of the smaller sizes may easily be made by molding the 
 curves in the base of the manhole, thus avoiding both the excava- 
 tion of circular trench and making the deflection with pipe. 
 
 Computation should be made using the hydraulic grade line 
 rather than the invert of the sewer as a basis. Also, to insure 
 the realization of the capacity of the sewer and the fulfillment of 
 hydraulic conditions, changes in size should be made by keeping 
 the top of the sewer continuous rather than so maintaining the 
 invert line. 
 
 Minimum Sizes. — The minimum size of the sewer should not be 
 less than 8 inches. While the flow for considerable distance along 
 the street can be carried in a much smaller sewer there is too 
 much liability of clogging and stopping, nor is the slight saving 
 in cost of a 6-in. sewer compared to that of an 8-in. sewer sufficient 
 to warrant the adoption of the smaller size. 
 
 Depth and Location. — The depth at which sewers should be 
 laid will be controlled first by the grade line, then by the amount 
 required for protection, and finally by that elevation required to 
 enable house connections to be made. The depth at which the 
 house connection enters the street sewer will depend upon its 
 length and the relative difference of elevation between that of 
 the surface of the ground at the house and the finished grade 
 of the street, and further, by the minimum depth at which the 
 house connection leaves the house. Where no cellar fixtures 
 are provided, or where cellars are entirely omitted, the depth 
 of house connections will be fixed by the requirements for 
 protection. 
 
 The required depth will vary with the latitude and climatic 
 conditions, but it is good practice to allow a minimum of 2>^ ft. 
 of cover over the pipe. Frequently a cellar sump is provided 
 and sometimes laundry tubs or other fixtures, in which case the 
 main house drain is laid under the cellar floor. Cellar sumps 
 are advantageous, in order to facilitate cleaning and to drain wet 
 cellars generally where depth of the sewer system is a matter of 
 economic concern, it is due to construction in low-lying, flat 
 ground which at the same time is likely to cause wet cellars, 
 either by leakage through cellar walls or by ingress of surface
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 203 
 
 water through openings. Such conditions are preventable, and 
 the contingencies of construction should be anticipated even 
 though additional, but not prohibitive cost, is incurred. 
 
 If it be desirable to raise the height of the sewerage system, 
 or a part of it, in order to save pumping or construction costs, 
 the main house drain can be suspended above the cellar floor; 
 in which case cellar sumps or fixtures cannot be provided. The 
 possibility of wet cellars must be forestalled by subdrainage of 
 the foundation. The expense of this latter method must be 
 compared then with the costs involved in lowering the sewer 
 system. With a 6-ft. cellar, the floor of which is 4 feet below 
 the adjoining surface of the ground, and a 20-ft. setback, a 
 minimum depth of 7 ft. at invert of the street sewer will be 
 required, in order to make a satisfactory house connection. The 
 foregoing will be sufficient as a minimum for residential streets 
 and where the nature of the ground occupancy is definitely 
 ascertained. Where the character of abutting buildings is a 
 matter of future determination, or where stores or other commer- 
 cial buildings are planned or are likely to be built, the invert 
 depth should be increased to at least 10 ft. and in some cases to 
 12 ft., so as not to restrict the use of the land for the most 
 profitable purposes. 
 
 In fixing the depth and location of mains, attention must always 
 be given to the question of future extension into adjacent tribu- 
 tary areas. Such growth may be rendered difficult and costly if 
 the sewerage system, as planned, will not permit of extension. 
 Participation of municipal authorities and of adjoining property 
 owners may be often secured to cover the additional cost 
 incurred. 
 
 In sidehill locations with houses on the higher side of the street 
 it is possible to lay the sanitary sewers at comparatively shallow 
 depths, while those on the lower side will require excessive depths. 
 It thus may frequently be economical to sewer the houses on the 
 lower side by laying a duplicate sewer in the rear of the houses in 
 an easement or alley. Advantage may be taken also of the de- 
 scending grade of a street, by laying the house connections at an 
 angle of forty-five degrees and running down street. 
 
 Location may be either in the street, in which case the center 
 line is desirable, as this permits the manhole covers to be laid 
 level; or may be at the rear in an alley or easement. As it is 
 desirable to remove as many of the substructures from the street
 
 204 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 as possible, it generally follows that the sanitary sewer can be 
 located in the rear of the house, not only with less disadvantage, 
 but often with positive economy. The relative economy will 
 be determined by the comparative length of house connections 
 required for front or rear connection. There is a relationship 
 here between the planning of the house and that of the sewerage 
 system. With all fixtures in the rear of the house, unless the 
 lots are too deep, there will generally be a shorter run to an alley 
 or easement in the rear, than to a sewer in the center line of the 
 street. This is further accentuated in cases where there is a large 
 set-back. With the sanitary sewer located in the center line of a 
 50-ft. street, a 20-ft. set-back, the vertical soil pipe located in the 
 rear or 28 ft. from the front of the house, and a lot depth of 100 
 ft.; the length of house connections will be 73 ft. when the sewer 
 is located in the street as against about 55 ft. when located in a 
 rear easement or alley. In this case there would be a further 
 saving effected by reduction in the length of cast iron soil pipe 
 within the building. 
 
 A further deviation from ordinary practice, to be considered 
 where the street width warrants, consists in laying the street 
 laterals in duplicate, one under each sidewalk, instead of a single 
 sewer in the roadway. This removes the sewer from under the 
 roadway pavement, always a desirable feature, and avoids open- 
 ing up house connection trenches in the roadway; also shortens 
 house connections, and permits a lessening of the depth of the 
 street sewer, on account of the shortening of the house connec- 
 tions. The length of street sewer, however, will be doubled, but 
 with street widths of 50 to 60 ft., the relative cost will be about 
 equal and the question will be settled largely as a construction 
 problem. With wider streets the comparative costs will be 
 more pronounced in favor of the duplicate system. The arrange- 
 ment of the sewerage system installed in Buckman Village, 
 constructed by the Emergency Fleet Corporation, is illustrative 
 of the latter kind of planning (Fig. 32). 
 
 Appurtenances. — Most of the accompanying details of a sani- 
 tary sewer system are subjects of such common practice that 
 little more than mere mention need be made of them. It may be 
 well, however, to state a few of the standard practices. 
 
 House Connections. — These may be laid with either 5-in. 
 or 6-in. terra cotta pipe, the size depending upon the municipal 
 plumbing requirements and local practice. The use of smaller
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 205
 
 206 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 sizes is to be discouraged, on account of the likelihood of clogging. 
 
 Terra cotta pipe is generally- 
 laid from the sewer connection 
 to within 5 ft. of the building, 
 from which point cast iron pipe 
 is used. Recommended prac- 
 J tice in locating house connec- 
 § tions is shown in Figs. 33 and 
 | 34. 
 
 u House connections should be 
 | laid on a grade of not less than 
 ■a 34 i n - P er ft. > an d it is not de- 
 * sirable to have the grade exceed 
 ■£ 3^ inch per foot. They should 
 S be laid in as direct line and grade 
 B as possible, and with the same 
 £ care as that used in laying the 
 1 street sewers. 
 
 •§ The connection with the street 
 I sewer is made with a "Y", or 
 "o Wye Branch, laid in the street 
 
 sewer. Where there is separate 
 
 1 ownership, or occupancy of a 
 ~ building, each dwelling should 
 © have its individual connection. 
 '% Joint connections lead to litiga- 
 |tion and irresponsibility for 
 t stoppages. 
 | Manholes. — Manholes of 
 
 jj ample size and proper design 
 § should be provided at intervals 
 <? of from 250 to 350 ft., for sizes 
 eo of sewer up to 30 in. in diameter; 
 *? for the larger sizes a spacing 
 £ from 300 to 500 ft. may be used, 
 depending upon the size of the 
 sewer. It is good practice to 
 provide manholes at street in- 
 tersections, at points of connec- 
 tion with other sewers, and at 
 intervening points as required. In the smaller sizes of sewers
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 207 
 
 " W7 "k y A
 
 208 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and on fiat grades it will generally be better practice to provide a 
 manhole at both the P.C. and the P.T. of horizontal curves, but 
 where the sewer is of sufficient size to be entered, one of the 
 manholes may be omitted. The same practice may be followed 
 where the grades are good and the liability of stoppage slight. 
 
 The manholes may be constructed of either brick or concrete, 
 the latter being better in wet ground and all should be provided 
 with manhole steps to permit of access. The sewers should enter 
 and leave the manholes at or near the manhole invert. Manhole 
 castings should be sufficiently heavy so as not to be dislodged 
 and displaced by the movement of heavy traffic, and the manhole 
 frames should be well bedded in cement mortar to prevent the 
 ingress of water between the casting and the structure. Man- 
 holes with perforated covers should not be located in depressions 
 or sumps and if so located care must be taken to provide a water- 
 tight cover. 
 
 Joints and Fillers. — The cement joint is used for ordinary pur- 
 poses. Where ground water conditions are bad, extra deep and 
 wide sockets may be used with cement filler and hemp gasket; 
 and when under considerable ground water head, bituminous 
 joints are desirable to keep down the leakage. 
 
 Flush Tanks and Manholes. — When flushing is required by the 
 design, either flush tanks, flush manholes, or facilities for flushing 
 by hose should be provided. Flush tanks operating automatic- 
 ally discharge a limited quantity of water and are adapted 
 especially to take care of dead ends, but are not effective where 
 flat grades prevail throughout the system. In such case addi- 
 tional flush tanks of ample capacity or flushing manholes must 
 be provided at considerable cost, or flushing must be done by 
 other means. The two latter means require a maintenance force 
 to operate. 
 
 Flushing manholes are of special construction, provided with 
 a gate at each sewer opening into the manhole, which may be 
 quickly removed. They are operated by closing the gate and 
 partially filling the manhole; then a sudden release by opening 
 the gate will discharge a large amount of water under head. 
 Flushing by hose through a properly designed manhole is prob- 
 ably as economical as any method and likely to be quite as satis- 
 factory. Typical sections of a number of the appurtenances and 
 special features as designed by the Emergency Fleet Corpora- 
 lion, are shown on Fig. 34.
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 209 
 
 Inverted Siphons. — Inverted siphons are used to carry the 
 sewer line under water courses, or other obstructions, which 
 cannot be cleared without breaking the grade of the sewer. 
 A velocity of not less than 3 ft. per second should be maintained 
 in inverted siphons under all conditions of flow. Owing to fluc- 
 tuations in rate this can be accomplished, only, by providing 
 one or more additional lines of pipe of various sizes placed at 
 different elevations. Maintenance of velocity in the small lines 
 causes considerable loss of head and provision must be made for 
 it. The head required for the smaller lines determines the total 
 loss of head in the siphon. Clean-out gate chambers provided 
 with proper stop plank, or gates, for manipulation of flow, must 
 be provided at each end of the siphon. With proper care such 
 siphons can be designed that will operate through many years 
 without necessity of cleaning. 
 
 Foundations. — In firm ground, sewers can be laid directly on 
 the excavated subgrade, the bottom of the trench being ex- 
 cavated to conform to the shape of the lower half of the pipe. 
 In soft or yielding ground, timber platforms or cradles, or con- 
 crete foundations may be required to prevent settlement. In 
 deep cuts, concrete reinforcement should be used, extending at 
 least 6 in. under the pipe and being carried up well on the side. 
 Railroad crossings should be made with cast iron pipe and also 
 surrounded by concrete. In quicksand or other unstable soils, 
 subject to considerable yielding, timber piles may be required 
 in addition to timber or concrete cradles or platforms. Under 
 many conditions in soft ground, it will be sufficient to lay a 
 foundation consisting of a thickness of 6 in. or more of gravel 
 or broken stone. A careful examination of soil conditions and 
 bearing pressures will be profitable. 
 
 Pumping Stations. — Where pumpage is necessary it should be 
 reduced to an absolute minimum by the elimination of all un- 
 necessary flow, by making the system as water-tight as possible, 
 and by arranging the system so that as much as possible of the 
 flow can be carried off by gravity. This results in an arrangement 
 called the zone system, in which sewage from the higher levels 
 to the lowest limit which can be drained by gravity is collected 
 and carried off in high-level sewers. Sewage from the lower 
 levels is likewise collected in a distinct system and pumped either 
 into a high-level sewer or carried by separate outfall to the place 
 of disposal. 
 
 14
 
 210 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Unless there are exceptional conditions, or when a very large 
 installation is under consideration, pumping is generally done 
 by automatic machinery, using electrically operated pumps, 
 controlled by units consisting of a float valve and rheostat. 
 
 The pumps should be of the open propeller type. In fixing 
 the size of the pump to be installed the relative costs of pumping 
 and investments in using mains of larger diameter should be con- 
 sidered. When large stations are under consideration, or where 
 electrical current is not available, steam, gasoline, or oil driven 
 units may be used. The essential features of such an installation 
 include a receiving chamber, or well, permitting intermittent 
 action of the pumps at an economical rate. Pump wells should 
 provide for at least 15 minutes maximum flow. Bar screens, 
 with coarse openings, arranged for easy cleaning, must further 
 be provided in order to prevent clogging of the pumps. Units 
 should be installed in duplicate and should receive daily 
 inspection. 
 
 STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 
 
 General Considerations. — The design of storm drainage sys- 
 tems involves considerations of general arrangement, capacity 
 and extent of installation. The latter must be such as will 
 preclude damage to property by erosion or flooding, prevent 
 damage to pavements, permit the development of property, 
 and add to and conserve public convenience to a reasonable and 
 necessary extent. The extent of the installation, and likewise 
 the cost, will therefore vary with the topographical and local 
 requirements. The design involves consideration of the rainfall 
 rate to be provided for, the maximum rate at which such rains 
 will run off, the area covered by the system, and questions of 
 location, depth and grade. 
 
 Rainfall and Run-off. — The quantity of rainfall is a most 
 important factor. It is necessary to ascertain exact information 
 as to the intensity and frequency of heavy downpours of rain, 
 referred to as intense or excessive rains. For this purpose, the 
 rainfall records of the nearest United States Weather Bureau 
 office can be obtained, from which may be plotted the rate of 
 each excessive storm, in terms of its rate in inches per hour for each 
 5 minutes of its duration. These curves show variations, clearly 
 demonstrating that the arbitrary assumption of a certain rainfall 
 rate is utterly unwarranted.
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 211 
 
 Rates to Provide For. — Rainfall diagrams will show a few 
 abnormally excessive storms occurring at infrequent intervals. 
 These are the rates determining the maximum which may occur 
 over the period of years covered by the records, which generally 
 extend back as far as 1871. As to whether or not provision 
 should be made for the heaviest rainfall which may occur, will 
 depend, entirely, upon the local conditions and circumstances. 
 
 Unless there are unusual topographical conditions occasional 
 and limited surcharging of the storm sewers may not result 
 
 ■fi 5 
 
 ° 3 
 
 /./ 
 
 1° ■ 
 
 V 
 
 
 4 
 
 ^ 
 /» x 
 
 f-es 
 
 SMinojS-- 
 
 10 Minutes 
 
 -20 Mirrufesj: 
 
 I 
 
 30Minuj;cs__ 
 
 4q_Mrnufe5_ 
 6 Mirwl— 
 
 8 10 \Z 
 
 frequency -Years 
 
 20 
 
 Fig. 35. — Rainfall frequency curve; shows the relation between the frequency 
 and intensity of rainfall for storms of various durations for the Philadelphia 
 district; one of a series of diagrams prepared by the Engineering Division of 
 the United States Housing Corporation, Mr. John W. Alvord, Chief Engineer. 
 
 in great damage. This is particularly true where the overflow 
 can be well distributed and at places where such surcharging will 
 not flood cellars or seriously damage public or private property, 
 nor unreasonably interfere with public transportation and 
 convenience. Where street grades are good and the excess flow 
 will be quickly carried off into water courses or ditches and where 
 other favorable conditions exist, it will be good engineering 
 practice and economy to design the storm drainage system with- 
 out provision for the heaviest rains. 
 
 After careful consideration of the local conditions, it may be 
 possible to reach a decision to anticipate such storms which only
 
 212 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 occur at least once a year on the average, or the frequency pro- 
 vided for may be once in two years. 
 
 Fig. 35, reproduced from studies made by the United 
 States Housing Corporation, will be of interest in this connection. 
 
 If property, likely to be damaged, is in business districts, it 
 will be found desirable to make increased provision, so as to 
 carry, without flooding, storms which may occur at intervals 
 of five or even a greater number of years ; or it may be necessary 
 to even care for the maximum rate anticipated. 
 
 Run-off. — This is the amount of the rainfall reaching the 
 drains, and is considered in terms of the maximum rate of dis- 
 charge. Maximum run-off is expressed as a coefficient "C", 
 in terms of the percentage of the rainfall rate; and is affected 
 by the time of concentration, which is the interval of time that it- 
 takes from the beginning of the period of excessive rainfall to 
 the moment when the maximum discharge is obtained in the 
 drain. Time of concentration and the conditions affecting it 
 are later discussed. 
 
 The coefficient of run-off "C", depends upon a number of 
 conditions, among which are: the topography and prevailing 
 slope, including the slope of the main drain; perviousness of the 
 surface, which is dependent upon the character of the soil, 
 proportion of lawns, sidewalks, street pavements, buildings; 
 the condition of the surface of the ground prior to the beginning 
 of excessive rainfall, as whether the ground is frozen, or saturated; 
 and the duration of the storm. 
 
 An average coefficient of run-off may be assumed for the entire 
 area and applied uniformly. When greater refinement is es- 
 sential, the coefficient of the various tributary subareas may be 
 ascertained by analysis. In general terms, and except in very 
 flat or very rough topography, the value of the coefficient, for 
 residential districts will range from 0.30 to 0.55 or 0.60. Under 
 given topographical and soil conditions, the coefficient increases 
 with the degree of development and the density of population, 
 so that it is necessary to estimate the ultimate or future condi- 
 tions which the system is to serve. Too much reliance cannot be 
 placed upon the rate of discharge observable in open water 
 courses; for, without other conditions being changed, the rate of 
 discharge is increased by the installation of drains due to the 
 fact that the time of concentration is shortened. 
 
 Under most conditions it is not safe to assume a run-off co-
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 213 
 
 efficient of less than 0.50, without careful analysis of local condi- 
 tions. In sandy soils, where the topography is flat and the 
 density of population not over 45 per acre the coefficient may be 
 reduced to 0.30 or 0.35. In business districts the coefficient will 
 be higher and will range from 0.80 to 0.90. 
 
 An analytical study of the coefficient of run-off is based on 
 the impcrviousness of the different kinds of surfaces. The co- 
 efficient likewise increases with the estimated duration of storms, 
 as the impervious area increases owing to saturation. The 
 following values may be used, on the basis of calling the co- 
 efficient 100 for areas immediately yielding all the water which 
 falls thereon. 
 
 Table 32. — Run-off from Various Classes of Surfaces 
 
 Class of Surface 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Impervious 
 
 Roofs 
 
 Pavements — (n) Hard surface — sheet asphalt, grouted block 
 
 stone, etc 
 
 (b) Macadam, gravel, hard earth, etc 
 
 Lawns, open spaces, etc 
 
 Sidewalks — paved surfaces 
 
 planting strips 
 
 Parks, cultivated areas, etc 
 
 90-100 
 
 80-90 
 30-50 
 20-30 
 80-90 
 40-50 
 5-25 
 
 The determination of the amount of each class of surface will 
 give an average coefficient for the entire area considered. 
 
 The following is a table of values known as Friihling's coeffi- 
 cients arrived at in studies in Boston, Massachusetts. 
 
 Table 33. 1 — Fruhling's Values of Run-off Coefficient 
 
 Kind of Area 
 
 Value of "C 
 
 Densely built center of city 
 
 Densely built residence districts 
 
 Residence districts, not densely built 
 
 Parks and open spaces 
 
 Lawns, gardens, meadows, cultivated areas, varying with 
 
 slope and character of soil 
 
 For wooded areas 
 
 0.7 to . 9 
 0.5 to 0.7 
 . 25 to . 5 
 0.1 to 0.3 
 
 0.05 to 0.25 
 0.01 to 0.20 
 
 'From American Sewerage Practice: Metcalf and Eddy.
 
 214 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Extent of System. — Reference has already been made to the 
 opportunity of lessening the cost by restricting the extent of the 
 storm drainage system. It remains to point out under what 
 conditions this can be safely done. There are two methods 
 which can be used; first, where local conditions permit, the main 
 or trunk sewers can be reduced in length, or perhaps entirely 
 eliminated; second, the extent of the small street sewers or 
 laterals can be minimized by eliminating the upper ends. 
 
 Nearby water courses, drainage ditches and drainage lines 
 can be utilized as elements in the drainage system where the 
 continuous use of such as open water courses is not objection- 
 able. Sections of such natural water courses may be improved, 
 where it is desirable, by realignment and rectification of grades 
 and sections. Open water courses may be covered in congested 
 districts and this is often necessary as a sanitary measure. When 
 suitable precautions are taken there may be no reason why such 
 water courses may not be used permanently, or for a considerable 
 term of years, thereby deferring the first cost and saving the 
 interest charge on construction. Where this can be accomplished 
 the storm drainage system will naturally be reduced to its 
 simplest units of street laterals of smaller sizes of pipe. 
 
 Roof Water. — The extent to which street laterals can be reduced 
 or eliminated will depend greatly upon the provisions to be made 
 for carrying roof drainage coming from the houses. When the 
 buildings are well located, lot grading developed with care, and 
 if subfoundation conditions do not indicate danger of wet cellars, 
 the roof leaders may discharge on drip blocks and the flow carried 
 over the lawn. In such cases it will naturally flow across the 
 sidewalk and thence into the street gutters. If this is objec- 
 tionable, a shallow tile drain may be laid, connecting with the 
 roof leaders and extending across the lawn, through the side- 
 walk; thus discharge into the gutter through an opening in the 
 curb. 
 
 Thus an elimination of the house and cellar drain maybe 
 worthy of consideration from an economical standpoint, although 
 this practice is open to objection for certain reasons. In some 
 municipalities the connection of roof leaders to the storm or 
 combined sewers is required by ordinances or statute. There is 
 also a prejudice against the practice of elimination as likely to 
 cause wet cellars, and to make the sidewalk impassable in winter 
 owing to freezing of such flow from the house. In this connec-
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 215 
 
 tion it must bo borne in mind that roof leaders themselves 
 frequently freeze and melting snow from roofs drips on the ground 
 surface, and furthermore, there is always likelihood of a con- 
 siderable proportion of the roof water during heavy rains not 
 reaching the down spouts. 
 
 Numbers of wet cellars have been examined where the cause 
 was ascribed to the discharge of the roof leaders to the ground 
 directly adjoining the house, but in such cases the trouble 
 generally has been found elsewhere, as for instance in lack of 
 proper subdrainage of foundation where soil conditions were bad, 
 or defective cellar wall construction. Whether it is advisable 
 to effect the disposition of roof drainage in the manner indicated 
 is largely a matter of judgment and preference, as to whether 
 additional cost shall be incurred or the disadvantage permitted. 
 The cost of connecting up the roof leaders to the storm sewer 
 will run from $25 to $50 per house, depending upon the roof 
 design and arrangement of yards. 
 
 Street Water.— The distance which water can be carried in 
 gutters before reaching the first catch basin or storm inlet at 
 the head of a street lateral depends upon the grade, the type of 
 pavement, the gutter cross-section and the prevailing rate of 
 excessive storms. Hard surface pavements, such as sheet as- 
 phalt or block stone are not subject to erosion, and under such 
 conditions the gutter drainage can be safely carried a distance 
 of about 1000 ft., if the grades permit, and provided the gutter 
 capacity is sufficient. Pavements having less resisting qualities, 
 such as water-bound macadam, are more subject to erosion, 
 and in such cases a gutter run of 600 to 700 ft. generally should 
 be the maximum limit, The spacing of inlets along the line of 
 the drains is discussed later. 
 
 If storm water house connections are made, either the street 
 laterals will have to be extended so as to take in the furthermost 
 house on the street, or small drains may be laid under the curb. 
 This latter practice should be considered where thorough sub- 
 drainage of the roadway pavement is essential. In such case 
 small pipe, 4 or 6 in. in diameter, may be laid in broken stone. 
 
 The governmental agencies engaged in housing during the 
 Great War endeavored to limit the extent of storm drainage 
 systems to between one-third and one-half the length of the sepa- 
 rate sanitary systems. Upon investigating the relative lengths 
 of storm drainage and sanitary sewerage systems in a number of
 
 216 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 these developments, it has been found that for the- Emergency 
 Fleet Corporation the length of storm drains is 46 per cent, of the 
 length of sanitary system, while in the United States Housing 
 Corporation the similar ratio is 55 per cent. 
 
 Details of Design. — The same general methods are employed 
 in designing a storm drainage system as have been recommended 
 in sanitary sewer design. The area to be drained is laid out in 
 subdrainage areas, each served by a main lateral; and the area, 
 coefficient of run-off, size, capacity, and grade of the main laterals 
 draining each district determined. The size, capacity and grade 
 of the main sewer is then determined starting at the upper end 
 and proceeding progressively to the outlet. 
 
 The factors for design of the laterals, and mains, should be held 
 consistently throughout the area, so that the various sections will 
 carry off the same proportion of discharge. For instance, there 
 obviously will be surcharging and flooding in the main if the 
 laterals discharging into it are designed to carry off two inches of 
 rainfall, whereas the mains are designed to carry but one inch. 
 
 Discharge Formula. — The use of empirical formulae to deter- 
 mine the quantity of discharge and hence the capacity of storm 
 drains is obsolete except for preliminary computation. In 
 modern practice the so-called "Rational Formula" is used, which 
 is as follows: Q = ACL In this "Q" is the quantity of dis- 
 charge in cu. ft. per second; "A" is the area tributary to the 
 storm drain at the point under consideration and is expressed 
 in acres; "C" is the coefficient of run-off, which has been previ- 
 ously discussed and which is expressed as a decimal; "I" is the 
 rate of rainfall, corresponding to the time of concentration and 
 is expressed in inches per hours. 
 
 The time of concentration, is made up of the initial period, or 
 the time that it takes the water from the furthermost part of the 
 area to reach the nearest catch basin or storm inlet, and the time 
 of flow within the system. The initial period depends upon the 
 slope, character of surfaces and the distance. For simplicity of 
 computation it is ordinarily assumed from 5 to 7 minutes. After 
 reaching the gutters, the storm water flows to the nearest inlet, 
 and the time element here involved can be computed from the 
 kind of surface and slope. After entering the lateral, the time 
 of flow to the point under consideration can be easily computed, 
 on the basis of the grade and size. 
 
 Should there be an outlying unsewered area, it will be neces-
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 217 
 
 sary to estimate the contribution from this source. This may 
 be done by one of the empirical formulae, such as the McMath or 
 Burki-Ziegler. It is better practice, although taking more time, 
 to develop the design to include this area, so that if later de- 
 velopment occurs the system will be adequate to carry off the 
 total discharge. 
 
 Velocities and Grades. — The minimum velocity in storm 
 drains, flowing full or half full, should not be less than 3 ft, per 
 second, otherwise deposits of grit, sand, gravel and other heavy 
 materials may occur. If such a minimum velocity cannot be ob- 
 tained without undue cost, it will be necessary to adopt pre- 
 cautions to prevent the admission of heavier materials into the 
 system. This may be accomplished somewhat by providing 
 properly designed catch basins. 
 
 High velocities are unobjectionable, provided the grades of the 
 drain are sufficient to carry off heavy materials brought to it, 
 but on sharp grades suitable precaution should be taken to 
 prevent erosion or tearing out of the invert. The abrasive 
 resistance of terra cotta pipe is sufficient to withstand conditions 
 imposed by steep grades. Where large size sewers (in excess of 
 3 ft. in diameter) are to be constructed, it is usual to line the 
 invert either with hard vitrified paving or sewer brick or with 
 stone block — although monolithic concrete, if well constructed, 
 has an equally high resistance to abrasion. 
 
 Computations of flow should be based upon the hydraulic 
 grade or flow line, rather than on the invert line. 
 
 Minimum Size. — The minimum size of storm drains should 
 be 10 in. in diameter, but where the installation is extensive, 
 it may be desirable to increase the minimum size to 12 in. Some 
 municipalities fix a diameter of 15 in. as the minimum size. 
 
 Depth and Location. — The crown of storm drains should be 
 at least from 2 to 2y 2 ft. below the finished surface; so as to 
 afford protection. The drain, however, should be kept as close 
 to the surface as possible, keeping in mind the requirements for 
 house connections, junctions with other sewers, and clearance 
 with other substructures. 
 
 Joints and Filler. — Cement filled joints are preferable, since 
 tight construction is not necessary, and frequently not desirable 
 where the storm drains may aid in subdrainage of the ground. 
 
 House Connections. — As there is little or no foreign material 
 carried in the discharge from the roof leaders, house connections
 
 218 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 may be laid on grades just sufficient to carry the estimated 
 discharge. Six in. house connections are commonly used. 
 
 Manholes. — Manholes, which should be located at all changes 
 of line and grade, should be spaced at intervals of from 250 to 400 
 ft. apart. Manhole covers should be perforated to permit of 
 ventilation. 
 
 Catch Basins and Inlets. — When the velocity in the system is 
 self-cleansing, full entrance storm inlets are preferable to catch 
 basins. Traps on storm inlet connections are undesirable and 
 objectionable and frequently fail of intended purpose. The inlet 
 should be designed to give direct discharge into the connection, 
 so as to prevent the retention or deposit of sand or other mate- 
 rials, and to provide ample waterway area. Inlet and catch 
 basin connections, which should not be of less size than the mini- 
 mum for street laterals, should be laid on a grade of not less 
 than two per cent., and on as near a direct line as possible to the 
 street lateral. 
 
 Catch basins are to be used only when it is necessary to prevent 
 the discharge of heavy materials into the drains. Such design 
 involves careful maintenance, the liability of stoppage and a 
 possibility of nuisance. Where provided the catchment capacity 
 should be ample to permit settling and retention of foreign 
 materials, but even then the necessity of frequent cleaning is 
 always present and excessive storms quickly fill such basins, 
 thus rendering them of little effect. 
 
 Storm water inlets or catch basins should be provided at the 
 following locations: at low points in the gutters; at breaks of 
 grade in the gutters where the grade is perceptibly reduced; 
 at points where there is a concentration of surface drainage 
 from adjoining areas; at important street intersections. In 
 business districts it will also be good practice to provide four 
 rather than one or two storm inlets at intersections, so as to 
 prevent flooding of the street crossing. Where the grade is 
 continuous around the intersection, the inlet should be located 
 at a point a short distance above the first sidewalk crossing. 
 While it is more economical to locate the inlet at the midpoint 
 of the curb arc or return, such location is unsightly and does 
 not keep the street crossings clear from flooding. 
 
 At ordinary grades of from one to three per cent., inlets should 
 be spaced at distances of about 500 to 600 ft. On flatter grades 
 closer spacing will be desirable in order to prevent ponding or
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 219 
 
 pooling of water in the gutter, and on steeper grades such spacing 
 also will be required to make it possible to catch the water mov- 
 ing at high velocity in the gutter at the inlet opening. The type 
 of roadway pavement will have an influence on the spacing of 
 inlets and where the surface is liable to erosion, deterioration, or 
 disintegration by the action of water, closer spacing of inlets will 
 be required, particularly on flat and steep grades 
 
 Typical drawings of storm inlets are shown in Figs. 34 and 30. 
 
 Fig. 36. — Typical storm inlet as designed for theLoveland Farms housing project. 
 
 Location. — When the separate sanitary sewer is laid in the 
 center of the street, the storm drain is ordinarily laid between 
 the curb and the center of the street, at a distance of about five 
 ft. from the curb line. If a planting space of ample width is 
 provided and if there is room for clearance between the tree line 
 and the curb, or the sidewalk and the property line, the storm 
 drain may be laid in such space. ^Tiere some of the substruc- 
 tures must be laid under the roadway pavement, it is preferable 
 to locate the storm drain in the street rather than other utility 
 lines for which the necessity for repair is more likely. 
 
 COMBINED SEWERS 
 
 Combined sewers must be provided to serve the requirements 
 
 of both systems of the separate plan, and the design, therefore,
 
 220 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 will be affected by the considerations heretofore listed under 
 each system. 
 
 Quantity and Capacity. — The maximum capacity to be pro- 
 vided is fixed by the maximum rate for storm water discharge, 
 which is to be calculated in the same manner as for storm drains. 
 There is, however, this exception; as sanitary sewage and roof 
 water is carried in the same pipes and the flow at all times con- 
 tains sewage, in varying proportion to the storm flow, flood- 
 ing or over-taxing of capacity will be followed by more serious 
 results. The factor of safety used in fixing capacity, therefore, 
 will have to be increased, as it will only be permissible to ex- 
 clude the most excessive storms. Under some conditions even 
 the maximum rate of rainfall will have to be provided for. The 
 necessity of allowing for the maximum rate of rainfall will be 
 increased where drainage from business districts is under 
 consideration. 
 
 The rainfall rate to be provided for will vary from the maxi- 
 mum or heavy storms, occurring at intervals of once in five to 
 ten years. The possibility of property damage and trouble by 
 flooding must be balanced with the question of cost. 
 
 Consideration must be given and allowance be made for waste 
 from street cleaning by flushing and flow from flush-tanks and 
 similar sources. The design must also take into account the 
 minimum flow, which will consist of the minimum sanitary dis- 
 charge from the house fixtures plus leakage. Owing to the com- 
 paratively large size of the sewer, this flow will ordinarily be 
 sluggish compared with that which obtains in the sanitary sewer 
 of the separate system, where the capacity is more nearly adapted 
 to the hydraulic requirements. 
 
 Velocities and Grades. — The minimum grade of pipe sewers of 
 from 10 to 15 in. in diameter, should be such as will give veloci- 
 ties of not less than 3 ft. per second, when flowing full or half full. 
 When larger sizes are under consideration, conditions obtaining 
 under minimum flow must be investigated. 
 
 Where sufficient velocity cannot be obtained in the ordinary 
 circular section, recourse must be had to special sections, such 
 as the "ecg-shape", or the elliptical sewer, for the smaller sizes; 
 and in any event, special attention must be given to the design 
 of t lie invert in large sewers, with a view of providing for a suffi- 
 cient depth of flow during dry weather conditions. At the same 
 tii iic the section must be so designed as to prevent deposits on 
 ledges where the shape changes.
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 221 
 
 Depth and Location. — The flow line of combined sewers should 
 be at least 10 ft. below the surface of the street, the depth being 
 fixed at a required fall for the house connections. In business 
 districts this should be increased to 12 ft. 
 
 The location ordinarily used for the combined sewer is the 
 center of the street. Alternative locations in the alley or ease- 
 ment at the rear of the houses should, however, be inquired 
 into and adopted if economical and advantageous. 
 
 Catch Basins. — Traps are generally provided on house con- 
 nections, and like wise on catch basins or storm inlet pipe 
 connections. On account of the relatively lower self-cleansing 
 characteristic of combined sewers, catch basins are employed 
 more often than inlets, by reason of necessity, and local practice 
 indicates this. A trap may be provided either in the catch 
 basin connection, or may be formed in the catch basin itself; 
 the former is preferable. 
 
 SEWAGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 
 
 General Considerations.— The term "Sewage Treatment and 
 Disposal" covers the manner and method of the ultimate dis- 
 position of sewage. While it commonly refers to works providing 
 treatment of sewage, it may furnish only a properly designed 
 outlet into an open water course. It may, however, involve 
 construction of extensive works designed to reduce the high con- 
 tent of organic matter, to a degree of purity — the so-called 
 drinking water standard. 
 
 There is embraced in the consideration of this important sub- 
 ject, not only a knowledge of the various processes and methods, 
 but also the application of them to the problem in hand. The 
 object sought is the disposition of the sewage in such manner 
 as will be sanitary, cause no offense or nuisance, which will not 
 disturb the amenities, and which will not menace or affect the 
 health of the community from which the sewage is discharged, 
 or that of any other community in the locality. Whatever may 
 be the requirements, the problem must be solved in the manner 
 and by the methods most adaptable and effective to accomplish 
 the desired results, and whereby the cost of construction and 
 the cost of operation will be considered together and rendered 
 as low as consistent with the desired results. Due regard must 
 be given not only to the requirements of the present, but to the
 
 222 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 conditions of the future, as they may be affected by growth, or 
 by a change or raising of the sanitary policy. 
 
 It is beyond the scope and limits of this volume to cover in 
 detail the proper selection of type of plant and its design. The 
 subject is complex, highly technical in its several aspects, as it 
 concerns the sciences of bacteriology, chemistry, hydraulics, and 
 is a distinct and separate branch of the engineering profession. 
 It is greatly affected by experimental and operative data of 
 existing plants and deductions from lengthy investigations. 
 
 While there are but few who will question the necessity of 
 proper sewage disposal, it is generally looked upon by those upon 
 whom the expense falls, as an added and expensive burden, 
 bearing no return or profit to the builder and installed only to 
 satisfy the whims of state authority. There is, therefore, often 
 a disinclination to do the right thing at all, with the result that 
 it is frequently not done well or wisely, and that the cost of con- 
 struction and operation is excessive. The owner is chiefly 
 concerned in effecting disposal at the least cost, that the require- 
 ments of the State Health authorities be complied with — but he 
 is vitally interested in a solution which will not in any way 
 depreciate the value of his property. 
 
 It is the intention here to point out the principal methods 
 and means of sewage treatment and disposal, with some informa- 
 tion as to their application to various conditions and to indicate 
 the extent and the comparative cost of such installations. It 
 is well also to add a few words of precaution and advice as to 
 the selection of the best adapted methods of treatment, and as 
 to the selection of the site or location of the works. For the 
 results of sewage treatment and disposal installations have not 
 always been entirely satisfactory and failure is due largely to 
 the lack of judgment in selection of type and to careless and 
 inefficient operation. 
 
 Purposes of Sewage Disposal. — The decision to discharge sew- 
 age into bodies of water, requires consideration of the possible 
 insanitary and harmful effects of such discharge, and of the means 
 and processes which may be resorted to, to prevent such evils, 
 or to confine them within reasonable limits. There is involved 
 a study of the amount, character and condition of the sewage 
 to be discharged; a proper conception of the character and extent 
 of the various obnoxious and insanitary conditions which may 
 result therefrom; the character and physical attributes and
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 223 
 
 condition of the stream; the nature and the uses of the stream; 
 the means and methods of sewage treatment and disposal which 
 are best adapted to prevent obnoxious or insanitary conditions, 
 or to confine the affects within reasonable and permissible limits, 
 consistent with local conditions and the extent of injury which 
 may be suffered by the interests involved. 
 
 The following conditions may be created: 
 
 Physical effects in the vicinity of discharge, such as fouling 
 and deposits of solid matters in and along the shores and banks 
 of 1 he stream; formation of banks of sewage mud offshore in shal- 
 low water and possibly in the body or channel of the stream; dis- 
 coloration and turbidity at and below the point of discharge. 
 All the foregoing constitute local nuisances generally objection- 
 able in appearance, give rise to offensive odors, and may directly 
 or indirectly effect the health of the community, and prevent 
 the use of the water for public, industrial and private purposes. 
 The conditions above noted will generally obtain in more or less 
 aggravated degree in the vicinity of the outlet, unless there are 
 unusually advantageous circumstances. The continuation of 
 such evils are tolerated only because of the indifference of public 
 opinion. The conditions above referred to are brought about 
 chiefly by the floating and suspended solids carried in the sewage 
 and are referred to as "local nuisances". 
 
 General pollution of the water course, or other body of water, 
 constituting a condition of general nuisance — a term used to 
 describe the effects of sewage pollution in the main body of the 
 stream — may obtain a considerable distance from the point of 
 discharge, and is to be distinguished from local nuisance. It is 
 evidenced in a physical manner by floating matter, turbidity, 
 discoloration, offensive odors and, in a biochemical manner, by 
 changes in the character of the water, resulting principally by 
 the reduction and in the most extreme cases, by the exhaustion 
 of the oxygen normally contained in fresh water. In the many 
 extreme cases the water of the stream may approximate that of 
 sewage, and this condition may obtain not only in small water 
 courses such as brooks, but also in larger streams and lakes. It 
 may not directly concern the community from which the sewage 
 is discharged, but its effects may be far-reaching and interfere 
 with or prevent the use of the waters of the stream for useful 
 and necessary purposes, and may be destructive to fish life. 
 
 Contamination of water supplies and of water used for such
 
 224 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 purposes as bathing, boating, and for manufacturing and indus- 
 trial purposes may also result ; all of which are of vital importance 
 to the health and welfare of the community. Such contamina- 
 tion may occur either in the vicinity of the point of discharge, 
 or at points more remote. The question involved is not so 
 much that the water is polluted, for the reason that most water 
 courses are unsuitable for use as public water supplies without 
 some degree of water purification, but that contamination may 
 be of such magnitude as to render the purification or use of such 
 water unduly expensive or unreliable. 
 
 To avoid any or all of the foregoing conditions being created, 
 recourse must be had to that method, process, and type of sewage 
 disposal works which will safeguard public health, and will 
 prevent or restrict objectionable effects in a manner and to a 
 degree commensurate with the rights and relative interests of 
 the several users of the water of the stream. The particular 
 works should be of such kind, nature and extent that neither 
 the community discharging the sewage will be put to unreason- 
 able expense or the users subjected to danger or unwarranted 
 expense or burden in purifying or treating water for drinking 
 purposes. 
 
 Character and Constituents o) Sewage. — Sewage, composed of 
 liquid wastes from domestic and industrial sources, contains 
 organic and inorganic matters in varying proportions, in the shape 
 of floating and suspended solids, and in solution. It contains 
 enormous numbers of bacterial organisms and its presence as a 
 polluting, contaminating or disease producing agency is identi- 
 fied by the presence of the bacteria B. Coli, an organism emanat- 
 ing from the human intestinal tract. 
 
 Chemical analyses of the sewage of various localities reveals 
 a very wide range in its character, constituents and composition, 
 which is caused by many factors and conditions, particularly 
 the per capita use and character of water, the relative amounts 
 and nature of trade waste, the extent to which street wash is 
 admitted into the sewerage system, and the condition of the 
 sewage with respect to age. Not only does the sewage of various 
 localities show great differences but the strength and composition 
 of the sewage in any particular sewer varies from hour to hour, 
 and moreover the condition of sewage changes with time as the 
 process of its decomposition proceeds. Sewage is therefore vari- 
 able and complex.
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 225 
 
 The important characteristic of sewage is the amount and kind 
 of solid matters it contains, a considerable portion of which is 
 organic, and hence subject to decomposition, and the balance 
 mineral matter. The solids are partly in suspension and partly 
 dissolved or in solution in the sewage. The suspended matter is 
 of particular significance on account of the part it plays in the 
 creation of local nuisances in the vicinity of the outlet. 1 
 
 Suspended solids are those which are removed from sewage or 
 effluent by standard laboratory methods of filtration. That 
 part which subsides in quiescent sewage in two hours is termed 
 the "settling solids". Some of the suspended matter is so 
 finely divided that it cannot be settled by ordinary settling proc- 
 esses, and is defined as colloidal matter, which is suspended 
 matter so finely divided that it will not subside in two hours and 
 will not pass through a parchment membrane in the ordinary 
 process of dialysis. 
 
 The sewage of the typical residential community will generally 
 contain less than 1000 parts per million of solids, and perhaps 
 GOO to 800 parts per million may be taken as typical. Thus it 
 will be seen that the solids constitute less than one-tenth of one 
 per cent, of the total. About one-half of the total solids will be 
 in suspension and the balance in solution. Then again, ap- 
 proximately one-half only of the suspended solids can be settled 
 in two hours. It will be evident that the exact amount of the 
 solids which can be settled out in ordinary treatment processes 
 is of great importance, but that even though very efficient sedi- 
 mentation or removal is obtained, and practically all of the set- 
 tling solids thereby removed from the sewage, the effluent will 
 still contain a veiy large portion of the putrescible organic matter, 
 which is either in the form of collodial matter, but not susceptible 
 to sedimentation, or in solution. 
 
 This then will indicate why some relatively simple processes 
 such as screening and tank treatment of sewage, while they may 
 be effective to correct local nuisances and the more obvious effects 
 of sewage discharge, cannot be expected to prevent contamina- 
 tion of water supplies, unless further treatment is given. Resi- 
 dential sewage from small communities has this characteristic 
 that the proportion of matters in suspension and settling solids 
 
 1 See definition of terms used in sewage treatment: Report of the Com- 
 mittee on Sewerage and Sewage Disposal of the Sanitary Engineering 
 Section of the American Public Health Association, 1!)17. 
 
 15
 
 226 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 is relatively high compared to the sewage of large manufacturing 
 cities. 
 
 Decomposition oj Sewage.— Sewage undergoes a process of 
 decomposition, accomplished by chemical, physical, and bacter- 
 iological agencies, all of which play an important part and which 
 account for the varying conditions and characteristics. The 
 process in its simplest terms, consists of the breaking down of the 
 organic matter in solution and suspension and resolving it into 
 stable compounds, which is finally accomplished by the action 
 of bacteria, both with and without the presence of oxygen. 
 
 An important characteristic of the process of the decomposition 
 of the contained organic matter of sewage is the consumption of 
 the oxygen contained in the sewage and in the water into which 
 it is discharged. Both the strength of the sewage and the degree 
 of decomposition which it has undergone, can be measured in 
 terms of the amount of oxygen required for the completion of 
 the process of oxidation. 
 
 The process of decomposition of sewage is marked by the 
 following characteristics: 
 
 Beginning generally in the collecting system, the solids are 
 broken up by mechanical action, some becoming suspended mat- 
 ter and some going into solution; the oxygen contained in the 
 water begins to be absorbed by the organic matter, first by the 
 organic matter in solution, and later by the suspended matter; 
 this is continued as the breaking down process of decomposition 
 of the solids proceeds. When the oxygen in the sewage has been 
 consumed and the decomposition of the suspended matter begins, 
 which may take place in about six or eight hours, the sewage 
 may be said to be stale. The bacterial agencies which bring 
 about decomposition work either with the presence of air, in 
 which case the process is one of oxidation, and is termed aerobic; 
 or in the absence of oxygen, the bacterial organisms in this case 
 being termed anaerobic. 
 
 Final decomposition, without nuisance, can be brought about 
 only by complete oxidation, and can be effected either by the 
 discharge of the sewage into a body of water, the oxygen content 
 of which is sufficient to complete decomposition by oxidation, 
 or by accelerating the process of oxidation in treatment plants 
 by artificial means. 
 
 Disposal by Dilution and Diffusion. — Dilution in a body of 
 water is a natural process of disposal. To be satisfactory, it
 
 SEWERAGE A ND DRA I SACK 227 
 
 must be carried out without local nuisance in the vicinity of the 
 outlet, and must not contaminate or pollute the waters of the 
 stream in such manner as to violate reasonable sanitary require- 
 ments. The ability of the body of water to handle the burden 
 placed upon it by the discharge of the sewage will depend upon 
 its condition with respect to pollution from other sources, its vol- 
 ume, depth, character of its banks and shores, and the velocity 
 and volume of its discharge. 
 
 Many instances may be cited of the self-purifying abilities of 
 water courses into which the sewage from large populations is 
 discharged without seriously affecting their condition, use and 
 appearance. This obtains because the quantity of oxygen avail- 
 able is sufficient for oxidation, and other conditions are favorable. 
 The complexity of the problem, the variety of conditions, and 
 lack of sufficient precise data, make it impossible to set a definite 
 and general standard which will define the conditions under 
 which disposal by dilution can be effected without objectionable 
 conditions. 
 
 Authoritative Opinions. — As a criterion for the guidance 
 of sanitary engineers, and with the understanding that local 
 nuisance and contamination of water supply be avoided, the 
 Passenger Transportation and Housing Division of the Emer- 
 gency Fleet Corporation recommended the following: 
 
 "Disposal by dilution is generally satisfactory as regards freedom 
 from gross nuisance, if the sewage is properly carried away from the 
 shore and in shallow water through a submerged multiple outlet, and 
 when the flow of the stream in extreme dry weather will provide a dilu- 
 tion of about 5 cu. ft. per second per thousand population connected 
 with the sewers. Streams connected with public water supplies should 
 receive special consideration." 
 
 The instructions issued by the Engineering Division of the 
 United States Housing Corporation used the same amount. 
 
 This is an indication of the amount of dilution which will be 
 required under average conditions but cannot be considered 
 as of universal application, particularly where there is likelihood 
 of the pooling of sewage during dry weather periods, and in the case 
 of shallow streams having irregular courses and shallow depths. 
 
 When the stream below the sewer outlet is used as a source of 
 water supply the question of pollution of such supplies must 
 receive careful consideration. As the contamination of drinking 
 water must in any event be absolutely avoided, we must be
 
 228 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 guided by the conclusion that untreated sewage cannot be dis- 
 charged into a body of water so used, if an unreasonable burden 
 is thereby placed upon the systems of purification. The rela- 
 tive economy and effectiveness of sewage treatment versus 
 water purification is involved, and in this connection the follow- 
 ing conclusions reached by the Advisory Engineer of the Inter- 
 national Joint Commission are of interest. 
 
 "In water ways where some pollution is inevitable and where the 
 ratio of the volume of the water to the volume of sewage is so large that 
 no local nuisance can result, it is our judgment that the method of 
 sewage disposal by dilution represents a natural resource and that the 
 utilization of this resource is justifiable for economic reasons, provided 
 that an unreasonable burden or responsibility is not placed upon any 
 water purification plant and that no menace to public health is occa- 
 sioned thereby." 
 
 "It is our opinion that, in general, protection of public water sup- 
 plies is more economically secured by water purification at the intake 
 than by sewage purification at the sewer outlet, but that under some 
 conditions both water purification and sewage treatment may be neces- 
 sary." 
 
 As to the particular problem in hand, that of the pollution of 
 the boundary waters between the United States and the Domin- 
 ion of Canada, the Advisory Engineers concluded: 
 
 " While realizing that in certain cases the discharge of crude sewage 
 into the boundary waters may be without danger, it is our judgment 
 that effective sanitary administration requires the adoption of the 
 general policy that no untreated sewage from cities or towns shall be 
 discharged into the boundary waters." 
 
 In determining the advisability of disposal by dilution without 
 treatment, it is necessary to know to what extent water used as a 
 source of supply may be polluted. In this connection the 
 standards considered by the Joint Commission and by the Public 
 Health Service of the United States Treasury Department arc of 
 interest (See Chapter VI) and will aid in determining whether, 
 under the given conditions, disposal by dilution without treat- 
 ment is permissible. 
 
 Location oj Outlets. — Where disposal by dilution is determined 
 upon, the discharge of sewage and of the effluent of treatment 
 works, require careful consideration in the location and design 
 of the outlet, so as to prevent local nuisance at the shore and in
 
 SEWERAGE A ND DRAINAGE 229 
 
 the vicinity of the point of discharge. The outlet should be 
 located with proper regard to the depth of water, direction and 
 velocity of current, and to such conditions as shoals, sand bars, 
 or eddies. In most cases this will require extension of the outlet 
 beyond the shore to such a point and to such depth that good 
 diffusion or dispersion of the sewage can be obtained and main- 
 tained. The velocity of flow in the submerged outlet must be 
 sufficient to prevent deposits therein and in the immediate 
 vicinity of the outlet end, for this reason the size is generally 
 made less than that of the outfall sewer. This will involve loss 
 of head, and may require more than one line in cases where 
 fluctuations in quantity of discharge are large. Multiple outlets 
 also promote dispersion. In the case of combined sewers, or 
 where a part of the storm water is admitted into the system an 
 overflow is provided at the shore, the excess discharge passing 
 directly into the water course. 
 
 The elevation of the approach of the outlet line must be fixed 
 with proper reference to the elevation of the water in the stream, 
 so as to obtain a free discharge and to avoid checking the flow 
 in the outfall under ordinary working conditions, which would 
 result in the forming of deposits in the sewer. This should 
 also be located with reference to the possibility of the future 
 construction of treatment works, so that the expense of future 
 construction in that connection, may be minimized and the essen- 
 tial features, particularly the hydraulic requirements of future 
 treatment works should be then provided for. The outlet should 
 not be located in proximity to public highways, bridges, or 
 dwellings, as injury to private or public interest may ensue, and 
 nuisances, which otherwise might be relatively of little impor- 
 tance, may be a matter of serious moment. 
 
 Particular consideration is necessary where public water sup- 
 plies take their raw water near the sewer outlet. Unless condi- 
 tions are exceptionable and most favorable for thorough mixing 
 of sewage with the water of the stream or other body of water, 
 disposal without treatment should not be used if the water works 
 intake is within several miles of the outlet. There will, therefore, 
 arise problems of comparative cost as to the advisability of 
 building long outfalls, or providing a reasonable degree of 
 treatment. 
 
 Discharge into estuaries and creeks of tidal waters, present 
 difficulties, due to the generally prevailing shallowness of the water
 
 230 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and the effect of the incoming fide. In such cases exceptional 
 care will have to be taken so that obnoxious conditions will not 
 be created; such may require treatment in tanks or screening, 
 or storage in tanks, with discharge on receding tide. 
 
 Noreg Village and Yorkship Village, built during the War by 
 the Housing Division of the Emergency Fleet Corporation near 
 Camden, New Jersey, present good illustrations of the alterna- 
 tive methods. See Fig. 37 for illustration of plant for the latter 
 place. The streams into which the effluent from these two towns 
 discharge were in many conditions similar. Settling tanks, with 
 provision for separation and removal of sludge, were provided 
 for Yorkship Village, which has a population of about 8500 and 
 discharges its sewage into a branch of Newton Creek, a small tidal 
 stream or estuary. In the case of Noreg Village of much smaller 
 size, the construction of treatment works was not deemed war- 
 ranted, and here the discharge from a population of about 
 3500 is pumped into a storage tank, which is emptied upon the 
 ebbing tide. 
 
 Processes of Treatment. — The methods and processes of sew- 
 age treatment, each of which is intended to accomplish the specific 
 results, may be broadly classified as follows: 
 
 (a) Those to remove suspended matter by mechanical means, 
 such as by sedimentation or screening; 
 
 (6) Those to remove the finer suspended matter and oxidize the 
 dissolved solids; 
 
 (c) Destruction of the bacteria by disinfection, or sterilization. 
 
 The process of treatment which may be required or desirable 
 may be a single process, adapted to the requirements, or it may 
 consist of a combination of various processes. 
 
 The discussions of the various processes of sewage treatment 
 which follow are necessarily limited to their main features and 
 functions. Before entering upon these descriptions, it will be 
 well to state that many of the definitions used in this connec- 
 tion are adopted from those drafted by the Committee of the 
 American Public Health Association, 1917. 
 
 Screening. — Screens of various types are used as a mechanical 
 method of removing floating solids and suspended matter. 
 Coarse screens, which have openings in excess of 1 in. in least 
 dimension, and of the bar and grating type, are used to remove the 
 larger particles, either as preliminary to further treatment or 
 before disposal by dilution. While serviceable in protecting
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 
 
 231 
 
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 232 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 pumps and preliminary to further operations, coarse screens are 
 not generally useful in the disposal of sewage from the small 
 communities. 
 
 Fine screens are those which have openings of ^ m « 
 or less, in least dimension, and . are being increasingly used, 
 both as a preliminary process to further treatment, and under 
 some conditions, as the sole method of treatment prior to dis- 
 charge. There are various types of fine screens, including band 
 screens, wing screens, drum screens, and disc screens. 
 
 Band screens are of wire mesh or bars, the screen operates on 
 rollers on the endless belt principle, with provision for removal of 
 screenings from the upper end. 
 
 Wing screens are usually of the bar type, composed of radial or 
 curved vanes, rotating on a horizontal axis and depositing the 
 screenings by a mechanical device. 
 
 Drum screens consist of cylindrical or conical screens operating 
 on a horizontal axis. 
 
 A number of installations have been made in recent years of 
 the Riensch-Wurl type of disc screen, which consists of a circular 
 inclined perforated plate, set at an inclination with the horizontal 
 and surmounted by a perforated concentric truncated cone of 
 smaller radius. The perforations in the plate and cone are 
 elongated openings or slots the width of which is dependent upon 
 the requirements. The chief advantage of this screen is its com- 
 paratively large screening area, mechanical simplicity of opera- 
 tion and effective arrangement for cleaning. 
 
 Tank Treatment. — Tank treatment consists primarily of the 
 detention of the sewage in a settling tank for a sufficient period 
 of time to effect the removal by sedimentation of a considerable 
 portion of the suspended solids. In some tanks, provision is 
 made for digestion of the settled solids or sludge, so as to permit 
 of its disposal without further treatment. In the simpler types 
 sludge digestion is accomplished in separate tanks. 
 
 The simplest type of tank is the one story sedimentation tank, 
 through which the sewage is passed at slow velocity and the ac- 
 cumulated sludge is drawn off at comparatively frequent inter- 
 vals, sludge digestion being accomplished in auxiliary tanks. 
 
 The septic tank is a one story sedimentation tank, ordinarily 
 rectangular in shape, from which the sludge is drawn off only at 
 long intervals. There is to some extent a biological action in the 
 tank, which assists in reducing the finer colloidal settling matter,
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 233 
 
 and there is some reduction in the quantity of sludge by 
 liquefaction under the action of anaerobic bacteria. While many 
 installations have been made in this country, it is no longer 
 considered to be suitable for use in connection with oxidizing 
 processes, as other types of tanks have taken its place where 
 the removal of suspended matter is the sole object sought. 
 
 Installations consisting of tanks with hopper bottoms, built 
 in units of two or more, will sometimes be found serviceable under 
 certain local conditions. The sludge is held in the hopper bot- 
 tom and the operation of the tank continued until such time as 
 the sludge can be run off without causing offense. When a suffi- 
 cient degree of digestion of the sludge cannot be obtained other- 
 wise, the tank is thrown out of operation and the sludge permitted 
 to decompose and digest, other units being meanwhile used. 
 Unless the installation is very small it will generally be preferable 
 to use separate sludge digestion tanks. ' 
 
 In the two story tank, sewage is passed through the tank in 
 such a manner that it does not come into contact with the sludge ; 
 sedimentation and sludge digestion thus take place in the same 
 tank without the effluent becoming septic or offensive. The 
 Imhoff is the best known of the two story tanks. In this tank 
 the suspended matter is settled out and automatically removed 
 through slots and falls to the bottom of the settling chamber 
 where sludge digestion takes place. The tank is so designed that 
 the sludge may be thoroughly decomposed and rendered free 
 of offensive odor so that it can be drawn off and dried without 
 nuisance. 
 
 The percentage of the suspended matter removed in tanks of 
 the various types varies through a very wide range, which de- 
 pends upon the design and operation of the tank, and the charac- 
 ter and condition of the sewage. 
 
 Filtration. — When a non-putrescible, or stable, effluent is 
 required, one of the various filtration processes may be adopted. 
 The sewage is passed through a bed of broken stone, sand, or 
 other material and as a result of bacterial action taking place in 
 the presence of air in the interstices and on the surfaces of the 
 filter material, the organic matter in the sewage, in suspension 
 and dissolved, undergoes certain biochemical changes and is 
 oxidized and converted into stable compounds. The extent to 
 which suspended matter is removed from the effluent and the 
 bacterial efficiency are dependent upon the type of design, of 
 which the following are in use:
 
 234 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Trickling Filters.— In this type, sometimes called sprinkling filters, 
 the sewage is sprayed through nozzles, or distributed by mechanical 
 device, upon a bed, several feet in depth, of broken stone or other coarse 
 grained material, through which it slowly percolates. 
 
 Contact Beds. — These consist of water tight basins, containing a bed 
 of broken stone or other coarse grained material, which is alternately 
 filled with sewage and emptied, with an intervening period of rest to 
 permit of aeration. 
 
 Intermittent Filtration. — This provides for filtration at low rate through 
 natural or artificial beds of sand with alternate periods of rest. 
 
 Broad Irrigation. — This is one of the earlier methods, now generally 
 abandoned, in which the sewage is applied to a specially prepared tract 
 of porous soil, which in some cases is cultivated. This process is also 
 known as sewage farming and land filtration. 
 
 Before the raw sewage is applied to any filter bed it should be 
 passed through screens or tanks, to remove the settling solids and 
 so prevent clogging of the filter beds and to lessen the burden 
 imposed upon them. While the effluent from well designed and 
 operated trickling filters or contact beds will be stable, it may be 
 necessary to subject the effluent to subsequent treatment by 
 secondary filtration or sedimentation, so as to remove the non- 
 putrescible content of suspended matter and to more completely 
 destroy the bacteria. Where complete bacterial removal is 
 required, the effluent from the beds or from the final settling 
 tanks should be disinfected. 
 
 Other Processes.— Activated Sludge. — This consists in the aeration of 
 raw sewage, mixed with a suitable quantity of activated sludge which 
 has been previously cultivated in such manner as to develop bacterial 
 activity. This process, while one of promise, is still in the experimental 
 and developmental stage. 
 
 Chemical Precipitation. — This is an earlier process of clarification by 
 settling in tanks, combined with coagulation by chemicals, usually 
 lime. It is no longer one of the customary methods. A modification 
 is electrolytic action, which also has not come into common use. 
 
 Disinfection.— The bacterial contents of sewage or sewage 
 effluent may be reduced by disinfection, or entirely destroyed 
 by sterilization, with chemicals. Generally hypochlorite or 
 liquid chlorine is used. Disinfection of screened or settled 
 sewage may be utilized to accomplish a high degree of bacterial 
 removal, either as an emergency measure, or to avoid the cost 
 of more expensive installation, which may not be as efficient where
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 235 
 
 the destruction of tlje bacteria is the sole purpose. Complete 
 destruction of the bacteria can be effected, when a very high 
 standard is necessary, by sterilization of the effluent as a final 
 treatment after filtration. 
 
 Selection of Method and Site. — The necessary degree and 
 required nature of treatment and the type of plant best adapted 
 to accomplish the desired results, will depend in any given in- 
 stance upon what is required to prevent nuisance or contamina- 
 tion, as the case may be, and upon considerations of cost with 
 due regard to physical requirements or limitations imposed. 
 The degree and nature of treatment which may be required 
 varies greatly; there is a certain latitude in the choice of type or 
 method to secure a given desired result, and the adaptability 
 of the various methods and types of installation varies with 
 conditions. 
 
 Studies Required. — It therefore follows that before the method 
 and type is decided upon and the site selected, there must be a 
 careful investigation of the various factors and comparative 
 studies of alternative methods. The following items will 
 generally be included in such an investigation : 
 
 (o) Character, quantity and condition of the sewage, the nature of 
 the treatment required, and the extent to which it should be carried to 
 prevent nuisance or contamination. 
 
 (b) Cost of construction, operation and upkeep. 
 
 (c) Area, cost and availability of sites possessing the necessary physi- 
 cal requirements of size, available head or fall, and topography. 
 
 (d) Possibility of offense in the vicinity of the plant. 
 
 (e) Adaptability of immediate installation to possible future require- 
 ments as to capacity, or standards of treatment. 
 
 Screening or Tankage. — Where the object sought is the avoid- 
 ance of local nuisance in the vicinity of the outlet or minimiza- 
 tion of general nuisance in the water course, such as that arising 
 from floating matter or deposits, either fine screening or tank 
 treatment will generally suffice. Fine screening is neither as ef- 
 fective as tank treatment, nor as economical in the small units 
 usually required in industrial housing projects. Adoption of 
 some type of tank will generally be indicated. 
 
 One story tanks will generally be used, unless there is proba- 
 bility that filtration will later be required, in which case considera- 
 tion should be given to two story tanks, such as the Inihoff 
 tank. The conditions under which sludge is to be disposed of
 
 236 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 will be a further determining factor in selecting the design of the 
 tank, as some tanks produce a less offensive sludge than others. 
 Proximity of the tank to dwellings, the permanency of the plant 
 and other elements also must be considered. 
 
 Filtration. — Removal of the settling solids by fine screening or 
 in tanks will not suffice in cases where the body of water does not 
 have sufficient capacity to handle the effluent without conditions 
 of general nuisance obtaining during all or part of the year, or 
 when too severe a load would be imposed upon the water purifi- 
 cation plants. In such cases, a stable effluent will be required, 
 and filtration will be necessary. This will generally lead to the 
 adoption of trickling filters, which being operated at a higher 
 rate require less space than either contact beds or sand filters. 
 If sufficient fall is available for their operation, or if pumping must 
 in any event be resorted to, the trickling filter will be generally 
 applicable, unless the site is not sufficiently removed from dwell- 
 ings. In the latter case the contact beds may be preferable, 
 even though costing more. 
 
 Intermittent sand filtration will occasionally be found economi- 
 cal for small installations, where land is comparatively cheap and 
 the proper quality of sand is readily available, but the large area 
 required and the cost of construction will generally exclude this 
 type for larger installations. Where the plant must be built in 
 proximity to dwellings, the contact bed may be preferred here 
 also, owing to comparative freedom from odors and the fly 
 nuisance. 
 
 The filtration process must be preceded by fine screening or 
 tank treatment and where discoloration or suspended matter is 
 to be avoided in the water course, must be followed by settling. 
 If a more complete removal of organic matter and suspended 
 solids is necessary so as to produce a very clear effluent of 
 high standard, secondary treatment by filtration, followed by 
 final settling, may be adopted. 
 
 Sterilization. — When contamination of water supplies is a fac- 
 tor, complete removal of bacteria will be necessary. This may 
 be practically accomplished by secondary filtration and final 
 settling, but the expense of such works for this purpose, where 
 complete removal of the bacteria is the primary requirement, 
 will be much greater than that of sterilization with chemicals, 
 which further will be more dependable and effective. There will 
 also be cases where tank treatment, supplemented by disinfec-
 
 SE WERA GE . 1 N 1) Oh' A I N . IGE 237 
 
 tion, while not producing a stable effluent, and not insuring the 
 complete removal of the bacteria, will produce an effluent which 
 will neither impose too heavy a burden upon the water course, 
 nor endanger water supplies which are properly protected by 
 purification. 
 
 Location. — The location of sewage treatment plants, particularly 
 where they include trickling filters, in proximity to buildings is to 
 be avoided; in any case, the plant should not be within 500 ft. 
 of property to be used for building purposes. It must be borne in 
 mind that there is a popular prejudice against sewage treatment 
 plants, and whether such objections be fancied or real, every effort 
 should be made to isolate the plant. The depreciation of prop- 
 erty may well offset the cost of additional outfall construction 
 necessary to reach a more distant site. Small tank installations, 
 properly screened, may be located, if necessary, within not less 
 than 500 ft. of dwellings, but the possibility of nuisance from 
 odors and flies makes it advisable to locate trickling filters at 
 least 1,000 ft. from dwellings. 
 
 The plant should be designed in units so as to afford flexibility 
 in operation and to permit of extensions in the future. In this 
 connection provision must be made for throwing part of the plant 
 out of operation for repairs or alterations, and to take care of 
 varying and fluctuating conditions of sewage flow and operating 
 conditions. 
 
 CONTRACT PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS 
 
 Contract Plans. — The contract plans should consists of a gen- 
 eral plan showing the location of the system in its entirety, and 
 a set of drawings of uniform scale and size, each covering a sec- 
 tion of a sewer in plan and profile. A scale of 40 or 50 ft. per inch 
 for horizontal, and of 4 or 5 ft. per inch for vertical scale, 
 is recommended for usual conditions. The stationing should be 
 carried across the sheet from left to right and should designate all 
 changes in alignment and grade. 
 
 The plans should show the street and curb lines, street car 
 tracks, existing substructures where there is any question of in- 
 terference, the center line of the sewer, the offset from the curb, 
 and the geometry of the alignment. The profile, on the distorted 
 scale, should show the surface of the ground on the center line 
 of the sewer, and the established or finished grades of the street, 
 usually for convenience, taken on the top of curb.
 
 238 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Unless the character of the soil can be easily determined, test 
 pits should be sunk along the line of the sewer at intervals and 
 the location and character of material excavated should be shown 
 on the contract plan. Samples of the materials excavated should 
 further be taken and made available for prospective bidders. 
 There should, however, be a statement in the contract to the effect 
 that while the results of the test pit excavations are furnished for 
 information, the owner does not guarantee the actual conditions to 
 be as shown on the plans. 
 
 The contract plans should further show in profile the flow and 
 invert line of the sewer, location of manholes, the elevations on 
 the invert of the sewer, particularly at grade points and at 
 manholes; also the elevation at which the casting of manhole 
 covers is to be set. The location and elevation of connecting 
 sewers should likewise be shown, while location of the "Y's" for 
 house connections need be shown in plan only, and likewise 
 catch basin and storm inlet connections. 
 
 The size of the sewer to be constructed should be plainly in- 
 dicated and any special or incidental construction noted on 
 the contract plans, and unless covered clearly and fully in the 
 specifications, the method of paying for such accessory or addi- 
 tional work, should be indicated in plain terms on the contract 
 plans. Such items will include railroad crossings, special founda- 
 tions, removal of existing and obstructing surface or subsurface 
 structures, and any other work not implicitly included in the work 
 to be done and the materials furnished per lineal foot of sewer, 
 which is the usual basis of measurement for payment. 
 
 The location of all catch basins, storm inlets, manholes and 
 appurtenant structures should be shown likewise in plan. It is 
 also usual to show the type of pavement if there be an existing 
 pavement to be removed and replaced. 
 
 Where there is participation by municipalities, or where the 
 cost is to be assessed upon the abutting property owners, the 
 contract plans should be drawn in conformity with existing 
 regulations. 
 
 Care should be exercised in the completeness and accuracy of 
 the preparation of contract plans, with a view of their later 
 utilization as record plans, after having incorporated such 
 changes as have been made in actual construction. 
 
 Specifications. — Materials of Construction. — Terra cotta pipe 
 is used for all diameters up to 30 inches. The standard sizes
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE 239 
 
 are as follows: 5-in., 6-in., 8-in., 10-in., 12-in., 15-in., 18-in., 
 20-in., 24-in., 27-in., 30-in., 33-in., and 36-in. Where 36-in. 
 terra cotta pipe is used it is usual to protect it with a reinforce- 
 ment of concrete, unless there is little probability of damage by 
 traffic. 
 
 Reinforced concrete pipe is used for sections of 24 in. or larger 
 in diameter, particularly sizes in excess of 30 in. Such pipe may 
 be made on the site of the work where the size of the job war- 
 rants, or may be shipped from the place of manufacture. Mono- 
 lithic concrete or brick masonry construction is also used for 
 diameters in excess of 30 inches. Such construction is neces- 
 sary where reinforced concrete pipe of required diameter and 
 suitable cross-sections cannot be obtained at reasonable cost. 
 Segmental terracotta block is also used for large sizes. 
 
 General Outline. — The specifications should clearly and defi- 
 nitely state the requirements and dimensions for each type of 
 sewer and kind of construction. In each case there should be 
 sections relating to the woik included in the contract price, and 
 specifications for the materials, workmanship, construction, 
 incidental work, testing, measurement and payment. When the 
 work is to be performed on the fixed price basis, there should be 
 a definite division of the contract into items of work, so that 
 measurement and payment may be simplified. Ordinary items 
 will be included for the following: 
 
 Furnishing materials and laying or constructing each size and type 
 of sewer; price per lineal foot. 
 
 Excavation and backfilling; price per cubic yard; (sometimes included 
 in the price bid for laying the sewer). 
 
 House connections; price per lineal foot including specials. 
 
 Additional branches or specials; price for each. 
 
 Manholes, catch basins, and other appurtenances; price for each. 
 
 Sewer castings; price per pound. 
 
 Special foundations; price dependent on type of construction. 
 
 Street repaving; price per square yard. 
 
 Sheeting and bracing left in place when ordered by owner; price per 
 
 M. ft. B.M. 
 
 Special items as railroad crossings, tunnel construction, junction 
 chambers, etc.; price either lump sum or unit. 
 
 The specification will be simplified by the inclusion of general 
 clauses covering materials and construction included in the 
 several items.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 
 
 Classification, Character and Quantities of Municipal 
 Wastes — Methods of Collection — Final Disposal of 
 Wastes — Summary and Conclusions 
 
 Introduction. — Considering all of the factors attending the 
 problem of location, construction, housing and administration 
 of an industrial or residential community or town, the problem 
 of final disposal of all the worthless and dangerous material that is 
 produced is one of considerable importance and should receive 
 careful consideration. 
 
 The question as to the effect upon the health of the public, 
 caused by imperfect methods of collection of garbage and re- 
 fuse, is one that has been frequently debated, and is still an 
 open problem to be solved in many of- its aspects. But there 
 can be no doubt that the comfort, convenience and happiness 
 of any community depends to a large extent upon the removal 
 of worthless, and exhausted matter. These have little or no 
 value in themselves, but by accumulation become annoying and 
 offensive and, if allowed to remain in the household, may 
 become positively threatening and dangerous to health. 
 
 This subject is presented with reference to the requirements of 
 industrial and residential towns, but the compilation and classi- 
 fication figures of quantities, costs and other factors may apply 
 equally well to the larger settled municipalities of the third and 
 fourth classes of population, where this question is one for present 
 or future consideration. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTER AND QUANTITIES OF MUNICIPAL 
 
 WASTES 
 
 For the purpose of this inquiry there are five classes of wastes 
 to be dealt with. These are: Garbage, Rubbish, Refuse, Ashes, 
 and Street Sweepings. 
 
 Garbage.' — Garbage consists of waste of vegetable and animal 
 origin, resulting from the manufacture or preparation of human 
 
 240
 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 241 
 
 food in households, and from public and private buildings. It is 
 putrescible in character, being composed of organic substances 
 which permit decay and fermentation, more or less rapid accord- 
 ing to surrounding conditions. 
 
 Table 34.— Composition of Average Garbage as Collected 
 
 Moisture contained, and free water 70 P er vvni ' 
 
 Solids, vegetable and animal 2 * P e * cent. 
 
 Bones, grease and fats 
 
 Foreign matters 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 T , 100 per cent. 
 
 Average weight per' cubic foot 46 to 50 pounds 
 
 Average weight per cubic yard 1,250 to 1,350 pounds 
 
 Quantity per capita per day . 4 to . 5 pounds m winter 
 
 0.7 to 0.8 pounds in summer 
 
 Table 35.— Monthly Variations, in Percentages, of Garbage Pro- 
 duced Annually' 
 (Data from Two Large Cities) 
 
 January . . . 
 February . . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. 
 October. . . 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 5.3 
 
 5.2 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.9 
 
 6.8 
 
 9.1 
 
 12.4 
 
 12.1 
 
 13.8 
 
 8.2 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 Borough of 
 
 Richmond 
 
 (N. Y.) 
 
 5.7 
 3.7 
 
 5.2 
 
 7.7 
 8.1 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.2 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.5 
 
 11.3 
 
 9.2 
 
 100.0 
 
 i Featherston: Proc. 2nd Pan-Am. Sc. Cong. 1915-1916. 
 
 The figures in the two tables above represent the character and 
 quantities of northern communities under normal conditions. 
 Due allowance must be made for exceptional conditions. 
 
 Rubbish.— This comprises the discarded and worn-out articles 
 and matters from households, including paper of all grades, rags, 
 wood, boxes, mattresses, broken furniture, shoes, tin cans, metal 
 
 16
 
 242 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 scraps, bottles or glass, etc. The largest proportion is combus- 
 tible and when burned in incinerating plants takes the place of 
 considerable amounts of other fuel. As rubbish may contain the 
 germs of certain diseases, it should be destroyed or carefully 
 sorted under sanitary conditions. 
 
 Revenue may be obtained from the sale of marketable por- 
 tions, when the quantities are large enough to repay costs of 
 sorting and baling. 
 
 Rubbish varies in weight, as affected by local conditions. The 
 average weight per cubic yard in Boston is 160 pounds; in New 
 York, 143 pounds; in Buffalo, 215 pounds; in Chicago and Mil- 
 waukee about 175 pounds. The average weight is thus six to 
 seven pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Technical analyses of rubbish have been made in several of the 
 larger cities, with varying results. The following table, com- 
 piled from the Boston Refuse Station figures, represents the 
 percentage of marketable parts in that city in 1906. 
 
 Table 36. — Percentage of Saleable Portions in One Hundred Parts 
 op Refuse Collections 1 
 
 Paper, six different grades 74 . 5 
 
 Rags, clothing, bagging, twine 12 . 2 
 
 Carpets, four grades 3.3 
 
 Bottles, common and proprietary 2.5 
 
 Metals, iron, brass, lead and zinc 2.1 
 
 Tin, all sizes and kinds 1.4 
 
 Leather, shoes and scraps 1.9 
 
 Rubber, shoes, hose and mats 0.2 
 
 Barrels, whole 1.4 
 
 Other material 0.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 Refuse. — The refuse produced in factories and manufacturing 
 buildings comprises many kinds of worthless matters and does not 
 usually come under the charge or control of municipalities, un- 
 less there be nuisance or complaints caused by imperfect methods 
 of disposal, offensive to the public. When these wastes are liquid 
 or semi-liquid in character, or of large volumes, their disposal is a 
 matter for attention of Health Boards under the laws of the State. 
 As a rule all refuse matters from private trade and manufacturing 
 companies are disposed of at the plant where accumulated and at 
 
 1 MOrse: Collection and Disposal of Municipal Waste.
 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 243 
 
 the expense of the company. When incineration is the town 
 method of disposal, many forms of trade waste are destroyed by 
 arrangement with the town authorities. 
 
 Ashes.— This is the fuel waste from houses where wood, coke 
 or coal is used, and does not include ashes from steam boilers 
 or private manufacturing plants. Ashes usually contain some 
 unburned coal, besides cinders, slag and dust. It is inorganic, 
 and not offensive in handling except for fine dust. It generally 
 can be allowed to accumulate without nuisance, if stored with 
 care, and removed less frequently than garbage or rubbish. 
 
 The weight of ashes per cubic yard varies according to local 
 conditions from 1,050 pounds to 1,350 pounds. This is from 
 40 to 50 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Street Sweepings.— The cleaning of the streets of a town is not 
 usually considered in connection with waste collection, but there 
 may be instances where street sweepings and refuse can profit- 
 ably be made a part of the general collection and disposal 
 system. Sweepings include all kinds of miscellaneous matters 
 that cannot be carried off by the sewers. They will average 50 
 per cent, of sand, dirt, powdered stone and practically 50 per 
 cent, of manure and horse droppings and other organic refuse, 
 although the latter is becoming less with the growth in use of 
 automobiles. 
 
 Table 37.— Chemical Analyses of Dry Composite Samples op Gar- 
 bage, Rubbish and Cinders' 
 (In Percentages by Weight) 
 
 Constituents 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Silica 
 
 Iron oxide and alumina. . 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Lead 
 
 Tin 
 
 Alkali and undetermined 
 
 Garbage 
 
 43.0 
 6.2 
 3.7 
 27.7 
 7.6 
 0.4 
 4.3 
 0.3 
 1.5 
 0.6 
 0.2 
 Sulphides 
 4.5 
 
 Rubbish 
 
 Cinders 
 
 42.4 
 6.0 
 3.4 
 
 33.5 
 6.5 
 2.0 
 2.3 
 0.6 
 1 
 1.5 
 0.5 
 
 Trace 
 1.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 30 . 
 
 9.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 Trace 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 Trace 
 
 Trace 
 
 0.3 
 
 1 Morse: Collection and Disposal of Municipal Waste
 
 244 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 When dried in fine weather and taken up by the wind, street 
 sweepings are a nuisance to the public and a positive injury to 
 health and property. It is claimed that the increase in catarrhal 
 diseases at such times is noticeably above the average. Sweep- 
 ings have some value for land fertilization where the cost of trans- 
 portation is not too great; the value is now decreasing with the 
 lessened use of horses. 
 
 bU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^,-' 
 
 "**. 
 
 
 
 
 s* 
 
 
 \o 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Na 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v.. 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
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 / 
 
 +- 
 
 
 
 
 
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 <u 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
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 5 
 
 -1- 
 
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 K 
 
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 X 
 
 
 
 
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 \7 
 
 
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 Q. 
 
 
 
 / 
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 ^,-""' 
 
 '"*•••> — 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 / \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 A — 
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 fcfcfo 
 
 
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 V 
 
 Clinker 
 
 
 
 <d " . 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 •^y 
 
 
 o 
 
 y> 
 
 5. -t 
 
 
 > 
 
 j c 
 
 Fig. 38. — Monthly variations in the quantity of various municipal wastes. 
 
 Trade refuse from building operations, earth excavations, de- 
 bris from buildings, or other construction work, is not a part of 
 the municipal obligation, but should be disposed of at the expense 
 of the constructor. 
 
 Chemical Composition. — A chemical analysis of dry samples 
 of the three classes of waste is given in Table 37.. 
 
 Quantities.' — The quantities of all wastes vary with the char- 
 acter of population and the use of solid or gaseous fuels. Where 
 the heating is by natural gas or cooking by this or artificial gas 
 in summer, the quantity of rubbish is correspondingly greater. 
 In towns using natural gas, the volume of rubbish far exceeds 
 the garbage and is of greater weight. 
 
 There is also a wide variation in quantity during the year, 
 due to seasonal changes. The monthly variations, by percent-
 
 COLLECTION' AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 245 
 
 ages of the different classes of household wastes, with sub- 
 divisions of the classes is shown in Fig. 38. This is for a 
 northern city with a population of 30,000. 
 
 The quantities of street sweepings depend upon the character 
 of the streets and roads. From the usual street or dirt road, 
 though packed and rolled, the quantity is largest, and less from 
 brick paved and macadamized or asphalt pavings. The increas- 
 ing use of auto vehicles reduces the amounts of street refuse*. 
 Tree leaves, branches and garden refuse sometimes form a part 
 of this waste. The approximate weight of street sweepings is 
 from 1,000 to 1,250 lbs. per cubic yard, an average cart-load, 
 • 13^ cu. yd., weighing 1,500 pounds. 
 
 METHODS OF COLLECTION 
 
 Location of Disposal Station. — The means of collection of the 
 various classes of wastes are governed somewhat by other factors. 
 Location of proposed disposal or loading station; routes of travel 
 in town roads; proximity to that section of the town of least 
 property value; and location with reference to possible present 
 or future manufacturing or industrial plants, are all factors 
 which come into consideration. 
 
 The general layout of the town should include a location for a 
 waste disposal plant, where the largest number of useful purposes 
 can be served. Hence, when this point is fixed, the collection 
 methods should be made to conform to the necessary conditions 
 with the least expenditure of time and money. 
 
 Separate or Combined Collection. — The method of collection 
 adopted will depend somewhat upon conditions that cannot be 
 definitely determined in advance. The general layout of streets 
 and roads, distances to be traveled in transportation, location 
 of place of final disposition, general character of population, dis- 
 position methods by one or another of the four different systems, 
 the chances for recovery and sale of marketable portions, and 
 the possibility of heat utilization from incineration methods are 
 all factors which enter into the question of collection. The 
 best method can only be finally determined when definite informa- 
 tion is available. 
 
 The combined collection means the mixing of all classes of 
 refuse in one load without separation. This is possible only 
 when the mass is to be dumped into great pits or cavities for 
 filling ground, or when the combined loads are to be destroyed
 
 246 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 by high temperature destructors, which are generally too costly 
 for equipment and maintenance. Another disposal of the 
 combined waste is the conveyance by rail, from a central town 
 loading station, to some point where it can be used for filling 
 ground without danger or nuisance. 
 
 In some larger cities there are three separations of all house- 
 hold waste, garbage, rubbish and ashes. Each separation must 
 have its own particular form of container, vehicle, or wagon, 
 and attendants. On occasion the use of containers may be 
 interchanged. 
 
 When garbage is separately collected, it is kept apart from 
 other wastes, deposited in cans of capacity of 5 to 10 gal., and 
 removed as required by the final means of disposition. When 
 the garbage is to be fed to animals there must be particular 
 care to exclude all forms of waste that may be objectionable or 
 deleterious, such as medicines, strong cleansing compounds, 
 fine glass or bottles, and some kinds of food waste that decay 
 and ferment rapidly. The burden is upon the housewife whose 
 assistance in this method is absolutely necessary. In a similar 
 manner when the garbage is to be disposed of by the reduction 
 process, the same precaution must be taken. 
 
 When the final disposal is to be made by incineration, there 
 can be a mixture of garbage and small quantities of combustible 
 refuse in one can, but the amount must be limited. After the 
 preliminary draining of the surplus water, there is an advantage 
 in using paper wrapping before putting into the cans. This 
 prevents the fly nuisance, keeps the cans clean, and makes a 
 better and quicker collection service. Here again the housewife 
 must cooperate for the general benefit of all. 
 
 Garbage Collection. — As a general rule the garbage is collected 
 separately from ashes and rubbish. A one-horse cart or small 
 motor truck of l}i cu. yd. capacity is in common use. This type 
 of vehicle is of greater service for all general purposes of collection 
 and for the use also by other departments of the town for collec- 
 tion of street sweepings and other general material. 
 
 The usual form is a steel body with sloping end, placed on 
 a frame. This is mounted on a pair of wheels, which permits 
 easy dumping, and covered with a sectional sheet iron cover. 
 The weight of the cart is approximately 1,400 lb. and assum- 
 ing that the average weight of garbage when separately 
 collected is 1,250 lb. per cu. yd., the total weight of a completely
 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 247 
 
 filled cart would be 3,300 lb. On level ground this load can be 
 easily hauled by one horse and the cart loaded by one man. 
 
 Rubbish Collection. — It is difficult to make a collection of 
 rubbish and garbage in the same cart or truck. The great 
 volume of rubbish occupies so large a space that the garbage 
 has very limited room. In some localities a longer body is used 
 and a division made for garbage and refuse. But this is not a 
 suitable method of handling. 
 
 The better method of collecting is by a wagon especially 
 adapted for the purpose, about 10 ft. long and of the usual width, 
 with high latticed sides, giving a capacity of from 5 to 7 cu. yd. 
 per load. This is easily handled and loaded by one man. It 
 may be discharged by special devices, such as a chain or rope 
 being placed on the bottom of the wagon, which is attached 
 to an overhead support, and when the team is started up the 
 whole load is completely rolled out of the wagon. 
 
 Ash Collection. — In most places it is usual to use a type of 
 rubbish cart with closed sides for the collection of ashes. One 
 objection to its use is the great height to which the can must be 
 lifted for emptying into the cart. The strain upon the collector 
 is too severe to secure economical service. 
 
 A double horse wagon of the type described for garbage, but 
 of a capacity of 3 cu. yd., or motor truck, is more economical 
 for ash collection. All ash wagons should be provided with 
 covers to prevent fine ash and dust from being blown out. 
 
 Can System. — In some of the higher class residential towns 
 the garbage collection, mixed with the rubbish, is done by what 
 is known as the can system. Each householder is required to 
 produce and keep in a convenient place a can of about ten gallons 
 capacity, with a tight-fitting cover, into which all garbage and 
 a large portion of the combustible refuse is placed. The town 
 provides double-deck wagons, each having a capacity of about 
 seventy-two cans, and attended by one man. The can is re- 
 moved from the household, placed on the wagon, and another 
 clean, sterilized can put in its place. 
 
 The advantage of this method is the almost complete elimina- 
 tion of flies and odors, and, if the garbage is wrapped in paper 
 for the purpose of incineration, there is very great saving in 
 time and fuel in the process of incineration. In a town of 8,000 
 people where this method has been in use for some years, and 
 where the character of the population is entirely residential,
 
 248 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 without any factories, it has been found entirely serviceable. 
 The collections are made once a week in winter and twice a 
 week in summer, except for hotels and hospitals, where collec- 
 tions are made daily. 
 
 Contract versus Municipal Service. — There are four systems 
 of collection, each of which has certain advantages in point of 
 cheapness, but all of which are not of equal value from a sanitary 
 point of view. 
 
 Individual Service. — By this system every householder takes 
 care of his own waste in his own way, with the least possible 
 trouble and cost; with no responsibility for after results, and 
 with the only purpose of getting it off his premises in the shortest 
 time possible. When the accumulation is so great as to become 
 troublesome, a cartman is hired to take away the wastes. 
 
 The rubbish is cleared away in the annual spring cleaning, 
 and from time to time as required. Inorganic matter is cleared 
 away as accumulation requires. The retention of refuse until 
 it becomes objectionable or offensive results in a greater expendi- 
 ture when it is finally removed than if it were done by regulation 
 of the town authorities. 
 
 License System. — In this case a number of cartmen are licensed 
 to make the collections, upon payment of a small registration 
 fee to the town. A route is established and a certain number of 
 patrons are secured who are fairly well looked after. The dump- 
 ing or final disposal of the refuse must be upon the collector's 
 property, or at a place which is designated by the town. 
 
 The advantage is that the collectors, being known, can be 
 detected if there is any infringement on sanitary regulations. 
 But there is no remedy for the complaints of the householder, 
 on the score of infrequent or bad collection service, or overcharge 
 for the work. The cost as a rule is more than double the amount 
 that would be paid by the town if it were done under the 
 municipal methods of collection. 
 
 'Contract System. — On this basis the city advertises for bids for 
 collection of the whole or a part of the waste. This is a most 
 convenient way for the authorities and an improvement over 
 the license system, but it has some disadvantages and as a whole 
 is less satisfactory than a municipal method. The contractor is 
 often compelled by competition to accept the work at too small 
 a margin of profit; thus he gives poor service and causes endless 
 complaints.
 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 249 
 
 The equipment and employees arc not always of the highest 
 class. The contract is usually for a short period. There is 
 limited responsibility, and the purpose to do as little as possible 
 at the smallest cost frequently prevails. There must be main- 
 tained a vigilant oversight by the city authorities, and frequent 
 inspections of the equipment, methods of work and of the final 
 disposal of the waste. 
 
 The householder benefits by a systematic collection at a some- 
 what lower cost, and if the work is clone in a satisfactory manner, 
 the city is relieved of a burden which it is often unwilling to 
 accept. This is the system employed by a large number of 
 municipalities, and may be said to be a typical American system 
 of collection. 
 
 Municipal Service.— In this case the city provides and main- 
 tains its own equipment and employees. This is usually at a 
 somewhat greater cost than by the contract system, but, by 
 efficient superintendence, the results are far more satisfactory. 
 The responsibility is upon the city's designated official, and by 
 him distributed through his associates, so that poor work can 
 be noted and corrected without loss of time. The equipment 
 and employees may also be used in other departments of the 
 municipal service, thus dividing the expense. The whole force, 
 with a good executive, if kept from political interference, can be 
 brought to a high state of efficiency and will take pride in the 
 work. 
 
 The growth of municipal service in the collection of wastes is 
 very marked in the past five years, due, perhaps, to the commis- 
 sion form of city government. The work has thus been kept 
 more free from political control, and more directly under the 
 observation of the commissioner in charge. 
 
 Comparative Cost. — The data, for tabulating the relative costs 
 of collection service by one or the other methods referred to, is 
 difficult to obtain and not always reliable. A comparison was 
 made some years ago concerning the cost of garbage collections by 
 the contract and by municipal service. In 15 cities of the first, 
 second and third classes, this cost by contract was twenty cents 
 per capita per annum; in 15 cities of the same classes, with 
 approximately the same population, where the collections were 
 made by municipal service, the cost was twenty-five to thirty 
 cents per capita per annum. Those should now be revised, 
 owing to increased prices of labor and material, and the figures
 
 250 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 should probably be thirty-five to forty cents for contract and 
 forty-five to fifty cents for municipal service. 
 
 FINAL DISPOSAL OF WASTES 
 
 Whatever method may be ultimately adopted by the town for 
 collection of waste, the matter of final disposition should receive 
 careful consideration at the same time, as each affects the other. 
 A thorough and accurate study should be made of all local condi- 
 tions in each individual case. The fact that there is a continual 
 agitation in a large number of municipalities and communities 
 for a more economical, definite and better method of waste 
 disposal, emphasizes the need of more care and foresight. 
 
 The government reports for 1919 show that 22 per cent, of all 
 third class cities and towns in Pennsylvania were contemplating 
 changes in their methods of garbage disposal. This whole 
 problem of collection and waste disposal should be treated as an 
 engineering question like other municipal subjects, such as water, 
 sewerage, lighting, etc., and not merely as a minor item in the 
 administration of the local health department. 
 
 There are four means of final disposal in use, each of which 
 have certain advantages, not belonging to the others; but also 
 certain unfavorable conditions are unavoidable. These methods 
 are: Earth Burial, Feeding to Animals, Reduction, for obtaining 
 by-products, and Incineration, complete or in part. The last 
 is generally applicable to all classes of waste, but the others to 
 the disposal of garbage only. 
 
 Earth Burial. — This method is used when a community has at 
 its command an area of ground sufficient to receive its putrescible 
 waste for a period of years. It is buried, left to be oxidized and 
 composted by earth covering. In this case a series of shallow 
 pits, or trenches, from 18 in. to 2 ft. deep and about 5 to 6 ft. wide, 
 are excavated, preferably on a side hill. The garbage is dumped 
 and thinly spread, to an average depth of about 6 in., and covered 
 with the earth of the excavation of the preceding day. This 
 process is repeated from day to day, and requires a very consider- 
 able extent of ground, since it takes from nine to twenty-four 
 months for the soil to oxidize and assimilate the waste before 
 it can be again used. 
 
 It is not economical to employ this method unless there is a 
 wide area of unoccupied ground not suitable for residences, and
 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 251 
 
 not valuable for farming. It is the cheapest form of disposal 
 and, by care and oversight in regulating the dumping and cover- 
 ing, it can be made entirely sanitary. The disadvantage is that 
 in the winter season it is difficult to make excavation and provide 
 necessary earth for covering. Also this method does not admit 
 of any admixture of rubbish, since this does not decay so readily 
 and occupies more room than garbage. Burial is one of the 
 methods to be considered when cheapness of disposition is under 
 consideration. 
 
 Feeding to Animals. — At the outbreak of the War, the United 
 States Government found that its food supply was entirely 
 inadequate for the maintenance of its own troops and for export 
 to the allied armies. Thus a call was sent out urging the feeding 
 of garbage to hogs, in cases where it would not interfere with 
 actual comfort and health of the people. The result was that a 
 large number of persons introduced individual hog feeding on 
 their own premises, without regard to the existing ordinances 
 against this practice in communities. "Pigs for Patriotism and 
 Profit", became a fad and fashion that lasted only through one ex- 
 periment for individuals. But it had the advantage of demonstrat- 
 ing that there was a very great waste of food in households and 
 that there is some value in garbage when collected under regula- 
 tions and fed to swine under observant and sanitary control. 
 Many towns contracted with individuals for the disposal of the 
 garbage by this method, and some of the largest cities of the 
 country have instituted hog feeding on a scale which demands the 
 expenditure of large sums for ground, buildings, and operating 
 expenses. 
 
 There is an undoubted value in separated garbage, but it 
 implies additional trouble to the householder, in that it must 
 be kept apart from all foreign substances and delivered at regular, 
 stated intervals before fermentation has set in. A town may 
 establish, through the agency of a private contractor, a hog 
 feeding farm and by this method receive a return for the separated 
 garbage, which can be used to defray at least a part of the other 
 expenses of collection and disposal. When the garbage is sold 
 by a town for feeding, there should be a definite understanding, 
 as a part of the contract, as to the methods of handling and 
 feeding, care of hogs and prevention of disease, and sanitation 
 in building construction and grounds. All of these points were 
 urged and enforced by the United Stales Government and should
 
 252 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 now be followed in all communities where garbage is sold or 
 given for feeding. 
 
 Prices for garbage depend almost entirely upon local conditions. 
 In three of the largest cities the price paid per ton is about eight 
 times the market price per pound for hogs on the hoof in Chicago. 
 This represents about $1.30 per ton. In other cities the price 
 paid is from fifty to sixty cents per ton for separated, clean gar- 
 bage. Many of the New England towns receive a very consider- 
 able sum from the sale of garbage, at prices running from $0.50 
 to $1.10 per ton. The latest government report shows that the 
 prices paid . by contractors during the last year of the War for 
 the garbage from the camps and cantonments was about one 
 cent per pound. This was unusual and was due to the better 
 quality and cleaner condition of the garbage. 
 
 In considering disposal methods for any community, hog 
 feeding should be considered; but in general there should be 
 five to eight tons per day to make this method worth while from 
 a financial standpoint. 
 
 Reduction. — This is the 'treatment of separated garbage by 
 steam in closed tanks, for the separation of the vegetable and 
 animal oils and fats, and the recovery in a dry condition of the 
 residuum for use as a constituent of fertilizers. This process 
 to be successful, requires twenty-five tons and upwards per day 
 of clean garbage unmixed with foreign substances. The great 
 expense for patented machinery and special apparatus, the cost 
 of upkeep and maintenance, the fluctuating prices for the prod- 
 ucts, together with extreme liability for explosions and fires 
 from dangerous gaseous compounds, necessary for use, make this 
 method beyond the reach of any except the larger cities of the 
 country, or those having a population of 50,000 or more. 
 
 With few exceptions all of the reduction plants of the country 
 are owned or controlled by strong combinations of capital, and 
 carried on as a private business investment. The experimental 
 smaller plants for towns of the third and fourth classes have not 
 been found satisfactory. In the case of the industrial or smaller 
 residential communities, this process is regarded as too expensive 
 for consideration. 
 
 Incineration. — There is no form of refuse material that fire 
 will consume that cannot be destroyed in properly designed and 
 well operated incinerating furnaces with economy of fuel and
 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 253 
 
 labor and with complete secondary combustion of smoke fumes 
 and odors from burning substances. 
 
 Since the beginning of this method (in 1887) there have been 
 a large number of cremators, incinerators, and destructors, 
 patented or offered for use of municipalities. Perfection in 
 design, economy in construction and operation, and sanitary 
 performance have been claimed for each. Many have failed 
 for various reasons, but experimental furnaces are still being 
 developed. 
 
 Type Required. — When the final disposal of waste is to be 
 accomplished by incineration, there should be selected a type 
 which has a record of successful use under all conditions. The 
 construction must be durable, of the best material, with a 
 capacity suited to present and future conditions. 
 
 The furnace must be capable of destroying the whole output of 
 combustible matters and a large proportion of ashes and street 
 sweepings, if required, in a given time, with the utmost economy 
 of fuel and labor and without causing offensive smoke, odors 
 or fumes of combustion in the plant itself or the surrounding 
 neighborhood. The plant must be arranged to receive and unload 
 the collection wagons without delay, and must have convenient 
 arrangements for separation of the different classes of waste 
 for subsequent treatment, if this is required. 
 
 Capacity. — This will depend upon the present and anticipated 
 future population and also upon the character of waste to be 
 consumed. The design should be of the best approved type, 
 though the furnace may be of small dimensions, and built at low 
 cost for present uses, but capable of addition of other units at 
 relatively small expense. 
 
 Beginning with an industrial town of 500 population and a 
 small, inexpensive incinerator, the same design and methods can 
 be extended indefinitely to larger plans, with equal efficiency. 
 
 General Purposes. — When the waste production includes 
 garbage and rubbish, from either separated or combined col- 
 lections, the incinerator is designed for disposal, during daylight 
 hours, of all the daily wastes. This means that if other ways of 
 garbage disposal, as reduction, or feeding, or transportation for 
 dumping, should fail at any time, then the town would have 
 means at hand to dispose of the waste by incineration. 
 
 With an incinerator of suitable capacity, any town is independ- 
 ent of all other methods of garbage and rubbish disposal, if
 
 254 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 occasion requires. This applies to disposal of all animal bodies 
 and certain forms of trade wastes, if necessary. 
 
 Rubbish Only. — In some communities the gathering and sorting 
 of general combustible refuse is carried on for a revenue from re- 
 covered marketable material. The town builds the refuse utiliza- 
 tion station, including an incinerator in its equipment, and 
 collects the rubbish and delivers this to a contractor. The 
 latter operates the plant, recovers all saleable material and pays 
 the city pro rata on the volume of material sold. 
 
 It is not an expensive installation and is a source of constant 
 revenue, besides avoiding the nuisance of dumping in any form. 
 
 Station Design. — When a town has provided a location suitable 
 for a waste disposal station, there should be erected a building 
 to enclose all operations of garbage and refuse reception and 
 final disposal. The site should preferably be on a side hill 
 where an elevation of 8 to 10 feet can be had on the natural 
 incline of the ground. There should be storage room for at 
 least one day's general collection, and all operations should be 
 screened as far as may be from public observation. 
 
 The building may be of any suitable design and arrangement, 
 constructed of any material that conforms to the general con- 
 struction scheme of the town, and may be for temporary or 
 permanent use, as desired. The dimensions of the building and 
 incinerator are governed by the quantities to be handled of 
 garbage and rubbish, not including ashes; room being provided 
 for a rough sorting of the refuse for salable purposes. 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 1. In an industrial housing plan the question of collection, 
 treatment and final disposal of all wastes which affect the health, 
 comfort, convenience and happiness of the people must receive 
 due consideration. 
 
 2. The problem must be studied with reference to local con- 
 ditions in each particular case, with the intent of installing the 
 best methods that skill and experience can supply. 
 
 3. When the methods of collection and disposal are determined 
 upon, there should be a division of the collection districts into 
 working units, a calculation of the quantities of each class of 
 waste to be collected, the distances traversed, and the time 
 occupied in collections.
 
 COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF TOWN WASTES 255 
 
 4. It is advisable that the work be done by the municipal 
 agency, either by the aid of responsible contracts for the whole 
 collection, with the disposal under rigid regulations, or by the 
 adoption of a municipal system of collection. The latter is 
 preferable. 
 
 5. The work should be under the direct oversight of a special 
 inspector, reporting to the official of the town having general 
 charge of all the refuse collections and street cleaning work. 
 
 6". The regular collection service should be made at times which 
 give the greatest efficiency, economy and public convenience, and 
 with equipment best suited to the particular purposes. The 
 collection should also be under strict regulations, to which the 
 inhabitants must conform. 
 
 7. The chance of saving some part of the waste, and the re- 
 covery of revenue therefrom, should be carefully considered, 
 even though the quantities may be small at first. 
 
 8. The location chosen for final disposal should include a 
 refuse disposal station, with a building of approved design and a 
 means for destroying all worthless matters. 
 
 9. The problem of refuse collection and disposal has now 
 become an engineering question, requiring the advice of 
 specialists, familiar with all phases of this subject. This should 
 be brought to the attention of all communities where industrial 
 housing is in progress or contemplated, as well as in larger places 
 which are interested in securing the best improved methods and 
 appliances that can be obtained for the solution of this problem 
 of waste collection and disposal.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 
 
 Gas Service — Supply of Gas, Character and Sources — ■ 
 Utilization of Gas — Distribution System — Electrical 
 Service — Source of Power Supply — Transmission — 
 Distribution System — Utilization — Plans and Speci- 
 fications — Illustrations of Installations 
 
 GAS SERVICE 
 
 Introduction. — One of the problems confronting the builder 
 of an industrial housing development is that of providing a gas 
 supply for the homes. While gas can probably not be classed 
 as a necessity in the same sense as a water supply or sewerage 
 system, and is no longer the usual means of lighting, it is by no 
 means a luxury. Families which have once become accustomed 
 to the use of this convenient fuel are most reluctant to forego its 
 comforts. This should be given due weight in considering the 
 relative economy of fuel supplies as they affect the cost of the 
 project. 
 
 Advantages of Gas Service. — If a community is to be so situated 
 that gas will be available, and the cost such as to allow its use 
 for heating purposes, its advantages over use of other fuel may 
 be most fully realized — even .with restricted service. A gas sup- 
 ply means the abatement of the smoke nuisance — the incon- 
 venience of delivery of coal avoided — dust and dirt in the houses 
 reduced to a minimum — easier control of fires, allowing more 
 uniform temperatures to be maintained — and the elimination of 
 storage space for coal permitting more extensive use of cellars. 
 The householder profits from the elimination of the operating 
 labor and the handling of ashes, and is relieved from the neces- 
 sity of securing and storing fuel in advance of the season. 
 
 No hard and fast rules can be laid down as to the advisability 
 of including gas service as a part of the development. This is 
 dependent almost entirely upon local conditions and must be 
 determined for each individual case. 
 
 256
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 257 
 
 SUPPLY OF GAS— CHARACTER AND SOURCES 
 
 The supply may consist of either natural or artificial gas or a 
 mixture of the two. In many parts of the country, where 
 natural gas is available but not in sufficient quantities to meet 
 the demand, artificial gas is being successfully mixed with it for 
 general use. The gradual exhaustion of the supply of natural 
 gas and the increasing demand for this convenient fuel forecasts 
 a wider use of a mixed gas. 
 
 The mixing of natural and artificial gas produces a fuel having 
 a higher heating value than artificial gas, and at the same time 
 usually results in the mixture being sold at a lower cost than it 
 would be possible to market either gas separately. Eventually, 
 owing to the different heating qualities, the present volumetric 
 basis on which gas is bought and sold will likely be replaced by 
 the more rational method of measuring the service on the basis 
 of the heat units supplied. 
 
 Natural Gas. — Natural gas is a mechanical mixture of several 
 gases, the number and proportion of which vary with different 
 localities. Its heating value averages in the neighborhood of 
 1150 B.t.u. per cu. ft. — practically double that of the best 
 grades of artificial gas manufactured for commercial use. 
 
 Natural gas is still obtainable in many of the central and 
 southwestern parts of the country, although in rapidly diminish- 
 ing quantities. Its great heating value and usefulness, coupled 
 with its diminishing yield, undoubtedly point toward conserva- 
 tion, higher prices and limitation of its use to domestic purposes. 
 
 Artificial Gas. — The most important of the gases artificially 
 made are coal gas, carburetted water gas, producer gas and by- 
 product coke oven gas. In the past, coal gas and carburetted 
 water gas, either alone or in combination, have been most widely 
 used for domestic consumption. 
 
 Coal Gas. — This is frequently referred to as "bench" or "illu- 
 minating" gas, and is manufactured by the destructive distilla- 
 tion of coal in externally heated air-tight retorts. It is primarily 
 a mixture of a number of simple gases. The heating value of 
 coal gas varies considerably, owing to the different grades of coal 
 used in its manufacture, but a value of 550 B.t .u. may be assumed 
 as a fair average. The approximate average yield per ton of coal 
 is between 10,000 and 11,000 cu. ft. of gas, while the average 
 yield of by-product coke ranges between 1200 and 1500 lbs.
 
 258 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Water Gas. — This is produced by the decomposition of steam, 
 acting on incandescent carbon in the form of coal or coke. The 
 heating value ranges between 300 and 350 B.t.u. per cu. ft. 
 and for general municipal use this gas is usually carburetted or 
 enriched by the introduction of crude oil in such a way that it 
 becomes permanently fixed in the mixture. This, in addition to 
 raising the heating value to approximately that of coal gas, is 
 usually necessary in order to increase the illuminating quality 
 so as to meet certain candle power requirements. 
 
 The danger of carbon monoxide poisoning accompanies the 
 use of water gas, although when carburetted the odor of the oil 
 used can be recognized in case of leakage, and ordinarily there 
 is little likelihood of an accident resulting from this source. 
 
 Producer Gas. — This is made by passing both air and steam 
 over hot coal, the volume obtainable from one ton of coal aver- 
 aging between 100,000 and 130,000 cu. ft. of gas. Owing to the 
 large percentage of nitrogen present, the heating value of pro- 
 ducer gas is low, averaging in the neighborhood of 140 B.t.u. per 
 cubic foot. 
 
 In the past, producer gas has been used chiefly for manufac- 
 turing purposes, the equipment for its production being located 
 near the plant, so that the required transportation would be 
 short. Gas produced in this manner is extremely dirty and, 
 unless well cleansed before transporting, is likely to clog the 
 pipes of the distribution system. 
 
 Coke Oven Gas. — This is one of the products resulting from the 
 manufacture of coke in the by-product process. Its composition 
 is quite similar to that of coal gas and the heating value ranges 
 between 550 and 600 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 
 
 On account of the growing demands, lessened supply of natural 
 gas and development of the use of collateral products, the use 
 of by-product gas in mixture with natural gas is becoming well 
 developed. It furnishes a means of prolonging the utilization 
 of natural gas for a longer time than would be the case if it alone 
 must be depended upon. 
 
 Source of Supply. — Public Service: — No doubt, in a majority 
 of cases, the housing development will be located near an es- 
 tablished community, and it will be possible to obtain a supply 
 of either natural or artificial gas from the utility supplying this 
 town. On the other hand, in the case of isolated developments, 
 the high pressure mains of a company might be sufficiently close,
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 259 
 
 so that a supply could be obtained from this source. The supply 
 might be secured by transporting the gas from a considerable 
 distance, although it will generally be found that a gas company 
 is quite reluctant to extend its system in order to provide service 
 in this manner. 
 
 Industrial Supply. — It is quite possible that the agency pro- 
 moting the housing project may own industrial plants, in which 
 a gas is produced that can be utilized for the development, and 
 in view of the steadily increasing cost of gas this possibility should 
 be given careful consideration. The high cost of manufactured 
 gas is largely due to the necessity of providing equipment suffi- 
 cient to meet the greatest demand, even though the peak load 
 usually exists only during a comparatively short period of the 
 year. It is not economical to manufacture gas in quantities less 
 than that for which the equipment is designed, and if gas is to 
 be used for manufacturing purposes it is quite likely that it would 
 pay to install the gas making plant for the industry sufficiently 
 large to produce gas for both the plant and the housing develop- 
 ment. Or if a domestic gas plant is used, build this large enough 
 only to meet the average demand and reinforce the supply during 
 periods of high consumption with gas from the industrial plant. 
 
 By -Product Ovens. — On the other hand, it might be that the 
 quantity of gas produced in connection with other needs, — and 
 this is quite common in connection with the by-product coke 
 oven industry, — would be in excess of that required for the com- 
 pany's own development and the surplus could be distributed to 
 nearby towns or other housing developments, and a profit thus 
 realized. Similarly, conditions might be such that if a supply of 
 gas is not available from the company's own plant, service could 
 be obtained from another nearby industry. 
 
 There will be few cases only where a gas supply is not obtain- 
 able from a public service corporation, and in these days it is 
 doubtful if it would be wise to build an independent domestic 
 plant for supplying a housing development only. The relative 
 economy of the different methods available can be determined 
 only from a study of local conditions. In connection with some 
 projects it will undoubtedly be found that gas cannot be econom- 
 ically supplied. 
 
 UTILIZATION OF GAS 
 
 Gas, both natural and artificial, is used in domestic consump- 
 tion for heating, cooking and lighting, although for lighting pur-
 
 2G0 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 poses it is being largely superseded by the use of electricity, and 
 to some extent in cooking. 
 
 Heating. — The usual high cost of manufactured gas has prohib- 
 ited its extensive use for domestic heating, but the develop- 
 ment of more efficient burning devices and improved methods of 
 manufacture will tend to increase its use for this purpose. In 
 regions where artificial gas, only, is available, ordinary practice 
 is to use it only in cooking stoves and under hot water heaters, 
 the heating of the house being accomplished by the use of coal. 
 This practice is now becoming common, even where natural gas 
 is available, furnaces for the use of either gas or coal being in- 
 stalled, so as to guard against the contingency of the demand 
 exceeding the yield of the gas fields during severe and long con- 
 tinued cold spells. 
 
 Natural gas as a fuel for house heating will usually be found as 
 economical as coal, providing the proper equipment is used. 
 With combination furnaces, coal can be used during the coldest 
 months of winter when continuous heat is required, and gas 
 during the fall and spring when heat is needed only during a 
 part of the day. This will usually result in a saving, as the gas 
 can be turned on or off instantly and used only when required. 
 Even should coal be used in the furnace, gas fire places may well 
 be used with economy and comfort for room heating. 
 
 Unless the town is a strictly residential development, the sup- 
 ply of gas should be sufficient to meet the requirements of small 
 manufacturing plants, machine shops, etc. It may be used 
 either as fuel under boilers or for the operation of internal com- 
 bustion engines and some other processes. 
 
 Cooking. — Many of the same remarks as given under " Heat- 
 ing" apply here; but, even with high cost of artificial gas, there 
 is a growing demand for gas and for appliances to use for cooking 
 and household duties of various kinds. These may extend from 
 the small hot plate burner to the more pretentious kitchen range, 
 complete with oven and all appurtenances. Such use has almost 
 become a necessity in the summer in warmer sections of the 
 country and with row or apartment houses. 
 
 Lightings — This has become largely obsolete, except in remote 
 localities and where electricity for some reason has not been 
 developed. As little attention is now paid to illuminants, even 
 in artificial gas, it is customary to use incandescent mantels; 
 thus any gas can be used.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 261 
 
 Amount of Gas Used.- — Abnormal peaks of short duration 
 are characteristic of gas service and the proper design of any 
 supply works will require a thorough study of the probable daily 
 and seasonal variations. Space is too limited for full discussion 
 of such variations and reference will be made only to the factors 
 which affect the design of the distribution system. 
 
 Average and Maximum. — In most cases the design of the gas 
 system for a housing development will require a determination 
 of the maximum demand, only, that may be expected, in order 
 that mains and distributing lines of adequate size may be pro- 
 vided.. The volume of gas consumed will depend largely upon 
 the character of the demand. Where natural gas is to be used 
 for heating, as well as other forms of domestic service, the aver- 
 age for a residential development will be about 120,000 cu. ft. 
 per year, or 14 cu. ft. per hour, per family. The amount for 
 other gases will be proportionally greater, due to the lesser 
 heating value. 
 
 The maximum demand will be about three times this quantity 
 or 42 cu. ft. per hour. In estimating the probable consumption, 
 however, even though the initial supply is to be natural gas, the 
 probable future substitution of manufactured gas must be taken 
 into consideration and allowance made, therefore, for a demand 
 of 84 cu. ft. per hour. 
 
 Allowance Jor Artificial Gas. — A comparison of the probable 
 maximum consumption of manufactured and natural gas can- 
 not, however, be made solely on the basis of fuel values. The 
 higher cost of the manufactured product, as compared with 
 natural gas, tends to decrease its use as a fuel and at the same 
 time increase the care and economy of the consumers. The 
 consumption of the different gases, especially for cooking pur- 
 poses, while depending directly upon their respective fuel values, 
 is somewhat affected by the element of time. That is, while 
 practically double the amount of manufactured gas is required 
 to do the same amount of work per unit of time, as that accom- 
 plished by natural gas having twice the heating value, it does 
 not necessarily follow that the work must be completed in the 
 same length of time. The cooking may extend over a longer 
 period and finally the increasing necessity of substituting artifi- 
 cial for natural gas will stimulate the perfection and efficiency 
 of heating and cooking devices. 
 
 Considering these factors, a maximum rate of use of 00 cu. ft.
 
 262 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 per hour may be assumed as sufficient for both heating and cook- 
 ing purposes on all occasions, and the pipe lines may safely be 
 designed on this basis. These figures, however, apply to the 
 middle and northern sections of the United States. For develop- 
 ments in the southerly regions the effect of the warmer climate 
 upon the maximum demand should be taken into consideration. 
 Where local conditions are such that gas will be used only for 
 cooking and lighting purposes, the distribution system may be 
 designed on this basis. Before this is done, however, careful 
 thought should be given to the possibility of later abandon- 
 ment of wood and coal in extreme cold weather with a resulting 
 increased demand for gas for such purposes. 
 
 Transmission. — If the gas service is to be furnished by an 
 outside agency the method of transporting the gas from the 
 source of supply to the site is usually not one of the problems of 
 the housing project. In the limited number of cases, however, 
 where the gas supply will be furnished by a housing corporation, 
 the principles affecting the construction of the transmission 
 mains will need to be kept in view. The first consideration is 
 the size of the pipe that will be required to carry a supply 
 adequate not only for the initial but for the ultimate development. 
 
 Pressures. — In practically all instances where manufactured 
 gas is supplied, the required distance of transportation will be 
 short, and the pressures carried in the lines comparatively low. 
 The latter may be obtained by the use of high-pressure storage 
 holders, but this is now being largely superseded. The system 
 which is gradually coming into use, consists of small rotary boost- 
 ers, which may be regulated so as to hold the pressure uniform, 
 regardless of the variations in consumption. In the transmis- 
 sion of gas, a moderately high differential pressure (the difference 
 between the pressure at the inlet and outlet of the line) is required, 
 in order to secure enough driving power to force the gas through 
 the mains. This pressure is used up in overcoming the friction 
 offered by the pipe to the flow of the gas. At the discharge end 
 of line, where the gas is taken into a low-pressure regulator, the 
 pressure may be as low as 1 lb. per sq. in., although somewhat 
 higher amounts are desirable. 
 
 Pipe Sizes. — The problem, then, is simply to find the size of 
 pipe that will be required to deliver the necessary amount of 
 gas at the regulator stations, the initial pressure at the source 
 being known. Various formulae have been developed, and
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 263 
 
 although no two of these will exactly agree, the results obtained 
 are comparatively close. The following formula 1 by F. H. 
 Oliphant, is recommended for use in determining the flow of gas, 
 or the required size of pipe, in high or medium pressure systems: 
 
 Q = 42A^ 
 
 in which Q equals the quantity of gas in cubic feet per hour; Pi 
 equals gage pressure, plus 15 lb., at intake end of line; P 2 equals 
 gage pressure, plus 15 lb., at discharge end of line; A equals the 
 square root of the 5.084th power of the nominal diameter of the 
 pipe; L equals the length of main, in miles, and 42 is a constant 
 deduced from practical experiments. The specific gravity of 
 the gas in this formula is assumed as six-tenths and for a gas 
 having any other specific gravity, the result should be multiplied 
 by the square root of six-tenths, divided by the square root of the 
 specific gravity of the gas under consideration. 
 
 Kind of Pipe— Wrought iron or steel pipe is more extensively 
 used for medium or high pressure gas mains than cast iron pipe, 
 notwithstanding the longer life of the latter. The former is not 
 likely to break and more readily accommodates itself to settle- 
 ments of the ground. Cast iron pipe is usually laid with lead 
 joints, and steel pipe with either screw joints or couplings, the 
 couplings being used for the larger sizes. The major portion of 
 the gas lost in transmission occurs at the joints in the line; thus 
 the shorter lengths of cast iron pipe contribute more to this loss, 
 and particular care must be exercised in the laying of the pipe 
 to make the joints, however they are constructed, as leak-proof 
 as possible. Threads and couplings should be painted with a thick 
 mixture of red and white lead before screwing together. 
 
 Recently the practice of welding the pipe together, end to end, 
 by means of the oxy-acetylene flame has been tried and, while 
 this method is comparatively new, it is claimed that it will 
 eventually supersede all others. Practice has demonstrated that 
 the strength and flexibility of the welded joints, if properly 
 made, obviate the necessity of special provision in the lines for 
 expansion. For steel pipe lines, with screw joints, provision for 
 expansion is sometimes made by inserting sleeves, but the usual 
 practice is to lay the pipe in a more or less irregular line. In the 
 case of plain end pipe, the couplings allow for such contingencies. 
 
 1 Handbook of Natural Gas — IIknry P. Westcott.
 
 264 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Drips. — "Drips" for the collection of moisture should be 
 placed at all depressions in the line. Standard drip pots or 
 tanks are manufactured for this purpose, the main feature being 
 a baffle plate, placed in the center, for intercepting the liquid in 
 the gas, which, striking against the plate, drops to the bottom 
 of the tank while the gas passes around. These drips or blow- 
 offs must be kept free from water by frequent cleaning. 
 
 Regulators. — -For low pressure distribution the gas is taken from 
 the supply mains into the distribution system through regulators 
 or governors, which reduce the pressure to whatever extent is 
 necessary to meet requirements. If the pressure in the main 
 supply line is over 100 lb. per sq. in., two regulator stations 
 will be required, the first to reduce the pressure to an inter- 
 mediate stage of 15 or 20 lb., and the second, or low pressure 
 regulator, to step this down to meet the requirements of 
 distribution. 
 
 The regulator station may be placed either above ground in 
 a suitable structure, or in an underground vault, whichever may 
 be best suited to local conditions. If placed underground, ample 
 provision must be made for ventilation, in order to allow the gas 
 to escape in case of leakage, and also to prevent freezing of the 
 apparatus. In certain instances it may even be found necessary 
 to heat the gas previous to reducing the pressure, in order to 
 prevent the freezing of the regulator, although such measure 
 will be found necessary only when excessive reductions are 
 attempted. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 
 
 The gas distribution system within the limits of a town con- 
 sists of a series or network of distributing lines, connecting 
 various main lines, the required number of mains depending upon 
 the size and arrangement of the development. The services for 
 individual consumers may be connected with either the mains or 
 the distributing lines. The relative advantages of placing gas 
 lines in easements or in streets, the economy of a single and a 
 double system of low pressure mains in the streets, and the 
 desirability of placing several utilities in the same trench has 
 been discussed in another chapter of this book and further refer- 
 ence here will be unnecessary. 
 
 Gas must be delivered to the consumers at a comparatively
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 265 
 
 uniform pressure adequate for their needs, but more than this is 
 excessive and unnecessary. Pressures must be limited, also, in 
 order to minimize the possibility of danger resulting from leakage 
 in the house piping or in burning devices. This comparatively 
 low pressure may be carried in the entire system or a higher 
 pressure may be used for distribution, and the required reduction 
 made by means of small individual regulators installed in the 
 service lines. 
 
 Each system has its advantages, but that best adapted to any 
 particular development can be determined only after a detail 
 study of the relative economy of each as affected by local con- 
 ditions. The source from which the supply is to be obtained 
 must also be taken into consideration. 
 
 Low Pressure Distribution. — Where gas is supplied directly 
 from the distribution system, without regulation, the pressure 
 carried in the lines is usually from 4 to 6 oz., as the best domestic 
 service is given when the gas is delivered at a pressure of not less 
 than 2} <j oz. per square inch . Where the population of the develop- 
 ment is to be in the neighborhood of 5,000, more than one low- 
 pressure regulator will probably be required and in such cases 
 the supply line is extended as required. Usually when several 
 regulators will be required it will be found desirable to carry the 
 supply line around the approximate boundary of the develop- 
 ment, so as to form a belt line feeding system. The pressure 
 carried in the supply main may vary from a few pounds to 15 
 or 20 lb. per square inch. 
 
 Regulators. — The regulator stations should be carefully located 
 with reference to the center points of heavy consumption, and 
 to the distribution of the load throughout the system. In the 
 majority of instances, it will be found desirable to place the 
 stations in underground vaults, so as not to detract from the 
 appearance of the development. These may be placed either 
 under the streets or under easements reserved for utilities. 
 
 The regulator should preferably be installed with a by-pass 
 so that it may be "cut-out" for repairs and the gas flow tempo- 
 rarily controlled by hand, if necessary. Regulators, constructed 
 with a double diaphragm, have been found to give the most 
 satisfactory service, as the pressures may be thus more closely 
 controlled. Every precaution should be taken to obviate the 
 possibility of accidents resulting from failure of the regulators. 
 Safety valves should be installed on the low pressure side of the
 
 266 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 station to relieve the pressure in the distribution system, should 
 the diaphragm of the regulator fail. 
 
 In case the gas should fail in the night, or be thoughtlessly 
 turned off from the supply mains and turned on again without 
 warning, serious accidents might result. To guard against this 
 contingency all regulators should be installed with attachments 
 for automatically closing the ports of the valves and to prevent 
 flow of gas again until the valves are opened by hand. The 
 material used in the construction of the regulator should be such 
 as will resist any chemical action of the gas, especially where 
 the supply is to be manufactured gas. 
 
 Fig. 39. — Plan of typical gas regulator station. 
 
 A typical installation of an underground station, using a 
 regulator with double diaphragms, is illustrated in Fig. 39. 
 
 Size of Mains. — The design of low pressure distribution systems 
 should make ample allowance for contingencies. The size of 
 the mains should be liberal so that the loss of pressure between 
 the regulators and the most distant consumers will be practically 
 negligible. In common parlance, the lines should act more as 
 reservoirs than as conductors, so that the pressure at the regu- 
 lators may be maintained at about 4 ounces per square inch. 
 This will tend to more nearly equalize the pressures throughout 
 the system and will insure a more satisfactory service.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 2C7 
 
 It should be remembered, however, that the period of maximum 
 demand will usually exist only during a comparatively few days 
 of the winter months, depending upon geographical location and 
 the severity of the winter. In the majority of cases this period 
 will probably constitute not more than three or four per cent, of 
 the entire year and to meet this demand the pressures at the 
 regulator stations may be increased, — providing of course that 
 the supply of gas is adequate. The design of the system should 
 be such, however that even in the most extreme cases, the re- 
 quired increase in pressure should not exceed several ounces. 
 The loss of gas in a well designed low pressure system should 
 not exceed five per cent. 
 
 High Pressure Distribution. — It is possible, however, and in 
 certain instances desirable, to distribute the gas under a high 
 or medium pressure. The low pressure required for domestic 
 use is obtained in such a case, by the use of small individual 
 regulators, placed on the service connections. In such a system, 
 accidents resulting from the improper functioning of the individ- 
 ual regulators or governors are infrequent, especially when proper 
 precautions are taken by installing safety devices in connection 
 with the regulators. 
 
 Satisfactory service may be given in this manner and smaller 
 pipe lines are possible. The saving due to the use of less expen- 
 sive lines, however, is offset to a large extent by the cost of the 
 attachments on the service connections to the consumers. This 
 is especially true where the development is concentrated. On 
 the other hand, considerable economy may be realized by such 
 high pressure service, where the consumers are few in proportion 
 to the required length of the distributing mains, or where service 
 may be obtained directly from the medium or high pressure lines 
 serving a district. 
 
 Aside from the saving that it may be possible to realize, high 
 pressure distribution has the distinct advantage of making pos- 
 sible the delivery of gas to every house at a constant and uni- 
 form pressure, no matter what the distance. In addition pres- 
 sures can be varied to meet individual needs. Where manu- 
 factured gas is used, high pressure greatly reduces the possibility 
 of trouble from freezing of the lines. The possibility of such a 
 method of distribution should be given most careful consideration. 
 
 Design of Distribution. — The use of wrought iron or steel pipe 
 is recommended and particular care should be taken in laying to
 
 2C8 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 secure tight joints, so as to limit the loss from leakage. In 
 laying out the distribution system, care should be taken to elimi- 
 nate all unnecessary bends in the pipe, so as to minimize the fric- 
 tion set up by a change in the direction of the flow of the gas. 
 Although such refinement is not usually necessary, allowance in 
 design for the drop in pressure, due to the friction of fittings and 
 valves may be made by addition of a certain length to that of 
 the straight section of pipe under consideration. 
 
 General. — The first consideration is an estimate of the popu- 
 lation, and this must take into consideration the probable future 
 developments and the directions which these growths may take. 
 The character of the community — whether residential or largely 
 industrial — should be considered in determining the average and 
 maximum consumption. The general topography of the area 
 under consideration, as # well as variation in level, and its relation 
 to the source of the supply, affects the design. Consideration 
 must, of course, be given to the distribution of the demand for 
 gas, whether equally spread over the district or unequally — and 
 if the latter, in which direction the greatest quantities of gas will 
 be needed. 
 
 The natural tendency of gas to rise should be utilized by arrang- 
 ing the mains so that the principal lines may run through the 
 lower portions of the district, if this is possible. In the determina- 
 tion, or design of a system, this characteristic of gas should be 
 recognized by making an allowance in considering the pressures. 
 For this purpose, the gravitating effect of the gas can be assumed 
 as equal to a column of water one inch in height for each vertical 
 rise or fall of 100 ft. in the line. 
 
 Slope and Drips. — Gas lines should be laid on a slope, so as to 
 provide drainage for the water due to the condensation of the 
 moisture in the gas. The minimum allowable grade should not 
 . be less than 0.25 per cent. At all depressions, drip pots should 
 be placed, and these should be inspected and cleaned frequently. 
 In laying out and constructing the system, all the low pressure 
 lines should be connected, and no dead ends allowed. 
 
 Valves and Bags. — In a low pressure system valves are not 
 required in the lines, except at regulator stations and at those 
 places where local conditions may make this provision desirable. 
 For the purpose of repairing any section of the system, the gas 
 may be shut off from this locality by means of gas bags, inserted 
 through holes drilled in the pipes.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 2G9 
 
 Depth of Laying. — Where natural gas is used, there is no danger 
 of the lines freezing, and they may be laid at any depth deter- 
 mined by other considerations. With manufactured or artificial 
 gas, however, the possibility of the lines freezing must be taken 
 into consideration in determining the depth at which they should 
 be laid. This is more particularly true of small lines which may 
 become clogged through condensation and freezing of the water 
 which is always carried in the gas. A depth of from two to 
 three feet, however, will usually be sufficient, except in extremely 
 cold climates. The difficulty experienced in connection with the 
 freezing of the lines when artificial gas is used is largely done 
 away with if the gas is distributed under a medium or high pres- 
 sure. 
 
 Size of Pipes. — The required size of the medium and low pres- 
 sure distributing mains may be determined by the use of the 
 
 /PD 
 
 formula of Dr. Pole, V = 1350 D 2 J — in which V equals vol- 
 ume of gas discharged, in cubic feet per hour; D equals diameter 
 of pipe, in inches; P equals pressure drop, in inches of water; 
 S equals specific gravity of gas (air equals 1) ; L equals length of 
 line in yards; and 1350 is a constant, deducted from practice and 
 experiment. The pressure of a column of water one inch in 
 height may be taken as equal to 0.577 ounces per square inch. 
 The size of high pressure lines may be determined from the Oli- 
 phant formula given under "Transmission". 
 
 Services. — Tapping Mains. — In laying the gas lines, provisions 
 such as "TV are not necessary or desirable for service connections. 
 After the lines are laid, holes are drilled, either before or after 
 the gas has been turned in, by means of a tapping machine, and 
 the service pipe connected by means of two street L's". 
 With wrought iron or steel mains, a saddle or service clamp will 
 be required, as the thickness of the pipe shell is not sufficient 
 for threading. 
 
 Size. — A 1^-in. service line will supply an eight to ten-room 
 house, and sizes smaller than this should never be used. Where 
 the service line is not excessively long, a lj^-in. pipe should be 
 large enough to furnish a supply sufficient for all domestic needs 
 to the largest house. For industrial use, it will be necessary to 
 determine the size of service line required to meet the individual 
 circumstances. For schools, churches, stores, etc., a 2-in. service 
 line should be used.
 
 270 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Galvanized pipe is not essential for service connection, and a 
 considerable saving may be realized by the use of black pipe. 
 All fittings, however, should be galvanized iron throughout. 
 
 Curb Cocks. — Stop cocks should be placed on all service lines, 
 and a further economy may be effected by the use of stop cocks 
 with galvanized iron cases instead of all brass stop cocks. Valve 
 boxes, or "curb boxes", as they are usually called, should be 
 placed over all service cocks. The usual diameter of the shaft 
 of such boxes is 2}i in., and, while these are a standard product, 
 care should be taken to obtain a box with a base of sufficient 
 size, so that no weight will be transmitted to the service line. As 
 the services will probably not all be the same depth below the 
 surface, boxes with an extension or adjustable top should be 
 used. A top with an arrangement for locking is a desirable 
 feature. 
 
 Where the service is taken from a line in an easement at the 
 rear of a lot, the location of the service boxes should be marked, 
 so that they may easily be found in case it becomes necessary 
 to shut off the gas in an emergency. This can easily be done by 
 extending the top of the box a few inches above the ground and 
 protecting it with a small concrete block. Such a block should be 
 constructed with sloping sides and extended a sufficient distance 
 in the ground to resist the uplifting action of frost. The hole in 
 the center of the block should be left sufficiently large to allow 
 the removal of the service box without disturbing the marker. 
 
 Slope and Drip. — Where possible the service line should 
 slope toward the main so as to allow for drainage. If the slope 
 of the ground is such that this cannot be done, it will be necessary 
 to place a small drip pot at the cellar wall, to allow for the collec- 
 tion of condensation from the line. 
 
 In order to protect the pipe at the cellar wall and also to allow 
 for easy removal, a galvanized iron sleeve several sizes larger 
 than the service pipe should be used. The opening between the 
 pipe and the sleeve may readily be closed after the fine has been 
 installed by caulking or cementing the opening. 
 
 Plans and Specifications. — Even though, in the majority of 
 cases, a gas system will be owned and operated as a public utility, 
 it will be desirable to include the design as part of the housing pi o- 
 ject, in order to coordinate with other utilities and street work. 
 
 Plans. — General and detail plans should always be prepared, 
 the former to show comprehensive layout of the system — supply
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 271 
 
 and distribution mains, distributing lines, regulators, drips, 
 valves and the location of all other structural features. Detail 
 location of lines and structures may be quite readily shown on 
 plans of other utilities, in connection with water lines and sewers. 
 This will insure proper clearances and prevent interferences. 
 
 These plans should show profiles in order to establish grades 
 and relation to the finished surface. Details of typical service 
 installations should be prepared, as well as plans for the construc- 
 tion of regulator stations. These should show clearly details 
 of piping connections to regulators and the location of all valves 
 and safety devices. Cross-sections of streets, showing the depth 
 of lines and relation to other utilities, will be found desirable. 
 
 Specifications. — The construction of lines may be handled in a 
 number of different ways. Whatever agreement is made, the 
 specifications should be such as to insure a satisfactory service. 
 The rights of utility companies and obligations regarding main- 
 tenance of systems should be clearly understood and stated. 
 This is particularly important as relating to repair to pipes under 
 the pavements. 
 
 Technical specifications should cover the kind of pipe to be 
 used, method of installation, sequence of construction consider- 
 ing other utilities, depth of lines, location of structures and the 
 materials of construction. Methods of installing services should 
 be clearly stated, the location and protection of service boxes, 
 and the type and location of meters. With high pressure service, 
 particular stress should be laid on the installation of house regu- 
 lators. In short, all agreements and specifications should have 
 in view securing an adequate and satisfactory service at a mini- 
 mum of cost. 
 
 ELECTRICAL SERVICE 
 
 Introduction. — Electrical service for municipalities not infre- 
 quently introduces some rather difficult problems, which require 
 careful consideration to the end that an adequate and dependable 
 service at reasonable cost may be secured. It is important that 
 that the installation may be made in such a manner as will not 
 unduly detract from the appearance of the development, and 
 also be capable of future extensions without manifest changes 
 in plan of system. 
 
 Where service is furnished by a public utility company, there 
 frequently arises a conflict of interest and opinion, the company
 
 272 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 being guided by the inertia of established practice as to installa- 
 tion and operation and controlled very largely by cost factors. 
 Further, the rates which may be charged are commonly regu- 
 lated by State Utility Commissions and, if the cost of installa- 
 tion is greater than usual practice would entail, the company 
 cannot obtain sufficient return upon the investment unless the 
 builder of the project participates in the first cost of construc- 
 tion. Even then, particularly if the installation is a small one, 
 the utility operating officials will not care to depart from their 
 standard operating practice. 
 
 The builder's view point is based on the more intangible but 
 nevertheless real grounds of appearance and attractiveness; not 
 however lessening the value of good service. Having in mind 
 the efforts he has made and the expense he has undergone to 
 add to the amenities of the project, in the planning of the streets, 
 lots, planting, grouping of the houses and similar features of good 
 town planning, he is most desirous of not detracting from at- 
 tractiveness by overhanging festoons of wires. Particularly he 
 wishes to avoid those practices which tend so much to injure 
 the good looks of streets, which can be eliminated at slight 
 additional cost; sometimes even, it may be said, at a lesser cost 
 than that of the established practice of the company. If the 
 installation is to be attractively carried out, the advances in art 
 or design may have to be initiated by the builders. It is therefore 
 of value to point out the various ways in which this may be 
 made to answer different requirements and conditions. 
 
 When current is furnished, either from a nearby industry or 
 from a power plant, built especially for the development, the 
 builder of the project can control the features of the installation. 
 He is then interested in what manner and at what cost he can 
 attain the desired results. The important questions are where 
 can the service be obtained most cheaply and how can it be 
 installed in the most satisfactory manner. 
 
 A working knowledge of the features and uses of the various 
 elements of a complete electrical installation is essential, in order 
 that a good practical scheme may be worked out. These include 
 the following: the power plant; the transmission or supply line; 
 the high voltage piimary circuit within the project; the secondary 
 system of low voltage, from which the house sei vices are directly 
 taken; the house services and meters; the street lighting circuits, 
 and the various units of utilization of current.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 273 
 
 SOURCE OF POWER SUPPLY 
 
 There are two possible sources of electrical energy between 
 which it may be necessary to choose. If the project is adjacent 
 to an existing community or power development, it may be pos- 
 sible to purchase power. If no existing power development is 
 available, it will be necessary to construct a power plant, or 
 design and utilize part of the power plant of the industry to 
 meet the local requirements. These two possibilities are dis- 
 cussed briefly in the order named. 
 
 Purchase from Existing Utility. — Where existing power de- 
 velopments are available as a source of supply, it is usually more 
 economical to purchase power than to generate it. This is 
 especially true if the demand is only such as to require construc- 
 tion of a small plant. The question of relative dependability 
 between two or more sources of supply should be given careful 
 consideration. There may be more than one existing utility 
 company able to furnish service. It may further develop that 
 the service which can be furnished from an existing source, may 
 be subject to interruption or breakdown, such that the construc- 
 tion of a local plant may be advisable, unless it is possible to 
 secure a guarantee of continuous service from the utility 
 company. 
 
 Three main factors go to make up a satisfactory supply; 
 namely, continuity of service, constancy of voltage and reasonable 
 cost to the consumer. Purchase of power from existing com- 
 panies generally increases the possibilities of the first two and 
 decreases the third. This method reduces the overhead expense 
 of financing, engineering, construction, and managing the 
 station and system. It places the responsibility for the con- 
 tinuity of service and the constancy of voltage with a large 
 concern, which can well afford the expert advice and expense of 
 installation most likely to produce these results. 
 
 Local Generating Station.— The alternative of designing and 
 constructing a plant to supply the local requirements must be 
 followed if it is not possible to purchase power from an existing 
 public service or power company. Three general types of power 
 plants should be considered, based on the type of prime mover. 
 These are (a) the steam plant, (6) the internal combustion engine 
 plant, and (c) the hydraulic plant, which is possible only under 
 favorable surroundings. 
 
 18
 
 274 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Steam Plants. — The coal burning steam plant is the most 
 common of this type. It will be necessary to choose between 
 reciprocating steam engine and steam turbines for prime movers. 
 A comparison of the economy of these two types of prime movers 
 is not attempted here, but should be made on the basis of the 
 particular plant in question. 
 
 The possibility of using by-product steam should be considered, 
 since it often makes advantageous the construction and operation 
 of a local power plant, even when there is an existing and avail- 
 able source of supply. Cases will arise where water pumping 
 stations are to be built, or where the size of the development may 
 warrant the construction of a modern high temperature incinerat- 
 ing or refuse disposal plant. In the first case exhaust steam may 
 suffice for the operation of electrical units; and in the second, the 
 direct steam from boilers of waste destruction units can well be 
 utilized as a source of power supply. 
 
 Internal Combustion Units. — The internal combustion engine 
 using natural gas, gasoline or fuel oil also offers possibilities as 
 a prime mover. The natural gas engine is, of course, limited to 
 territory supplied by this fuel. The gasoline and oil engines are 
 not so limited. The recent developments in the Diesel type of 
 internal combustion engine, using low grade fuels, forces the 
 consideration of this type of prime mover, especially for iso- 
 lated plants of small capacity. 
 
 Hydro-Electric Units. — If water power is available in suffi- 
 cient quantity, it offers attractive possibilities in these days of 
 increasing costs of coal, gas and oil. The cost of such a station, 
 as compared to the other types and the time it would take to 
 complete the development, would doubtless considerably exceed 
 the cost and time of development of the other types. However, 
 the freedom from full and excessive labor charges makes such a 
 method worthy of consideration. The permanency and ulti- 
 mate requirements of the project determine whether or not the 
 increased expense will be justifiable. 
 
 Capacity. — The capacity of an electric station to care for the 
 needs of a community depends so much upon the character of the 
 community and the habits and customs of its people that average 
 figures must be used with caution. In small villages the amount 
 of power demand, for all purposes, may be 0.05 kilowatt per 
 capita; but towns and cities with population of 20,000 or more 
 need about 0.1 kilowatt per capita.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 275 
 
 The size of a plant affects the cost very materially, the unit 
 cost being much greater for small plants than for the larger ones. 
 For plants of less than 500 kilowatts capacity the unit cost is 
 found to be between $200 and $300 per kilowatt, while larger 
 plants may be built for $200 to $100 per kilowatt. 
 
 TRANSMISSION 
 
 The word transmission as used here means the conveyance 
 of power in quantity, at comparatively high voltage, from a gen- 
 erating station to a substation in the development. This is 
 necessary only where the energy is purchased or generated at a 
 distance from the site of its application, and generally obtains, 
 if at all, with large developments. Three factors must be con- 
 sidered. They are:— Right of Way; Voltage and Frequency; 
 and Line Construction. 
 
 Right of Way. — The transmission line may be located in a 
 private right of way or on the public highway. The voltage 
 employed and the type of supporting structures will largely 
 determine whether or not the highway can be used. While the 
 private right of way has certain advantages, yet for any except 
 the larger and higher voltage lines, the advantages of using 
 public highways are probably greater, because of the reduced 
 expense in construction and the ease of access both for inspection 
 and maintenance. 
 
 Voltage. — The voltage of the transmission line is determined 
 largely by two factors, namely, the voltage at the power station, 
 from which current is received, and the suitability of that voltage 
 for the particular length of line in question. For example, it is 
 entirely possible that the initial voltage of transmission or station 
 from which the energy is received might be entirely too high to 
 be practicable, by reason of expensive supporting structures 
 and insulation required. On the other hand, it might be too low 
 for economical transmission at that distance. 
 
 If the initial voltage is not suitable to the transmission in 
 question, a transformer substation will be necessary. The 
 standard frequencies in the United States are 25 and 60 cycle 
 per second. Of these two, the latter is the more common because 
 lighting installations are rather unsatisfactory when the fre- 
 quency is lower than 60 cycles, although it is used in some 
 cases because of its advantages in motor operations.
 
 276 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Line Construction. — The exact nature of the supporting struc- 
 tures can be determined only by consideration of all of the local 
 conditions. These structures may be of the simple pole or mast 
 type, of A-frame construction or of tower construction. The 
 pole, mast, or A-frame types can be made of wood, steel or 
 reinforced concrete. The tower type of supporting structure is 
 ordinarily made of steel. The principal factors which determine 
 the particular type are the cost and the suitability to the proposed 
 location. 
 
 The choice of conductor size and material is largely a question 
 of economy. The exact size will be determined by a number of 
 factors among which are the amount of power to be transmitted, 
 the voltage at which it is transmitted and the length of the line. 
 It should be so selected that the annual cost, including fixed 
 charges and cost of energy lost in the line, will be a minimum, 
 unless the requirements of necessary mechanical strength and 
 permissible voltage variation at the receiver end, due to change 
 in load, dictate a larger size. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 
 
 The distribution system begins at the terminals of the trans- 
 mission line and consists of three main links, viz.: The sub- 
 station, at which energy is stepped down from transmission line 
 voltage to primary distribution voltage; the primary distribu- 
 tion system or feeders; the secondary distribution system. 
 
 Substations. — The substation is always necessary where 
 energy is purchased or generated at a voltage higher than the 
 primary distribution voltage. The particular type of sub- 
 station and equipment which it must contain can only be deter- 
 mined by the consideration of the requirement of the community 
 to be served. 
 
 Simple Transformer.— If only alternating current is to be 
 distributed, then all that will be required is a simple transformer 
 substation, which may be either of the outdoor or indoor type. 
 Such alternating current type of substation is to be desired, both 
 for reason of lower first cost and lower cost of operation. 
 
 Rotary Converter. — If direct current must be provided by the 
 sub-station as well as alternating current, then recourse must be 
 had to the use of rotating machinery in the substation, for the 
 conversion of alternating to direct current. The rotating
 
 GAS A$D ELECTRIC SERVICE 277 
 
 machinery may be either in the form of a motor generator or 
 synchronous converter, though for general purposes the former 
 is preferable, by reason of its greater flexibility. In either case 
 the introduction of rotating machinery involves not only addi- 
 tional first cost, but increased operating expense, as constant 
 station attendance is necessary. In the case of the simple trans- 
 former substation, no attendance other than periodic inspection 
 is necessary. 
 
 Primary Distribution. — The primary distribution system in- 
 cludes the lines, or feeders, by which the power is transmitted 
 from a substation to the stepping down transformer nearest the 
 consumer's premises. The study for such system involves 
 similar considerations as for water distribution; namely, a 
 determination of areas or zones of such use, and of capacity 
 and extent as affecting economical design. The two principal 
 items in connection with the design of the primary distribution 
 system are: — the voltage and whether single-, two-, or three- 
 phase current be used. 
 
 Voltage and Phase. — It is almost universal practice in America 
 to use 2300 volts as the primary distribution voltage. Single- 
 phase distribution will meet all the requirements of a lighting 
 load. If a power load is to be supplied, then either a two- or 
 three-phase system must be used. Of these the three-phase 
 system is the more economical in line material and is most 
 commonly used. 
 
 Location. — Three possibilities present themselves for the 
 location of the primary distribution system. It may either be 
 located on the streets, in the alleys or on an easement. Although 
 it has been common in the past to use the streets, this is to be 
 avoided, if possible, because of the unsightly appearances if 
 overhead lines are used, and because of the interruption to traffic 
 and disturbance to pavements when extensions or changes are 
 necessary in an underground system. These objections indicate 
 the use of alleys or easement construction. 
 
 Overhead or Underground. — The primary distribution system 
 may be either entirely overhead as has become the practice in 
 all small American communities, or it may be entirely under- 
 ground, thus eliminating the unsightly appearance of poles 
 and wires, or it may be a combination of overhead and under- 
 ground. Overhead distribution is cheaper to construct and 
 oftentimes makes possible the supply of electrical energy to
 
 278 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 districts where the possible revenue would in no way justify 
 more expensive construction. 
 
 On the other hand, overhead construction is undoubtedly 
 objectionable, both from the standpoint of the appearance as 
 well as hazard. In the downtown or business districts, where 
 there is congestion of population, the hazards incident to over- 
 head construction are somewhat greater and the density of 
 demand may easily justify the placing of all the wires under- 
 ground. In high class residential districts, the objection to 
 overhead lines on aesthetic grounds may warrant the placing of 
 the wires underground, even though purely economic reasons 
 would indicate overhead construction. 
 
 Overhead.— If overhead line construction is determined upon, 
 the factors which must be given consideration are the height and 
 spacing of poles, the size of conductor and the location, number 
 and size of distributing transformers, the number varying in- 
 versely as their size. Whether to use fewer transformers of 
 larger size or a larger number of transformers of smaller size 
 will depend almost entirely upon the density of demand. 
 
 Underground. — If underground distribution is determined 
 upon, it is necessary to consider the various duct materials avail- 
 able, that is, vitrified clay, fibre or wood, as well as the number of 
 such ducts. The choice of material for ducts involves a question 
 of first costs, construction and maintenance and may depend 
 upon whether or not it is desirable to place other utilities under- 
 ground at the same time; as for example, telephone cable and 
 police and fire alarm signal wires. Lead covered armored 
 cable laid in trenches without employing ducts, is extensively 
 used in street lighting circuits, and in running out from overhead 
 construction in the rear of the houses to street lights. This 
 should be remembered as the use of ducts is not necessarily im- 
 plied in underground construction. 
 
 The conductor for underground distribution will be in the form 
 of cable, but whether single or multiple conductor will depend 
 upon conditions. The one essential condition for satisfactory 
 underground construction is that the cable must be protected 
 by a flexible metal covering which is absolutely impervious to 
 water, and this condition dictates the use of lead covering. 
 
 The spacing of manholes for a duct system depends not only 
 upon the distance between cross streets, but also upon the size 
 and weight of cables to be drawn; the spacing varies from 150 to
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 279 
 
 400 ft. The manhole may be of the single compartment type, used 
 exclusively for light and power cable or for telephone and fire 
 alarm cables. They are usually built of brick or concrete, in 
 rectangular or elliptical plan Some projects call for a combina- 
 tion manhole for telephone, fire alarm and lighting-power service, 
 the two being separated by a fire proof wall. The combination 
 manhole is not desirable where two-way lateral distribution is 
 necessary. 
 
 Combination Circuits. — It is not probable that either of the 
 foregoing methods can be used exclusively throughout the entire 
 territory to be served. The underground system, in the business 
 district and higher class permanent residential districts, might 
 be combined with the overhead construction in outlying dis- 
 tricts, thus making possible an economical distribution over much 
 wider territory. 
 
 In working out the general arrangement of the distribution 
 system, comparative studies and estimates should be made and 
 due regard paid to the economic and practical features of the 
 various methods previously described. A location might be 
 found which was quite advantageous with regard to the primary 
 and secondary circuits, and yet make difficult and expensive the 
 location of the street lighting or house service circuits. While 
 the underground installation is most satisfactory, in that it has no 
 detrimental effect upon the aesthetics of town planning, yet its 
 cost in many instances is prohibitive, and in many situations it 
 will be looked upon as an undue and uncalled-for refinement. 
 
 A composite plan may be advantageously worked out, which 
 for illustration, might include underground construction on park- 
 ways, main thoroughfares in the vicinity of parks, community 
 centers, etc.; primary and secondary circuits located on easements 
 in the rear of the houses; in some cases the primary circuits 
 being carried on pole fines in alleys or easements and the second- 
 ary circuits on brackets attached to the houses, insofar as house 
 location and grouping will permit. Street lighting of important 
 streets and places, may be accomplished by using ornamental 
 light posts with underground armored cable circuits. On minor 
 streets, where property has less value, street lights may be at- 
 tached to thirty foot poles, served by loop lines from the overhead 
 lines in the rear of the houses. 
 
 Liability of lighting trouble and interruption of service renders 
 the combination overhead and underground on the same circuit
 
 280 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 an undesirable feature. It is much better, as indicated above, 
 to put some circuits, in important places, completely under- 
 ground and others, in less conspicuous locations, entirely over- 
 head. 
 
 Secondary Distribution. — Voltage. — The service voltage for 
 house lighting and for ordinary household appliances has been 
 fixed by practice at 110 volts. Energy may be supplied at this 
 voltage either by a two-wire circuit at 110 volts, or by a three- 
 wire single-phase circuit, having 220 volts between the outside 
 wires and 110 volts between either of the outside wires and the 
 middle wire. All secondary wiring should be designed so that 
 the drop between the transformer and any point on the distrib- 
 uting lines will not exceed three volts, a maximum of two volts 
 being allowed in the house connections. 
 
 Pole Lines. — The secondary distribution wiring is usually car- 
 ried on the same poles as the primary distribution circuits when- 
 ever these will serve. For this purpose additional cross-arms 
 may be required, or the secondary wires may be carried on racks 
 on the side of poles. It is sometimes desirable to distinguish 
 between, the primary and secondary wiring, either by character- 
 istic construction or by using different colored insulators, in order 
 that linemen may work on the lines without unnecessary risks. 
 The standardized rules of the "National Electric Code" of the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters and the National Electric 
 Safety Code, and the laws and regulations of state and municipal 
 authorities should be consulted and followed for the purpose of 
 conforming in these matters to the public policy in force. 
 
 It will probably be necessary to set additional poles for second- 
 ary distribution wiring in order to shorten the service leads from 
 the pole to the consumer's premises. These poles usually need 
 not be so high as those carrying primary distribution lines and 
 need not carry cross-arms, and are consequently less expensive. 
 Where the arrangement of buildings is such as to permit the 
 same, secondary circuit or service connection may be carried 
 directly from one building to the next, and thus serve a number 
 of buildings. It is questionable whether the use of A-frames for 
 carrying secondary lines over houses is as practicable as carrying 
 the wires on brackets attached to the houses. This latter prac- 
 tice is quite general in the vicinity of Philadelphia, and was ex- 
 tensively followed by the Emergency Fleet Corporation in its 
 housing work with satisfactory results.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 281 
 
 Underground. — If primary distribution is underground, the 
 step-down transformers will be located in manholes and the 
 secondary distribution will also be underground. A single con- 
 duit system may serve for both primary and secondary distribu- 
 tion, but if the street is very wide this results in long service or 
 lateral connections, which may justify the construction of a par- 
 allel conduit line on the opposite side of the street, for the purpose 
 of carrying secondary distribution only. 
 
 Services. — Whether a separate service connection is necessary 
 for each individual consumer or not will depend largely upon 
 the arrangement and density of the buildings to be served. 
 Under certain conditions a single service connection may serve 
 several buildings, the buildings being connected by intermediate 
 connections through frames on the side walls, or through the 
 basement walls, or by overhead wires or brackets attached to 
 the bouses. This single service for two or more has the disad- 
 vantage that an interruption to a single service connection will 
 cripple the service to all the buildings which it supplies. 
 
 Illustration of Types of Distribution. — Poles located on streets 
 are an eye sore. Unsightly poles destroy an otherwise beautiful 
 vista. The advisability of elimination from the streets resolves 
 itself into this question: Are the advantages obtained by the 
 removal of the poles from the streets commensurate with the 
 added cost? 
 
 There are several wa} r s by which this may be done. Many of 
 the overhead wires may be eliminated from the street by carrying 
 all wires, except those required for street lighting, on poles at 
 the rear of the buildings in easements or alleys. Poles may be 
 excluded from the rear of the buildings, by carrying the wires on 
 brackets attached to the rear wall of the buildings thereby also 
 making a financial saving. Such use of brackets is advantageous 
 when grouping of houses permits. They are not only less un- 
 sightly than pole lines, but also effect a saving. The following 
 paragraphs illustrate the estimated amounts of the differences 
 in cost by use of several methods of construction. 
 
 Noreg Village. — Comparative studies and estimates were made 
 by the Housing Division of the Emergency Fleet Corporation in 
 connection with this installation near Gloucester, N. J., for the 
 purpose of showing the differences in cost by use of varying 
 methods of distribution of circuits. Service was to be supplied 
 for a village of 488 houses, including street lighting, and power
 
 282 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 for the operation of a small sewage pump. The costs given do 
 not include transmission lines from a sub-station to the project. 
 The statements of the various schemes and the total estimated 
 cost thereof, of all circuits and appurtenances, as of February, 
 1919, were as follows: 
 
 Scheme A. — With street lighting and primary wires carried on the 
 poles on the streets, secondary wires on pole lines in rear of houses, in 
 conformity with local practice; estimated cost $17,600. 
 
 Scheme B. — Arrangement same as above, except secondary circuits 
 carried on house brackets, instead of pole lines in easements; estimated 
 cost $13,800. 
 
 Scheme C. — Street lighting circuits on poles on streets, primary and 
 secondary domestic circuits on poles in rear; estimated cost $19,800 
 
 Scheme D. — Same as above, except house lighting, secondary circuits 
 carried on house brackets; estimated cost $16,400. 
 
 Sche?ne E. — Street lighting circuits using cable in fibre duct, primary 
 and secondary house lighting circuits, on poles in rear of houses; esti- 
 mated cost $25,800; armored cable instead of fibre ducts would cost 
 $900.00 less. 
 
 Scheme F — Arrangement as above, except secondary house lighting 
 circuits on bracket construction ; estimated cost $22,400. 
 
 UTILIZATION 
 
 The applications of electricity to the service of any community 
 may be classified as street lighting, house lighting and the various 
 forms of power use. 
 
 Street Lighting. — History. — Numerous forms and types of 
 lighting units have been employed from time to time in street 
 lighting. The earliest was the open carbon arc, using solid 
 carbons; this was later superseded by the enclosed carbon arc, 
 which had the advantage of a longer burning period. Other 
 types of arc lamps have been developed, including the magnetite 
 lamp and other forms of flaming arcs of greater illuminating 
 power and higher efficiency. 
 
 The incandescent lamp has also been developed to compete 
 with the arc lamps for street lighting, but these were later super- 
 seded by the tungsten filament, "Mazda B" or vacuum type, 
 which was in turn supplanted by the gas filled "Mazda C" 
 type of tungsten lamp. This latter type has an efficiency as 
 high as one-half watt per candle and is rapidly replacing all other 
 forms of units for street lighting. Because of their smaller candle
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 283 
 
 power and cheapness, incandescent lamps permit of varied use 
 and much greater flexibility in application than is possible with 
 arc lamps. A larger number of small size units may be used to 
 secure uniform illumination and greater attention may be paid 
 to the decorative effect. 
 
 Too much attention cannot be given to the street lighting 
 problem in housing developments, as the choice of street light- 
 ing system very often dictates the type of distribution which 
 shall be used, and thus the effect upon the street appearance. 
 
 Methods. — The methods of supplying power to street lamps 
 may be classified under constant potential (or multiple) and con- 
 stant current (or series) systems. In the constant potential 
 system, the illuminating units on any one circuit are connected 
 in parallel precisely as in residence lighting. This system is 
 rarely used except in special cases of very short lines, the chief 
 objection being the large amount of copper required. This fea- 
 ture was early recognized and constant current systems have been 
 developed to permit the use of a small sized conductor by connect- 
 ing the various units on any one circuit in series. In this later 
 system, any of the various types of arc or series incandescent 
 lamps may be used. 
 
 Constant Current. — In the constant current system, a trans- 
 former automatically controls the voltage of the lamp circuit 
 to maintain constant current, regardless of the number of lamps 
 burning. When a lamp burns out, an automatic device, located 
 in the socket of each lamp, maintains the continuity of the 
 circuit. 
 
 Until recent years it was the custom to employ long circuits 
 leading from the constant current transformers in the power 
 station through a large number of lamps and back to the 
 transformer, thus making a high voltage necessary to light all 
 lamps to their normal brilliancy. The objections to this method 
 were : 
 
 (a) High cost, due to the necessity of running separate wires for 
 each circuit from a central point. 
 
 (b) The danger from coming in contact with poles or lamps when 
 the line becomes grounded. 
 
 (c) That any accident to the automatic lamp cutout or break in 
 circuit puts all lamps on that circuit out of commission. 
 
 To overcome these objections a method has been developed, 
 in which the lamp current is derived from a 5 to 10 K.V.A. con-
 
 284 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 stant current transformer, from the 2300 volt constant po- 
 tential network. These constant current transformers feed 
 25 to 50 lamps on short loops of relatively low voltage. The 
 advantages are: 
 
 (a) Lower cost, due to the use of the general distribution system. 
 
 (b) In case of accident to automatic lamp cutout or low voltage 
 cable break, only a small number of lamps will be out of commission. 
 
 Types of Lamps. — Where a new installation is to be made and 
 latitude in design is not restricted by existing conditions, the recom- 
 mended type of installation is the highly efficient, high intensity 
 gas-filled incandescent lamps. This may be used in either con- 
 stant potential or constant current systems and is favored for 
 reasons of economy and better illuminating effects. The lamps 
 are made in candle power ranging from 50 to 1000. 
 
 Present practice indicates a tendency towards the ultimate 
 replacement of all arc lighting units by some one of the incan- 
 descent types. This is largely accounted for by the lesser first 
 cost, low maintenance and more satisfactory illumination of the 
 incandescent type. Maximum illumination value can be ob- 
 tained by those lamps which throw most of their light 15 
 degrees below the horizontal, and a minimum almost upward or 
 downward. 
 
 Spacing. — Street lighting in general, aside from the type of 
 unit employed, has undergone remarkable changes in recent 
 years. Formerly the system of "spot-lighting", by locating 
 units at each street intersection was deemed sufficient. The 
 present practice indicates, for business as well as the residential 
 district, a more uniform street illumination. This can best be 
 obtained by using a larger number of smaller intensity units, 
 spaced anywhere from 100 ft. to 250 ft. apart. These are pref- 
 erably arranged on each side of the street, either opposite each 
 other or in staggered rows. 
 
 The spacing and intensity of the lamp should be varied to suit 
 the requirements. Good practice in this respect is indicated by 
 the following: In business districts, 250 candle power lights, 
 spaced from 100 to 200 feet apart; or 400 candle power lights, 
 spaced from 200 to 400 feet apart. In residence districts, 100 
 candle power lights, spaced from 100 to 300 feet apart; or 250 
 candle power lights, spaced from 200 to 400 feet apart.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 285 
 
 Poles. — In the early days of street lighting 1 he entire distribut- 
 ing system was located on pole lines in the street, in preference 
 to alleys and side streets, in order that a convenient mounting 
 might be obtained for the lighting units. This is no longer con- 
 sidered necessary, as where proper street illumination requires 
 closer spacing and more ornamental effect, there can be no reason- 
 able grounds for retaining the pole lines in the streets. The 
 light standard may be served from distributing lines on alley or 
 easement location, either by individual overhead loops or 
 armored cable in shallow trenches along property lines. 
 
 Various types of lighting standards or posts may be used, con- 
 sisting of finished wood, concrete or steel poles; the latter two 
 being designed for ornamental effect. These poles range any- 
 where from 10 ft. to 30 ft. in height, depending upon the spacing 
 and the intensity of illumination desired. Poles may frequently 
 be made relatively inconspicuous where necessarily placed on 
 streets, by locating them next to the curb in the planting space 
 and wires supported at such a height as to pass under the limbs 
 of trees. 
 
 Transformers. — When overhead loops are used for the lamp 
 circuits, they are served from constant current transformers 
 mounted on the poles; if the distributing system is underground 
 the transformers are located in manholes. If these constant 
 current transformers are served by short separate 2300 volt 
 circuits, terminating at the substation or some municipal build- 
 ing, where attendance is available, the lights are controlled 
 by manually operated switches. Otherwise, the control is by 
 an automatic switch actuated by a clock, installed at the 
 transformer. 
 
 Residence Service. — Lighting. — House lighting at the present 
 time has become well standardized, in that each house is provided 
 with a two wire system and is served by a pair of 110 volt service 
 lines. In larger buldings, the three wire 110-220 volt system is 
 commonly installed because a saving in copper is secured by its 
 use. In this case a three wire service is required. Either service 
 may terminate in the basement or the upper floor of the house 
 where the meter and cutout panel are located. 
 
 The average unit for most residential lighting is the 25 watt 
 tungsten lamp and the power consumption for the average six 
 or eight room dwelling will be from 10 to 20 kilowatt hours per 
 month.
 
 286 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Power Application. — In the average residential development, 
 power applications are usually limited to small fractional horse 
 power motors for washing, ironing, cleaning, and cooking and 
 heating appliances of various kinds. These, in the majority of 
 cases, may be served from the low voltage distribution system. 
 In the case of small shops and industrial applications requiring 
 larger motors, the service is direct from the 2300 volt distribution 
 system. 
 
 The largest size motor to be supplied from either of these 
 systems depends largely upon the policy of the public service 
 company furnishing the current and is governed by the maximum 
 allowable voltage disturbance which a given size motor will 
 produce. There may be other installations used, such as battery 
 charging stations, school and industrial laboratories, etc., but 
 these do not in general call for special service or conduits. 
 
 Miscellaneous Service. — Fire and Police Call. — For either fire 
 alarm or police call systems, it is customary to purchase one of 
 the several standard systems which are on the market. The 
 installation of these may involve overhead or underground wiring, 
 and logically follows the practice which may have been used in 
 laying out the street lighting system. 
 
 The wiring may be looped from the call boxes by underground 
 cable, overhead to alley or easement pole line construction. Or 
 it may be carried underground in the same conduit system with 
 the lighting circuits, if this plan be used for general distribution. 
 
 Telephone and Telegraph. — After having determined upon the 
 design and location of the various lighting and power distribution 
 systems, the telephone and telegraph wires and cable logically 
 follow the same scheme. Lead covered telephone cable may be 
 carried on main distributing pole lines, with clearance according 
 to the requirements of the telephone company under whose juris- 
 diction the work may be done. The cable is usually carried 
 to sectional centers, from which twisted pairs are run to the sub- 
 scribers on racks on the low voltage distributing poles, or in 
 some cases are distributed along the rear of the houses themselves. 
 
 Large installations, involving a great amount of telegraph dis- 
 tribution, make use of the telephone wires for this purpose, involv- 
 ing the simultaneous use of the wires for both telephone 
 and telegraph. In any case the same system of poles or conduits 
 can be used for telegraph distribution as is planned for the tele- 
 phone system.
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 287 
 
 PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS 
 
 In the preparation of plans for a proposed electrical system 
 in any housing development, the drawings should show clearly 
 the whole system, by distinctive lines and symbols, including 
 street, block and lot linos and location of houses. 
 
 Instruction for Plans. — The general plan should show the 
 following: 
 
 1. Location of the various circuits, and type of construction, as over- 
 head or underground. 
 
 2. Location of poles, giving height and location of guys. 
 
 3. Location of substations or transformer stations. 
 
 4. Location of street lights, size and type of lamp. 
 
 5. Location and kind of house circuits. 
 
 6. Voltage, size and number of wires. 
 
 7. Location, capacity and type of transformers, primary circuit, 
 branch line cutouts. 
 
 8. Location of lighting arresters, and secondary circuit branches. 
 
 9. Location, kind and number of ducts of underground lines, together 
 with the location of all manholes, junction boxes and connections. 
 
 10. Location of police and fire alarm signal boxes; all wiring for same. 
 
 11. Location of telephone cables and twisted pair house service 
 connections. 
 
 12. Detailed plans should likewise be prepared, showing the design 
 and arrangement to be followed in overhead and underground construc- 
 tion, house line circuts, transformer mountings, street lighting fixtures, 
 manholes, junction boxes, and other appurtenances. 
 
 13. There should also be detailed drawings of the substations or 
 transformer stations required, showing all apparatus in and about 
 the station, the detailed layout, with complete switchboard and station- 
 wiring diagrams. 
 
 Specifications. — Where the installation is made by a utility 
 company as an extension of the existing system, the general 
 practice in regard to construction features can be followed, pro- 
 vided satisfactory results can be secured. Where a new instal- 
 lation is to be made, the construction specifications should be in 
 detail, so as to insure satisfactory workmanship, materials and 
 methods. 
 
 Such specifications should bo built around the general plans 
 outlined above, should cover in detail all the construction and 
 installation requirements common to the best work. Quality 
 and depth of setting, cross-arms and pin, details of poles; size
 
 288 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 and insulation of wire, types and size of insulators, details of 
 other units shown on plans should all be carefully specified. 
 
 Specifications covering street lighting should give details of 
 pole construction and spacing, the type and method of burying 
 underground trench cable and method of attachment to pole 
 lines. The size of units in candle power for the different street 
 locations should be indicated and an illumination curve showing 
 the intensity of street illumination at different points between 
 units should be provided. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF INSTALLATIONS 
 
 The general practice followed by the Housing Division of the 
 United States Shipping Board, Emergency Fleet Corporation 
 in several typical examples of electrical installations will be 
 illustrated by the plans of layouts at Buckman Village, Chester, 
 Pa. and at Atlantic Heights Development at Portsmouth, N. H. 
 There is also described a layout for Loveland Farms, con- 
 structed for the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company about the 
 same time. 
 
 Buckman Village. — The installation at Buckman Village, which 
 is illustrated in Fig. 40, was so arranged that to a large extent 
 the various circuits were carried on pole lines, located along the 
 alleys in the rear of the houses. The 2400 volt primary circuit 
 was extended from the existing system of the utility company, 
 and enters the project on a pole line, located on the main ap- 
 proach streets. The appearance of the project in this vicinity, 
 which otherwise has many very attractive features, is depreciated 
 to a considerable extent. In this case it was impossible to incur 
 the additional expense of placing the incoming line underground. 
 The primary line extended from Keystone Street, a short 
 distance from Eleventh Street, to an alley running parallel to 
 the longer axis of the development and lying between Keystone 
 Road and Meadow Lane. It is carried along this alley to Twelfth 
 Street and thence up Twelfth Street to the boundary of the prop- 
 erty. The location of the pole line on Twelfth Street is unim- 
 portant, as the layout is such that the houses do not front on this 
 street. The domestic secondary circuit is taken off the overhead 
 primary line and run on poles located in the various alleys, 
 then over to the rear of the houses and thence distributed on 
 house brackets. This latter arrangement is economical, owing
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 
 
 289 
 
 to the fact that buildings are of the row type, and the necessity 
 for frequent service connections from the pole line is thus obvi- 
 ated. 
 
 I^^S 
 
 The street lighting circuits are carried on the same pole line as 
 the primary and secondary domestic circuits. Where the latter 
 lines are not located on the streets, the light connection was made 
 by running overhead loops from the pole lines in the easements 
 to the street. ' The loop lines were so located as to pass between 
 
 19
 
 290 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 groups of buildings. Except where the poles were located on 
 the approach streets to the project, the general effect of the in- 
 stallation is very satisfactory from the standpoint of appearance 
 and at the same time no additional cost was incurred in placing 
 the wires underground. 
 
 Atlantic Heights. — The installation at Portsmouth, N. H., 
 while similar in many respects to the one just described, had 
 these differences. The primary lines were kept off the streets 
 
 fen* cs dh\ 
 
 p Pole Location 
 * 250 C. P. Type? C Maz da 
 Lamp on 10 'Mast Arm 
 
 — 2300 Volt Primary Line 2~*G 
 
 Wire Single Phase 
 
 " 5 / 230 Secondary Buss Line 
 
 3 -# 6 Wire _ . 
 - Series Street Lighf'mgttewire 
 — x— x- Underground Cabled Lead 
 Covered; 5000 Volt 
 A Transformer Location 
 Service Connections- to 2 Family 
 
 Houses 2- #8 Wire 
 Service Connections to Block Mouses^- 
 
 HOTE: Connection madeto 
 ' 2300 volt primary fines of 
 ' 7 Rockingham County Light 
 ' a Power Co. Northwest and 
 Maplewood Ave. about /j 
 Wj - re ~ miles from development 
 
 Fig. 41. — Plan of electrical distribution system of the Portsmouth, N. H. 
 housing project of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. 
 
 entirely and located in easements in the rear of the houses, as 
 alleys were not provided. The house services were extended 
 from the poles in the rear instead of being carried on brackets, 
 this being preferable, since many of the houses were of the semi- 
 detached type. 
 
 Connections to the street lights were made by extending the 
 overhead construction from the points where the lighting circuits 
 crossed the streets, and sometimes by looping out from the pole
 
 GAS AND ELECTRIC SERVICE 
 
 291 
 
 lines on the easements. Therefore, some poles and short runs 
 of overhead construction are placed on the streets, but they are 
 so few as to be relatively insignificant and do not detract from 
 
 the general satisfactory appearance. Street lights are of 100 
 candle power, of the series incandescent type, carried on brackets 
 attached to wooden poles.
 
 292 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Underground construction was used for carrying the street 
 lighting circuits of Kearsarge Street and Treble Way, so as to 
 avoid affecting the appearance of this intersection, at which point 
 there is a small park. The plan of the arrangement can be ex- 
 amined in the illustration shown in Fig. 41. 
 
 Loveland Farms. — The features of the installation made for a 
 housing development for the skilled employees of an industrial 
 corporation at Youngstown, Ohio, known as the Loveland Farms 
 Development, are of interest, because of the attractiveness ob- 
 tained without unduly adding to the cost. The ' primary and 
 secondary house lighting circuits were carried entirely on pole 
 lines, located in the easements in the rear of the houses, and there 
 are no poles on the streets except where these lines make crossings. 
 
 The street lighting system is supplied by underground series 
 circuits, ten in number, each feeding approximately 31 lamps 
 spaced from 125 to 150 feet apart. The street lighting primary 
 lines of 2300 volts, 3-phase, 60 cycle current were carried on the 
 same poles which carried the house lighting circuits. The sec- 
 ondary street lighting circuits were of armored cable, laid without 
 the use of conduit, in narrow trenches about 15 in. deep, located 
 between the curb and the sidewalk. The arrangement of the 
 street lighting circuit and light locations, is shown in Fig. 42.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 
 
 Standards and Requirements — Types and Grouping of 
 Houses and Accessories — Building Technique — Deter- 
 mination of Accommodations Required 
 
 Introduction. — What is a Home? Adams, in "Housing Prob- 
 lems in America," answers "It is not a mere place of shelter in 
 modern democracy. It must provide conditions that will pro- 
 mote efficiency in labor and strength of character in citizenship." 
 Going further, he says "The home connotes the family; and the 
 family and not the individual is the unit of the civil structure. 
 A true housing policy must go further than improving or pro- 
 viding dwellings, it must be a part of a comprehensive policy of 
 town and country development." 
 
 If these views are accepted — and they would seem to be above 
 dispute — then we will realize how important is the problem of 
 offering suggestions which may serve as a guide in the producing 
 of better dwellings to serve as homes. What then is necessary 
 to "provide conditions that will promote efficiency in labor and 
 strength of character in citizenship"? Primarily, a house in 
 which it will be possible for such conditions to exist as well as 
 promote human welfare: this states the minimum requirements 
 of an industrial worker's dwelling. 
 
 Various opinions concerning these minimum requirements 
 have been expressed and, if nothing more came therefrom, they 
 have at least served to stimulate thought upon the matter, by 
 enlivening discussion on the part of deeply interested people. 
 We propose in this chapter to consider some of them. 
 
 STANDARDS AND REQUIREMENTS 
 
 Basis for Standards. — Before attempting to list suggested 
 standards, we must keep in mind certain basic factors which have 
 a determining influence. 
 
 293
 
 294 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Permissible Rental. — In a housing development, built for rental 
 purposes, the relation of the sum the wage earner can afford to 
 pay, to the amount of the investment, offers a serious difficulty 
 in arriving at minimum requirements. If standards are sug- 
 gested that will fully realize ideals as to what the home should 
 offer, the cost will be so high that even a modest profit on the 
 money invested will place the rental beyond what the wage 
 earners can afford to pay. Whereas, if the standard be deter- 
 mined by the rental within the reach of the working man, then 
 the conveniences and accommodations offered will be below 
 what should be considered adequate, and we will have failed to 
 meet the problem. The conditions are equally puzzling in the 
 development built for sales. 
 
 When the subject is looked squarely in the face, we find there 
 are but two ways out of the difficulty; either (1) reduction in the 
 cost of building to the workmen, or, (2) rise in income which 
 will allow the man to pay more rent. Individual industries may 
 solve their own problems by writing off enough of the investment 
 to bring the relationship to a normal basis. This, however, does 
 not dispose of the question as far as the masses are concerned. 
 Assistance from governmental sources has been suggested, but 
 has not been favorably received. Regardless of how solution 
 may be affected, the standard must be such as to provide for the 
 safety, health and comfort of the worker and his family. 
 
 Cost a Factor. — The housing planned by the Federal Govern- 
 ment for war workers was, for the most part, designed to serve 
 the skilled workmen rather than common labor; also, under the 
 stress of war, cost was not so important an element as in pre- 
 and post-war periods. 
 
 Housing for the skilled worker does not offer serious difficulties; 
 it may be considered as fairly well solved in many instances. 
 It is suitable housing for unskilled labor that is causing the 
 greatest concern at the present time. The laborer's family 
 on the average is as large and in many cases larger than that of 
 the skilled worker. High cost of food, clothing, fuel and the 
 necessities of life are the same for the former as the latter. 
 Frequently, therefore, the difference in wage scale is reflected 
 in the contrast of living conditions, which is unfortunate and 
 profoundly affects the stability of our industrial life. How 
 then can the essentials Of decency and hygiene, not to speak of 
 the so-called luxuries, be provided for the unskilled worker and
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 295 
 
 his family, to the point required, if contentment and happiness 
 are to prevail? This is the great problem of Industrial Housing 
 and in its solution lies in great measure the safety of our whole 
 social structure. Chapter II discusses this problem in general. 
 In this chapter the savings in house details and appurtenances 
 which will promote the desired result will be considered. 
 
 Other Influences on Standards. — Building codes, housing laws 
 and similar restricting ordinances, where existent, will and do 
 affect standard requirements. Where unduly onerous — and in 
 some cases this is true — attempt may well be made to modify 
 some unnecessary features thereof. In addition, there are 
 purely fabricative considerations. For instance, the house must 
 be a sound shelter from the elements; it must be substantial and 
 subject to as little deterioration as possible; it must afford a 
 proper amount of light and ventilation, and must contain neces- 
 sary equipment for lighting and heating and sanitation. 
 
 Standards from Experience. — As a means of determining what 
 the workers really want, one large concern circulated question- 
 naires throughout three of its developments representing a total 
 of five hundred houses. These included a number of items for 
 the purpose of developing what the people desired in general 
 plan, arrangement, number of rooms, character of rooms, and 
 extent of convenience required. The interviewer also observed 
 what furniture the average tenant owned, and received what 
 suggestions the people had to offer which, to their minds, would 
 make the houses more satisfactory. From a study of these 
 questionnaires the following points have been noted: 
 
 First. — The average size house desired is between 5 and 6 rooms. 
 
 .Second. — Small kitchens or kitchenettes are objectionable. Kit- 
 chens large enough for general dining purposes are preferred. Even the 
 tenants of better grade houses, in which separate dining rooms were 
 provided, dined a portion of the time in the kitchen. In the few houses 
 where provided, combined dining and living rooms were held in disfavor; 
 in many of these cases, the people managed to use some other room for 
 dining, although such space was manifestly too small, and resulted in 
 serious crowding. 
 
 Third. — Built-in features, such as buffet, china-closets and bookcases, 
 are not generally desired, except in the higher grade houses, because 
 most tenants have furniture which serves the same purpose; and such 
 attached facilities result in a lack of space for furniture. The addition 
 of these, moreover, is to be discouraged upon the standpoint of cost. 
 While aware that arguments have been advanced in favor of these built-
 
 296 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 in features, on the basis that they permit a saving on the part of tenant 
 by relieving him of the necessity of the purchase of furniture, the reasons 
 for their omission are of great weight. 
 
 Fourth. — Objections are raised to single bedrooms; many people using 
 double beds only. When only two bedrooms are provided, they should 
 be double rooms; when three or more are used, it is rarely safe to plan 
 more than one single room, except in houses of eight or nine rooms and 
 houses designed for lodgers. 
 
 Fifth. — Objection is raised to having the refrigerator in the basement; 
 a space convenient to, but not in the kitchen, being requested. 
 
 Sixth. — A grade entrance to a landing on the stairs, running from the 
 first floor to basement, is favorably commented upon. Refrigerator 
 space may be arranged off this landing as an added convenience. 
 
 Seventh. — If the cellar contains a furnace, it has been found that, in 
 order to keep fruit and vegetables, a space should be partitioned off 
 for this purpose. This compartment should have no window, but 
 should have outside ventilation by running a 2-in. gas pipe through 
 the wall and placing a wire netting on the inside, to prevent insects 
 and mice from entering. Where porch foundations are constructed of 
 masonry walls, this space forms an admirable fruit closet. This, how- 
 ever, entails additional expense, as the porch foundation must be run 
 down to full cellar depth, instead of just below frost line, and a doorway 
 provided into the cellar. 
 
 Number of Rooms. — One of the first questions to arise in 
 designing houses for a development is, what number of rooms 
 shall the house contain? To follow the practice established by 
 some other development may result in unsatisfactory conditions. 
 Difference in character of labor employed, and in conjugal rela- 
 tionship, demands an analysis for each development, and best 
 results will be attained by studying the social structure of each. 
 Great benefit will be derived from a knowledge of the manner 
 in which these problems have been attacked elsewhere and of the 
 line of reasoning which has produced satisfactory results. But a 
 careful discrimination must be made between appropriating the 
 processes of reasoning and accepting the results of that process. 
 
 Data relating to the character of labor employed and the 
 conjugal relationship existing in the separate families is necessary. 
 This is easily obtained in an industry fully organized. In the 
 case of a proposed industry, however, information regarding the 
 personnel of the working forces must be forecasted by comparison 
 with similar industries. With such information, it will not be 
 difficult to choose the types and grades which best serve the 
 particular case under consideration.
 
 Ilor SI'S FOR FAMILIES 
 
 297 
 
 Furniture Reqidrements. — To intelligently recommend minimum 
 room sizes, it will be necessary to know what they are to contain 
 in the way of furniture. To that end the following list and size 
 of furniture is offered: 
 
 Living Room 
 Piano: 5'-6" X 2'-4" X 4-8" 
 Table: 2'-0" X 3'-6" 
 Throe Chairs: 20" X IS" or 
 One Chair and Davenport: G'-O" X 2'-4" 
 
 Dining Room 
 Table: 54" diametei 
 Buffet: o'-0" X l'-10" 
 Six Chairs: 10" X IS" 
 
 Bed Room {Double) 
 Double Bed: 4'-0'f X G'-G" 
 Dresser: 3'-6" X 2'-0" 
 Other Piece: 3-0" X 1-10" 
 Two Chairs: 16" X 18" 
 
 Single Bed Room 
 Single Bed: 3'-0" X G'-G" 
 Dresser: 3'-6" X 2'-0" 
 Other Piece: 3'-0" X 1-10' 
 One Chair: 1G" X IS" 
 
 In addition to giving space for the above listed furniture, the 
 wall space will be interrupted by windows, doors and hot air 
 registers. 
 
 Minimum Room Sizes.' — In the living room, dining room and 
 bedroom, the following minimum sizes have been prompted by 
 a careful study of a large number of satisfactory plans. 
 
 A living room should be at least 12 ft. by 14 ft. exclusive of 
 any encroachments, such as closet space or portion of stairway 
 issuing from living room. 
 
 A dining room should contain not less than 120 sq. ft., with 
 10 ft. the least possible dimension. 
 
 A double bed room should contain not less than 120 sq. ft., the 
 smallest dimension being not less than 9 feet 6 inches. 
 
 A single bed room should not be less than 80 sq. ft., the smallest 
 dimension being not less than 7 ft. 10 inches. 
 
 The bath room should not be less than 35 sq. ft., with a mini- 
 mum width of 5 feet. In such a room, the fixtures would be 
 placed along the wall the long way of the room. The tub, which 
 should measure 2 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft. 6 in., would take 2 ft. 6 
 in. space, plus 1 in. for clearance, or 2 ft. 7 in.; the wash 
 stand, measuring 18 in. by 21 in., would require 2 ft. in. 
 wall space, and the toilet, measuring 20^ in., width of low 
 down tank, would require 2 ft. in. wall space; or a total length 
 of 6 ft. 7 in., necessary wall space to house fixtures. This 
 permits •"> ft. margin to work in, which allows for irregularities in 
 roughing-in of plumbing or general construction. 
 
 The kitchen area depends on several factors. From a survey
 
 298 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 of eighteen house plans, in which a separate dining room was 
 provided, it was developed that, in an average size house, about 
 seventeen per cent, of the entire first floor area was used for the 
 kitchen. Assuming a house 24 ft. square, or 576 sq. ft. in area, 
 the allowable space for kitchen would be approximately 98 sq. ft. 
 Being guided by a further stipulation that the room shall be not 
 less than 7 ft. in width, the greatest possible perimeter is 42 feet. 
 
 The requirements to be met in a kitchen are: (a) a door to 
 rear porch; (6) a door to dining room; (c) a door to cellar; (d) 
 at least one window (preferably in a wall other than the wall 
 with outside door) ; (e) a kitchen case which, when no other cup- 
 board or pantry is provided, should measure 5 ft. in length; 
 (/) a standard sink and drip board, measuring 5 ft. in length ; 
 (g) space for stove which, when placed in corner of room, requires 
 6 ft. of wall space. These various items require a total of 30 ft. 
 of wall space in a room with 42 feet. The 12 ft. remaining is di- 
 vided into small spaces between the various items listed. 
 
 However, by careful designing, it is often possible to reserve 
 enough of this space for a table, 2 ft. by 3 ft. It will be seen that 
 in a kitchen, using the minimum width of 7 ft., it will be difficult 
 to place the table so as to sit around its four sides. 
 
 From these observations it will be apparent that the greatest 
 care is required to design the small kitchen, and that the use of this 
 kitchen for dining is almost impossible. 
 
 Having arrived at the minimum sizes of first floor rooms neces- 
 sary to accommodate average furniture, similar detailed studies 
 may be made for the second floor. A summary of such tests 
 has been made after a review of the tables giving data on family 
 dwellings, prepared by the United States Housing Corporation, 
 and also by a careful study of its standard plans. The area of 
 all bedrooms and bath, excluding closets, trunk rooms, storage 
 spaces and stair halls, should be 72^ per cent, of the total area 
 of the second floor, measurements in all cases being to inside 
 finished walls. Should a plan fall slightly below this percentage, 
 it need not necessarily be rejected, and some plans may be found 
 to give higher percentages; but, striking an average, the plans 
 should realize the percentage given. 
 
 Recommendations of Authorities. — Various views have been 
 expressed as to what should constitute minimum requirements 
 for a satisfactory house. That there should be a difference of 
 opinion among those who have made a study of the problem
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 299 
 
 is easily understood when we realize the divergent characteristics 
 of humanity. Furthermore, the varial ions represent unquestion- 
 ably views as to different classes of dwellings desired. Some of 
 these are abstracted in the following paragraphs. 
 
 Veiller's Views. — Houses for skilled workers at Williamsport, 
 Pa., Sawyer Park, recommended by Mr. Lawrence Veiller, Secre- 
 tary, National Housing Association, contain the following features : 
 
 Every house has a well lighted and ventilated cellar, with concrete 
 floor and a hot air furnace, with pipes to each room on the first and 
 second floors. Bathroom has a porcelain tub, wash bowl and toilet 
 fixtures. Kitchen has a sink and porcelain wash tub. Every house 
 has front porch and an entrance to kitchen. Houses are piped for gas 
 and wired for electricity; clothes closets are provided. In addition to 
 the above, a kitchen cabinet and a linen closet are recommended for 
 each house. 
 
 Groberi 's Recommendations. — The opinions of William E. Groben, 
 of Ballinger and Perrot, Architects, of Philadelphia, Pa., are as 
 follows : 
 
 Essentials for unskilled, low paid workmen's houses are permanent 
 water-tight construction of walls and roof ; sufficient sunlight and ventila- 
 tion, and windows in every room. Private toilet, with sanitary water 
 closet, having sewer connection; sink in kitchen, with running water and 
 sewer connection, are necessary. Gas or electric light and proper heat- 
 ing apparatus are required. Combination living room, dining room and 
 kitchen; bedroom, large enough for parents with infant children; bed- 
 room for male children; bedroom for female children, are the minimum 
 requirements. 
 
 Essentials for skilled, high-paid workmen's houses contain the above, 
 plus cast iron enameled bathtub, with running water and waste; wash 
 bowl in bathroom with tub and toilet, with hot water supply; and a 
 living room separate from dining room and kitchen. 
 
 Accessories called for as essentials by some skilled, higher-paid 
 American workmen consist of cellar, laundry tubs, front porch, wall- 
 paper and tiled bathroom. 
 
 Allen's Ideas. — The recommendations of Leslie M. Allen, of 
 the Aberthaw Construction Company, contain the following 
 as housing essentials: 
 
 Water-tight roof, walls and floors; separate bedroom for parents; 
 separate bedroom for male children and for female children; living room 
 for cooking, eating and general day use; uninterrupted daylight and
 
 300 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 ventilation through windows in every room; suitable heating arrange- 
 ments; private toilet room, with sanitary water closet and sewer con- 
 nection; sink in kitchen with running water fit for drinking, and waste. 
 
 Further additions required by the American family are cellars, closets, 
 bathtubs with running water, window screens and separate parlor. 
 
 Desirable improvements include porch and veranda; lavatory bowl; 
 hot water, supplied to bathtub and bowl: window shades and window 
 blinds; separate dining room; electric or gas lighting; wall paper; and 
 laundry tubs. 
 
 Kilham's Opinions. — The views of Walter H. Kilham, of 
 Kilham & Hopkins, Architects of Boston, are: 
 
 The question then arises as to what constitutes fundamentals. I 
 should say light and air, hot and cold water; facilities for bathtubs, even 
 at the expense of leaving out a wash bowl. Refrigerator space; and as 
 many bedrooms as possible. I should not so class furnaces, piazzas, 
 fireplaces, parlors separate from the kitchen, nor set wash bowls. I 
 am not so sure of the necessity of set washtubs in these days of wet wash 
 laundries. Kitchens must have accommodations for simple stock of 
 groceries, either in pantry or in a cabinet of some sort. 
 
 U. S. Dept. Labor Standards.— The following were promul- 
 gated by a committee of architects and civicists: 
 
 Row or group houses normally not to be more than two rooms deep; 
 no living quarters in basement ; every bedroom to have a clothes closet; 
 every room to have at least one window opening directly to the exterior; 
 minimum height of room, 8 ft.; minimum areas; — bedrooms, 80 sq. ft.; 
 parlor, 120 sq. ft.; dining room, 108 sq. ft.; kitchenette, 70 sq. ft'.; where 
 there is no dining room, kitchen should be 108 sq. ft. A toilet and bath 
 for each house or apartment. 
 
 Albany Health Dept. Regulations. — The following are quoted 
 from the published ordinances of this City: 
 
 Each room must have at least one window with area of 12 sq. ft.; 
 no room shall be less than 90 sq. ft. in floor area, nor less than 7 ft. wide; 
 no ceiling in dwellings shall be lower than 8 ft. G in.; each toilet room 
 requires 6 sq. ft. of window space opening to outside; each dwelling shall 
 have one sink with running water. 
 
 Ontario Housing Committee Objects. — The following is quoted 
 from the report of this citizens' committee, issued in 1918: 
 
 There must be some definite classifications taken as a basis in formu- 
 lating standards. Careful investigation of living conditions has estab-
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 301 
 
 lished certain requirements as essential, and others as desirable. There 
 will undoubtedly be some criticism of any attempt to classify essentials, 
 and there is bound to be diversity of opinion, but for our purpose the 
 
 essential features may be summarized as follows: 
 
 1. Sufficient land to give each family privacy and plenty of air. 
 
 2. Water-tight floors, walls and roof. 
 
 3. One or more rooms for cooking, eating and general use. 
 
 4. Bedroom for parents' use. 
 
 5. Bedroom for male children. 
 G. Bedroom for female children. 
 
 7. Provisions for toilet, with sanitary water closet and sewer connec- 
 tions. 
 
 8. Running water supply fit for drinking. 
 
 9. Kitchen sink, with waste connection to sewer. 
 
 10. Uninterrupted daylight and ventilation, for windows in every 
 room. 
 
 Additional features which are so desirable as to be almost essential 
 are: 
 
 1. Bathtub and lavatory, with hot and cold water supply. 
 
 2. Laundry tubs, with hot and cold water supply. 
 
 3. Direct sunlight in all rooms. 
 
 4. Second room in addition to that used for cooking. 
 
 5. Clothes closet. 
 
 G. Porches and verandas. 
 
 Future additions of desirable features would include: 
 
 1. Electric lights. 
 
 2. Separate dining room. 
 
 3. Cellar. 
 
 4. Furnace for heating. 
 
 Some comment may arise on the omission of cellar from the list of 
 essentials. There are those who claim that the cellar is essential for 
 the storageof fuel, canned fruit, vegetables, etc., and that, since founda- 
 tion walls are necessary, it costs no more to provide a cellar than to 
 omit it. This latter question will be considered along with the follow- 
 ing items entering into the house construction. Regarding the storage 
 of fuel, etc., a careful survey of conditions will disclose the fact that 
 with many families the income will not provide sufficient surplus to per- 
 mit the purchase of fuel, vegetables or fruit in sufficiently large quantities 
 to require a cellar for storage. On the other hand, where cellars are 
 provided, they will frequently be found to contain a miscellaneous assort- 
 ment of unsanitary rubbish, which constitutes a serious fire menace. 
 
 Data of U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. — As indicative of the 
 kind of houses most generally employed in industrial develop- 
 ments, the data of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
 
 302 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 may prove both instructive and interesting. An investigation 
 covering two hundred and thirteen separate companies, including 
 subsidiary companies of large corporations, showed the number of 
 men employed was 466,991, of whom 160,645, or 34 per cent., 
 were accommodated in houses controlled by the companies. Of 
 the 53,176 individual dwellings considered, it appears that 25,582, 
 or 48 per cent., were single dwellings, 18,871, or 36 per cent., 
 double dwellings, and 6,014, or 11 per cent., row dwellings. 
 
 It is interesting to note in passing that, in the early stages 
 of industrial housing, as, for instance, in the urban New England 
 mill tenements, the row type prevailed, with the double dwelling 
 next most common. The proportion of the row type shows a 
 steady decline as industrial housing has developed, although now 
 there is a growing appreciation of the group dwelling and to 
 some extent of the row type of dwellings. 
 
 As regards the number of rooms, it was found, in the afore- 
 mentioned investigation that 15,672 houses, or 30 per cent., 
 had four rooms; 9,413, or approximately 17 per cent., had five 
 rooms; and 9,127, or approximately the same percentage, had 
 six rooms. It is apparent that the typical dwellings contained 
 four, five or six rooms. It does not follow that these proportions 
 are for general application. Quite to the contrary; as we know 
 industrial housing today, it presents a far different problem than 
 the earlier examples indicate; nevertheless, these statistics re- 
 cord the general history of the movement and are of benefit in 
 searching for the next step. 
 
 As regards the general construction of the houses, the frame 
 structure was found to be the most prevalent ; brick used about 
 one-tenth as much; other materials less prevalent than brick. 
 
 Recommended Minimum Requirements. — From information 
 obtained by a study of the intimate family life in various indus- 
 trial towns, after consideration of the many practical elements 
 entering into the question, and taking into consideration the 
 expressed opinion of many qualified authorities, the author's 
 recommendations as to the minimum requirements of "An In- 
 dustrial Worker's Home" are as follows: 
 
 1. Materials. — Permanent weather proof construction of exterior 
 walls and roof. 
 
 2. Cellar. — Cellar to be provided, except in localities where impractical 
 or unnecessary. 
 
 3. In case cellar is omitted, first floor to be at least 2 ft. above
 
 HOI r SES FOR FA MILIES 303 
 
 ground and supported on masonry piers or foundations carried below 
 frost line; and the clear space enclosed but adequately ventilated. 
 
 4. Where cellar is provided, it shall have cement floor and floor drain. 
 
 5. Cellar to be properly lighted and ventilated. 
 
 6. No living quarters to be in basement. 
 
 7. A separate chimney flue to be run to the cellar for future installa- 
 tion of a furnace. 
 
 8. Adequate provision must be made for heating the house, but fur- 
 nace should not be minimum requirement. All heating fixtures, whether 
 using gas or other fuel, must be provided with vents to flues. 
 
 9. Gas piping to be provided for kitchen range and hot water boiler. 
 
 10. Rooms. — One room for parents and infant child and enough rooms 
 for other children for proper segregation of the sexes. 
 
 11. Room sizes to accommodate minimum furniture as listed. The 
 furniture to be drawn in to scale on plans, so as not to conflict with 
 windows, doors or hot air registers. 
 
 12. Row or group houses to be not more than two rooms deep; ex- 
 cept in rows where combinations of units (as one 4-room, two 6-room, 
 and one 4-room) allow for proper ventilation to the rooms of the deeper 
 unit by the nature of their arrangement. 
 
 13. Duplexes, Double Duplexes, etc. — In all such units, provision shall 
 be made for obtaining as great a degree of privacy as is enjoyed at least 
 in the row type house. Separate front and rear entrances, separate 
 cellars when cellars exist, with independent plumbing lines, and heating 
 and lighting facilities. It is also recommended that means of circulation 
 between each apartment and private cellar be effected without going 
 outside the house. 
 
 14. Closets. — Every bedroom must have clothes closet in direct con- 
 nection with it. 
 
 15. Closet or case of adequate size for keeping necessary china, 
 kitchen utensils, staple supplies, etc., must be arranged for in kitchen. 
 
 16. Entrances. — There must be means of entrance other than by the 
 front door. 
 
 17. Front porches, while desirable, are not a minimum requirement. 
 
 18. In no case should the stairs have a rise of over 8 inches and tread 
 of less than 9 inches. 
 
 19. Ventilation. — There shall be a clear height of not less than G ft. 
 G in. from cellar floor to under side of first floor joist. A minimum clear 
 story height of 8 ft. shall generally obtain for first and second stories, 
 but in cases of second story rooms coming under sloping roofs, it shall 
 be required that flat portions of ceiling be over an area of at least 40 sq. ft . 
 with 3>2 ft. minimum flat ceiling width and a clear height of 6 ft. over 
 an area of at least 80 sq. ft. with a minimum width of 7 feet. (Attic 
 rooms not subject to these requirements.) 
 
 20. There shall be in all cases an air space, with minimum of 8 in. from
 
 :;0| INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 ceiling to roof, with provision that such space be ventilated directly to 
 outside air. 
 
 21. Every bedroom to have at least one window opening directly to 
 outer air. 
 
 22. One window to be sufficient for single rooms, two windows for 
 double rooms. No room to have less than 12 sq. ft. of window area. 
 
 23. Bathroom to have one window of not less than 6 sq. ft. area. 
 
 24. Water closet compartment to have one window of not less than 
 4>2 sq. ft. opening directly to outer air. 
 
 25. Skylight may be used in lieu of window for bathroom or water 
 closet compartment. 
 
 26. Window frames to be of such design that screens may be used. 
 
 27. Water Supply. — Running water to be required in connection with 
 kitchen plumbing fixtures. (Hot water connection is desirable.) 
 
 28. A water closet in separate compartment, properly ventilated, 
 must be provided when bathroom is omitted. 
 
 29. While bathroom is greatly to be desired, it is not to be a minimum 
 requirement; provided convenient and complete bath house facilities 
 are arranged for and properly maintained for community use. 
 
 30. Either laundry trays to be provided in cellar or combination tray 
 and kitchen sink in kitchen. 
 
 31. Electricity to be furnished whenever possible. One switch to 
 be provided for throwing on light on entering house and one switch to 
 control cellar light from top of cellar stairs. 
 
 Grading of Houses. — There is included in the minimum re- 
 quirements such provisions as will make possible a house in which 
 any person can live comfortably and decently. A house built 
 under these conditions will not contain many of the features 
 which, while not absolutely necessary, are .desired by many 
 workmen's families. 
 
 If the term "Industrial Housing" applied only to the lowest 
 paid unskilled workers, it would be unnecessary to consider any 
 but essential features; however, a large percentage of wage 
 earners are skilled workmen, who, imbued with higher standards 
 of living, not only desire bid demand additional features in the 
 house. They are able and willing to pay for such conveniences. 
 It, therefore, seems necessary to arrive at some classification of 
 houses suitable to (be corresponding grades of workmen which 
 exist in the personnel of industry. 
 
 Many persons have deemed two classifications all that are 
 necessary, — one for unskilled workers, and one lor skilled workers. 
 This differentiation, however, is considered to be too abrupt aim
 
 liui SES FOR FA MILIES 
 
 305 
 
 not furnishing sufficienl gradation, by men intimately acquainted 
 with the wage earner and his family life. The native unskilled 
 worker must often be provided with a better house than the rank 
 and file of unskilled wage earners, and yet he cannol pay for 
 fchehouses providedfor higher paid skilled workers. I m the other 
 hand, if he does uo1 have children, he probably is in a Letter 
 position to afford these accommodations than the skilled worker 
 with a very large family, who certainly will never be satisfied to 
 drop dow ii to the grade of house provided for unskilled laborers. 
 [i is believed, therefore, 'here is considerable advantage, if 
 not absolute necessity, in providing three grades of houses, as 
 
 Eio. t:;. A view in Yorkship Villon illustrating attractive and interest! ffeel 
 
 secured in intersection planning and house grouping. 
 
 follows: First, A house as inexpensive as it is possible to build 
 and still meet the demands of a home for unskilled labor; Sec- 
 ond, an intermediate grade, to meet the demands mentioned 
 in the previous paragraph; and Third, a more expensive .made, 
 for higher wage - earning skilled laborers, shop foremen, or the 
 higher paid men of the clerical staff. 
 
 For convenience, the three grades will be referred to respectively 
 as ( trade ( '. < trade 1). and ( trade A. 
 
 Grade C House shall have the minimum requirements, as 
 before stated. 
 
 Grade B House shall have all the features of a Grade C 
 bouse, with the following additional conveniences:
 
 306 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 1. Room for dining, separate from kitchen. 
 
 2. Bathroom shall constitute a minimum requirement; in which shall 
 be provided the following fixtures: Enameled roll rim bathtub, 4 ft. 
 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; lavatory, 18 in. by 21 in.; water closet, porcelain and 
 wash down, syphonic action; enameled low down tank. 
 
 3. Rift sawed yellow pine floors in first floor, plain sawed pine in 
 second floor. 
 
 4. Provision for refrigerator space adjacent to, but not in kitchen, 
 which may be built in compartment on rear porch. 
 
 5. Front porch, not less than 70 square feet. 
 
 6. Lighting fixtures in rooms, except bracket in bathroom, to be con- 
 trolled by switches located conveniently at entrance doors. 
 
 7. Hot air furnaces; cold air returns to be taken from inside. 
 
 8. Laundry trays in basement. 
 
 9. Mechanical door bells. 
 
 10. Coal bins. 
 
 i— 
 
 il ' ^ 
 
 
 Front Elevation 
 
 bide Elevation 
 
 Side Elevation 
 
 Rear Elevation 
 
 Fig. 444. — Design of a six-room detached dwelling, showing the possibilities 
 in variation of exterior appearance of a single base type; variation obtained by 
 changing the roof design, using different exterior materials and placing the 
 porch in different positions. 
 
 Grade A. — House shall contain all the features listed for Grade 
 C and Grade B houses, with the following additional accommo- 
 dations: Such a dwelling is illustrated in Figs. 44A and 44B. 
 1. The rooms to be larger than the previous minimum requirements. 
 
 Single bedroom 90 sq. ft. 
 
 Double bedroom 130 sq. ft. 
 
 Dining room 140 sq. ft. 
 
 Living room ISO sq. ft.
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 
 
 307 
 
 2. A coat closet shall be provided, either oil hall in first floor or in 
 connection with living room. 
 
 3. Open fireplace, with basket grate in living room. 
 
 4. Rift sawed yellow pine or oak floors in firs! and second floors. 
 
 5. Front porch with minimum of 9(5 square feet. Hear porch. 
 
 SECOND FLOOR PLAN 
 
 Porch 
 
 6'-0\ir-0% FIRST FLOOR PLAN 
 
 
 ATTIC PLAN 
 
 Fig. 44B. — Floor plans of six-room detached dwelling. (See Fig. 44 A.) 
 
 6. Two-way switches, for controlling one light upstairs and one 
 downstairs. 
 
 7. Medicine cabinet in bathroom. 
 
 ,8. Combination gas and electric fixtures for lighting in kitchen and 
 bathroom. 
 
 A\ illi the exception of combined uses for same room, the grad- 
 ing classification of the bouses is qo1 based upon number of
 
 308 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 rooms. Grade C house, for example, might contain more bed 
 rooms than Grade A house. 
 
 TYPES AND GROUPING OF HOUSES AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Types of Houses.- — Omitting for the present the consideration 
 of materials used in construction, the cost of a house is primarily 
 dependent upon the number of rooms it contains. By applying 
 a sliding scale unit price per room, so adjusted as to cover the 
 various grades of houses, we may arrive at a reasonable estimate 
 of the cost per house; it being understood that number of rooms 
 has no influence in determination of grades. 
 
 Effect on Cost. — Next to material and number of rooms, the 
 types of building employed — that is, whether single houses, 
 double houses, groups, rows, etc. — have an important bearing 
 on the cost. This is true not only of the house itself but the 
 entire project, as the land cost is directly affected in consequence 
 of the type employed. 
 
 The words "grade" and "type" are used with careful dis- 
 tinction — houses are " graded" according to the facilities 
 furnished and largely in relation to the cost, whereas "type" 
 refers to class of building or arrangement of houses. 
 
 The following house types will be considered, as experience 
 indicates that t^iey are the most practical and satisfactory: 
 
 Type I. Single detached house. 
 
 Type II. Semi-detached house. 
 
 Type III. Row or group house. 
 
 Type IV. Single duplex house. 
 
 Type V. Double duplex house. 
 
 Type VI. Row duplex house. 
 
 Type VII. Apartment house. 
 
 Explanation of Types/ — Type I. — Single detached house is a 
 house occupied by one family only. All four sides of the house 
 are exposed, the unit standing independently on its own lot, 
 with grounds bordering it sufficiently large to allow for light and 
 air. See Fig. 44A for illustrative example. 
 
 Type II. — Semi-detached house is one in which two separate 
 and distinct dwellings are arranged side by side under a common 
 roof. The dwellings are completely separated by a party wall 
 and each dwelling has three exposed sides. Fig. 45 shows such 
 a house with eight rooms in each unit, for the higher paid men.
 
 Hot .-/. ! FOR FAMILIES 
 
 309 
 
 Type III. — Row or group house is a unit of three or more 
 (rarely over eight) separate dwellings, arranged side by side 
 under a common roof and separated by party walls. The houses 
 should iiol be over two rooms deep, except when arranged in 
 such combinations that will allow light and air to the deeper 
 dwellings by reason of the design of the group. These dwellings 
 should have rear access from a -l reel , alley or common couri . or 
 passage from thefronl to the rear or cellar: See Figs. 47 and 48. 
 
 Type IV.— Single duplex /muse is one providing two separate 
 dwellings one above the oilier. Each musl have separate en- 
 trances, fronl and rear. Each dwelling to have its own private 
 
 Fig. 45. — Semi-detached eight-room dwellings, Yorkship Village project, 
 Emergency Fleet Corporation. 
 
 cellar, reached without going outside the building. Each 
 dwelling has four exposed side-. 
 
 Type V. — Double duplex house, as the name implies, is formed 
 by arranging t wo single duplex units side by side, so as to form a 
 unit under one roof, in which four families are housed. The 
 general provisions called for under the single duplex apply with 
 
 equal force in tin'-; case Each dwelling lias three exposed sides. 
 I'm. 46 shows such a hous 
 
 Type 17. — Row duplex is obtained by arranging three 
 or more single duplexes side by side. It must be only two rooms 
 deep except ;u end hoi 
 
 Type VII. Apartrm nt house can be arranged for any number 
 of apartments, composed by varying numbers of rooms. This
 
 310 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 type differs from the other multiple family houses in that the 
 apartments are reached through a common entrance and stair- 
 way. By its very nature this style necessitates joint use of 
 cellars, laundry facilities, etc., by all the tenants; whereas the 
 duplex dwellings enjoy privacy in this respect. The heating must 
 be from a central plant. This fact, as well as the others enum- 
 erated, make it necessary to provide janitor service, which com- 
 plicates the problem from the standpoint of the investor. 
 
 Many arguments may be advanced for and against the employ- 
 ment of the various types. The detached house meets with gen- 
 eral approval from native American workmen, because it typifies 
 
 Fig. 46. — View of four-family duplex dwelling. 
 
 the traditional tendencies of selective American housing, which 
 have come down to us from pioneer days. However, memory of 
 the early homes of our forefathers, with their privacy and homey 
 atmosphere suggesting independence and sole proprietorship, 
 should not be allowed to befog the conditions as they exist today. 
 The motives which impelled the building of these early homes, as 
 well as the natural conditions surrounding them, are just as 
 different from present day building as the manner of living was 
 different from that of the present. 
 
 The detached house offers the possibility of cross ventilation 
 of rooms and greater amount of sunlight, but when the houses
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 311 
 
 arc placed close to one another, because of high land values, it is a 
 question whether these features, instead of being advantages, 
 are not the opposite. The narrow side yards, devoid of the 
 possibility of air and sunlight, offer little that is to be desired, 
 .either in making for a dignified setting for the house, or as a 
 means of obtaining the advantage of exposure for the various 
 rooms. These side yards often degenerate into damp, dark 
 alleyways, in which it is impossible to cultivate plant life. If 
 such is the case, how can we hope for good results from them as 
 light and air shafts? 
 
 As to the question of privacy in this type, as contrasted with 
 the multiple unit or groups, providing sound-proof party walls 
 are used in the latter, there is probably less privacy, since in the 
 group it is at least impossible to look directly from one house into 
 another. The detached home is a more costly investment, not 
 only as to first cost, but also as regards maintenance. A greater 
 number of exposed sides is subject to deterioration; it is more 
 expensive to paint, and to heat. Gas bills for the end houses 
 of rows are frequently one and one-half times those of the 
 interior houses. The housewife prefers the multiple type, as 
 there are less windows and curtains to keep clean and less expense 
 in furnishing window trimmings. 
 
 From the standpoint of exterior architectural appearance, 
 it must be added, the small detached house offers one of the most 
 difficult problems the designer has to meet. No matter what 
 the area of the house may be, the height remains fairly constant 
 for all types. The result, in the case of a single house of small 
 area, is that, having to meet the requirement for height, it is 
 extremely difficult to arrive at a proportion that will not look 
 stilted. The architect, in his desire to arrive at better propor- 
 tions, strives to pull down the apparent, height by dropping the 
 eaves to a degree that necessitates sloping ceilings, and knee 
 walls. This, however, often results in serious inconvenience in 
 the livableness of the bedrooms. It has been noted that in some 
 single house developments such designing necessitates placing the 
 bed a foot to 18 in. from the wall, in order to obtain 
 sufficient height to accommodate the headboard. This, in 
 admittedly small rooms to start with, is a serious inconvenience. 
 
 In the multiple unit, the architect finds a much simpler prob- 
 lem in trying to obtain architectural effects. Not only is it 
 possible to obtain better general proportions, but the many
 
 312 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 possibilities in grouping of various sized units, together with 
 the variation permitted in arranging porches and composing of 
 roof lines, give a latitude in designing which makes possible 
 compositions abundant in picturesqueness and charm. 
 
 A consideration which must not be overlooked in a study of 
 the types is the nature of the investment, whether it be for rental 
 or sale, viz. : The objection to buying or selling individual 
 dwellings in a multiple unit, group or row, is not to be overcome 
 by edict, but the fact that in certain localities such transactions 
 are common practice leads one to believe that, should the present 
 high cost of building prevail for an extended period, the prejudice 
 
 Fig. 47. — Typical row dwellings, Yorkship Village. 
 
 against owning such a home may be overcome by force of circum- 
 stance. In view of this fact, it is suggested that, should multiple 
 units be constructed with the idea of selling the individual 
 dwellings, the designer should strive to make the houses as inde- 
 pendent as possible. In this connection, the unit should differ 
 from the renting project, in that plumbing lines for each house 
 should be run separately; porches should not overlap the adja- 
 cent dwelling; separate entrance pathways must be provided, 
 and, even in units under a common sloping roof, party walls 
 should be inn through the roof. This lasl provision, although it 
 may sound a serious disadvantage, will be found on careful
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 
 
 3 Hi 
 
 study to offer greal possibilities in the way of an interesting 
 decorative treatment. As an example illustrating this point, 
 see Fiji. 48. 
 
 • " 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 PERSPECTIVE SKETCH 
 
 Fio. 18 Multiple Family dwellings illustrating possibilities of treatmenl where 
 division walls are carried through and above the roof. 
 
 The duplex and apartment types are essentially those built 
 on I he policy of rental, bu1 they meel souk; demands better than 
 any <>i her type. It will be manifest t hal a dwelling ofthree rooms 
 and bath, in any of the single family units, is practically an
 
 314 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 impossibility. Yet accommodations of this kind are in great 
 demand by young married people without children, who in start- 
 ing housekeeping cannot afford to furnish larger quarters, for 
 which, indeed, they have no absolute need. If such people be 
 obliged to take a larger house, then they must rent a room or two 
 to lodgers, which creates unnatural and often unpleasant condi- 
 tions in the home life and leads to dissatisfaction. 
 
 Finally, to sum up in a few terse sentences recommendations 
 based upon the foregoing arguments, it is suggested: 
 
 First. — That the detached house be employed for Grade A 
 dwellings, in either a sales or renting project. 
 
 Second. — That the semi-detached unit be employed principally 
 for a Grade B dwelling, but under some circumstances, especially 
 when land values are high, for Grade A dwellings. This type 
 should be used for the most part in a renting project, but, when 
 designed with care to offset prejudices relative to joint ownership, 
 it may be built for sale. 
 
 Third. — The row or group type should be particularly identified 
 as a Grade C dwelling, although it will be found entirely satis- 
 factory for the Grade B, when it incorporates the necessary 
 features to identify it in that class. However, it should rarely, 
 if ever, be used for A-houses, not because it is an unsatisfactory 
 house for any class of people to live in, but merely because pre- 
 judice is still so strong against the idea of living in a row. Event- 
 ually this feeling, we are sure, will be overcome and the row type 
 house, properly designed, will come into its own. This is quite 
 easily appreciated when one stops to think that many of the older 
 city residences of the well-to-do in some cities are virtually 
 row type dwellings. 
 
 The duplex and apartment types may readily fit any of the 
 grade classifications and, of course, apply only to renting devel- 
 opments. 
 
 Grouping of Types. — The composition of house units to form 
 a block should be guided by the following fundamental considera- 
 tions: 
 
 1. The houses adjacent to one another, if they are detached 
 units, should be of types which will permit of as great privacy 
 as possible. This is accomplished by arranging that the windows 
 of one do not come directly opposite those of another and, if 
 possible, so that the stair side faces the living quarters of the 
 opposite house.
 
 NOISES FOR FAMILIES 
 
 315 
 
 2. House plans should Ik; arranged so as to have as little con- 
 II id as possible in location of porches and also to guard against 
 the rear service of one house being in full view of the front porch 
 of the next unit. 
 
 3. Monotony should be avoided by the employment of types, 
 and by exterior variations of the same plans, to assure a pleasing 
 contrast, especially in the composition of roof lines. This may 
 also be done by reversing the plan of the same type occasionally. 
 Variation by merely painting in different colors is of doubtful 
 value, because by thus calling attention to the elements of the 
 design, the similarity is, if anything, more quickly noted, and 
 
 (■■■I 
 
 
 
 
 
 "■itafcte^ 
 
 ■ 
 
 Hi^fl^^BH 
 
 Wm 
 
 Fig. 49. — Croup of four-family apartment houses arranged about a court; 
 
 Buckman Village. 
 
 because usually some one color scheme is productive of the best 
 results, and the houses treated otherwise suffer in consequence. 
 
 4. There should Ik; a feeling of unity in the general composi- 
 tion, and in the arrangement of the individual blocks. By this 
 it is not meant that the houses of a given block must all be painted 
 exactly alike or be exactly similar in the exterior details, but 
 they should look as though they all belonged to the same general 
 group. The placing of a one story house next a two and a half 
 story house, or flic placing of a flat-roofed row type next to one 
 with sloping roof should be condemned. These, although ex- 
 treme cases, serve to illustrate by exaggeration. Fig 49 is 
 illustrative of good grouping.
 
 316 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Where to draw the line between monotony and restlessness, 
 caused by striving too hard for variation, is a delicate task ; labored 
 variety produces an unpleasant effect. Similarity of shape, and 
 contour must not be confounded with sameness of architectural 
 style ; and nothing is more pleasing than a development in which 
 a general uniformity of exterior material and architectural style 
 has been observed, and in which variation is obtained by ingen- 
 uity in the composition of the individual house, its relation to 
 its neighbors and the delicate contrast of minor architectural 
 details. 
 
 Fig. 50. — A row garage and service open space, Sun Hill project of (he Emer- 
 gency Fleet Corpora (ion; an alternative to constructing the individual rear- lot 
 garage. 
 
 The Garage. — The automobile, whether it be called a luxury 
 or a convenience, is becoming more and more a part of the gen- 
 eral family equipment. Low priced cars have been developed 
 to a point where it is just as possible for the working man to have 
 one, as far as first cost is concerned, as to own a piano. The 
 fact is that many do own automobiles. Some means of housing 
 them is as necessary as shelter for other belongings. 
 
 Single Garage. — Only in the case of the more expensive 
 grade of house should the single garage be provided; First, be- 
 cause very often these houses are of the detached type, which 
 allows sufficient room for the garage without undue crowding of
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES Ml 7 
 
 the yard space; Second, because Lhe man living in such a house 
 can better afford to pay the increased rental on the property; and 
 third, because ii is fairly safe to say thai any tenant, occupying 
 the house will possess an automobile. 
 
 Row Garage. — Garage accommodations for Grade B and 
 for some Grade C houses should be effected by building a battery 
 of garages at a selected place, convenient to the houses. The 
 battery type is economical in construction and in use of land, and 
 both result in appreciably lower rental. 
 
 In this class the possibility of every man owning a machine is 
 much more remote than in the Grade A class, and to place a 
 garage on every lot would result in some lying idle and the rear 
 yards would be occupied with these buildings, which would yield 
 no return. Further than this, the strictest control would not 
 overcome the tendency to use these idle garages for the general 
 accumulation of refuse. The battery garage is susceptible to the 
 same line of reasoning as applied to the multiple dwelling and is 
 consequently the logical type to use in such cases. Such a row 
 is shown in Fig. 50. 
 
 Garage Construction. — Garages should be large enough to ac- 
 commodate an average sized car, with space for a work-bench 
 and shelves for supplies and tools. The side walls need not have 
 any windows, as enough light will be afforded by providing 
 glass in the double entrance doors and a double window in the 
 rear wall. The latter should be placed high enough to allow 
 the workbench to be placed under it. 
 
 Regardless of the material used for the walls, the foundations 
 should be of masonry and extend below frost line. A satisfac- 
 tory floor is constructed of concrete, and should pitch toward 
 the entrance. Running water in the garage and electric lighting 
 are desirable. 
 
 In some localities, ordinances require the garage to be of fire- 
 proof construction; concrete, brick and hollow tile walls ;uc suit- 
 able for this purpose. When cost is not prohibitive, the single 
 garage should refleel the character of the house it serves. When 
 constructed in batteries, garages should be in harmony with the 
 multiple dwellings of the neighborhood. 
 
 BUILDING TECHNIQUE 
 
 A discussion of the building technique must have as its key- 
 note lowest possible cost consistent with permanency of ,•„],- 
 struct ion.
 
 318 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 General. — Standardization of materials and millwork and 
 quantity production loom large as two important aids in forcing 
 down the cost of building. In all avenues of business it is cheaper 
 to buy wholesale than retail, and the construction of houses is no 
 exception to this rule. The term "quantity production", as 
 used here, is not intended to mean greatness as relating to num- 
 ber of houses, so much as is meant large scale production and 
 manufacture of materials of construction to be employed in the 
 building of the houses. To buy advantageously in the greatest 
 possible quantities necessitates buying the least possible number 
 of different things, which leads directly to standardization of 
 materials and units of mill work. 
 
 This theory has long been expounded in an endeavor to bring 
 down building cost for the individual home builder and has 
 resulted in the commercial specialization by what is known as the 
 ready-cut or knock-down houses. The fact that such standard- 
 ized complete houses are already developed and offer a wide and 
 varied choice has led to the suggestion of their use in solving the 
 Industrial Housing problem. Reasonable as this may sound, it 
 must be evident that if care is exerted in designing for a situation, 
 so as to use in all cases not only stock sizes of lumber but also 
 stock mouldings, frames and various items of millwork, i.e., 
 stock products everywhere, the same economical results will be 
 obtained, and the additional benefit of being able to secure the 
 best solution for each problem, rather than to choose from a 
 catalogue the nearest article, which may be far from satisfactory. 
 Site conditions frequently require much ingenuity to make the 
 dwellings fit the property. When such ready-cut houses serve a 
 useful purpose in a hurry-up job, individuality, not to speak of 
 greater architectural merit, will result, if individual units are 
 designed with a proper conception of the relationship of one 
 house to another. 
 
 Building Materials. — Naturally the relative cost has a strong 
 influence upon making a selection of various materials, and in 
 many cases proves to be the determining factor. Many other 
 considerations, however, must be carefully noted, even though 
 they may lead to greater expense, for, after all, we are not look- 
 ing for the cheapest house in point of first cost only, but the 
 cheapest housing which can be devised and still satisfactorily 
 meet the conditions of the individual problem. 
 
 Local Environment. — The diverse nature of communities and 
 the variation in climatic conditions of different localities speak
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 319 
 
 for different types of buildings. Domestic architecture has 
 resolved itself into a comparatively few set styles, which demand 
 the use of certain specified materials, in order to retain the char- 
 acteristics necessary to the styles. 
 
 Each locality shows a marked preference for some one or more 
 of these styles, and, upon a careful analysis, it will be found the 
 adoption of one by a locality has not been occasioned so much by 
 a mere preference for the general appearance obtained as by a 
 process of reasoning in the attempt to discern the demand of the 
 environment. Availability of building material is one good rea- 
 son for the adoption of a style, as the cost of a material close at 
 hand will generally be less than cost plus transportation for some 
 other distant material. 
 
 The nature and location of the enterprise will exert an influence. 
 For instance, it seems unwise to build frame or stucco houses in 
 a development located in the heart of a great mill district, as for 
 instance the steel mills of Pittsburgh. The deterioration in ap- 
 pearance would involve an abnormally high upkeep cost if the 
 houses were to be properly maintained. Climatic conditions 
 also narrow the choice. Developments in localities offering 
 long, uninterrupted seasons of warm weather and brilliant sun- 
 shine must certainly be treated differently from those in cold 
 weather climates, subjected to long periods of gray days and 
 extreme cold. 
 
 There is another reason for adopting a style for a development, 
 which, although not substantiated by practical considerations, 
 nevertheless is important; it is the architectural tradition of the 
 region. To fully appreciate what this means we have only to 
 imagine the ill favor it would occasion were we to foist upon a 
 New England village, rich in its store of old colonial houses or 
 examples of cottages, a development executed in the style of 
 rows so commonly encountered in the Middle West, or made up of 
 an assemblage of California bungalows. 
 
 The degree of the building density contemplated for a develop- 
 ment , wit h the conl rolling low or high land values, will be directly 
 reflected in the style of architecture employed. For instance, 
 the bungalow, so popular in southwestern United States would be 
 an ill-chosen type for a congested manufacturing district of the 
 Centra] States. In the one case one can afford to spread out, 
 while in the other, in order to house as many people as possible, 
 it is necessary to utilize all of the land.
 
 320 INDUSTRIAL IfuCSlNG 
 
 Low Maintenance versus Personal Preference.— In apparent 
 contradiction to the ideas advances for selection of architectural 
 styles and the employment of materials, there is found in every 
 locality and section of the country examples of architecture which 
 tend to disprove all that has been said. Such examples rather 
 add to the force of the arguments, as they are for the most part 
 isolated instances which have been dictated by personal preference. 
 It is, therefore, principally in the development which is to be 
 on a renting basis that one may feel more free to suggest stand- 
 ardizing types and methods. 
 
 Personal preference of the prospective individual home owner 
 may cause unwise selection of materials and style, which may 
 lead to unsatisfactory results and high maintenance costs; the 
 magnitude of which only becomes glaring in large holdings. The 
 individual may have such a strong preference for a frame house 
 that he will be willing to withstand the expense of painting every 
 few years, and of replacing portions of the house which may have 
 deteriorated. But, if this be multiplied by five hundred or more 
 houses, the cost is both amazing and sufficiently important to 
 make provisions to minimize maintenance costs, after all, the 
 most important consideration in both the selection of materials 
 and styles of architectural treatment. 
 
 The Concrete House.- — Concrete houses are much in favor in 
 certain localities and with some interests. The pronounced ad- 
 vantages are stability, durability, fire and vermin-proof quali- 
 ties, freedom from repair and general upkeep. They have been 
 objected to in the past because of excessive cost, dampness, 
 rigidity of floor surface and lack of variety in treatment. Many 
 of these difficulties have been eliminated in recent construction 
 and concrete housing is growing in favor where large develop- 
 ments permit the use of machine methods. 
 
 Concrete building, either by use of blocks, repetition of forms, 
 or by the unit slab method, permits the utilization of large scale 
 production methods. It avoids many difficulties with labor by 
 freedom of necessity of coordinating and assembling several 
 trades on the same job and by permitting the use of common labor 
 to a large extent. The expense of construction may, therefore, 
 be well within that of other materials, and when annual costs 
 are considered, the use of concrete is likely to compare favorably. 
 
 It is particularly adaptable to group, row and apartment 
 construction, to which its sound- and fireproof qualities are well
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 321 
 
 adapted. It is a mistake to treal concrete surfaces in strained 
 imitation of some other material, arid acceptable taste and good 
 art are best developed by giving good expression to the material 
 used. Harmony, variety and architectural excellence can be 
 obtained and the use of concrete in (lie future may well be con- 
 sidered in industrial housing. 
 
 Details of Construction. — To discuss here the mass of details 
 which make up a satisfactory house is beyond the intent of this 
 chapter, but it would seem necessary to warn against some of the 
 common mistakes observed in much of the present housing. 
 
 For example, frequently, to save material, roofs have been 
 given insufficient pitch, with the result that leaky roofs are a 
 common complaint, especially when poor covering has been used. 
 The roof should have a pitch of not less than 5 in. in 12 in. for 
 porches and not less than 6 in. in 12 in. for regular house roofs. 
 Care should be exercised, in laying the asphalt shingle roof, to 
 see that the shingles are securely nailed; especially when the 
 four-in-one strip shingle is used. Careless workmen an; apt to 
 use only two nails. The result is that the roofing material blows 
 up, especially on low pitches, and leaks occur. 
 
 Simplicity of roof construction, with as few dormers as pos- 
 sible, is recommended; both because of the expense involved and 
 the danger of leaks where vertical sides come in contact with the 
 roof, requiring flashing. Flat roofs and decks should be avoided 
 as much as possible, and when used should be covered with a 
 good grade of tin, preferably a, copper bearing tin or where 
 practicable a guaranteed composition tar and gravel roof. The 
 use of tin is also recommended for flashing occurring on vertical 
 wail-, but the valleys might better be formed by using rubberoid 
 or some; such material. This will eliminate the possibility of 
 deteriorat ion t hrough rust ing out . 
 
 It is inadvisable to run stucco walls down to grade level as 
 frost cracks and spalling of the material are bound to result. 
 Basement walls, when constructed of concrete, should contain 10 
 per cent . hydrated lime to act as an integral waterproofing. Even 
 when tl is is done, and especially when other kinds of basement 
 walls are employed, they should be well designed and constructed 
 to insure tightness. If, upon inspection, much dampness is 
 evident, there should be an application of a membrane system of 
 waterproofing applied on the exterior of the wall, and where the 
 wall abuts a made, in which there is evidence of a run of 8UD-
 
 322 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 surface drainage, a French drain should be provided to relieve 
 water pressure against the wall. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in the laying up of the flue lin- 
 ings in chimneys, in order to see that the joints rest in an even 
 full bed of mortar and that the void between the brickwork and 
 the tile lining is flushed solid. The importance of this provision 
 cannot be too strongly recommended, as faulty flues cause endless 
 trouble and are extremely hard to correct. 
 
 In brick houses it is well to see that the sills of windows are 
 well bedded in a neat cement grout to prevent rain driving under 
 the sills. The staff mould on all windows should be carefully 
 designed, not only to insure a proper amount of space for apply- 
 ing screens, but also to give enough cover at the joints to take 
 care of irregularities in brickwork due to short chipping and poor 
 jointing. 
 
 Wooden construction for porches should be eliminated as much 
 as possible and foundations for porches should be of masonry. 
 
 Simplifying the exterior millwork is recommended, so as to 
 use as little wood as possible; as, not only is the first cost reduced, 
 but also maintenance costs, since there is less chance of deteriora- 
 tion and less woodwork to paint. Likewise, in the interior, as 
 little wood as possible should be used. Three and one-half inch 
 plain trim is, if anything, better than larger or more elaborate 
 finish and reduces the cost of millwork and upkeep. 
 
 Finally, a word of warning should be sounded against buying 
 too cheaply, in the hope of reducing costs. Very cheap material 
 will be found to effect no economy, because the costs of working 
 it up and the wastage are so great. 
 
 Cost of Materials in Construction. — The item of cost is the 
 question of greatest interest to the investor and owner, and, in 
 consequence, one is continually confronted by the query — 
 "Which is cheapest, the brick house, the frame house, or the 
 stucco house, and what is the difference?" 
 
 To avoid complicating the matter at the outset, we will con- 
 sider brick, stucco and frame as general classifications, although 
 each of the three is subject to wide variation and utilizes material 
 of the other class. For instance, what is commonly known as the 
 brick house may have solid 9 in. brick walls, or have 4 in. of brick 
 veneered on regular studded inner walls, or have 4 in. of brick 
 backed up with hollow tile; likewise, the other constructions are 
 subject to many modifications, which affect the cost.
 
 HOUSES FOR. FAMILIES 
 
 323 
 
 Generally speaking, the brick house is more costly than stucco, 
 and slucco in turn is more costly than frame, but as to the exact 
 difference in the cost there is a great divergence of opinion. This 
 is not due so much to ignorance on the part of those who should 
 be informed on the subject, but rather to the fact that the cost 
 of materials is different in different localities. The cost of a 
 material at a given site is dependent upon cost at the source of 
 supply, plus transportation. It is thus a difficult matter to offer 
 any comparison of costs of materials, which can be of value for 
 general application. Furthermore, the present condition of the 
 markets as to prices make it hazardous to give a price today which 
 will be of value tomorrow. 
 
 Even though these limiting conditions must be admitted, the 
 desire to have some detailed information, to be used in arriving 
 at conclusions on the question of the comparative cost of different 
 methods of construction employing various building materials, 
 has led to the formulation of the following tabulated data. The 
 general method has been to estimate accurately the quantity of 
 materials entering into each method of construction, and to 
 apply current market prices f.o.b. the source of the material in 
 question. Labor cost has been estimated and present union 
 wages applied for each kind of labor involved in the various 
 operations. As far as change in wages is concerned, it will usu- 
 ally be found that a change in one trade is followed by a general 
 modification in the wage scale, and the relation is thus main- 
 
 Table 38. — Comparative Estimated Costs per Square Foot of Walls 
 of Various Materials 
 
 Place 
 
 Mai i rials 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 < !i el per 
 sq. ft. 
 
 in cents 
 
 Basement and foun- 
 
 ( loncrete 
 
 9 ' hick 
 
 30 
 
 dations 
 
 Hollow tile 
 
 8" X 12" X 12" 
 
 29 
 
 Superstructure 
 
 Brick backed with tile 
 
 4"— 4" X 12" X 12" 
 
 49 
 
 
 Brick with furring. 
 
 9" thick 
 
 58 
 
 
 Brick Veneer 
 
 4" — sheathing 
 
 40 
 
 
 Stucco on tile 1 
 
 5" X 8" X 12" 
 
 11 
 
 
 Slucco on metal lath 
 
 Studs and Bheathing 
 
 34 
 
 
 Slucco on wood lath . 
 
 Studs and sheathing 
 
 :;•_"■, 
 
 
 Siding on sheathing. 
 
 6" lap 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 (')" lap 
 
 23 
 
 
 Shingles on sheathing 
 
 
 in
 
 324 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 tained fairly constant. Finally, the estimate has been resolved 
 into a common unit, namely, the cost of 1 sq. ft. of super- 
 ficial wall area. These data are for the spring of 1920 in the 
 Pittsburgh district and cannot be used for other parts of the coun- 
 try without recalculation from the original data. The comparison 
 is presented in the preceding table. 
 
 Tabulation of House Costs. — In addition to the information 
 given in the above table, data on the cost of houses in various 
 sections of the United States will serve as a good indication, 
 not only of the relative costs of various types of dwellings, em- 
 ploying different materials, but also will prove interesting, as an 
 indication of the general advance in cost of building in the last 
 few years. A list of houses with their approximate costs ap- 
 pears in the following table: 
 
 Table 39. — Information Concerning Cost op Houses in Different 
 
 Localities 
 
 Locality 
 
 Type 
 
 Number of 
 rooms 
 
 ( '(instruction 
 
 Approximate 
 
 est imated 
 
 cost 
 
 Date 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 4 and bath 
 
 Common brick 
 
 $3203 to 3471 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Row 
 
 3 and bath 
 
 Common brick 
 
 3007 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Row 
 
 4 and bath 
 
 Common brick 
 
 379S 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 New L o n d o n, 
 
 Detached 
 
 5 and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 3900 to 3954 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Conn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New London, 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 5 and hat h 
 
 Frame 
 
 4011 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Conn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Waterbury, Conn. 
 
 Detached 
 
 (', and bath 
 
 Stucco 
 
 171U 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Waterbury, Conn. 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 ti and bath 
 
 Stucco 
 
 4755 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Rock Island, 111... 
 
 Detached 
 
 4 and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 3910 
 
 191S-1919 
 
 Rock Island, 111... 
 
 Detached 
 
 5 and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 4 134 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Hath, Maine 
 
 Detached 
 
 6 and bath 
 
 Concrete 
 
 4378 to 4819 
 
 191S-1919 
 
 Bath, Maine 
 
 Detached 
 
 5 and bath 
 
 Concrete 
 
 3907 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Bath, Maine 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 3 and bath 
 
 Concrete 
 
 2859 
 
 1918- 191!) 
 
 Aberdeen, Md. . . . 
 
 Detached 
 
 (i and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 4595 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Aberdeen, Md. . . . 
 
 Detached 
 
 6 and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 4475 
 
 191S-1919 
 
 Aberdeen, Md. . . . 
 
 Row 
 
 4 and 5 and 
 bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 3575 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Indian Head, Md. 
 
 Detached 
 
 (i and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 3276 to 3330 
 
 191S-1919 
 
 Lowell, Mass. . . . 
 
 Detached 
 
 5 and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 2361 
 
 1917 
 
 Lowell, Mass. . . . 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 4 and bath 
 
 !• came 
 
 1932 
 
 1917 
 
 Worcester. Mass. . 
 
 Detached 
 
 6 and bal h 
 
 Frame 
 
 3188-3791 
 
 1915-1916 
 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 Detached 
 
 6 and bath 
 
 Hollowtile, 
 
 1549 
 
 1918- 1919 
 
 X. J. 
 
 
 
 stucco 
 
 
 • 
 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 5 a nd 6 a nd 
 
 1 [ollowtile, 
 
 4009 to 4173 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 N. J. 
 
 
 bath 
 
 i tucco 
 
 
 
 lie, X . .1 
 
 
 1 and ba1 h 
 
 Frame 
 
 L600 
 
 1918 
 
 
 Fto ■•■ 
 
 li and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 2200 
 
 1918 
 
 Watertow a, N. ^ . 
 
 1 (etached 
 
 5 and 6 and 
 
 bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 3230 I- I 153 
 
 1918 1919
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 
 Table 39. Continued 
 
 325 
 
 Locality 
 
 Type 
 
 
 i i.-t ion 
 
 \ ppi oximate 
 nated 
 
 1 late 
 
 u atei town, N. Y. 
 
 Semi-.]. 
 
 .". and bat li 
 
 
 $3945 
 
 L918 1919 
 
 Akron, 1 ihio 
 
 I »i bached 
 
 5 and 
 
 Brick-stucco- 
 
 and hit 
 
 1(117 
 
 
 
 hath 
 
 tile 
 
 2 to 3600 
 
 
 Xili s.'Ohio 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 ."> and bat h 
 
 Frame bunga- 
 low 
 Frame 
 
 3808 
 
 1918 1919 
 
 
 I >< tached 
 
 ."i and 6 and 
 
 , 4590 
 
 1918 L919 
 
 
 
 hath 
 
 
 
 
 Erie, Pa 
 
 Deta ched 
 
 ."> and 6 and 
 
 Brick, tile and 
 stucco 
 
 1766 i 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 
 
 Brie, Pa 
 
 Semi-di 1 
 
 :< and 6 and 
 hath 
 
 Brick, tile and 
 si uceo 
 
 ■ 101 s to 5680 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 
 
 Erie, Pa 
 
 Row 
 
 r, and 6 and 
 
 hath 
 
 Brick, tile and 
 
 • 1 lie, -ii 
 
 4869 to 5179 
 
 L918 L919 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh Dis- 
 
 I >etached 
 
 5 and bath 
 
 < lommon brick 
 
 1300 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 trict, la 
 
 
 
 4" back up 
 tile 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh Dis- 
 
 I letached 
 
 li and bath 
 
 Common brick 
 
 4700 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 
 
 
 4" back up 
 tile 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh Dis- 
 
 1 ict ached 
 
 7 and hath 
 
 Common brick 
 
 5000 
 
 L918 1919 
 
 trict, Pa 
 
 
 
 4" back up 
 tile 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh Dis- 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 ."> and bath 
 
 Prick-tile 
 
 4100 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 trict. Pa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh 1 1 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 C and hat h 
 
 Brick-tile 
 
 1 51 10 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 trict, Pa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 Row 
 
 1 and hath 
 
 Brick-tile 
 
 3100 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 trict, Pa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh district 
 
 Row 
 
 hath 
 
 Brick-tile 
 
 3800 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Pittsburgh district 
 
 Row 
 
 1 and 6 and 
 
 bath 
 
 BricK-tile 
 
 3800-4.,O() 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Nanticoke, Pa 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 6 
 
 Poured i 
 
 11 GO 
 
 1912 
 
 Williamsport, Pa 
 
 Row 
 
 1 
 
 Stucco on Ex- 
 pander .Metal 
 
 1172 
 
 1916 
 
 New porl . R. I . . . 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 ."> and li and 
 
 bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 l.,st 
 
 191S-1919 
 
 \i« port, R. I . . . 
 
 I letached 
 
 bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 4470 
 
 1918-1919 
 
 Craddock, \ a 
 
 1 li tached 
 
 5 and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 3222 3447 
 
 1918 1919 
 
 ( Iraddock, Va .... 
 
 I letached 
 
 6 and bat h 
 
 Frame 
 
 3654 3974 
 
 1918 1919 
 
 ( Iraddock, Va. . . . 
 
 1 ). tached 
 
 7 and bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 1 1 1 :. 
 
 1918 
 
 
 Semi-detai hed 
 
 1. 5, 6, and 
 
 bath 
 
 Frame 
 
 2460 
 
 1918 
 
 < Iraddock, \ a 
 
 Row 
 
 6 and bat h 
 
 Frame 
 
 3675 
 
 1918 1919 
 
 St. Albans, \v. Va. 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 6 anil 
 hath 
 
 Frame, 
 heal 
 
 1500-1600 
 
 L916 
 
 ston.W. Va 
 
 Semi-detached 
 
 -I and 5 and 
 
 ■ '11 tile 
 
 
 1918 1919 
 
 Charleston,^ \ a 
 
 Detached 
 
 bath 
 
 Stucco on tile 
 
 3900 1608 
 
 L918 
 
 Charl 
 
 Di tached 
 
 8 and bath 
 
 Stucco on tile 
 
 
 1918
 
 326 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 DETERMINATION OF ACCOMMODATIONS REQUIRED 
 
 The following development of the method of arriving at the 
 required number and grades of houses and quarters for families 
 and unmarried workers is illustrative of the procedure to be 
 followed in applying the suggestions made in this and the fol- 
 lowing chapter. The data as to the number and classification 
 of the employees and the wages paid, while corresponding to 
 actual conditions now prevalent, are not susceptible of general 
 application, owing to the variations present in any particular 
 case, but the presentation of the outline of the method may be 
 helpful in making similar surveys of housing requirements. 
 
 A town site is assumed for an industrial plant, in which it is 
 estimated 5000 people will be directly employed. The determi- 
 nation of number of houses and other accommodations required 
 is based on the number on payroll. The determination of the 
 grades and types of houses is based on the wages of employees. 
 
 Forecasted Payroll. — A forecast of the immediate payroll, 
 divided into skilled and unskilled labor and showing the number 
 of married men, single men, women and minors of both native 
 and foreign workers, is shown on the following table. 
 
 
 Table 40. 
 
 — Forecasted Immediate Payroll 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skilled labor 
 
 Unskilled labor 
 
 
 Class of 
 
 Men 
 
 Wom- 
 en 
 
 Mi- 
 nors 
 
 Men 
 
 Wom- 
 en 
 
 Mi- 
 nors 
 
 Total 
 work- 
 
 
 Mar- 
 ried 
 
 Single 
 
 Mar- 
 ried 
 
 Single 
 
 
 Native 
 
 800 200 
 200 300 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 50 
 
 800 
 1,800 
 
 2,600 
 
 150 
 
 
 300 
 
 150 
 
 450 
 
 2,500 
 
 Foreign 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,000 
 
 500 
 
 50 
 
 250 
 
 150 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 The following table shows the forecasted payroll subdivided 
 according to wage scale.
 
 HOUSES FOB FA Ml I.IKS 327 
 
 Table 41. — Forecasted Proposed Wage Scale 
 
 duaification 
 
 $4 
 
 $4 t.> 
 $5 
 
 
 -7 to 18 to S'l to Over 
 $9 1 $10 »10 
 
 .Married skilled native 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 workmen 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 !.-,() 
 
 250 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Married unskilled native 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 workmen 
 
 
 100 
 
 75 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Married .skilled foreign 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 workmen 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 85 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Married unskilled foreign 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total married workmen. . 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 85 
 
 125 
 
 235 
 
 _'S() 
 
 170 
 
 no 
 
 105 
 
 Unmarried skilled native 
 
 workmen 
 
 
 GOO 
 
 1,200 
 1,800 
 
 150 
 
 50 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 50 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 Unmarried unskilled na- 
 tive workmen 
 
 Unmarried skilled foreign 
 workmen 
 
 Unmarried unskilled for- 
 eign workmen 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 Total unmarried work- 
 men 
 
 
 
 210 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 GO 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 
 Skilled native women 
 workers 
 
 Unskilled native women 
 workers 
 
 250 
 140 
 
 1 25 
 50 
 10 
 
 185 
 
 40 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unskilled native minors. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unskilled foreign minors . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tojtal women A: minors. . . 
 
 300 
 
 65 
 
 in 
 
 (i 
 
 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 300 
 
 •_'. 1 25 
 
 950 
 
 345 
 
 315 
 
 380 
 
 230 
 
 no 
 
 1 25 
 
 Number and Grades of Houses Required. — Grade C houses 
 will be provided for married workmen receiving less than $7.00 
 per day. The Grade 1! Houses will be provided for married 
 workmen receiving from ST. 00 bo $9.00 per day. The Grade A 
 houses will be provided for married workmen receiving $9.00 
 and mote. 
 
 Table II -hows thai there are 585 married men receiving less 
 than $7.00 per day; 150 married workmen receiving from $7.00 
 to $9.00 per day; 215 married workmen receiving $9.00 or more 

 
 328 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 per day. Therefore, there will be required 585 Grade C; 450 
 Grade B; and 215 Grade A Houses. 
 
 Quarters Required for Single Workmen. — The number of 
 rooms required for single men is based on the number of single 
 
 DETACHED HOUSE 
 
 Scale ? u.u, 7 ? ? f ftet 
 
 riUST FLOOR. PLAN 
 
 SECOND FLOOB. PLAN 
 
 Fig. 51. — Small boarding house of the type built at the Wyandotte, Michigan, 
 project of the Emergency Fleet Corporation; effective separation between the 
 family and the boarders is secured. 
 
 men on the forecasted payroll. The grades of rooms to be 
 provided are based on the wages received by the single men and 
 also whether they are native or foreign workmen. 
 
 On this basis six grades of rooms are to be provided as follows:
 
 HOUSES FOk FAMILIES 
 
 329 
 
 Grade U.for high wage native single workmen. 
 Grade V for medium wage native single workmen. 
 Grade W for low wage native single workmen. 
 Grade X for high wage foreign single workmen. 
 Grade Y for medium wage foreign single workmen. 
 Grade Z for low wage foreign single workmen. 
 
 In estimating the number of rooms required for single men, an 
 allowance, must be made for the single men living in family 
 houses either as members of the family or as lodgers. It is 
 assumed that a larger number of workers per house will be ac- 
 commodated in Grade C houses, than in Grade B or Grade A 
 houses. Also, that houses occupied by foreign families will 
 have a larger number of workers per house than those occupied 
 by native families Fig. 51 illustrates how this is accom- 
 plished with suitable privacy. The following assumptions are 
 made in estimating the number of workers per house, other than 
 head of family, women workers and minors. 
 
 Table 42. — Estimated Number of Single Workers Living in Family 
 Souses not Including Women Workers and Minors 
 
 Grade 
 
 Occupant 
 
 Number of 
 
 houses 
 
 Assumed distribu- 
 tion of single 
 workers in 
 Louses 
 
 Resultant number 
 
 of single 
 
 workers in 
 
 family 
 
 houses 
 
 A 
 
 Native family 
 
 200 
 400 
 400 
 15 
 50 
 185 
 
 1250 
 
 1 in 10 
 1 in 4 
 1 in 2 
 1 in 5 
 1 in 2 
 1 in 1 
 
 20 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 .1 
 B 
 C 
 
 Native family 
 
 Native family 
 
 Foreign family 
 
 Foreign family 
 
 Foreign family 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 185 
 
 533 
 
 If in addition to the above total of 533, the 150 unskilled native 
 women workers and the 450 minors are assumed to live with 
 families, the total so accounted becomes 1133 people, in addition 
 to 1250 heads of the families. Thai is. there are 2383 workers 
 living in the 1250 houses, or 1.9 workers per house. The U. S. 
 Housing Corporation in planning their projects assumed 1.7 
 workers per house. 
 
 There are 840 native single workmen receiving less than S7.00 
 per day. One of every two of the 100 < trade < ' houses, occupied 
 by native families, will accommodate one additional single man,
 
 330 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 either as a member of the family or as a lodger, so that there will 
 remain 640 native single men to be provided with Grade W 
 quarters. Assuming that 2 men will occupy one room there will 
 be required 320 Grade W rooms. 
 
 There are 110 native single workmen receiving between $7.00 
 and $9.00 per day. One of every four of the 400 Grade B houses 
 for native families will house a single man, so that there will 
 remain 10 single native workmen to be provided with Grade V 
 quarters. Assuming that one man will occupy a room, there will 
 be required 10 Grade V rooms. 
 
 There are 50 native single workmen receiving $9.00 or more per 
 day. One of every 10 of the 200 Grade A houses for native 
 families will house an additional single man, so that there will 
 remain 30 single native workmen to be provided with Grade U 
 quarters. Assuming that one man will occupy one room there 
 will be required 30 Grade U rooms. 
 
 There are 2050 foreign single workmen receiving less than 
 $7.00 per day. Each of the 185 Grade C Houses for foreign 
 families will house an additional foreign single workman, so 
 that there will remain 1865 foreign single workmen to be provided 
 with Grade Z quarters. Assuming that two men will occupy 
 one room, there will be required 932 Grade Z Rooms. 
 
 There are 50 foreign single workmen receiving between $7.00 
 and $9.00 per day. One of every two of the 50 Grade B houses 
 and one out of every 5 of the 15 Grade A houses for foreign 
 families will house an additional foreign single workman, so 
 that there will remain 22 foreign single workmen to be provided 
 with Grade Y quarters. Assuming that 2 workmen will occupy 
 one room, there will be required 1 1 Grade Y rooms. 
 
 There are no foreign single workmen receiving $9.00 or more 
 per day, so that no Grade X quarters need be provided. 
 
 Quarters for Women and Minors. — It is assumed that 50 of the 
 200 women employees must be provided with single quarters. 
 Allowing one woman for each room there will be required 50 
 special rooms for women employees. 
 
 It is assumed that the 300 native minors and the 150 foreign 
 minors will live with families so that no single quarters will be 
 required for them. 
 
 Summary of Houses and Rooms Required. — Below is shown 
 tabulated number and grades of houses and rooms required:
 
 HOUSES FOR FAMILIES 
 
 331 
 
 Grade A Eousi 
 ( trade B Eouses for 
 ( rrade ( ' 1 [oust 
 ( rrade I Souses for 
 Grade /.' Eous< 
 Grade C Eouses for 
 ( rrade V Rooms for 
 ( rrade l' Elooms for 
 ( rrade II' Elooms for 
 Grade X Rooms for 
 Grade Y Elooms for 
 Grade Z Rooms for 
 Special Rooms for \Y 
 Rooms for Minors 
 
 Native Families = 200 
 
 Native Families = 400 
 
 Native Families = 400 
 
 Foreign Families = 15 
 
 Foreign Families = 50 
 
 Foreign Families = 185 
 
 Native Single Workmen = 30 
 Native Single Workmen = 10 
 Native Single Workmen = 320 
 Foreign Single Workmen = None 
 Foreign Single Workmen = 11 
 Foreign Single Workmen = 932 
 omen Employees = 50 
 
 = None
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES 
 
 Quarters for Single Men — Quarters for Single Women — 
 
 Stores and Apartments — Special Service 
 
 Buildings — Buildings for Social Needs 
 
 Introduction. — Buildings to supply the physical wants and 
 the social needs of a community are secondary in importance 
 only to the dwelling houses themselves. Their necessity is 
 more urgent in the rural than in the urban development, due to 
 the fact that the latter is nearby to established facilities of this 
 kind. A decision on what buildings (hereafter referred to as 
 Special Service Buildings) are necessary in a given development, 
 must be made before the general plan can be put into effect. 
 The location of such buildings must be a part of the scheme of the 
 town plan; but the design of the separate units in the specified 
 locations and the relation to the general housing project must be 
 the work of the architect. It is this phase of the problem which 
 will be discussed in this chapter. 
 
 Character of Special Buildings. — Under "Special Buildings" 
 the following lists of buildings will be discussed: 
 
 Buildings which supply Buildings which supply social 
 
 physical needs are: — ■ and ethical needs are: — 
 
 Quarters for single men School houses 
 
 Quarters for single women Assembly hall 
 
 Stores Churches 
 
 Laundry Community house 
 
 Bakery Club houses 
 
 Refrigerating Plant Gymnasia 
 
 Hospital Theatres 
 
 The problem of drawing up programs for all such buildings, 
 in terms of the service they should render, confronts one at the 
 outset. As to the buildings designed to cater to the physical 
 needs, one can intelligently forecast what the limiting conditions 
 
 332
 
 BUILDINGS OT III :i! THAN HOUSES 333 
 
 of the program should be, as there is tangible information to 
 guide. Concerning the buildings designed to supply the social 
 needs, as such are products of the personal element, which in 
 a new development are unknown factors, a wise decision is more 
 difficult. 
 
 The method of management of the development, and the 
 nature of the in vestment — whether the houses are to be rented or 
 sold — must also be considered in making provision for these 
 buildings. If the building company is to retain ownership of 
 houses and institutions and manage the community, then it 
 may more readily predetermine the character of these special 
 buildings. This method of management, however, has been 
 unsuccessful in many cases, as people and particularly Ameri- 
 cans, resent being directed without participating in the govern- 
 ment; and they also dislike having their amusements prescribed 
 for them. 
 
 The result often has been that the social features, offered at 
 considerable expense, have been practically rejected by the people. 
 In view of this fact, would it not be better merely to allot suit- 
 able space for such features and forget about the design or con- 
 struction of them until such time as plans can be intelligently 
 formulated? Then such will not only reflect the desires of the 
 people to be served, but also allow their participation in the 
 development of the plans. Approaching the matter in this way, 
 one may overcome the backwardness the workman feels in ac- 
 cepting a service from others which smacks of paternalism, or 
 possibly of disguised charity. 
 
 The character, size and general plan of the buildings will be 
 determined by the service they offer and the number and class 
 of people to receive such service. The next step must be a de- 
 cision regarding the kind of construction and the building ma- 
 terials to be employed. 
 
 Building Materials. — The fact that the buildings are for the 
 most part larger than the house units tends to intensify lack of 
 harmony between them and the dwellings. For this reason 
 care must be exercised, not only in the selection of materials, 
 but also in the expression of architectural treatment, in order 
 to insure no discordant notes, or feeling of intruded commercial- 
 ism in the general scheme. As to appearance, it should, by em- 
 ploying somewhat the same materials and architectural style, 
 conform to the general character of the development.
 
 334 IN DUST III iiL HOUSING 
 
 In regard to the question of economy, in building and mainte- 
 nance costs, that which is true of the general housing program 
 will also obtain for special buildings. 
 
 The motives which impel the provision of special buildings, 
 together with the requirements to insure satisfactory results, 
 will now be discussed. 
 
 QUARTERS FOR SINGLE MEN 
 
 The number of single men employed in industrial plants varies 
 with the character and location of the industry. To provide 
 for the housing of these men it will be necessary to consider the 
 total number and the class of men to be housed, in order to erect 
 satisfactory quarters for each. 
 
 Formerly, the only provision for taking care of single men was 
 by means of isolated camps, as no other accommodations were 
 available. In settled districts, the single men, with the possible 
 exception of the lower grades of common labor, who were housed 
 in crowded bunk quarters, were left to find lodging places where- 
 ever they could do so. This has led to the result that the great 
 majority were taken in as lodgers by private families. The 
 lack of proper accommodations and congenial surroundings 
 provokes restlessness and dissatisfaction among the single workers, 
 and results in a high percentage of labor turnover. 
 
 This condition has prompted many industrial concerns to study 
 the housing of the single worker with as great care as that of his 
 married brother. As a consequence of such study, it is generally 
 believed that there should be three distinct grades of quarters 
 for single men, which may be considered as analagous to the 
 grades suggested for married men and will be referred to as Grades 
 D, E and F. 
 
 Boarding Houses. — The most generally accepted type of 
 building for the low and middle classes of labor, Grades F and E, 
 respectively, is the "Boarding House". A literal view of the 
 term "Boarding House" might lead to the impression that these 
 houses were to serve merely as eating places, which is not the 
 case, as they offer the facilities for both dining and lodging. The 
 lower priced the grade of labor to be housed, the larger the unit 
 for this purpose; the reason being one of cost. Since less rental 
 can be expected from the low paid workman than from those 
 receiving higher wages, the building costs must likewise be held 
 down; group life accomplishes this. The same arguments as to
 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES 335 
 
 costs, which obtained in the case of single and multiple dwelling 
 houses, will apply here with equal force; the greater the number 
 of rooms under a single roof, the less the cost per room, for the 
 reason that not only are building costs reduced, but also a saving 
 in land and operation is effected. The size of the units is a 
 question for each development to decide for itself, in considera- 
 tion of the number of men of different classes to be housed and 
 the policy of the company as regards the operation of the units. 
 
 Two methods are suggested regarding types of boarding houses 
 and the policy of the company concerning the operation of such 
 units. 
 
 First, — small units, designed in such a way as to provide 
 accommodations for a family who shall run the house, and in 
 addition a separate portion of the building for boarders. 
 
 Second, — large units which shall be managed directly by the 
 company. 
 
 Small Boarding Houses. — This type should not house more 
 boarders than the housewife can conveniently take care of with- 
 out interference with her own domestic duties. The house must 
 be so designed that the seclusion of that portion of the dwelling 
 occupied by the family shall be complete; this will necessitate a 
 separate entrance for the boarders and means of circulation from 
 their living quarters to the dining room without passage into or 
 through the family apartment. Although double rooms for 
 boarders are more economical than single rooms, the latter are 
 far more desired by the tenants and generally more satisfactory. 
 Each boarder's room should have a clothes closet. An interest- 
 ing design of a small boarding house is showm in Fig. 51. 
 
 No separate recreation room need be provided, as the general 
 dining room may readily serve for this purpose. In such case, 
 however, a separate dining room for the family should be pro- 
 vided, or, in the cheaper grade, the kitchen may be made large 
 enough to allow its use for dining purposes. 
 
 Ample toilet room facilities should be provided for the use of 
 boarders, arranged so as to be separate from similar accommoda- 
 tions for the family use. 
 
 Heating, lighting and ventilation should be the same as before 
 suggested for single house types of the corresponding grade. 
 
 Larger Boarding Houses. — The operation of the larger boarding 
 house should be directed, if not controlled, by the company. 
 This is best accomplished by putting the building in charge of a
 
 336 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 custodian, who should reside in the building and be solely respon- 
 sible for its satisfactory operation in every particular. Such an 
 unit is shown in Fig. 52. 
 
 The office of the custodian should be located in such a position, 
 on the ground floor, as to enable him not only to watch the main 
 entrances, but also the entrance to the dining room. If the 
 building is large enough to warrant such an arrangement, the 
 bedrooms should be in wings, separated by a central structure 
 in which the dining hall may be located on the first floor and a 
 large recreation hall directly above it on the second floor. When 
 such a plan is used, there should be a corridor providing circula- 
 
 Fig. 52. — A boarding house for the accommodation of forty laborers. 
 
 tion from one wing to another so that the dining hall need not be 
 used for this purpose. 
 
 There should be stairways in each wing, preferably placed so 
 as to start from the circulating corridor and to land at a point 
 centrally located in the second floor. This will necessitate the 
 least amount of travel to reach the greatest number of second 
 floor rooms and main recreation hall, and will cause the mini- 
 mum circulation past bedrooms. Dark portions of the build- 
 ings should be used for storage space and toilet units, provided 
 adequate window area can be planned in the latter case. Pro- 
 vision should be made for porches, or at least some space where
 
 BUILDINGS OT If ER THAN HOUSES 337 
 
 the men can sit out-of-doors. The kitchen service to the dining 
 room should be as direct as possible, preferably through a pant ry; 
 it should, in addition, be so placed as to be readily accessible 
 from the service yard. 
 
 Requirements of Different Grades. — The different grades of 
 buildings will be indicated by the extent of facilities furnished and, 
 therefore, by the expense of construction; the lesser equipped 
 buildings being for lower waged workmen and the more expen- 
 sive for the higher priced ones. 
 
 Grade F Buildings. — A cellar under the entire building is not 
 essential, but that which is provided should be equivalent to 
 the following: 
 
 The minimum height should be 7 ft., well lighted and cross 
 ventilated. The floor should be of cement, sloped to drains. 
 
 In portions where the cellar is omitted, the building should be 
 set up on masonry walls or piers which must be carried below 
 frost line. The clear air space in such portions should be 2 ft. 
 in height, enclosed and ventilated, with provision for ground 
 drainage. 
 
 Buildings under four stories in height need not be fireproof 
 in general construction, but when over three stories they should 
 be fireproof throughout. In buildings of three stories or less, 
 having an area exceeding 3,000 sq. ft., there should be fire walls 
 constructed of brick, terra cotta, stone or concrete placed in 
 such a manner that no portion with an area of more than 3,000 
 sq. ft., should exist unless enclosed by such fire walls. Further- 
 more, in buildings of this type, when so arranged that sleeping 
 quarters occur in wings, radiating from a common central struc- 
 ture, each such unit, regardless of whether it exceeds the area 
 before called for, should be separated by fire walls. Stand pipes 
 with hose reels should be provided, so that any portion of the 
 building can be reached with 75 ft. of hose. 
 
 In two story buildings, no other means of egress than the regu- 
 lar stairs and stair halls, as hereinafter called for, need be pro- 
 vided, but in structures of three stories or more, adequate means 
 of passage to the street or yard should be provided, either by 
 additional stairs enclosed in fireproof walls, fire tower or stair- 
 way fire escape. All such additional means of egress should be 
 remote from the main stairs, and located so that no room shall 
 be more than 40 ft. distant. When exterior metal fire escapes 
 are used, they should be reached through fireproof self-closing 
 
 22
 
 338 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 doors, made to swing out, and landings on such should be so ar- 
 ranged that descent will not require persons to pass in front of 
 windows. 
 
 All stairs and stair halls should be not less than 3 ft. wide 
 in the clear and when enclosed in fire walls, as above called for, 
 doors should swing out toward the stair hall, so as not to obstruct 
 free passage. 
 
 Dumb waiters and elevators should have their own separate 
 enclosure vv ith fireproof doors. 
 
 Unless connected with a central heating plant, provision should 
 be made for independent low pressure steam heating. Radia- 
 tors in bedrooms should be placed under windows. 
 
 One water closet for every 12 men, one urinal per 16 men, one 
 lavatory per 8 men and one shower per 10 men are necessary. 
 Bathtubs are not absolutely necessary. All toilet rooms should 
 have the floor surfaces of an impervious material other than con- 
 crete. A toilet should be provided in the basement for use of 
 such workers and attendants as occupy that part of the building. 
 
 Each floor should have a separate toilet room, with sufficient 
 fixtures to conform to the listed requirements. In cases where 
 isolated or partially isolated wings occur, additional toilet rooms 
 should be provided, so that the lodgers may reach a toilet without 
 going outside the wing in which they are housed. The placing 
 of lavatories and showers in a room separate from toilets and 
 urinals, while not a minimum requirement, will be found a more 
 satisfactory arrangement; and, so arranged, that the rooms are 
 communicating. All toilet and bathrooms should have windows 
 opening directly to the outer air. Separate service closets, 
 with slop sinks, should be provided one to each floor, or more 
 where isolated conditions as stated above occur. 
 
 Adequate provision should be made for housing the permanent 
 servants of the building and also the custodian or superintend- 
 ent. These quarters, together with their toilet accommodations, 
 should be entirely isolated from that portion of the building oc- 
 cupied by lodgers. The general dining hall, recreation room, 
 office for the custodian, kitchen, pantry and servants' dining 
 room should be provided. The size of all such rooms will be 
 dependent upon the number of men to be accommodated. All 
 public rooms, such as dining hall, recreation rooms and corridors 
 should have heights of 9 ft. to 12 ft,; bed rooms should have a 
 minimum height of 8 feet.
 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES 339 
 
 The number of rooms is not subject to detennination here, 
 but bed rooms should be designed as single rooms. These should 
 have a minimum area of 70 sq. ft. and a minimum width of 7 ft. 
 They should be designed so as to allow for the minimum furniture 
 called for in the following list: 
 
 Single bed, 3 ft. 3 in. X 6 ft. 6 in. 
 
 Combination wardrobe and dresser, 2 ft. in. X 3 ft. 6 in. 
 
 Writing table, 1 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. 6 in. 
 
 One chair. 
 
 The furniture should be indicated carefully to scale on the 
 plans. Built-in clothes closets for the bedrooms need not be 
 a minimum requirement. 
 
 Each single bedroom should have at least one window, with 
 a free area of 12 square feet. Doors to bedrooms should, when 
 possible, be placed opposite one another, and should have tran- 
 soms, or louvers. 
 
 Buildings should be wired for electricity. Corridor lights, and 
 illumination in the dining hall and recreation room should be 
 controlled from a panel board, located in or close to the custodian's 
 office. Bracket lights should be provided in bedrooms, in such 
 location as to furnish light at the dresser, these lights to be con- 
 trolled at the fixtures. Other lights should be controlled by 
 switches conveniently located. 
 
 It is suggested that base plugs be provided in corridors, dining 
 rooms, recreation rooms, kitchen and laundry, for the purpose of 
 connecting up such electrical appliances as may be needed in 
 cleaning. At points close to stairs, fire exits and hose reels, 
 gas pilot lights protected with red shades should be provided in 
 full view from the corridor. 
 
 Grade E Buildings. — In addition to the minimum requirements 
 listed for Grade F buildings, the following should be provided 
 for those of Grade E. 
 
 The bath should be separated from general toilet. At least 
 one bathtub should be provided, in addition to showers. 
 
 Bedrooms should have a minimum area of 85 sq. ft., with a 
 minimum width of 8 feet. 
 
 Clothes closets should be directly connected with bedrooms. 
 
 Lights for bedrooms should include, in addition to bracket 
 fixture, a ceiling light controlled by switch at door. 
 
 Grade D Buildings. — The single men, for whom the Grade D 
 buildings are designed, will be the more highly skilled mechanics,
 
 340 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 shop foremen, minor superintendents and the higher salaried 
 office employees. These demand higher standards of living and 
 insist upon a type of building and policy of operation which will 
 permit an expression of their individuality. This leads to a 
 desire for a smaller and more intimate type of dwelling place, 
 where occupants may enjoy a close comradeship. This is best 
 accomplished in a building operated by the residents themselves 
 as a club house. The positions occupied by this class, being of 
 a more permanent character, create a desire on the part of the 
 men for congenial, homelike living quarters, in which they can 
 feel a personal controlling interest. 
 
 This grade, therefore, should have a comparatively large room, 
 to be used as a general living or reading and smoking room. 
 In addition, another good sized room should be provided in 
 which a billiard or pool table, card tables, and games can be 
 accommodated. 
 
 The bedrooms should be larger than in Grade E or F houses, 
 in order that more furniture may be comfortably arranged. 
 Toilet and bath accommodations should be more amply provided. 
 The building generally should have a more domestic, homelike 
 character than the larger, lower grade boarding houses, the 
 very nature of which precludes the possibility of overcoming the 
 feeling of institutionalism which always exists. 
 
 QUARTERS FOR SINGLE WOMEN 
 
 Special buildings for housing women will in most developments 
 be found unnecessary. In many cases a few single women will 
 readily find quarters as lodgers with private families. However, 
 there are some industries which employ women almost exclusively, 
 and it will be necessary to provide suitable quarters for them, 
 especially since the great majority of these workers are young 
 girls, many of whom have left homes in other localities in order 
 to obtain employment. The result of providing such quarters 
 will accomplish great attendant benefits in the happier social 
 life and companionship, not to speak of moral and social protec- 
 tion which the girls enjoy. 
 
 Management of Boarding Houses. — The operation of these 
 units is similar to the corresponding units for men, with the 
 difference that a matron officiates as the custodian. It is sug- 
 gested that, in the operation of this type, it will be found that a
 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES 341 
 
 board of control, elected by the lodgers from their own number 
 and working with the matron, will greatly facilitate the problems 
 of management and eliminate friction between the authoritative 
 agency and those enjoying the privileges offered by such housing. 
 
 Requirements of Boarding Houses. — The subject of quarters 
 for women workers will be considered under one general grade. 
 All requirements relating purely to the building technique, such 
 as fire protection, minimum story heights, heating, lighting, ven- 
 tilation, cellars, windows, room sizes and materials, may be gov- 
 erned by the same suggestions as offered under "Quarters for 
 Single Men". 
 
 Requirements for rooms should be the same as those listed 
 for men's units, except that bathrooms and toilet rooms must be 
 separated, though arranged to communicate. 
 
 A kitchenette and a sewing room should be provided on al- 
 ternate floors. Trunk rooms should be supplied, as minimum 
 sized bedrooms will not accommodate all the belongings of the 
 lodger. 
 
 First floor should have matron's office, so placed as to oversee 
 main entrances, access to sleeping quarters and entrance to 
 dining room. There should be provided, in addition to main 
 recreation or assembly room, one reception parlor for every 
 twenty women. These may be arranged so as to form one large 
 reception room when so desired. 
 
 Minimum provision for plumbing should be: — one water closet 
 per ten women; one shower per ten women; one lavatory per 
 six women; one bath tub per twenty-five women. Require- 
 ments other than these should be the same as suggested for men's 
 units. Toilet accommodations, with quarters, for the matron 
 and resident help should be provided. 
 
 Laundry facilities, sufficient to enable the lodgers to do washing 
 of clothes, should be provided in the basement. 
 
 The kitchen should have outside access, and be separated from 
 the dining room by a service pantry. 
 
 STORES AND APARTMENTS 
 
 The reason for including stores as a part of the necessities is 
 because of the partial or complete isolation of the usual industrial 
 development from such necessary service units. The element of 
 isolation may require, in connection with the store, provision for
 
 342 
 
 INDUSTRIE HOUSING 
 
 living quarters to accommodate the store owner or whomso- 
 ever shall have charge of the business. In some instances it will 
 be found economical to arrange a store room as a part of a regu- 
 lar private dwelling house. The size of store room thus obtained, 
 however, is impractical except for use as a very modest confec- 
 tionery, shoemaker's shop, or some such less important but 
 nevertheless serviceable unit. 
 
 An economy can be effected by creating a multiple unit, com- 
 posed of several stores and apartments above the same. This 
 also allows greater variation as to size of store rooms, for when 
 
 Fig. 53. — A group store building, Yorkship Village. 
 
 properly designed, the space can be subject to many subdivi- 
 sions, permitting small or large store units as desired. Again, 
 the location of apartments for rent in the second and third stories 
 over stores may present an economical solution for certain prob- 
 lems. The arrangement on Collings Road, Yorkship Village at 
 Camden, N. J., is an illustration. (See Fig. 53.) 
 
 In the larger units, the inability to forecast when the apart- 
 ments will be occupied by those operating the stores requires that 
 they be designed to permit renting, either separately or together. 
 In either case- there should be provided a private entrance door 
 and stairs leading to the apartments located on the second floor.
 
 BUI 1. DISCS OTHER THAN HOUSES 343 
 
 A rear door and service stair should be provided for each apart- 
 ment and a rear door for each store. 
 
 A stairway, which in most cases can be arranged under the 
 stairs leading to apartments, should be provided to allow cir- 
 culation from store room to a portion of the basement divided 
 off for use as a stock or storage room for the store. In addition, 
 an exterior hatchway stair should be provided for bringing in 
 supplies, and as a means for reaching the basement for the apart- 
 ment tenant, when the apartment is rented separately. In this 
 case a portion of the basement should be divided off for use as a 
 laundry. 
 
 The method of heating the building will depend upon how the 
 building is to be operated. If a janitor is to be employed by the 
 owner, a central heating plant should be provided in a portion of 
 the basement separated from the portions allotted to the various 
 tenants, and the rentals fixed at a figure to cover heating. If a 
 janitor is not to be employed, individual heating units must be 
 provided for each portion of the building subject to a separate 
 rental. The latter method frequently results in serious conflict, 
 and the first cost is large. Therefore, it is suggested that gen- 
 erally, inasmuch as stores and apartments are usually rented 
 together, a single unit heating system be provided for each pair; 
 and, in the event that the storekeeper desires to sublet the 
 apartment, he be obliged to furnish the heat therewith. 
 
 Requirements of Store Rooms. — While no exact information 
 can be given, the average size for a retail grocery store, drug 
 store or butcher shop, catering to an ordinary, sized suburban 
 trade, is approximately 1,000 to 1,200 sq. ft. in area. 
 
 Fixtures, whether furnished by the owner or lessee, should be 
 provided as an item separate and apart from the general contract 
 for the building. Some plan, however, for a general arrange- 
 ment of such furniture, so as to allow freedom of circulation, 
 should be kept in mind, in order to design the store space intel- 
 ligently with a view to future service. 
 
 The finished floor should be a good grade of rift sawed, yellow 
 pine, tongue and grooved flooring, with an oil finish, laid on a 
 counter base of 8-inch flooring. 
 
 A sink with hot and cold running water should be furnished 
 in the store room, and a toilet provided in the cellar. 
 
 Show windows of a size and character to satisfactorily display 
 goods should be designed. These will be further considered in 
 a later discussion on exterior appearance of the building.
 
 344 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Posts should be eliminated as far as possible. This may 
 mean arranging store units in suitable widths in order to allow- 
 clear spans without use of excessively large beams and girders. 
 
 Transoms over doors and windows in exterior walls should be 
 provided to insure ventilation and light. Care should be exer- 
 cised to prevent the windows interfering with shelving and to 
 insure the best use of wall space for stacking goods. 
 
 Electric lighting should be provided, with lights controlled by 
 switch at a panel board. Lights for show windows should be 
 controlled either by local snap switches or by separate controls on 
 the main panel board. A gas pilot light should be arranged for 
 use in emergency cases and for burning at night. 
 
 Requirements of Apartments. — General minimum requirements 
 listed for similar types under general housing apply with equal 
 force to apartments. 
 
 Buildings, in which the apartments partake of the nature of 
 duplex apartments, should not be over two stories in height 
 unless permitted otherwise by ordinance. They need not be 
 fireproof, except where the store room is used as a garage, in 
 which case that particular portion of the building must be entirely 
 fireproof. 
 
 In store buildings of three stories the apartments should be 
 subject to fire protection, insofar as enclosing stairs and stair 
 halls with masonry walls and providing fire escapes suitably 
 located so as to serve each apartment. 
 
 Exterior Appearance. — The feature of exterior appearance 
 which will need careful handling to avoid a feeling of commercial- 
 ism and lack of refinement, is the show window. To make store 
 buildings harmonize in design with the rest of the development, 
 best results can be obtained by arranging the show windows in 
 the form of square or octagonal bays. This treatment lends an 
 impression of domesticity and offers several points of practical 
 advantage. 
 
 First, in order to further the interest of general harmony in the placing 
 of the building with relation to neighboring dwellings, this permits the 
 projecting of bays which would not be possible in city stores built close 
 to the sidewalk line. 
 
 Second, in many stores a screen, dwarf partition may be placed across 
 the bay opening, on a line with the main building wall. This serves as 
 a vertical plane to back up the display and at the same time makes the 
 problem of heating easier, as it partly takes care of the large glass 
 exposure.
 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES 345 
 
 In stores which require heavy deliveries of goods, facilities for 
 handling the merchandise should be so arranged that ease of 
 access for delivery trucks will be obtained and also that such 
 features will be seen as little as possible. 
 
 SPECIAL SERVICE BUILDINGS 
 
 In addition to stores it will often be found necessary to include 
 in the development other service buildings, in order to supply the 
 needs of the community, such as laundry, refrigerating plant 
 and bakery. The service rendered by these units does not make 
 it necessary to intrude them as integral parts of the housing 
 scheme. In fact they should be segregated as much as possible, 
 as they are not likely to prove attractive to the residential 
 districts. 
 
 Combined Building. — If the operation of these units is to be 
 conducted by the industry sponsoring the development, or even 
 by private enterprise, in such a manner that they could all be 
 provided for in one building, considerable economy would result. 
 This would not only be true in building cost, but also in operation, 
 as less help would be employed and the delivery feature would be 
 simplified. 
 
 To illustrate further the economy which could be realized by 
 housing all these service features in one building, a type of building 
 for the purpose is herewith suggested. The building would con- 
 sist of a two story structure and basement, the first floor to be 
 of sufficient height above grade to allow ample opportunity for 
 lighting and thoroughly ventilating the basement in which would 
 be located the laundry. A portion of the first floor would be 
 used as garage space, being so designed as to come approximately 
 at grade level. The remainder of the first floor would be used as 
 a refrigerating plant, general office and a room for use as a shop 
 and supply room, in connection with the garage. The second 
 floor would be used as the bakery. An elevator, of sufficient 
 capacity to serve for both laundry and bakery, should be in- 
 cluded in the design, so located as not only to serve both these 
 units but also to open directly on the shipping platform. 
 
 By this arrangement, economy from multiple units would 
 obtain and, in addition, one garage space with shop and supply 
 room, as well as one heating system and power plant, only, would 
 be necessary; whereas those features would have to exist in each 
 building if arranged in separate units. Naturally the features
 
 346 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 enumerated when occurring in the multiple unit would be larger 
 than in each of the separate units, but they would be far less 
 expensive so combined than as three separate units. 
 
 The building as outlined above should be of fireproof construc- 
 tion, with a floor load of three hundred pounds for the first floor 
 and one hundred and fifty pounds for the second floor. The roof 
 might be of regular wood construction, either pitched or flat as 
 desired, providing in either case sufficient roof air space is 
 obtained. 
 
 In the event of the units being built either as separate buildings 
 or as a multiple unit, the requirements as to capacity and equip- 
 ment would be the same. In order to give an idea as to what 
 would be necessary in this respect, the following information 
 is given. 
 
 Laundry Capacity. — The size of laundry required will depend 
 not so much upon the number of houses as upon the class of the 
 people to be served and the number of persons housed in boarding 
 houses. In addition to these requirements, work to be done for 
 the offices and workrooms of the factory, when such are located 
 close at hand, must be fully estimated. 
 
 We will assume an hypothetical case of a laundry, capable of 
 turning out a certain amount of work per day, and on this basis 
 give a list of the equipment required and the size of the build- 
 ing which will be necessary to accommodate such equipment. 
 For the purpose of this illustration, take a laundry of such 
 capacity as to be able to turn out approximately 1600 lb. of laund- 
 ered goods per day of eight hours. The average weights of 
 various articles is presented in order to give an idea as to what 
 the proposed capacity would mean when translated into num- 
 ber of things to be laundered: 
 
 Man's shirt, one pound; underwear (summer), 34 lb- ; 
 (winter) 1^ lb. Woman's shirt waist, 34 lb.; muslin petti- 
 coat, % lb. Double bed sheet, 2 lb. Bath towel, 3^ lb.; 
 face towel, 34 1°.; small hand towel, }£ lb. Bed spread, 4 lb. 
 Handkerchiefs, 34 lb- P er dozen. Collars, z /± lb. per dozen. 
 Table Cloth, 2 lb. Napkin, % lb. 
 
 In a family of two parents and two children, the average wash- 
 ing is about 30 lb. per week, and since the proposed laundry could 
 handle 9,600 lb. in six working days, 320 families could be served. 
 
 Such a laundry, to be properly balanced in its mechanical 
 equipment, should include the following machines: —
 
 Hill. discs other THAN HOUSES 347 
 
 Two Washers, 36 in. by 54 in.— 2.0 H.P. Two Electric Irons and 
 
 One Extractor, 30 in. — 5.0 H.P. Special Boards 
 
 One Flat Work Ironer 100 in.— 0.3 H.P. One Soap Tank 
 
 One Dry Tumbler 30 in. by 42 in.— 1.5 H.P. Two Metal Truck Tubs. 
 
 A minimum area of about 560 sq. ft., is necessary to house I his 
 equipment. "When smaller plants are desired, the best policy 
 is to arrange the machines in any combination desired and oper- 
 ate them as a group or unit by one motor. Such group units 
 are made up and carried in stock by leading manufacturers of 
 laundry equipment. All the machines should be motor driven. 
 High pressure steam should be run to the washers, flat Work 
 ironer and dry tumbler; but, if necessary, heating by gas or elec- 
 tricity may be substituted. In addition to the laundry proper, 
 a room in connection with the same should be planned to be used 
 as a sorting and marking room. 
 
 Bakery Arrangement. — The size of the bakery, like the laundry, 
 depends upon local conditions of demand, and these offer such 
 a wide variation that, here again, the discussion must center around 
 an hypothetical illustration. However, before going into a 
 special case, a list of articles of equipment for any bakery will 
 be suggested. 
 
 The list should include the following: 
 
 An oven, preferably a portable type made of sheet steel, as 
 this is less cumbersome, more easily installed and requires no special 
 provisions in the way of foundation or general building construction 
 than an ordinary kitchen range. 
 
 In connection with the oven there should be a proof oven for rais- 
 ing the dough preliminary to the baking. 
 
 A combination piece of equipment, in which will be found a flour 
 bin, elevator, flour sifter, dough mixer and cake mixer, operated as a 
 unit by electric current, will be both economical and efficient. 
 
 A small stove should be furnished for cooking boiled custards, icings 
 and for the mixing of various ingredients requiring heating. 
 
 There should also be suitable cases for keeping utensils and gen- 
 eral supplies. 
 
 A refrigator, in close connection with the bakery, will be necessary. 
 
 A sink with hot and cold running water and a number of work 
 tables used in the preparation of the bakery products should be 
 located conveniently to both mixing machine and oven. One of such 
 table should be fitted with pan rack. 
 
 The installation of an ice cream freeze]-, ice crusher and also an ice 
 cream cabinet, connected to the refrigeration plant in the case of the
 
 348 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 combined service building is suggested as a desirable feature, although 
 one which is not absolutely necessary. 
 
 Assuming the case of a bakery, equipped with a three deck 
 oven, with an area of 74 in. X 92 in., and the other apparatus 
 of such a size as to make a well balanced unit, the capacity may 
 be figured as follows: Considering the making of bread alone, 
 it will be found that the oven above specified can bake 310 loaves 
 at one time and, allowing one hour for a baking and 8 hours for a 
 day's run, the output for a day would be 2,480 loaves. This 
 computation is merely to give an idea as to the capacity of the 
 oven and not as a program for its operation, as a part of the time 
 the oven would be in use for baking pies, cakes or other products. 
 In order to house this equipment in a suitable manner, a room 
 with a minimum area of 600 sq. ft. would be required. In ad- 
 dition to the bakery proper, a general store room would be re- 
 quired for keeping a good stock of supplies, and a storage space 
 for stacking the bakery products preparatory to delivery. 
 
 Refrigerating Plant. — The suggestions offered concerning the 
 ice plant will be based upon an equipment with a capacity of 
 6,000 lb. a day in standard blocks, weighing 300 lb. each. The 
 apparatus for manufacturing ice herein described is assumed to 
 be of the usual type, operating on the principle of the evaporation 
 of a more or less volatile liquid, this being maintained by a vapor 
 compression machine. The principal parts are a refrigerator or 
 evaporator, a compression pump, and a condenser. The con- 
 denser, compression machine, motor, centrifugal pump, dehydra- 
 tors, air receivers, air pump and filters are located adjacent to the 
 ice making tank or refrigerator. In the case where such tank 
 occurs on the first floor, the refrigerating machinery may be lo- 
 cated directly under it in the basement. 
 
 The size of receptacle required for the ice making tank, figured 
 to the outside of the insulation, should be about 10 ft. 10 in., by 
 11 ft. 2 in., by 4 ft. 8 in. in depth. This sized tank holds twenty 
 cans, each yielding a 300-lb. cake of ice. A freezing requires 
 about eighteen hours, the daily capacity can be figured at 6000 
 pounds. In event the tank is constructed with space under it, the 
 floor should be waterproofed with great care. A water tank should 
 be located in close connection with the ice making tank, and on 
 the same level as the refrigerator. The water, which has been 
 partially cooled, is run from the tank into the cans, which serve 
 as moulds for making the cakes of ice.
 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES \\\\\ 
 
 A light type of traveling crane should be installed for lifting 
 the cans out of the refrigerator after the ice has been made. 
 They are then run down to a platform at the end of the refrigera- 
 tor and deposited on a specially designed ice chute. Hot water 
 is poured on the can and the ice, after mell Lag slightly, is released 
 and slides down the chute through a door, which automatically 
 opens under pressure of the ice block and closes after the ice 
 has entered the storage room. The platform for handling the ice 
 must be well waterproofed and provided with a drain, as much 
 dripping of water occurs. 
 
 The ice storage room should be insulated with cork throughout 
 floors, walls and ceiling. The door that admits the ice from theice 
 handling room should be of special design just large enough to 
 allow the ice to pass through. The door from the ice storage space 
 to shipping platform should be also of special design and should 
 follow the character of doors used in large refrigerators. The ice 
 handling room should be about 8 ft. 6 in. by 11 ft. (> in., and 
 the ice storage room large enough to permit the keeping of a 
 surplus stock of at least 12,000 pounds. 
 
 Hospital. — Medical service is one of the needs which cannot 
 be left to work itself out. Since in many cases the inducements 
 offered for such service, in compensation and living conditions, 
 especially in the smaller developments, are not sufficiently at- 
 tractive, community action will be necessary to insure the benefits 
 of competent medical attention. This, in its simplest form, 
 should result in the establishment of a dispensary in charge of 
 a resident physician, and in the employment of a visiting nurse. 
 
 This first modest measure for safeguarding the general health 
 may be all that the situation demands. Many developments 
 will not require the establishment of a general hospital, for the 
 reason that they are either close to a larger community in which 
 hospitals exist, or because they are close to an industrial plant in 
 which an emergency hospital is maintained. There will be 
 found, however, many isolated industrial developments where the 
 provision of a hospital will be an absolute necessity. Even where, 
 for the present, they have been considered as not altogether 
 essential, it is probable that the growing demand for general 
 dispensary service will eventually result in the establishment of 
 such a unit . 
 
 There are many advantages to be obtained by incorporating 
 such units as a part of the general plan. Not only can belter
 
 350 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 treatment be given the sick, but also there is available the im- 
 measurable service of good nursing, which is quite impossible in 
 many crowded private dwellings. The hospital serves further 
 as a barrier against the spread of contagious diseases and as an 
 almost indispensable help in time of such need. 
 
 In order that it may not be an undue economic burden to the 
 community or to the company operating the development, the 
 hospital should be designed so that a portion, only, need be 
 built at first, and enlarged to keep pace with the general growth 
 of the community. Moreover, the design should be studied so 
 that the building at any stage of its development should look 
 finished, and at the same time have the building appear, when 
 complete, as though it had been built all at one time. As such 
 design occupies a special field of its own, this is not the place to 
 express details. It may be suggested, however, that this may 
 be done by employing a plan in which a central portion acts as a 
 key for the complete building. The future additions will be- 
 come radiating wings connected to the central structure, thus 
 making it possible to segregate any portion as occasion demands. 
 
 BUILDINGS FOR SOCIAL NEEDS 
 
 Churches. — The diverse character of structures required by 
 different denominations and creeds makes suggestions on the 
 subject of churches difficult. While the desire for such buildings 
 by the people will no doubt necessitate their ultimate provision, 
 greater satisfaction will be obtained by permitting the people 
 themselves to determine the character of these buildings. 
 Whatever the expressed tendency of the people may be as to the 
 kind of church preferred, the design should be as informal as is 
 possible to maintain a churchly feeling and expression. 
 
 In the large developments it will often be necessary to provide 
 two or more such edifices to meet the demands of varying forms 
 of worship. The seating capacity and facilities will depend largely 
 upon the denomination, population and the desires of the people. 
 
 School Houses. — The necessity for school buildings in an indus- 
 trial development may be due either to complete isolation from 
 already established institutions, or to lack of accommodations in 
 existing public school buildings, which makes it impossible to 
 take care of the sudden influx of population. 
 
 While a great amount of study and care has been given to the 
 large city schools, the problem of the small school has been neg-
 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES 351 
 
 lected. The result has been thai either buildings of the most 
 primitive character have been provided, or when the demand for 
 something more than the "little country school" prevailed,, 
 pretentious imitations of city schools have been resorted to. 
 These, like most imitations, have generally failed of being 
 satisfactory, because in the endeavor to gain a semblance not 
 justified, the more important considerations of economy and 
 appropriateness have been for the most part ignored. 
 
 Urban and rural developments require school buildings of 
 different character. In t he former, high land values demand that 
 less proper! y be used for this purpose than may be allowed in the 
 rural development. The result will be that the architectural 
 character of the building thus obtained will harmonize better 
 with the general housing; which, following the same line of reason- 
 ing, runs more to the larger multiple unit in the urban than in 
 the rural community. This should not be interpreted to mean 
 the building of a small imitation city school for the particular 
 use of an urban development, but should rather result in the 
 building of a real city school by cooperating with the officers of 
 the community at large, and making it an extension of the regular 
 public school administration. This action narrows the problems 
 of the school house to such an extent that its consideration here 
 would only be necessary for the rural districts. 
 
 For these districts, the "Pavilion T/vpe School" offers so 
 many advantages, that it would appear to be the logical type to 
 use. This school building is a one story structure, built in units, 
 the general plan of which may be subject to any treatment 
 desired. It is particularly adaptable to rural districts, in that 
 it provides accommodations only as they are needed; and as 
 each addition is in the form of a complete architectural unit, the 
 project at all times gives the appearance of a completed plan. 
 The rather extravagant use of property is justifiable in view of the 
 low property costs. 
 
 Some of the more important advantages obtained by the use 
 of this type are as follows: 
 
 1. Architectural harmony with the general housing is possible, be- 
 cause the design of the small units can be maintained in style with the 
 
 smaller detached house unit, which is the logical house type for this 
 kind of a development. 
 
 2. The units, being one story structures of moderate size and semi- 
 detached, are readily provided with ample light and ventilation.
 
 352 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 3. The fire hazard is reduced to a minimum and no expensive provi- 
 sions for fire protection are necessary; moreover, the most economical 
 methods of construction may be employed. 
 
 4. The covered passageways between classroom units may serve as 
 outdoor classrooms under favorable weather conditions. 
 
 5. The initial structure need not make provision for facilities which 
 will be necessary with future growth, but which are not needed at the 
 inception of the town. 
 
 Theatres. — The moving picture theatre presents one of the 
 most common forms of entertainment for an industrial com- 
 munity development. It is an economic factor. First, the 
 building itself, differs from the regular theatre in that it needs 
 no complicated stage with equipment, and is inexpensive in con- 
 struction. Second, the low admission price puts it within the 
 reach of the lowest paid worker. Third, the length of time con- 
 sumed in presenting one complete performance makes possible 
 two or more performances a night and allows a small seating 
 capacity to meet the demand of a large number of people. 
 
 The capacity of the theatre will depend upon the size of the 
 community. To arrive at an approximate seating capacity 
 required, it is suggested that seats be provided to accommodate 
 every evening one person from each family and one person 
 out of every four single workers. 
 
 Considering exterior appearance, again it is suggested that 
 the intent of the general development in the observance of archi- 
 tectural style be followed. 
 
 Whether building codes or ordinances govern its construction 
 or not, the theatre should include the provisions that are gen- 
 erally accepted as proper safeguards in case of fire or panic. 
 Most important among such recommendations will be the pro- 
 vision of fire exits marked with suitable guiding signs and lights, 
 and fitted with doors to swing out, giving access to outside fire 
 escapes or areas open to the street. These exits should exist on 
 two sides of the building, in addition to the main front entrance. 
 
 Community House. — There are a number of general community 
 activities which may be provided for separately or together under 
 one general management. Such general community features as 
 recreation fields, play grounds, assembly halls, day nurseries, 
 club houses and gymnasia, must finally be provided in a well 
 balanced, healthy community. Whether they shall be a part of 
 the general predetermined scheme or whether thay shall result 
 as a spontaneous expression on the part of the people is a matter
 
 BUILDINGS OTHER THAN HOUSES 353 
 
 of policy to be determined by the promoters of the development. 
 If the latter policy is observed, nothing need be suggested here, 
 except to provide a place and an appropriate setting in the 
 general plan, as the desires of the particular people concerned 
 will become manifest as the idea develops. 
 
 However, some modest provision for service of this kind should 
 be made, as a stimulus to community life. With this end in view, 
 which shall be so limited as to leave opportunity for freedom by 
 the people in the pursuit of their social activities, a general com- 
 munity house is suggested. 
 
 The house should provide suitable space for the following 
 elements of service : 
 
 1. A day nursery. 
 
 2. A gymnasium (separate wash rooms and showers for sexes). 
 
 3. A kindergarten. 
 
 4. Four or five classrooms. 
 
 If circumstances require, these additional features may be 
 added : 
 
 5. A bathroom in connection with nursery. 
 
 6. Two club rooms. 
 
 7. A general assembly room. 
 
 8. A general dining room. 
 
 9. A kitchen. 
 
 10. A diet kitchen in connection with nursery. 
 
 11. Quarters for the matron and help. 
 
 In addition, a playground should be provided. 
 
 A building so constituted would permit working mothers to 
 leave their children, secure in the knowledge that they would be 
 well cared for. Such children as were of an age to attend the 
 regular school could not only go to the community house for 
 luncheon, but after school return to enjoy the privileges of the 
 playground, or the gymnasium in inclement weather. 
 
 Sewing classes for women and girls and general courses of 
 study for adults could be offered at night, as well as the privi- 
 lege of using the gymnasium and club rooms. The assembly 
 hall could serve for a general meeting place, for holding of dances, 
 giving general lectures and many other forms of entertainment. 
 In a word, the community house would bespeak welfare work, and 
 by having the various community activities under one general 
 management and in one building, reduce the operation and build- 
 ing costs and maintenance to a minimum. 
 
 23
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Organization and Planning — Contract and Specifica- 
 tions — Supervision of Construction 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND PLANNING 
 
 Character and Scope. — In the development of an industrial 
 housing project the effective organization and wise direction of 
 a competent and experienced personnel is a prime requisite to 
 success, if the result is to be judged on the basis of economy, 
 attractiveness, saleability and good living conditions. To a large 
 extent satisfactory results will depend, first, upon the selection of 
 fully competent and experienced services, and second, upon the 
 laying down of carefully considered and coordinated organiza- 
 tion, planning and construction policies. The expert services 
 of the engineer, the town planner, the architect, the realtor and 
 the constructor: — all are required. And the several problems 
 falling within the province of each are to be solved, so that the 
 solutions may be not only technically correct, but also economi- 
 cally sound, and so that the way each thing is done may bear 
 the proper relation to the scheme as a whole. 
 
 Group Management. — The building of a housing project can 
 neither be considered as wholly an architectural nor an engineering 
 problem, but rather as a merging of opinions and talents of each 
 profession into a consistent conception. As there are a multitude 
 of elements which enter into the final plan, the factors of control 
 and coordination become most important, and it is therefore neces- 
 sary to work out a practical form of organization and to formulate 
 the policies of procedure in accordance with which the work shall 
 proceed. 
 
 Executive Control. — A close contact between the owner and 
 the organization provided to manage and supervise the 
 development is essential. This can best be accomplished by the 
 designation of an official by the owner, upon whom the necessary 
 
 354
 
 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION 355 
 
 authority is conferred to fix policies, 1o make decisions, to execute 
 contracts, to expend funds and to exercise similar important 
 functions. The direction of the work and the immediate control 
 of the housing organization should be centralized in an executive, 
 who possesses the necessary qualifications of leadership and who 
 has had the necessary experience in directing the planning and 
 construction of large projects. Special t raining in directing the 
 design and in technical details will be most helpful, providing the 
 man also has business experience and executive ability. 
 
 Organization Chart. — The details of the organization for plan- 
 ning and supervising the operation, as indicated in the suggested 
 chart (see Fig. 54), will depend upon the extent and character 
 of the work to be handled. Modifications in the initial form of 
 organization will necessarily be made from time to time as the 
 work proceeds. The services for some will be merely of an ad- 
 visory nature; for others, they will be required during part or all 
 of the work. The administrative department, with a force of 
 employees and assistants, varied to suit the requirements, will be 
 needed throughout the life of the organization; while the greater 
 part of those engaged upon the surveys, designs and plans can be 
 dispensed with upon their completion, except for those neces- 
 sarily retained to direct construction. 
 
 The construction department may not be organized until active 
 construction work is about to begin. When the scope of the 
 work is relatively small, the size of the organization may be 
 accordingly reduced and simplified, by consolidation of duties 
 and functions. Large projects will require a greater subdivision 
 than that assumed in the typical organization chart. The 
 general object to be sought in starting an organization, is 
 such a division and delegation of responsibility and authority, 
 under proper control, as will enable each employee to handle 
 definite duties and functions, with a clear understanding of the 
 measure and limits of his authority. 
 
 Method of Procedure. — The controlling features, requirements 
 and policies should bo laid down at the outset and a program of 
 procedure in preliminary form should then be adopted. The 
 earlier the method of procedure is decided upon, the less likeli- 
 hood there will be of incurring delays and costly mistakes. The 
 object of working out a well considered plan of procedure is to 
 assure the orderly and economic prosecution of the work and 
 various stages, and to avoid loss of effort, duplication and
 
 356 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 conflict in authority. Such a plan may be considered as analog- 
 ous to a routing plan in a manufacturing process; beginning with 
 
 Administration 
 
 Office 
 
 Management 
 
 Stenographic 
 Clerical 
 Filing 
 Records 
 
 Auditing 
 
 Accounting 
 
 Payrolls 
 
 Financial 
 
 Statements 
 Payments 
 Collections 
 
 Executive 
 Authority 
 
 Management 
 
 Legal 
 
 Real Estate 
 
 Financial 
 
 Planning 
 
 and 
 Design 
 
 Construction 
 
 Engineering 
 
 Surveys 
 Designs 
 Contracts and 
 
 Specifications 
 Record Plans 
 
 Town 
 Plannin g 
 
 Street Arrange- 
 ment 
 
 Block, and Lot 
 Subdivision 
 
 Landscape 
 Treatment 
 
 Planting 
 
 Parks 
 
 Playgrounds 
 
 •— Architecture 
 
 House plans 
 Public Build- 
 ings 
 Other Build- 
 ings 
 
 Materials 
 and 
 Plant 
 
 Purchasing 
 
 Quotations and 
 Bids 
 Orders 
 Traffic 
 
 Bills of 
 
 Material 
 Requisitions 
 Checking 
 Inspection 
 Storage 
 Delivery 
 
 Labor 
 
 Employment 
 
 Superintendence 
 
 Commissary 
 
 Field _ 
 Accounting 
 
 Tirrfe keeping 
 Distribution of 
 
 Costs 
 Reports 
 
 Supervision 
 
 Lines & .grades 
 Inspection 
 
 Fig. 54. — Organization chart indicating form of organization for the planning 
 and supervision of an important industrial housing project. 
 
 the making of the designs and working drawings, then passing 
 from department to department and from shop to shop; all in 
 accordance with a carefully prearranged scheme, the finished
 
 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF COXSTltrcriOX '.\'u 
 
 article finally emerges a completed product, conforming in all 
 
 respects to the requirements. 
 
 Elements of Program. — The ordinary procedure, after first 
 having ascertained the general need of housing, is about as 
 
 follows: 
 
 (a) Determination of housing requirements, astothenumher — general 
 type and allowable cost of houses; the method of disposition— as to 
 whet her the houses will be rented or sold, or held by a copartnership 
 company, or by a combination of methods; determination of the approxi- 
 mate amount that can be expended upon the development of the site 
 and in providing street improvements and utilities. 
 
 The foregoing constitutes a general survey of the situation and 
 leads to definite conclusions as to the housing requirements, the 
 best method of providing housing and the approximate, or the 
 allowable, cost thereof. 
 
 (6) Investigation of available sites, suitable for the number and type 
 of houses determined upon as a result of the previous study ; this involves 
 consideration of the relative advantages and costs of development of 
 alternative sites; requiring comparisons between costs of land, of prepa- 
 ration of the sites, and of building complete developments. 
 
 (c) Acquisition of site, including examination of title, property survey, 
 preparation of map, and purchase. 
 
 (d) Topographical surveys and detail map; preliminary study of the 
 town plan and of lot subdivision; studies of types of houses, including 
 development of preliminary sketches, floor plans and elevations and 
 schedules of estimated cost, based upon local data; development of 
 preliminary plans for lot grading, street improvements and utilities, 
 to a sufficient extent to determine the general character and approximate 
 cost; preparation of preliminary budget, based upon the information 
 and data developed in the foregoing studies. 
 
 (c) Review, criticism and revision of the preliminary plans and esti- 
 mates, leading up to the adoption and approval of definite general plans; 
 estimates of the cost of the several parts of the work and the prepara- 
 tion of a definite budget of cost. 
 
 (/) Preparation of detailed construction and working drawings, to- 
 gether with construction specifications; filing and recording plans with 
 proper authorities; arrangements with public utility companies. 
 
 (g) Award of contracts: including invitation to bidders, receiving and 
 comparison of bids, award and execution of contracts. 
 
 (h) Construction program, records of progress, accounting, and super- 
 vision and inspection of work. 
 
 (i) Preparation of record plans and drawings.
 
 358 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Necessity for Budget. — The preparation of a budget, herein- 
 before referred to in discussing procedure, is necessary; both as a 
 guide and criterion to follow, in working out the plans and designs 
 for the development, and also as a means of financial control of 
 construction. Complete data must be at hand in order that 
 those in executive charge shall have full knowledge as to the 
 ultimate cost to be incurred, and as to the expense and advisa- 
 bility of changes, and so that decisions may be based at all times 
 upon careful analyses of facts. 
 
 The budget should be based upon carefully prepared detailed 
 estimates of the cost of the various items of work, and should be 
 conveniently summarized by grouping into main items. The 
 preliminary budget will necessarily be based on approximate 
 information, and, therefore, should be an approximate distribu- 
 tion or apportionment of a certain limiting expenditure per lot or 
 per house. After the site has been selected and the definite 
 plans developed, the final budget may be prepared, and where 
 the cost of any part of the work exceeds the amount allotted 
 to it, the necessary modifications in the plans can then be made. 
 
 Analysis of the budget from time to time will indicate the 
 advisability of increasing the allotments for some and decreasing 
 those for other portions of the work, so that modifications in the 
 apportionment of the expenditure, but not necessarily in the sum 
 total, may conveniently be made from time to time. The neces- 
 sary degree of flexibility must be provided in the budget, to take 
 care of variations in the labor and materials market and in 
 business conditions. This is provided for by allowing a contin- 
 gent expense of from 10 to 15 per cent. 
 
 Suggested Contents. — The following is a suggested form of bud- 
 get for general use in the development of an isolated housing 
 project. Certain items, such as the installation of water, gas or 
 electric service, if supplied by and at the cost of a public utility 
 company, would not be included, except to the extent that the 
 builders or owners may pay in annual service charges: 
 
 1. Cost of Land. — Including legal services, recording, property survey 
 and purchase cost. 
 
 2. General Site Improvements. — Clearing, general site grading, etc. 
 
 3. Houses. — Listed by number and type. 
 
 4. Buildings other than Houses. — Including stores, community and 
 public buildings, schools, churches, etc. 
 
 5. Lot Improvements. — Including grading, seeding, sodding and plant- 
 ing; fences, housewalks.
 
 ADMINISTRA TION ANDSl TERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION 359 
 
 G. Street Improvements. — Grading; curbs and gutters; pavements; 
 sidewalks; seeding, sodding and planting in planting strips and other 
 open spaces on streets; catch basins and inlets, including connections. 
 
 7. Parks and Playgrounds. — Boulevards and parkways, including 
 grading, construction and adornment. 
 
 8. Water Supply and Distribution. — Supply, including pumping sta- 
 tions, reservoirs, supply mains, filter plants, etc.; distribution system. 
 
 8a. House Services. — House to curb and curb to main, may be sepa- 
 rated in jurisdiction and chargeability. 
 
 9. Sewerage and Sewage Disposal. — Collection system; outfalls; 
 sewage disposal plant. 
 
 9a. House Connections.— (Excluding any portion included in house 
 contract.) 
 
 10. Storm Water Drainage System.— Collection system, main drains, 
 etc. 
 
 10a. House Connections. — (Excluding any portion included in house 
 contract.) 
 
 11. Central Heating Plant. — Supply, distribution and house connec- 
 tions. 
 
 12. Refuse Disposal. — Incinerators or other disposal equipment. 
 
 13. Gas Supply and Distribution. — Supply, distribution system and 
 house connections. 
 
 14. Electric Supply and Distribution.— -Supply , distribution system 
 and house connections. 
 
 15. Street Lighting. — Supply, circuits, poles, lamps, etc. 
 
 16. General Overhead. — Including professional services, engineering, 
 architectural and town planning; administrative, financial manage- 
 ment and general expenses during organization and construction; con- 
 tractors' profit and all charges which cannot be charged to any of the 
 foregoing items, and for which a separate charge is not set up. 
 
 Where the work is done directly by the owner, or under some 
 of the forms of cost plus contracts, it may be desirable to set up 
 separate charges for such items as railroad siding and yards, 
 temporary storage yards, and other general items of construc- 
 tion; otherwise, where not so charged, these costs are distributed 
 among the various items of the budget. 
 
 Construction Policies. — An early decision should be reached 
 as to the policy to be followed in carrying on construction, in 
 order that the plans and specifications may be drawn in conform- 
 ity therewith. In making this decision, a choice must first be 
 made between having the owner do the work directly, or by force 
 account, utilizing his own construction organization, purchasing 
 ma! crials, hiring labor and buying or renting plant; and having
 
 360 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 the work done by an independent organization under some form 
 of construction contract. 
 
 Force Account. — Construction by force account may be carried 
 on where the owner t maintains a permanent construction 
 department with competent personnel, or where an engineering 
 organization, which has demonstrated its capacity for handling 
 work in this manner, is employed. In such cases the owner 
 assumes all of the risks and performs all of the functions which 
 would be divided between himself and the contractor on a con- 
 tract job. His organization will therefore have to be practically 
 as large as the combined organizations of owner and contractor, 
 and under ordinary circumstances no advantage can be obtained 
 by handling the work in this manner, sufficient to offset the super- 
 ior organization, experience and plant of a reliable and experi- 
 enced contractor. 
 
 On force account work, no contract need be drawn and general 
 specifications need not be so formal, but if satisfactory work is to 
 be assured the plans and technical specifications should be fully 
 as complete as on contract work, in order to guide and instruct 
 those in immediate charge of the various portions of the job. 
 In other respects, the discussion of construction problems below 
 will apply to force account work, with due allowance for the 
 identity of owner and contractor. 
 
 Contract. — If the work is to be done by contract, various forms 
 of contract are to be considered, each having particular advan- 
 tages and disadvantages. The essential differences between 
 them are in the method of payment and in the degree of risk and 
 financial responsibility assumed by the contractor. The princi- 
 pal forms and their chief characteristics are as follows: 
 
 Lump Sum Contract. — In this form of contract the contractor fur- 
 nishes all labor, tools and materials and executes the work complete; 
 accepts all risks, and receives in payment therefor a stipulated lump 
 sum amount, which includes all of his costs and profits. The contract, 
 drawings and specifications must be in unusually complete detail, if 
 this form of contract is to be entered into, in order that the contractor 
 may be fully informed and estimate the cost of the work, and to obviate 
 subsequent controversies. 
 
 Unit Price Contracts. — Similar to the foregoing, except that payment 
 is made on the basis of prices bid per unit of measurement, which may 
 be per cubic yard, per lineal foot, per pound, or other unit. 
 
 Cost Phis a Fee Contract. — Under this form the contractor executes 
 the work in conformity with the plans and specifications, charges the
 
 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF ( 'ONSTRl VTION 3G1 
 
 full cost of labor, tools and materials to the owner, and receives in pay- 
 ment for services and for furnishing supervision and plant a fixed fee. 
 Some forms of contract provide for a sliding scale fee which increases or 
 decreases in inverse proportion to the cost of the work, within certain 
 stipulated limits. 
 
 Cost Plus a Percentage Contract. — This is somewhat similar to the 
 preceding form, except that the contractor receives as profit and com- 
 pensation, a stipulated percentage of the actual cost of the work. The 
 percentage may be fixed or may decrease or increase inversely with the 
 cost of the work. 
 
 The chief advantage of the lump sum form of contract is that 
 the cost of the work included is definitely fixed by the contract 
 price agreed upon. With a stable market for labor and materials 
 and for work of relatively small amount, the fixed price form of 
 contract, or its. companion the unit price contract, has many ad- 
 vantages; but under such conditions as have existed during and 
 subsequent to the Great War, there has been a general disin- 
 clination on the part of many contracting firms to enter into this 
 form of contract. There are many elements, such as the cost 
 and supply of labor and materials, car shortage, and other factors, 
 which are beyond control and which constitute an abnormal 
 degree of risk and possible financial loss. Contractors are, 
 therefore, unwilling to enter into this form of contract, unless 
 a very large allowance is made in the bid to take care of the risk 
 involved. 
 
 Where the amount of the contract is relatively small, the ele- 
 ment of risk on account of the foregoing factors is not so material, 
 and it is therefore often possible, even though the greater part 
 of the work is executed under a different form of contract, to do 
 certain parts, such as grading or the installation of sewers or other 
 utilities, under the unit price contract. And it is further the 
 practice of contractors, in taking large contracts on a cost-plus 
 basis, to have certain parts of the work done by subcontractors 
 at lumpsum or unit prices. In order to provide for this, contracts 
 on a cost-plus basis may stipulate that certain parts of the work 
 may be, upon approval of the owner, sublet by the general 
 contractor. 
 
 Assuming that the contractor is fully competent, and experi- 
 enced and that lie has adequate plant, capital and organization, 
 and is in every respect dependable and reliable, there is, under 
 present day conditions, a general feeling that the cost-plus form
 
 362 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 of contract, or some of its modifications, will give better results 
 and be more equitable to both parties than the lump sum or unit 
 price contract. In this form of contract, the owner pays the 
 actual cost of the work, plus a reasonable profit to the contractor 
 for his services. 
 
 The cost-plus form of contract is more difficult to administer 
 and supervise than others, and the success of the undertaking 
 will, to a certain extent, be dependent upon the degree of confi- 
 dence existing between the parties. While the contract, in 
 general, provides that any losses or costs, due to the negligence, 
 incompetence or carelessness of the contractor, shall be charged 
 to and be borne by him, it is difficult to clearly establish re- 
 sponsibility when controversies arise, and it is therefore extremely 
 important that discretion and judgment be exercised in selecting 
 the contractor. 
 
 Selection of Contractor. — The selection of the contractor, or 
 contractors, deserves much more consideration than is often 
 given. While a definite legal and binding agreement is abso- 
 lutely necessary in fairness to both sides, yet the relation must be 
 premised on mutual confidence between the contracting parties. 
 Regardless of the provisions of the contract, either party as a 
 matter of fact may be subject to losses, direct or indirect; so that 
 the highest measure of protection is found in mutual confidence 
 between those entering into the obligation. Proposals should 
 be entertained only from contractors who can furnish full, com- 
 plete and satisfactory information and assurance as to their 
 experience and ability to perform the work in a satisfactory manner 
 within the stipulated time. 
 
 This will involve the consideration of many factors, including : 
 — the extent, experience and ability of the contractor's organiza- 
 tion; the working capital and resources; the amount and character 
 of plant and equipment; history and past performances as to 
 satisfactory work and promptness of completion; reputation, 
 credit and character of the contracting company. While it is 
 in general good business policy to take advantage of the lowest 
 price offered, the question of price must be considered as only 
 one of the items and factors which enter into the most advanta- 
 geous arrangement, and frequently it is one of the lesser items. 
 Adequate and satisfactory service has its market price, and the 
 proposal to do a certain amount of work for considerably less 
 than the price which is reasonably estimated for it, unless based
 
 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION 363 
 
 upon superior organization, equipment or methods, should be 
 viewed with suspicion. 
 
 CONTRACT AND SPECIFICATIONS 
 
 Purpose of Contract. -The purpose of the contract is to define 
 clearly the scope of the work to be included, and the responsibili- 
 ties and obligations of the contracting parties; to establish the 
 basis of payment, and to define the extent of the services to be 
 furnished and the work to be done by the contractor. The 
 contract should include the general provisions, or articles of 
 agreement, detail or technical specifications, the contract draw- 
 ings and plans, and the supplementary or detailed drawings re- 
 quired as the work proceeds and the terms of payment. The 
 conditions and provisions of the contract will necessarily vary 
 with its form and basis, and must further be adjusted to suit 
 each particular locality and condition. 
 
 General Provisions.— Particular consideration should be 
 given to the formulation of the following provisions of the con- 
 tract : 
 
 (a) A clear and complete statement as to the extent and character of 
 the work, which forms the basis of the contract. 
 
 (b) A concise statement as to the basis of payment for labor, tools 
 and material, and, in the cost-plus form of contract, a definition of the 
 elements included in the contractor's profit. 
 
 (c) Stipulation as to time of completion of the work included in the 
 contract, with provision in the unit price or lump sum contract for the 
 payment of liquidated damages by the contractor, in the event of fail- 
 ure to so complete within the stipulated time. 
 
 (d) Bond, of surety or trust company, to be furnished by the con- 
 tractor, as a quarantee of faithful performance of the contract and dis- 
 charge of its obligations. 
 
 (e) Definition of the contractor's responsibilities and obligations with 
 particular regard to damage to persons or property, and the observance 
 of laws and ordinances. 
 
 (/) Provision for the doing of additional or extra work, not specifically 
 provided for in the contract or specifications. 
 
 (g) Alterations or modifications in the contract plans or specifications. 
 
 (h) Settlement of disputes; should provide a mutually equitable 
 method of settling any disputes or controversies which may arise in the 
 course of the execution of the work. 
 
 (t) Provision for cancellation of part or all of the contract. 
 
 U) Terms of payment to the contractor.
 
 364 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Specifications. — The purpose of specifications is to supplement 
 the contract and the drawings, by giving additional information 
 and instructions as to the materials to be furnished and the man- 
 ner in which the work is to be done. The specifications further 
 serve the contractor as a guide to the requirements of the work 
 in preparing his bid, and as a manual of instructions to those 
 supervising the work. 
 
 Specifications can most conveniently be arranged by grouping 
 the general requirements as to labor and materials and workman- 
 ship, which are common to a number of items of work, into general 
 specifications; and then providing detail specifications for the 
 various parts or items into which the requirements of the general 
 specifications are read and which contain, in addition, the provi- 
 sions applying to the particular items or classes of work. Where 
 the work is on the unit price basis, particular attention must be 
 given to clearly stating the work included in the price bid and 
 the basis of its measurement and payment. 
 
 SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 The extent of the organization to supervise construction will 
 depend upon the extent of the work and the form of contract 
 under which it is to be executed. In any event, the force must 
 be organized to give general supervision, to inspect the materials 
 and workmanship, to give the necessary lines and grades for the 
 construction, and to keep records of progress and for certification 
 of payments. Where the work is done on a cost-plus basis, there 
 must further be provision for financial control, for timekeeping 
 and checking of labor, materials and bills, and, if the materials 
 are to be purchased by the owner, a purchasing department 
 must be included. 
 
 It will be necessary that the owner have sufficient control over 
 the work to insure that the contract is carried out in accordance 
 with its terms and that his interests are fully protected. To this 
 end it is necessary and advisable to supervise the construction 
 with the same degree of care as that followed in the preparation 
 ot the plans and designs. A construction superintendent or 
 manager should be placed in immediate charge of the work, and 
 should report directly to the executive officer in general charge. 
 
 Construction Problems. — Adequate consideration must be 
 given to a number of problems which arise in construction, both
 
 . 1 DM / A / S 77,'. 1 TION . 1 A I) SI 1'ER VISION OF CONSTRUCTION 365 
 
 to see that suitable provisions for their solution are included in 
 the contract and that they are satisfactorily carried out in the 
 field. These include the following: 
 
 Program. — A program of the order in which construction is 
 to be carried out should be devised at the inception of the work. 
 This will provide for the rate and sequence of the various opera- 
 tions, enable materials to be ordered and distributed without 
 delay and confusion, and prevent the interference of one part of 
 the work with other parts. The details of the program will 
 depend upon the size of the undertaking, and the extent to which 
 plant and equipment can be used and the number and size of 
 labor gangs which can be advantageously and economically 
 employed. Serious delays, loss of time and excessive cost may 
 be incurred by pushing one class of work ahead, to the detriment 
 of the work as a whole. It may not always be possible to adopt 
 the most economical plan of operation, as the demand for speed 
 may be greater than that for economy; but there will be, in 
 every undertaking, a program for any desired rate of progress 
 which will be most economical, and if the time element is to be 
 materially decreased, it can only be accomplished by undergoing 
 excessive construction cost. 
 
 If construction economy and demand for early completion of 
 the houses were left out of consideration, the most desirable plan 
 would be to first execute the general grading of the site and com- 
 plete /the street improvements and utilities and thereafter build 
 the houses, but it is ordinarily not feasible to follow this plan, 
 as it will generally require two working seasons. It will therefore 
 usually be necessary to make reasonable provision for temporary 
 construction roads and to proceed with the construction of 
 houses, after the rough grading has been done, in one part of the 
 tract, while street improvements and utilities are carried along 
 in another part. By suitably dividing the work into several 
 sections, a continuous use of various sized gangs of labor and 
 skilled workmen may be worked out, which will not only produce 
 more satisfactory labor conditions, but will expedite and reduce 
 the cost of the work. 
 
 Yards and Delivery of Materials.— The expense of handling 
 materials, in unloading, hauling, storing and delivering is an 
 important item in the cost of construction. Where the size 
 of the work warrants, it will be advisable to extend a siding to 
 and into the tract, provided the cost is not excessive compared
 
 366 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 with that of unloading and trucking from an existing siding. 
 This siding should be extended in such manner as to enable a 
 storage and unloading yard to be developed in a location which 
 will be convenient for the delivery of materials by trucks to the 
 various parts of the tract. Certain of the building materials 
 may be unloaded from the cars directly into trucks, and im- 
 mediately distributed on the work; other materials, such as 
 cement, lime, etc. must be placed in temporary storage buildings 
 for protection from the elements, and hauled to the work as 
 required. 
 
 Sanitation. — Unless the project is a small one, and particu- 
 larly when the site is remote from built-up districts, the construc- 
 tion of contractors' camps will be required. Such camps will 
 be of temporary construction and will include bunk houses for 
 the laborers, quarters for the superintendents, office men and 
 foremen, a commissary, stables, store houses, blacksmith shop 
 and other buildings and facilities including perhaps a first aid 
 station, or emergency hospital. 
 
 The site for the camp and the location of the various buildings 
 should be carefully planned with respect to utility, health, sani- 
 tation and convenience. 
 
 The sanitation of the contractor's camp surroundings and food 
 supply cannot be neglected without running a grave risk of 
 having infectious diseases break out and spread. This will not 
 only delay the work but may create a prejudice which will react 
 against the success of the project. Attention must be given to 
 the housing of the workmen, requiring that the quarters shall be 
 livable and satisfactory with regard to ventilation, cleanliness, 
 and space allowed per man. Satisfactory sanitary standards 
 should be observed in regard to the collection and disposal of 
 garbage and other wastes, and adequate sanitary facilities must 
 be provided. Not only do these things concern the immediate 
 question of health, but they also exert a great influence upon the 
 spirit and efficiency of the workmen. 
 
 Fire Protection. — Fire protection becomes a very important 
 feature in the construction of a large number of houses in iso- 
 lated districts beyond the service of established fire departments. 
 It will frequently be necessary in such cases to provide temporary 
 means of fire protection until the installation of the water supply 
 distribution system has been completed and permanent fire 
 fighting equipment has been provided and its personnel organ-
 
 ADMINISTRA TION AND SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION 367 
 
 ized. Such temporary fire protection measures will include the 
 designation of one of the construction men as fire chief, with a 
 sufficient force of men readily available from the construction 
 forces. Fire signals for giving the alarm must be provided and 
 occasional drills held in order to familiarize the men with the 
 facilities and equipment and the methods to be followed. The 
 equipment should consist of an ample number of barrels of water, 
 with buckets suitably marked at each building, and a supply of 
 chemical fire; extinguishers located at specified points. A good 
 system of fire prevention, well managed and directed, and a 
 strictly enforced set of regulations, with systematic inspection 
 of the premises, will be effective, unless conflagrations are started 
 under unusual circumstances. An important provision in the 
 fire regulations should pertain to the location and isolation of 
 buildings containing inflammable or combustible materials. 
 
 Where the future fire protection service will not be rendered 
 as an extension of an existing municipal service, the permanent 
 fire protection service should be planned at the beginning of 
 construction, and any equipment which can afterwards be used 
 as part of the permanent equipment should be promptly pur- 
 chased and put into service. In any case where the size of the 
 project warrants, chemical fire fighting equipment or hydrants 
 and hose, served by a temporary water supply, should be 
 provided. 
 
 Temporary Water Supply. — The permanent water supply 
 distribution system should be planned and constructed, so as 
 to minimize as much as possible the extent and cost of temporary 
 water supplies for construction and fire protection purposes. 
 Pending the installation of the permanent lines, it will be neces- 
 sary to lay temporary water lines, which will usually consist of 
 2-in. screw joint pipe, laid directly on the surface of the ground, 
 with suitable covering at road crossings. Proper consideration 
 must be given to the source of this supply, and provison made for 
 the constant supervision and protection of its sanitarj' quality, 
 if necessary, by the use of disinfection or filtration. Careful study 
 should also be given to the layout of the temporary water dis- 
 tribution system, so that it may conform to the requirements of 
 fire protection, and be as useful as possible in connection with the 
 permanent system. 
 
 Construction h'<i<i<ls. — The extent to which construction roads 
 must be built will depend upon the size of the project and the
 
 368 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 character of the soil. Where possible, temporary construction 
 roads should not be built until the streets have been rough- 
 graded, and consideration should be given to whether economies 
 may not be realized by utilizing the graded permanent streets 
 and alleys for the location of construction roads. 
 
 The extensive use of modern heavy trucks has made the re- 
 quirements of temporary construction roads more severe than was 
 the case a few years ago; the trucks are operated at a much 
 higher cost per hour than in the case of horse drawn wagons. 
 It is therefore possible and necessary to provide a road surface 
 of sufficient wearing and bearing qualities to permit the efficient 
 operation of such heavy vehicles. Cinders, local gravel or 
 broken stone can be used for surfacing; heavy planks or cordu- 
 roy are frequently suitable for such temporary roads. 
 
 Progress and Cost Reports. — An important function of the con- 
 struction organization is to compile information for and prepare 
 reports as to the progress and cost of the work. A progress 
 chart, covering the details as to the time of starting and comple- 
 tion of each part of the work, is of great value in the management 
 of construction. Unavoidable delays and conditions will un- 
 doubtedly cause modifications in the original program and its 
 enforcement can be accomplished only by periodic reports as 
 to the progress actually made on each part of the work. In this 
 way, delays affecting any part of the work, with the possibilities 
 of interference and confusion, will be detected, and steps may be 
 taken for the rectification of conditions. 
 
 Cost accounting and cost reports will constitute one of the 
 most difficult items of administration of construction. 
 These will require the formulation of a simple but effective 
 method of obtaining the cost of labor and materials and their 
 distribution among the various items of work. The accounting 
 work should be placed in direct charge of an official whose expe- 
 rience and qualifications include both those of construction ac- 
 counting and the practical direction of construction work. The 
 ordinary accounting methods are entirely unsuitable for the pur- 
 pose in hand. Where the work is being done under a cost-plus 
 form of contract, it is absolutely necessary that those in executive 
 charge of the work have at hand at all times the actual cost of 
 each part of the work, for the reason that there is no other method 
 of determining whether or not the work is being carried out at a 
 reasonable cost. In this manner, instances of leakage, waste,
 
 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION 369 
 
 incompetence or improper methods of construction may be 
 detected and corrected. 
 
 Record Plans and Reports. — Record plans should be prepared 
 of the development as actually constructed. These will include 
 the plans relating to final street location-, property lines and ease- 
 ments which will be necessary; descriptions required for re- 
 cording properties and casements, and in dedicating or deeding 
 streets or highways to the municipality. 
 
 These record maps should show, in plan and profile, the definite 
 location of the street lines, and the location of monuments and 
 necessary information and should further show the established 
 grade lines. Record maps also show the property subdivision, 
 block and lot records and house locations. 
 
 Record plans of the street improvements, utility systems and 
 house services and connections should be prepare* 1 which will 
 show location, character and size, in sufficient detail so that the 
 necessary information will be readily available when required in 
 operation. 
 
 24
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 
 
 Types of Towns — Isolated Industrial Towns — Suburban 
 Industrial Towns 
 
 TYPES OF TOWNS 
 
 Company-controlled Towns. — The keynote of this chapter 
 results from the firm conviction that permanently company- 
 owned and exclusively company-controlled towns are theoret- 
 ically undesirable civic units in the United States; unless 
 situation, isolation and character of industry make such advis- 
 able for municipal purposes.* They are undesirable, if avoidable, 
 because they are out of place in a country, whose government 
 is one "of the people, by the people, for the people". Should 
 one insist upon a practical demonstration of this truth, it can 
 be found in the historic dismal failures of several so-called 
 model towns — superior as to houses, sanitation, utilities, and 
 similar physical requirements — but in which the management 
 has been falsely founded upon paternalistic rather than demo- 
 cratic principles. Residents of such company towns frequently 
 refer to the irksome and irritating relationships that exist, in 
 spite of all efforts that may be made to make the community 
 conditions happy and agreeable. 
 
 The difficulties and dangers which characterize a company- 
 controlled community should be thoroughly appreciated at the 
 outset by the promoters of an industrial enterprise, which in- 
 volves the provision for housing by the company, at least for 
 a time. A full knowledge of the responsibilities that arise in 
 connection with the management of a town may vitally affect 
 the formulation of a program of industrial expansion. Often it 
 is too late to change the policy after the town or the plant has 
 been constructed. Every effort should therefore be made to 
 solve the industrial and the town problems together, and, if 
 possible, in such a manner as to make a company-controlled 
 community unnecessary or temporary. Nevertheless, there are 
 
 370
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 371 
 
 many situations where isolated company (owns are the only 
 solution. 
 
 Isolated Company Towns. — The method of administration 
 applicable to an industrial town is greatly affected by its location. 
 
 Some industrial towns must necessarily be isolated from existing 
 communities — as, for example, many mining towns. Theisolal ion 
 
 combined with such factors as high cost of construction, non- 
 fertility of soil, short life of industry and absence of diversified 
 industries, may make the houses non-saleable. In other words, 
 it may be unavoidable and, therefore, desirable that the com- 
 pany maintain the ownership of all the houses, and consequently 
 exercise control over the town affairs. In fact, such a town, 
 including streets, utilities, houses and public buildings, is private 
 property. Some suggestions as to the management of such a 
 town, so as to avoid, so far as possible, all the disadvantages 
 inherent in this condition, will be outlined later. 
 
 Suburban Industrial Towns. — Many industrial towns, how- 
 ever, may be built adjacent to or in close proximity to established 
 communities. Because of the residential value of the property, 
 the possibility of annexation to the larger city, and the variety of 
 industries available for employment, the houses may be readily 
 saleable. Thus in due time, the entire management of the town 
 will pass out of the hands of the industry and into the control 
 of the community. The desirability of this situation, as com- 
 pared with that previously referred to, is apparent. The selec- 
 tion of such a location, when ever possible, cannot be too strongly 
 recommended. 
 
 It should be pointed out, however, that even in these condi- 
 tions there is a transition era, during which the company must 
 manage the town affairs, in order to provide adequate facilities 
 and progressive improvements, which lack of funds and unwise 
 planning frequently prevent in new growing communities. 
 How this can be most judiciously carried out and how the trans- 
 fer can be most speedily and satisfactorily accomplished is the 
 problem to the solution of which this discussion will be addressed. 
 
 Too much stress cannot be placed upon the importance of 
 good management on the part of the company during such a 
 period of transition. The saleability of the houses and success 
 of the whole program are affected by it. For example, if. through 
 negligent public health administration, epidemics break out; if, 
 through faulty upkeep, the houses deteriorate; if, through inade-
 
 372 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 quate fire fighting facilities and organization, serious conflagra- 
 tions break out; if, through lack of proper policing, houses of 
 bad repute become established or lawlessness become rampant; 
 if, through lack of supervision, store prices become extortionate; 
 if, through lack of medical attention, high mortality prevails; — if 
 any one or all of these conditions arise through inefficient or 
 negligent company administration — the sale of the houses will 
 be greatly delayed, and the entire working out of desirable plans 
 and policies may be retarded, if not entirely frustrated. 
 
 We may, therefore, conclude that the ideal industrial com- 
 munity is one of permanent character, in localities where values 
 will continue relatively stable; one which has been planned 
 along broad and comprehensive lines, with well directed initial 
 development, but one in which it is possible for either the in- 
 dustry or the individual to build and own houses subject to 
 proper restrictions and regulations. Such happy results will 
 eliminate the paternalistic atmosphere of company control and 
 at the same time prevent the haphazard and undesirable type 
 of development that results from miscellaneous individual 
 operations. 
 
 ISOLATED INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 
 
 Usually Company Towns. — Isolated industrial towns usually 
 begin as, and have a tendency to remain company-controlled 
 towns. This is neither universally nor necessarily true, as ex- 
 amples could be cited where such towns, originally established by 
 a single enterprise, have nevertheless developed community- 
 control, with cooperative or copartnership management, or 
 under the more usual forms of municipal organization. 
 
 Commonly, however, isolated industrial communities remain 
 company-controlled, most frequently because of necessity aris- 
 ing out of the non-saleability of the houses; but occasionally, 
 through choice of the industrial management. Such necessity 
 is a real and valid reason for company control. Conditions may 
 readily be such that the workman would be unwise, to say the 
 least, to invest his savings in a home, the usefulness of which to 
 his family is wholly dependent upon his holding a particular job. 
 Company ownership of houses and all other facilities leads almost 
 unavoidably to company management of the town. But suffi- 
 cient experience has now been obtained in such questions to 
 justify the conclusion that no broad minded industrial leader
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 373 
 
 should any longer voluntarily choose permanent company con- 
 trol of a housing development, if it were possible to hope for 
 anything like equal results under any other form of management. 
 
 Supposed Advantages. — Formerly it was considered a certain 
 advantage for industries to control the homes of their workers. 
 It was thought that this was the only sure way to have adequate 
 housing; that such control of houses was helpful in case of labor 
 troubles, giving the company an added weapon in the threat 
 of eviction, and permitting shelter to be furnished for those will- 
 ing to work; that in case of shortage of work or temporary shut- 
 down of the plant, idle workers would not be pressed for rents 
 by avaricious landlords; that town sanitation, cleanliness, secure 
 ]X)licing, etc. could be more expeditiously and efficiently handled 
 by the company. 
 
 But the old, brutal methods, both of strikers and of their 
 opponents, have gone by the board, to be succeeded by a new 
 spirit of discussion and conciliation. And although it is true 
 that democracy and efficiency do not always go hand in hand, 
 recent history has proved that democracy, even though less 
 efficient, is a safer and wiser aim than the most efficient autoc- 
 racy. Old considerations, therefore, no longer apply. And, 
 while it is no doubt easier for the company to maintain its control 
 of the management of the town, than to attempt the difficult 
 task of developing in the people the capacity and the organization 
 for self-government, nevertheless the easiest way may prove the 
 most costly way in the long run, and, therefore, the effort toward 
 democracy is worth trying wherever success is possible. Indus- 
 try is striving today to evolve a new industrial democracy, and 
 no better preparation can be had for the development of methods 
 of organization and for the assumption of new responsibilities 
 than the control by the worker of his own home and his own 
 community. 
 
 Unique Conditions.- — in the cases where companj^ ownership 
 and control in towns detached from other communities are un- 
 avoidable, however, the industrial leaders, upon whom devolves 
 the duty of town management, must have all their conceptions 
 and plans influenced by the fact that conditions are entirely 
 different from those prevailing in the average small independent 
 American city. Many schemes which may work out in the latter 
 may fail in the former, largely as a result of certain of these 
 differences; among which special mention may be made of uni-
 
 374 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 versal tenantry, absence of competition between landlords and 
 identity of employer and landlord. 
 
 Universal Tenantry. — Company control means that all of the 
 people are tenants or boarders, and all the stability, responsibility 
 and balance that germinate and flourish in a community of home 
 owners are absent. There is a certain magic in home-owning. 
 The individual who secures a deed to a small plot of ground and a 
 little home thereon has his economic and political theories 
 profoundly altered, and no community can afford to overlook 
 the difference between such a citizen and the one who rents or 
 boards, and whose range for theorizing without affecting his 
 immediate interests is correspondingly greater. 
 
 One Landlord. — Universal tenantry creates unique reactions, 
 and these are seriously complicated and accentuated in the com- 
 pany town by the fact that all the tenants have the same landlord. 
 Monoply of any necessity engenders distrust of those dependent 
 upon the monopolist, and absence of competition between land- 
 lords removes one of the healthiest characteristics of normal in- 
 dependent communities. 
 
 Frequently there is no valid reason for distrust, but such feelings 
 are not always dependent upon reason for their development. 
 No matter how equitable the company may be in its dealings, 
 therefore, it cannot afford, in formulating its policies, to neglect 
 the influence of its sole landlordism. And at the same time, it 
 must guard against the mistake of going to the extreme of an 
 over-generous attitude, which may wreck the whole development 
 upon the rock of paternalism. 
 
 Identity of Landlord and Employer. — If to these reactions are 
 added those that result from the fact that the monopolistic 
 landlord is likewise the universal employer, then indeed can one 
 realize the multitude of complexities that differentiate the prob- 
 lems of management in a company town from those of normal 
 communities. These unique conditions must necessarily react 
 upon the system of government in all of its manifestations and 
 no program of management can have even a chance of success 
 unless it takes them fully into account at all times. 
 
 Principles of Town Management. — If, then, permament com- 
 pany control of towns is not desirable, but if under certain con- 
 ditions such control is necessary, it becomes important to 
 organize the management so that it will approximate as closely 
 as may be, the conditions found in independent towns. In
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 375 
 
 solving this problem, two principles will be of greatest help: 
 viz., that tin' home should be separated from the plant, and that 
 the town should be, as nearly as possible, self-supporting. 
 
 Separate from Plant. — One basic principle to be adhered to is 
 to make the town management as independent and separate 
 from plant control as is possible. A step in this direction may 
 be achieved by locating the town a reasonable distance away 
 from the industry, as discussed in Chap. III. Physical separa- 
 tion makes more readily possible the separate organization of 
 the management, as well as of the financing and construction 
 of the town. Subsidiary land companies or housing organiza- 
 tions are often a means of keeping town and plant management 
 separate. Of course, when the proprietorship is traced to the 
 highest officers in authority, the controlling interests will be 
 found identical; but in the current every day affairs this identity 
 need not be obnoxiously manifest. 
 
 Certain financial transactions, such as the payment of house 
 rent, or the payment of store bills or boarding house obligations, 
 etc. are often deducted from the pay envelope at the plant 
 cashier's office. This is commonly justified as a measure of 
 security and efficiency, but it does intensify the atmosphere of 
 company control. It might appear like "straining at a gnat"; 
 and yet it is a fact that the actual receipt by the employee of his 
 full earnings, even though they may remain in his possession but 
 a short period before disbursements are made, carries with it a 
 certain feeling of independence and satisfaction. It likewise 
 carries with it a certain responsibility on the part of the wage 
 earner because it indicates that trust is placed in him; whereas 
 the opposite course expresses a lack of confidence that is inimical 
 to good relations. 
 
 It is also contrary to the American spirit of independence to 
 relate too closely the conduct of the worker in the home and his 
 standing at the mill, so that one affects the other. There are 
 much better ways of educating the workman who does not keep 
 his premises clean, than by threatening t o have him discharged 
 from his job; just as there are better ways of rewarding civic pride 
 than by promotion at the plant. It is easy to see how readily 
 these and similar undesirable interactions take place when town 
 and plant management are too closely merged. 
 
 Ccrt.-iin industrial leaders, in an effort to promote the welfare 
 of their employees, have developed elaborate systems of keeping
 
 376 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 in close touch with their personal and home affairs. This, of 
 course, is an attempt to develop the old-fashioned intimacy of 
 contact between the owner and craftsmen. Modern industry, 
 however, with its complexity and magnitude, makes this intim- 
 acy well nigh impossible. To foster it artifically develops per- 
 haps the husk, but not the heart. For example, if nurses 
 visit the homes of absent workmen to learn the cause of ab- 
 sence — sickness or otherwise — it should be made apparent 
 that this comes from a real interest and desire to be of help 
 and not for the purpose of obtaining truancy reports. 
 
 Such illustrations of keeping town and plant separate will be 
 enlarged later in outlining the divisional functions of the depart- 
 ment of town management. 
 
 Self-Supporting. — Insofar as it is humanly possible the town 
 should be made self-supporting. It is inimical to the best inter- 
 ests of both the company and the workman to have the workman 
 receive something for nothing. In Chap. II attention has 
 been called to a marginal deficit that appears to prevail today 
 with respect to supporting houses for common labor from 
 rentals alone. This anomalous condition is no doubt transitory, 
 due to mal-adjustment, subsequent to the Great War. Higher 
 wages or lower building costs will cause it to vanish in time. It 
 in no way disproves the contention that company-controlled 
 towns, like other self-respecting communities in the United States, 
 should be self-supporting. 
 
 A certain industrial town was for a time largely supported 
 from the coffers of the company. Such gratuities as free house 
 rent, free furniture, free light and heat, free telephone service, 
 free repairs, free recreation, etc. were furnished to the em- 
 ployees, the quantity and character of these perquisites being 
 dependent upon the position of the individual with the company. 
 It then became necessary, in order to distribute these gratuities 
 equitably, to prepare a list of regulations, classifying the em- 
 ployees, not only with respect to employment and wages, but 
 also with respect to furniture, recreation, utility service and 
 home life, and adopting standards for each classification. 
 
 The difficulties of attempting to standardize homes are ap- 
 parent. One might as well attempt to standardize noses. The 
 plan has always been a failure. Instead of producing content- 
 ment, it arouses dissatisfaction. It is expensive because people 
 often request service, because it is free, in excess of their needs.
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 377 
 
 The free-for-all plan has Largely been abolished and the pay-for 
 what-you-get system substituted, an adjustment being made 
 in salaries and wages and the town made sell-supporting. This 
 would seem to have been merely a bookkeeping transaction; in 
 reality it was much more, — it was substituting independence for 
 paternalism. 
 
 Functions of Town Management. — In outlining the various 
 functions of town management in a company-controlled indus- 
 trial town, the two previously mentioned basic principles should 
 be adhered to as far as possible, — namely, town management 
 should be separate from plant management, and the town should 
 be self-supporting. 
 
 Public Services. — The department of town management should 
 include, in addition to management of houses, such public serv- 
 ices as operation and maintenance of water supply and sewerage; 
 supervision of garbage and waste removal; upkeep of trails, roads 
 and pavements; supervision over domestic gas and electrical 
 service; care of public grounds and parks; and public health and 
 police administration. Consideration has been given to the 
 management of the various public utilities in the several chapters 
 relating to them. Reference is again made to them principally 
 for the purpose of calling attention to certain additional points 
 not there referred to. 
 
 It goes without saying that the design and construction of a 
 water system for a town of almost any size should be placed in 
 the hands of experts trained along these lines. There is like- 
 wise great advantage in having the operation of the water sys- 
 tem placed under the supervision of a trained organization con- 
 taining engineers, chemists and bacteriologists. For towns too 
 small to justify the maintenance of a complete organization of 
 this kind for the purpose, many companies now render such serv- 
 ices under a part time arrangement, whereby the best technical 
 advice can be obtained at a reasonable cost. Sewerage systems 
 and sewage disposal plants, if correctly designed and constructed, 
 may require less technical supervision than do water supplies, 
 but thse also should have skilled direction, in order to promote 
 efficiency and economy. 
 
 Garbage and waste removal and disposal require close, system- 
 atic watching and inspection, rather than technical supervision; 
 if the town is to be maintained in a wholesome condition. Effi- 
 cient results can be obtained only by enlisting the support of
 
 378 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 every member of the community. A campaign of education 
 locally adapted to the peculiarities of the people concerned, 
 should therefore be promoted. Motion pictures and circular 
 notices, illustrating how flies produce diseases; clean-up cam- 
 paigns; the enlistment of the interest of school children and Boy 
 Scouts; the offering of prizes for cleanest premises and best 
 gardens, — are all methods which will help make and keep the 
 town clean at not too great a cost. 
 
 The economical upkeep of roads and pavements requires 
 first, good design; second, thorough construction; and finally 
 steady, consistent repairs, rather than sporadic splurges. A 
 carefully planned program of maintenance, based upon the old- 
 fashioned theory that "a stitch in time saves nine", is the sound- 
 est policy to follow. 
 
 In company-controlled towns, where service is not supplied 
 by a public utility company, the operation and maintenance of 
 the gas and electrical services may often be placed to advantage 
 in the hands of the plant engineers. Large industrial plants 
 usually include highly developed electrical and mechanical engi- 
 neering departments which can readily supply necessary men to 
 keep the gas and electrical systems of the townsite in good order. 
 It is by far the best policy to have all gas and electrical service, 
 as well as water, on a meter basis. 
 
 Care of public parks and grounds is an important part of town 
 management. These should be made self-supporting insofar 
 as possible. In independent towns, the taxes cause people to 
 feel that they are supporters of the park system. In company- 
 controlled towns, wherein all the property is owned by the com- 
 pany, some process should be substituted whereby the people 
 can become at least part-supporters of their parks. Often 
 profits from company stores have gone into park improvements. 
 In other places, revenue from athletic contests, rental from con- 
 cessionaires, collections made at band concerts, etc., may be de- 
 voted to upkeep of parks and public grounds. It is the principle 
 of self-suppport, rather than the actual saving involved, that is 
 the important issue. 
 
 Public health administration is an important function of town 
 management. Unless the town manager chances to be a trained 
 sanitarian, all public health measures may with advantage ema- 
 nate from the medical department of the company. There are, 
 however, agencies equipped to give special and technical service
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 379 
 
 in many of the functions of public health service as a part time 
 basis, similar to that mentioned for utility supervision, so that 
 a high grade of sanitary service may be made available at 
 reasonable cost to small towns. 
 
 It should be possible to conduct public health administration, 
 and in fact all of the public services enumerated above, much more 
 efficiently and expeditiously in company-controlled towns than 
 in independent communities. While; educational measures should 
 and can almost always be used, arbitrary and authoritative 
 measures must be adopted in a crisis, and such measures can be 
 enforced with less delay in company towns than in independent 
 communities. 
 
 Housing. — The duties of the department of town management 
 should include the maintenance, upkeep and assignment of all 
 houses, and of buildings used for public purposes. 
 
 The repair and upkeep of a large group of company houses is a 
 trying and expensive task. The town management department 
 should maintain a squad of repair men, consisting of painters, 
 carpenters, masons and plumbers, entirely separate from the 
 plant organization. The number of each will depend upon the 
 number of houses, the type and character of occupants. Im- 
 provements should be undertaken in a systematic manner. In 
 some cases the cost of repairs has been minimized by agreeing to 
 return a certain proportion of the rent, providing repairs were 
 kept below a specified cost. In certain company towns the cost 
 of certain repairs has been divided between tenants and company. 
 For example, in painting, the company may furnish the material, 
 providing the tenant furnishes the labor. In the upkeep of 
 houses, as in the maintenance of the roads and pavements, 
 it is decidedly the better policy to keep consistently and steadily 
 up with the repairs, rather than permit the property to become in a 
 run-down condition, with the intention of bringing it up to 
 par at one time. 
 
 Some system of house inspection must be inaugurated, in 
 order to be conversant with conditions in the interior. This 
 must be handled tactfully, varying with the character of the 
 tenants. The sanctity of the home must be respected. It 
 would be quite impossible to inaugurate a system of house in- 
 spection among the Anglo-Saxon mountaineers of a Kentucky 
 mining camp, because of their cherished traditions of independ- 
 ence; whereas, in other mining camps occupied by Negroes and
 
 380 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 Slavs, races more or less accustomed to paternalism, no such 
 difficulties are likely to be encountered. Among unskilled labor- 
 ers, if prizes are offered to the wives for best kept homes, in- 
 spections can be made for the purpose of awarding prizes without 
 danger of objection on the ground of intrusion. 
 
 All the difficulties involved in the upkeep and repair of houses 
 are trivial compared with the trials of awarding quarters, parti- 
 cularly if there is a house shortage — an almost proverbial 
 condition in most industrial towns. The assignment of houses 
 should be in accordance with strict regulations. Often this will 
 work hardships, but in the long run it will be better. The 
 order of assigning houses should follow a definite plan, the ele- 
 ments entering into which may well be length of service, classifi- 
 cation of duties and salaries. If the industry is organized with 
 distinct classifications, in which salary or wage is generally 
 reflected, the element of pay may be disregarded in the assign- 
 ment of houses, a very desirable elimination. 
 
 Commercial Enterprises. — The department of town manage- 
 ment should also supervise all the commercial enterprises in the 
 town. Company stores have earned a bad name and in some 
 states they have been prohibited. They still suffer a handicap 
 from this reputation, although in many modern company stores 
 the prices are very reasonable and character of merchandise 
 satisfactory, the standards being even higher than those which 
 obtain in the neighborhood. Certain companies have gone so 
 far as to run their stores at a loss. This is not fair to com- 
 peting stores in the vicinity, and is simply another example of 
 apparently giving something for nothing. It would be better to 
 make store prices normal, making up the difference in the wage 
 scale, and to use the earnings of the store to provide additional 
 conveniences in the town, in the selection of which the people 
 might have some voice. 
 
 In other words, company towns should be managed, so that 
 all the earnings and gratuities should be definitely and clearly 
 expressed in the daily wage. To give a smaller wage, and then 
 add a number of perquisites, does not really alter the fundamental 
 financial considerations, but it does add infinitely to the confu- 
 sion of the entire plan. It makes the recipient uncertain of his 
 status. It does not furnish a clear-cut basis for comparison with 
 outside communities. It involves the bookkeeping and often 
 deludes both the employer and employee.
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 381 
 
 If credit is extended in a company store, the collect ions should 
 noi be made from the pay envelope. Tins, as previously slated, 
 emphasizes company domination over the private affairs of the 
 employee. If independent stores can extend credil without such 
 guarantee, why cannot company stores do it? The undesirable 
 effect upon the spirits of the residents more than outweighs the 
 so-called efficiency of the system. However, cash payments 
 largely prevail in merchandising, and it would be better that 
 company stores should be no exception. 
 
 It is perhaps better, if possible, to have the stores operated on 
 an independent basis. Even though the company owns all the 
 houses, it can sublet the store privilege to an outside agency. 
 The store operations of a large corporation are apt to be less 
 efficient than those of a company operated for retail merchandis- 
 ing, as they often fall to the purchasing department, which is 
 organized for an entirely different kind of business, and the 
 rules and regulations of which may not be sufficiently flexible. 
 If the stores are operated by independent persons, the town man- 
 ager may exert a powerful influence in insisting upon clean, 
 hygienic conditions, moderate prices and courteous service — 
 more effectively, perhaps, than if the store were directly and 
 completely controlled by the town management department. 
 
 It is recognized, however, in some cases greater efficienc}', 
 goods at lower prices, cleaner products are more readily ob- 
 tainable under company control than with several inefficiently 
 and incompetently managed stores. Then again, some classes 
 of labor cannot readily finance themselves for family pur- 
 chases. Such cases call for careful supervision and manage- 
 ment so as to eliminate the objections as far as possible. 
 
 Cooperative stores have had much success in England and on 
 the Continent. The basic principle seems sound. Superfluous 
 links in the profit chain are eliminated. They cause people to 
 take a greater interest in store economies, because they become 
 sharers in all benefits derived. While several of the early 
 attempts in this country failed, useful lessons maybe learned 
 from them, and there is much promise in the possibility of the 
 successful application of this principle. It would be well worth 
 while for all promoters of industrial towns to searchingly in- 
 vestigate the theory and practice of cooperative stores. 
 
 Policing. — The policing of a company town is a task of the 
 most serious responsibility — one that may be handled with little
 
 382 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 difficulty for long periods, only to have thrust upon it suddenly 
 duties and opportunities of the gravest importance. 
 
 All the police of a company-controlled town should have a 
 legal status, that is, they should be deputized officially by a 
 governing body — either city, county or state. Company police — 
 that is, employees of the companjr assuming unofficial authority 
 — should not be employed. Inside the plant, company watch- 
 men or guards may be used, but never in the town. 
 
 It has been said that efficient deputy sheriffs are born, not 
 made. While this office carries with it no great prestige, in 
 order to fill it ably, a man must be courageous, both physically 
 and morally; he must be absolutely honest, and at the same time 
 fully informed upon all dishonest practices and artifices; and he 
 must display judgment and tact, as many regulations that he 
 enforces are subject to his own interpretation. 
 
 The prudent town manager must always have at hand care- 
 fully worked out plans as to procedure in case of serious dis- 
 orders, conflagration or calamity. In dealing with lawless 
 people, nothing is so advantageous as being one move in advance. 
 If the town is isolated, means of communication other than by 
 wire to outside centers must be maintained, as wires are readily 
 cut. Explosives must be stored so that strong guards may be 
 placed readily at all magazines. The water supply must be 
 capable of protection and guarding, as interruption of water 
 service is a very simple way of causing serious disaster and con- 
 fusion. Facilities for accommodating police reinforcements 
 should be available. Crises may occur which will require the 
 presence of a corps of state police or militia, and if living quar- 
 ters for these can be quickly provided, better service will be 
 rendered. 
 
 Many of the above suggestions may seem unnecessary pro- 
 visions for remote contingencies, and it is to be desired that 
 occasion should never arise to require their application; but this 
 in no way alters the importance of having such plans carefully 
 worked out in advance. 
 
 Fire Protection. — In addition to using fire retardant materials 
 in construction and having an adequate water system for protec- 
 tion in case of fire, a corps of fire fighters should be organized in 
 every town. A part-time organization is all that is necessary 
 in many instances, the members giving services voluntarily, 
 or being paid, as the case demands. Better service will generally
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 383 
 
 be rendered if the members, or at least a small nucleus for a 
 regular force, are paid. The corps should have a chief or captain, 
 who devotes his entire time to the job. He can profitably spend 
 his time inspecting and testing out fire hydrants, hose, etc., in- 
 specting and calling attention to fire hazards and working out 
 problems for fighting fires in difficult places throughout the town. 
 The fire fighting corps should meet regularly and go through 
 drills, so as to be prepared in advance for emergency. 
 
 Provision should also be made in advance for furnishing relief 
 in case of a serious fire. Utensils for cooking and serving food 
 in large quantifies should be available. Means should be plan- 
 ed in advance of getting in touch with relief agencies, to obtain 
 food, tents, blankets, etc. All of these details, if prepared in 
 advance, will tend to eliminate confusion at the time of disaster. 
 
 School System. — The school system of a company-controlled 
 town need not be dominated by the company. Should funds 
 be low. the company may assist in providing the building, but 
 the system of education should be under the control of the state 
 or county officials. The school system should conform to local 
 requirements. If the public schools of large cities can attempt 
 to serve their diversified commercial and industrial needs, cer- 
 tainly the school system of a company town can effectively do 
 as much. Vocational and manual training should be introduced 
 and emphasized, with a view of developing boys for positions 
 they are to assume later. In an industrial community the school 
 training may well stress industrial, rather than the classical 
 lines. The curricula should be moulded to serve the needs of the 
 ninety per cent, whose future lies with industry, rather than of 
 the ten per cent, who may pursue higher education. 
 
 Recreational Activities. — The necessity of promoting healthful 
 recreations for the men, women and children of an isolated town 
 is a very important function of the town management. If the 
 principles of self-support and of participation in control are 
 important for the town, they are even more so for recreational 
 a< t ivities. Clubs should be self -managed; the directorate should 
 be elected by the members, who should be charged dues for the 
 privilege of belonging to the club. In a similar way athletics 
 should be organized and controlled democratically. The affairs 
 of such clubs may not run as smoothly as if arbitrarily dictated 
 by a company officer, but in the long run the self-managed in- 
 st it uf ion will win out.
 
 384 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 The role of the town manager in regard to recreation should be 
 one of self-effacement; whatever his activities, they should be 
 indirect. If of the right type, he can tactfully see that such 
 activities are promoted and developed by the people themselves, 
 his interest being kept in the background. Once the movement 
 is started, and the interest and enthusiasm of the people aroused, 
 the ideas and suggestions will be abundant. 
 
 Town Managership. — The success or failure of company- 
 controlled towns is seriously affected by the type of man selected 
 for the position of town manager. If the town management is 
 separate from the plant management — and it should be, wherever 
 possible — the man selected must be one of force, initiative and 
 with a sense of responsibility. Of course this entire question is 
 modified by the size of the industrial town under considera- 
 tion. If there is but a small group of houses, the part-time 
 services of an able man would be conducive to better results than 
 would the full-time services of a man of less capacity. 
 
 In the case of part-time services, it may mean the closer relation- 
 ship between town and plant management — unless the services 
 of an outside organization, which has had experience in the man- 
 agement of other towns, can be obtained. Such advisory and 
 directing service is but a step beyond the management of water 
 works, power plants, health service and safety inspection by 
 part-time expert service, and there seems no good reason why 
 complete towns should not be managed in a similar way. 
 
 No definite training can be recommended as furnishing the 
 best foundation for success in this field. A number of the profes- 
 sions have supplied capable town managers, among whom might 
 be mentioned school masters, Y. M. C. A. secretaries, lawyers, 
 doctors, engineers, real estate men, etc. Executive ability and 
 human qualities are more important, perhaps, than character of 
 professional training and experience; but all things considered, 
 in large developments that are being built from the ground up, 
 it would appear that, provided he has the other necessary quali- 
 fications, one of the engineers who has taken an active part in 
 the town construction, would probably be as suitable for the pos- 
 tion as anyone could be. 
 
 SUBURBAN INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 
 
 Usually Independent. — Just as isolated industrial towns tend to 
 become company-controlled, so the tendency is for industrial
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 385 
 
 towns built adjacent or in proximity to established centers to 
 become independent civic units, as far as the company is con- 
 cerned. This is altogether a desirable condition, the only feature 
 to be guarded against being the intrusion of other large industries 
 in the vicinity, which might tend to create house shortage, pro- 
 viding the new industries failed to promote a housing project — a 
 practice all too seldom pursued. 
 
 Methods of Selling Houses. — From the outset suburban towns 
 should be planned and developed with the expectation that the 
 houses will eventually be owned by the people. While the layout 
 of the town should be made under the company's directon, there 
 is no reason why the prospective buyers of the houses should 
 not select, within certain limitations, the types of houses de- 
 sired. This need not interfere with any zoning regulations or 
 architectural requirements prescribed by the town builders. 
 
 In Chapter II, methods of buying and paying for homes by 
 employees were briefly outlined, some of them involving trans- 
 actions between the company and the purchaser; others making 
 use of a subsidiary realty company; and still others effected 
 through cooperative tenant associations, in which shares of 
 stock, rather than deeds to particular houses, are the instruments 
 of ownership and transfer. All of these systems have the same 
 purpose — to safeguard the interest both of the industrial worker 
 and of the industry. Before any plan is chosen, it should be 
 carefully investigated and adapted to local conditions. 
 
 Revenue-Producing Utilities. — Closely connected with the 
 question of sale of houses is the one of providing suitable water, 
 gas and electrical services. All of these services are revenue- 
 producing and should be self-supporting. When the project is 
 developed within reach of public utility companies already 
 organized, contracts should be made with such companies for 
 extension of their services. Alert utility companies are always 
 ready to enlarge their territory, if it promises a suitable and 
 steady income, and while, in some cases, financial assistance may 
 be sought from the industry by the utility companies, this assist- 
 ance should be required for a temporary period only and, if 
 granted, constitutes a reasonably safe investment. 
 
 If utility companies are not available for service, it will be 
 necessary for the promoters of the town to organize utility com- 
 panies to install the equipment and furnish the service required. 
 Such public utility companies should be organized separately 
 
 25
 
 386 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 from the land or housing companies, and the cost of construct- 
 ing their systems should be kept quite apart from other costs. 
 This procedure is advisable because, if later the town should be 
 incorporated and if it should appear expedient to buy out and 
 operate its public services, the transaction can be arranged with 
 less confusion and with greater equity. 
 
 Non-Revenue-Producing Public Services. — Public improve- 
 ments and services, such as roads, pavements, sewers and public 
 parks are not so easily finances as are the water, gas and electrical 
 services. Much depends upon how easily and rapidly the houses 
 are sold, how soon the streets are dedicated and accepted by the 
 civic unit in which they are situated, and whether or not the town 
 is incorporated as an independent civic unit or is annexed to an 
 existing city. It is difficult to incorporate the town in advance 
 of its completion; and if it is to be annexed to an existing city, 
 the project can not ordinarily wait for municpial machinery to 
 reach the point of building pavements and extending sewers. 
 
 The result is that the building company must construct the 
 sewers and pave the streets. The cost of these can be added to 
 the cost of the houses. If the town is incorporated at an early 
 date, the cost of paving and laying sewers in the street intersec- 
 tions may possibly be recovered from the city. 
 
 The cost of park improvements is generally more difficult 
 to defray. As a rule, parks will remain in the hands of the realty 
 company promoting the project until a later period, when they 
 may be either donated to the public or sold to the municipality. 
 Other Public Activities. — The promotion of other public 
 activities, such as school systems, policing, fire protection, all 
 commercial enterprises and welfare activities, in suburban towns 
 can be managed in a manner more or less the same as that pre- 
 viously described under isolated company-controlled towns, the 
 principal difference being that the period of company control is 
 of less duration and the degree of such control less marked. 
 
 Just as rapidly as residents in a town become property owners, 
 their interest in civic affairs rises. The town is their town; their 
 savings are staked upon its prosperity; their children must be 
 raised and educated there. A transformation takes place. It 
 is their duty to see that policing is efficient; that the fire protec- 
 tion is adequate. They will quickly become cognizant of their 
 rights as citizens and property holders and, in a short time, the 
 company's share in the control of the town will become less and
 
 MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL TOWNS 387 
 
 less marked, until the final result is an independent, self-govern- 
 ing municipality, similar to other American (owns in its hustling 
 energy and its commercial prosperity. But, if the industrial 
 company has done its work well, it will be superior to them in 
 being logically planned and efficiently constructed; in a greater 
 civic solidarity fostered by common industrial interests; and in all 
 the advantages that follow from the application of broad vision 
 and great-hearted intelligence to the building of a community of 
 homes.
 
 A 
 BRIEF SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 AND 
 
 RELATED ACTIVITIES 
 
 Compiled from 
 
 various bibliographies on housing and town planning 
 
 AND FROM 
 
 MATERIAL AVAILABLE IN THE LIBRARY 
 OF 
 
 Morris Knowles, Inc. 
 
 Ackermant, Frederick L. The Government, the Architect and the Artisan 
 in Relation to Government Housing, (In American Institute of Archi- 
 tects, Proceedings, Washington, 1918.) 
 
 Adams, Thomas. Partner-ownership Building Societies. (In Canada, 
 Commission of Conservation. "Conservation of Life." Ottawa, 
 October, 1919.) 
 
 Allen, Leslie H. Industrial Housing Problems. Boston, Aberthaw 
 Construction Co., 1917. 
 
 Alpha Portland Cement Co. A Concrete City. Easton, Pa. The 
 Company, 1918. 
 
 American Architect. Issues of August 7, 1918, and March 19, 1919, and 
 others. Boston. 
 
 American City. (Various issues.) New York. American City Publishing 
 Co. 
 
 American City Planning Institute. Town Planning Lessons from Govern- 
 ment Housing Operations. Philadelphia, The Institute, 1919. 
 
 American Concrete Institute. Proceedings, Boston, The Institute. 
 
 American Society for Municipal Improvements, Proceedings, Bloomington, 
 111., The Secretary. 
 
 American Society of Civil Engineers. Final Report of Committee on Mate- 
 rial for Road Construction. (In Transactions, Vol. LXXXII, New 
 York, December, 1918.) 
 
 388
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 389 
 
 Annals, The. Housing and Town Planning Issue, Vol. LI, Baltimore. 
 
 American Academy of Political and Social Science, January, 1914. 
 Architectural Record. (Various issues, describing Government projects 
 
 and the design oi houses for workmen.) New York. The Architectural 
 
 Recoid Co. 
 Architectural Review. (Various issues, containing articles regarding the 
 
 design of houses for workmen.) New York, The Architectural Review, 
 
 Inc. 
 Attekbtjry, G. Model Towns in America. Publication No. 17. New 
 
 York, National Housing Association, 1913. 
 Bauer, Eva E. von. Hellerau, the City of the Future. (In The Craftsman, 
 
 Febuary, 1912.) Vol. 21, pp. 536-546. 
 Bird, Charles S., Jr. Town Planning for SmalJ Communities. New 
 
 York, D. Appleton & Co, 1917. 
 Blanchard, A. H. American Highway Engineer's Handbook. New 
 
 York, John Wiley & Sons, 1919. 
 Boston Public Library. A list of books relating to housing. Boston, 
 
 The Library, 1918. 
 Cadbury, George, Jr. Town Planning. New Y'oik, Longmans, Green 
 
 & Co., 1915. 
 Cerda, Ildelfonso. Teoria General de la Urbanizacion y Aplicacion 
 
 de sus Principios y Doctrinas a la Reforma y Ensanche de Barcelona. 
 
 Madrid, Impr. Espanola, 1867, 2 v. 
 Chicago City Waste Commission. Report ot Waste Commission. 
 
 Chicago, The Commission, 1914. 
 Comey, Arthur C. Report on Four City Planning Studies for Lawrence. 
 
 (In Lawrence, Mass. Planning Board, Second Annual Report, The Board, 
 
 Lawrence, 1915.) 
 Crawford, Andrew Wright. Standards Set by the New Federal War 
 
 Suburbs and War Cities: Washington, D. C, American Civic Asso- 
 ciation, 1918. 
 Croft, Terrell. Wiring foi Light and Power. New York, McGraw- 
 Hill Book Co. (1917). 
 Deutsche Gartenstadt-Geselschaft. Die Deutsche Gartenstadtbewe- 
 
 gung. Berlin, 1911. 
 Ellms, Joseph W. Water Purification. New Y'ork, McGraw-Hill 
 
 Book Co., 1917. 
 Engineering News-Record. (Various issues.) New Y'ork, McGraw-Hill Co., 
 
 Inc. 
 England, Trade Board. Cost ot living in Belgium; report of an enquiry 
 
 into working class rents, housing and retail prices, together with the 
 
 rates of wages in certain occupations in the principal industrial towns 
 
 of Belgium, with an introductory memorandum and a comparison of 
 
 conditions in Belgium and the United Kingdom, London, 1910. 
 England, Trade Board. Cost of living of the working classes; report of an 
 
 enquiry into working class rents, housing and retail prices, together with 
 
 the standard rates of wages prevailing in certain occupations in the 
 
 principal industrial towns of the United Kingdom, with an introductory 
 
 memorandum, London, 1908. 
 
 y
 
 390 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 England, Trade Board. Cost of living in French towns; report of an en- 
 quiry into working class rents, housing and retail prices, together with 
 the rates of wages in certain occupations in the principal industrial 
 towns of France, with an introductory memorandum and a comparison 
 of conditions in France and the United Kingdom, London, 1909. 
 
 England, Trade Board. Cost of living in German towns; report of an 
 enquiry into working class rents, housing and retail prices, together 
 with the rates of wages in certain occupations in the principal 
 industrial towns of the German empire, with an introductory memoran- 
 dum and a comparison of conditions in Germany and the United King- 
 dom, London, 1908. 
 
 Flinn, Weston & Bogart. Waterworks Handbook. New York, 
 McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1916. 
 
 Ford, J. A selected list of books and articles on housing and city planning. 
 (In his Housing Problem, pp. 32-39. Harvard University, Depart- 
 ment of Social Ethics, Publications, No. 5, 1911.) 
 
 Fuller, George W. Sewage Disposal. New York, McGraw-Hill 
 Book Co., 1912. 
 
 Fuller, H. B. Building Gary, Indiana, to Order. (In Harper's Weekly, 
 Vol. 51, pp. 1482-1483. New York, October 12, 1907.) 
 
 Garden Suburbs, Town Planning and Modern Architecture; with Con- 
 tributions by Various Authors. London, T. F. Unwin, 1910. 
 
 General Motors Corporation. Modern Housing; Corporation Homes for 
 Employees and Plan for Acquiring Them. New York, The Corpora- 
 tion, 1919. 
 
 Gillette, Halbert P. Handbook of Cost Data. New York, McGraw- 
 Hill Book Co, 1914- 
 
 Gray, Alexander. Principles and Practice of Electrical Engineering. 
 New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1917. 
 
 Great Britain, Local Government Board. Report of committee to consider 
 building construction in connection with provision of dwellings for 
 working classes in England, Wales and Scotland, and report upon 
 methods of securing economy and despatch in provisions of same. 
 London, 1918. 
 
 Great Britain, Ministry of Health, Housing Department, Housing (Periodi- 
 cal), London. 
 
 Great Britain, Parliament. Report of the Royal Commission on the Hous- 
 ing of the Industrial Population of Scotland, Rural and Urban. 
 London, 1917. 
 
 Hazen, Allen. The Filtration of Public Water Supplies. New York, 
 John Wiley & Sons, 1900. 
 
 Hessischer Zentralverein fur Errichtung Billiger Wohnungen. Praktische 
 Wohnungsf ursorge in Hessen ; Er nst-Ludwig-Verein-Darmstadt. Darm- 
 stadt, Der Verein, 1908. 
 
 Housing Betterment, (Quarterly.) New York, National Housing 
 Association. 
 
 Hubbard, Henry, V. Some Preliminary Considerations in Government 
 Industrial War Housing. (In Landscape Architecture, July, 1918.) 
 Ihlder, John. City Housing; Past and Future. New York, National 
 Housing Association, 1915.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 391 
 
 Journal of the American InstituU of Architects. April and November, 1917, 
 
 May L918, and other issues. Washngton, The Institute. 
 Kidder, I. E. Building Construction and Superintendence. New York, 
 
 W. T. Comstock, L909, 2 parts. 
 Kimball, Theodora. Classified selected list of reference on city 
 
 planning. Boston, National Conference on City Planning, The 
 
 Secretary, 1915. 
 Kimball, Theodora. Reviewof City Planning in the ("nited States, 1917- 
 
 1919. (In National Municipal Review; Concord, N. II., Nov., 1917 
 
 and Jan., 1920.) 
 Kimball, Theodora. Selected Bibliography of Industrial Housing in ^^ 
 
 America and Great Britain During and After the War (Reprinted 
 
 from Report of Bureau of Industrial Housing and Transportation. 
 
 Washington, D. C. U. S. Housing Corporation, 1919.) 
 Kxowles, Morris. Engineering Problems of Regional Planning. (In 
 
 Engineering News-Record. New York, June 12, 1919.) 
 Kxowles, Morris. What about Government Housing Program. (In 
 
 Engineering News-Record. New York, February 13, 1919.) 
 Landscape Architecture. Special housing number, April, 1918, Vol. 8, and 
 
 others. New York, Landscape Architecture, Inc., 1918. 
 Ltjndqtjist, R. A. Transmission Line Construction. New York Mc- 
 Graw-Hill Book Co., 1912. 
 Lewis, Nelson P. The Planning of the Modern City. New York, 
 
 John Wiley & Sons, 1916. 
 LYNDON, Lamar. Hydro-electric Power. New York, McGraw-Hill 
 
 Book Co., 1916, 2 v. 
 Magnussox, Leifur. Employers' Housing in the United States. (In 
 
 United Slates Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Review, Washington 
 
 Government Printing Office, November, 1917.) 
 MaGNTJBSON, Leifur. Modern Industrial Suburb. (In United Stales Bureau 
 
 of Labor Statistics. Monthly Review, Washington, Government 
 
 Printing Office, April, 1918.) 
 Magxtjssox, Leifur. War Housing in Great Britain. (In United States 
 
 Bureau of Labor Statistic*. Monthly Review. Washington, Govern- 
 ment Printing Office, December, 1917.) 
 Martix, C. A. Details of Building Construction. New York, W. T. 
 
 Comstock, 1916. 
 Massachusetts, Bureau of Statistics. Homesteads for Workingmen. w^ 
 
 Boston, The Bureau, 1912. 
 Mi. akin, BtTDGETT. Model Factories and Villages. Philadelphia, 
 
 George N. Jacobs & Co. 1906. 
 Metcalf & Eddy. American Sewerage Practice. New York, McGraw 
 
 Hill Book Co.. nil i. :; v. 
 Morse, W. P. Collection and Disposal of Municipal Wastes. (In Municipal 
 
 Journal and Engineer. New York, 1908.) 
 National Conference on City Plannixg. Proceeding*. Boston, The 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 National Conference on Housing. Housing Problems in America. 
 Proceedings, New York, National Housing Association.
 
 392 INDUSTRIAL HOUSING 
 
 National Fire Protection Association. Recommendation on Emergency 
 
 Housing. Boston, The Association, 1918. 
 Nettlefold, J. S. Practical Housing. Letchworth, Garden City Press, 
 
 1908. 
 New South Wales, Commissioner. Housing of Workmen in Europe and 
 
 America, by R. F. Irvine. Sydney, New South Wales, Government 
 
 Printer, 1913. 
 New Zealand, Minister of Labour. Report on Workers' Dwellings. 
 
 New Zealand, The Department, 1909. 
 Nolen, John. City Planning. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1916. 
 Nolen, John. General Features of a Park System for Chattanooga. 
 
 Boston, G. H. Ellis Co., 1911. 
 Nolen, John. A Good Home for Every Wage Earner. Washington, 
 
 American Civic Association, 1915. 
 Nolen, John. Industrial Housing. (In Proceedings, Vol. 5. New York, 
 
 National Housing Association, 1916.) 
 Nolen, John. New Ideals in the Planning of Cities, Towns and Villages. 
 
 New York, American City Bureau, 1919. 
 Olmsted, Frederick L. The Planning of Residential Suburbs, with Special 
 
 Reference to Engineering Features. (In Mu?iicipal and County Engineer- 
 ing. Indianapolis, October, 1919.) 
 Olmsted, Frederick L. City Planning, American Civic Association. 
 
 Washington, The Association, 1910. 
 Olmsted, Frederick L. Lessons from the Housing Developments of the 
 
 United States Housing Corporation. (In the United States Bureau 
 
 of Labor Statistics. Washington, Government Printing Office, May, 
 
 1919.) 
 Ontario, Bureau of Municipal Affairs. Report regarding housing, including 
 
 act, rules and regulations, housing standards, provisions to be considered 
 
 and forms. Toronto, The Government, 1919. 
 Ontario Housing Committee. Report on Treatment of the Surroundings of 
 
 the Small Home. Toronto, The Government, 1919. 
 Pender, Harold. American Handbook for Electrical Engineers. 
 
 New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1914. 
 Pittsburgh Survey, The. Findings in six volumes. Edited by Paul U. 
 
 Kellogg, Vol. 2-5. New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1910, 10, 4 v. 
 Pittsburgh, Carnegie Library. Housing. Books and periodicals in the 
 
 library on the housing problem. (In Monthly Bulletin of the Library, 
 
 Vol. 16, pp. 568-604. Pittsburgh, December, 1911.) 
 St. John, T. Garden City of Saxony Hellerau. (In United States Daily and 
 
 Consular Trade Reports, No. 103, 508. Washington, Government Print- 
 ing Office, May 3, 1911.) 
 Shurtlepf, Flavel. Carrying Out the City Plan. New York. Survey 
 
 Associates, Inc., 1914. 
 Southern Pine Association. Homes for Workmen. New Orleans, The 
 
 Association, 1919. 
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 ning. Indianapolis, The Association, 1912. 
 Springfield, 111., Survey. Findings, in 10 parts. New York, Russell 
 
 Sage Foundation, 1914-17.
 
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 Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers. New York, McGraw-Hill 
 
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 Tatlob, Graham R. Satellite Cities. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 
 
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 Thompson, W. Housing of the Working Classes, with a Description of the 
 
 Richmond Municipal Cottages. Richmond, England, 1899. 
 Tn. i. son, <;. W. Streel Pavements and Paving Materials. New York, 
 
 .John Wiley & Sons, L912. 
 Toronto Housing Co. Publications. Toronto, The Company. 
 Triggs, H. I. Town Planning, Vast, Presenl and Possible. London, 
 
 Methuen & Co., L909. 
 Turnbatjre iV Russell. Public Water Supplies. New York, John 
 
 Wiley A: Sons, 1916. 
 United State-. Labor Department. Standards Recommended for Per- 
 manent Industrial Housing. Washington, The Department, 1918. 
 United States, l.alior Statistics bureau. Governmenl Aid to Home 
 
 Owning and Housing of Working People in Foreign Countries. Wash- 
 ington, The I )epar1 ment, 1915. 
 United States, Labor Statistics Bureau. Monthly Labor Review. Washing- 
 ton, The Department. 
 United States, Labor Department. Reporl of Bureau of Industrial Housing 
 
 and Transportation. United States Housing Corporation, Yols. I 
 
 and II. Washington, Government Printing Office. 
 Unwin, R. Nothing Gained by Overcrowding; How the Garden City 
 
 Type of Development May Benefit Owner and Occupier. London, 
 
 Unwin, 1912. 
 Unwin, Raymond. Town Planning in Practice. London, T. Fisher 
 
 Unwin, 1909. 
 Veiller, Lawrence. Industrial Housing. Publication 36. New * 
 
 York, National Housing Association, 1017. 
 Veiller, Lawrence. Industrial Housing Developments in America. \S 
 
 New York, National Housing Association, 1918. 
 Veiller, Lawrence. Triumphing over the Gridiron Plan. Publication ^ 
 
 52, New York, National Housing Association, 191S. 
 Walker, Frank R. Building Estimators' Handbook. Chicago, 
 
 F. R. Walker, 1919. 
 Wegmann, Edward. Conveyance and Distribution of Water. New 
 
 Fork, I). Van NostiandCo., 1918. 
 Westcott, Henry P. Handbook of Natural GaV_Jj>ie, Pa., Metric 
 
 Met;,| Works, 1915. 
 
 Wood, E. E. The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner. New York, 
 
 Macmillan Co., 1919. 
 Wright, II. Allotment and community Planning. (In National Real 
 
 Estate Journal, Indianapolis, January l'.». 1920
 
 INDEX 
 
 Access, see Distance between bouses. 
 Adjacency of home and factory, 40, 
 
 II 
 Administration of housing develop- 
 ment, sec Housing project. 
 Air lift, see Pumps. 
 Albany Health Department. Rec- 
 ommended standards for 
 dwellings, 300 
 Allen, Leslie M. Recommended 
 standards for dwellings. 
 299 
 Alleys, 91 
 area, 57 
 
 cost of construction, 92 
 width, 91 
 Allotment of areas, 55, 57 
 Alum, see coagulation, under Water 
 
 purification. 
 American Society of Civil Engineers. 
 Recommendations for maxi- 
 mum street grades, 123 
 recommendations of camber for 
 pavements, 126 
 American Water Works Association. 
 Recommendations for hy- 
 drant installation, 1 78 
 Apartment house, see Houses. 
 Area allowed per house, 57 
 
 allowed for streets and alleys, 57 
 desirable for townsites, 14 
 for parks and recreat ional facili- 
 ties, 73 
 for playgrounds, 7ti 
 for recreational purposes, 57 
 of commercial districts, 67 
 of gardens, 66 
 of lots. Effect on cost of public 
 
 Utilities, L03 
 of residential lots. 63, 1 12, 113, 
 116 
 Army housing, see Cantonment con- 
 struction. 
 
 Ash disposal, see Waste disposal. 
 
 Asphalt, see Pavements. 
 
 Athletic fields, 77 
 
 Atlantic Heights project, Ports- 
 mouth, N. H. 
 electric installations, 290 
 park projects, 74 
 
 Attraction of similar industries, 38 
 
 Automobile haulage, see Trans- 
 portation facilities. 
 
 Automobiles. Parking space on 
 st reets, 93 
 
 Bacteria in water, see Water. 
 
 Bakery, 347 
 
 Bathrooms, see Houses; Shower 
 
 baths. 
 Bibliography of industrial housing 
 and related activities, 388 
 Bituminous pavements, see Pave- 
 ments. 
 Blind streets, see court, under 
 
 Streets. 
 Blocks. Arrangement, 60, 315 
 
 dimensions, 59 
 
 grouping of units, 314 
 
 preliminary survey, 107 
 Boarding houses. Bathrooms, 338 
 
 billiard rooms, 340 
 
 custodian, 336 
 
 for single men, 334 
 
 for single women, 340 
 
 large. 335 
 
 lighting, 339 
 
 management, 340 
 
 mat ron. 3 I I 
 
 rooms. 339, 341 
 
 small. 335 
 
 toilet rooms, 338, 341 
 
 see also Company boarding 
 
 bouses; Houses. 
 
 Boulevards, 7 I, 90, 108 
 Brainerd, Owen, 111 
 
 395
 
 396 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Brick, see Pavements. 
 
 Buckeye Land Co. Townsite plan, 
 
 62 
 Buckman Village, Chester, Pa., 59 
 electric installation, 288 
 park projects, 74 
 sewerage system, 204, 205 
 streets, 84 
 Budget, see Housing project. 
 Building and loan associations, see 
 Loan and realty associa- 
 tions. 
 Building materials, 302, 318, 333 
 brick, 322, 323 
 concrete, 134, 320 
 cost, 322, 323 
 handling, 365 
 stucco, 319, 321 
 wood, 319, 322 
 see also Houses. 
 Building organization, see, organiza- 
 tion, under Housing pro- 
 ject. 
 Building organizations, 27 
 Building restrictions, 51 
 Buildings for special purposes, 345, 
 350, 358 
 see also Boarding houses; 
 Churches; Company board- 
 ing houses ; Gymnasium ; 
 Hospitals; Houses; School 
 houses; Store buildings. 
 Bungalows, see Houses. 
 Burnt clay, see Pavements. 
 Business enterprises, see Commercial 
 enterprises. 
 
 Cable laying, see Electric distribu- 
 tion. 
 
 Camber, see Pavements. 
 
 Camps, Army, see Cantonment 
 construction. 
 
 Camps, Company, see Company 
 towns. 
 
 Camps, Mining, see Mining camps. 
 
 Canadian Steel Co., Ltd., Ill 
 
 Cantonment construction, 8 
 
 Catch basins, see Combined sewers; 
 Storm drainage. 
 
 Catch basins for pavement drain- 
 age, 127 
 Cellars, see Houses. 
 Cemeteries, 78 
 
 Centrifugal pump, see Pumps. 
 Chlorine, see sterilization, under 
 
 Water purification. 
 Chlorine in water, 160 
 City planning, 3 
 Churches, 350 
 
 City wastes, see Sewage disposal; 
 Sewerage; Waste disposal. 
 Civic center. Location and ar- 
 rangement, 71 . 
 location in commercial district, 
 
 67, 71 
 see also Community house. 
 Clearance between houses, see Dis- 
 tance between houses. 
 Climate. Effect on selection and 
 development of housing 
 site, 48 
 effect on water consumption, 
 
 151, 152 
 influence on choice of building 
 materials, 319 
 Closets, see Houses. 
 Club room, 353 
 Cobblestone, see Pavements. 
 Collection of waste, see Waste dis- 
 posal. 
 Combined sewers, 219 
 capacity, 220 
 catch basins, 221 
 depth, 221 
 grades, 220 
 
 velocity of sewage flow, 220 
 Commercial districts. Location and 
 
 area, 67 
 Commercial enterprises in average 
 community, 70 
 municipal supervision, 380 
 Community. Proportion of work- 
 men's time spent outside of 
 factory, 13 
 Community center, see Civic 
 
 center. 
 Community house, 352 
 see also Civic center.
 
 INDEX 
 
 397 
 
 Company boarding houses. Early 
 stage of industrial housing, 
 1,6 
 see also Boarding houses. 
 
 Company control, see Industrial 
 
 town. 
 Company housing bureaus, 30 
 Company-owned houses, 25 
 Company stores, see Stores. 
 Company town, see Industrial town. 
 Concrete, see Building materials. 
 ( Soncrete pavements, see Pavements. 
 Conductors, see Electric distribu- 
 tion. 
 Congestion of industries, 5 
 Conjugal relationship, see Workmen. 
 Construction, see Housing project. 
 Constructive development of in- 
 dustrial housing, 5, 43 
 Contour interval, see Map t topo- 
 graphic. 
 Contour streets, sec Street systems. 
 Contractor, see Housing project. 
 Contracts for housing, see Housing 
 
 project. 
 Cooking, see Gas. 
 
 Cooperative ownership, see Houses. 
 Cooperative stores, .see Stores. 
 Cost, Construction, 10, 359 
 of alley construction, 92 
 of building materials, 322 
 of houses, 324 
 
 of houses as affecting require- 
 ments, 294 
 of improved house and lot, IS 
 of industrial housing, 16, 294 
 of isolated vs. suburban towns, 
 
 43 
 of labor turnover, 14, 15 
 of land. Effect on size of lots, 
 
 64 
 of land for housing projects, 47, 
 
 358 
 of living, 22 
 
 of lot development. Distribu- 
 tion, 107 
 of municipal waste disposal. 249 
 of puUie utilities. Effecl of 
 lot size, L03, 104 
 
 Cost of sewers. 101, 190 
 
 of street improvements, 101 
 
 of United States Housing Cor- 
 poral ion projects, _'*) 
 
 of water supply, 1ST 
 "Cost plus" contract, see contracts, 
 
 under Housing project. 
 Cost reports, see Housing projeet. 
 Court street-, see Streets. 
 
 Crown of pavements, see camber, 
 
 a a (I <-r Pavements. 
 Curbs, 146 
 
 grading for drainage, 99 
 temporary, on "elastic" streets, 
 93 
 Cutting and idling, see Grading. 
 
 Day nursery, 353 
 
 Dead-end streets, see Streets. 
 
 Deficiency in supply of houses, see 
 
 House shortage. 
 Demography. Effect on selection 
 
 of housing site, 49 
 Density of dwellings, 44, 45, 58, 64, 
 
 65, 117, 319 
 Detached houses, see Houses. 
 Development of industrial housing, 
 
 1,3 
 Distance between homo and factory, 
 
 40, 41 
 Distance between houses, 63, l>."> 
 Distribution of gas, see Gas. 
 Distribution of water, see Water 
 
 distribution. 
 Districting, see Commercial dis- 
 tricts; Manufacturing dis- 
 tricts; Zoning. 
 Division of labor in industry, 2 
 Double duplex house, see duplex, 
 
 under Houses. 
 Drainage, 189, 190, 192 
 
 see also Pavements; Sewerage; 
 Storm drainage. 
 Drainage secured by proper grading, 
 
 99, 102 
 Dundalk project, St. Helena, M<1.. 95 
 Duplex house, set Houses. 
 1 >wellings, s< i I Come; I louse-.
 
 398 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Dwellings. Scarcity, see House 
 shortage. 
 
 Earth roads, see Pavements. 
 Easements, see Streets. 
 East Valley Forge, Pa., 67 
 Efficiency of employees, 15 
 Electric distribution, 276 
 
 cables, 278 
 
 cost, 282 
 
 fire alarm systems, 286 
 
 manholes, 278 
 
 overhead, 277 
 
 pole lines, 280 
 
 police call systems, 286 
 
 rotary converter, 276 
 
 substations, 276 
 
 telephone and telegraph sys- 
 tems, 286 
 
 transformers, 276 
 
 underground, 278, 281 
 
 voltage, 277, 280 
 Electric lamps, see Electric lighting. 
 Electric lighting, 282 
 
 boarding house, 339 
 
 budget, 359 
 
 garages, 317 
 
 house, 285 
 
 store buildings, 344 
 
 street, 282, 289, 291, 292 
 lamps, 284 
 poles, 285 
 transformers, 285 
 Electric power for residences, see 
 domestic service, under 
 Electricity supply. 
 Electric railways, see Transporta- 
 tion facilities. 
 Electric transmission, 275 
 
 line construction, 276 
 
 line voltage, 275 
 
 right of way, 275 
 Electrical service, see Electric 
 
 lighting; Electricity supply. 
 Electricity supply, 271 
 
 bakery, 347 
 
 budget, 359 
 
 domestic service, 286 
 
 generation, 273 
 
 Electricity supply, hydro-electric 
 plant, 274 
 internal combustion plant, 
 274 
 
 steam plant, 274 
 plans, 287 
 purchase from public utility 
 
 company, 273 
 recommendations for dwellings, 
 
 304 
 source, 273 
 specifications, 287 
 • typical installations, 288 
 utilization, 282 
 Emergency Fleet Corporation, 9, 
 20, 61, 64, 114, 136 
 density of housing, 45, 58 
 electrical service, 288 
 fire protection, 177 
 park projects, 73, 74 
 sewage disposal, 227, 230 
 sewerage systems, 198, 204, 207 
 streets, 87, 95 
 Employees, see Efficiency; Loyalty; 
 
 Women; Workmen. 
 Entrances, see Houses. 
 Environment. Effect on selection 
 of housing site, 51 
 of worker's family, 13 
 Examples of industrial housing, 6 
 Expenditures, Distribution of em- 
 ployees', 22 
 
 Factory. Distance from town, 40, 41 
 
 Factory site. Dependence on hous- 
 ing, 38 
 
 Factory system in industry, 2, 3 
 
 Fairview Realty Co., 114 
 
 Families per acre, see Density of 
 dwellings. 
 
 Federal government housing, see 
 Governmental housing. 
 
 Filtration, see Water purification. 
 
 Financial returns from housing en- 
 terprises, 13,16, 385 
 
 Fire alarm systems, 286 
 
 Fire protection, see Industrial town; 
 fire service, under water 
 supply
 
 INDEX 
 
 399 
 
 Fixtures, see Furnil ure. 
 
 Forest survey for topographic map, 
 
 109 
 Foundai ions. Subdrainage to avoid 
 wet cellar, 203 
 see also Pavements; Sewers. 
 Freezing, see subdrainage, under 
 
 Pavements. 
 Frontage, 64, 65, 102 
 
 relation to cost of improve- 
 ments, 105 
 Furniture, 297, 303, 339 
 store, 343 
 
 ( rarages, 316 
 
 Garbage disposal, see Waste dis- 
 posal. 
 Garden city movement in England. 7 
 Gardens, 66 
 Gary, Ind., 6 
 (las, 256 
 
 advantages, 256 
 amount used, 261 
 artificial gas, 257 
 budget, 359 
 coal gas, 257 
 coke oven gas, 25S, 259 
 cooking, 260 
 distribution, 264 
 
 high pressure, 267 
 low pressure, 265 
 regulation, 265 
 specifications, 271 
 valves, 268 
 heating, 260 
 lighting, 200 
 natural gas, 257 
 piping, 262, 200, 269 
 pressures, 262, 26 1 
 
 producer gas, 25X 
 sources of supply, 258 
 transmission, 262 
 water lias. 25S 
 
 Government, see Industrial town. 
 Governmenl aid, se« Subsidies. 
 
 Government al housing, 8, 11. Ill 
 Grade crossings, 87 
 ( trades, s< - St reets. 
 
 "Grades" and "types" of houses. 
 
 Distinction, 308 
 (hading, 97, 111 
 
 cutting and filling, 100 
 sumps to In' avoided, 100 
 Granite, see Pavements; Sidewalks. 
 Grease, see garbage, under Waste; 
 
 disposal. 
 Groben. William E. Recommended 
 standards for dwellings, 
 299 
 Ground water, 162 
 
 infiltration in sewers, 196, 199 
 survey for topographic map, 109 
 see also Pumps. 
 Group houses, see Houses. 
 Group management of housing con- 
 struction, 354 
 Gutter drainage, see Storm drainage. 
 Gymnasium, 78, 353 
 
 Health administration, see public 
 health, under Industrial 
 town. 
 Heating, see Gas. 
 Heating apartment houses, 343 
 Height of buildings. Effect on 
 spacing, 65 
 preliminary survey, 107 
 Highways, see Pavements; Streets; 
 
 Transportation facilities. 
 Hillside development, til 
 Hiring, see Labor turnover. 
 History of industrial housing, 1,3 
 Home, Definition, 293 
 
 see also Houses. 
 Hospital, 349 
 
 Hours of labor, see Working day. 
 House famine, see House shortage. 
 House lighting, see Gas; Electric 
 
 lighting; Orientation. 
 House shortage. 9 
 Houses. 293 
 
 accessibility, see Distance be- 
 tween houses. 
 apartment. 309, 313, 342, 344 
 bat hrooms, 304 
 block arrangement. se< Block- 
 bungalows, 319
 
 400 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Houses, cellars, 303 
 
 clearance between, see Distance 
 
 between houses, 
 closets, 303 
 color scheme, 315 
 cost, 324 
 
 company ownership 25, 302, 372 
 cooperative ownership, 25, 27 
 detached, 308, 310, 314 
 determination of number re- 
 quired, 326, 327, 358 
 duplex, 309, 313 
 entrances, 303 
 essentials, see standards, 
 grades, 304, 327, 330 
 group houses, 44, 56, 59, 61, 65, 
 
 302, 303, 309, 314 
 inspection, 379 
 light requirements, 304 
 maintenance, 379 
 materials, see Building materials, 
 minimum requirements, see 
 
 standards, 
 ownership, 42, 372, 374 
 permissible rental, see Rent, 
 porches, 312, 315, 322 
 privacy, 310, 311, 314 
 private ownership, 25, 26 
 ready-cut, 318 
 
 recommendations, see standards. 
 relation between height and 
 
 spacing, 65 
 rooms, 295, 303 
 
 number, 296, 302, 329 
 
 size, 297 
 row dwelling, 65, 302, 303, 
 
 309, 314 
 selling, 385 
 
 tscnii-detached, 308, 314 
 skylights, 304 
 
 standards, 293, 295, 298, 302, 
 376 
 
 for various classes of houses, 
 305 
 toilet rooms, 207, 299 
 types, 308 
 ventilation, 303 
 water supply, see Water, 
 waterproofing, 321 
 
 Houses, see also Boarding houses; 
 Buildings for special pur- 
 poses; Community house; 
 Company boarding houses ; 
 Store buildings. 
 Houses per acre, see Density of dwell- 
 ings. 
 Housing corporations, 28 
 
 see also Company housing bu- 
 reaus; United States Housing 
 Corporation. 
 Housing project. Budget, 33, 358 
 construction, 364 
 construction roads, 368 
 contractor, 362 
 contracts, 360, 363 
 cost reports, 368 
 executive control of construc- 
 tion, 354 
 organization, 34, 354 
 planning, 354 
 progress reports, 368 
 record plans, 369 
 revenues, 13, 16 
 shape of tract 47, 56 
 specifications, 363 
 staff of building organization, 37 
 supervision of construction, 364 
 technical program, 30, 43, 53, 
 
 107, 355, 365 
 see also Housing site; Town plan. 
 Housing site. Dependence on lo- 
 cation of industries, 36 
 development, 33, 358 
 economic features governing lo- 
 cation, 37 
 requirements, 39 
 selection, 32, 36, 40, 42 
 attractiveness, 51 
 climatology, 48 
 demography, 49 
 environment, 51 
 nuisances, 49, 56 
 public utilities, 50 
 recreation, 50, 56 
 sanitation, 49 
 social customs of commun- 
 ity, 51 
 soil conditions, 48
 
 INDEX 
 
 401 
 
 Bousing site, topography, 18, 55 
 
 transportation facilities, 50, 
 56 
 
 survey, 110 
 see also Land. 
 Hub, see radial, under Street sj r s- 
 
 tems. 
 
 Hydrants, see Water distribution. 
 
 Hydro-electric plant, see generation, 
 
 under Electricity supply. 
 
 Hypochlorites, see sterilization. 
 
 under Water purification. 
 
 Ice plant, see Refrigerating plant. 
 [Humiliation, see Electric lighting; 
 
 Gas; Orientation. 
 Income. Proportion available for 
 rent, 22 
 see also Expenditures. 
 Individualistic era, 2 
 Industrial districts, see Manufac- 
 turing districts. 
 Industrial town, 12, 370 
 
 company control, 43, 370 
 cost, 16, 43 
 
 fire protection, 382, 386 
 isolated, 13, 372 
 management, 370. 374. 377, 384 
 independent of company, 
 375 
 
 police protection, 381, .'1st') 
 projects, 7 
 public health, 378 
 public works. 377, 379, 385, 386 
 revenues. 3X5 
 schools, 383, 386 
 suburban, 371, 384 
 supervision of commercial en- 
 terprises, 3N0 
 Industrial townsite. ( lost, 17 
 desiderata, 17 
 development . 33 
 
 Location, 10 
 
 program for development, 31 
 selection, 32, 36 
 see also I Lousing projeel . 
 Industries, Dependence on housing, 
 38 
 
 Enternal-combustion power station, 
 i * general ion, undt r EleC- 
 t ricity supply. 
 Intersection of si reel 3, set S1 reel s. 
 
 Iron in water, 160 
 Isolated houses, see Houses. 
 
 Janitor service in apartments. 310, 
 
 343 
 see also custodian; matron. 
 
 under Boarding houses. 
 Junk, see rubbish, under Waste 
 
 disposal. 
 
 Kilham, Walter H. Recommended 
 
 standards for dwellings, 
 
 300 
 Kindergarten, 353 
 Kitchen gardens, see Gardens. 
 Knock-down houses, see ready-cut. 
 
 under Houses. 
 Kuichling, Emil. Leakage of water, 
 
 L56 
 
 Labor turnover, 14, 15 
 
 Laissez-faire theory as retarding de- 
 velopment of housing, 3 
 
 Lampblack for coloring sidewalks, 
 144 
 
 Lamps, see Electric lighting. 
 
 Land for housing projects. Acqui- 
 sition, 47 
 shape and boundaries. 47, 56 
 subdivision. 56 
 
 Laundry facilities." 346 
 boarding houses. 341 
 
 Laws and restrictions. Effect on 
 selection of housing site, 51 
 
 Leakage, see infiltration, under Sew- 
 erage; Water waste. 
 
 Light requirements of dwellings, see 
 Houses; ( Irientation. 
 
 Lighting, .see Electric lighting; Gas; 
 < Orientation. 
 
 Limestone block, see Lavements. 
 
 Litchfield, Electus, 11 I 
 
 Loads permissible on roads, se< 
 
 Pavements. 
 Loan and realty associations, 28, 30
 
 402 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Lodging houses, see Boarding houses. 
 
 Lorain, Ohio, 20, 136 
 
 Lot improvements, 66, 358 
 
 cost, 105 
 
 distribution of cost, 107 
 Lots, Residence, 63 
 
 size, see Area. 
 Loveland Farms, Youngstown, O., 
 61, 113 
 
 electric installations, 292 
 
 pavements, 136 
 
 streets, 84, 96 
 
 subdrainage, 125 
 
 water distribution, 180 
 Lowell, Francis Cabot, Early recog- 
 nition of housing problem, 6 
 Loyalty of employees, 15 
 
 Macadam roads, see Pavements. 
 
 Management, see Industrial town. 
 
 Manholes, see Electric distribution; 
 Sewers. 
 
 Manufacturing districts. Site and 
 arrangement, 66 
 
 Map, Preliminary, for location of 
 townsite, 41, 107 
 regional, 109 
 topographic, 108, 111, 196 
 
 Marginal deficit, see Subsidies. 
 
 Metals, Old, see rubbish, under 
 Waste disposal. 
 
 Metering, see Water metering. 
 
 Mill tenements, 4, 6 
 
 Minimum requirements for dwell- 
 ings, see Houses. 
 
 Mining camps. Early stage of in- 
 dustrial housing, 4, 6 
 
 Minors and women. Housing re- 
 quirements, 330 
 
 Monotony avoided by exterior varia- 
 tion of dwellings, 315, 316 
 
 Morgan Park, Minn., 7 
 
 Mortgages, 29 
 
 Motor trucks, see Transportation 
 facilities. 
 
 Municipal government, see Indus- 
 trial town. 
 
 Municipal waste, see Sewage dis- 
 posal; Sewerage; Waste dis- 
 posal. 
 
 Municipality's share in cost of lot 
 development, 107 
 
 National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers. Pipe specifica- 
 tions, 179 
 
 Natural gas, see Gas. 
 
 New London, Conn., 29 
 
 Newburgh, N. Y Tree planting, 96 
 
 Nolen, John, 113 
 
 Noreg Village, Gloucester, N. J., 230 
 electrical distribution, 281 
 
 Nuisances. Effect on desirability of 
 dwellings, 56 
 effect on selection of housing 
 site, 49 
 
 Nursery, see Day nursery. 
 
 Ojibway, Ontario, 7, 67 
 diagonal streets, 81 
 plan. 111 
 
 Oliphant, F. H. Formula for flow 
 of gas, 263 
 
 Ontario Housing Committee, 45 
 
 recommended standards for 
 dwellings, 300 
 
 Organization of housing project, 
 see Housing project. 
 
 Organizations, see Building organi- 
 zations. 
 
 Orientation. Buildings, 65, 311 
 streets, 96 
 
 Origin of industrial housing, 1 
 
 Owen, Robert Early recognition of 
 housing problem, 4, 6 
 
 Ownership of dwellings, see Houses. 
 
 Ozone, see sterilization, under Water 
 purification. 
 
 Painting, see color scheme, under 
 
 Houses. 
 Paper, Waste, see rubbish, under 
 
 Waste disposal. 
 Parking of vehicles, 93, 120, 121 
 Parks, 72 
 
 area required, 73 
 
 drives and walks, 75 
 
 improvements, 75 
 
 location, 73 
 
 management, 378
 
 / x hi: \ 
 
 403 
 
 Parks, preliminary survey, L08, 359 
 Parks and recreational facilities, 
 
 \n:i, 57, 1 L3 
 Parkways, 72, 90, L08, 112, I L6 
 Pavements, 122 
 
 allow able grades for various Bur- 
 faces, L23, 138 
 
 asphalt, 138 
 
 asphalt block, 142 
 
 brick, L38 
 
 burnt clay, 141 
 
 camber, 126 
 
 cleaning, see Streets. 
 
 cobblestone. 1 11,142 
 
 concrete, L2 t. 128 
 
 concrete, bituminous, 132 
 
 concrete, cement , 133 
 
 earl b roads, 129 
 
 erosion by storm water, 215 
 
 foundations, 123 
 
 granite block, 140 
 
 gravel roads, l.'}0 
 
 joints. 134, 11!) 
 
 limestone block, 140 
 
 macadam, bituminous, 131 
 
 macadam, tar, 131 
 
 macadam, water bound, 130 
 
 materials, 123, 127, 129, 137 
 
 permissible loading, 1 '_'.'! 
 
 repairs, 148 
 
 rock asphalt, 141 
 
 run-off from various surfaces, 
 213 
 
 sand-clay roads, 129 
 
 sand cushion for brick, 139 
 
 sheet asphalt, 137 
 
 slag block. 1 10 
 
 stone block, 1 41) 
 
 subdrainage, L24 
 
 surface drainage, 124 
 
 vitrified brick, 140 
 
 wood block, 1 10 
 
 Paving brick, si < Pavements. 
 
 Paving materials. se< Pavements. 
 Payroll, forecasted, 326 
 
 regulated, L5 
 sec also Wag< 
 Per capita consumption <>f water, 
 s< e Water consumption. 
 
 Percentage of land for dwellings, 58 
 for recreal tonal purposes, 57 
 for si reets and alleys, 57 
 Pioneer work in industrial housing. 
 
 L, 3 
 Piping, see Gas; Sewage dipsosal; 
 
 Water di.-t ribul ion. 
 Pitt -burgh. Choice of building ma- 
 terials. : J ,19 
 Planning of housing project. 
 
 Housing projeel . 
 
 Plant, see generation, under Elec- 
 tricity supply; Factory; 
 Sewage disposal; Waste 
 disposal. 
 
 Planting strips. Width 95, 121 
 
 Playgrounds, 70. 353 
 
 area and location, 76 
 improvement. 77 
 
 Pole, Dr., Formula for flow of gas, 
 269 
 
 Pole lines. Location, 103 
 
 Police call systems, 286 
 protection, 381, 386 
 
 Porches, see Houses. 
 
 Potable water, see Water. 
 
 Preliminary survey for housing pro- 
 ject, 30, 32, 44. 107 
 
 Privacy iir various types of house, 
 310, 311, 314 
 
 Producer gas, see Gas. 
 
 Profile of streets, see Streets. 
 
 Profits, see Financial returns. 
 
 Program for development of housing 
 project, see technical pro- 
 gram, under Housing pro- 
 ject. 
 
 Progress reports, see Housing pro- 
 ject. 
 
 Proximity of home to factory. 11. ll* 
 
 Public health administration, see 
 Industrial town. 
 
 Public utilities. Cost,.*.- Cost. 
 
 location, 101 
 
 of industrial town as revenue 
 producers, 385 
 Pullman. 111., 6 
 Pumps, 17:! 
 
 air lift, 1 75
 
 404 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pumps, centrifugal, 174 
 
 deep well pumping, 175 
 reciprocating, 173 
 see also pumping of sewage, 
 under Sewerage. 
 Purchase of land, 47 
 Purification of water, see Water 
 purification. 
 
 Quarters, see Boarding houses; 
 Houses. 
 
 Racial and national considerations 
 32 
 
 Radial streets, see Street systems. 
 
 Rags, see rubbish, under Waste 
 disposal. 
 
 Railroads, see Transportation facili- 
 ties. 
 
 Rainfall, 210 
 
 capacity of combined sewers, 
 
 220 
 see also surface water, under 
 Water supply. 
 
 Ready-cut houses, see Houses. 
 
 Realty associations, 28 
 
 Recommended standards for dwell- 
 ings, see Houses. 
 
 Recreation buildings, 78 
 
 Recreational facilities. Area, 57 
 
 Refrigerating plant, 348 
 
 Refuse disposal, see Waste disposal. 
 
 Rent, Proportion of income avail- 
 able for, 23, 294 
 
 'Reservoir, see Water distribution; 
 storage, under Water sup- 
 ply- 
 Residential districts, 59 
 
 Revenues of industrial town, 385 
 
 Road materials, see Pavements. 
 
 Rock asphalt, see Pavements. 
 
 Rooms, see Houses. 
 
 Rotary converter, see Electric dis- 
 tribution. 
 
 Row duplex, see duplex, under 
 Houses. 
 
 Row dwellings, see Houses. 
 
 Rubbish disposal, see Waste disposal. 
 
 Run-off, 210, 212 
 
 Run-off, see also surface water, under 
 
 Water supply. 
 Rural industries, 12, 42 
 
 Sand filtration, see Water purifica- 
 tion. 
 Sand-clay roads, see Pavements. 
 Sanitary sewers, see Sewers. 
 Sanitation. Influence on industrial 
 housing, 4, 43, 366 
 
 living quarters, 16 
 Scarcity of houses, see House short- 
 age. 
 School houses, 350 
 School system of industrial town, 
 
 383, 386 
 Scrap metal, see rubbish, under 
 
 Waste disposal. 
 Set-back in front of houses, 63, 64, 
 
 65, 66, 99 
 Sewage, see Sewage disposal; Sewer- 
 age. 
 Sewage disposal, 192, 221, 377 
 
 budget, 359 
 
 characteristics of sewage, 224 
 
 decomposition of sewage, 226 
 
 dilution, 226, 228 
 
 disinfection, 234 
 
 filtration, 233, 236 
 
 methods, 230, 235 
 
 plant construction, 238 
 
 location, 235, 237 
 
 specifications, 238 
 
 purposes, 222 
 
 screening, 230, 235 
 
 septic tank, 232 
 
 sterilization, 236 
 
 tank treatment, 232, 235 
 Sewage treatment, see Sewage dis- 
 posal. 
 Sewerage, 189, 377 
 
 cost, see Cost of sewers. 
 
 dependence on grading, 102 
 
 design, 196 
 
 effect of ground water, 196, 199 
 
 grades, see Sewers. 
 
 infiltration, 195 
 
 inverted siphons, 209 
 
 pumping of sewage, 209
 
 INDKX 
 
 40r, 
 
 Sewerage, quantity of sewage, 192 
 
 domestic, L93 
 industrial, 194 
 rate of sewage How 197, 199, 200 
 
 size of Sewers, see Sewers. 
 systems, 190, 196 
 trade waste, 194, 195 
 Sewers. Cost, see Cost, 
 depth, 202 
 fillers, 208 
 flush tanks, 208 
 foundations, 209 
 grades, 201 
 
 house connections, 204, 200 
 joints, 208 
 location, 202 
 manholes, 206, 208 
 sizes, 202 
 
 terra cotta pipe, 206 
 see also Combined sewers; 
 Storm drainage. 
 Shale brick, see Pavements. 
 Shape of tract for housing, see Hous- 
 ing project. 
 Shelter a primitive necessity, 1 
 Shower baths, 41 
 Sidewalks, 143 
 
 asphalt mastic, 145 
 
 bituminous macadam, 146 
 
 brick, 145 
 
 cinder, 146 
 
 coloring, 144 
 
 concrete, 144 
 
 concrete, tar, 145 
 
 drainage, 99 
 
 granite, 145 
 
 gravel, 146 
 
 on residential streets, 87, 121 
 
 slag, 146 
 
 slopes, 143 
 
 stone, 145 
 eubgrade, 143 
 
 width, 95, 143 
 
 width on business streets, i i«» 
 
 width on residential streets, 121 
 
 Single duplex house, see duplex, 
 under Houses. 
 
 Siphons, see inverted siphons, „„,/,,. 
 
 Sewerage. 
 
 Site, see Factory site; Bousing site; 
 
 Industrial low nsite. 
 Skilled workmen, see Workmen. 
 Skyb'ghts, see Houses. 
 Slag blocks, .see Pavements. 
 Social customs of community. Ef- 
 fect on selection of housing 
 site, 51 
 Soil conditions. Effect on selection 
 of housing site, 48 
 topographic map, 109 
 Spacing of houses, see Distance be- 
 tween houses. 
 Specifications, see special subjects. 
 Sports, see Athletic fields. 
 Standards in housing, see Houses. 
 Steam power plant, see generation, 
 
 under Electricity supply. 
 Stock feeding, see garbage, under 
 
 Waste disposal. 
 Stone block, see Pavements. 
 Store buildings, 341 
 lighting, 344 
 size, 343 
 ventilation, 344 
 Stores, Company, 380 
 
 cooperative, 381 
 Storm drainage, 210, 214 
 budget, 359 
 
 catch basins and inlets, 218 
 depth of drains, 217 
 design, 216 
 
 discharge formulae, 216 
 flow, 217 
 
 gutter drainage, 99, 127, 147,215 
 house connections, 217 
 joints and tillers, 217 
 manholes, 218 
 roof water, 214 
 size of drains, 217 
 street water, 215 
 Stream gaging, see Water supply. 
 Stream pollution, see Water puri- 
 fication. 
 Street cleaning, see Streets. 
 Street improvements. Cost. set 
 Cost; Streets. 
 
 Streel lighting, see Electric lighting; 
 Orientation.
 
 406 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Street railways. Location, 101 
 
 see also Transportation facili- 
 ties. 
 Street sweepings, see Waste disposal. 
 Street systems, 53, 79, 112, 113 
 contour, 82 
 diagonal, 81 
 geometrical, 81 
 gridiron, 79 
 radial, 81 
 
 rational arrangement, 84 
 rectangular, 79 
 Streets, 85, 118, 359 
 area, 57 
 
 arterial, 85, 119, 122 
 business, 89, 119 
 classification, 85, 118 
 cleaning, 146, 148 
 cost of improving, 104 
 court, 95 
 dead end, 95 
 design, 93, 122 
 easements, 100 
 "elastic" street, to be widened 
 
 later, 93 
 grades, 56, 87, 89, 90, 97, 122 
 intersections, 97, 98 
 light requirements, see Orienta- 
 tion, 
 preliminary survey, 107 
 profiles, 97, 100 
 residential, 88, 121, 122 
 secondary or subarterial 87, 120 
 street railway location 101, 119, 
 
 120 
 subdivisions, 94 
 width, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 118, 
 
 119, 121 
 see also Alleys, Boulevards; 
 Curbs; Grading; Pave- 
 ments; Sidewalks; Street 
 systems. 
 Stucco, see Building materials. 
 Subdrainage, see Foundations; 
 
 Pavements; Sidewalks. 
 Subsidies, 10, 11, 14, 21, 22 
 Suburban town, sec Industrial town. 
 Sumps, see Grading. 
 Sumps, Cellar 202, 203 
 
 Sun Village, Chester, Pa, 64 
 
 Sunlight, see Orientation. 
 
 Supervision of housing construction, 
 354 
 
 Survey, see Housing site; Map; 
 Preliminary survey; Topo- 
 graphic survey. 
 
 Taylor, Graham R. Effect of indus- 
 trial congestion, 5 
 Technical program for housing pro- 
 ject, 30 
 Telegraph service. Installation, 
 
 286 
 Telephone service. Installation, 
 
 286 
 Tenements, see Mill tenements. 
 Theatres, 352 
 
 Thoroughfares, see Pavements; 
 Streets; Transportation fa- 
 cilities. 
 Time spent between home and fac- 
 tory, 40 
 in factory vs. time spent in 
 community, 13 
 Toilet rooms, see Boarding houses; 
 
 Houses. 
 Topographic survey, 108 
 Topography of land for housing, 48, 
 
 55, 196 
 Town management, see Industrial 
 
 town. 
 Town plan. Development, 53, 110 
 preliminary, 110 
 see also Housing project. 
 Town wastes, see Sewage disposal; 
 Sewerage; Waste disposal. 
 Towns, see Community. 
 Towns, Company, see Industrial 
 
 town. 
 Tmvnsite, see Industrial townsite. 
 Trade waste, see Sewage disposal; 
 Sewerage; Waste disposal. 
 Transformers, see Electric distribu- 
 tion; Electric lighting. 
 Transmission line, see right of way, 
 under Electric transmission. 
 Transportation between home and 
 factory, 40, 44
 
 INDEX 
 
 407 
 
 Transportation facilities. Effecl on 
 
 .selection of housing Bite, 
 49, 50 
 highways, 50 
 motor trucks, 50, 36S 
 roads, during construction of 
 
 housing project, 367 
 steam and elect ric roads, 49 
 see also grades, under Streets. 
 Trees. Planting scheme at New- 
 burg, X. Y.. 96 
 survey for topographic map, 109 
 Turnover, s< i Labor turnover. 
 "Types" and "grades" of houses. 
 Distinction, 308 
 
 Ultra violet rays, see sterilization, 
 under Water purification. 
 United States Housing Corporation, 
 9 
 cost of projects, 20 
 density of housing, 44, 58 
 park projects, 73 
 rainfall records, 211 
 sewage disposal recommenda- 
 tions, 227 
 sewerage, 198 
 street grades, 87 
 United States Labor Bureau. Sta- 
 tistics of industrial hous- 
 ing, 301 
 United States Labor Department. 
 Recommended standards 
 for dwellings, 300 
 United States Shipping Board, see 
 Emergency Fleet Corpora- 
 tion. 
 United States Steel Corporation, 7 
 Unskilled workmen, see Workmen. 
 Urban industries. 12, 12 
 
 see also ( Jongesl ion of industries. 
 Utilities, see Public utilities. 
 
 Valves, set distribution, under Gas; 
 Water distribution. 
 
 \ eider. Law rence. Recommended 
 standards for dwellings, 
 299 
 
 Ventilation, see Houses; Store build- 
 ings. 
 Vitrified brick, sec Pavements. 
 
 Wages, 14, 329 
 
 see also Expenditure-; Payroll. 
 Walks, -see Sidewalks. 
 
 War housing, see Cantonment con- 
 struction. 
 Waste disposal, 240, 377 
 
 ashes. 243, 217 
 
 budget, 359 
 
 character of municipal wastes, 
 240 
 
 collection, 245 
 
 contract system, 248 
 
 cost, 249 
 
 garbage 240, 246 
 burial. 250 
 reduction, 252 
 stock feeding, 251 
 
 incineration, 253 
 
 license system, 248 
 
 plant, 245 
 
 reduction, 250, 252 
 
 rubbish, 241, 217 
 
 street sweepings, 243 
 
 see also Sewage disposal; Sewer- 
 age. 
 Water. Alkalinity, 160 
 
 bacterial content, 158, 169 
 
 chemical properties, 159 
 
 classification, 158 
 
 color, 158, 165, 169, 170 
 
 hardness. 1(10, 163 
 
 iron, 160, L66 
 
 mineral content, 159, 160 
 
 odor. 159 
 
 organic content. 159, 160, 163, 
 165 
 
 physical properl ies, 158 
 
 quality . s< t Standards. 
 
 standard.-.. I 57, 161, 166 
 
 turbidity, 159, 168 
 
 see also < rround water; Storm 
 drainage; Water distribu- 
 tion; Water purification; 
 
 Water supply.
 
 408 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Water consumption, 151, 153, 150, 
 
 194 
 Water distribution, 172, 175 
 piping, 175, 179 
 
 cement lined, 185 
 depth 181, 186 
 house service, 183 
 lead, 184, 185 
 size of service pipe, 184 
 specifications, 186 
 reservoirs, 175 
 standpipes, see Reservoirs. 
 tanks, see Reservoirs, 
 valves, 183 
 
 water mains. Length, 181 
 tapping, 183 
 Water mains, sec Water distribution. 
 Water metering, 150, 153 
 Water pipe, see Water distribution. 
 Water pressure, see Water supply. 
 Water purification, 166 
 
 chemicals employed, 172 
 coagulation, 169 
 distillation, 167 
 filtration, 167 
 
 rapid sand, 168, 171 
 slow sand, 168 
 sedimentation, 167 
 sterilization, 170 
 Water rates, see Water supply. 
 Water supply, 150, 359, 377 
 
 consumption, see Water con- 
 sumption, 
 cost, 187 
 
 development of system, 162 
 distribution, see Water dis- 
 tribution, 
 extension of system, 161 
 fire service, 172, 176, 366 
 garages, 317 
 ground water supply, see Ground 
 
 water, 
 pollution, see Water purifica- 
 tion. 
 
 Water supply, pressure, 161, 172, 
 175, 177 
 pumping, see Pumps, 
 quality, see standards, under 
 
 Water supply, 
 quantity, 166 
 rates, 188 
 recommendations for dwellings, 
 
 304 
 revenue, 188 
 selection, 161, 166 
 source, 229 
 storage, 163, 164 
 stream gaging, 164 
 surface water, 163, 165 
 temporary, 367 
 wells, see Ground water. 
 Water waste, 151, 155 
 Waterproofing, see Houses. 
 Width of sidewalks, see Sidewalks. 
 
 of streets, see Streets. 
 Women and minors. Housing re- 
 quirements, 330, 340 
 Wood block, see Pavements. 
 Working day. Proportion of en- 
 tire time of work its, 13 
 Workmen. Number per house, 329 
 proportion of skilled and un- 
 skilled, 15, 326 
 proportion of unmarried, 329 
 single. Housing required, 328, 
 334 
 
 Yorkship Village, Camden, N. J., 
 61, 144 
 sewage disposal, 230 
 store building, 342 
 street arrangement, 82 
 Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., 62, 
 113 
 
 Zoning, 55, 66, 67, 107
 
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