IRLF 111 M7fl J ;. '. ''" / : - " -- -, """ '. ' i .;- ; '- . . " . ' . ' :" m Wsi$iiK \ ' E H '. . - .- -.-- WE . ^- ^^^ ^^;/. : : : '^;- -- ; : ' : .':: NAUTICAL CHARTS BY G. R. PUTNAM, M.S. MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS DIRECTOR OF COAST SURVEYS, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1900 TO 1906 FIEST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 1908 . Dpt. COPYRIGHT, 1908, BY G. R. PUTNAM Stanhope ]prces F. H. GILSON COMPANY BOSTON. U.S.A. PREFACE IN preparing the material for a lecture on Charts for Columbia University, the writer was impressed with the fact that although nautical charts are mentioned or dis- cussed in many publications, there was not found any one which covered the general subject of their origin, con- struction, and use. In the countries of the world more than a million copies of such charts are now issued annually. A considerable portion of the human race is interested directly or indirectly, whether as mariners or passengers or shippers, in navigation upon the sea. Aside from supplying a handbook for those who might have a general interest in the subject, it was thought that a discussion of charts might lead to further con- sideration of the principles governing their construction. This paper has intentionally been made as non- technical as seemed feasible in treating a somewhat technical subject. The writer is indebted to the Coast and Geodetic Survey for various illustrative material from its archives, and to a number of authors for facts or suggestions. A list is appended of books and papers which have been freely consulted, bearing on this and related subjects. G. R. P. WASHINGTON, D.C., May 24, 1908. iii 387693 CONTENTS PAGE LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS vii CHARTS AND MAPS 1 COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS 31 PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS 67 PUBLICATION OF CHARTS 84 CORRECTION OF CHARTS 97 READING AND USING CHARTS 112 USE OF CHARTS IN NAVIGATION 124 PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS 154 INDEX. 161 LIST OF BOOKS OR PAPERS BEARING ON NAUTI- CAL CHARTS AND RELATED SUBJECTS Periplus, an Essay on the Early History of Charts, and Sailing Directions. A. E. Nordenskiold, Stockholm, 1897. Maps, their Uses and Construction. G. James Morrison, London, 1902. Charts and Chart Making. Lieut. John E. Pillsbury, U.S.N., in Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1884. Principal Facts relating to the Earth's Magnetism. L. A. Bauer, in U. S. Magnetic Declination Tables, Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1903. Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World. G. W. Littlehales, in Report of the Eighth International Geographic Congress, 1904. Smithsonian Geographical Tables. R. S. Woodward, Washington, 1906. Admiralty Charts, Abridged list of. Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1907. Military Topography. Capt. C. B. Hagadorn, U.S.A., West Point, 1907. Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris, 1900. A Manual of Conventional Symbols in Use on Official Charts. United States Hydrographic Office, Gustave Herrle, 1903. Hydrographical Surveying. Admiral W. J. L. Wharton, London, 1898. On the Correction of Charts, Light Lists, and Sailing Directions. Published by J. D. Potter, London, 1904. Notes Relative to the Use of Charts. D. B. Wainwright, Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1900. vii viii Books or Papers on Nautical Charts The Law relating to Charts and Sailing Directions. H. Stuart Moore, London, 1904. Notes bearing on the Navigation of H. M. Ships. Hydrographic Office, London, 1900. The Relations of Harbors to Modern Shipping. W. H. Wheeler, in Engineering News, September 6, 1906, New York. Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, London, 1899. Navigation and Compass Deviations. Commander W. C. P. Muir, U.S.N., Annapolis, 1906. The Practice of Navigation. Henry Raper, London, 1898. Lehrbuch der Navigation. Reichs-Marine-Amt, Berlin, 1906. The Nautical -Magazine, London. Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean. Bureau of Naviga- tion, U. S. Navy Department, 1868. Reported Dangers in the North Pacific Ocean. U. S. Hydro- graphic Office, 1871. Pacific Islands, Vol. Ill, chapter on "Vigias." British Hydro- graphic Office, London, 1900. Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, Bogoslof, our Newest Vol- cano, by C. Hart Merriam, New York, 1901. Expedition to the Aleutian Islands, 1907. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., in The Technology Review, 1907, Boston. Recent Changes in Level in the Yakutat Bay Region, Alaska, by R. S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, in Bulletin of the American Geological Society, 1906. An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. W. T. Brigham, Honolulu, 1900. Geography, articles by C. R. Markham, A. R. Clarke, and H. R. Mill in Encyclopaedia Britannica. Development in Dimensions of vessels, Elmer L. Corthell, Tenth International Navigation Congress, 1905. NAUTICAL CHAKTS CHARTS AND MAPS Need of maps. Maps are useful and necessary for many purposes. Only by means of a correct map or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a region be given. An attempt to convey the same information by a written description would in comparison be both cumbersome and obscure. Even by passing over an extensive region a man unaided by instruments will obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations, which he could clearly see on a good map. The importance among the human arts of the making of maps is indi- cated by the references to them in very early historical records, and by the skill in map drawing shown by some of the primitive peoples of to-day. This skill exists particularly among races whose mode of life gives them a wide horizon, as for instance the Eskimos. An interesting instance of this was the case of Joe, an Eskimo guide, who, in 1898, before the surveys of the Yukon delta were made, drew a map of the Yukon mouths with much more complete information than any previously available. Without attempting to enumerate in detail the special uses for maps, in the broader sense they may be said to be essential for commercial, engineering, military, scientific, educational, and political purposes. i Charts and Maps Early geography and map making. The oldest map known is a plan of gold mines in Nubia, drawn on a papyrus. This is of the thirteenth century B.C., and was found in Egypt. In the earliest historic times men believed the earth to be a flat surface of nearly circular outline, a natural inference for those with limited outlook and communi- cation. Later the idea was introduced of the ocean as a river bounding the earth disk. The spherical theory of the earth was, however, early accepted by learned men, and was demonstrated by Aristotle (384 to 322 B.C.), who used as proofs the earth's shadow on the moon, and the change in the visibility of the stars in traveling north or south. Crates constructed a terres- trial globe in the second century B.C. There is no Greek or Latin map extant of earlier date than the time of Ptolemy, but there are references showing that maps were in use. One of the first of such passages in Greek literature is the interesting comment of Herodotus written in the fifth century B.C., " but I laugh when I see many who already have drawn the circuits of the earth, without any right understanding thereof. Thus they draw Oceanus flowing round the earth, which is circular, as though turned by a lathe, and they make Asia equal to Europe." A map of the world was drawn by Anaximander, 560 B.C. A hundred years later Democritus drew a map having an oblong shape, and taught that the width of the world from east to west was one and a half times its extent from north to south, a conclusion based on his travels eastward as far as India. This theory, which was for a time accepted, has left an enduring Early Geography and Map Making 3 mark in the words longitude and latitude, originally signifying the length and the breadth of the earth. The first application of astronomy to geography was made by Pytheas, who about 326 B.C. obtained the lati- tude of Marseilles by an observation of the altitude of the sun. Dicearchus in 310 B.C. determined the first parallel of latitude by noting places where on the same day the sun cast shadows of equal length from pillars of equal height. Eratosthenes (276 to 196 B.C.) was the first to compute the circumference of the earth from obser- vations of the altitude of the sun at Alexandria and at Syene in Upper Egypt and an estimation of the distance between these two places. Ptolemy, a Greek of Alexan- dria, in the years from 127 to 151 A.D. wrote extensively on geographic subjects, and collected into systematic form all geographic knowledge then existing; he was the greatest geographer of early history. In the ten centuries which followed, part of the early advance in this science was obscured, and the theory that the earth was a flat disk surrounded by the sea again became prevalent. The voyages of discovery of the middle ages, however, led to a rapid develop- ment of geographic knowledge. The flattening of the spherical earth was not sus- pected until in 1672 a clock regulated to beat seconds at Paris, when taken to Cayenne near the equator was found to lose two and one-half minutes a day. New- ton proved that this was due to the fact that the earth is an oblate spheroid. In 1735 accurate measurements were undertaken to determine the size and shape of the earth. The equatorial diameter has been found to be 7926.6 miles and the polar diameter 7899.6 miles, 4 Charts and Maps the difference, or 27 statute miles, being the amount of the flattening at the poles. The first sailing directions. The early Greek and Roman writers do not allude to charts or maps intended especially for the use of seafarers. There are, however, extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast. Some of these appear certainly to have been intended for use as nautical guides, corresponding to the modern sail- ing directions. It is probable that they were explan- atory of or accompanied by coast charts, now lost. They are of interest therefore as being probably the first compilations for the guidance of seamen. One of the earliest, written apparently in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., is entitled "Scylax of Caryanda, his circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of Europe and Asia and Libya." It contains a systematic description of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black Sea, and part of the west coast of Africa. The fol- lowing are some extracts which indicate the character of the work. It is to be noted that no bearings are given, and that distances are usually stated by day's sail; Africa is referred to as Libya. " Europe. I shall begin from the Pillars of Hercules in Europe and continue to the Pillars of Hercules in Libya, and as far as the land of the great Ethiopians. The Pillars of Hercules are opposite each other, and are distant from each other by one day's sail. . . . From Thonis the voyage to Pharos, a desert island (good harborage but no drinking water), is 150 stadia. In Pharos are many harbors. But ships water at the Marian mere, for it is drinkable. . . . From Cher- sonesus is one day's sail; but from Naustathmus to The First Sailing Directions the harbor of Cyrene, 100 stadia. But from the harbor to Cyrene, 80 stadia; for Cyrene is inland. These harbors are always fit for putting into. And there are other refuges at little islands, and anchorages and many beaches, in the district between. . . . After the isthmus is Carthage, a city of the Phoenicians, and a harbor. Sailing along from Hermsea it is half a day to Carthage. There are islands off the Hermsean cape, Pontia island and Cosyrus. From Hermaea to Cosyrus is a day's sail. Beyond the Hermsean cape, towards the rising sun, are three islands belonging to this shore, inhabited by Carthaginians; the city and harbor of Melite, the city of Gaulus, and Lampas; this has two or three towers. . . . The sailing along Libya from the Canopic mouth in Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules . . . takes 74 days if one coast round the bays. . . . From the cape of Hermsea extend great reefs, that is, from Libya towards Europe, not rising above the sea; it washes over them at times. . . . From Thymiateria one sails to cape Soloes, which juts far into the sea. But all this district of Libya is very famous and very sacred. . . . This whole coasting from the Pillars of Hercules to Cerne Island takes twelve days. The parts beyond the isle of Cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals, mud, and sea-weed. This sea-weed has the width of a palm, and is sharp towards the points, so as to prick." That there were many other similar writings in the following centuries is shown by the following quotation from Marcianus, in a preface to sailing directions written in the fifth century A.D.* "This I write after having gone through many sailing directions, and spent much time on their examination. For it behooves all 6 Charts and Maps who are men of education, to scrutinise such attempts at learning in this subject, so as neither rashly to believe the things that are said, nor incredulously to set their private opinions against the careful decisions of others." The oldest extant sailing directions of the middle ages bear date 1306 to 1320. Development of chart making. The application of the compass to nautical use in the twelfth century A.D. had a marked effect in encouraging voyages of exploration, and therefore indirectly on chart making. The following, written toward the close of the twelfth century, is the first known mention of the use of the compass in Europe: "The sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy weather they cannot longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the, \vorld is wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to what part of the horizon the prow is directed, place the needle over the magnet, which is whirled round in a circle, until, when the motion ceases, the point of it (the needle) looks to the north." The nautical compass of that time appears to have consisted of a magnetized needle, floated in a vessel of water by a cork or reed, and having no index nor compass card. Peregrinus in 1269 made notable improvements in the compass, including a pivot sus- pension for the needle, a graduation, a lubber line, and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other object. Nautical charts are known to have been in use since the thirteenth century A.D., but the earliest extant of which the date can be fixed is Vesconte's loxodromic chart of 1311. Development of Chart Making The loxodromic charts first appeared in Italy, and were so called from the fact that they were crossed by loxodromes (or rhumb lines) radiating from a number of crossing points distributed regularly over the map. Compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these crossing points, the first appearing on a chart of 1375. The earliest known mention of the variation of the compass from true north was on the first voyage of Columbus, who discovered this important fact in 1492, and as a consequence his "seamen were terrified and dismayed." Before that time it was assumed in Europe that the compass pointed "true to the north pole." The apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was doubtless to som.e extent due to its small amount at that time along the Mediterranean. The earlier charts showed both lines and compass roses apparently oriented with the true meridian, though there is some evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented with the magnetic meridian, the designer not recognizing any difference. The variation of the compass was first marked on a map in 1532 and on a printed chart in 1595, but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts did not become customary until about fifty years ago. These early charts were drawn on parchment, using bright colors. They were copied by hand, one from another, with gradual variations. They had no pro- jections, and the draftsmen evidently had no idea of the sphericity of the earth. Islands and points were usually exaggerated; shallows were indicated, but no soundings; no information was given as to the interior of the countries ; a scale of distances was nearly always provided. 8 Charts and Maps Charts were first printed about 1477, and are known to have been engraved on copper by 1560. The maps of Ptolemy were ruled with degree lines, but no chart was so provided until 1427; by 1500, however, most charts were graduated. Before this date it is not known on what projection the charts were constructed. On the first graduated charts the degree lines were equidistant parallel straight lines cutting each other at right angles and thus dividing the chart into equal squares or rectangles. These were known as " plain charts." This square projection had little to commend it save simplicity of construction, as in higher latitudes it gave neither directions nor distances correctly. The difficulties of its use in nav- igation were early recognized, and nautical works con- tained chapters on "sailing by the plain chart, and the uncertainties thereof." The example of early chart making shown in Fig. 2 is of great interest as being the earliest extant chart which includes America. This chart was drawn on ox-hide in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied Columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship, and on his second voyage as cartographer. The chart, of which only a portion is shown here, purports to cover the entire world; it joins Asia and America as one continent, the Pacific Ocean being then still unknown. Gerhard Kramer, a Flemish map-maker, better known by his Latin name of Mercator, in 1569 pub- lished his famous Universal Map. In this map the meridians and parallels were still straight lines inter- secting at right angles, but the distances between the parallels were increased with increasing latitude in FIG. 2. CHART OF NORTH ATLANTIC OC ft BY JUAN DE LA COSA, 1500. EARLIEST EXTANT CHART SHOWING AMERICA. Development of Chart Making 9 such proportion that a rhumb line, or line cutting the meridians at a constant angle, would appear on the map as a straight line. Mercator never explained the construction of his chart, and as the above condition was not accurately carried out, it is thought that the chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe with a "plain chart." After examination of a merca- tor chart in 1590, Edward Wright developed the cor- rect principles on which such a chart should be constructed, and published in 1599 his treatise "The Correction of Certain Errors in Navigation." It took nearly a century to bring this chart into use, and even in the middle of the eighteenth century nautical writers complain that " some prefer the plain chart." The Arcano del Mare, 1646, was the first marine atlas in which all the maps were drawn on the merca- tor projection. In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries charts and sailing directions were often bound together in large volumes. These usually had quaint titles, not overburdened with modesty, of which the following is an example: "The Lightning Columne, or Sea-Mirrour, containing the Sea-Coasts of the Northern, Eastern, and Western Navigation. Setting forth in divers necessaire Sea-Cards, all the Ports, Rivers, Bayes, Roads, Depths, and Sands. Very curiously placed on its due Polus height furnished. With the Discover- ies of the chief Countries and on what Cours and Dis- tance they lay one from another. Never there to fore so Clearly laid open, and here and there very diligently bettered and augmented for the use of all Seamen. As alsoo the situation of the Northerly Countries, as 10 Charts and Maps Islands, the Strate Davids, the Isle of Jan Mayen, Bears Island, Old Greenland, Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla. Adorneth with many Sea-Cards and Dis- coveries. Gathered out of the Experiences and prac- tice of divers Pilots and Lovers of the famous Art of Navigation. Where unto is added a brief Instruction of the Art of Navigation, together with New Tables of the Sun's Declination, with a new Almanach. At Amsterdam. Printed by Casparus Loots-Man, Book- seller in the Loots-Man, upon the Water. Anno 1697. With Previlege for fiftheen years." In 1633 a cartographer was appointed to the States- General of Holland, and it was his duty to correct the charts from the ships' logs. The Dutch at an early date made important progress in publishing charts. In 1720 there was established in Paris by order of the king, a central chart office ("depot des cartes et plans, journaux et memoires concernant la navigation "), and in 1737 the first charts were published by this office. Detailed surveys of the coast of France were com- menced in 1816. In 1740 " the commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea" were authorized by Parliament to expend money on the survey of the coasts of Great Britain, this commission having been created in 1713. Various rewards were offered by this commission, including one of 10,000, for the discovery of a method of determining the longitude within 60 miles, an inter- esting side light on the uncertainties of navigation at that time. Compensated timepieces, which have been so important a factor in improving navigation, were invented by Harrison about 1761. YB I dp *.' **V^*** Lighthouse _ _ Lighthouse on small scale chart _..,. Old light tower Beacon, lighted Beacon, not lighted Spindle (or stake) Lightship., Wreck _ -- Anchorage , Rock awash Sunken rock Kelp, ^o bottom at 20 fathoms. ..._ Red buoy _ Black buoy Horizontally striped buoy Perpendicularly striped buoy Buoys ivith perch and square Buoys rvith perch and ball Lighted buoy .. Mooring buoy Landmark, as Cupola, Standpipe, etc, Tide rip ...._ __. ._ Current, not tidal, in knots _ Current, flood in knots Current, ebb. House Church - - Public Road Railroad Path or Trail...... 2 I $515 FIG. 6. SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. C27) Information Given on Charts for low water. The main topographic features are represented for a moderate distance from the coast, with such detail as is useful, depending on the scale of the chart. Elevations are given in figures for promi- nent summits, islands, and rocks; the general configu- ration of hills and mountains is represented by contours on large scale charts or by hachures or shading on small scale charts. Rivers, streams, lakes, marshes, towns, roads, prominent buildings, and other important topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols. It is important that objects which may be useful in navigation as landmarks, whether natural or artificial, be plainly shown and described, if necessary to their identification, and that they should not be obscured by details of lesser importance. On the larger scale charts only, vegetation features, particularly areas covered by trees, are represented by symbols. The land area is usually clearly distinguished from the water area by a tint or stipple. Latitude and longitude are given by the projection lines and the subdivided border, or sometimes on harbor plans by a note giving the position of some one point. Brief information as to the time and range of the tides is stated in a note. Data regarding currents, whether due to tidal or other causes, are given by current arrows placed on the chart, or by explanatory notes. Compasses are for conven- ience printed on the charts, and data given as to the magnetic variation and its rate of change. On large scale charts scales are provided for use in measuring distances. Ranges and channel lines are given when required. The ports are indicated where storm warning signals are displayed. The areas of forbidden anchor- 30 Charts and Maps ages are shown, and when important, the positions of submarine cables. The lines dividing the high seas from inland waters are sometimes stated on United States charts. Life saving stations are given, and time balls are usually noted. Views of important features are shown on some charts. The layman who looks at the printed chart probably does not appreciate the amount or the variety of information that must be gathered and sifted and put in proper shape for a single chart. COLLECTION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS Need of thorough surveys. As has been stated, a good chart requires that a thorough and correct survey be first made of the region to be charted. It is said that men are very apt to accept as true anything they see on a map. As to the nautical chart the mariner is likely to be somewhat more critical, however, and it is well that he is. The difficulty of charting an invisible surface such as the bottom of the sea is great, and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed in sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of uncharted dangers is small. The planning of surveys in a new region, such, for instance, as the Philippine Islands, presents many interesting problems, on the solution of which the effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work materially depend. Many local conditions must be taken into account. The surveys are made on opposite coasts according to the seasonal winds and rainfall. In some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary; in others launches and small boats can do the work more economically. Shore parties with land trans- portation are used for portions of the work where the country permits. Natives are employed as far as practicable for the classes of work they can do; the Filipinos, for instance, make good sailors on the vessels and excellent penmen in the office. The following is a brief outline of the steps of a com- 31 32 Collection of Information plete survey for charting purposes, according to the pres- ent practice of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These are given in their logical order, though in actual work this order must often be departed from. In this Survey the methods of control have been of a high standard; that is, the main stations have been accurately determined and permanently marked and described, and this has proven an advantage in the joining together of the original surveys and resurveys. Astronomical observations. To locate on the sur- face of the earth the area to be charted, astronomical observations are required for the latitude and longitude of one or more points. In the best practice the longi- tude of a point is obtained by observing the transits of stars to get the local time, and sending time signals by telegraph to obtain the difference from the local time of some other place whose longitude is known. The latitude is observed by measuring the difference of zenith distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian north and south of the zenith. The azimuth or true direction of some line is also obtained from star observations, usually by observations with a theodolite on a circumpolar star. Much existing chart work depends on positions determined by less accurate methods, as, for instance, longitudes obtained by trans- porting chronometers between the known station and that to be determined, or by observations of moon culmi- nations, and latitudes obtained by direct observations of the altitudes of stars with theodolite or sextant. Triangulation. The main framework of the survey consists of a series of triangles connecting prominently located points which are permanently marked in the JwW- i fathom and less I 5 ,, . jgSSSSS^sa^^^ xiCrjt '.'." 10 v^JS^^^ 20 Trees ^ Ha At|3L Rock or Shoal whose existence is known, but the position doubtful (+}P.D. (5)P.D. Villages and toivns , UL_ Reported Rock or Shoal whose existance is doubtful O D - 0E.D. |E.D. HP Gaslight Buoys 4 Rocky ledges which Bell Buoys ~ Jl cover and uncover _ Can Buoys,. \V. V.S. Cheq. a JK ~s- ^~-v_^- -m -M-. -M R. B. H.S. Sand and mud' (dry at Low Water) Conical Buoys W. V.S. Cheq. A. A.A ik fc A ^. j^. A R. B. H.S. Stone bank and beach (dry at Low Water) *:%$ Nun Buoys _... Jk, Coral Reefs .-... t fc > % \ Spherical Buoys .._ ^ %., ^ Buoys with Beacons 4111 -SS^ -4S 4P- 4* Rocks with less than 6 feet at Low Water 5 Spar Buoys , ^ / Rocks a ic ash at Loiv Water & Lighthouses (position of) .... (_^ Rocks with limiting danger line {S'T:^ -.*/ Floating Light Vessels. (With as many Masts & balls as there are lights, forming distinguishing marks by day) y^. ^I4_ Shoal Banks which do fk 4% Anchorage for large vessels & not uncover, where the depth is known ^11 ^ Anchorage for small I JL Overfalls and Tide rips Eddies -'^"^? l ^^fe- (9 (9v> Currents are represented by - Flood tide stream Ebb tide stream > FIG. 7, SYMBOLS USED ON CHARTS OF THE BRITISH HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE. (33) FIG. 9. TRIANGULATION STATION AND SIGNAL, ON ALASKA COAST. FIG. 10. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THEODOLITE AT TRIANGULATION STATION ON ALASKA COAST. (37) Topography 39 ground and the location described so that they can be found at a future time. At long intervals in the survey base lines are laid out and carefully measured with steel tape. Signals are erected over the points, including those at the ends of the base line, and angles are then measured at the various stations. From the measured length of the base and the angles the lengths of the sides of the triangles are computed, and from these lengths and the latitude and longitude of one point the latitudes and longitudes of all the other points are obtained. When several astronomically determined points are connected by such a triangulation a com- plication arises from what is known as "deflection of the plumb line," which is the angular amount by which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs from the symmetrical figure of revolution, owing to the variations in the density of the earth's outer layers. The distance between two points as measured by trian- gulation thus differs from the distance computed from the astronomically determined positions. If this irregu- larity were not taken care of by adopting mean positions, the discrepancy in joining up different surveys would in extreme cases amount to about half a mile. Survey sheets are next prepared, of suitable size and scale. On each sheet a projection is laid down, that is, the meridians and parallels are drawn, and all the points determined in the triangulation are plotted in their true relation. Usually separate sheets are prepared for the topography or shore survey and for the hydrography or survey of the water area. Topography. The topographic survey of the shore and as much of the adjacent area as is required is 40 Collection of Information usually made with a plane table, on which the map is actually drawn in the field as the work progresses. Points are located on the plane table sheet either by direct reading of the distance on a stadia rod or by intersections from two or more stations. On the plane table sheet it is customary to locate the shore or high- water line, the low- water line, off-lying rocks, streams, rivers, roads, towns, lighthouses, and all prominent features near the coast. Elevations are measured with the plane table or obtained from the triangulation, and are represented on the sheet both by figures and by contours, which are lines joining together points of the same elevation. For instance, a 100-foot contour represents the line where a plane 100 feet above sea level would cut the surface of the ground. It is par- ticularly important in this topographic work to locate accurately objects which are good landmarks and likely to be of use to the mariner. In some regions auxiliary methods are used in filling in the topography, as, for instance, along a difficult coast each feature of impor- tance may be located by sextant angles, or a traverse line may be run along the shore by the transit and stadia method. The hydrography, or the survey of the water area, is of prime importance for the chart, but in the order of prosecution of the work it is convenient but not essential that it come after sufficient points have been located by the triangulation and topography. A hydrographic sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted which will be useful. A system of sounding lines is then run over the entire area to be surveyed, locating the position of the sounding boat at intervals by sextant FIG. II. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY PARTY AT WORK WITH PLANE TABLE ON THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. FIG. 12. SURVEY SIGNAL OF IRON PIPE ON THE BAR OFF THE MOUTH OF THE YUKON RIVER. (41) I s FIG. 14. THE LUCAS AUTOMATIC SOUNDING MACHINE FOR DEPTHS TO 5000 FATHOMS, WITH ENGINE. FIG. 15. THE SIGSBEE SOUNDING MACHINE ON A SURVEYING VESSEL. (45) Hydrography 49 angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore. The ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from a boat and read the depth when the lead touches bottom and the line is vertical, and make note of the nature of the bottom. There is a systematic spacing between the casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by the boat, depending on the depth of water and character of the bottom. For soundings in deeper water various forms of sounding machines are used, with weight attached to a wire. For very great depths a small steel wire is employed and the weight is detached and left on the bottom. The deepest sounding thus far made, 5269 fathoms, or nearly six miles, was obtained by this method in the Pacific Ocean near Guam. The offshore soundings are made from a surveying steamer; the inshore work is usually done by a launch or small boat. So far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it is important that the hydrography shall show the limit- ing depths and the freedom from dangers, of channels, entrances, harbors, and anchorages. It is also desirable that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as far as the one-hundred-fathom curve, as with the modern forms of navigational sounding machines it is possible for vessels under way to obtain soundings to this depth, and such soundings may be of value in identifying the location of the vessel. For depths greater than one hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value to navigation except as proving the absence of shoaler areas, but soundings throughout the oceanic regions are of great geographical interest as well as of direct prac- tical value in the laying of cables. 50 Collection of Information It is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom by dropping a lead at intervals over its hidden surface is far from an ideal one. The lead gives the depth only at the point at which it touches the bottom, and no information as to the space between the casts except such as may be inferred from the relation of successive soundings. In numerous cases, after what was con- sidered a very thorough survey of a region had been made, at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger has been discovered. For instance, a very detailed hydrographic survey of Buzzards Bay was made in 1895; the sounding lines were run at intervals of 50 to 100 yards, and 91,000 soundings were made for a single sheet. Within this area the cruiser Brooklyn in 1902 touched a rock which was found to have 18 feet over it. (Fig. 17.) The least depth in the vicinity developed in the original survey was 31 feet. For the satisfactory development of hydrographic work some invention is much needed which as it passes along the bottom will give a continuous depth curve. Several devices have successfully accomplished this in shoal water, but great credit awaits the in- ventor who designs something of more general applica- tion. Tides and currents. Information must be obtained as to the movement of the water, both vertical and horizontal. The rise and fall of the tide are obtained by tide gauges, either automatic, which draw a con- tinuous tidal curve on a roll of paper, or simple tide staffs, which must be read at intervals. The currents, whether due to the tides or other movements, are measured by noting the movement of partially sub- Dragging for Dangers 55 merged floats. Less accurate but useful information as to currents is obtained from the logs of vessels. Dragging for dangers has long been resorted to for the investigation of isolated spots. A valuable and successful means has been employed recently of mak- ing sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks having less than a certain depth. This is done by dragging through the water a wire from 500 to 1400 feet long, and suspended at the required depth, with suitable buoys and weights, and kept taut by the angle of pull. If, for instance, the wire is set at a depth of 30 feet it will indicate the presence of any obstruction of less depth by catching on it and upsetting the buoys, and such spots are at once marked and investigated. Considerable work has been done with such drags in the last few years on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and on the Great Lakes. This is of course a somewhat tedious process and gives no information as to depths greater than that for which the wire is set, but the experience already had indicates its great value. It will probably be found desirable in time to thus drag all water areas important to navigation where the depth is near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of the bottom gives- indication of dangers. In extensive dragging operations near Key West and in Jericho Bay, Maine, a number of shoals have been picked up which were not found in the original surveys. A remarkable instance of the value of the drag was the recent discovery of a rock in Blue Hill Bay on the coast of Maine. This rock has but 7 feet of water over it, and is only 6 feet in diameter at the top. It is surrounded by depths of 78 feet,, from which it rises 56 Collection of Information nearly perpendicularly. The original survey gave no indication of a danger here, and its existence was not suspected until it was discovered with the wire drag. Another method of dragging that has been employed is by means of a pipe suspended beneath a ship's bottom. Magnetic variation. As the compass is a universal navigational instrument, information as to the magnetic variation is needed for the charts. The angle between the direction of the magnetic needle and the true north is measured at various points on both land and sea, and at some stations these observations are repeated after a number of years. From these results magnetic maps are made, from which both the variation and its annual change may be taken. Reports of dangers. Aside from the more systematic surveys as outlined above, much information has been placed on the charts from other sources. On the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions at the present day much of the work has been sketched rather than surveyed. Even in the better surveyed portions reports come in as to dangers or other matters not shown, and if of importance and the report appears to be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the chart pending further investigation, or in other cases an examination is first made. Shoals, rocks, and even islands have in numerous instances been shown on the charts which no one has been able to find again, and many of them after repeated searches have been removed. The same island or danger has sometimes been charted in two or more different positions as reported at various Reports of Dangers 57 times. The treatment of such cases is one of the serious and interesting problems of the chart maker. It is generally less harmful to show a danger which does not exist than to omit one which does exist. On the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart may be the cause of actual expense and loss of time in compelling a vessel needlessly to go out of its course. It is surprising to note with what lack of care and of sufficient evidence reports of dangers at sea have some- times been made, and how incomplete are many of the reports even when the existence of the danger is beyond question. It is unfortunately true that some of these reports are the result of effort to escape blame for acci- dent by throwing the fault on the chart. Many such reports also result from various illusory appearances. A large tree covered with weeds, an overturned iceberg strewn with earth and stones, a floating ice-pan covered with earth, the swollen carcass of a dead whale, a whale with clinging barnacles and seaweed, reflections from the clouds, marine animalculse, vegetable growth, scum, floating volcanic matter, and partially submerged wrecks covered with barnacles, have been mistaken for islands, shoals, or reefs. A school of jumping fish has given the appearance of breakers or caused a sound like surf, and tide rips have been mistaken for breakers. Raper very properly calls attention to the obligation upon every seaman of carefully investigating doubtful cases and making reliable reports. "Of the dangers to which navigation is exposed none is more formidable than a reef or a shoal in the open sea ; not only from the almost certain fate of the ship and her crew that have the 58 Collection of Information misfortune to strike upon it, but also from the anxiety with which the navigation of all vessels, within even a long distance, must be conducted, on account of the uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open. No commander of a vessel, therefore, who might meet unexpectedly with any such danger, could be excused, except by urgent circumstances, from taking the neces- sary steps both for ascertaining its true position, and for giving a description as complete as a prudent regard to his own safety allowed." As to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the oceanic charts, it is estimated that the positions may be considered as uncertain by 10 miles in latitude and 30 miles in longitude, and areas of this extent must be searched to determine definitely the question of their existence. The following are interesting or typical cases of reported dangers: The master of an Italian bark in September, 1874, reported sighting a large rock in latitude 40 N. and longitude 62 18' W. Fortunately for the charts there were two independent reports from other vessels in the same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck in this vicinity. The Spanish steamer Carmen was wrecked in 1891 by running on a rock off the southwest coast of Leyte; the rock was reported to lie one mile off shore, a dan- gerous position for vessels using Canigao Channel. A survey made in 1903 showed 58 feet of water in this location, and that Carmen Rock on which the vessel struck was really within one-fourth mile of the beach. The rock had, however, for twelve years been shown on Reports of Dangers 59 the charts in a position which made it an obstruction to navigation. The ship Minerva in 1834 was reported to have struck a rock near the middle of the broad entrance to Balayan Bay; the fact that this occurred at 2 A.M. indicated a very doubtful position, but it was stated that an American ship had previously been wrecked on the same rock. It consequently appeared as a danger on the charts for seventy-one years, when a survey showed no depth of less than 190 fathoms in this vicin- ity, and it was removed from the charts. A British steamer was wrecked in San Bernardino Strait in 1905; the master reported that he was in a position where the chart showed 51 fathoms, and that he was H miles distant from Calantas Rock, and on these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that "no blame can be attached to the master, officers, or any of the crew for the casualty." Very shortly after the disaster, the surveying steamer Pathfinder definitely located the wreck and made a survey of the vicinity. The previous chart of Calantas Reef was found to be fairly correct, and the stranding was determined to have occurred well within this reef in a position where the chart showed soundings of 31 to 4f fathoms, and i mile from Calantas Rock, which rises 5 feet above high water. A transport entering San Bernardino Strait a few years ago ran on a rock and was damaged; the position was reported as about two miles southeast of San Bernardino Island and near the middle of the passage. The rock was not put on the charts, as prompt investi- gation showed 50 fathoms of water in this vicinity, and 60 Collection of Information that in all probability the transport actually touched a small reef making out from the island. The master of the brig Helen reported that his vessel was wrecked on a reef lying six miles from Rockall. When surveyed Helen Reef was found to be about one-third this distance from Rockall. An island has been reported in eight different posi- tions, ranging in latitude from 30 29' to 30 42' N. and in longitude from 139 37' to 140 38' E. There have been a number of reports of islands in the area from latitude 40 00' to 40 30' N. and longi- tude 150 30' to 151 OCX W. The master of the bark Washington reported in 1867: " On my passage from the Sandwich Islands to the northwest coast of the United States, when in latitude 40 00' N., in a dense fog, I perceived the sea to be discolored. Sound- ings at first gave great depths, but diminished gradually to 9 fathoms, when through the mist an island was seen, along which I sailed 40 miles. It was covered with birds, and the sea swarmed with seal and sea elephants." A United States vessel searched in this vicinity without seeing any indication of land, and obtained soundings of 2600 fathoms. A British ship in 1858 searched for fourteen days over this area with- out finding anything. Searches were also made in 1860 and 1867 without success, and the present charts show no islands in this part of the Pacific. In a number of cases erroneous positions have been due simply to blunders. Thus Lots Wife, first seen by Captain Meares in 1788, was shown on his chart in latitude 29 50' N., longitude 156 00' E., and stated in his book to be in latitude 29 50' N. and longitude Reports of Dangers 61 23' E. Massachusetts Island by one report was in longitude 177 05' E. and by another in 167 05' E. The apparent blunder of 10 is now immaterial, as the island has disappeared from the charts altogether. The Knox Islands were placed by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition in latitude 5 59' 15" N., longitude 172 02' 33" E. The old British charts showed islands of this name also in latitude 5 59' N., longitude 172 03' W., the longitude being doubtless transposed. In the case of Starbuck Island, discovered south of the equator, the latitude was apparently transposed, as on old charts it was also shown in the position, latitude 5 40' N., longitude 156 55' W. A pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with great difficulty even when known to exist. Rodger Rock, on which the bark Ellen struck and was damaged, lies in latitude 41' 15" N. and longitude 10731 / E. It has but three feet over it at low tide. The British surveying ship Rifleman searched four days before finding it, although the plotted tracks showed that she and her boats had passed very close to it. This indicates that great caution must be used in removing a reported danger from the charts. The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger 30 to 45 miles to the southwest of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted from the charts about 1786 owing to lack of confirmation. Later, in 1813 and 1821, it was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by striking this rock. Soundings of over a thousand fathoms are now shown on the chart in this vicinity and the rock no longer appears. A comparison of a Pacific Ocean chart of about 62 Collection of Information forty years ago with one of the present time (Fig. 19) illustrates in a striking manner how many doubtful dangers, or vigias, have gotten on the charts and how after laborious search many of them have now been removed. This condition was especially true of the Pacific, owing to the numerous reports of an indefinite nature from whaling ships, among whose captains there was a saying " that they do not care where their ship is, so long as there are plenty of whales in sight." 11 30 CHART OF 1869 BANKO H J0 MORELL! P.O. BYER 1. P.D. "l^" P ^**-*S^ i, REEF ? .^LAYSON RKS. *' OR LA8KER P A C I F I C DECIERTA ? : S REEF "DECKER? VOLCANO MASSACHU8ETTI.?/' KRUSENSTERN..^: CAMIRA r0 .ID.? LAMIRA?<3 ODECIER S TA P ID.? # HALCYON T p WAKE l. C MAURELLE ?<. OR S.FRANCISCO E &A N WAKE RK. piS TARQUIN ? >ID.?. ST.BARTOLOMEO ? CASPAR ^ CORNWALLIS 18* 17 BARTHOLOMEW 1. ? IS If 30 CHART OF 1903 IS 3002 x. CURE 1. . ^^ 2605 ^ % 2185 r , fr.g, 2870* 3080 "v^- P A C / F I C 3009 323^ 32n KRUSENSTERN RK. P.D. ,3 y- ^J 7 1625 orlm BREAKERS 2J25 3100 "WAKE i. 2375 2719 1991 d -y- m - d - y - m - O C E A N 3049 d.m. 2973 2931 SCHJETMAN RF.Ct) 1( ^CASPAR RICO 170 Ij FIG. 19. PORTION OF CHARTS OF 1869 AND 1903, OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN WEST OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, TO ILLUSTRATE THE REMOVAL OF DOUBTFUL DANGERS. (63) FIG. 20. PORTION OF CHART OF PONCE HARBOR, SCALE 1-20000, TO SHOW SELECTION OF SOUNDINGS FROM ORIGINAL SURVEY GIVEN BELOW. FIG. 21. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF SAME PORTION OF PONCE HARBOR, REDUCED TO ONE-HALF SCALE OF ORIGINAL SHEET. (65) PREPARATION OF INFORMATION FOR CHARTS. Chart schemes. Before commencing the prepara- tion of a chart it is necessary to arrange a definite scheme for it, and the usefulness of the chart will depend materially on this preliminary plan, in which must be outlined its scale, size, limits, and features to be represented. New charts have sometimes been pre- pared simply to fit the surveys as they progressed or to fill immediate or local requirements. It is, however, desirable that general plans for series or groups of charts be made, and with changing needs, information, and conditions it is sometimes necessary that existing schemes be modified. Compilation of information. Considerable work must usually be done to get the field records in shape for the published chart. The soundings must be plotted and the characteristic depths selected. Only a part of the soundings that are made can be shown on the original sheet and only a small part of these are used on the final chart. A selection is made showing the least soundings on shoals and bars, the channel depths, and the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other areas. The original surveys are generally made on a considerably larger scale than that on which the chart is published, in order that the soundings may be more thoroughly plotted. The sheets must then be reduced to the scale of publication, and this can conveniently be done by means of photography or with a pantograph. 68 Preparation of Charts The best judgment is required in selecting the important features to be shown on the chart and omitting the less important and not essential features which might tend to obscure the others. In charts of new regions where complete surveys are lacking, care must be exercised in weighing, combining, and adjust- ing information from various sources and which is, perhaps, more or less conflicting. Projections. The surface of the earth being curved, there is no possible system of projection by which it can be represented on a flat sheet of paper in an ideally satisfactory way. Numerous methods of projecting the earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and many of them are actually used for various purposes. In general each projection has qualities which are valuable for certain uses, and deficiencies which make it less valuable in other ways. Only four of the different projections need be mentioned here as of special interest in chart construction. Mercator projection. This is a rectangular projection in which the meridians are straight lines spaced at equal intervals and the parallels are straight lines so spaced as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb line, or line on the earth cutting successive meridians at the same angle, shall appear on the developed projection as a straight line preserving the same angle with respect to the meridians. This projection may be considered as the unrolling upon a plane of the surface of a cylinder tangent to the earth along the equator, and upon which the various features of the earth's surface have been projected in such manner as to satisfy the above requirement. Mercator Projection 69 On this projection there is a constant distance be- tween the meridians, whereas on the earth they actually converge toward the poles. The distance between the parallels increases in passing toward the poles, approximately in the proportion of the secant of the latitude. For each small portion of the map the relative proportions are maintained as on the earth. Some characteristics of the mercator projection are these: The meridians and parallels are all straight lines and perpendicular to each other ; there is no convergence of the meridians; the minute of longitude is a constant distance on the map; the minute of latitude increases in length from the equator toward the poles but locally retains its true proportion to the minute of longitude; areas and distances increase in scale with the latitude so that a given scale is strictly correct only for one latitude; great circles and consequently lines of sight are curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator ; rhumb lines or lines having a constant angle with the meridians are straight, and for the same angle are parallel in all parts of the chart. These qualities are all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all areas, small or large, up to the extent of the earth's surface, except that it cannot be extended to the poles, as there the length of the minute of latitude would become infinite. An interesting fact regarding a rhumb, line oblique to the meridians is that it is a spiral continually approaching but never reaching the pole; this spiral makes an infinite number of revolutions around the pole, and yet it has a finite length for the reason that 70 Preparation of Charts the length of each revolution diminishes as the number of revolutions increases. The mercator projection has been extensively used for nautical charts, for which it presents important mechanical advantages, in that adjacent charts can be joined on all their edges while still oriented with the meridian; all charts are similar; the border may be conveniently subdivided, giving a longitude scale appli- cable to any part of the chart, but a latitude scale that may be used in the same latitude only; courses are laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another without error. On a mercator chart an island in latitude 60 would appear four times as large as an island of the same actual area at the equator, but this distortion of areas, while it gives erroneous impres- sions on charts of great extent in latitude, does not seri- ously affect the use of the chart for nautical purposes. Areas may also be correctly measured on a mercator map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately, subdividing it if necessary, and using the published tables of areas of quadrilaterals in different latitudes. Although distance scales vary with the latitude, dis- tances can be taken from this chart with fair correctness by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle latitude, subdividing the total distance if there is much range of latitude. The inability to take off the great circle or shortest course directly from the mercator chart is from a navigational point of view a defect, but the most convenient solution for this appears to be the supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will be described. The fact that lines of sight are not "flfiQjjj P A A EQUATOR TE FIG. 22. MERCATOR PROJECTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES YOKOHAMA TO PUGET SOUND, AND YOKOHAMA TO HONOLULU AND THENCE TO SAN FRANCISCO. FIG. 23. POLYCONIC PROJECTION OF PORTION OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. (71) Polyconic Projection 73 straight lines on this projection is another defect, as by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching the land the positions of vessels are located on the chart; fortunately, however, the error due to this cause usually falls within the other uncertainties involved in locating a ship; if need be it would be practicable to allow for this curvature. In the polar regions, how- ever, the faults of the mercator projection become so much exaggerated that it is not used for navigational purposes, but because of the absence of commercial navigation there this is a minor matter in the general question of chart projection. For the plotting of origi- nal surveys the mercator projection is not suited and is not used, for the reasons above mentioned. Tables of "meridional parts" are published which give the distance in terms of minutes of longitude from the equator to the various parallels; with these tables a mercator projection may readily be constructed. Airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the arc of a great circle on to a mercator chart, and tables are published for this purpose. The method is only approximate and is limited in application, and the supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear to be preferable. Polyconic projection. In plotting the original surveys it is essential that a projection be used which will for the area included on a survey sheet show the points in their correct relation both as to direction and distance. These conditions are substantially fulfilled by several projections, of which the polyconic is used in the United States. If a hollow cone were placed so that it would either be tangent to the earth's surface along 74 Preparation of Charts one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along two parallels, and the points projected on to this cone, and the cone then unrolled and laid out flat, the result would be a conical projection, of which there are several variations. If successive tangent cones be used and each parallel of latitude be developed as the circum- ference of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid along that parallel, the result is the polyconic projection, which has been used for field sheets and for the large scale charts, as well as for the topographic maps of the United States. This projection has valuable qualities for moderate areas of the earth's surface, within which the scale is approximately uniform, areas retain nearly their true proportions, and great circles and conse- quently all bearings and directions are approximately straight lines. The parallels of latitude are arcs of circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the pole; therefore they are not truly parallel and the length of the degree of latitude increases either side from the central meridian. The meridians converge toward the poles and become slightly curved as we recede from the central one; the longitude scale is everywhere correct, but the latitude scale is strictly correct only on the central meridian. The angles of intersection of parallels and meridians are right angles or nearly so. The polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas of the earth's surface, as for instance a hemisphere. Gnomonic projection. In this projection the eye is assumed to be at the center of the earth and the features are projected upon a plane tangent to some point on the earth's surface. It is practicable to use this projec- tion for oceanic areas, and it has the very important LJ Q -I Z O < QC UJ O o: z CS O ii uj O ^ or g enera l coast- wise navigation. General coast charts, scale 4 Q \ , for local coastwise navigation. Coast charts, scale -g ^ OQ , for approaching the coast at any point and for inside passages. Harbor and channel charts, of various large scales from -g-^or t 6~oooo> ^ or entering harbors and rivers and passing through channels. The expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches to the mile is the more familiar. The expression of scale in the manner used by the Coast Survey and by most of the European countries, by standard fractions as 80QQO? meaning that any distance on the chart is soooo of the actual distance on the earth, has some advantages. For instance, the relation of these frac- tions gives at a glance the relation of the scales of the charts. Thus a 80 ^ 00 chart is on a scale five times as large as a 4^0-0 cnart For the more important harbors charts have been published on several different scales to meet various needs. Thus New York Harbor is shown on charts of scales oi 10000 > 4oooo> soooo> 200000* 400000 anc * T2~o o~o~oT> eacn f course including a different area. The selection of suitable publication scales is of prime importance; a large scale permits of greater clearness and of showing more detail, but on the other hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown FIG. 26. NEW YORK HARBOR, PORTIONS OF CHARTS ON FOUR DIFFERENT SCALES. (81) Scales 83 on a single sheet, or else makes a chart of excessive dimensions. In general in chart preparation the scale should be restricted to the minimum that can be used to fulfill the particular object and clearly represent what is* desired. A chart of very large scale is not convenient for plotting, and a moving vessel may pass quickly beyond it or into range of objects beyond the limits of the chart. PUBLICATION OF CHARTS. Methods of publication. An ideal process of publi- cation for nautical charts would include the follow- ing features; rapidity in getting out new charts, facility in reprinting and correcting existing charts, clearness and sharpness of print, durability of paper and print, and correctness of scale. It is difficult to fulfill all these requirements by any method as yet developed. In the Coast and Geodetic Survey several different processes are in use at present; charts are engraved on copper and printed directly from the copper plate, or they are transferred from the copper plate to stone and printed from the stone, or a finished drawing is made and transferred to stone by photolithography and printed from the stone, or an etching is made on copper from a finished drawing and printed from a transfer to stone. Charts in other countries are in large part printed from engraved plates, excepting some preliminary charts by lithography. Copper plate engraving and printing have long been used in chart preparation. A drawing is prepared as a guide for the engraver; this must be correct as to all information to be shown but need not be a finished drawing. A true projection is ruled upon a copper plate. By photography a matrix is made from the drawing and a wax impression taken from this matrix. This is then laid down on the copper to fit the projection, and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper. 84 FIG. 27. ENGRAVING A CHART ON A COPPER PLATE. FIG. 28. ENGRAVING SOUNDINGS ON A COPPER PLATE WITH A MACHINE. (85) Copper Plate 89 The work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by machine. A high degree of skill is required in the accuracy and finish necessary for chart engraving. Machines have been invented in recent years which can be used for portions of the work on copper plates, as for instance for cutting the sounding figures, the bottom characteristics, the border and projection lines, border divisions, compasses, line ruling, and stipple ruling. Stamps and dies have been successfully used for some symbols and notes, and roulettes for shading. By means of these various machines, many of which are American inventions, the process of chart publication from plates has been materially facilitated. When the plate is completed an alto, or raised copy, is made by depositing copper on to it in an electrotype vat, and from this alto another basso or sunken copy is made by the same process. This latter basso is used in printing. A copper plate may be used for about 3000 impressions, after which it may become too much worn for satisfactory chart printing. By printing from a duplicate basso the original plate is preserved and additional copies can be made when needed. The use of the alto also greatly facilitates matters when a considerable correction to the chart is required. All the portions of the chart to be changed can be scraped off the alto, and when a new basso is electrotyped from this scraped alto all such areas will of course appear as smooth copper, on which the new work can be engraved. Numerous small corrections are called for on charts, and on copper plates where these are to replace old work the latter is removed either by ham- mering up the back of the plate or by scraping its face. 90 Publication of Charts Printing directly from plates is a laborious process. After the press bed has been carefully padded to take up inequalities in the plate, the surface of the latter is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off by hand, leaving the ink only in the engraved lines. The paper, first dampened, is laid on the plate, and passes with it beneath the cylinder of the press under consider- able pressure. The prints are calendered by being placed in a hydraulic press under 600 tons pressure. The charts are beautifully clear and sharp, not equalled by other methods of printing. Owing to the wetting and drying of the paper, the finished print is, however, quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate, and the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the other. The average day's work for one press and two men is 75 prints. This is small compared with the output practicable with lithographic presses. On the other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more readily than a lithographic stone. For small editions the plate printing compares well in economy with lithographic printing, and the plate can also be printed on short notice. Because of changes in aids to naviga- tion and other corrections, it is usually desirable to print at one time only a sufficient number of copies of a chart to meet current demands, and not to carry a large stock on hand. The copper plates, bassos, and altos make a very convenient and enduring means of preserving the chart ready for printing or for further correction. A large number of plates can be placed in a small space, and if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely without deterioration. FIG. 30. PRINTING CHARTS FROM COPPER PLATES; FINAL CLEANING OF THE PLATE BY HAND; PLATE PRESS ON THE LEFT. FIG. 31. LITHOGRAPHING PRESSES FOR PRINTING CHARTS ; LITHOGRAPH STONE ON TRANSFER PRESS. (91) Photolithography 93 With plate printing it is not practicable to print more than one impression on the chart or to use more than one color, and plate-printed charts are therefore in black only. Engraving on stone. On the United States Lake Survey the charts are first engraved on stone, and by a special process the work is then transferred to small copper plates, which are preserved. The final publi- cation is by lithography, transferring again from the plates to stone. Photolithography is a quick method of publishing a chart. It would be practicable by this means to reproduce the original survey sheets, but ordinarily these are not suitable as to scale and legibility, and it is necessary to make a new drawing, usually on tracing vellum. This is photographed on to glass plates, on the scale of the proposed chart. From these glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized lithographic paper. These prints are fitted together and then inked, taking the ink only where the lines appear. This transfer print is then laid face down on the lithographic stone and run through a press under pressure, the stone absorbing the ink from the paper. The stone is then treated so that the inked portion remains slightly raised, and from this stone an indefinite number of charts can be printed in a litho- graphic press at the rate of 1000 an hour. The paper is not moistened, and consequently there is little distor- tion or change of scale in prints from stone. If desired to shade the land or use another color for any other purpose, additional impressions can be made on the same charts from other stones. Because of the bulk 94 Publication of Charts of the stones, work cannot ordinarily be retained on them, but the chart is cleaned off and the stones repeatedly used until worn thin. The original drawing as well as the negatives is preserved, from which the chart can again be published. For republication, the process is, however, not entirely satisfactory; the negatives are not always permanent, the work must again be assembled and transferred to the stone, changes or corrections are not very conveniently made on either drawing or negative, and after repeated changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in photolithography. Whether the charts are actually printed from copper or stone, there are decided advan- tages therefore in the matter of correction work and future editions in having the charts engraved on copper. On the other hand, the advantages of the photolitho- graphic process are the ability to publish new drawings promptly, to use more than one shade on a chart, to obtain prints with little change of scale or distortion, and to print large editions rapidly. Lithographic printing by transfer from engraved plates. An impression on transfer paper may be taken from an engraved plate and this laid down on the stone in a manner similar to that used in laying down the prints from the glass negatives in photolithography. Prints are then made from the stone the same as in photolithography, but with superior results as to clearness. This general process is extensively used in both map and chart publishing in this country, as it combines the advantages of the plate in preservation of the chart record and facility of correction, and the advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion Etching on Copper 95 of the printed chart, ability to print more than one shade, and facility for large editions. As the transfer from the plate can be readily made it is also better applicable to small editions than is photolithography. It is, how- ever, not as convenient in the latter respect as plate printing, and it does not give a resulting impression equal in clearness or durability to the impression directly from the plate. Etching on copper for chart publication has been recently developed in the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A finished tracing is made, the surface of a smooth cop- per plate is sensitized, and by exposure to the sun a print is made on the sensitized surface. It is essential to use an air-exhausted printing frame so as to get good contact between the vellum and the plate. The work is then etched into the copper and the plate cleaned and touched up, after which it may be used the same as a hand-engraved plate, either for transfer to stone or direct plate printing. The expense and time required in the etching process are much less than for hand engraving. The process has been successfully used for a number of harbor charts. The etching of course will be of the same scale as the vellum at the time of the print, and vellum varies somewhat in scale with weather conditions and age. Unless overcome by the substitution of some more invariable material in place of vellum, this might be an obstacle to the use of the process for general charts where a true scale on the copper plate is desirable because of future work to be done on the plate. It must also be taken into account that the etching requires a finished tracing in ink, which is not essential for the hand engraver; if, however, 96 Publication of Charts the chart is first published by photolithography, as is the usual practice in the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the same tracing is used for both processes. Distribution of charts. Charts published by the government are sold to the public at a small price, estimated to cover the cost of paper and printing. The charts may be obtained direct from the publishing office or from the chart agents who are to be found in all the principal seaports. Catalogues are published from time to time giving complete lists of the current charts and the main facts regarding them. Index maps show graphically the area covered by each chart. The notices to mariners contain announcement of new charts or new editions published and of charts or editions cancelled, as well as of all corrections. CORRECTION OF CHARTS. Need for revision. The making of the survey and the printing of the chart do not complete the problem of the chart maker. Both nature and man are constantly changing the facts the representation of which has been attempted on the charts, and also the needs of man are always varying. The original surveys are made to meet the reasonable requirements of the time, but breakwaters and jetties are built, and channels and harbors dredged and otherwise improved, and cities built, and new paths of commerce are opened which bring vessels into waters previously thought of minor importance. With the increase of commerce and speed of vessels more direct routes are demanded for reasons of econ- omy. Inside routes not originally used are sometimes developed for defensive reasons. The average draft of the larger vessels has also increased remarkably since the modern hydrographic surveys were commenced, and surveys once made to insure safety for the deepest vessels of that time are now not adequate. The average loaded draft of the 20 largest steamships of the world has increased as follows: 1848, 19 feet; 1873, 24 feet; 1898, 29 feet; 1903, 32 feet. The average length of these vessels was 230 feet in 1848, 390 feet in 1873, 541 feet in 1898, and 640 feet in 1903. The number of vessels drawing as much as 26J feet rose from 36 in 1902 to 185 in 1904. In 1906 there were 17 vessels 98 Correction of Charts afloat, drawing 32 feet and upwards. There are now two steamers on the Atlantic 790 feet long, 88 feet beam, and 37^ feet draft when fully loaded, and larger vessels are already planned. Great natural agencies are also constantly at work effecting changes in features shown on the charts. The action of currents and waves is continually cutting away or building the shore, particularly on sandy coasts exposed to storms. When surveyed in 1849 Fishing Point on the east coast of Maryland was but a bend in the shore line. By 1887 it had built out about two miles in a southerly direction, and in 1902 about two-thirds of a mile further, curving to the west- ward. Altogether in about half a century this tongue of land has grown out nearly three miles. Rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and depositing these near their mouths, pushing out the coast line and filling in the bottom. The main mouths of the Mississippi are advancing into the Gulf, but at a comparatively slow rate. A break from the main river at Cubit's Gap just above the head of the passes, however, has done an enormous amount of land making, filling in an area of about 50 square miles between 1852 and 1905. The mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon shows an interesting example of the movement of an island. The chart of 1851 shows the center of Sand Island 3^ miles southeast of Cape Disappointment, the chart of 1870 shows it 2f miles southeast, and the chart of 1905 shows it 1J miles easterly. This island has thus moved 2 miles northwesterly directly across the middle of the river entrance, closing up the former ' .SURVEY OF /' SOUNDINGS: - x 6 foot curve .. 13 _ is " " Nautical Miles SURVEY OF 1902 l / SOUNDINGS: 6 foot curve Nautical Miles FIG. 32. FISHING POINT, MARYLAND, FROM SURVEYS OF I849 AND I902, ILLUS- TRATING BUILDING OUT OF A POINT ON THE COAST. (99) SURVEY OF 1852 SOUNDINGS: 6 foot curve SURVEY OF 1905 \ \ \ SOUNDINGS: \ \ \ c foot curve ~ \ \ \ a ' FIG. 33. GROWTH OF LAND AT CUBITS GAP, MISSISSIPPI DELTA, FROM 1852 TO 1905. (101) Nautical Mile U 1 FIG. 35, CHANGES IN HAULOVER BREAK, NANTUCKET ISLAND, 1890 TO 1903. New Bogoslof DALL 1895 New Bogoslof JAGGAR 1907 FIG. 36. MAPS OF BOGOSLOF ISLAND, 1 895 AND I907, SHOWING CHANGES DUE TO VOLCANIC ACTION. (105) Need for Revision 109 north channel. The southern point of the entrance, Clatsop Spit, has built out about the same distance. Volcanic action in well authenticated cases has caused islands to rise or disappear. In the present location of Bogoslof Island in Bering Sea the early voyagers described a "sail rock." In this position in 1796 there arose a high island. In 1883 another island appeared near it. In 1906 a high cone arose between the two, and a continuous island was formed over 1^ miles long and 500 feet high. The latest report (September, 1907) was that this central peak had sud- denly collapsed and disappeared. Bogoslof is an active volcano, and the main changes have been the result of violent volcanic action. The history of this island for over a century past forms a remarkable record of violent transformations in the sea. Earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements, horizontal or vertical, of sufficient amount to affect the information shown on the charts. A careful investiga- tion of the effects of the earthquake in Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in September, 1899, showed that the shore was raised in some parts with a maximum uplift of 47 feet and depressed in other parts, and that at least two reefs and four islets were raised in the water area where none appeared before. Undoubtedly there were changes in the water depths, but definite informa- tion is lacking because there had been no previous hydrographic survey. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 caused little vertical displacement, but there were horizontal changes of relative position as much as 16 feet; so far as known this earthquake did not affect the practical accuracy of the charts. Related 110 Correction of Charts to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast move- ments of elevation or subsidence which are taking place but at so slow a rate as not to sensibly affect the charts in ordinary intervals of time. Another agency at work is the coral polyp on the coral reefs; although the rate of growth appears to be very slow, the resulting reefs and keys are an important feature in tropical seas. Practically all of the land features shown on charts are likewise subject to changes, the more rapid of which are mainly due to the works of man. The changes of channels and of commercial needs cause many alterations to be made from time to time in the lights and buoys which are shown on the charts. Methods of correction. The problem of keeping a chart sufficiently up to date is one of much practical importance and one which must be taken into account in planning what should be shown on the chart in the first place so as to bring it within the range of practi- cable revision. Certain features are corrected at once on the charts as soon as the information is received, such as dangers reported, and changes in lights and buoys. Where harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made in this country by the Corps of Engineers furnish data which are applied promptly to the charts. Reported dangers in channels and bars are investigated by spe- cial surveys and the information is put on the charts. Examinations are made from time to time for the revision of the features along the coast line. Complete resurveys have been made, at long intervals, of some important portions of the coast where there has been Methods of Correction 111 evidence of change, and these, when they become available, are applied to the charts. All parts of the coast where the exposed portions are not of very permanent material will require resurveys at intervals, depending on their importance and the rate of change. Notwithstanding the great progress made in hydro- graphic surveys, a considerable number of rocks and shoals dangerous to navigation and not previously shown on the charts are reported, averaging nearly 400 each year for the last six years, according to the British reports. Of the 367 reported in 1906, 11 were discov- ered by vessels striking them. Immediate information in the form of Notices to Mariners is published, of the more important corrections to charts which can be made by hand. These correc- tions show what charts are affected, and give sufficient data for plotting. In the case of extensive corrections or new surveys a new edition of the chart is printed and all existing copies of the previous edition are canceled. It is important that the user of the chart shall make certain that he has the latest edition and that all correc- tions from its date of issue have been applied from the Notices to Mariners. It is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take proper account of the notices, or to economy, old editions or uncorrected charts are sometimes used, and in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been directly due to this cause. Those responsible for the safe navigation of vessels should insist that the latest editions of charts are provided and that all charts to be used are inspected and corrected to date. READING AND USING CHARTS. Reading charts. A chart is a representation on paper of hydrographic and topographic information by means of various conventional methods and symbols. It is evidently important for those making use of charts to understand the system and conventions used, and to be able to interpret readily the various parts of the chart. The ability to read a chart must include an understanding of all its features, such as scale, projection, geographic position, directions, depths, plane of reference, aids to navigation, tides, cur- rents, elevations, topography, and date of survey and publication. Scale. For American and British charts the scale is usually expressed by the inches or fractions of an inch to the minute or degree of latitude, or by the fractional proportion of a distance on the map to the correspond- ing distance on the earth. These fractions are some- times stated on the British charts, and nearly always on those of the United States Coast Survey. The chart catalogues give the scale in one or the other form. A familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in selecting the most suitable chart, in judging of the relative uses of charts, and in estimating distances. Where the fractional scales are stated they furnish a simple means of comparing charts, as, for instance, a chart on -s^ov scale will show all distances just twice as long as a chart on TuoWo scale. 112 Scale 113 The following are scale equivalents: Scale T^io o is equivalent to 7.30 inches to one nautical mile. Scale YO with edge graduated 90 degrees either way, and mounted on rollers; it is the most rapid instrument for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires a smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two- bar parallel ruler with edge when closed graduated 90 degrees either way; it is a very serviceable instrument and probably more to be depended upon for ordinary use than the rolling form. Some form of combined protractor and parallel ruler should be in every navi- gational equipment, and it is unfortunate that these instruments are not better known in this country. 144 Use of Charts in Navigation There are other forms of half-circle protractors which are used on the same principle, that is, of bringing the center on to a projection line and reading where the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor. Thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate straight edge, along which it is slid to the nearest meridian; another form is the simple circular pro- tractor with a thread fastened at the center. All these forms of protractors, it will be noted, are intended to work from the true meridian, and they are usually graduated in degrees only; the use of degrees instead of points is becoming much more general in navigational work, and reference to the true meridian is also more common than formerly. The standard three-arm protractor, or station pointer, as it is known to the English, should be a part of every navigational outfit because of its value in locating a position by the three-point problem. A recent American invention, Court's three-arm pro- tractor, is an instrument made of celluloid for the same purpose. It should not be considered as a substitute for the standard metal instrument, but it is a simple, cheap, and handy supplement to it, as it may be readily used for small angles and short dis- tances where there are mechanical difficulties in work- ing with the metal three-arm protractor. Other pro- tractors can be used for the three-point problem, as, for instance, Gust's protractor on celluloid, on which the angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the tracing- paper protractor. Degree of reliance on charts. The value of a chart must not be judged alone from its general appearance, FIG. 48. THREE-ARM PROTRACTOR IN USE ON A CHART, PLOTTING POSITION FROM TWO ANGLES, (145) Degree of Reliance 147 as skill in preparation and publication may give a handsome appearance to an incomplete survey. On the other hand a thorough survey might through poor preparation result in a chart defective either in infor- mation or in utility. The degree of completeness of the soundings, the character of the region, and the date of the survey should be taken into account in deciding as to the amount of reliance to be placed on the chart. Areas where the soundings are not distributed with fair uniformity may be assumed not to have been completely surveyed. Caution should be used in navigating on charts where the survey is not complete, and even where careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom is of very irregular nature with lumps near the navi- gable depth, as for instance on some of the coral reef coasts. Isolated soundings shoaler than the sur- rounding depths should be avoided, as there may be less water than shown. In such a region, unless the whole area is dragged, it is impossible to make it entirely certain that all obstructions are charted. While an immense amount of faithful work has been put into the preparation of many charts, the user must constantly exercise his own judgment as to the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is not to be considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys may get adrift and be in a different position or be gone altogether; fog signals vary in distinctness owing to atmospheric conditions; extreme or unusual tides may fall below the plane of reference; owing to strong winds the actual tide may differ from the predicted tide. Errors sometimes creep in from various sources, 148 Use of Charts in Navigation such as those due to different reference longitudes or the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the chart without changing other positions to which the same correction is applicable; clerical and printing errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in surveys; a feature may get plotted in two different positions; tide rips are reported as breakers and floating objects as rocks or islands, and thus many dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be found again, and false reports are sometimes made to shield some one from blame. Most of these classes of errors and uncertainties, however, disappear in the use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast. Use the latest editions of charts. The latest edition of a chart should always be used and should be corrected for all notices since its issue. Carelessness or false economy in not providing the largest scale or the latest chart has been the cause of more than one marine disaster. The British Board of Trade issue the following official notice to shipowners and agents: "The attention of the Board of Trade has frequently been called to cases in which British vessels have been endangered or wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate them by means of antiquated or otherwise defective charts. The Board of Trade desires, therefore, to direct the especial attention of shipowners and their agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or sent on board their ships are corrected to the time of sailing. Neglect to supply a ship with proper charts will be brought prominently before the Court of Inquiry in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause." Use Latest Editions 149 The following is a translation of a notice in the preface to the catalogue of charts published by the German government: "Owners and masters of vessels are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which the casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts, have frequently been before the admiralty courts. In consequence of this, the ' Instructions for the prevention of accidents to steamers and sailing vessels,' issued by the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory upon every master, except when engaged in local coastwise navigation, to keep the Notices to Mariners regularly, and with the aid of them to carefully keep his charts up to date.'" The British shipping laws provide that a ship may not be sent to sea in such an unseaworthy state that the life of any person is thereby endangered, and the House of Lords has defined the term "seaworthy" to mean "in a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and crew, and in all other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of the voyage." Proper charts and sailing directions are a necessary part of the equipment of a vessel, and the courts have frequently inquired into this. The records of the British courts, however, show that even in recent years many ships have been damaged or lost owing directly or indirectly to failure to have the latest information on board. The following are instances from these records. In 1890 the steamer Dunluce was lost owing to the use of an old edition of the Admiralty chart which showed a depth of 4^ fathoms on the Wikesgrund, whereas the later chart showed much less water. In 150 Use of Charts in Navigation this case the master had requested his ship chandler to send him the latest chart. In 1891 the steamer St. Donats got ashore on a patch which was not shown on the chart in use, which was privately published in 1881 ; the danger was, how- ever, shown on the Admiralty chart corrected to 1889. Also in 1891 the steamer- Trent was lost on the Missipezza Rock in the Adriatic. The ship was navi- gated by a private chart published in 1890 which did not show this rock, and by sailing directions published in 1866. The steamer Aboraca, stranded in the Gulf of Bothnia in 1894, was being navigated by a chart cor- rected to 1881 which did not show that the Storkalla- grund light- vessel had been moved eight miles. The steamer Ravenspur was lost on Bilbao Break- water owing to the use of a chart not up to date which did not show the breakwater. In 1898 the steamer Cromarty was lost in attempting to enter Ponta Delgada harbor, and in 1901 the steamer "Dinning- ton" was lost by steaming on to the new breakwater in Portland harbor; both of these disasters were likewise due to the use of old charts which did not show the breakwaters. In these three cases the masters of the vessels had authority to obtain the necessary charts at the owners' expense. Not so, however, in the following case from the finding of a British marine court in 1877: "The primary cause of the ship's getting on shore was due to the master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and cor- rected to April, 1862, and on which no lights are shown Use Largest Scale Charts 151 to exist either in ... or ... and to his not being supplied with the latest sailing directions. The Court, considering that the master was obliged to furnish himself with chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts, sailing directions, and everything necessary for the navigation of his vessel out of his private resources, which, under very favorable circumstances, might per- haps reach .150 a year, find themselves unable in this instance to pass a heavier censure upon him than that he be severely reprimanded." The loss of the German steamer Baker on the coast of Cuba on January 31, 1908, was declared by the marine court at Hamburg to be due in part to the use of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest surveys on that coast. Use the largest scale charts. The largest scale chart available should be employed when entering channels, bays, or harbors, as' it gives information with more clearness and detail, positions may be more accurately plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for new information. The records of the courts of inquiry also show cases where vessels have been wrecked owing to the use of charts of too small scale. In 1890 the steamer Lady Ailsa was lost on the Plateau du Four. The only chart on board for this locality was a general chart of the Bay of Biscay, and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking one buoy for another. The court found that the chart, although a proper one for general use, was not sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such narrow waters and on such a dangerous coast. 152 Use of Charts in Navigation The Zenobia was stranded on the San Thome Bank in 1891. On this vessel the owners were to furnish the chronometers and the master the charts and sailing directions. The master was, however, apparently satisfied with only a general chart of the South Atlantic for navigation on the coast of Brazil, and had no sailing directions at all. The depth curves on charts furnish a valuable guide, and if the curves are lacking or broken in some parts it is usually a sign that the information is incomplete. The 100-fathom curve is a general warning of approach to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky coasts should be considered as a danger curve, and caution used after crossing it. The 5-fathom curve is the most important for modern vessels of medium draft, as it indicates for them the practical limit of naviga- tion. The 3, 2, and 1-fathom curves are a guide to smaller vessels, but have less significance than formerly because of the increase of -draft of vessels. The shrinkage of paper, especially in plate printing, has been referred to. This introduces two possible sources of error: first, the shrinkage being different in the two directions, any scale printed on the chart will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel to itself; second, for the same reason, angles and directions will be somewhat distorted. Fortunately these errors are not serious in the ordinary navigational use of a chart, but they should not be overlooked when accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted on a plate-printed chart. The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed from plates varies from ^ inch to 1 inch in a length Care of Charts 153 of chart of 36 inches. On British and American plate printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in the other. Care of charts. In order that they may be properly used charts should be filed flat and not rolled. They should be systematically arranged so that the desired chart can be instantly found. They should be cared for and when in bad condition replaced by new copies. They can be most conveniently filed in shallow drawers, thus avoiding the placing of many charts in a single drawer. The latter is a common fault; it not only increases the labor of handling the charts but adds to the liability of their injury. PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL CHARTS. There are several publications in book and in chart form which are either necessary or convenient for use in connection with nautical charts. These comprise the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide tables, light and buoy lists, and various special charts. Coast pilots, or sailing directions, are books giving descriptions of the main features, as far as of interest to seamen, of the coast and adjacent waters, with directions for navigation. They contain much miscel- laneous information of value to the mariner, especially the stranger. Although they contain additional facts which cannot be shown on the charts, they are not at all intended to supersede the latter; the mariner should in general rely on the charts. The sailing directions can be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all cases where they differ the charts are to be taken as the guide. The most extensive series of sailing directions is that published by the British Admiralty, comprising fifty-six volumes and including all the navigable regions of the world. In the United States the Coast and Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots for the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico, and southeastern Alaska, and eight volumes of sailing directions for Alaska and the Philippine Islands. The United States Hydrographic Office publishes six- 154 Notices to Mariners 155 teen volumes of sailing directions for various parts of the world. Notices to Mariners are published at frequent inter- vals, giving all important corrections, which should be at once applied by hand to the charts, such as rocks or shoals discovered and lights and buoys established or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled charts are also announced. These notices should be carefully examined and the necessary corrections made on all charts of the sets in use on the vessel. A chart should be considered as a growing rather than a finished instrument, and constant watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to date. Neglect of this may cause shipwreck, as the fol- lowing instance shows. Report came to Manila in 1904 that there was a low sand islet lying off the very poorly charted northeast coast of Samar; this infor- mation was promptly published in the local Notice to Mariners. About a month later a small steamer was sent to land some native constabulary on that coast. The captain failed to obtain or observe this notice, and approached the coast before daylight on a course . which led directly across the sand islet. The vessel was driven far up on the sand, where it still lies. In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners are published by the Department of Commerce and Labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction of the United States, and by the Navy Department for all regions. These notices are distributed free and can be obtained from chart agents and consular officers. In Great Britain the notices are published at frequent intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and practically 156 Supplementary Publications all countries issuing charts also issue such notices. Information as to important changes in lights and other announcements of navigational interest are also sometimes printed in the marine columns of news- papers and in nautical periodicals. Tide Tables. Brief information as to the time and height of the tide is usually for convenience given on the face of the chart. More complete information is published in the Tide Tables, with which every navi- gator should be provided. "The Tide Tables for United States and foreign ports/' published annually in advance by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, give complete predictions of the time and height of high and low water for each day of the year for 70 of the principal ports of the world, and the tidal differences from some principal port for 3000 subordi- nate ports. The other leading nations also publish annual tide tables; those of the British government are entitled " Tide Tables for British and Irish ports, and also the times of high water for the principal places on the globe." Light and buoy lists. Brief information as to all artificial aids to navigation is shown on the charts. Every vessel should also have on board the latest official light and buoy lists, which give a more detailed description than can be placed on the charts. Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States are published annually by the Light-House Board. The United States Hydrographic Office publishes a "List of Lights of the World" (excepting the United States) , in three volumes. The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight Chart Catalogues 157 volumes of Lists of Lights, and these are corrected annually. Chart catalogues are published in connection with all series of charts. They give the particulars and price of each chart published, and are usually arranged in geographical order, with both alphabetical and numerical indexes, for convenience in rinding charts either by position, name, or number. Charts for special purposes. There are various special charts published for the benefit of mariners, although not intended for direct use in plotting the course of a vessel or in locating its position. Some of the more important of these are mentioned below. Gnomonic charts are intended solely for laying down the great circle or shortest practicable courses between points, for which purpose they are very convenient. Their use has already been described. The United States Hydrographic Office publishes six such charts, for the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Current charts are published by the British Hydro- graphic Office for the various oceans; these usually show the average ocean currents, but for the Atlantic there are monthly and for the Pacific quarterly current charts. Magnetic variation charts are published by both the United States and British governments. They show on a mercator chart of the world the isogonic lines, or lines along which the variation of the needle from true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each degree of variation. The annual change in the varia- tion is also indicated. 158 Supplementary Publications Other magnetic charts are published showing the lines of equal magnetic dip, horizontal magnetic force, and vertical magnetic force. Meteorological ocean charts are published by sev- eral governments, including the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, and give the average weather conditions, winds, fogs, currents, ice, tracks of storms, and other information. "Pilot charts " of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans are issued by the United States Hydrographic Office about the first of each month, and give "a forecast of the weather for the ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month, together with all obtainable information as to the most available sailing and steam routes, dangers to navigation, ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any additional information that may be received of value to navigation." Mariners in all parts of the world have joined in contributing the information which has been used in compiling these pilot charts. Track charts are published by the British and United States governments. That of the latter is entitled " Track and distance chart of the world, show- ing the routes traversed by full-powered steamers between the principal ports of the world, and the corresponding distances." Telegraph charts are published showing the " tele- graphic connections afforded by the submarine cables and the principal overland telegraph lines." Index charts are outline plans showing the area covered by each chart of a series, and furnish a con- venient means of finding a chart of any desired region or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose. Star Charts 159 These index charts are published either in sets, showing all the charts of a series, or are bound into the chart catalogues. Star charts are included in navigational series, and are conveniently arranged for use on shipboard in identifying the brighter stars. The United States Hydrographic Office publishes two, constellations of the northern and of the southern hemispheres. Explanatory sheets are published in connection with various series of charts, giving explanations of the symbols and abbreviations used and of other important features. In the United States the Coast and Geodetic Survey has issued a small pamphlet, "Notes on the use of charts," which contains explana- tions of its chart symbols, and the Hydrographic Office has published " A manual of conventional symbols and abbreviations in use on the official charts of the principal maritime nations." INDEX Aids to navigation 118 Arbitrary projection 79 Astronomical observations 32 Astronomical positions 126 Bearings, position by 130 Board of Trade notice 148 Care of charts 153 Catalogues of charts 157 Changes in the coast 98 Chart making, development of. ... 6 Chart publications of various nations 18 Charts, earliest nautical 6 Charts, loxodromic 7 Charts, plain 8 Chart schemes 67 Chart working 124 Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States 13 Coast pilots 154 Compass bearings 130 Compass, nautical use of 6 Compass, variation of 7 Compilation of information 67 Correction of charts, method of. ... 110 Cosa, Juan de la 8 Current charts 157 Currents 50, 121 Danger angle, horizontal 136 Danger bearing 131 Danger range 132 Dangers, reports of 56 Dates on charts 123 Dead reckoning 129 PAGE PAGE Depth curves 116, 152 Depths, unit for 19, 116 Depth units, relation of 118 Directions on charts 115 Distances, measured on chart 125 Distribution of charts 96 Doubling angle on bow 131 Draft of vessels 97 Dragging for dangers 55 Earthquakes 109 Electrotyping plates 89 Elevations 122 Engraving machines 89 Engraving on copper 84 Engraving on stone 93 Eskimo map 1 Etching on copper 95 Explanatory sheets 159 Flattening of the earth 3 France, establishment of chart office 10 Geographic position on charts 115 Geography, early 2 Germany, contributions to hydrog- raphy 14 Gnomonic charts 79, 157 Gnomonic projection 74 Great Britain, contributions to geography 14 Holland, development of chart making 10 Hydrographic Office, British 13 Hydrographic Office, United States 13 Hydrography 40 161 162 Index PAGE Index charts 158 Information on charts 23 Instruments used on charts 141 Lake Survey, United States 13 Largest scale chart 151 Latest editions of charts 148 Light and buoy lists 156 Lithographic printing 94 Locating a vessel 126 Longitude, initial 19 Longitude, uncertainties in 10 Magnetic charts 157 Magnetic variation 56 Map, earliest 2 Map making, development of 2 Maps, need of 1 Maritime surveys, extension of 17 Mercator chart, history 8 Mercator projection 68 Meteorological charts (pilot charts) 158 Navigation, use of charts in 124 Notices to mariners Ill, 155 Paper, shrinkage of 152 Parallel rulers, Field's 141 Photolithography 93 Plane of reference 20, 1 19 Plotting positions 124 Polyconic projection 73 Printing, plate 84, 90 Privately published charts 21 Progress of hydrographic surveys. . 17 Projection, explanation of 114 Projections 68, 114 Protractor, three-arm 144 Ptolemy 3 Publication of charts, methods 84 Purpose of charts 22 132 PAGE Reliance on charts 144 Reports of dangers, erroneous 57 Requirements for charts 23 Revision of charts, need of 97 Rock, Brooklyn 50 Sailing directions, early 4 Sailing directions 154 Scale equivalents 113 Scales of charts 79, 112 Set, graphical allowance for 125 Sextant angles 132 Sheets for surveys 39 Shrinkage of paper 152 Sound, position by 140 Sounding machines 49 Soundings, position by 136 Star charts 159 Station pointer x 144 Steamer for surveying 49 Simmer's method 126 Supplementary publications 154 Surveys on foreign coasts 14 Surveys, need of thorough 31 Symbols on charts 20 Telegraph charts 158 Three-point problem 132, 135 Tides 50, 120 Tide tables 156 Topography 39 Topography on charts 123 Track charts 158 Triangulation 32 Uniformity in charts 21 Use of charts in navigation 124 Vertical angles 139 Vigias, removal of 62 Vigilance, need of 140 Volcanic action. . . .109 Reading charts 112 Wrecks due to deficient charts 149 SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE OP THE PUBLICATIONS JOHN WILEY & SONS, NEW YORK. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS. Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk (*) are sold at net prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated. AGRICULTURE. Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding i2mo, Si 75 Principles of Animal Nutrition 8vo, 4 oo Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual: Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement I2mo, i 50 Part II. Systematic Pomology I2mo, i 50 Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage i2mo, i 50 Practical Farm Drainage 12010, i oo Graves's Forest Mensuration 8vo, 4 oo Green's Principles of American Forestry i2mo, i 50- Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) i2mo, 2 oo Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.) 8vo, 5 oo Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol 8vo, 4 oo Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration i2mo, i 50 * McKay and Lar sen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making 8vo, i 50 Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops i2mo, i 50 * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest izmo, i 25 Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50 Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods 8vo, 7 50 Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen i6mo, i 50 ARCHITECTURE. Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings i2mo, 2 50 Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House i2mo, i oo Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 oo Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres 8vo, 3 oo Architectural Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings 8vo, 2 oo Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings 8vo, 3 50 Skeleton Construction in Buildings 8vo, 3 oo Brigg's Modern American School Buildings 8vo, 4 oo Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 8vo, 4 oo 1 Freitag's Architectural Engineering 8vo. 3 50 Fireproofing of Steel Buildings 8vo, 2 50 French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo. 2 50 Cerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection z6mo, i oo Sanitation of Public Buildings . izmo, i 50 Theatre Fires and Panics lamp, i 50 *Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 2 50 Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook i8mo, 75 Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo, 2 oo Kellaway 's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds 8vo, 2 oo Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book. Rewritten Edition. i6mo,mor., 5 oo .Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration .8vo, 5 oo Non-metallic Minerals : Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 4 oo Monckton's Stair-building 4to, 4 oo Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 oo Peabody's Naval Architecture 8vo, 7 50 Rice's Concrete -block Manufacture 8vo, 2 oo Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction i6mo, mor., 4 oo * Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Book : * Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition i6mo, morocco, i 50 * Cementworkers and Plasterer's Edition. (In Press.) * Stone- and Brick-mason's Edition i2mo, mor., i 50 'Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, i 50 Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 50 Sondericker's Graphic Statics with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches. 8vo, 2 oo Towne's Locks and Builders' Hardware i8mo, morocco, 3 oo Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construc- tion 8vo, 3 oo Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo Sheep, 6 50 Xaw of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- tecture 8vo, 5 oo Sheep, 5 50 Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 oo Wilson's Air Conditioning, (In Press,) Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. .8vo, 4 oo Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small Hospital. lamo, i 25 The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 Large 4to, i oo ARMY AND NAVY. Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose. and the Theory of the Cellulose Molecule i2mo, 2 50 Chase's Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion 8vo, 3 oo Cloke's Gunner's Examiner 8vo, i 50 Craig's Azimuth 4to, 3 50 Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 3 oo * Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50 * Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, 7 oo Sheep, 7 50 De Brack's Cavalry Outposts Duties. (Carr.) 24mo, morocco, 2 oo Dietz's Soldier's First Aid Handbook i6mo, morocco, i 25 * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts- martial. . . Large 12010, 2 50 Burand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships 8vo, 5 oo 2 * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery i2mo, 3 oo Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo * Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification Small 8vo, 2 oo Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism i8mo, I oo * Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics 8vo, i 50 Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire 8vo, 4 oo * Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery 8vo, 6 oo * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. .8vo, each, 6 oo * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.) 8vo, half morocco, 7 50 Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, morocco, I 50 * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places i2mo, 2 oo * Elements of the Art of War 8vo, 4 oo Metcalf's Cost of Manufactures And the Administration of Workshops. .8vo, 5 oo * ' Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols i2mo, 5 oo Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations i8mo, paper, 10 Nixon's Adjutants' Manual 24mo, i oo Peabody's Naval Architecture 8vo, 7 5<> * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying 8vo, 2 50 Powell's Army Officer's Examiner i2mo, 4 oo Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War i8mo, morocco, i 50. * Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing. 24mo, leather, 50 Weaver's Military Explosives 8vo, 3 oo Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining 8vo, 2 oo Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law I2mo, 2 50 Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, i 50. Young's Simple Elements of Navigation i6mo, morocco, 2 oo, ASSAYING. Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.. 1 2 mo, morocco, r 50 Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 ooi Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments. . . .8vo, 3 oo. Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis 8vo, 3 oo. Miller's Manual of Assaying i2mo, i oo. Cyanide Process i2mo, i oo, Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.) i2mo, 2 50, O'DriscolI's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 oo Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying 8vo, 3 oo Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) 8vo, 4 oo Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo Wilson's Cyanide Processes I2mo, i 50 Chlorination Process. i2mo, i 50 ASTRONOMY. Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50 Craig's Azimuth 4 to, 3 50 Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares 8vo, 3 oo Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy 8vo, 4 oo Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy .8vo, 3 oo Merrirran's Elements ot Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy 8vo, 3 oo * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy i2mo, 2 oo 3 BOTANY. Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special Reference to Biological Variation. 1 6mo, morocco, i 25 Thom and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany i6mo, 2 25 Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.) 8vo, 2 oo CHEMISTRY. * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (Von Ende.) i2mo, i 25 Adriance's Laboratory Calculations and Specific Gravity Tables i2mo, i 25 Alexeyeff's General Principles of Organic Synthesis. (Matthews.) 8vo, 3 oo .Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 3 oo .Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.) Small 8vo, 3 50 Austen's Notes for Chemical Students i2mo, i 50 Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.) Bernadou's Smokeless Powder. Nitre-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose Molecule i2mo, 2 50 Bolduan's Immune Sera I2mo, i 50 * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 8vo, i 50 Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy 8vo, 4 oo '* Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.) 8vo, 3 oo Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.). .8vo, 3 oo Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers i2mo, 2 oo Tests and Reagents 8vo, 3 oo Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Schaeffer.). . .i2mo, i 50 * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.) I2mo, i 25 Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von Ende.) i2mo, 2 50 Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.) I2mo, i 25 Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) 8vo, 4 oo Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo, 3 oo Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.) i2mo, i 25 * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation Large I2mo, 2 oo Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe. i2mo, morocco, i 50 Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses i2mo, 2 oo Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.) 8vo, 5 oo Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells.) 8vo, 3 oo Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols 8vo, 12 50 Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50 Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 oo * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry I2mo, 2 oo Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers. 12010, i 25 * Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Small 8vo, i 25 Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) i2mo, 2 oo Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) i2mo, i 25 Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) 8vo, 4 oo Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton. ) 8vo, 5 oo * HasMn's and MacLeod's Organic Chemistry 12mo, 2 oo Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.) i2mo, i 50 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol 8vo, 4 oo Hind's Inorganic Chemistry 8vo, 3 oo * Laboratory Manual for Students I2mo, i oo Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.) 8vo, 2 50 Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.) 8vo f 2 50 * Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.) I2mo, i oo 4 "Eolley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes. (In Press) Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 oo Iddings's Rock Minerals 8vo, 5 oo Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. .8vo, I 25 Johannsen's Key for the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sec- tions. (In Press) Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis i2mo, i oo Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 oo * Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in Vegetable Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters 8vo, 2 oo Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.) I2mo, i oo Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control 8vo, 7 50 Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) 8vo, 3 oo Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments 8vo, 3 oo Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis 8vo, 3 oo Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) lamo i oo * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making 8vo, i 50 TVTaire ' s Modern Pigments and their Vehicles . (In Press. ) Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory I2mo, I 50 * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe . . I2mo, 60 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 oo Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) I2mo, i 25 Matthew's The Textile Fibres, zd Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 400 Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.). .I2mo, i oo Miller's Manual of Assaying i2mo, i oo Cyanide Process -. i2mo, i oo Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.) . . . . i2mo, 2 50 Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry I2mo, i 50 Morgan's An Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its Results i2mo, i oo Elements of Physical Chemistry I2mo, 3 oo * Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers i2mo, 5 oo Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco, i 50 * MUT'S History of Chemical Theories and Laws 8vo, 4 oo Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds. Vol. I Large 8vo, 5 oo O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 oo Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.) 12010, 150 " " " Part Two. (TurnbulL) i2mo, 200 * Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry I2mo, l oo * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.) . . . . I2mo, i 25 * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 8vo, paper, 50 Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.) 8vo, 5 oo Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.) i2mo, i 50 Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 oo Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- ence to Sanitary Water Analysis i2mo, i 25 * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing 8vo, 25 oo Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint. .8vo , 2 oo Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying 8vo, 3 oo Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 4 oo Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 8vo, 4 oo Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory 8vo, i 25 Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) 8vO 4 do 5 Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo, 2 oo * Whys in Pharmacy '. . . . i2mo. i oo Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo 3 oo Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.) 8vo, 2 50 Schimpf s Text-book of Volumetric Analysis i2mo, 2 50 Essentials of Volumetric Analysis I2mo, i 25 * Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, i 25 Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students 8vo, 2 50- Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses i6mo, morocco 3 oo Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers i6mo. morocco. 3 oo Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50- * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, i 50- * Descriptive General Chemistry 8vot 3 oc- Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.) 8vo, 3 oo Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.) 8vo, 4 oo Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.) i2mo, i 50 * Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo. 4 oo Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. I Small 8vo, 4 oo Vol. II Small Svo, 5 co Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks 8vo, 2 oo Weaver's Military Explosives. 8vo, 3 oo- Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed -Water 8vo, 4 oo Wells's Laboratory Guide inQualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, i so- Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering Students I2mo, i 50 Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic I2mo, i 25 Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 Wilson's Cyanide Processes i2mo, i 50 Chlorination Process i2mo, i 50 Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods 8vo, 7 50 Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Chemistry 12010, 2 oa CIVIL ENGINEERING. BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING^ RAILWAY ENGINEERING. Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments i2mo, 3 oo Bixby's Graphical Computing Table Paper io X 24^ inches. 25. Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying 8vo, 3 oo * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo, 3 50 Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50 * Corthell's Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations I2mo, 125. Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares 8vo, 3 oo Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables 8vo, i oa Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage i2mo, i 50 Practical Farm Drainage I2mo, i oo *Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo, 5 oo Flemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments 8vo, 5 oo Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.) 8vo, 3 oo Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 3 50 French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo, 2 50 Goodhue's Municipal Improvements i2mo, i 50 Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 * Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates, I2mo, i 25 Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo, 3 oo 6 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 "Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth I2mo, i 25 Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge 8vo, 2 oo "* Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level i6mo, Bds. 25 Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying i6mo, morocco, i 50 Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying Small 8vo, 4 oo Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo, 2 oo Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . i2mo, 2 oo Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.) 8vo, 5 oo * Descriptive Geometry. 8vo, i 50 Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors i6mo, morocco, 2 oo N ugent's Plane Surveying 8vo, 3 50 Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo, 2 oo Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse. : 8vo, 2 oo Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo half leather, 7 50 Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 oo Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 4 oo Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Coming and Peele.) . .8vo, 3 oo Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, i 50 Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50 Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches. 8vo, 2 oo Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo Tracy's Plane Surveying I6mo, morocco, 3 oo * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo Venable's Garbage Crematories in America .8vo, 2 oo Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo Sheep, 6 50 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- tecture 8vo, 5 oo Sheep, 5 50 Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 oo Warren's Stereotomy Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. i6mo, morocco, i 25 Wilson's Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 BRIDGES AND ROOFS. Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. .8vo, 2 oo Burr and Falk's Influence -Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations 8vo, 3 oo Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges 8vo, 5 oo Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Small 4to, 10 oo Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 oo Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 Greene's Roof Trusses 8vo, i 25 Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50 Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 2 50 Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses. (In Press.) Howe's Treatise on Arches 8vo, 4 oo Design of Simple Roof -trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo, 2 oo Symmetrical Masonry Arches 8vo, 2 50 Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 oo Merriman and Jacoby's Text- book on Roofs and Bridges: Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses , 8vo, 2 50 Part II. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 Part III. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50 Part IV. Higher Structures 8vo, 2 50 7 Morison's Memphis Bridge. , 4to, 10 o Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. . i6mo, morocco, 2 oo * Specifications for Steel Bridges izmo, 50 Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume 8vo, 3 50- HYDRAULICS. Barnes's Ice Formation 8vo, 3 oo> Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.) 8vo, 2 oo Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo- Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo- Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels paper, i so- Hydraulic Motors 8vo, 2 oo- Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, morocco, 2 50 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo, 3 oo Folwell's Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo- Frizell's Water-power , 8vo, 5 oo- Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50 Water-filtration Works i2mo. 2 50 Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels. (Bering and Trautwine.) 8vo, 4 oo Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large I2mo, l 5o Filtration of Public Water-supply 8vo, 3 oo Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water- works 8vo, 2 50- Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits 8vo, 2 oo * Hubbard and Kiersted's Water- works Management and Maintenance. . . 8vo, 4 co- Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 8vo, 4 oo- Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- supply Large 8vo, 5 oo * Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers 4to, 6 oo- Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8yo, 5 oo- Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams, sth Edition, enlarged. . .4to, 6 oo- Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 4to, 10 oo Whipple's Value of Pure Water Large i2mo, i oo- Williams and^Hazen's Hydraulic Tables 8vo, i 50* Wilson's Irrigation Engineering , ' Small 8vo, 4 oo- Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo- Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50- Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 oo> Roads and Pavements 8vo, 5 oo> Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 oo * Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 7 5<> Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 5 oo> Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. i6mo, 3 oo> Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo> Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 410 . 7 5<> *Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters 8vo, 6 oo 8 Jolinson's Materials of Construction. Large 8vo, 6 oo Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 Graves's Forest Mensuration 8vo, 4 oo * Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 2 50 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 Lanza's Applied Mechanics .' 8vo, 7 50 Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. 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Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 oo Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and the Prony Brake 8vo, 5 oo Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice i2mo, i 50 Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 5 oo Wehrenfenning's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water (Patterson) 8vo, 4 oo Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 5 oo Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . .8vo, 4 oo MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 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Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50 Vol. II Small 4to, 10 oo Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i6mo, i oo Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo, 3 oo Rope Driving i2mo, 2 oo Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo Locomotive Performance 8vo, 5 oo * Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 2 50 Hall's Car Lubrication lamo, i oo Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.) Holly's Art of Saw Filing i8mo, 75 James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. Small 8vo, 2 oo * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics i2mo, 3 oo Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods 8vo, 2 oo Jones's Machine Design: Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50 Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts. ... 8vo, 3 oo Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods 8vo, 4 oo * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.). 8vo, 4 oo MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50 * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. I, Statics i2mo, i 25 Vol. 2, Kinematics and Kinetics . .I2mo, 1 50 Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 5 oo * Elements of Mechanics i2mo, i oo * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design 4 to, half morocco, 12 50 Reagan's Locomotives : Simple,, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. Large i2mo, 3 5o Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oo Richards's Compressed Air i2mo, i 50 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. 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(Herrmann Klein.). 8vo. 5 oo Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo Principles of Elementary Mechanics I2mo, i 25 Turbines. 8vo, 2 50 The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to, I oo MEDICAL. * Bolduan's Immune Sera izmo, 1 50 De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.). . . .Large i2mo, 2 50 Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.) 8vo, 6 oo * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation .Large 12mo, cloth, 2 oo Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) 8vo, 4 oo Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) 1211:0, oo * Pauli's Physical Chemistry m the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.) . . . . 12010, 25 * Pozzi-Escot's The Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn.). i2mo, oo Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, oo Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.) 8vo, 50 * Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology i2mo, 25 Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 50 Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, oo Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, 50 * Personal Hygiene i2mo, oo Wulling's An Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry i2mo, 2 oo METALLURGY. Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis. (In Press.) Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury: Vol. I. Silver 8vo, 7 50 Vol. II. Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50 Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book , . . . . i6mo, mor. 3 oo * Iles's Lead-smelting i2mo, Keep's CastJron 8vo, Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess. )i2mo, Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users. . , i2mo, Miller's Cyanide Process i2mo, Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.). , . . i2mo, Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) 8vo, Smith's Materials of Machines. . . i2mo, Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 o Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents 8vOf 2 5O Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo MINERALOGY. Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50 Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia gvo, 3 oo 17 Boyd's Map of Southwest Virignia Pocket-book form, a oi> * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 8vo, 150 Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, 4 oo Chester's Catalogue of Minerals. . . 8vo, paper, I oo Cloth, i 25 Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 3 50 Dana's System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50 First Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy." 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Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo , 4 oo Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 500 * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 8vo, paper, 50 Tables of Minerals 8vo, 1 00 * Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters 12010. morocco, i 25 * Ries's Clays. Their Occurrence. Properties, and Uses 8vo, 5 oo Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals. (Iddings.) 8vo, 5 oo * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo, 2 oo MINING. Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions. (In Press.) 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Basnore's Sanitation of a Country House. 12010, i oo * Outlines of Practical Sanitation , i2mo, i 25 Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.) 8vo, 3 60 Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo 18 Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses 12010, 2 oo Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50 Water-filtration Works i2mo, 2 50 Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, i oo Sanitation of Public Buildings I2mo, 1 50 Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 oo Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control , 8vo, 7 50 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) 8vo, 4 oo Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) zarno, i 25 * Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering Svo^ 2 oo Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo, 2 oo Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- ence to Sanitary Water Analysis i2mo, i 25 * Price's Handbook on Sanitation i2mo, i 50 .Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries i2mo, i oo Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science 12010, i oo Cost of Shelter i2mo, I oo Hichards and Woodman's Air. Water, and Food from a Sanita-y Stand- point 8vo, 2 oo * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, i 50 .Rideal's S wage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 4 oo Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 8vo, 400 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) I2mo, i oo Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 Wilson's Air Conditioning. (In Press.) 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The World's Columbian Txposition of 1893 4to, i oo Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy I2mo, i 50 HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar i2mo, i 23 Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, 2 oo Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. (Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco 5 oo Letteris's Hebrew Bible 8vo, 2 25 19 /.v; UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ASTRGNOMY LIBRARY LD 21-100m-9,'48IB399sl6)476 .^VVA 1 ' . ":'..-.- :-'"- - . SB* I I : : :':"" ^f:& : 387693 \ i*<_-xJ\L WXIX UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY