THE WORLD'S PROGRESS CHRONOLOGICAL AND ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF ALL ESSENTIAL FACTS IN THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, FROM THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TO THE PRESENT TIMB WITH A CHART EDITED BY GEO P. PUTNAM, A.M. REV IN ED AND CONTLVUKD TO AUGUST, 1877 BY F. B. PERKINS TWENTY-FIRST EDITION NEW YORK G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 182 FIFTH AVENUE 1878 COPYRIGHT BY G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1877. NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION OF 1877. IN this edition the Synchronistical Tables and the alphabetical arrangement of Historical and Statistical Facts have been brought down to July, 1877 ; and the short chapter of " Statistics from the U. S. Treasury Department " has been enlarged by the addition of similar statistics from authoritative sources, covering, so far as was practicable, the time since those tables were compiled. NEW YOBK, August 20, 1877. CONTENTS. PAGE I. SUPPLEMENT TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS (1867 to 1877), . ' . . . 1 II. BUREAU OF STATISTICS 66 III. SUPPLEMENT, 1851 to 1867, 6 IV. DICTIONARY OP DATES 201 LITERARY CHRONOLOGY, 665 VI. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c., . . . 704 VII. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 713 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. PERIOD I. The Antediluvian (1656 years) ...... 715 PKBIOD II. Dispersion of Mankind (427 years). The Deluge to Abraham . 716 PERIOD III. The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years). Abraham to Moses . 718 PERIOD IV. The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years). Moses to Saul . . 720 PERIOD V. The Monarchical (488 years). Saul to Cyrus .... 736 PERIOD VI. The Persian (322 years). Cyrus to Alexander . . . 733 PERIOD VII. The Grecian (184 years). Alexander to the Fall of Greece . . 738 PERIOD VIII. The Roman (146 years). Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . 750 H. MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. (306 years.) From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine . 760 PERIOD II. (170 years.) Constantine to Odoacer ..... 770 PERIOD III. (146 years.) Odoacer to Mahomet ..... 774 PERIOD IV. (178 years.) Mahomet to Charlemagne .... 780 PERIOD V. (266 years.) Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . . . 784 PERIOD VI. (233 years.) William the Conqueror to Othman I. . . . 798 PERIOD VII. (154 years.) Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire . . 814 PERIOD VIII. (145 years.) Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes . 824 PERIOD IX. (120 years. ) Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII. of Sweden. 834 PERIOD X. (97 years.) Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon . . 846 PERIOD XI. (52 years.) Napoleon to the year 1867 . . . . .858 PERIOD XII. (10 years.) 1867 to 1877 !W. VIII. BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OR INDEX . . . . 19 XI. SCHOOLS OF PAINTING . . 1019 EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY, Repn-senting, in a Chronological Series, the Rise, Revolutions, and fall ;/ tk principal Empires oj the World. ON THE PLAN OF DR. J. FRIE8TUT. li is necessary to notice, that the space allotted o each country is rather according to its relative political importance, than to its geographical extent The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz.. each a cen- Mry or 1110 years ; those between the htmztnttal lines represent countries, the names of which are expressed at the end of the chart. By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at the period we fix upon. For instance: about 1500 years before Christ, we see stales forming ii Greece ; the Israelites in Egypt tfrom whence they depait nine years after) ; the Egyptian, Assy- rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several cemurios previous but theit history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under barbarians: the Heptarchy ID England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states of Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking (Jong the chart Horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; uniied with that of the Mcdes, about 600 B. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively. The /traelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 B. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the Judges about 1300; under Kings, 1095; Ten Tribes separated, 975; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 5S8, by the Assyrians restored by the Persians, 535; under the Macedonians, 330; restored to independence by the Mac eabeeft, 150, conquered hy the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, A. D. 622; afterwards by the cru- adere, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- tury; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the Normans (receiving French territories), 1066; united with Ireland, 1170; with Wales, 1280; with Scotland, 1600. Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300 20C ft. o. U> 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; in modem limey, divided into several small republics and principalities; joined to the French empire about HOt, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c. :lu Copr, and the King of Naples. ' They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt M uicite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions ar narked u|x>n it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and IB *niu complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part <* ctM ! "PrietUey. PREFACE. revising a chronological manual, in compiling whicn I had at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn, has been incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations to the present year. The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; and showing also what was going on at the same time in different countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and * Chrr/nclogy An Index to Universal History, &c. 12mo. Leavitt, New- Fork, 1033. The volume has been long out of print. Vlll PREFACE. others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, thev are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason that they contain too much for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and suggee tivc terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the governments in the chief nations of the world enough merely U recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. The alphabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge a Diction- ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible compass. There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names and dates especially in the Middle Ages and in some instances the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not numerous or important. Tho Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute. it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- sons lived during the life-time of that individual. It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to b< supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the World's Progress in Arts. Literature, and Social Life, as well as in Politics and Government Gr. p. p. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. July, 1867, to July, 1877. BEING AX ALPHABETICAL KECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES DURING THOSK YEARS J INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITX'ED IN FORMEB EDITIONS. ABATTOIR. December 28, 1871, was opened at Deptford, a market and slaughter-house, where all foreign cattle for London consumption must be landed and slaughtered. Cost, more than 194,000. ABYSSINIA. Theodore, the native King of Abyssinia, having imprisoned several English subjects, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier invaded the country, and on April 13, 1868, stormed Magdala, the king's strong- hold, on which he killed himself. Cost of the war to England, 8,300,000. Napier was created Baron Napier of Magdala, with a pension of 2,000 a year. King John, or Johanni, a successor of Theodore, has, since his death, maintained a defensive war against the Khedive of Egypt, whose troops entered Abyssinia, but were surprised and defeated with much slaughter, in 1874 or 1875. In 1876, however, John was totally defeated, and treated for peace ; was again defeated after breaking truce ; but the later results of the war have been indecisive. ACCAD. Accad or Akkad, and Sumer or Sumir, are the names given to two pre-historic countries, whose people, called Accadians and Sumerians, are supposed to have used two differing dialects, found in the cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria. No dates are ascertained about them, but the former were in the southeast of Babylonia, while the Sumer were in the northeast. ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Earthquake*, Explosions, Fires, Flood*, Rai'r oad Accidents, Shipwrecks, Storms.) From 1864 to 1874 inclusive, about 11,000 deaths by accident took place in England and Wales, a large proportion of them from coal-mine casualties. January 15, 1867, the ice broke under the skaters on the lake in the Regent's Park, London, letting several hundred persons into the water. Forty were di owned. July 81, 1868, a false alarm of fire was raised in Lang's Victoria Music Hall, at Manches- ter. England, and in the panic rush to escape, between twentj' and thirty were killed. July 27, 1869, Rev. J. M. Elliott, an Englishman, lost his foothold, and fell from near the summit of the Schreckhorn, in Switzer- land, a distance of 1,000 feet or more, and was killed. October 1, 1869, a firework dealer's shop, in Bayswater, London, blew up, killing seven out of thirteen persons then asleep in the house. August 2, 1870, on Mont Blanc, an English lady, Mrs. Marke, and her guide fell into a crevasse, and were killed. August 11, 1871, at Stowmarket, England, an explosion of gun-cotton stored there killed 24 and wounded 72 persons. December 30, 1 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1871, at Glasgow, a road locomotive, known as Tuille's Traction Engine, used to drag heavy machinery for shipping, exploded its boiler, killing five persons and wounding some 40 more, mostly children, who had gathered round it out of curiosity. ADMINISTRATIONS. ENGLAND. (See pp. 71, 208-210.) Disraeli resigns, and Gladstone becomes premier, December 2, 1868 : Robert Lowe, John Bright, G. J. Goschen, W. E. Forster, and others becoming members of the Government. This ministry carried the disestablishment of the Irish Church, in 1869, and the ballot in 1872. Mr. Gladstone, having lost his majority at the election of February, 1874, resigned, February 14, and Mr. Disraeli resumed the premiership, his cabinet consisting of the Earl of Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, etc. ADMINISTRATIONS. UNITED STATES. (See pp. 70, 205.) TJlysses S. Grant, Schuyler Colfax, Hamilton Fish, Geo. S. Bontwell, A. E. Bone, G. M. Robeson, Gen. Schofield. Gen. J. A. Rawlins, Gen. W. W. Belknap, James Harlan, Gen. J. D. Cox, Columbus Delano, J. A. J. Creswell, E. R. Hoar, A. T. Akerman, O. H. Williams, GRANT'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION. Illinois, March 4, 1869 President. Indiana, March 4, 1869 Vice-President. New York, March, 1869 Secretary of State. Massachusetts, March, 1869 Secretary of the Treasury. Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Jun r e C 25, 1869 ) jggq V Secretaries of Navy. March, 1869 1 Illinois, March, 1869 V Secretaries of War. Iowa, Sept.. 1869 I Iowa, Ohio, March,' 1870 I Secretarie8 of Inte - Ohio, June, 1870 i ri " r - Maryland, March, 1869 Postmaster General. Massachusetts, 1869) Georgia, 1871 V Attorneys-General. Oregon, 1871 ) GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. Illinois, March 4, 1873 Massachusetts, March 4, 1873 Michigan, TJlysses S. Grant, Henry Wilson. Thos. W. Ferry, Hamilton Fish, New York, March 4. 1869 Wm. A. Richardson, Benj. J. Bristow, Lot M. MorrilL, Wm. W. Belknap, J. D. Cameron, Geo. M. RolxMun, Columbus Deiano, Zach. Chandler, Geo. H. Williams, Edwards Pierrepolnt, Alphonso Taft, John A. J. Creswell, Marshall Jewell, James N. Tyner, New York, Massachusetts, Kentucky, Vermont, Iowa, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Michigan, Oregon, New York, Ohio, Maryland, ' / Connecticut, Indiana, HATES' ADMINISTRATION. Ohio, New York, New York, Ohio, President. Vice-Premdent. President of Senate pro tern. Secretary of State. ( Secretaries of Treas f ury. > Secretaries of War. Secretary of Navy. I Secretaries of Inte- f rior. V Attorneys-General. V Postmasters-General. Rutherford B . Hayet, Wm. A. Wheeler, Wm. M. Evarts, John Sherman, Geo. W. McCrary, Iowa, Richard W. Thompson, Indiana, Carl Schurz, Missouri, Charles Devens, Massachusetts, David M. Key, Tennes-ae, March 4, 1877 President. March 4. 1877 Vice-President. Secretary of State. Secretary of Treas- ury. Secretary of War. Secretary of Navy. Secretary of Interior. Attorney-General. Postmaster-General. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 3 AFGHANISTAN. (See p. 313.) Runjeet Singh, a Sikh by race, and King of Lahore, conquered most of Afghanistan about 1818 ; Dost Mohammed became ruler of it, 1829 ; took Herat May 26, 1863 ; succeeded by his son, Shere Ali, June 9, 1863 ; who has had much trouble and warfare with divers of his fifteen brothers and his other relatives, and has only been maintained by English aid. AFRICA. (See pp. 72, 213.) Zambesi River explored by Livingstone, 1851-6 and 1858-64 ; his book published November, 1865. Stanley, sent by Bennett of the New York Herald, reported having met Livingstone at Ujiji. November 10, 1871, and having remained with him until March 14, 1872. Livingstone died at Itala, in Central Africa, May 1, 1873 ; his remains were brought to England and buried in Westminster Abbey, April 18, 1874; his last journals published December, 1874. Lieut. Cameron crossed Africa from Zanzibar westward to the Portuguese settle- ments on the west coast, arriving November 21, 1875. Stanley's second expedition for the New York Herald and London Telegraph, 1875-6. AGRICULTURE. (See pp. 73, 214.) Farm products of the United States, exclusive of live stock, year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000. A "Union" of English agricultural laborers to secure better wages and social amelioration generally, was established mainly by the efforts of Joseph Arch, himself formerly a laborer, at Leamington, Warwickshire, March 29, 1872, and has attained some influence. ALABAMA CLAIMS. The Alabama rebel armed steamer, Raphael Semmes commander, was built by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead. England, for the Rebel States of America, and launched May 15, 1862, and sailed July 28, 1862, one day before the English government telegraphed to detain her. She was destroyed and sunk in a sea-fight off Cherbourg by the U. S. steamer-of-war Kearsarge, Capt. Winslow, June 19, 1864, after having done immense damage to American commerce. During 1865 the United States and English governments discussed the question of English respon- sibility for this damage ; a convention was agreed upon on the subject November 10, 1868, which came to nothing ; another, signed by Lord Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, January 14, 1869, was rejected by the United States Senate April 13, 1869 ; a joint convention on this and other matters signed a treaty at Washington, May 8, 1871, providing a mode of settlement by arbitration ; Arbitration Commission met formally at Geneva, December 18, 1871, and the American and British cases were presented December 20. Indirect claims and the whole attitude of the English Government caused much excitement in England ; indirect claims mutually resigned by supplementary treaty, appr >ved by Senate May '^5, 1872. The arbitration tribunal, composed of Count Frederic Sclopis, for Italy, President ; Baron Staempfli, for Switzer- land ; Viscount d'ltajuba, for Brazil ; Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, for England ; Mr. C. F. Adams, for the United States, met at Geneva and opened business June 15, 1872. After presentation of cases and argu- ment, the final meeting was held September 14. 1872, and damages awarded to the United States, unanimously for injuries by the Alabama, by four arbitrators for those by the Florida, and by three for those by the Shenandoah. Total of award, $15,000,000. The total of the United States claims, after dropping the indirect claims, was about three times as much. The English arbitrator, Sir A. E. Cockburn, refused to sign the judgment, mainly on the ground that the Florida and Shenandoah 4 THE WOULD S PROGRESS. claims were improperly allowed. A large proportion of this sum remained after all the awards of the Court of Claims established by the United States to decide who should receive the money, which as yet (August, 1877), remains in the U. S. Treasury. ALASKA. Bought from Russia by the United States by treaty of March 13, 1867, for $7,200,000, which was paid August 1, 1868. Principal settlement, Sitka. The United States military occupation discontinued in 1877. ALSACE. Alsace (German, Elsass), was anciently part of Austrasia ; joined to the German empire in tenth century ; part recovered by Prance, 1648 ; the rest, 1697 ; conquered and occupied by the Germans, 1870-1 ; ceded by France to Germany by treaty of May 10, 1871; the law completing the annexation passed June 9, 1871. The people allowed to choose their nationality, and those preferring France to emigrate with their property before September 30, 1872. Many did so. Part of Lorraine (which see) including Metz and Thionville, was ceded and annexed with Alsace. ANILINE. Discovered by Unverdorben in 1826, in distilling indigo; ob- tained from benzole by Bechamp, 1856; "mauve" applied in dyeing by W. A. Perkin, 1856; since used to produce red, blue, violet, and green colors. ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. (See p. 76.) The establishment of societies for preventing cruelty to animals in England and Europe was followed by the organization of a similar one, chiefly by the efforts of Mr. Henry Bergh, in New York City, incorporated April 10, 1866, and of one in Boston, incor- porated March 23, 1868, which have been efficient. ARCH. The arch was long supposed a Roman invention ; but very ancient arches have been found in bridges in China, and in temples and other structures in Egypt and Assyria. The arching in the Cloaca Maxima at Rome is thought the oldest in Europe, and dates to about 588 B c. ; and those found hi the ruins of Assyrian cities are considered the oldest in the world. ARCHAEOLOGY. (See Curium ; Mycenae ; Olympia ; Prehistoric Man ; Troy.) ARCH^OPTERYX. ("Primeval bird.") Fossil remains found at Sol - enhofen in Bavaria, in 1861, by H. Von Meyer and Dr. Haberlein. It had some reptilian traits in its structure teeth in its jaws, and a tail with feathers radiating from it. It was described by Owen in 1863. ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See pp. 78, 229.) Captain C. F. Hall's first voyage of discovery was 1860-62; he ascertained that Frobisher's so- cafleil strait is a bay, and gained experience of Eskimo life. His second voyage, in the Afontieelio, began June 30, 1864; results not remarkable. His third, in the Polaris, began July 3, 1871, and he took his ship to 82' If! north latitude, the northernmost point so far. He died in the Arctic regions, November 8, 1871. Polaris wintered at northernmost point so far, 8T 38 ; set out to return under Budington, August 12, 1872; in a panic in the ice, October 15, Tyson and nineteen more were left on a floe, and were rescued April 30, 1873, after a remarkable drift. The ship re- mained with the other fourteen persons a second winter ; they left in boats built from her materials, June 3, 1873, and were picked up by a whaler. The ' first German expedition," under Capt. Karl Koldewey, of leven men only, in the Germania, to the east coast of Greenland and SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 5 Spitzbergen, set out September 80, 1868. The "second German expedi- tion," in the Germania and Hansa, under Koldewey, sailed from Bremer- haven, June 15, 1869. Hansa was lost in the ice, crew escaping ; coal discovered in east Greenland ; Germania wintered at Sabine Island ; sledge parties reached 77 1' N. L. Expedition reached home September 11, 1870. The "Austrian expedition" in the Tegetihoff, under Wey- precht and Payer, by way of the seas between Spitzbergen and No- vaia Zemlia (Nova Zembla), left Tromsoe in Norway, July 14, 1872 ; dis- covered Franz Josef Land, in 79 J 43' N., August 30, 1873 ; reached 79 58' N. ; left the Tegetthoff in the ice, May 20, 1874, and escaped in boats, reaching Europe early in September, 1874. Captain (afterwards Sir George) Nares's expedition, in the Alert and Discovery \ left Portsmouth, May 29, 1875. September 1st, she reached 82 24'. and wintered 0182 27' north, the furthest point reached by any ship. That winter was noted the severest cold ever known in Arctic regions, reaching to 73 7 below zero ; a mean for seven days of 58 "17 ; for thirteen days of 58'9 ; and for five days of 66 "29 degrees below zero. Ascertained that there is no " open Polar sea." but instead, a " palseocrystic sea," or " sea of ancient ice," which is, it was found, almost impossible to traverse. Sledge parties explored the coast eastward and westward, and another reached the northernmost point yet attained by man, being 83 20' 26", within 400 miles of the North Pole. The expedition returned to England in October, 1876. A sharp controversy followed as to the proper victualling of the expedition, and the responsibility for the severe attacks of scurvy which had been suffered by most of the party. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. (Seep. 79.) Don Domingo F. Sarmiento was elected President for six years, October 12, 1868 ; Dr. Avellaneda was in- augurated for six years, October 12, 1874 ; an insurrection under Mitre at Buenos Ayres was ended by his submission, December 2, 1874 ; the Na- tional Bank stopped and the government suspended specie payments, May 16, 1876. ARMY, ENGLISH. (See p. 232.) In 1869, it was stated in the English Parliament that each regular soldier cost per year in Prussia, 33 ; in France, 37; in England, 100; being nearly $165, $185, and $500. By Order in Council, 1870, Queen Victoria surrendered the royal prerogative of governing the army, and the General-in-Chief, instead of continuing an agent of the crown, was formally declared subordinate to the Minister of War. November 1, 1871, the practice of buying and selling commissions in the British army was stopped by royal warrant, dated July 20, 1871. Appointment and promotion by examination, merit, and seniority were substituted. The English military force in 1876 was thus constituted : Army in United Kingdom . 96,275 " in India . 62.850 Mihtia 274,175 Yeoman cavalry 1-6,078 Volunteers 168,750 Enrolled pensioners and army reserve 31,000 Total men 648,128 The sum voted for military purposes for the year 1876-7, was 15,282,- 000 ; that for 1855-6 (Russian watf, 32,006,603 ; and that for 1815 (last year of war with Napoleon), 39,150,000. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. ARMY, EUROPEAN. Estimated total of European armies in 1863, six mil lion men, one million horses, 11,000 cannon. European armies in 1876, were nearly as follows : PACE FOOTING. Austro-Hungary. . . . 278,470 Belgium 40,0(10 Denmark 35,657 France 430,703 Germany. .... 419,738 Great Britain 288,781 Gieece (nominal). . . 14,OH1 Italy 199,567 Netherlands 97, 369 Portugal 18,195 Peace footings not carried forward Total war armies of Europe more than 11,723,081 ARMY, U. S. (See p. 79.) Expenses of the War Department for WAB FOOTING. 838.700 100,000 48.936 1,750,000 2,800.000 748,128 750.000 208,359 68,450 Russia PEACE FOOTING. 765,872 WAB FOOTING. 3,300,000 201,257 469,360 74,000 Spain 151,668 Sweden .... 132,775 (Norway) . . .. 12,750 Turkey . 170,376 . 34,647 4.000 Totals . . . 3,094,609 11,377,190 . . . 345,891 1867 $95.224,415.63 123,24(1, 648.62 78,501,990.61 57,655,675.40 1871 35,799,991.82 1868 1869 1870. 1872 $35.372.157.20 1873 46.323,138.31 1874 42,31 3, 927. 22 1875 41.120,645.98 1876 88,070,888.64 Regular army in 1877 about 25,000 men, and this total in process of re- duction. ARTILLERY. (See Ordnance.) ASHANTEE. The Ashantees defeated Sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, January 21, 1824, and carried off his skull as a trophy. Col. Purdoii totally defeated them August 7, 1826. War was begun against them again by the English in 1863, but suspended from sickness of troops. Expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley sailed from England September 12, 1873 ; English force, after a severe campaign, entered Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, February 4, 1874 ; the king, Koffee Kalcalli, re- fusing proposals, his palace and city burned February 6th ; a treaty, prohibiting human sacrifices, and providing for 50,000 ounces of gold indemnity to the English, signed February 13th. The expedition cost about 900,000. ASSASSINATIONS. June 6, 1867, one Berezowski, a Pole, fired two shots at the Czar of Russia, then in Paris, but missed. He was trans- ported for life. Michael Obrenovitch, Prince of Servia, was assassinated at Belgrade. June 10, 1868, as was believed in consequence of a con- spiracy to place Prince Karageorgewictz on the throne. March 12, 1868. in New South Wales, at a public picnic, one O'Farrell shot the Duke of Edinburgh in the back, intending to kill him. O'Farrell, who avowed himself a Fenian, was hanged. April 7, 1868, Hon. Thomas D'Arcy M'Gee was shot dead from behind at his own door, by one Whelan, a Fenian, in consequence of his opposition to the Fenians. December 28, 1870, Marshal Prim was shot by night in the streets of Madrid, the assassin escaping, and died in two days. September 20, 1871, at Calcutta, Mr. Justice Norman, acting Chief Justice, was murdered, being stabbed by a native. February 8, 1872, Lord Mayo, Governor -General of India, assassinated at Port Blair, on the Andaman Islands, by a Mohammedan convict named Shere AH. ASSYRIA. (See pp. 234-235.) The results of Mr. Layard's investigations SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 7 at Nineveh were published in his " Nineveh and its Remains," 1848, and in his "Discoveries," 1853. Botta's explorations at Khorsabad began 1848; his "Monuments de Ninive " appeared 1849-50. Mr. George Smith's "Assyrian Discoveries" appeared 1875, and his "Chaldean Account of Genesis" in 1876. Mr. Smith died at Aleppo, August 19, 1876, while pushing further investigations. An Assyrian grammar (of the language of the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions) was pub- lished by Mr. A. H. Sayce in 1875; an Assyrian dictionary by Norris, in 1868 ; and eight volumes of (translated) Assyrian Texts, by Birch, in 1874-77. ASTRONOMY. (See pp. 81, 235.) The planet Neptune was discovered September 23, 1846 ; the moon was photographed by Bond, 1851 ; spec- trum analysis first used in astronomy in 1861 ; Warren De la Rue's first large photograph of the moon was made in 1863. The transit of Venus of December 9 (astronomical day, December 8), 1874, was extensively observed at the expense of several governments, with good results. From April, 1868, to August 29, 1876, were discovered Nos. 98 to 167 of the asteroids. ATCHINESE WAR. Atchin or Acheen, a native state of Sumatra. The Dutch hostilities against it took place from April, 1873 to 1876, ending in victory by the Dutch. ATHANASIAN CREED. (Seep. 236.) It is asserted in Lumby's "His- tory of the Creeds" (1874), that this creed was not composed by Athana- sius, but consists of two distinct parts ; was put into its present form between A.D. 813 and 850, first imputed to Athanasius by any respect- able authority 809, and accepted by the Greek Church about 1200. Much opposition to the use of this creed in England, and efforts to stop com- pulsory reading of it in public, 1870 to 1873. ATOMIC THEORY. Dalton's system of atomic weights assumes hydrogen as 1 ; that of Berselius assumes oxygen as 100, and is that used on the continent of Europe. ATOMS. The number of ultimate atoms in one drop of water has been recently computed by Sir William Thomson, at 100,000,000,000,000,000,- 000,000,000, or one hundred trillions of quadrillions. AUSTRIA. (See pp. 82. 239.) Francis Joseph, October 20, 1860, issued a "diploma," which gave legislative power to the assemblies of the provin- cial states, constituting Austria, and also to the Reichsrafch or Council of the Empire. Hungary was granted self-government February 17, 1867. By decree of November 14, 1868, Austria assumed the official name of "The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." The population of Austria, Decem- ber 31, 1869, was: Cis-Leithan provinces 20,394,980 Trana-Leithan provinces 15,609,455 35,904,435 The Cis-Leithan provinces (viz., those reckoned on the hither side of the river Leithe), are : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, the two Austrias (Upper and Lower), Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste and Istria, Dalmatia, the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan are : Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the city of Fiurne. The Reichsrath became a national representative assem- bly by reform bill of March 10, 1873. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. B. BABISM. A Persian religious doctrine, first promulgated, 1843, at Shiraz, by Mirza All Mahommed, who called himself the Bab (gate) of knowl- edge, gave a new exposition of the Koran, and claimed to be an incarna- tion of the Holy Spirit. The " Babis" were tolerated by Shah Mahom- med, but were nearly all killed by his successor, the present Shah, in 1848-9, the Bab himself being executed, July 15, 1849. The sect is said to be now (1877) quite numerous again. BABY FARMING. September 23, 1870, in England, Margaret Waters was convicted of the wilful murder of a child entrusted to her. She had been in the baby farming businesi four years, and confessed to having received some forty children. She was condemned to death, and hanged October 11, after having confessed that five others of the children in her care had died. BALLOONS. (See pp. 83, 248.) Used with a good deal of success during the siege of Paris by the Germans, September and October, 1870, for carrying mail matter out of the city, and for escapes by individuals. U|> to April, 1867, Mr. Coxwell is said to have made 550 successful ascents ; and Charles Green, who died March 27, 1870, aged 84, had made 600. In an ascent from near Paris, April 15, 1875J by Messrs. Tissandier, Croce, Spinelli, and Sivel, after having reached a height of 26,160 feet (nearly five miles), Croce threw out ballast and they ascended rapidly to an unknown height. But the latter two men died there of suffocation, and Tissandier only got down alive. Glaisher and Coxwell, at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862, had ascended about 7 miles, but at 5f miles Glaisher became insensible, and Coxwell lost the use of his hands, and only escaped death by opening the valve with his teeth and thus bringing down the balloon. BALLOT. (Seep. 83.) Secret ballot was adopted in Victoria (Australia), 1856; employed in electing school-board in nine districts in London, No- vember 29, 1870 ; recommended for general use in the Queen's speech, February 9, 1871, and bill for it passed the Commons and rejected in the Lords, 97 to 48, August 10, 1871. Bill providing for its use until Decem- ber HI, 1880, became a law July 13, 1872 ; Mr. H. E. Childers was chosen member of Parliament for Pontefract by ballot August 15, 1872, with no difficulty ; the method has worked well enough since. BAMPTOX LECTURES. Delivered annually at Oxford, on theological subjects, and paid for by funds left for the purpose by Rev. John Bamp- ton, who died 1751. The first lecture was by Rev. Dr. Bandinel, in 1780. BANKRUPTCY. (See pp. 84. 245.) Bankrupt peers decided incompetent to sit in English House of Lords, February 10, 1871, and a law expressly so providing was passed July 13, 1871. In the United States and Canada there were failures and liabilities as follows : FAILURES. LIABTLTTIKS. Year ending June 30. 187K. n.77ti $,;,2.51 Y-ar ending June 30, 1877. !l,241 182,U)3,425 BATHOMETER, for deep-sea sounding without lead and line, invented and improved 1861-76, by Dr. C. W. Siemens. It operates by registering the lessening of the earth's attraction of gravitation on the surface of the ocfian from what it would be on solid ground, in consequence of the less density of water. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 9 BATHYBIUS HAECKELII, found at the bottom of the sea in recent deep- sea soundings, and so named by Huxley ; a gelatinous substance, supposed the lowest form of animal life. Since believed to have been proved a mineral. BATTLES. (See pp. 84, 248.) FRANCO-PBUSSIAN WAB. Saarbruck, French victorious, Aug. 2, 1S70 ! Metz. Germans victorious, Ang. 81, 1870 Wissembourg, Germans ' Aug. 4, 1870 ' SEDAN, " Aug. 31-Sep. 1, 1870 Woerth, " " Aug. (i, Ib70 . Before Paris, " victorious, Sept. 30, 1870 Saarbruck or Forbach, Germans,Aug. 6, 1870 | Thoury, French " Oct. 6, 18711 Courcelles or Pange, " Aug. 14, 1870 ! St. Remy, Germans Oct. 5, 1870 Strasburg, Germans victorious, Aug. 16, 187U Chateaudnn, " " Oct 18. 1870 OTHER BATTLES. Oroquieta. Spain,Carlists defeated. May 4, 1872 Elmina, British defeat Ashantees, June 13, 1873 Elqueta, Spain, Carlists claim victory, Aug. 5-6, 1873 Mafieru, Spain, indecisive, Oct. 6, 1873 Abrakampra, Ashantees defeated Nov.5-6,1873 Borborassie, ' Jan. 29, 1874 Amoaful, ' Jan. 31, 1874 Bocquah, Feb. 1, 1874 Fommanah. ' Feb. 2, 1874 Ordahsa, ' Feb. 4, 1874 Bilbao, Spain, several days; Concha enters May 2, 1874 Estella, Spain, Carlists retreat, but Con- cha killed June 25-27, 1874 Abyssinians defeat Egyptians in Nov., Irun, Spain, Laserna defeats Carlists, Nov. 10, Sorota, Peru, Pierota and insurgents defeated Dec. 3, Tolosa, Spain, Carlista repulse Loma, Dec. 7-8, Khokand, Russians defeat Khan of Khiva Sep. 4-21, Assake, Russians defeat Khokand force Jan. 30, Servian-Turkish war begins July 1, Saitschar, Servians retreat . . . July 2-3, Urbitza, Montenegrins defeat Turks, July 28, 1874 1874 1874 1874 1875 187(5 187fi 1876 1876 BAYREUTH. The Wagner Festival, or Biihnenfestspiel. The perform- ance of Wagner's " Ring des Nibelungen," took place here on August 13, 14, 16. and 17, 1876. The four successive portions of the work are: 1. Das Rheingold ; 3. Die Walkiire; 3. Siegfried; 4. Gotterdammerang. Great difference of opinion as to the music by itself ; but the whole rep- resentation very magnificent. All deficiencies in receipts made up by the King of Bavaria. BEHISTUX. The trilingual inscriptions here were deciphered and trans- lated by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, the first great step being thus made towards interpreting the so-called cuneiform inscriptions. BELFORT. A strong fortified town in Alsace, invested by the Germans Novembers, 1870; capitulated February 16, 1871 ; reserved to France at the cession of Alsace to Germany ; and the Germans left it in August, 1873. BESSEMER STEEL. (See Steel.) BIBLE. (See pp. 86, 257.) First meeting of the Convocation for Revising the English Bible, at Westminster, England, June 22, 1870. Among Bible Dictionaries should be mentioned McClintock and Strong's " Biblical and Theological Encyclopaedia." " The Codex Sinaiticus," a Greek MS. of the Bible, probably written in the fourth century, was found by Prof. Tis- chendorf at St. Catherine's monastery on Mt. Sinai in 1844 and 1859, and procured by him for the Czar of Russia, who caused it to be printed in 1862. The first version of the Bible (the Syriac), is supposed to have been made in the first or second century; the Old Latin, early in the second, and revised by Jerome in 384 ; Jerome's own version, the Vulgate, 1* 10 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. completed 405. First printed edition (Mazarin or Mentz Bible), about 1455 or 1456, without date ; and a copy of this, at the Perkins sale in Eng- land, June, 1873, brought about $16,000, the largest price ever paid for one printed book. BOKHARA. Ancient Sogdiana. Murder of the English envoys, Stoddart and Conolly, by the Khan, 1843. A war with Russia began 1866, the Khan repeatedly beaten, and peace made July 11, 1867. There was more fighting in 1868 ; the Russians entered Samarcand May 26th ; and in November, 1868, annexed it by treaty. A new treaty between Bokhara and Russia was published December, 1873. BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. First mentioned by Samuel Andrews Peters, a tory Episcopalian clergyman, of Hebron, Conn., in a " History of Connecticut," published at London, 1781. Peters built his story on the basis of the actual laws, but with great additions invented by him. The text-book on the subject, by J. H. Trumbull, Hartford, Conn., 1876. BOOKS, BOOK TRADE. (See pp. 20, 208.) In Great Britain were pub- lished as follows : NEW BOOKS. NEW EDITIONS. 1871... 3,547 1,288 1872 3,419 1,100 1874 3,351 961 1875 3,573 1,331 The number of publishers and booksellers in Germany is (in 1876), 3,473, in 786 towns. In Leipzig, the emporium of the German book trade, there are 105 commission agents, who act for 4,202 booksellers, of whom 1,143 are in Austria, France, Russia, Holland, England, and America. Number of books published in the United States, about 2,500 a year. BOSTON. (See pp. 88, 268.) Annexations to the city of Boston were : Roxbury, September 9, 1867 ; Dorchester, June 22, 1869 ; Charlestown, Brighton, and West Roxbury, October 7, 1873. Great peace jubilee, with over 10,000 voices, and 1,094 instruments, June 15, 1869. International peace jubilee, with chorus of about 20,000 voices, and orchestra of 1,000 instruments, June 17 to July 4, 1872. Great fire, burning about eighty acres of buildings in the thickest business part of the city, November 9, 10, 11, 1872 ; 9-19 houses, of which 125 dwellings, were destroyed, and 35 persons killed. Boston Public Library has, in 1877, about 320,000 vol- umes ; has six branches, and two " delivery agencies," besides the central collection, and circulates free of all expense about 1,300,000 volumes a year ; staff, about 130 persons ; salaries, about $60,000 a year ; annual cost, about $i:JO,000, of which all but about $6,000 is paid by the city of Boston by an annual appropriation, the rest coming from trust funds of about *105,000. BOSNIA, incorporated with Turkey, 1463. A rebellion broke out in 1849, was put down by Omar Pasha in 1851. In September, 1875, the Bosni- ans joined the Herzegovinian insurgents. Its area is 23,100 square miles ; population, 1,357,984, of which about one-third only is Mohammedan. BRAZIL. (See pp. 89. 272.) The war with Paraguay was ended by the defeat and killing of Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, at Aquidaban, March 1, 1870; treaty of peace with Paraguay, June 20, 1870. Don. Pedro, the emperor, and his empress visit Europe June, 1871, and March, 1872. Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the Brazilian senate, September 27-28, 1872. Dom Pedro and the empress were present at the SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 11 opening of the Philadelphia Exhibition May 10, 1876, and afterwards travelled extensively in America and Europe. Population of Brazil, 1872 (partly estimated), 9,448,233, besides about another million of savage natives. Number of slaves in May, 1874, 1,016,262. BRIGANDS. (See also Motty Maguires.) April 21, 1870, some English ladies and gentlemen, and an Italian, were taken near Athens by brigands, who demanded $125,000 ransom, which was ready ; but the Greek Gov- ernment, contrary to promise, sending troops against the robbers, the tourists were all murdered. In June, 1870, two Englishmen, of Gibral- tar, were seized by brigands, and made to pay 5,200 ransom, part of which was afterwards recovered, and some of the robbers killed, by the Spanish civic guard. The Mafia, an organized system of spying, murder, and brigandage pot into possession of almost unlimited power in Sicily about 1860, and has since remained so. BRIDGES. (See pp. 89, 274.) The proposed New York and Brooklyn suspension bridge is to be 5,862 feet long, with a central span of 1,600 feet, at 185 feet above high- water mark. The Victoria railway bridge over the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, about two miles long, an iron tubular bridge, begun May 24, 1854, formally opened August 25, 1860, and cost 1,700,000. BURIAL. (See Cremation.) The "earth to earth" system of burial, ad- vocated by Mr. Seymour Haden, and wicker coffins, exhibited in 1875 at, London. C. CANADA. (See pp. 91, 288.) The act creating "the Dominion of Can- ada " was passed March 29, 1867. The Dominion contains Ontario, or Upper Canada, Quebec, or Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island , and provision is made for admitting Newfoundland. Lord Monck, first Governor- General, opened the first session of the Dominion Parliament, at the capital, Ottawa, Nov. 7, 1867. Population by census of 1871 : Ontario, 1,620,- 851; Quebec, 1,191,516; Nova Scotia, 387,800; New Brunswick, 285,- 594; Manitoba, 11,953 ; British Columbia, 10,586 ; Prince Edward Island, 94,021 ; total, 3,602,321. CANALS. (See Suez Canal.) Recent surveys have shown that the ques- tion of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, or that of Tehuantepec, is only one of cost, not of practicability. In April, 1870, a French company was empowered to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, to be done in six years. CANDIA, THE ANCIENT CRETE. (See pp. 289, 338.) Insurrections against Turkish oppression, 184t; again, and quieted by conciliation, 1858. Christians persecuted, 1 859 ; a general assembly rejects Turkish authori- ty and declares union with G r eece, September 2, 1866; after obstinate, contests the insurgents yield from exhaustion, and Turkish authority re established March 8, 1869. CANOPUS. An ancient city of Egypt, on the sea-coast, east of Alexan- dria. The " Decree of Canopus" was put forth B. c. 238, by Ptolemy Euergetes, to constitute his deceased daughter, Berenice, a goddess, and to establish an annual festival and a service of priests in her honor. A copy of this, in hieroglyphics and Greek, was discovered at Tanis, 1866. 12 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See Death, Punishment of, pp. 108, 344.) Abol- ished in Saxony, April 1, 1868 ; abolition of it refused in Belgium, Janu- ary 18 1867 ; in English House of Commons, by 127 to 23, April 21, 1868 ; by 118 to 58, July 29, 1869 ; by 167 to 54, July 24, 1872 ; refused by French Senate, June 21, 1876. It was prohibited in Michigan, 1846 ; Rhode Island, 1852 ; Wisconsin, 1853 ; Iowa, 1872 ; Maine, February 18, 1876, and is practically disused in some other States. The effect of such disuse on crime is undetermined. In thirteen years next after the repeal of the law inflicting it in Michigan, there were 30 convictions for mur- der, and in the next fourteen years, with a population 50 per cent, greater, only 26. But in New York City, during 1871-6, only seven murderers were hanged, while there were 281 murders. And in 1871 there were no hang- ings, but in the next year the murders increased from 41 to 55, and when in 1873. two murderers were hanged, the murders decreased in like man- ner from 53 to 39. CATHOLICS. (See Concordat; Infallibility ; Old Catholics; Romanism; Vatican Council.) CENSUS. (See pp. 94, 299.) The English census, taken April 2, 1871, showed a population in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland), of 31,465,480. For Census of United States, 1870, see United States. CENTENNIAL. An immense number of Centennial celebrations took place in the United States during 1875 and 1876, beginning with that of June 19, 1875, for the battle of Lexington. The Centennial International Ex- hibition at Philadelphia was opened by President Grant, May 10, 1876, and closed November 10. Of the growth of the United States in the first century, the following figures show a few illustrations : 1776. 1876. Population 2,750,000 44,675,000 Area square miles...., 800.000 3.603,844 Annual manufactures $20,000.000 $4,200,000,01 Banks fi,066 Collies 9 374 CHARITIES, as follows : (See pp. 95, 302.) George Peabody's public charities were $2,500,000 for the poor of London. $2,000.000 for education in the South- ern States. $300,000 for museums at Yale and Har- vard Colleges. $50,000 for a free museum at Salem, MM. 820,000 to Kenyon College. $250,000 to the State of Maryland. $500,000 for a free library and educa- tional institute at Danvers (afterwards named Peabody), Mass. $1.003.000 for the Peabody Institute, at Baltimore, Md. December 2, 1871, was opened at Dublin the Brown Institution, endowed by a bequest left for the purpose by a Mr. Brown, of Dublin, as a hospital for the study and treatment of the diseases of quadrupeds and birds useful to men. Mr. Vanderbilt had, during his life, endowed a college in Ten- nessee, with about $1,000,000, and supported the "Church of the Stran- gers," in New York. Daniel Drew, a leading New York stock operator, endowed (nominally) Drew Theological Seminary in New Jersey, but afterwards losing his money, the funds were never paid over. A. T. Stewart left at his death, unfinished, a great hotel for working-women in New York, which was completed by his widow. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 13 CHICAGO. (See p. 95.) GREAT FIKE, October 8-11, 1871 About 250 persons perished, about 98,500 were rendered destitute, and" the loss was estimated at $290,000,000. Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed. Large contributions were made in American and English cities towards relieving the sufferers, and great energy was shown in rebuilding. CHILDREN. Under eight years old, forbidden to be employed in agricul- ture in England, by act of August 5, 1873. CHINA. (See pp. 95, 305.) Chinese embassy, with Anson Burlingame (of Massachusetts) at its head, received at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; at Paris, January 24, 1869 ; Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg, Feb- ruary 22, 1870. Massacre of French priests and about fifty others by a mob at Tientsin, June 21, 1870 ; the leaders were executed October 26, 1870. Emperor Tsai tien (altered to Kwang-Sii), son of Chun and nephew of Prince Kung, succeeds Toung-Chi, February 4, 1875. First railway in, eleven miles long, from Shanghae to Oussoon, publicly opened June 30, 1876. Chinese emigration to America began in 1850 ; and there are now (1877) supposed to be nearly 50,000 Chinese in San Francisco, and from 125,000 to 150,000 in California, mostly males. In California this emi- gration, and the Chinese, after coming, are chiefly controlled by the " Six Companies," which are a kind of corporations, and whose names are Sam Yup, Yung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yeung, Yan Wo, and Hop Wo. CHURCH OF IRELAND. (See p. 310.) Royal assent to Mr. Gladstone's bill disestablishing it, July 26, 1869, took effect January 1, 1871. CHURCH-RATES. (Seep. 97.) Compulsory church-rates in England were abolished by act of Parliament, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, and passed July 31, 18(58. CIVIL SERVICE, ENGLISH. August 31, 1870, went into operation an English Older in Council that all entrance appointments to civil service except the Foreign Office and posts requiring professional knowledge, should be filled by open competition. Persons in the English Civil Service (treasury, home, foreign, colonial, post, revenue, etc., officers), about 17,000; cost of same yearly, estimated for 3877 at 13,309,100. CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, UNITP;D STATES. Measure to secure, in- troduced into Congress by T. A. Jenckes. of Rhode Island, January 20, 1867. Act for rules to be prescribed by the President for civil service examinations, passed March 3, 1871. Commissioners to prepare rules appointed by President, June 4th, met and G. W. Curtis chosen chairman, June 28, 1871. Rules prepared, but less was accomplished by them than was expected. In the summer of 1877, President Hayes ordered that all national office-holders should resign any situations they might hold as party political managers, or else resign their offices, his purpose being ' ' to take the office-holder out of politics." This order was promptly obeyed. CLOCKS AND WATCHES. (See pp. 97, 314, 646.) Imported into Great Britain in 1870, 258,628 clocks, 372,420 watches. The Boston Watch Com- pany, the first factory for making watches by machinery, was founded by Mr. Dennison in 1854 ; it failed 1856, and was bought by Mr. Robbins, who changed the name to American Watch Company, often called the Waltham Watch Co. In 1876 there were eleven such watch factories. That at Waltham, with 900 workmen, turns out about 425 movements a day; the next largest, at Elgin, 111., about 300 movements. The effect of the American watch business on the importation of Swiss watches is shown 14 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. as follows : Swiss watches imported into the United States in 1872, 366,000; 1873, 204,000; 1874, 187,000; 1875, 134,000; 1876, 75,000. CLUBS. (See p. 97.) Recent London clubs were formed at following dates : Cobden Club (free trade), 1866 ; Scientific, Wanderers (travellers), Devonshire (Liberal political), Verulam (literary and scientific), 1874 ; Byron, 1875 ; Hanover Square (new Liberal), 1876. COAL. (See pp. 98, 315.) Consumption of anthracite from the Pennsyl- vania coal fields began with 365 tons, in 1820, and was in 1875, 18,082,294 tons. By periods of ten years the production was as follows, inclusively : 1820-29 tons 859,190 1830-89 " 5,210,685 1840-49. " 18,954,678 1P50-59 tons 68,333,469 1860-69 " 10,883,48ti 1870-75... .. " 105.627.240 The anthracite east of the Mississippi is all in seven counties in Pennsyl- vania, viz : Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Columbia, Northumberland, Dauphin, and Lebanon, and mostly in the first three of these. Estimates of the time when these anthracite deposits will be exhausted vary from 77 years to 650 years. Tons of coal raised in Great Britain and the United States in 1870 and 1874 : GREAT BRITAIN. UNITED STATES. 1870 113,000.000 32,000,000 1874 125,000,0(!0 50,000,000 Area of all coal fields in the United States estimated at 196,000 square miles. Proportions of anthracite and bituminous coal mined in the United States in 1870 and 1875 : 1870. 1875. Anthracite, tons. 13,985.960 20,654,509 Bituminous, " 15,231,668 26,031,726 COINAGE. (See pp. 99, 317.) Total coinage of United States to and including 1 876 : In 1876. Gold $945.477,022.80 $38,178,962.50 Silver 180,322,356.40 19,126,502.50 Cents, etc 12,822,538.55 2W.o50.00 Total $1,138,621,917.25 $57,565,815.00 COLLEGES IN UNITED STATES in 1875, 355; schools of science (and collegiate departments), 75 ; theological schools (and departments), 123; law schools (and departments), 43 ; medical, dental, etc., schools (and departments), 106. COLOMBIA. (See p. 319.) General Salgar, President, 1871 ; M. M. Toro, April 1, 1872; S. Perez, April 1, 1874. Population in 1864, 2,794,473 ; in 1870, 2,910,329. COLONIES. (See pp. 99, 320.) Great Britain has sixty-nine colonies and foreign possessions, whose population was estimated in 1861 at 142,952,- 243, all but about 7,500,000 being in the East Indies. Their revenue in 1865 was about 51.497,000, and expenditures, 59,353,000. All slaves in all British colonies emancipated August 1, 1834. In recent times the English home policy towards the colonies has steadily become more com- plying and indulgent. The earliest acquired of the present colonies was Newfoundland, about A.D. 1500; the latest, the Fiji Islands, October 25, 1874. COLORADO proclaimed a State August 1, 1876. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 15 COMETS. (See pp. 100, 321.) 17,500,000 comets estimated to be in the solar system. More than 600 recorded as having been seen. Schiaparelli of Milan has discovered that the August meteors move round the sun in an orbit almost identical with that of the second comet of 1862-6. The great comet of 1861 had a nucleus of about 400 miles diameter, a long, bushy tail, and moved about ten million miles a day. On June 30, 1861 , it was suggested that the earth was in this tail, aa there was seen a " phosphorescent auroral glare. 1 ' COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General Sherman appointed, 1869. COMMERCE OF UNITED STATES. (See also Cotton, Failures, etc.) hxports. fmportx. 1869 $394,44,335 $414.256,243 1870 392.771,178 452,875,665 1871 460,331,614 572.509,314 1872 444,177,668 626,595.077 1873 522,479,317 692,136,210 1874 633.339,368 '.. 567,406.342 1875 658,691,291 553,906,153 Of the years 1874 and 1875, nearly half this commerce was with Great Britain, viz. : Exports to G. B. Imports from (,'. B. 1874 $341.(i24,04! $180,042,83 1875 366,799,869 157,047,827 Chambers of Commerce now exist in the chief commercial cities of Chris- tendom. Twenty-seven of the English ones met for consultation, Febru- ary 21, 1865 ; the meeting became annual ; in 1873 (February 18th), 46 met. COMMUNE OF PARIS. Proclaimed March 28, 1871 ; ended at the cap- ture of the city by the government forces, May 28th, following. CONCORDANCE. (See pp. 100, 324.) The first concordance to the Bible on which was based that of St. Caro, seems to have been made by An- thony of Padua. Cruden's t^the best), first published in London, 1737. Mrs. Furness's Concordance to Shakespeare's poems, 1874. Todd's Verbal Index to Milton, 1809, and Cleaveland's Concordance to Milton. 1867. Brightwell's Concordance to Tennyson, 1869 ; Abbott's to Pope, 1875. CONCORDAT. (See p. 324.) The Concordat between Rome and Austria, August 18, 1855, gave the former much authority over the Austrian Church, and thus excited great dissatisfaction in Austria. In 1868 the Austrian and Hungarian legislatures practically abolished it, and it was formally declared suspended, July 30, 1870, in consequence of the procla- mation of papal infallibility. CONFESSION, AURICULAR. (See p. 325.) Introduced in England by the Puseyites, Tracfcarians, or Ritualists. Rev. A. Poole suspended for prac- ticing it, June, 1858 ; Rev. T. West tried to introduce it, causing much excitement, September, 1858 ; 483 Anglican clergymen petitioned convo- cation for its establishment, May, 1873, but the bishops were strongly opposed to it ; Archdeacon Denison's letter against all who oppose it, August 22, 1873. A secret book used by the English ritualists, with shameful questions to be put to married women and young persons, dis- covered June, 1877, and great indignation aroused. CONSTELLATIONS. (See p. 327.) Now reckoned aa 29 northern, 45 southern, 1 2 zodiacal. 16 THE WORLD'S I-ROURESS. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. (See pp. 102, 328.) The dates and subjects of the fifteen amendments were as follows : 1. Pro- posed 1789, Freedom of religion, press, assembling, and petition. 2. 1789, Right to bear arms. 8. 1789, Quartering soldiers on people. 4. 1789, Searches and seizures of persons, houses, etc. 5. 1789, Indictment, mar- tial law, legal process, eminent domain. 6. 1789, Criminal prosecutions to be speedy ; privileges of accused. 7. 1789, Jury trial for anything over $20, in common-law suits. 8. 1789, Bail, fines, cruel and unusual punish- ments. 9. 1789, Enumeration of rights in Constitution does not impair others. 10. 1789, State rights. 11. 1794, Judicial power of United States as against States. 12. 1803-5, Election of President. 13. Ratified December 18, 1865, abolishes slavery. 14. Ratified July 28, 1868, civil rights, representative basis, rebel disf ranchisement, public and rebel debt. 15. Ratified March 30, 1870, negro suffrage. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. Providing for periodical medical examina- tions of women's persons at military and naval stations, passed in English Parliament June, I860. Great opposition has been made to it; a royal commission to inquire into it reported July, 1871. Alterations have been proposed, and repeal has been attempted, but failed by 126 to 308 June, 1875, and 102 to 224, July, 1876. CONVENTS (for nuns ;" monasteries " are for monks). (See p. 328.) In 1832 there were 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 233, besides 70 monas- teries. A large Church of England convent opened at Bournemouth, October 3, 1875. CONVOCATION. The English Convocation consists of the upper house (of bishops), and the lower (of the inferior clergy). It formerly possessed power over various church matters, but was deprived of these by a statute of Henry VIII., and again in 1716, when it ceased meeting. Formal meetings of the Anglican clergy have been held since 1 854, and attempts made in vain to regain power over church interests. In February, 1872, convocations were authorized to deliberate upon changes in the liturgy, and this was done in March following. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES (for economical supply of goods to members). Rochdale Equitable Pioneers' Society began 1844. In 1862 there were 332 in England; on December 81, 1866, 749. Annual congresses have been held, the seventh at London, March 29. 1875. Similar organizations in the United States have not been very successful. There were in Massachusetts in 1875, however, fifteen such, of which eight had a member- ship of 1,650, share capital $50,000, assets $100,000. and selling $500,000 of goods yearly. These were at Fall River (organized 1866), Worcester (1867), New Bedford (1867), Lynn (1870), Wakefield (1866), Holyoke (1873), Gardner (1874), Natick (18(59 ?). On the continent of Europe such organizations are numerous and efficient. COPYRIGHT. (See pp. 102. 103, 330.) An international copyright bill brought into Congress, February 21, 1868, but could not pass. English House of Lords decided in Routledge vs. Low, in favor of the copyright of a foreign author. The Copyright Association of England was founded by leading London booksellers, March 19, 1872. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868. CORONERS. (See p. 332.) In consequence of abuses and annoyances from the ijfnorance and incompetence of coroners, they Tere suppressed in SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 17 Massachusetts by act of legislature, May 9, 1877, and "medical exami- ners" substituted, to be appointed by the Governor and Council, and to be "able and discreet men, learned in the science of medicine." COTTON MANUFACTURE IN UNITED STATES : Looms. In South. Spindles. In South. 3fills 1870 153.534 .... 5,852 .... 7,114,000 .... 262,221 ... 956 1874 186,975 .... 10,945 .... 9.415,383 .... 487,029 .... 847 Cotton mill first in India, built 1863 ; and the number had increased in 1876 to reach a consumption of 3,000 bales cotton per week. Estimated consumption of cotton for manufacturing purposes in the world, for 1860 and 1876, in bales of 400 pounds : I860. 1876. Increase. Great Britain 2,817,000 3,187,000 3~U,000 Continent of Europe 1,794,000 2,3<>:;,000 5K8,UOO United States 1,088,000 1,441,000 353,000 Bombay and rest of India 164,000 164,000 This increase is about 13 per cent, for Great Britain, and 37 per cent, for the other manufacturing countries. COUNCILS, CHURCH. (See p. 385: also Vatican Council.) CREDIT FONCIER. Name given to organizations for advancing money to real estate owners on the security of their estates. Such a plan was set in operation by Frederick the Great in Prussia in 1703. Companies for the purpose have existed in Hamburg (1782). Prussia (1787), Belgium, (1841), France (1852), England (1863), and elsewhere. CREDIT MOBILIER. (See p. 104.) The original Credit Mobilier at Paris failed, and the capital was said to have "disappeared," October, 1867. The Pereires, and other directors held liable August 1, 1868. " Credit Mobilier of America," incorporated in Pennsylvania March 15, 1865 ; as- sumed a contract to build 100 miles of the Union Pacific R. R. westward from the Missouri River, in which Hoxie had failed. Improper distribution of its stock to members of Congress in December, 1867 and afterwards, was charged, and an investigati n by a committee of the House of Representa- tives took place in 1872-73. CREMATION advocated, instead of burial, by Sir Henry Thompson and ' others in England, 1873. Societies for it established in London, Vienna, and Berlin in 1874. The body of Sir C. Dilke's wife, burned at Dresden October 10, 1874; the ashes of the body and coffin together being about six pounds. Baron de Palm's remains burnt in like manner in America in 1876, and Dr. Winslow's in 1877. CRETE. Now Candia, which see. CRIME. (See pp. 105,338; also Ticket of Leave.) International Congress for Prevention and Repression of Crime, met at London, July 3, 1872. In England a great decrease in crimes of violence in proportion to the popu- lation has been observed from 1861 to 1871. CRISPINS. (See St. Crispin.) CROWN. (See p. 340.) The crown of England contains 1 large ruby, 1 large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1,363 brilliants (dia- monds), 1,273 rose-diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, 273 pearls. CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. (See Animals.) 18 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. CRYOLITE. A fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantities in Greenland, and used to manufacture metallic aluminium. CUBA. (See pp. 106, 340.) Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revo- lution, September, 1868 ; checked, June, 1870 ; not suppressed, January, 1872 ; still in full activity. August, 1877. CUMULATIVE VOTE. Under the English Reform Act of 1867, cumulative voting, to allow " minority representation," was allowed in London, Glas- gow, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, arid in such counties as returned three members each. In the counties, and in some of these cities, the result was to admit minority candidates. Used in electing members of the government of Harvard and Yale Colleges. CUNEIFORM LANGUAGES. (See Assyria.') CURIUM. General L. P. di Cesnola discovered in 1875, in the ruins of this very ancient city, in Cyprus, a treasure supposed to have been that of a temple, deposited in four subterranean rooms, and consisting of over 7,200 1 ornaments, statues, and other articles of gold, silver, bronze, terra cotta, ivory, glass, etc. , etc. , which have been secured for the Metropolitan Art Museum in New York. CURRENCY. UNITED STATES. National bank notes outstanding, De- cember 31, 1876, $319,860,304 ; greenbacks outstanding, same date, $366,- 911,000. CYCLONE. A circular hurricane, common in the tropics. In a cyclone at Calcutta, October 5, 1864, about 100 ships lost, and 60,000 persons per- ished. One at Nassau, in the Bahamas, October 1 and 2, 1866, destroyed over 600 houses and other buildings, dismasted many ships, and killed from 60 to 70 persons. August 21, 1871, a cyclone devastated Antigua, St. Kitte, and other islands, inflicting enormous damages. In a flood and cyclone in the Backerguuge district, in India, near the mouth of the Gan- ges, 5,000 persons are supposed to have perished, October 31, 1876. CYPRUS. (See Curium.) CZECHS. Name of the natives of Bohemia and Moravia. In Bohemia there is a violent opposition between the Czechs and Germans. D. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. (See Roumania.) DARIEN CANAL. (See Canals.) DARWINISM. A " development " theory was put forth by Wolff, 1759; and one by Lamarck, 1809, and one in the *' Vestiges of Creation," 1844. Origin of mammals from an effg, not a hundredth part of an inch diameter, proved by von Baer, 1827. Mr. Darwin's doctrines are contained in his ' Origin of Species," 1859, and " Descent of Man," 1871. His follower, Haeckel, published a "History of Creation," 1873, appeared in English, 1.875. Mr. A. R. Wallace's ' k Natural Selection" appeared 1870. DEACONESSES. Discontinued in the Western Church in the fifth and Sixth centuries, and in the Eastern in the twelfth ; recently revived in Germany. Pastor Fliedner's Institution for training deaconesses at Kais- erswerth founded 1835. Advocated in England by the Bishop of Ely, SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 19 1853, and some appointed. Di:cesan Deaconess Institution at London, established 1861. In 1866 the Kaiserswerth Institution had connected with it 139 stations and 491 sisters or deaconesses. DEATHS, noticeable, 1867-1877, in alphabetical order of names : Agassiz. L., naturalist, Dec. 15. 1873. Derby, Earl of, statesman, Oct. 23, 1869. Alford, Rev. H., critic, poet, and divine, Jan. Dickens, Charles, novelist, June 9, 1870. 12, 1871. Didot, A., publisher, Feb. 20, 1876. Alison, Sir A., historian, May 23, 1867. Amberley, Viscount, Jan. 10, 1876. Antonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman, Nov. 6, 1876. Applegath A., inventor of printing machinery, counterfeit-proof bank notes, etc., Feb. 14, 1871. Aspinwall, Col. Thomas, Aug. 11, 1876. Auber, D. F. B., composer, May 13, 1871. Aubigno, Merle d', clergyman and historian, Oct. 1!), 1872. Austin, Mrs. Sarah, authoress, Aug. 8, 1867. Babbage, C., mathematician, Oct. 18, 171. Baird, James, Scotch iron master, June 21, 1876. Bailey, Theodoras, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 10, 1877. Bedford, Paul, actor, Jan. 11, 1871. Bentley, R., publisher. Sept. 10, 1871. Berryer, P. A., French advocate and orator, Nov. 29, 1868. Blair. F. P., senior, editor and politician, Oct. 18, 1876. Blitz, Antonio, "magician," Jan. 28, 1877. Brag,', B. L., rebel general, Sept. 27, 1876. Brewster, SirD., physicist, Feb. 10, 18t8. Brongniart, A. X., scientist and author, Feb. 20, 1876. Brooke, Sir J., Rajah of Sarawak, June 11, 1863. Brougham, Lord, advocate, orator, writer, phil- anthropist. May 7. 1868. Broiighton, Lord (Sir J. C. Hobhouse), author and official, June 3, 1869. Brownlow, W. G., editor and politician, April 29, 1877. Brownson, O. A., writer and journalist, April 17, 1876. Buchanan, J., ex-President, June 1. 1868. Burgoyne, Sir John, soldier, Oct. 7, 1871. Burns, Jabiz, Methodist clergyman, Jan. 31, 1876. Dumas, Alexandra, novelist and dramatist, Dec. 5, 1870. Durbin. J. P., Methodist clergyman, Oct. 19, 1876. Ellenborough, Earl of, statesman and admin- istrator, Dec., 1871. Ellet, Mrs. Elizabeth P., authoress, 1877. Emerson-Tennent, Sir J., author and official, March 6, 1869. Evans. Sir De Lacy, soldier, Jan. 9, 1870. Exeter, Bianop of (Henry Phillpotts), Sept. 8, 1869. Faraday, M., physicist, Aug. 25, 1867. Forrest, Edwin, actor, Dec. 12. 1872. Forster, John, author, Jan. 31, 1876. Freiligrath, P., poet, March 19, 1876. Galliera, Duke of, wealthy Italian nobleman, Nov. 24, 1876. Gough, Lord, soldier, March 2, 1S69. Greenfield, Elizabeth T., the " black swan, " colored singer, March 31, 1876. Grisi, Giulia, singer, Nov. 25, 1869. Grote G., historian of Greece, June 18, 1871. Guizot, F., statesman and historian, Sept. 12, 1873. Hall. W. W., medical writer and editor. May 10, 1876. Harper, Fletcher, last of four brothers, pub- lishers, May 29, 1877. Hemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist, June 16, 1876. Herschel, Sir J. F. W., astronomer, May 11, 1871. Howe, Dr. S. G., physician and philanthro- pist, Jan. 9, 1876. Hudson. George, the " Railway King," Dec. 14, 1871. Johnson, Andrew, ex-President, January 10, 1876. Johnson, Reverdy, lawyer and statesman, Feb. 10, 1876. Johnston, Keith, geographer, July 9. 1871. Bushnell, Horace, clergyman and writer, Feb. Jones, Ernest, chartist, Jan. 26, 1869. 17, 1876. Juarez, B., ex-president of Mexico, July 18, Capponi, Marquis, author, Feb. 4, 1876. Cardigan, Lord, of Balaklava notoriety, March 1872. Kean, Charles, Jr.. actor, Jan. 22, 1868. 28, 1868. Kerr, Michael C., politician, Aug.' 19, 1S78. Chambers, Robert and William, publishers and I Kock. Paul de, French novelist, Aug., 1871. authors. March 17 and 20, 1871. , Lahrbush, Frederick A., soldier, claiming to Clarendon, Earl of, diplomatist and statesman, ; be 111 years and 25 days old, April 3, 1877. June 27, 1870. I Lamartine, A. de, poet, historian, and states- Cousin, Victor, historian and philosopher. Jan. man, Feb. 28, 1869. 14. 1867. I Landseer. Sir E., painter. Oct. 1, T873. Cushman, Charlotte, actress, Feb. 18, 1876. ' Lane. E. W., Arabic scholar, Aug. 10, 1876. Custer, Gen., July 2, 1876. ; Lee, R. E., rebel general, Oct. 13, 1870. Davies, C.. mathematician, Sept. 17, 1876. i Lick, James, capitalist, Oct. 1, 1876. Davis, C. H., admiral U.S. Navy, Feb. 18, 1877. Lowenthal, J. J., chess-player, July 21, 1876 Deak, Francis, Hungarian statesman, Jan. 29, Lyttou, Lord, novelist, Jan. 18, 1873. 1876. Le:uair.re, K., actor, Jan. 27, 1876. De Morgan, A., mathematicUn, March 18, Le;n'.m, >I;irk. editor, May 23. 1870. 1871. I Maclise, Daniel, painter, April 25, 1870. 20 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Mansel, H. L., divine and metaphysician, July 81, 1871. Marochetti, Baron, sculptor, Dec. 29, 1867. Martineau, Harriet, writer. June 27, 1876. Hayo, Lord. ifov. gen. of India, assassinated, Feb. 8, 1872. Hayo, Dr. Thomas, physician and medical writer, Jan. 13, 1871. Maximilian L, Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 1867. Maxwell, Lady (Mrs. Caroline Norton), June H1877. Mazzlni, G., Italian, republican agitator and conspirator, March 10, 1872. MelvilL, Rev. Henry, divine, Feb. 9, 1871. Michael III., Prince of Servia, assassinated June 10. 1868. Milman, Dr. H. H., author and divine, Sept. 27, 1868. Montalernbert, Count de, author and states- man, March 13, 1870. Murchison, Sir R. I., geologist, Oct. 22, 1871. Napoleon III., ex-Emperor, Jan. 9. 1873. Narvaez, Spanish soldier and ruler, April 23, 1868. Neal, John, writer, June 20. 1876. Omar Pasha, soldier, April 18, 1871. Patteson, J. 0., missionary, Bishop of Melan- esia, Sept. 20, 1871. Peabody. George, banker and public benefac- tor, Nov. 4, 189. P6rier, Casimir, French statesman, July 6, 1876. Poggcndorff, J. C., physicist, 1877. Pollock, Sir Frederick, judge, Aug. 23. 1870. Pr6vost-Paradol, M., author, July 19, 1870. Prim. J., Spanish soldier and statesman, as- sassinated Dec. 28, 1870. Ptiifh, George E , lawyer and politician, July 1!), 1876. Putnam, George P., publisher, Dec. 19, 1872. Randall, H. S., agricultural and educational writer, Aug. 19, 1876. Rhett, R. B., politician, Sept. 14, 1876. DEVELOPMENT. (See Darwinism.) DIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, reduced by its first unskilful cutting from nearly 800 carats to 279 carats, was recut in 1852 down to 102 carats. The il Star of the South," brought from Brazil 1855, weighed 204^ carats, of which half was lost in cutting. Diamonds were found in Cape Colony, South Africa, in March, 1867, and one, the " Star of South Africa.* 1 found in 1869, weighed 46 carats, and was valued in June, 1870, at 2.1,000. Other diamond fields discovered near Vaal and Orange Rivers. September, 1870 ; a great rush of diggers, November, 1870. The value of 141 diamonds found in Africa, 18ii9, was 7,405; of 5.661 in 1870, 124,910. Diamond drill for piercing stone, patented by Hermann in France, 1854 ; a subsequent improvement by setting the diamond in the rim of a tube to turn, and thus cut out a core, used in Mt. Cenis tunnel and at Hellgate mine. DISESTABLISHMENT. (See also Church of Ireland.) A conference was held at Birmingham, October 1, 1872. to promote immediate action for the disestablishment of the English and Scotch national churches. DRAMA. January 28, 1869, the Lord Chamberlain of England sent an offi- Robertson, T. W.. dramatist, Feb., 1871. Robinson, W. S., journalist, March 11, 1876. Rosa*, Manuel, ex-dictator of Buenos Ayres, March 14, 1877. Rosse, Earl of, astronomer, Oct. 31, 1867. Rossini, G. A., composer, Nov. 13. 1868. Rothschild, Sir Anthony, capitalist, Jan. 4, 1876. Ryves, Mrs., daughter of the self-styled " Prin- cess Olive, of Cumberland," Dec. 7, 1871. Sainte-Beuve, C. A. literary critic, Oct., 1869. Saldanha, field marshal, Poitnguese, soldier and statesman, Nov. 21, 1876. Salt Sir Titus, manufacturer, Dec. 29, 1876. Sand, George (Mme. Dudevant), June 8, 1876. Santa Anna, Antonio L., Mexican general and ruler, June 20, 1876. Schatnyl, Circassian chief, April, 1871. Smart! Sir George, musician, Feb. 23, 1867. Smith, Alexander, poet, Jan. 5, 1867. Smith. F. O. J., telegraph capitalist, Oct. 14, 1876. Smith, Geo., Assyrian scholar, Sept. 5, 1876. Smith, Henry B., presbyterian clergyman, pro- fessor, editor, and author, Feb. 7, 1877. Smith, William, connoisseur and antiquary in engravings, Sept. 13, 1876. Smirke, SirR., architect. April 18, 1867. Stanfleld, Clarkson, marine painter, May 18, 1867. Stewart, A. T., merchant, April 10. 1876. Strangt'ord,Viscount, diplomatist, Jan. 9, 1869. Strauss, F., theologian, Feb. 8. 1873. Sumner, C., statesman, March 11, 1W3. Thompson, Jeff., rebel general, Sept. 5, 1876. Tischendorf, C., biblical scholar, Dec. 7, 1873. Vanderbilt, C., railroad owner and capitalist, Jan. 4, 1877. Whittingham, C., printer, April 21, 1876. Wilk.es, Charles, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 8, 1877. Wilson, Henry, vice-president, Jan. 20. 1876. Winship, G. B., strong man, Sept. 12. 1876. Wise, H. A., politician, Sept. 11, 1876. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 21 cial warning to all the London managers against ' ' the impropriety of cos- tume of the ladies in the pantomimes, burlesques, etc.," usual on the stage. Dramatic College, for distressed actors and their children, founded at May- bury, near Woking, in England, June 1, 1860, and seven persons installed as beneficiaries, September 29, 1862. A somewhat similar institution was directed to be established by Edwin Forrest, the American actor, in his house at Philadelphia, but there appeared to be none to apply for the benefit of the asylum. DUALIN. (See Explosives.) DUELS. March 12, 1870, the Duke de Montpensier challenged Don Enri- que de Bourbon, for personalities having reference to the throne of Spain, and at the third shot killed him. The Duke was tried by court-martial, and sentenced to one month's banishment from Madrid and $6,000 fine, to be paid to Don Enrique's family. Duels are still (1877) frequent in France, but have become rare in England and America. A clumsy and unsuccessful one took place in 1877, between J. G-. Bennett, the owner of the New Ycn*k Herald, and one May, of New York ; neither was damaged, and Bennett went off to Europe, where he remained a number of months . DZOUNGARIA, OR SOONGARIA. A country north of China, inhabited by about two million warlike and fanatical Mohammedans. They were tributary to China, rebelled 1864, making Abel Oghlan sultan. In conse- quence of their depredations Eussia attacked them, April, 1871, the Sultan surrendered himself July 4, and the country was annexed to Russia. E. EARTH. The estimated average density, 5-ft- that of water ; weight, 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons. EARTHQUAKES. (See pp. 112, 358.) August 13-15, 1868, terrible earth- quakes totally destroyed Arica, Arequipa, Islay, Iquique, Pisco, and many other towns of Peru and Ecuador. Estimated lives lost, 20,000 ; estimated loss of property, 60,000,000, including many ships along the coast and at the Chiucha Islands. It was believed that more th&n 300,000 persons were deprived of shelter and food. An earthquake on the Sind frontier of India, December 14 and 15, 1872, killed about 500 persons. May 16-18, 1875, one on the Colombia frontier, near Santander, is said to have killed 14,000. From 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, out of a population of about six million, over 1,000 persons a year, in all 110,000. About 255 earthquakes, all slight, are known to have occurred in the Brit- ish Islands. EAST INDIA COMPANY. Its government of India ceased October 1, 1858. Finally abolished June 1, 1874. ECLIPSES. August 17 and 18, 1868, there was an eclipse of the sun, visi- ble in many parts of the East, and very important for study, because its obscuration was for the longest period ever observed, reaching on the east coast of Bengal 5 minutes 49 seconds, and owing to the sun's great dis- tance and the moon's small distance from the earth, the obscuration wae also very complete. Very important observations were made, especially spectroscopic ones, as to the material structure of the sun. August 7, 22 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1869, solar eclipse generally observed in North America. There is a sort of series of about 70 eclipses that comes round once every 18 years 1(H days. Except on August 12, 1889, no total eclipse of the sun will be visi- ble in England for 250 years from July, 1871. ECUADOR. Presidents: Gen. Franco, August 21, 1859; Dr. G. G. Moreno, January, 1861 ; G. Carrion, August 4, 1865 ; resigns December, 1867 ; Dr. X. Espinosa, September 13, 1867 ; Dr. G. G. Moreno, end of 1872 ; assassinated August 6, 1872 ; X. Leon, Vice-President, September, 1875. Population estimated at about 1,500,000. EDUCATION IN U. S. (See pp. 113, 362.) A Department of Education created by Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1867 ; afterwards made a Bureau in the Department of the Interior. Commissioner, Henry Barnard; succeeded in 1870 by Gen. John Eaton. In 1870, in the United States, were persons over 10 years old unable to read, 4,528,084 ; unable to write, 5,658,144 ; school children, 7,209,938 ; schools, 141,629 ; teachers (127,713 female), 221,042; income of schools, $95,402,726, of which public money, $61,716,039. The census of 1870 showed that the wealth of the country was owned where the education was highest, and that poverty and illiteracy go together. Compulsory free schools, and disfranchisement of all who cannot read and write English, by Federal authority, recommended by President Grant in his message, December 5, 1876. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. (See p. 362 ) Na'ional Education Leagues (for compulsory education) first met October 12 and 13, 1869 ; Metropolitan School Board (for London), elected November 29, 1870, MissGarrett, M.D., being chosen member by a large majority. Elementary Education Bill of Mr. W E. Forster became law August 9, 1870 ; amended 1872, 1873, 1876 ; Compulsory Attendance Bill of Mr. Dixon rejected, 320 to 1 : ,6. July 1, 1874, and again, 281 to 260, April, 1876. Primary schools in Great Britain in 1855, 4,8lO ; in 1860, 7,272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; annual parlia- mentary grant for same, in 1870, about $4,500,000. EGYPT. (See pp 113.362.) See also Suez Canal. June 6, 1867. the Khedive (viceroy) of Egypt arrived in London ; his visit lasted until the 18th. He made a second visit in 1869, landing June 22, and remaining eight days. A controversy with the Sultan was adjusted December 18, 1869 ; a firman makes the Khedive practically independent June 8, 1873 ; but he must nut coin money, make treaties, or build iron-clad ships. The succession of the Khedives is : Meheraet Ali Pacha, abdicated September, 184S; dies August 2, 1849 ; Ibrahim, his adopted son, September, 1848 ; dies November 9 or 10, 1848 ; Abbas, hia son, succeeds ; dies July 14, 1854 ; Said, Abbas's brother, dies January 18, 1863 ; Ismail, Said's nephew, succeeds. Mr. Cave's report to English Government (April, 1870), ca'ls Ismail " intelligent, industrious, hospitable, and frugal." The principal points as to ancient Egyptian history settled thus far are : . 1. Hieroglyphics are partly pictoriol (and of these some are special and some general or determinative) and partly alphabetic. 2. Menes was . believed by the ancient Egyptians to be historical, the first known king of lv-, r ypt ; and there is more evidence .for his existence than for that of J King Arthur. 3. The great pyramid dates from the 4th dynasty, say 300 or 4()0 years after Menes. 4. Manetho's dynasties were mostly consecu- tive, not contemporary. 5. Roving tribes from the East (the Hyksos) con- quered Lower Egypt and ruled in the Delta for centuries ; they were SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 23 expelled by Aahmes, or Amasis I. Under the 18th dynasty, which began with this king, Egypt was greatest. Thotmes III. was the greatest of its kings. Ramses II., or Sesostris, of the 19th dynasty, was, however, as great. 6. Important synchronisms have been determined of the later period of Egyptian empire, with Syrian and Persian history. (Ren. J. P. Thompson. ) ELECTORAL COMMISSION. The votes of Florida, Louisana, and South Carolina in the Presidential election of November, 1876, were disputed, and were finally referred for adjudication to an Electoral Commission by Act approved January 29, 1877. The commission consisted of Justices Clifford. Strong, Miller, Field, and Bradley, of the United States Supreme Court; United States Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- man, Bayard ; United States Representatives Payne. Hunton, Abbott, Garfield, Hoar. The Commission began operations February 7, 1877; acted on the three votes above named, the critical questions being mostly determined by a vote of eight to seven, corresponding nearly with the known political opinions of the members of the commission, and the deciding vote being usually that of Justice Bradley. The result of the Commission was the crediting of the votes in question to Hayes and Wheeler, who were in consequence elected President and Vice-President of the United States by one electoral vote majority, viz., by 185 votes to 184. ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES. The elementary substances now known are sixty-five in number, as follows; those after sulphur being in the order of their discovery from antimony, 1490 down to 1877. Gold, Platinum, Tungsten, Lithium, Silver, Nickel, Tellurium, Selenium, Mercury, Sodium, Uranium, Cadmium, Copper, Potassium, Zirconium, Bromine, Iron, .Lime (calcium), Titanium, Thormum, Tin, Silex, Strontium, Vanadium, Lead, Alumina, Yttrium, Lanthanum, Carbon, Magnesia, Chromium, Didymium, Sulphur, Hydrogen, Glucinnm, Erbium, Antimony, Fluorine, Tantalum, Ruthenium, Bismuth, Nitrogen, Cerium, Niobium, Zinc, Chlorine, Palladium, Caesium, Phosphorus, Oxygen, Rhodium, Rubidium, Borax, Manganese, Iridinm, Thallium, Arsenic, Barium, Osmium, Indium, Cobalt, Molybdennm, Iodine, Jargonium, Gallium. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, The electric telegraphs of the world are (in 1877) 391,360 miles long. Of these, the United States contain 79,000 miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 75,000; Russia, 31,459; France, 28,784; Austro-Hungary, 28, 148 ; Germany, only 19,152. EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION. Immigration into United States since 1861 (by Government fiscal years) : 1861... .. 89,720 187... ...293,601 1872... ...487.750 1862 89,005 1868 939,145 1873 422,545 1803 174.525 1869 385,287 1874 260,814 lb(>4 193,191 1870 366,303 1875... ...H'1,231 1866 248,394 1S71 346,938 1876 237.991 1866 ..314,840 Total in sixteen years, 4.331,278. Whole emigration into United Slates to end of 1875, including the estimated total of 250,000 before 1820, 9,526,966. For Chinese immigration to California, see China. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Emigration from Great Britain and Ireland for Ten Years. To North Ameri- can Colonies. To United States. To Australia. Total. 1866 13,255 161.000 24,097 204,882 1867 15,503 159.275 14,466 . 195,953 1868 21,062 155,532 12,809 196,325 1869 33,891 203.001 14,901 258.027 1870 &5,295 196,075 17,065 256.940 1871 32,671 198.843 12 2-27 25'i435 1872 32.205 233.747 15,876 295,213 1873 37,208 233.073 26,428 810,612 1874 25.450 148,161 63,958 241,014 1875 17,378 105,046 35,525 173,809 ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, to provide for disposal of encumbered real estate in Ireland, passed July, 1849 ; proceedings under it October, 1849, to July, 1858: 2,380 estates sold, and brought 22,000,000. The Irish Land Bill, passed 1870, further recognized the Irish customs as to tenure of land, and gave the tenant a right in his improvements, and damages for being wrongfully evicted. EOZOON CANADENSE. A foraminifer found by J. W. Dawson, of Mont- real, in the Laurentian limestone in 1858; asserted to be the earliest known form of animal life. EPHESUS. Mr. Wood's search for the ruins of the temple of Diana began 1863; he ascertained the site 1870, and shipped 60 tons of marble to the British Museum in 1872. EUROPE. Population (census years 1860 to 1875 in different countries), 265,374,470; an estimate for 1872, for all these countries, gives 301,700,- 000. EVOLUTION theory ; includes the nebular theory, and the Darwinian theory of the descent of man and natural selection. EXECUTION. (See also Capital Punishment.) The execution of Michael Barrett, for being concerned in the plot to blow up Clerkenwell Prison, December 13, 1867, at Newgate, London, May 26. 1868, was the last public execution in England. On September 8th following, the first private execution took place, inside of Newgate, being that of one Mackay, for murder. EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. London (South Kensington), opened May 1, closed November 1, 1867; visitors, 6,117,450. Paris, opened April 1. closed November 3, 1867. Vienna, opened May 1, closed November 2, 1873. Philadelphia, opened May 10, closed November 10, 1876. The Philadelphia Exhibition (most single admissions, 274,919, on September 28, 1876) compares with the other chief similar ones as follows : Place. Year. Days open. Admissions. Receipts. London 1851 141 6 039 lill $2.530.500 1NJ2 172 6211 103 2 042,650 Paris 1855 200 5 162 330 640.495 1867 217 8 805 969 2 103,675 Vionna 1813 186 6 740 500 1,032,885 Philadelphia 1876 159 9,789,392 3,813,749.75 Exhibitors at Philadelphia, 80.864. from 50 countries ; whole outlay about $8,830.000. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 25 EXPLOSIONS. (See Hellgnte.} Explosion of steam on the ironclad Thun- derer, at Portsmouth, England, kills 77 persons. One Thomas, Thomas- sen, or Thomson, said also to be in fact named Alexander Keith, Jr., and a native of Halifax, N. S., sent a cask of dynamite to be shipped by the steamer Mosel, at Bremerhaven, and with it a clock-train set to run eight days and then explode the dynamite and destroy the ship, which would then be well out at sea. The machine, however, exploded on the dock December 11, 1875, killing over 80 persons and wounding about 200. Thomassen killed himself, after confessing that his object had been merely to obtain a small insurance. EXPLOSIVE BULLET TREATY, adopted in November 1868, at St. Peters- burg, by Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Greece, Holland, Italy, Persia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Wiirtemberg, agreed not to use in any war amongst them- selves, by land or sea, any explosive missiles of any kind of less than 400 grammes weight, viz., about 13 cz. avoirdupois. EXPLOSIVES. Dynamite (or giant powder), looks like rather fine brown sugar, and is made of powdered silex, silicious ashes or infusorial earth, mixed with three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Dualin, made known by Carl Ditmar, a Prussian, in 1870, consists of cellulose, nitro- starch, nitro-mannite, and nitro-cellulose ; and the dualin invented by Nobel is composed of ammonia and sawdust, treated with nitro-sulphuric acid. Nitro-glycerine, an amber-colored fluid, discovered by Sobrero, 1847 ; made by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of one part nitric and two parts sulphuric acid. It explodes with thirteen times the force of gunpowder, besides a great gain in its speed of action. Gun-cotton, invented by Schonbein, and made known 1846 ; it is made by steeping cotton in mixed nitric and sulphuric acids (equal parts). Lithofracteur is a modification of dynamite, invented by Engels, of Cologne, 1869. Gly- oxyline, invented by F. A. Abel, in England, in 1867, is a mixture of gun- cotton, saltpetre, nitro-glycerine, and pulp. It was superseded by com- pressed gun-cotton. EXTRADITION TREATY between England and the United States, negoti- ated 1842 ; abrogated M.ay 2, 1876, in consequence of England's refusing 1 , April 18, 1876. to surrender the forger Winslovv, and of a disagreement about trying one Lawrence, delivered by England under the treaty, the Eng- lish position being that there were improper efforts to try him for offences other than, that for which he was delivered ; while the United States claimed that England had wrongly applied a home English statute of 1870, defining extradition offences, to this treaty, which was international. An extradition treaty between the United States and Spain was proclaimed Feb. 21, 1877. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. (See pp.118, 373.) See Commerce. F. FAILURES (See Commercial Failures, W. P., p. 100,) in the United States, for the ten years 1867-76, were as follows : Q 26 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ISffT. Number, 2,386 Whole Amount. $86,218,000 Average Indebtedness $26 134 1868 18f)9 2.608 2799 63, 774,000 75 054 000 24.452 26 814 1870 . . 3 551 88,242.000 24 849 1871 .2915 85,252,000 29,245 1872 4,06!l 121,056,000 29,750 1878 1874 5,183 5,880 2-28, 49!). 000 155,239,000 44,085 26627 1875 . . . 7,740 201,0150,353 25978 1876 . . . ...9,092 191,117,786 21,020 FAMINE. (See p. 375.) In Orissa, 750,000 persons perished of famine, 18(55-6 ; very severe in Persia, 1871-2 ; in Bengal, from drought, 1874 ; in Asia Minor, 1874-5 ; in several parts of India, 1876-7. FENIANS. October 10, 1809, Edward Martin, a Fenian official, was buried in London, with a Fenian demonstration consisting of a funeral procession of various organized bodies, in all about 6,000 men. In 1870, Parliament amnestied the Fenian prisoners at Portland, but on condition of banish- ment for life from the United Kingdom. A Fenian force of some 2, (XX) strong, under O'Neill, entered Canada from Vermont, May 25, 1870, but remained beyond the lines only ninety minutes, being repulsed and driven back by a few English and Canadian troops. Another company crossed the line at Malone, N. Y., on the 27th, and were driven back in a similar manner. One Fenian killed at each place was the whole loss on both sides. July 13, 1871, Head Constable Talbot, of Dublin, who bad been vigorous and successful in breaking up the plans of the Fenians, was assassinated by a pistol-shot, dying on the 16th. One Kelly, who was sup- posed to have shot him, was acquitted, to the great joy of the Fenians. FIJI ISLANDS. Ceded to England, September 30, 1673 ; Sir A. H. Gordon first Governor, 1875. FILIOQUE. A word adopted into the Western creeds, in the Council of Toledo, 589 ; rejected by the Eastern churches since 662. It implies that the Holy Ghost proceeds both from the Father " and from the Son." The old Catholic Conference, Bonn, August, 1875, debated its omission, but did not omit it. FIRES. 'See pp. 120, 378.) December 6, 1867, Her Majesty's Theatre, Lon- don, was burned down. It was reckoned the best existing building of its class for hearing music in. June 5, 1870. a great fire in Pera, one of the suburbs of Constantinople, destroyed many houses, immense quantities of property of Armenian merchants, the English Embassy buildings, and (by estimate) 2,000 lives. January 12, 1870, the Star and Garter Hotel at Richmond, near London, for many years a favorite resort of pleasure- parties, was totally burnt ; the manager, Mr. Lever, being burnt also. May 24, 1870, at Quebec, a fire in the suburb of St. lloch destroyed 400 houses, left 8,000 persons homeless, and consumed $1,000,000 worth of property. March 10, 1871, a fire at Holker Hall, Devonshire, a seat of the Duke of Devonshire, destroyed, among many other valuable and curious articles, seventy-two very fine paintings, by some of the best masters, ancient and modern. June 17, 1871, the steam in an immense boiler, some thirty feet long, in the Trinity Works in Sheffield, was found to continue to fill the boiler at night after the fires were withdrawn. On examination it was found that the boiler, which had been noticed to be sinking for some time, was kept hot by the slow burning of a seam of SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 27 shale and coal extending immediately under the building. The fire muet have been long burning, perhaps for years, and was quietly at work under the street and under the houses opposite. It took a considerable time and a large force of men to put it out. December 3, 1871 , a fire at War- wick Castle consumed, the whole of the east wing and the centre, the west wing being saved with great difficulty. Many valuable works and historic pictures and relics were destroyed. December 14, 1871, a fire at Rotherhithe, near London, in Bennett & Co. 's granaries, among the largest in England, destroyed to the value of 150,000. November 24, 1876, fire at Tokio, Japan, destroys some 5,000 homes; about fifty per- sons killed; loss of property about $10,000,000. December 5, 1876, Brooklyn Theatre burned ; 315 lives lost. For Boston and Chicago fires, see Boston, Chicago. FLOGGING. Abolished in the English army (in time of peace) in the annual mutiny bills of 1868. The Act provides that "no court-martial shall have power to sente ce any soldier or marine on shore to corporal punishment in time of peace." FLOODS. (See Inunda.lions, pp. 132, 426.) Great floods in France in Sep- tember, 18(5(5 ; in North of England, November 16 and 17, 1866 ; at Rome, December 28 and 29, 1870 ; in Northern Italy, October, 1872 ; at Toulouse, in France (1,000 lives lost), June 23, 1875 ; in midland and western coun- ties of England, July, October and Novenc&er, 1875; in India, September 22-24, 1875 ; in Holland and France, March, 1876. Reservoir at Mill River, Mass., burst, destroying several villages and about 150 lives, May 16, 1874. A flood in the rivers of Western Pennsylvania, July, 1874, drowns about 220 persons. The Worcester, Mass. , reservoir burst March 80, 1876, but having been expected, no lives were lost, though great damage was done. FLORENCE, OR FIRENZE. (See p. 378.) People vote for annexation to Sardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860, and on April 7, the King enters Flor- ence : it is made the capital of Italy until Rome shall be acquired, De- cember 11, 1864, and the King and Court established there May 13. 1865. 600th anniversary of Dante's birth celebrated May 14. 1865; first Italian parliament November 18, 1865 ; government removes to Rome, July, 1871. 400th anniversary of Michael Angelo, September 12, 1875. FLUORESCENCE. The luminousness which takes place in uranium-glass, and in solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, when the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are sent through them. Discovered and named by Stokes, 1852. FRANCE. (See, for events, etc., in the Chronological Tables, following the " Dictionary of Dates.") G. GAMING. Gaming-houses licensed in Paris until 1838. Betting-houses suppressed in London, 1830. Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wies- baden, Hamburg, and other European watering-places, leaving Monaco the only such place of resort, December 31, 1872. Pool-selling forbidden by law in New York, 1876. GATLING GUN. Invented in America ; patents 1861-1865 ; exhibited at Paris 1867 ; rejected in England as inferior to a field-gun firing shrapnel ; 28 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. a similar machine, the mitrailleuse, tried at Vincennes, 1869, and used by the Freuch ia the war of 1870-1871. GENEVA. (See p. 388.) The ex-Duke of Brunswick dies here August 18, 1873, and leaves all his property (over 7(54,000) to the city. GENEVA CONVENTION, on care of wounded, e'tc., in war, of delegates from fourteen governments, met October 26, 1863 ; their code adopted by all civilized power* except the United States, August, 1864. The Inter- national or "Red Cross" Society, established inconsequence, did much in relieving the sick and wounded in the Franco-Prussia war, 1870-1871, some 13,000 volunteers attending them at a time. GERMANY. (See pp. 124, 390.) The Germanic Confederation, succeeding Napoleon's " Confederation of the Rhine," was formed June 8, 1815 ; its first diet was at Frankfort, November 16, 1816 ; announced dissolved by Prussia, June 14, 1866, but continued ; was, however, given up by Austria at the peace of Nikolsburg, after Sadowa, July 26, and the last meeting of the diet, August 24, 1866. Instead was established the North German Confederation, without Austria and the other South German States, Au- gust 18, 1866. North German Parliament met at Berlin, February 24, 1867; the confederation ceased on the re-establishment of the German Empire, January 1, 1871. Population of the Empire, December 1, 1875, 42,726,844. GOLD. (See pp. 125, 395.) Of 98,000,000 sovereigns coined in England from 1850 to 1869, 44,000,000 had in the latter year disappeared from circulation; and it was computed that in 1869 31^ per cent, of the sov- ereigns and 40 per cent, of the half-sovereigns circulating were of light weight. Estimated value of gold extant in the world, in 1848, about $2,800,000,000 ; in 1875, about $5,000,000,000. GOOD TEMPLARS. A secret society of total abstinents. The first Eng- lish lodge formed at Birmingham, May, 1868; in 1874 said to be 3,74J lodges and 210,255 members in the United Kingdom. GOTHENBURG SYSTEM. Introduced with excellent results at Gothen- burg, Sweden, for controlling the use of intoxicating liquors. It consists of a monopoly of the sale by a company of reputable citizens, under care- ful restrictions, and without any gain beyond usual wages, to the sellers, who must live by their other business as victuallers, etc. GRANGERS. (See Patrons of Husbandry.} GREAT BRITAIN. (For principal occurrences, see in Chronological Tables, following the Dictionary of Dates. ) GREEK CHURCH. Patriarch of Constantinople declines the Pope's invita- tion to an oecumenical council, October, 1868. A Greek church at Liver- pool consecrated by an archbishop, January 16, 1870. GRETNA GREEN. Here Scotch marriages (an acknowledgment before witnesses was a valid marriage in Scotland) used to be celebrated for run- aways. An Act of Parliament in 1856, however, destroyed the business, by providing that one party to such marriage must have lived in Scotland twenty-one days. GUATEMALA. (See p. 126.) Recent Presidents : Vincent Cerna, succeeded Carrera, May 3, 1865, to 1869 ; M. G. Granedos, December, 1872 ; R. Bar- rios, May 7, 1873. Population, about 1,180,000. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 29 GYPSIES. Esther Faa crowned Queen of the Gypsies at Blyth, in York- shire, November 18, I860. H. HAYTI, OK ST. DOMINGO. (See pp. 127, 406.) Hayti and St. Domingo are used as names for the whole island. Hayti is the western or French part, and- San Domingo (which see) the eastern or Spanish part. Gef- frard became President of Hayti, January 23, 1859 ; a military insurrection against him, under Salnave, broke out May, 1865 ; Geffrard beaten and banished. Salnave President, March 27, 1867 ; after one or two risings are put down, Salnave proclaims himself Emperor, August, 1868, but is defeated by insurgents, taken, tried, and shot, January 15, 1870. General Nissage Saget elected President, March 19, 1870; lives out his term. M. Domingue elected June 14, 1874; an insurrection expels him, April, 1876, and Boisrond Canal elected July, 1876. Population (estimated) 572,000. HEAT. Count Rumford, about the beginning of this century, asserted that heat consists in motion among the particles of matter. Tyndall's book on the same theme appeared February, 1863, and this is at present the received doctrine. HELLGATE. The reef at Hallett's Point, which was the principal obstruc- tion at Hellgate, in East River, near New York, was mined during seven years under the management of General Newton, of United States Engineers, by a system of galleries and pillars between, to an extent of 4,857 feet of tunnelling and 2,568 feet of galleries, covering two and three-quarter acres of ground, leaving ten feet of rock above, supported by 173 piers of about ten feet diameter each, and the whole system radiating fanwise outward from the entrance-shaft at the shore. All these pillars were then drilled and charged with a total number of 3,6i>0 charges of dynamite, vulcanite, or rend-rock powder, and the whole were connected with a battery on shore by wires, so as to insure simultaneous discharge. This took place on September 24, 1876, with complete suc- cess, the final connection which exploded the whole mass being made by the finger of General Newton's baby daughter pressing a battery-key. A smaller explosion was the blowing up of Blossom Rock, in the Golden Gate (San Francisco harbor), April 23, 1870, in which 43,000 pounds of gunpowder were used, packed in one large chamber in the rock. HEPTARCHY. Seven Saxon kingdoms in England, about A.D. 450-850, viz.: Kent; South Saxons (Sussex and Surrey); West Saxons (Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, part of Cornwall) ; East; Saxons (Essex, Middlesex, part of Hert<) ; Northurabria (Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Northumberland) ; East Angles (Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely) ; and Mercia (Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop. Warwick, Derby, Leicester, Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, part of Herts). HERAT. A strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, near the Persian frontier. The Persians failed to take it, 1838 ; took it, October 25, 1656, contrary to the treaty of 1853 ; were forced to restore it by the English, July 27, 1857, 30 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. HERZEGOVINA. An insurrection against the Turks broke out December, 1861 ; subdued September, 1862. Another broke out July 1, 1875, and the country has been in an unsettled state ever since (1877), sympathizing with its neighbors Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. HIEROGLYPHICS. (See p. 409; see also Egypt.) The researches of Champollion and others, greatly assisted by the discovery of the Rosetta Stone (see p. 103), have now made the Egyptian hieroglyphic language a reasonably well understood one, with dictionaries and grammars. HOLLAND. (See p. 410.) William III. succeeded his father, William II., March 17, 1849. A Roman Catholic hierarchy re -introduced, 1853. Slavery abolished in Dutch West Indies (to take place July 1, 1863), August 0, 1862. Canals begun to connect Amsterdam and Rotterdam with the North Sea, 1865. Population (December 31, 1875), 3,809,527, of which over 1,200,000 is in cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants. The town population of Holland is proportionately larger than in any other European country. HOME RULE (for Ireland). The Home Government Association, estab- lished at Dublin, 1870, with both Catholic and Protestant members ; Mr. Isaac Butt, a leader, elected to Parliament from Limerick. September 20, 1871 ; agitation in and out of parliament from that time, without much result ; parliamentary " filibustering," with much inconvenience to busi- ness, carried on by Home Rule members, July, 1877. HORSE. (See p. 413.) Rarey's mode of training horses shown by him in England with great success, 1858-9-60. Horseflesh used as food in Paris, 1866, and since. Gootenough's American maehiae-made horse- shoes (patented I860), to put on cold, adopted by the London General Omnibus Co. , 1870. A horse epidemic, called the epizootic, coming from Canada, caused much inconvenience in Northern States, October, 1872. HUNGARY. (See pp. 129, 414.) The Emperor and Empress of Austria were crowned king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8, 1867. The " Act of Grace " issued on the occasion annulled all sentences and stopped all proceedings for political offences, restored forfeited estates, and al- lowed the banished to return. Croatia united with Hungary, May 27, 1868. HURRICANE. (See also Cyclone.) Oct. 29, 1867, a violent hurricane struck St. Thomas (W. I. ) and vicinity. At St. Thomas alone, some 80 vessels were sunk or driven ashore, 100 lives lost on the island by fall of houses, etc., and several times as many on the shipping. March 11, 1868, a hurricane at Mauritius drove ashore 20 ships, destroyed or un- roofed many buildings, destroyed immense quantities of growing sugar, cane and stored sugar, blew down a railroad bridge, etc. I. ICE-MACHINE. Machines for making ice act either : 1, by rapid evapora- tion, as in Carre's, Harrison's, Twining's, etc., patents; or 2, by lique- faction of a freezing mixture, as in the common way ot making ice-cream with ice and salt ; or 3, by use of vacuum and absorption of heat in conse- quence from the article to be frozen. Several of these machines have been commercially successful. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 31 ICELAND. (See p. 417.) A new constitution, granted and put in opera- tion at King Christian's visit, Aug. 1, 1874, when the 1000th anniversary of the settlement was celebrated at Reykjavik. Cleasby's Icelandic-Eng- lish dictionary, published 1869-74. A volcanic eruption March 29, 1875, devastated much pasture-land. IMPEACHMENT. The House of Representatives voted (126 to 41) to im- peach President Johnson, Feb. 24, 1868, of high crimes and misdemean- ors, in having violated the Tenure of Office Act, and in other doings. After trial before the Senate, he was on May 16th acquitted on one ar- ticle (the llth), only 35 Senators voting for conviction (one less than the two-thirds requisite), to 19 for acquittal. On the 26th he was acquitted on the remaining articles. INCOME TAX, UNITED STATES. Expired by limitation, end of 1871. Receipts from it, 1867, $27,418,000 ; 1868, $23,390,000 ; 1869.$27,353,000; 1870, $26,150,000. INDIA. (See pp. 131, 421. ) Order of the Star of India established June 25, 1861. Growth of cotton greatly increased in consequence of American civil war stopping the supply, 1862. Government support of heathen religion stopped December, 1863. Indo-European telegraph opened, March 1, 1865. About 1,500,000 persons die of famine in Orissa, August to November, 1866. The Brahmo Somaj, a sect holding tenets much like the Unitarian, appear in 18(59, and open a house of worship August 24. Their leader, Keshub Chunder Sen, afterwards (1870) visits London, and preaches in a Unitarian chapel. Mr. Dall, a Unitarian missionary to India, joins the Brahmo Somaj. Much distress from famine in Bengal, spring of 1874, but only a few lives lost. Estimated expense of relief operations 6,500,000. Prince of Wales's visit; he sails from England October 11, 1875, reaches Bombay, November 8 ; grand reception of Indian rulers, December 24 ; sails from Bombay to return. March 13, 1876- Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India in London, May 1, 1876 ; at Delhi, January 1. 1877. British India (immediate and feudatory states inclusive) contains about 1,500,000 square miles, and population (census 1871-2) about 240,000,000. D T DIANS. (See pp. 131,422; also Modocs.} Gen. Custer ambushed, de- feated and killed, and his command of 17 officers and 315 rank and file utterly exterminated by the Indians under Sitting Bull, at Little Horn River, July 2, 1876. Hostilities continue against the Indians, who, under Sitting Bull, flee into British territory at end of campaign of 1876. In the summer of 1877 Joseph, an Idaho chief, and a small band commence hostilities in that State. INFALLIBILITY of the Pope alone, voted by the Vatican Council, July 18, 1870. Dr. von Dollinger excommunicated for opposing it, April 18, 1871 ; and chosen rector of the University of Munich, July 29, 1871. The Bava- rian government protests against the doctrine, September 27, 1871 ; au "Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, in September, 1871. INSOLVENCY. (See Bankruptcy.} INSURANCE. First fire insurance company in United States, the Phila- delphia Contributionship, 1752. First state insurance department in Massachusetts, 1854 ; next in New York, 1860. Capital in fire insurance 32 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. business in United States in 1860, $32,358,000 ; in 1866, $44,410,000 ; in 1876, $55,883,000. Lost by the great fires of 1871 and 1872, over $15,- 000,000. Comparison of the business in years 1865 and 1875 : 1865. 1875. Property insured $3,428,000.000 $6,273.000,000 Premium receipts 29,529,000 4,900,000 Losses paid over. 17,21)5,000 31,960,000 Whole losses by fire in United States in 1875, $78,000,000, of which in- sured, $39,000,000. INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (See Copyright.} INTERNATIONALISTS. An organization of a communist or socialist nature, first established by some German socialists in London, 1847 ; definitely organized at London, September 28, 1864, George Odger first president. Professes to operate for the emancipation of labor from the tyranny of capitalists. It has had congresses, sometimes ludicrously dis- orderly, at Geneva, September, 1866 ; Lausanne, September, 1867 ; Brus- sels, September, 1868; Basle, September, 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; Hague, September, 1872. This last was particularly quarrelsome, and the political part seceded from the trade part, and adjourned to New York. At this time the society reported failing in England. Geneva meeting September, 1873, and at Brussels again, September, 1874. Has claimed the absurd number of 2,500,000 members, and to be affiliated with the Fenians and other secret societies. INTEREST. (See pp. 132, 426.) In England was 8 per cent, by law of 1<>2;3; 6 per cent., 1651; 5 per cent., 1713; and law totally repealed 1 854, leaving interest a matter of agreement. INUNDATIONS. (See Floods.) IONIAN ISLANDS. (See pp. 133, 427.) Declare for annexation to Greece, in March, 1861, and April, 1862. England acquiescing, annexation takes place accordingly, May 28, 1864, and the British troops leave June 2. Population about 200,000. IRELAND. (Seep. 428; see also Church of Ire'and ; Encumbered Es- tates Act ; Fenians; Home Rule.} Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Au- gust, 1849 ; again, August, 1853. Agitation against national school system, 1859. Agricultural distress and agrarian murders, 1862 and 1863 ; emigration very extensive, 1860-1864. Prince and Princess of Wales visit Ireland, April, 1868. Agrarian murders, 1869 and 1870. IRON, (See pp. 183, 428.) The iron and steel production of the United States for three years, 1874-5-6, was as follows : 1874. 1875. 1878. Pig iron, tons (of 2,000 Ibs.) 2.689,413 2.206,581 2,1193.236 All rolled iron, tons 1,839,50 1.890,379 1,921,730 Rails, all kinds, tons 729,418 792.512 879,629 Hails, Bessemer steel, tons 144,944 29Il.8i>3 41 2.481 Cut nails and spikes (included in " rolled iron") kegs 4.912,180 4,726,881 4,157,814 Iron produced in Great Britain in 1875, tons, 6,566,451. IRON SHIPBUILDING. (See also Navies.) This industry began in the United States in 1868, and up to 1877 have been built 251 iron vessels of a total capacity of 197,500 tons. Present annual value (1877) of iron vessels built in United States, from twelve to fifteen million dollars. In 1876 were built 25 vessels as follows : SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 33 Place. Jfumber. Total Tonnage about. Buffalo 140 Burlington, N. J 1 13 Delaware (State) 9 8,298 NewOrleans 2 915 Philadelphia 11 11,981. Besides 9 other large vessels and a considerable number of smaller ones building. ITALY. (See pp. 133, 429. ) September 23, 1867, Garibaldi, persisting in his march upon Rome, was arrested by the Italian authorities at Sinalunga, near Sienna, as he was about entering the Papal territory. He was im- prisoned in Alessandria, but afterwards sent to his island of Caprera and watched by ships of war. He escaped, however, resumed his enterprise, and was at Monte Rotondo, near Rome, in the end of October, and on the point of advancing, when (October 28) a French fleet reached Civita Vec- chia, and October 30, a French force occupied Rome, to prevent the pro- posed revolution. November 3, Garibaldi was decisively beaten at Mentana by the French, and he was again arrested and imprisoned. In September, 1870, the Italian troops marched upon Rome, under Gen. Cadorna, and on the 20th, after four hours' cannonade, entered and occupied the city. October 2, a popular vote was held in the States of the Church, on the question of uniting them and Rome with Italy, and making Rome the capital. The vote was 133,681 affirmative, and, 1,507 negative. Decem- ber 5, the Italian Parliament at Florence voted 192 to 18 to remove the capital to Rome. Victor Emanuel made a formal public entrance into Rome, December 31, 1870. J. JAMAICA. (See p. 431.) Negro rising, October 11, 1865, put down with much bloodshed and many punishments, by Gov. Eyre, October and No- vember, 1865. Gov. Eyre suspended ; a government commission reported, April 9, that great, wanton and unnecessary cruelty and violence had been used. Eyre was afterwards indicted in England, and sued for damages ; but the grand jury threw out the bills, and an act of indemnity gave him the suit. In 1873 the island was reported more prosperous. Population, 1871, 506,154. JAPAN. (See pp. 134, 432.) Jeddo (now called Tokio) and other places opened to trade according to treaty, April 25, 1867 ; Osaka and Hiogo the same, January 1, 1868. Insurrection of the daimios, or provincial princes, 1868, ending in their overthrow in 1869. This left the government sub- stantially an absolute monarchy under the Mikado, who, however, had first to overcome also the Tycoon, or spiritual sovereign. This was accom- plished December, 1869. An embassy of distinguished Japanese reached Washington March 4, aud London, August 17, 1872. First railway in Japan opened October, 1872. New constitution, arranging a form of government somewhat like the imperial French Government, April 14, 1875. The present Mikado, or Emperor. Moutsu or Mutsu Hito, born 1852, succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. Population in 1875 (estimated), 32,794,897. JERUSALEM. (See p. 433.) Population estimated (in 1877) as follows : Jews, 10,600; Christians, 5,300 ; Mohammedans, 5,000 ; total, 20,900. A Protestant bishopric was established here under protection of England and 2* 34 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Prussia, 1846 ; Wilson and Warren's excavations, ascertaining many points of interest about the ancient city, 1867-71. JESUITS. (See pp. 134, 433.) Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia, 1820; Spain, 1820 and 1835; France, 1831 and 1845; Portugal, 1834; Sardinia and Austria, and some other States, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily, 1860; Empire of 'Germany, 1872 ; Italy again, 1873. In 1866 whole number of Jesuits reported to be 8,167, of which in France 2,422. JEWS. (See pp. 134, 434.) Oppressive Austrian laws against them annulled January, 1860; Hungary emancipates, 1867; Disraeli, a Jew, English premier, 1868; Jews admitted into Spain, 1868; Sir G. Jessel, a Jew, English solicitor -general, 1871 ; master of the rolls, 1873. Jews in Great Britain (estimated) in 1876, 51,520, and in London, 39,833. Jews in the world, 1869, estimated at 7,000,000. JUTE. Fibre from two plants cultivated in Bengal (viz. , chonch, or cor- chorus olitorius, and isbund, or C. capsularis). Used for mats, gunny- cloth, and other coarse textile fabrics. Imported into the United King- dom in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; 1874, 4,270,164 cwt. ; in 1875, 3,416,617 cwt. K. KARAITE JEWS. A kind of Protestant sect, who adhere to the Hebrew- Scriptures alone, rejecting the Talmud and Rabbinical tradition. They are found mostly in Turkey, Poland, and the Crimea. KEET, REV. MK. (See Reverend.) KHEDIVE. (See Egypt. ) The title is supposed to mean something more than vali or viceroy. It was given to the ruler of Egypt, May 14, 1867. KHIVA. The Czar Nicholas sent an expedition against it, which perished in the cold of the winter of 1840. Another, 1873, took Khiva after de- feating the Khan, who became subordinate to the Czar. The country has since been pretty much made a Russian province. KHOKAND entered by Russian troops, February, 1876, and the khanate annexed to Russia by the name of Ferghana. KINEMATICS. A recent subdivision of physical science, being the science of motion. Professor Reuleaux's Kinematics of. machinery, an important work on the application of this science, published in Germany ; a transla- tion appeared in London, 1876. KU-KLUX KLAN. A secret organization in the Southern States to oppose the ruling party, or Republicans, by threats and violence, particularly against such colored persons as should vote the Republican ticket. Their operations were very efficacious, 1868-1871, when, under the pressure of legal and military measures, they disappeared, other forms of the same kind of activity being adopted. LABOR. (See Internationalists; Strikes; Wbrkingm'n.) LAMBESSA, An island on the coast of Algeria, used as a prison for some of the victims of Napoleon III., of December 2, 1851, and for other po- litical exiles. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 35 LATIN UNION, to maintain a uniform coinage, 1865 to 1880, consists of France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. LEONINE CITY. That part of Rome assigned to the Pope at tie entrance of the Italian troops, in Sept., 1870. It includes the castle of SanAngelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. Peter's. LIBERIA. (See pp. 136, 451.) Presidents : D. B. Warner, 1864 ; J. S. Payne, 1868; E. J. Roy, 1870 (deposed Oct., 1871); J. J. Roberts (the first President), 1872 and 1874 ; he died 1876. Population about 720,000, of which about 19,000 are of American birth or descent. In July, 1877, it was reported that 80,000 negroes in South Carolina were enrolled to go to Liberia, in consequence of apprehensions from the white supremacy in that State. LIBRARIES. (See pp. 136, 451.) The great Report of the Education Bureau on Public Libraries in the United States for 1876, gives a list of 3,469 public libraries in the United States having over 300 volumes (not including common or district school, parish, and Sunday-school libraries). In these were reported in all : Volumes 12,276,964 In common school, etc., libraries, additional, more than 1,865.407 Total volumes 13,642.371 Add pamphlets, only part reported, up to about 1.500,000 Of these, 1,510 libraries report 434,339 volumes annually added ; 742 re- port 8,879,869 volumes, annual use ; 1,722 report $6,105,501 permanent funds; 830 report $1,398,756 total yearly income ; 769 report $5(52,407, annually spent for books, and b'43 report $682,166 annually spent for salaries and incidentals. The Boston Free Public Library, the largest on the American continent, contained, July 1, 1877, about 333,000 volumes, besides about 150,000 pamphlets. LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS. Patent for life-boat to Wm. Lukin, 1785 ; H. Greathead, 1788, obtained reward of a South Shields committee for best life- boat ; also 1,200 from parliament. It first put to sea January 30, 1790. Up to 1804, 31 life-boats built and 300 lives saved. Richard- son's tubular life-boat, Challenger, patented 1852, in England. English National Life-boat Institution, founded 1824 ; in 1876 had 2,541 life- boats in operation, and lives saved, 18241875, inclusive, 23,789. An American "life-raft" of cylinders, filled with air and lashed together, navigated from New York to Southampton, June 4 to July 25, 1867. Manby's apparatus for throwing a shot from a mortar over vessels in dis- tress, and thus getting a line to them, put in use February, 1808 ; in 20 years it saved 58 vessels and 410 persons. Boyton's life-preserving dress and signalling apparatus exhibited in America and Europe, 1874- 1877 ; he crossed the English Channel in it in 23J hours, May 28 and 29, 1875. The United States Life-saving Service, as organized 1871, is in 11 districts on the ocean and great lakes. It has 108 stations, with mortar, shot-line, life-car, and ample equipments, and 24 of them with a life- boat besides. There is a superintendent for each district, and a keeper and six surfmen for each station. In five years, ending June 30, 1876, there were on these coasts 273 wrecks ; property saved by the Life-sav- ing Service, $5,254,300; lives saved, 3,189; lost, 41. Ottinger's shot- line gun will carry 631 yards. 36 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. LIGHT. Velocity nearly 200,000 miles per second. Comes from the sun to the earth, therefore, in a little over eight minutes. The greatest prog- ress in the science of optics since Newton has been in this century, in- cluding the development of the undulatory theory, polarization, actinism or chemical action of light, spectroscopic investigations, etc. LOANS. (See pp. 137, 456.) French loan for Crimean war, for $150,000,- 000, authorized by law, July 9, 1855 ; on the 30th, nearly five times the required amount had been taken in France, besides nearly the whole amount in foreign subscriptions. French loan of $100,000,000, for the Italian campaign of 1859, raised without difficulty ; for that of $400,000,- 000, in 1871, for German indemnity, and for subsequent one of $000,000,- 000, to close out the same and end the German occupation, twice the required amount was promptly subscribed within France. The success of these French loans arises from the small sums receivable, and the con- firmed habit of the people to hoard specie. LONDON. (See pp. 137, 458.) Estimated area in 1860, 121 square miles, or eleven miles square. Total population, 1871, 3,885,641 ; in 1877, probably considerably over 4,000,000. The first charter of London, given by William the Conqueror, is still preserved i n the city archives. It is on a slip of parch- ment six inches long and one broad, beautifully written in Saxon, and is in English as follows: "William the King greeteth William the bishop and Godfrey the portreve and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I acquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in King Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve you." LONGEVITY. (See Old Age.) LORRAINE. Anciently, Lotharingia ; German, Lothringen. United to France, 1766 ; about one-fifth of it, including Metz and Thionville, an- nexed to Germany, along with Alsace, at end of Franco-Prussian war, February 26, 1871. LUXEMBURG. According to treaty at London, by the great powers, May, 1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress. November, 1867 ; fortifica- tions dismantled. August, 1870, and transformed for civil purposes, 1874. The grand duchy was declared neutral by the treaty of 1867 ; its popula- tion, December 1, 1871, was 197,528; area, 1,592 square miles. M. MAFIA or MAFFIA. (See Brigands.) MAGDALA. A very strong Abyssinian mountain fastness, stormed by the British under Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), April 13, 1868, when Theodore, the Abyssinian king, killed himself. The place was burned, April 17th. MAGNESIUM. The metal first obtained from magnesia, by Davy, 1808; produced in large quantities by Sonstadt, 1862-4. It burns easily, with a singularly brilliant flame, by which photographs can be taken, as was done in the interior of the Pyramids, 1875. MAN, ANTIQUITY OF. (See Pre-Mstoric Man.) SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 37 MANITOBA. Rupert's Land made a province, and named Manitoba, 1870. One Riel and others (Catholics) resisted annexation to the Dominion of Canada, in January, 1870; proclaimed the "Red River Republic," and murdered one Scott, who opposed them. On the appearance of a mili- tary force from Canada, however, in July, Riel yielded without resistance, and ran away. The annexation was accomplished, and A. G. Archibald, the first Lieutenant- Governor of Manitoba, arrived in September. An in- tended Fenian raid on this colony suppressed by United States troops, October, 1871. The Red River settlement is in the geographical centre of North America. MELANESIA. The South-west Pacific Islands. Their missionary bishop, Patteson, and his chaplain, Atkin, murdered by the natives at Santa Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, September, 1871, as supposed in revenge for kidnapping, which the bishop had strenuously opposed. MENTANA. Garibaldi defeated, November 3, 1867. MERCURY. (See p. 477.) The new Almaden mine, in California, produced from July, 1850, to end of 1873, 351,897,055 pounds of quicksilver. From one to two pounds are lost for every ton of the ore that is worked with it. MERV. A miserable town in Turkistan, just north of the Persian frontier, of no importance except as a possible military station, on the line to India which might be followed by the Russians. METEOROLOGY. Meteorological Society established in England, 1850, chartered 1866. A department for this science, of the English Board of Trade, under Admiral Fitzroy, organized 1855 ; it has done much to- wards foretelling the weather for commercial and scientific purposes. The United States Signal Service department sent and received in the year 1873-4, 529,958 letters and documents ; issued of all its publica- tions 4,494,320 copies, of which 3,491,046 were " farmers' bulletins." It had in that year 108 stations and 247 observers. It has been from the beginning under the able management of General Albert J. Myer, who or- ganized it. METEORS. The dates of the usual annual meteoric displays are : January 3d, July 29th, August 3d and 9th to 12th, November 8th to 14th, Decem- ber llth. Meteors are now supposed to be small bodies revolving around the sun in space, and the displays of them to be in consequence of the earth's passing through a belt or group of them, when the swiftness of their motion through the earth's atmosphere inflames them. METRIC SYSTEM. Based on the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter of the earth's circumference in latitude (3.2808 English feet). Unit of surface is the centiare or square metre. The are is 100 square metres. Unit of solidity is the stere, a cubic metre. Unit of capacity, the litre, a cubic decimetre. Unit of weight, the gramme, a cubic centimetre of dis- tilled water. Unit of money, the franc, weighing 5 grammes. Prefix to either of these (except franc) deca- for ten times; hekato-, 100 times ; M0-, 1,000 times; myria-, 10,000 times. Also, deci- for one-tenth ; centi-, one-lOOth ; milli- for one-1, 000th. Adopted to more or less extent (be- sides being the only legal system hi France) by convention, May 20, 1875, in the following countries : Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spam. Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United States of America, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Peru. 38 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OP ART, New York, chartered April, 1870, a site in the Central Park and $500,000 for a building granted by the State, April, 1871. First collection (of paintings) opened in temporary gallery, February 20, 1872. Greatly enlarged by the antiquities collected by General di Cesnola at Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus, 1873-5. METZ. Surrendered, October 27, 1870, by Bazaine, with 3 marshals, 66 generals, 6,000 officers, 173,000 men, 400 guns, 100 mitrailleuses, 53 eagles. MEXICO. (See pp. 142, 479.) French evacuated Mexico, March, 1867. Juarez (a full-blooded Indian), president until his death, July 18, 1872 ; Lerdo de Tejada, president ; his government overthrown by Porfirio Diaz, November 16, 1876. MILK. Condensed milk process invented by Gail Borden, 1849, since which time a great business has grown up in it, both as supplied in bulk in cities and put up in sealed cans for voyages and store purposes. MINES, MINING. (See pp, 143, 481.) Value of minerals and metals mined in the United Kingdom in 1874, 67,834,313; hi 1875, 67,487,688. Coal, iron and lead were the three greatest mining products, coal being over two-thirds of the whole in value, and iron almost three-fourths of the other third. Mining products of the United States in 1870, $152,- 598,994, of which just about half were from Pennsylvania alone. MINORITY REPRESENTATION. (See Cumulative Vote.) MISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See pp.144, 482.) Improvements to make the South Pass of the river navigable and to keep it so, by Capt. Eads's plan of jetties carried out from the natural mouth of the pass so as to keep the main river stream together and thus scour a passage out to deep water, were begun in 1875. In 1877 a twenty-foot channel is secured and main- tained by the river itself, where there was before only eight feet of water, and the jetty plan is considered successful. Humphreys' and Abbott's elaborate and valuable hydrographic and hydraulic survey of the river, published 1861. MITRAILLEUSE. (See Galling Gun.) MOABITE STONE. Discovery announced January, 1870, having a Phoe- nician or ancient Hebrew inscription, said to be by order of Mesha, King of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii. , and to narrate his victories over Israel. Dr. Ginsburg has published an excellent monograph of it, second edition, 1871. MODOCS defeated the United States troops, January, 1873 ; murdered Gen. Canby and about forty more by treachery, April 11 ; after long and des- perate fighting in almost impregnable volcanic ''lava-beds," the remaining Modocs were captured, and their chief, Captain Jack, was tried, and ex- ecuted October 3, 1873. MOLLY MAGUTRES. Said to be a branch of a secret society called the Ancient Order of Hibernians, but practically a murdering secret society among the miners of Eastern Pennsylvania. The name and the organiza- tion first came into notice about 1862, and for fourteen years they pur- sued a career of violence and murder in Carbon, Schuylkill, and the other neighboring mining counties. In December, 1862, they attacked Mr. Goyne's mine in Casa township, stopped the works and beat those who opposed them ; June 14, 1862, they murdered F. W. S. Langdou, noai SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 39 Audenreid, and in November, 1863, George K. Smith, in the same vicinity ; attacked Mr. Northall's house, February 11, 1867, in order to kill him, he, however, being away ; July 5, 1875, shot and killed policeman Yost, of Tamaqua ; September 1, 1875, murdered Sanger and Uren, two miners, at Raven Run ; September 3, murdered John P. Jones at Lansford ; and there were many other cases of murder and violence, usually in the nature of revenge for some action about wages or employment of which the order okose to disapprove. By means of detectives, a number of them were, however, seized and tried, and June 21, 1877, ten of them were hanged. MONEY. (See p. 484. See also Coinage ; Currency; Gold; Silver.) MONT CENIS TUNNEL. (See runnels.) MONTENEGRO rebelled against the Turks early in 17th century ; inde- pendent ever since, though without the consent of Turkey, and in spite of repeated furious Turkish attacks. Several of these, however, would have overwhelmed the brave little principality, without the intervention of the great powers. Area, 1,770 square miles; population in 1871, about 195,600. MOODY AND SANKEY. (See Revivals.) MOORSOM' S METHOD of measuring the tonnage of merchant shipping was adopted in the English Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, and is the method used for ascertaining the tonnage on which dues are payable at the Suez Canal. MORMONS. (See pp. 145, 485.) One Lee, a Mormon bishop, tried and condemned to death in 1877. for having participated in the Mountain Meadows massacre, Sept. 18, 1858, of 136 emigrants, by order of the Mormon leaders. MOUNTAIN. Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, 29,002 feet high, is the highest mountain known in the world. MURDERS in England and Wales for ten years : 1865 ... .... 226 1869 265 1872 257 1866 272 1870 222 1873 223 1867 255 1871 226 1874 223 1868... .. 261 MUSIC. (See pp. 146, 487.) Musical pitch fixed in France, 1860, the mid- dle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. Various different pitches have since been adopted, and "concert pitch" is now (1877) not a settled thing. Tonic sol-fa system invented by Miss Glover ; improved about 1847 by Curwen. For Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen, see Bayreuth. MYCENAE. 1874 to 1876, Dr. Schliemann explored the site of the Acro- polis of ancient Mycenae, discovering five tombs, which he believes those of Agamemnon, Eurymedon, Cassandra, and their followers. In these was a great collection of golden and other precious articles of ornament and use, extremely ancient, interesting, valuable, and archaeologically 'impor- tant. They are deposited with the Greek authorities at Athens. NATIONAL DEBT OF UNITED STATES. (See pp. 147, 490.) Deducting cash in the Treasury, Dec.'l, 1876, was $2,089,336,099.42. Increase of the debt in the month preceding, $457,662.64. Decrease since June 30, 40 THE WOBLD'S PBOGRESS. 1876, $10,103,245.57. Decrease since 1866, $683,900,074.27. State and territorial debts, June, 1876, estimated at $350,000,000. NATIONAL DEBTS. (See pp. 147, 490.) An estimate in the Westminster Review, of the national debts of the world in 1875, was as follows (at $5.00 to the pound sterling) : Great Britain $3,875,000,000 Europe 13,865.000,000 America 3,870,000,000 Asia 655,000,000 Australasia . Africa . . . 200.000,000 375,000,000 Total $22,840,000,000 European national debts are about as follows (at $5.00 to the pound sterling) : Austro-Hungary (1876) $1,709, 634,630 Belgium (January 1, 176) .... 33, 656,000 Denmark (March 31, 1875) .... 51,620,005 France (January 1, 1875) 4,687,921,400 German Empire, none, or a tri- fling one. But Prussia (January 1, 1876) . . 229,852, 375 Bavaria (January 1, 1874). 156,688,045 Wurtemberg (May 10, 1874) 73,496,020 Saxony (end of 1876) 85,222,010 etc., etc. Great Britain (March 31, 1876). 3.884,852,720 Greece (partly estimated, Jan., 1, 1876) 106,800,515 Italy (end of 1875, estimate). . . 2,000,000,000 Netherlands (beginning of 1875) 386.383,365 Portugal (June 30, 1876) 395,308,900 Russia (estimate, Jan. 1, 1876).. 1.254,810,000 Spain (estimate, end June, 1875) 2,650,000,000 Sweden (January 1. 1876) 38,H2!>,680 And Norway (end of 1875) 13,418,775 Switzerland (beginning of 1876) 5,520,000 Turkey (June, 1876 ; much more since) 927,000,000 NATURAL SELECTION. (See Darwinism.) NATURALIZATION. (See pp. 147, 490.) In 1870 there were about 9,500 Americans in England, and about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United States. Under English laws passed May 12, 1870, and July 25, 1872, the latter were empowered to renounce their allegiance ; and by the conven- tion of Februarys, 1871, the nationality of British subjects was made dependent on choice, and not on birth. NAVIES. (See pp. 148, 495.) The English navy contains in all about 240 vessels. Of iron-clad war-ships, there are, including those now (1877) building, about as follows in the world : Nation. Ships. England .................... 59 France .................. Russia ................... Turkt-y Germany Holland . . 68 M M 24 1J 17 Total tonnage. 317,000 184.000 89.000 89,000 65,000 61,000 23,000 Also, Austria, 14 ; Spain, 7 ; Denmark, 6 ; United States, 27 ; Sweden and Norway, 8; Portugal, 1; Greece, 2; Brazil, 17; Peru, 6; Chili, 2; Argentine Confederation, 2 ; Japan, 2. Whole number of iron-clad ships of war, 305 ; of these, England has 21 first-rates, thickest armor on any of them, 24 inches ; and France, 23 first-rates. The thickest armor used by any German ship is 10 inches ; Russia and Turkey, 12 inches ; Italy, 22 inches (on the Duilio, launched May 8, 1876, and considered the most powerful war-ship ever built). The United States navy, besides 27 iron- clad ships, has 70 other steamers and 25 sail-vessels. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. Published by Sir William Herschel, 1811 In October, I860, the " dumb-bell nebula" was reported by Lassell to show no signs of consisting of stars. In 1865, Huggins reported certain nebulas shown by the spectroscope to be entirely gaseous. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 41 NEPTUNE (PLANET). First observed by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, September 23, 1846, where Le Verrier told him to look for it, having calculated that the irregular motions of Uranus called for such a planet. Mr. J.. C. Adams, of Cambridge, had made similar calculations about the same time. NETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) NEW CALEDONIA. Occupied by the French, September 20, 1853^ and since used by them as a penal colony. NEWSPAPERS. (See pp. 149, 500.) Newspapers in Great Britain, 1876, 1,642. In the United States, 1875, 7.870 periodicals, of which 5,957 weeklies. In British America, 1,478, being in America, north of Mexico, 8,348 periodicals. Among the remarkable enterprises of newspaper con- cerns within the last few years, are: Stanley's expedition into Central Africa, for the New York Herald ; Mr. George Smith's explorations in Assyria, partly for the London Telegraph ; the destruction of the very powerful and wealthy criminal combination called the New York "Ring," in consequence of revelations in the New York Times by Sheriff O'Brien. Works on the English periodical press : Andrews' British Journalism, 1855, and Hunt's Fourth Estate, 1850 ; on that of America, Hudson's Journalism in the United States, 1873, which supersedes in most respects the infor- mation in Buckingham's and Thomas's works. NEW YORK CITY. (See pp. 150, 499.) Barnum's old museum burnt, July 13, 1865 ; money panic in Wall Street, from the gold-buying operations of Fisk and Gould, September 22-26, 1869 ; revelations of the '' Tweed Ring " corruptions in the city government, August and September, 1871 ; Fisk murdered by Stokes, January 7, 1872 ; the Erie railway administra- tion, controlled by Fisk and Gould, breaks down, March, 1872 ; trouble from epizootic, or horse disease, October, 1872 ; great panic in business throughout the country, begins with stoppage of Jay Cooke & Co., Sep- tember, 1873 ; Tweed convicted of embezzlement, and sentenced to twelve years' imprisonment, November 19, 1873 ; escapes, December, 1873 ; damages of $6,537,000 awarded against him in civil suit, March 8, 1876 ; arrested at Vigo, in Spain, September 8, 1876, and returned to jail. NEW ZEALAND. Discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; recognized as belonging to Great Britain, 1814 ; first English governor lands, January 29, 1829 ; colony and bishopric established 1841 ; towns founded : Auckland, 1840, Nelson and Turanaki, 1841, Otago, 1848, Canterbury, 1850; native insur- rection from land troubles, March, 1860 : suppressed, after much fighting and trouble, March, 1861 ; another native war, May, 1863, continued more or less until July, 1866. The New Zealand group is about 1,0(10 miles long and 200 wide ; area of land, about 102,000 square miles ; white population, 1851, 26,707; December 31, 1876. about 375,856, besides about 45,470 natives or Maoris. NICSICS. A strong Turkish fortress standing at that narrow neck of land which joins the two main portions of Montenegro, and therefore an im- portant military position. NILE. (See p. 502.) . From the time of Bruce's explorations in 1768 -70, no discovery of importance about the source of the Nile was made until Speke and Grant discovered the great lake Victoria Nyanza, 1863. Baker discovers the Albert Nyarza, March 14, 1864. Livingston's letter from 42 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. TTjiji, dated November, 1871, to Mr. Bennett, says the Nile springs are about 600 miles south of the Victoria Nyanza. NITRO-GLYCERINE. Explosion of, June 30', 1869. Two cart-loads of nitro-glyceriue exploded in the vale of Llanberris, on the road to a quarry there. Five persons were killed, they and the horses being so blown to pieces that only fragments were found, as a heart, a foot, a chin with the beard on it. Roofs, doors, and windows were destroyed everywhere for two miles around, and where each cart blew up was left a circular pit in the road, seven and a half feet across and seven feet deep. NORFOLK ISLAND. (See p. 503.) After the English penal colony was removed, the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty (198 souls) were in June, 1856, carried from Pitcairn's Island and established here. In December, 1875, the new colony was prospering. NORWAY. (See Sweden.) 0. OCEAN EXPLORATION. Deep-sea soundings and dredgings have been made by Sars, off the coast of Norway ; by Carpenter and Thompson, near the Faroe Islands, 1868-9 ; by Carpenter, in the Mediterranean, 1870. The voyage of the Challenger, for ocean exploration, was December 21, 1872, to May 25, 1876 ; she sailed about 80,000 miles. These investiga- tions have greatly added to knowledge. Deepest soundings thus far, 3,875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), in the Atlantic north of St. Thomas, March 24, 1873. Living creatures have been found at the depth of three miles. OLD AGE. (See Longevity, pp. 137,458.) Sir G. C. Lewis, Prof. Owen, and W. J. Thorns (his "Human Longevity" published 1873,) have dis- proved many alleged cases of old age, and few of over 100 years can be believed in. A few recent ones are as follows : Anthony Beresford died in England, aged 101, March 3, 1874 considered authentic ; Count Wai - deck, traveller and artist, died aged 109, at Paris, April 29, 1875 ; Captain Frederic Lahrbush, soldier, died aged 111 years, (age disputed), April 3, 1877, at New York. OLD CATHOLICS organized September, 1871, at Munich. Third annual synod at Bonn, in summer of 1876, 50,000 members and adherents were reported, but action on the question of clerical celibacy was declined. The movement grew out of opposition to the new dogma of papal infalli- bility ; but it does not now (1877) show signs of great success. OLYMPIA. Explorations at Elis, on the site of the Olympian games, planned by Curtius, begun by Hirschfeld and Bottiger, October, 1875. The Ger- man Government pays expenses, and has casts of objects found, the orig- inals to be the property of the Greek Government. Many interesting discoveries of statues, parts of the pediments of the great temple of Jupiter Olympus, etc., have been made. ORDNANCE. (See Cannon, pp. 92, 290.) The Rodman gun, a smooth- bore, 20-inch calibre, weighing 58 tons, and throwing a 1,000-pound round shot, cast at Pittsburg, 1864 ; a stream of cold water was kept running through the core during casting and cooling, so as to chill and harden the inside of the u;un. Trials of Armstrong, Whitworth, and Horsfall guns at Shoeburyness, England, in 1862-3, against various targets representing SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 43 ironclad ships, up to an aggregate thickness of 15 inches (in three plates) of wrought iron. The Hercules target, 4 feet 2 inches thick, with 11^ inches of iron. Palliser's patent for chilled metal shot (cast in cold iron moulds), dated May 27, 1827. More experiments at Shoeburyness, 1867-8, where a 10-inch English gun is found better than Prussian and American guns, and a 23-ton gun, 12-inch bore, throwing Palliser shot, is resisted by a model fort defended by 15-inch iron plates. The "Woolwich In- fant," 35 tons, cast in 1870, 16 feet 3 inches long, to carry a 700-pound shot, with 120-pound charge. In 1875-6 an 81-ton gun tried, with a 1,250- pound shot and 190-pound charge. The shot penetrated 50 feet of sand. A charge of 370 pounds afterwards used. The Uchatius guns of "steel bronze," used in the Austrian army, first made at Vienna, 1875. Suc- cessful trials of 100-ton Armstrong gun, throwing a 2,000-pound shot, at Spezzia, in Italy. The gun is for the Italian iron-clad Duilio. Rifled guns first used for siege purposes, Sebastopol, 1854-5. The Armstrong breech- loading rifled gun first used in China campaign, I860. The Ger- man army is now supplied with breech-loading artillery. ORIGIN OF SPECIES. (See Darwinism.) Book by Darwin published November, 1869. OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Total income of the University, 21 colleges and 5 halls, in 1871, 483,842, 16s. 6d. OXYGEN. The most abundant substance, being one-third of the earth, nine-tenths of the water, and one-fifth of the air. OZONE. (See p. 153.) In 1872 Brodie showed that Odling's suggestion was correct, viz. : that ozone is oxygen condensed into two-thirds the space it would naturally occupy. P. PACIFIC RAILWAY, 1,700 miles long, from Omaha to San Francisco, opened for trafiic May 12, 1868. PALESTINE EXPLORATION. Fund established 1865 ; explorations under it began in 1866 ; a systematic trigonometrical survey begun December, 1871 ; a similar fund established at New York, same year. PAMIR. A region sometimes called the roof of the world, being a very lofty water-shed in Central Asia, north of the Himalayas, at the west end of Lit- tle Thibet, and constituting a kind of focus from which diverge the chief Asiatic mountain ranges. It is the source of the Oxus and other rivers. PAN- ANGLICAN CONFERENCE of seventy-five bishops, English, Colonial, and American, met at Lambeth, September 24, 1867, and issued an address and resolutions of a pretty general and safe character. Another is pro- posed for July, 1878. PANTECHNICON. A building in London used for storage. Burned Feb- ruary 13 and 14, 1874, when many valuable paintings and other costly articles were destroyed. PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. (See Infallibility.) PARAGUAY. (See p. 155.) Francis S. Lopez succeeded his father as dic- tator, September, 1862. Brazil attacked Parag-uay, December, 1864, in consequence of seizure of a Brazilian steamer, on November 11, 1864; de- feated Lopez in several battles, and he was killed at Aquidaban. March 1, 44 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1870. Peace signed June 20, 1870. S. Jovellanos chosen president for three years, December 12, 1871, and J. B. Gil for three years, November 25, 1874. Population in 1857 returned at 1,337,439, and another return in 1873 indicated the devastation of the war by showing only 221,079 souls, of which men over 15 only 28,746, and women 106,254, the other 86,079 being children. PASSION PLAY. A drama representing the passion of Christ, represented from time time at Oberammergau, in Bavaria ; said to have been so rep- resented there ever since 1633. PASSPORT SYSTEM. Introduced in the United States August 19, 1861, on account of the civil war. Abolished in Norway, 1809 ; Sweden, 1860 ; Italy, 1862 ; Portugal, 1863 ; in France, abolished as to British subjects. December 16, 1860 ; revived in the war, August 1, 1870 ; abolished again April 10, 1872. PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Popularly known as Grangers. A secret society in the United States professing to be for the promotion of agri- cultural interests. Said to have been, first organized by one Saunders, who established the national "grange" (or lodge) in December, 1867. Subordinate granges were established, 10 or 11, in 1868 ; 39 in 1869 ; 38 in 1870 ; 125 in 1871 ; 1,105 in 1872 ; 8,400 in 1873 ; and for a year or two after this time the order had much political influence, and did some- thing to establish co-operative organizations for the supply of goods. Legis- lation in Iowa (1874) and elsewhere, at the requirement of the "Grangers," to fix transportation prices by railroad, has proved a mistake and a bad failure. PAUPERS. (See Poor Laws, p. 535.) Paupers and their cost in England and Wales for ten years (poor-rate only, and not including charity) : Pauper*. Poor-rate. 1866 .. 916,152 6,439,517 1867 981,546 6.959,840 1868... 1,034,723 7,498,059 1869 1,039,549 7,673,100 1870 .. I,079.o91 7,644,307 1871 1,071,926 7,886,724 1872... 977,664 8.007,403 1873... 890,372 7,692,169 1874... 82fl,281 7,664,957 .1875 815,587 PAUPERS IN UNITED STATES, 1870, 116,102. PEABODYFUND. (See Charities.) PEABODY MEMORIAL. A statue of Mr. George Peabody was publicly inaugurated in London, July 23, 1869. PEACE JUBILEE. (See Boston. ) PEERAGE. In 37 years, 1832-69, an average of 2| commoners a year were created peers in England. PERU. (See pp. 157, 523.) Presidents : Canseco succeeds Pezet, Novem- ber, 1865. Prado subsequently appointed dictator, and February 15, 1367, made president; resigns in consequence of an insurrection, and Gen. La Puerta succeeds him, January 18, 1868 ; Col. Balta next August 1, 1868; Gutierrez dictator, July 22, 1872, but killed 26th; Pardo elected, August 2, and Prado succeeds him, August, 1876. The Peru- vian railways, in establishing which the American, Henry Meiggs, has been SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 45 prominent, at end of 1876 open for trade, or in course of completion, were 22 lines, 2,030 miles in length. PESSIMISM. A gloomy system of philosophy and belief put forth by Arthur Schopenhauer in Germany, 1819 to 1851, and which has found some acceptance. Its most eminent expositor is Hartmann. PITCAIEN'S ISLAND. (See p. 528 ; also Norfolk Island.) PLANCHETTE. (See /Spiritualism.) PLANETS. (See Astronomy.) POLAND. (Seep. 532.) The separate government of Poland abolished, and administrative union with Russia perfected February 29, 1868. Polish language prohibited in public places, July, 1868 ; in courts of law and public offices, June, 1876. These measures followed a severe mili- tary repression of hopeless but determined military efforts against Russia, which had continued most of the time since 1830. POOR. (See Paupers.) POPULATION. (See pp. 161, 537.) Total population of the world esti- mated at 1,377,000,000. Another estimate, by statistical authorities at Washington, 1874, made it 1,391,032,000. POSITIVISM. A philosophy put forth by Aug-uste Comte (born about 1795, died 1852), which rejects metaphysics and claims to deal wholly with facts. Its chief historical principle is that there are three stages of human belief, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, the former two being erroneous, and the last the only valid one, at which Europe is just now arriving. POST-OFFICE; POSTAL AFFAIRS. Book-post established in England, 1855. Money-order office established 1792 ; little used until 1840, but very largely since. English electric telegraphs purchased by government and run as part of post-office system, 1869. Postal cards first issued October 1, 1870. Post-office savings-banks (Government responsible to depositors) established 1861 ; deposits in them, December 31, 1874, 23,157,469 18s. lOd. An International Postal Congress met at Bern, Switzerland, January 27, 1874, and signed a convention, October 9, for a universal international postage rate of 25 centimes, or 2| pence, or 5 cents for each half-ounce letter rate ; 1 penny, or 2 cents, or 10 centimes for each newspaper rate, etc. In the United States Post-office Department : Postage stamps issued, year ending June 30, 1876, 700,089,437, worth $19,718,708.75; stamped envelopes (not official) issued, 147,021,500, worth $4,359,907.04; newspaper wrappers, 18,498,750, worth $273,723.- 50; postal cards, 150,815,000, worth $1,580,150 ; official postage stamps, 17,682.665, worth $663,831.50, and official stamped envelopes and wrap- pers, 15,690,155, worth $129,110.93. Total number'of these issues, 1,049,- 797,507, worth $26,953,421.72. PRAYER- GAUGE DEBATE originated in a proposition by Sir Henry ' Thompson, July, 1872, that some certain hospital ward or wards should be chosen, special prayers offered for the patients in them, and the result, ^^ as compared with other wards, to show whether prayer is efficacious to ~C? heal the sick. There was a long and energetic debate in print on this * ' / ' suggestion, 1872-3, but the experiment was not tried. PREHISTORIC MAN. Burnt bricks found in Egypt have been reckoned 20,000 years old; human bones found in Florida 30, 000 years old. Recent 46 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. discoveries of worked flints by Boucher de Perthes, near Abbeville, 1836, and similar ones and of various other articles in various parts of Europe, have led to the belief by many scientific men that human life has exetisd on the earth for many ages. The prehistoric period has been divided into the stone, iron, and bronze ages. See Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times" (1865), Dawkins's "Cave-Hunting." Evans's "Ancient Stone Im- plements " (1872), etc. An International Congress of Prehistoric Archae- ology meets annually and publishes transactions. PRE-RAPHAELITES. A school of painters that arose in England about 1850, including Millais, Hunt, Rossetti, etc. Their peculiarity was a purpose to pursue real art by representing nature as they saw it, instead of following the antique. With some extravagance, their influence on art has on the whole been good. PRINTING-PRESS. (See p. 164) The Walter press, an English inven- tion, is said to print both sides of from 15,000 to 17,000 popies per hour of a newspaper. The Campbell press is said, however, to print 50,000 such copies per hour. Copper-faced type introduced about 1850. Several machines for composing and distributing type invented, 1858-1875 ; some of them are in fact used for the more uniform kinds of work. A Caxton celebration, with exhibition of many rare and curious books, on fourth centennial of establishment of his press in England, at London, July, 1877. PRUSSIA. (See pp. 165, 549.) North German Confederation (see Ger- many), formed August 1, 1866. King refuses to receive the French minister Benedetti in consequence of improper demands, July 13, 1870; French declaration of war delivered at Berlin, July 19 ; first hostilities at Niederbronn, July 26 ; first battle at Saarbriick, July 30 (for events of the war see Chronological Tables) ; capitulation of Napoleon and of McMa- hon's army at Sedan, September 2, 1870 ; surrender of Metz by Bazaine, October 27 ; Paris capitulates, January 88, 1871 ; treaty of peace signed, February 26 ; King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany at Ver- sailles, January 18; imperial diet opened, Berlin, March 21, 1871. Prussian na'ionality and administration remain substantially intact, while it is a member of the new empire of Germany. PURCHAS CASE. February 23, 1871, the judgment of the English Privy Council was given on the charges of heresy against Mr. Purchas, the ritualist. He was found guilty of violating the ecclesiastical law " by wearing the chasuble, alb, and tunicle during the communion service ; by using wine mixed with water, and wafer-bread in the administration of the communion ; and by standing with his back to the people, between the communion-table and the congregation, during the consecration prayer. " He was held to pay costs. PUSEYISM. (See Ritualism; also Tractarianism, p. 191.) Q- QUEENSLAND. Made a separate colony, 1859. Governor, 1876, Sir A. E. Kennedy. Includes the northeast part of Australia and adjacent islands. Capital, Brisbane. First settlement (by convicts sent out), 1825. Population of European descent, May 31, 1876, 173,180, besides natives, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders. Area about 678,600 square miles, or one-fifth as much as all Europe. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 47 RADIOMETER. A delicate vane with four fans, each black on one side, hung in a vacuum, usually in an hermetically sealed glass globe. In- vented by Wm. Crookes, 1873-6. When light falls on it the vane turns, and this movement was at first supposed to demonstrate the mechanical action of light. Further investigation indicated, however, that the motion was caused by heat acting on the small portion of air left in the approximate vacuum. RAGGED SCHOOLS. (See p. 167.) Average attendance at 226 Ragged Schools in London, in 1867, 26,000. The buildings exempted from rates, 1869. At present the London School Board Schools are gradually repla- cing these. RAILWAYS. August 21, 1867, a locomotive and two carriages passed over the whole length of the Mount Cenis Railway, 48 miles. This road crosses the mountain nearly in the track of the road built by Napoleon I. Railway* in the world, end of 1876 : Africa .miles, 1,451 Asia... . " 7,643 Australia ' 1,752 Central Am. and W. Indies . " 559 Europe miles, 88,745 North America " 79,519 South America " 3,701 Total 183,370 Another authority makes this total 194,836. Of the North American total, the United States contains 74,658 (another authority says 77.470) miles, Canada 4,484, Mexico 377. About one- fourth the railroads built in the United States in 1876 were narrow-gauge. Steam on street railroads was successfully introduced in Philadelphia in the spring of 1877. Railways of upper Italy to be bought by the govern- ment ; bill passed, 344 to 35, June 27, 1876. First narrow-gauge railway built as a tram- way for horse-power, at Festiniog. in Wales, 1832 ; loco- motives used on it, 1863. RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. August 20, 1868, the Irish day mail express train ran into a freight train with petroleum near Abergele, in Wales, and the oil taking fire from the engines, thirty-three persons were burned alive in the cars, having (apparently) been smothered in the smoke; as not a scream nor a word was heard from one of them. June 21, 1870, by the collision of two trains on the Great Northern Railway, near Newark, Eng- land, in consequence of a defective axle, 18 persons were killed and 40 or 50 more or less injured. December 29, 1876, disaster at Ashtabula, on the Lake Shore Railroad, Ohio, by breaking of a bridge; 60 persons burned or frozen, 60 or 70 others injured. In 1866-8, one traveller on railroads out of each 12,941,170 killed by accident not his own fault. RATTENING. Stealing and hiding a man's tools because he opposes trades-unions or does not pay dues to them. An English practice ; much of it proved before the Commission of Inquiry, Sheffield and Manchester, June and September, 1867. (See Sheffield.) RECONSTRUCTION. Immediately after the rebel surrender, 1865, the Southern States began to pass laws discriminating in social and political affairs against the negroes. In 1868 Arkansas was readmitted into the Union over President Johnson's veto, on condition that the State should 48 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. never deprive negroes of their right to vote. Another bill, passed in like manner over the veto, readmitted North Carolina, Scuth Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, the provision being requisite in consequence of the discriminations aforesaid. July, 1868, President Johnson by proclamation pardoned all who had been in rebellion, except those actually under indictment for treason-felony. During President Grant's administration, the Eepublican State governments, in Louisiana and South Carolina especially, were supported by national troops. Presi- dent Hayes withdrew these, with the result that these States at once passed under democratic administrations. BED RIVER. (See Manitoba.) RELIGIONS IN THE WORLD. Estimating the population of the world at 1,377,000,000, the believers in its religions rank as follows in point of numbers : 1. Pagans ; 2. Christians ; 3. Mohammedans ; 4. Jews. Atheists not counted ; there are very few. The numbers of the above four classes are estimated as follows : Pagans, viz. : Buddhists 455,000,000 Others 425,600,000 Christians, viz. : Roman Catholics 201.200,000 Protestants 106,300,000 Eastern Churches 81,900,000 Mohammedans (some say 165 millions) Jews . . . 880,600,000 REPUBLICAN PARTY. votes for President will party, 1856-1876 : Popular Vote. 1866. Buchanan 1,838,169 Fremont 1,341,264 Fillmore 874,634 1860. Lincoln 1,8(56,352 Douglas 1.375,157 Breckenridge 845,763 Bell 589,581 1864. Lincoln 2,21(5.067 McClellan 1,808,725 1866. Grant 3,015,071 Seymour 2,709,613 389,400,000 100,000,000 7,000,000 1,377,000,000 The following table of the popular and electoral show the numerical history of the Republican Electoral Vote. 174 114 8 180 12 72 39 212 21 214 71 Popular Electoral Vote. Vote. 1872. Grant 3,5jrr,070 136 Greeley (died be- fore the electoral vote) 2,834,079 3 Hendricks 42 Brown 18 Jenkins 2 Davis 1 1876. Hayes 4,033,295 185 Tilden 4,284,265 184 Cooper 81,737 Smith 9,522 By this table the successive proportions between the Republican party and its chief adversary, neglecting third parties and odd numbers, are as follows : 1856, 13 to 18 ; 1860, 18 to 13 ; 1864, 22 to 18 ; 1868, 30 to 27 ; 1872, 35 to 28 ; 1876, 40 to 42 (Hayes having come in by a minority pop- ular vote). REPUDIATION. President Johnson, in his message of December 7, 1868, recommended a form of repudiation of the national debt, saying that " it would seem but just and equitable that the six per cent, interest now paid by the Government should be applied to the reduction of the princi- pal in semi-annual instalments." In reply, the House of Representatives voted by 154 to 6 that all forms of repudiation of the national debt were SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 49 odious to the American people, and that nothing less than was agreed would be offered to the national creditor. The States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- ana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee, do not pay the interest on their debts. Some of them, and Minnesota also, have repudiated more or less of the principal of the same. Counties and towns in Missouri and Illi- nois have also repudiated. The debt of North Carolina is (1877) about $39,000,000, and in a conference in that year between the creditors and the authorities of the State, the latter offered to fund $6,000,000 of the debt, at three and six per cent interest, to be in full. The creditors de- clined, but offered to accept half ; but nothing was done. The whole debt of South Carolina was, in 1873, stated at $25,770,611.44, and in this year a law was passed rejecting a part of this as illegal, and repudiating half of the rest by settling with the holders at 50 per cent. The payment, even at this rate, has not been made. Turkey repudiates all payments on account of public debt until times shall be better, July 9, 1876. Penn- sylvania, which used to be abused for repudiating, never did so, the only pretext being a delay upon certain payments, which were afterwards made in full. The United States has practically repudiated the French I spoliation claims, having received, in 1803, the consideration paid by - France for those claims, but having never paid the persons owning the claims. RESUMPTION. By Act of Congress, approved January 14, 1875, the Government of the United States is to resume specie payment January 1, 1879. This purpose has been firmly adhered to notwithstanding vio- lent efforts in different parts of the country to rescind this action, which efforts are in more or less close connection with the attempt to keep up or enlarge the quantity of paper money, and even to keep the same irre- deemable. REVENUE. Revenue and expenditure of the United States for ten years 1867-76 (items of total revenue other than customs and internal revenue are not specified, though included in " total.") 1867.. 1808 Customs. ....$176,417,810.88.... 184,464.599.56 Intern. Rev. ..$266,027.537.43.... .. 191,087.589.41 Total. ...$462,846,679.92 . .. 376.434,453.82 Expenditure*. ..$346, 729, 324. 78. 370,339,133.83 1869.. 1870 . 1871 . . 1872.. 1873 . 180,048,426.63.... . ... 194,538,374.44.... . ... 206.270.408.05.... .... 216.370,286.77.... 188.089,522.70 .. 158,856.460.86.... . 184.899,756.49.... .. 143,098,153.63... . .. 130.642.177.72.... 113729314.14 ... 357.188,255.64 . .. 395,959.838.87 ... . . . 374,431.10 1.94 . .. 364,694,229.91 322,177 673.78. ... 321,190,597.75 ... 293,6o7,C05.70 . .. 2*1160,393.51 . .. 270,559.695,91 285 2? 9 325 34 1874.. 1875.. 187tj.. .... 163.103,8.-I3.69.... ..,. 157,167.752,35.... .. 14N07l.984.61... .. 102,409.784.90.... .. 110,007.493.58.... .. 116.700.732.03 . .. 299,941,090.84 ... 284,020.771.41 283,758.493.36. . . . ... 2a5, 738,800. 21 . .. 272,693,573.84 .. 258.459.797.10 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE of Great Britain (United Kingdom), years 1868 to 1876, ending March 31 : Revenue. Expenditure. Revenue. Expenditure. 1868 69,600,218 71,236.242 1869 72,591,991 74,971.816 1S70 75,434.252 68,864,752 1871 69.945,220 69,548.539 1873 76,608,770 70,714,448 1874 77.335,657 76,466.5iti 1875 74,921.873 74,328.040 1876 77.131,693 76,621,773 1872 74,708,314 71,490,020 REVEREND. The Bishop of Lincoln, 1874, refused to Rev. Mr. Keet, a Wesleyan clergyman, permission to put the title "Reverend " on the grave- stone of a dissenter. The Archbishop of Canterbury allowed it. On trial in the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Chancellor of Lincoln decided against Mr. 3 50 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Keet ; on appeal, Sir R. Phillimore, in the Court of Arches, July 31, 1875, sustained the refusal ; but on appeal again, the Privy Council. January 2 1 , 1876, reversed both decisions, and gave judgment that the title is lauda- tory only, and that no law restricts it to ministers of the Church of England. REVIVALS. Moody and Sankey's revival meetings in England, 1874-5. In March, 1875, in London, present about 15,000 persons ; farewell meet- ing, July 12, 1875. In New York city, February 7 to April 19, 1876 ; in Boston, March to June, 1877. Great results were asserted to have been obtained. RIOTS. (See pp. 170, 565.) Riots in various English towns, by Roman- ists, against the lectures of one Murphy, 1867-1871 ; at White Haven, April 20, 1871, he was cruelly beaten. Riots by artisans out of work at Greenwich and Deptford, England, Jan. 24 and 25, 1867 ; in November following, in the west of England, from dearness of provisions ; Oct. 30, 1868, at Blackburn, between Liberals and Tories ; June 2, 1869, a furious riotous attack by 2,000 Welsh on military and police in charge of some colliers convicted of assault ; mob only dispersed by being fixed on, from which 4 were killed and 26 badly wounded. August 7, and September 8, 1871, much rioting at Dublin, in connection with a meeting in Phoenix Park to ask for relief of Fenian prisoners. April 20, 1876, agrarian riots break out, lasting some weeks, among the negroes in Barbadoes. Furious rioting by Romanists at Montreal, Sept. 1875, to prevent burial of one Gui- bord in a Romanist cemetery. The right to it being, however, proved at law, he was so buried under military protection, Nov. 16, 1875. RITUALISM. The Public Worship Regulation Act, for repressing ritualism in the Church of England, became a law August 7, 1874, to go into opera- tion July 1, 1875. The Ridsdale case was the first under the act, in which judgment was given in the ecclesiastical court against Rev. C. J. Ridsdale for ritualistic proceedings. In the cases of Rev. A. Tooth, and Rev. T. P. Dale, monitions issued to discontinue such practices. Rev. Arthur Tooth, vicar of St. James's at Hatcham, in England, was lawfully commanded to desist from processions, tolling the bell, singing certain music, and other ritualistic and unlawful practices. Disobeying, he was on Dec. 17, 1876, inhibited from performing divine service or otherwise officiating in the parish. Disobeying again, he was imprisoned. For a similar case before the act, see Purchas Case. ROMANISM. (See pp. 171, 5fi6; see also Infallibility ; Old Catholics; Vatican Council.} The "emancipation" of the Romanists has steadily advanced in England during this century. Their priests might be chap- lains to gaols, by act July, 1863; Justice Shee, of the Queen's Bench, (Dec. 15, 1863) was the first Romanist judge in England since the Refor- mation. O'Hagan, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Dec., 1868), was the first Romanist in that office since 1688 ; the first Romanist master of arts since the test acts were abolished, was made at Oxford, June 22, 1871 ; Ecclesiastical Titles Act repealed July 24, Ib71. Meanwhile Romanist bishops (at Dublin, Oct. 17, 1867) adhere to the policy of separate educa- tion under priests ; refuse a Romanist university to be endowed by the State, because they cannot have entire control, March, 1868, and October^ 1871. In Germany, the " Falk law?,' 1 to subject ecclesiastical affairs to a royal tribunal, passed May 11. 1H73. and an obstinate though not noisy struggle between the German Empire and the Romanist hierarchy sets in, SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 51 which is still (1877) in full activity, the State having fined, imprisoned, and banished various prelates, and the Pope having cursed various Offi- cials. In the United States there is a regular policy by the Romanists to obtain a share of public money for their sectarian schools, which has not thus far succeeded. For Romanist riots, see Riots. ROME. French enter, Oct. 30, 1867. They march out, August 21, 1870. Italian troops occupy, Sept. 20, 1870 ; united to kingdom of Italy along with Papal States, Oct. 9, 1870, and the Pope's authority restricted to the Leonine City (which see). The vote on union with Italy was as f ol lows : Out of 167,548 votes : for union, 133,681 ; against, 1,507 ; the rest did not vote. The Pope has hitherto (1877) wholly refused the restricted sovereignty and guaranties offered him. ROSICRUCIANS. There appears to have been a genuine society of this name in the thirteenth century, a religious organization of some kind. The Rosicrncians of the seventeenth century, however, were a hoax, im- agined by one Andreas or Andreas, who published a solemn pretended account of them, 1615. ROUMANIA. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia under this name acknowl- edged by Turkey, December, 1861 ; Alexander Couza, hospodar; he abdicates (by force) February 22, 1866; crown of Roumania declined by Prince of Flanders, February 8, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- maringen elected hospodar, April 20, and recognized hereditary hospodar by the Sultan, October 24, 1866. Declared independent of Turkey, and title of king assumed by the hospodar during Russian invasion, summer of 1877. RUSSIA. (See pp. 173, 569.) Imperial serfs emancipated in part, July 2, 1858. Decree for emancipation of all Russian serfs (twenty-three million) in two years, March 8, 1861. 1000th anniversary of foundation of Russian empire by Rurik, at Novgorod, celebrated September 20, 1862. Circassian war declared ended, June 2, 1864. War with Bokhara begun, 1866. Samarcand taken. May 26, 1868. Circular of Prince Gortscha- koff, repudiating treaty clauses of 1856 as to the Black Sea, October 31, 1870; clauses abrogated by London Conference, March 13, 1871. Com- mercial panic from failure of Strousberg, November, 1875. Prosecution of the sect of Skoptzi, April, 1876. Khokand annexed as Ferghana, Feb- ruary 29, 1876. Southern Russian army mobilized by decree of Novem- ber 15, 1876 ; war with Turkey, having been declared, the Russians enter Roumania ; cross the Danube, June 27, 1877 ; Gen. Gourkha, with a strong advanced guard, passes the Balkans, July 4. Result of the paral- lel Russian campaign in Armenia, however, up to August 1, 1877, only an advance to within a few marches of Erzeroum, a defeat by Mukhtar Pasha, and a retreat to Russian territory. S. SADOWA, or Koniggratz, in Bohemia. Decisive battle of the " Seven Weeks' War," or war of 1866, between Prussia and Austria, fought July 3, 1866. About 400,000 men engaged ; the Austrians lost 174 guns, 40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The battle decided the war, gave Prussia the leadership in Germany, secured unity to the North German nations, gave Venetia to Italy, and led to the legislative independence of Hungary. 52 TUB WORLD'S PROGRESS. ST. CRISPIN, KNIGHTS OF. This trade union of boot and shoe making operatives was first formed in Milwaukee, about 1870, and quickly spread into other States, having in 1873, in Massachusetts alone, 40,000 mem- bers. They have operated by strikes and the like means, with the general object of keeping up wages of operatives as against employers. SAN DOMINGO. (See p. 175.) Present name of the Spanish part of the island of San Domingo, or Hayti. For the French part, see Hayti. Dominican Republic proclaimed, February, 1844, after the deposition of President Boyer. Baez was President, 1849-1853 ; Santana, 1853-6 ; Baez again, 1856-8 ; Valverde. March, 1858-May, 1861 ; reunion with Spain decreed by the Queen, May 20, 1861 ; insurrection against Spain, August, 1861 : insurgents generally defeated, but Spain renounces the colony, May 5, 1865 ; Cabral President, September, 1865 ; Baez, Novem- ber, 1865 ; Cabral again, June, 1867 ; San Domingo City nearly destroyed by a hurricane, October 30, 1867 ; Baez President again, March, 1868 ; Ganier d'Aton, October, 1873; Gonzalez; Baez, December 10', 1876. Population estimated at about 250,000. SAN JUAN ARBITRATION between Great Britain and the United States, for ownership of the island, which commands the strait between British Columbia and the United States territory. Decided by the Emperor of Germany. October, 1872, in favor of the United States, and the British troops left accordingly, November 22 following. SAN SALVADOR. One of the Central American republics, independent since its federal union with Honduras and Nicaragua was dissolved, 1853. Government, nominally republican; but there is most frequently some revolution. Population, variously estimated at from about 430,000 to 600.000, all Indian, or mixed, except about 10,000 whites. SARAWAK A territory on the north-west coast of Borneo, about 300 miles along the sea and reaching 100 miles inland, with about 300,000 population. Was under government of Rajah Brooke, an Englishman, 1841-1868. SAVINGS-BANKS. (See pp. 176, 575.) Deposits in savings-banks of Great Britain and Ireland, 1872, 40,088,348. For English postal savings, see Post-Office. In the savings-banks of New England, New York, New Jersey, and California together there were, in the year 1874-5, deposits amounting to $810,096,745, of which the bankers of New York held over $303,000,000, and those of Massachusetts over $217,000,000. SCHELDT DUES abolished for a compensation, 1867, and the navigation of the river made free. SEAMEN; On Mr. S. Plimsoll's motion, a commission of inquiry to investi- gate the practice of employing unseaworthy ships, appointed March 4, 1873 ; reported July 2. 1874 ; a merchant shipping survey bill rejected, June 24, 1874 ; great excitement in and out of Parliament on the subject ; an act finally passed empowering the Board of Trade to stop unseaworthy ships, August 13, 1875, and a merchant shipping act, August 15, 1876. SECULARISM. A non-Christian, free-thinking system. " seeking morality in nature, and happiness in duty," and claiming to be " not against Chris- tianity, but independent of it." Advocated in England by Messrs. Hol- yoake about 1846 ; subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. A small number of secularists are to be found in the United States. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 53 SEDAN. An ancient city, reckoned a very strong fortress in old timep, on the Meuse, in the north-east of France, and the seat of a little principal- ity held by the Dukes of Bouillon, who were Princes of Sedan. Ceded to the French crown, 1642. A Protestant university here abolished after re- vocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1G85. Here was taken, destroyed, or surrendered, August 29th to September 2d, the whole of the French Army of the North, 150,000 strong, with Napoleon III. himself in com- mand. Men actually surrendered, 83,000, with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field- pieces, and 150 fortress guns. SERVIA. (Seep. 178.) Alexander Karageorgevitch (i. e'., son of Black George), the hospodar, forced to abdicate, and Milosch Obrenovitch (re- elected) prince in his stead, December 23, 1858 ; succeeded by his son, Michael Obrenovitch, September 26, 1860 ; movement begins about this time for independence of Turkey ; disputes at Belgrade ; Turkish Pasha bombards the city, and is dismissed, 1862 ; on a conference of the powers, at Constantinople, the Porte makes concessions to Servia, October, 1862. On further demands by Servia, Turkish garrisons withdrawn ; Prince Mi- chael assassinated, June 20, 1868, and his nephew Milan Obrenovitch suc- ceeds; war against Turkey breaks out, July, 1876 ; complete subjection of Servia by Turks only averted by interference of the powers, November 1, 1876. Area of Servia, about 16,000 square miles, and population, by census December 31, 1874, 1,352,523. SHEFFIELD, ENGLAND. An abominable practice of persecution by " rat- tening," or stealing tools, and other outrages, and even, in several in- stances, by murder and attempts to murder, at Sheffield and Manchester, all reduced to a system and paid for regularly, in order to punish oppo- nents of trade-unions, revealed before a parliamentary commission, June and July, 1867. The worst criminal was one William Broadhead, Secre- tary to the Saw-Grinders' Union, who planned these proceedings and paid for them. SHIPPING. (See also Names.) Sail and steam vessels of Great Britain and Ireland, not including river steamers, in 1875 : Men Vessels. Tonnage. employed. Sail 17.221 4,044,504 126.240 Steam 2,970 1,847,188 73,427 20,191 5,891,692 199,667 On June 30, 1875, the shipping of the United States were as follows : Vessels. Tonnage. Sail 17,226 2,257,154,23 Steam 3,958 1,116,425,42 Unrigged (barges, etc) 7,803 890,858,07 Canal-boats, etc 2,936 331,445,74 31,923 4,595,883,46 June, 1876, the total tonnage was 4,853,752. SHIPWRECKS. (See Wrecks.) SIAMESE TWINS. (Seep. 181.) They were exhibited a second time iu London, February, 1869. They died in January, 1874, one about two hours before the other. A post-mortem examination showed that there was an actual communication of their nervous and circulating systems through the band that connected them. 54 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SILKWORM. (See p. 585.) In 1856 the French silk crop, which should have been worth about $25,000,000, was reduced to one-third that value by the destruction of the silk-worms, which were killed off by a sort of epizootic called pebrine, which turned out to be parasitic. Scientific in- vestigations by order of the government resulted in a method, devised by Pasteur, which has nearly destroyed the disease. SILVER. (See pp. 181,585. See Coinage ; Money.) Silver produced in the United States, 1848-1873, $156,050,000. In 1875, Nevada alone pro- duced $40,478,369 of the precious metals, of which nearly all was silver. In 1876 an important fall took place in the value of silver, since which time the question of the standard of money has been vigorously debated, with a tendency to make gold the only standard, thus leaving silver more a merchandise than a currency, except for small change. SINAI, MT. Ordnance survey by Wilson and Palmer, published 1872. SINAI TIC MS. of the Bible, or Codex Sinaiticus. (See Bible.) SKOPTZI, OR WHITE DOVES. A South Russian fanatical sect, who prac- tice emasculation as the Shakers do celibacy. SLAVERY. Abolished by the Dutch in their West India colonies, from July, 1863 ; slave trade, by the Seyyid (or ruler) of Zanzibar, by treaty with England, June 5, 1873 ; on the Gold Coast, by agreement with several chiefs, November 3, and proclamation made by Gov. Strahan, December 17, 1874; slavery, by the Sultan of Turkey, November 23, 1876. SLAVONIA, a province of Austria. The Slavonian family of languages in- cludes Bohemian, Bulgarian, Polabic, Polish, Russian, Servian, Slovak, and Wend. The Slavic races in Europe are estimated to number, in 1875, as follows: Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 5,940.- 539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; Slovaks, 2,223,830; Czechs (*. ., Bohemians), 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162 ; total, 90,365.633. A so-called "Pan-Slavist " movement has of late years been set on foot, with rather vague designs, and a congress of Slavonic deputies met at Moscow, 1867, but with no distinct results. SOCIAL SCIENCE, or Sociology, has become a distinct department of study within fifty years, and especially since 1857. Annual meetings of the English Social Science Association have been held, beginning with that at Birmingham. October, 1857, and an annual volume of its transactions has been published. The American Social Science Association, whose headquarters are at Boston, Mass. , has issued, besides a tract on emigra- tion and one on free libraries, annual numbers of its Journal, beginning with June, 1809. It holds annual meetings, where papers are read and debate is had. SOONGARIA. (See Dsuningaria.) SOUND DUTIES, levied by Denmark at Elsinore on all ships passing the Sound there, until 1855, when the United States decided to pay them no longer, and the Danish Government gave them up for a compensation. SPAIN. (See pp. 184, 591.) The Government, since 1867, has changed as follows: Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30, 1868; Provisional Republican government established; Marshal Serrano regent, 1869; Queen Isabella abdicates January 25, 1870 ; crown declined by Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, July 4 ; Prince Amadeo of Italy chosen king November 16, 1870 ; abdicating, a republican government restored, SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 55 1873 ; Marshal Serrano President, 1874; Alfonso XII., son of Queen Isa- bella, king, 1875 ; the present constitution proclaimed June 80, 1876. An attempt by Don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., to obtain the throne; he enters Spain, May, 1872, and maintains hostilities with more or less success against whomsoever it may concern until February, 1876, when, after many reverses, he leaves Spain and surrenders to the Governor of Bayonne, February 27, 1870. Don Carlos (born 1848), is son of Don Juan, who was brother of the Count of Montemolin, or Carlos VI. , who was son of Carlos V., the brother of Ferdinand VII. Carlos VI. renounced his rights in favor of Don Juan, and the present Don Carlos therefore claims under Carlos V. SPECIE PAYMENT. (See Resumption.) SPECTROSCOPE. First constructed and used by Kfcrchhoff and Bunsen, 1861 ; since variously improved. Spectrum analysis, or the examination of light through the spectroscope, has resulted in many remarkable dis- coveries, particularly in astronomy, such as the determination of the sub- stances composing the sun, some nebulas, fixed stars, comets, etc. ; and also in analytical chemistry, including the discovery of two new metals, caesium and rubidium. SPELLING REFORM. The Spelling- Reform Association was organized in Philadelphia, August 17, 1876, for ' the simplification of English ortho- graphy." President, F. A. March, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.; Cor- responding Secretary, D. P. Lindsley, Fern wood, Pa. Efforts in the same direction have for some years been made in England. SPIRITUALISM, OR SPIRITISM. The so-called " spiritual manifesta- tions" began at Rochester, New York, about 1848; about 1851 much attention was given in England to the raps, '"table-turning," etc. Some time afterwards a little machine called "Planchette" was a leading topic of interest. Various sorts of "test-mediums" and "manifesta- tions " have appeared, and it is confessed, even by the most ardent spiritists, that a great share of the phenomena exhibited are fraudulent. The "Spiritual Magazine," London, began January, I860; the " Spirit- ualist," November, 1869. Many very intelligent people believe in some of the "manifestations," but Spiritism has not thus far (1877) been demonstrated either good morally, or true scientifically. STADE DUES. Levied on the Elbe by Hanover, on all vessels passing Stade! Resisted by the United States, 1855 ; abolished, 1861, for a sum of 3,000,000. STANDARD GOLD AND SILVER. English standard gold is 22 parts (by weight) gold, and 2 parts either silver or copper ; standard silver, 37 of silver to 3 of copper. The old-established proportion of silver to gold was 15 of silver equal to one of gold by weight. STEEL. Bessemer's process patented 1856. Tungsten steel made in Germany, 1859. Steel is very rapidly coming into use (1877) for railroad rails, cannon, and other purposes for which iron has heretofore served. STORM SIGNALS. (See Meteorology.) STORMS. (See Cyclones; Hurricanes.) STRASBURG. Invested by the Germans, August 10, 1870; surrendered by Gen. Uhrich with 17,500 men and 400 officers, September 27. The 56 THE WORLT'^ PROGRESS. ancient and very valuable library was destroyed during the siege, and the cathedral much injured. STREET RAILWAYS, STEAM ON. (See Railways.) STRIKES. (See page 186 ; see also St. Crispins.) In 1824, combinations by workmen against masters ceased to be criminal by English law, and the history of workingmen since that time has been increasingly a history of strikes, which have occurred in great numbers, especially in Great Britain and the United States. In March, 1867, the farm-laborers of Buckinghamshire struck for higher wages, and with some measure of success. Same month, the engine-drivers on the London and Brighton Railway struck for higher wages and some other concessions. Result, a compromise. April 10, the engine-drivers and others on the (English) Northeastern Railway struck in consequence of the refusal of indoor- work to some of them in all, 1,100. The strike was defeated. April 28, the London journeymen tailors struck for higher wages, but returned to work on the employers' terms after a number of months. In a trial arising from this strike the practice of ' ' picketing " or watching for, fol- lowing, and abusing non-union men was exposed. September, 1868, the London cab-drivers and owners struck work, because certain so-called "privileged" cabs only were allowed upon the premises of the railways. The strike failed. January, and again March, 1870, the workmen of Schnei- der's great iron and steel *works, at Creuzot, in France, struck in conse- quence of a quarrel about a benefit fund and the dismissal of a troublesome workman. A military force put down the movement. In the same year, 16,000 work-people struck at Mulhouse, and before the troops sent could restore quiet, a large factory was burnt. Other strikes had already taken place at Marseilles, Perpignan, and other places in the south of France. December 8, 570 telegraph clerks of the Manchester, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Belfast, and some other post-offices struck by arrangement, in consequence of the removal by government of certain clerks for joining a " protective association." The strikers were mostly reinstated after making written apologies and leaving the association. October 9, 1871, the monster strike of some 8,000 engineers and other workmen at Newcastle, England, having lasted since the end of May, ended by the reduction of working hours from ten to nine, the wages re- maining the same. The Newcastle strike of 1871 was of 9,050 engineers for nine hours instead of ten, at same wages. The trade-unions main- tained these 9,050 men for sixteen weeks, and did much to prevent others from taking their places. At one time during this year were on strike these engineers, the Newcastle police, the colliers of Northumber- land, Dean Forest, and Gloucestershire, the iron-workers of North Staf- fordshire, the dyers of Bradford, the quarrymen of Leeds, and the crate- makers of the potteries. The New York strike, in 1872, for the eight-hour working day, included 90,000 workmen. March 25, 1873, 60,000 Welsh colliers struck against a 10 per cent, reduction in wages. Many strikes occurred in the United States about 1874, as wages began to be lowered from the high standard maintained since the war. April 12, 1876, 20,000 miners struck in Yorkshire. At Fall River, Mass., the mill-hands were on strike for several months in the summer of 1876, but ultimately in part resumed work without obtaining their demands. February 12, 1877, the engineers of the Boston and Maine Railroad, be- longing to a general "Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers," presided over by one Arthur, an Englishman, struck without notice. They were SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 67 not taken back, and the road in a few days obtained other men. Report of the Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners on this strike, recommend- ing penal statutes against such action in future, was published February 21, 1877. The success of the railroad, and some subsequent similar cases, pretty much broke the power of the "Brotherhood." Extensive series of riots and railroad and other strikes in the United States, begin- ning at Martinsburg, in West Virginia, on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road, July 16, 1877. The strikers were in many places joined by outlaws and criminals, who set fires, robbed, and committed violence of various kinds. State and National troops were called out in large numbers, and the trouble gradually ceased, but not without the destruction of vast amounts of property and great interruption of travel, transportation, and communication. It was reckoned that about 9,000 miles of railroad were blocked on this occasion, and no through line to the sea-coast within the United States was left open. Board of Arbitration for amicable settle- ment of questions between workingmen and employers, formed by Act of Parliament in Great Britain in 1866, after a great strike in that year, but its usefulness was only temporary. SUEZ CANAL. (See p. 186.) Work commenced 1858. First ship goes through, February 17, 1867. Canal formally opened, November 17, 1868. 4,080,000 voted by the House of Commons, for the purchase by England of the canal shares belonging to the Khedive of Egypt; purchase an- nounced, November 26, 1875. SUICIDES. (See p. 602.) Inquests on suicides in England and Wales in ten years : 1865 1,397 ISfifi 1,360 1867... 1.356 18*58 1,6-46 1869 1,562 1870 1,517 1871 1,464 1872 1,455 1873 1,481 1874 1,549 SUN. (See p. 603.) Cycle of changes in number of sun's spots fixed at 11 years by Schwabe and others, 1826-51. Red flames at edge of sun during an eclipse, shown to be burning hydrogen by Janssen, August 18. 1868. Unknown substance believed to exist in the sun, corresponding to line 1474 of the spectrum, 1870-71. Substances already shown by the spec roscope to exist in the sun : Aluminium, barium, cadmium, calcium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, nickel, sodium, strontium, titanium, uranium, zinc all fused into a liquid or even vaporous state. SUNDAY ; SUKDAY LAWS. Scientific lectures with a bearing on natural religion were given in London in January, 1867, by Huxley, Carpenter, and others, with sacred music in the intermissions. On legal inquiry (case of Baxter v. Baxter Langley, Nov. 19, 1868), held that this was not an infraction of the Sunday Act of 21, George III. The Boston Public Library Reading-Room opened to the public on Sunday, after much op- position, February, 1873. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. (See pp. 189, 604) Religious toleration to some extent (previously a rigid and exclusive state Lutheranism pre- vailed), 1860. New constitution. December, 1864. Charles XV. dies Sept. 18, 1872. Oscar II., his brother, succeeds. Population of Sweden, Dec. 31, 1875, 4,383,2!)!, and Norway 1,817,237. SWIMMING DRESS, Boyton's. (See Life-Saving.) 6* 58 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SWITZERLAND. (See pp. 189, 606.) Mermillod, papal nuncio, expelled, January 16, 1873. Revised federal constitution adopted, April 19, 1874. Swiss National Catholic Church ("Old Catholic") established June, 1874 Civil marriage law adopted, May 23, 1875. Population, 1870, 2,669,147. SYLLABUS of errors in modern times, issued along with an encyclical let- ter by Pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, condemned heresy, modern philosophy, political liberalism, etc. Adopted by the Vatican Council, 1870. TALMUD. (See p. 609.) The Talmud has been translated into Arabic, and parts of it into Latin and into modern languages. Raphall and de Sola translated eighteen treatises of the Mishna or text into English, Lon- don, 1847. TAXES. (See pp. 189, 610; also Revenue ; National Debt ; etc.) National, State, and municipal taxes in United States, estimated in 1876 at $730,- 000,000 a year, or about $19.00 for each soul. TEA. (See pp. 189, 610.) Importation into the United States, and value, 1869-1876 : Lb. Value. 1869 39,141,755 813,687,750 1870 40,812,188 13.871,546 1871 46,972,787 17,254.617 1872 56,974,100 22,943,575 1873 57,870,700 24,466,170 1874 49,831,800 21,112,234 1875 64,858,899 22.673,703 1876 62,887,153 19,524,166 Imported into England in 1875, 197,505,316 Ibs. ; worth 13,766,961. TELEGRAPH. The English Government in 1869 bought out the English telegraph companies on the basis of paying twenty years' profits for the property. The companies claimed 7,035,977 ; on a valuation this sum was reduced to 5,715,047, of which the profit item was 5,220,109. 700,000 were also paid to railroad companies for telegraph rights, and some other items carried the whole government expenditure to about 6,750,000, or $33,750,000. The government estimate of returns was, annual revenue expected, 673,838; expenses, 359,484; net profit, 314,354 ; and deducting three and one-half or four per cent, interest on the government securities issued to buy with, there would remain a sur- plus of 77,000 or 44,000, as the case might be. The result, however, has been thus far (1877) a loss instead of a profit. February 16, 1871, at 9.8 P.M., a telegram was received at London which was sent from Kur- rachee, in India, at 12.43 in the morning of the next day. TELEPHONE. Bell's, Gray's, and Edison's telephones were brought before the public in 1876 and 1877. One was invented by Philip Reiss, a Ger- man, about 1862. Bell's operates by means of talking and listening into a "funnel" or small drum-head (or an equivalent mechanism), which vibrates over an electro -magnet in an electric circuit. Gray's acts by the vibrations of tuning-forks. They are all contrivances to convey sound along an electric circuit. TELESCOPE. (See p. 611.) Lord Rosse's great telescope, fifty-two feet long, seven feet diameter, erected 1828-45, cost over 20,000. Newall's telescope, with object-glass 25 inches aperture, set up at Gateshead, Eng- land, 1870. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 59 TENURE OP OFFICE ACT. Passed March 2, 1867, in order to limit the power of President Johnson. It required the consent of the Senate to re- move as well as to appoint officials. THOMASSEN. (See Explosions.) TICHBORNE CASE. May 11, 1871, this case, in which the claimant of the Tichborne estate, calling himself Sir Roger Tichborne, was asserted by the defendants to be a butcher named Arthur Orton, came on for trial. After occupying 103 days (the Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, spoke twenty-six days), claimant nonsuited, and held for perjury and forgery ; trial began April 23, 1872 ; verdict of perjury, February 28, 1874. Longest trial known in England ; sentence fourteen years at hard labor. TICKET OP LEAVE. A permit granted to convicts supposed likely to behave well. 2,666 persons thus liberated in England in 1856. In 1861-3 the system appeared a failure, these liberated convicts committing many crimes, and the device was practically discontinued by the Penal Servitude Act, 1864. TORPEDO. For sxibmarine warfare, invented by David Bushnell, of Say- brook, Conn., and tried on British vessels unsuccessfully, except that it greatly frightened them, 1777 ; much used in rebellion, 1861-5. Torpedo departments have, since the introduction of iron-clad war-ships, been in- troduced into all navy organizations. TRADES-UNIONS. (See Rattening; Strikes.) National Federation of Employers formed in England, to counteract Trades-Unions. Parliamen- tary report on persecutions by the Saw-Grinders' Union of Sheffield, and similar practices, dated August 21, 1867. Forty-five trades-unions in New York City in 1869 had 24,425 members ; in 1876 many of them had been discontinued, and the membership was less than 15,000. The whole number in the United States in 1872-3 was estimated at 1,500, of which eleven had a national organization, and ten an international one. The fifth annual Trades-Union Congress of Great Britain and Ireland, at Leeds, January 13. 1873, included representatives from ninety-nine socie- ties, one of which contained 140,000 members. TREASON-FELONY. Term applied in an English Act of 1848, to certain treasons mitigated to felonies, and made punishable by imprisonment or transportation. The Fenians were tried under this act in 1865. TRIALS. (See pp. 191, 623; also Tichborne Case ; Ritualism, and Pm-chas Case.) Saurin v. Starr, ' the convent case," by an ex-inmate of a Roman Catholic convent at Hull, England, against the Superior and others, for conspiracy, etc. , occupied three weeks in trying, in the year 1889. The plaintiff recovered 500. July 15, was tried at Carmarthen, Wales, the " Welsh Fasting Girl Case." The girl's parents, Evan and Hannah Jacobs, had made a show of their daughter, pretending that she had lived for months without food ; and when some competent persons were sent from Gray's Hospital to watch the child, the parents let her die. They were convicted, and imprisoned at hard labor, the father for twelve, and the mother for six months. November 26, 1870, Rev. Mr. Mackonochie, a " ritualist," incumbent of St. Albans, Holborn, London, was suspended for three months from clerical duty, and sentenced to pay costs, for dis- obeying the monitions of the Privy Council about elevating the paten and prostrating himself before the consecrated elements. February, 1870, 60 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. the case of Lady Mordaunt, whose husband had sued for a divorce, re- sulted in a stay of proceedings on the ground of Lady Mordaunt's insanity. The Prince of Wales had been reported concerned in the scandal, but denied it on the witness-stand. November 10, 1871, there was a curious libel suit at London. One John Hampden, who maintains that the earth is flat and not round, had bet 500 with a Mr. Wallace on this question, and the money had been paid to Mr. Wallace by the referee on deciding the bet, as agreed. Upon this Hampden began a system of sendinj about libellous postal cards, accusing the referee of fraud. On trial he made an ample apology, and was let off. February 11, 1871, judgment was given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the Voysey case, in which Rev. C. Voysey was prosecuted for heresy in maintaining and teaching various alleged infidel doctrines. The tribunal found that he contradicted and impugned the thirty -nine articles in respect to original sin, the incarnation, the atonement, the trinity, the authority of scripture, and other points, and sentenced him to deprivation and payment of costs. By final decisions in 1877, Mrs. Gaines, after forty years' litigation, obtains title to a great mass of real estate in New Orleans. TRICHINA. A minute worm living in the muscles of hogs and other animals ; transferred into those who eat the infected meat, and causes a disease, sometimes fatal, called trichiniasis. First found in human mus- cle by Owen, 1832. Thorough boiling kills them. Much attention to the subject, 18(55-6. TROY. Dr. Schliemann, 1872-3, discovered on the hill of Hissarlik re- mains of three different ancient cities, one over the other, and much an- cient treasure, part of which he called the ''treasure of Priam." He be- lieved the site to be that of ancient Troy ; his book translated and pub- lished in English, 1875. TUNNEL. Mont Cenis tunnel, seven and one-half miles long ; began August 31, 1857; boring completed, December 25, 1870; cost about $13,000,000. A tunnel under the English Channel, from Dover to Ca- lais, proposed, August, 1869, by Bateman and Revy ; plans by Thome de Gamond shown in Paris, 1867 : a convention in favor of it signed for France by M. Chevalier, January. 1875, and a thirty years' monopoly granted ; French and English companies formed ; experimental borings in the chalk at the sides of the channel indicate that the rock is such as to. make the scheme practicable. Hoosac Tunnel, under Hoosac Moun- tain, in Western Massachusetts, begun 1856; completed, 1873; four and three-fourths miles long. Sutro Tunnel, to drain the Comstock Lode and other silver mines in Nevada, estimated cost, $8,000,000 ; to be 21,- 178 feet, and with all branches and shafts, 43,088 feet. TURKEY. (See pp. 192, 626.) Insurrection in Herzegovina, June, 1875, extending more or less into Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. The " An- drassy note," suggesting reforms in Turkey, presented to the Sultan's Government by the Austro-Hungarian, German, Italian, and Russian am> bassadors, January 31, 1876. On the 6th February, an answer promises religious liberty and other reforms. February 14, decree issued order- ing them. Risings in Bosnia, early in March, 1876. Insurgents in Herze- govina blockading Nicsics ; defeat Turks under Mukhtar Pasha, April 15, 1876. Turks defeat insurgents at Prejeska, April 23. In May, 1876, risings in Bulgaria put down by the Turks with frightful cruelty and out- rages. Consuls of France and Germany assassinated at Salonica, by Mo- SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 61 hammedan fanatics, May 6, 1876. May 11, 1876, the " Berlin memo- randum," agreed on by Russia, Germany, and Austria, at Berlin, requir- ing prompt fulfilment of the Turkish promises made in reply to the Andrassy note. England refused to join in this demand, and it was dropped. May 12, 1876, riots at Constantinople, headed by the softas (students of law and religion), against the government. Abdul Aziz de- throned by his ministers, May 27th, and was found dead (said to have committed suicide), June, 1876. Murad, nephew of Abdul Aziz, made Sultan, May 30th ; deposed, August 31, 1876, and succeeded by hia younger brother, Abdul-Hamid II. June 12. 1876, Prince Milan of Servia proclaims that the insurrections around him force him to put Servia under arms. June 15, 1876, Hassan Bey, a Circassian captain in the Turkish army, enters the ministerial council-room, shoots dead the Ministers of War and of Foreign Affairs, and killed or wounded six other officials be- fore he was secured. He was hanged two days afterwards. Prince of Servia and Hospodar of Montenegro jointly declare war against Turkey, July 2, 1876. Turkey announces that no payments can be made on the public debt " until the internal affairs of the empire have become more settled," July 9, 1876. Decisive defeat of the Servians by the Turks at Alexinatz, October 28, 1876, and Alexinatz occupied the 31st by the vic- tors. Mr. Gladstone's powerful pamphlet on the Bulgarian atrocities, published September 6, 1876. Armistice for six weeks with Servia granted by Turkey, under pressure from the powers, November 1, 1876. Conferences of the powers at Constantinople to try to avert war begun December 11, 1876. Represented : Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, France. Germany, Italy, Russia, Turkey. A constitution, providing for represen- tatives, a legislative assembly, etc., proclaimed, December 24, 1876, in order to avert European intervention. For the war, see Russia. U. UNITED STATES. (See pp. 193,631; also Centennial, etc.; Chronological Tables, p. 205, etc.) In 1870 there were in the United States, 3,603,844 square miles or 1,942,000,000 acres, half of it public lands, and less than one-tenth of it cultivated. Population, 1870, without Indians, 38.558,371 ; estimated, June 1, 1876, 45,627,000; expected at census of 1880 to be fifty millions. Value of all real and personal property (1870), $30,068- 518,507; paupers, 116,102; convicted of crime, 36,562; in prison, June 1, 1870, 32.901 ; religious congregations of all kinds, 72,459; church edi- fices 63,082; sittings, 21,665,062, or 4 to every 7 souls. UNIVERSITIES. Students and professors, etc. , in German ones, June, 1876 : Professors and Teachers. Berlin 197 Bonn 100 Breslau 107 Erlangen 54 Fretbnrg .59 Giessen 64 Gottingen 115 Greifewald 57 Halle 98 jHeirtelberg 104 Jeaa 73 Kiel 61 Students. 2,143 707 1,116 429 274 315 986 444 870 488 440 202 Professor* and Teachers. Konigsberg . . 83 Students. 611 .156 2,925 Marburg . 65 401 . 116 1,203 . 29 431 . 39 153 Strassburg 90 077 Tiibino'en .... 84 .... 823 . 67 984 21 1.800 16,022 62 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Add to these 2,377 unmatriculated. "permitted to attend lectures" (of which 1,962 at Berlin alone), and there are 18,999 students ; 14 universi- ties are Protestant ; the theological faculty being Roman Catholic at Frei- burg, Munich, Miinster, and Wurzburg, and mixed at Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen. V. VATICAN COUNCIL, called the Twenty-first (Ecumenical or General Council, summoned by encyclical letter of September 8, 1868 ; met at Rome, December 8, 1869 ; present, 803 members ; there were four public sessions, and from 90 to 100 " congregations." New canons issued April 24, 1870; the infallibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 to 2, and the doctrine promulgated July 18, 1870. VEDAS. Hindoo sacred books, consisting of hymns, prayers, and liturgies. There are three portions of them the Rig- Veda, Yajur- Veda, and Atharva- Veda the first being much the oldest and dating to 1,000 or more years B.C. Max Mullers edition (in Sanscrit) began to appear 1849 ; Wilson's translation, 1850. VELOCIPEDE. One invented by Blanchard, the aeronaut, about 1779 ; one by Niepce, 1818 ; came into use again about 1861, and are still (1877) more or less employed. VENDOME COLUMN. Pulled down by the communists, May 16, 1871; restored August 31, 1874 ; statue of Napoleon replaced at top, December, 1875. Courbet the painter was condemned to a fine of 30,000 francs for his participation in overturning it. VENEZUELA. (See p. 634.) Presidents: Falcon, March 18, 1865 ; Mo- nagas, June to November, 1865 ; Pulgar, December, 1865 ; Blanco, July, 1870, and re-elected 1873, 1875. Conflict with Roman Catholic Church on civil marriage ; papal authority renounced by the government, September, 1876. Area about 403,261 square miles; population (1873), 1,784,194. VENUS, TRANSIT OF. (See Astronomy ) VESUVIUS. (See pp. 194, 636.) Recent eruptions: spring and sum- mer, 1860; December, 1861; February, 1865 ; November 12, 1867 to April, 1868 ; October 8 to November 20, 1869; April 23 to May 3, 1872. VICTORIA, IN" AUSTRALIA. (See p. 194.) Capital, Melbourne. Popula- tion, estimated March 31, 1876, at 829,824. VISIBLE SPEECH. A universal system of delineating sounds in which each letter is a diagram of the position of the vocal organs in uttering it. Invented by A. M. Bell ; explained by him, and a book on it published, London, 1866 ; introduced in America by him and his son, J. G. Bell, the inventor of a telephone, about 1872. VIVISECTION. Efforts to prevent it have been made since 1859 ; gener- ally opposed by scientific physiologists and medical men. Bill to regulate it in Great Britain, August 15. 1876, by restricting it to licensed persons. W. WAGES. (See pp, 196, 640 ; also Strikes, Trades- Unions.') In New York, from 1870 to 1876, wages in fifty-eight trades fell from 10 to 20 per cent. SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 63 In England, wages were often raised by the strikes, 1874-75. Yearly total of wages paid in United Kingdom, 1866, estimated at from 250,- 000,000 to 418,300,000, earned by 10,697,000 working people, between 20 and 60 years of age. WAHABEES. Fanatical reforming Mohammedans, a kind of Puritans ; arose in Arabia about 1750; in 1803 seized Mecca and Medina; were defeated by Egyptian forces 1818 ; are at present prosperous in Arabia, and there are some of them in India. Palgrave's Journey in Arabia, 1865, is a good account of them. WAR. (See pp. 196, 643 ; also Army ; Battles ; Navy ; National Debt ; etc. ) An estimate from 1853 to 1877 shows the following deaths and expenses in one quarter-century of Christian war. Crimean war $1,700,000,000 Italian war ( 1859) 800. 000, 000 U. S. rebellion (North) 4,700,000,000 U. S. rebellion (South) '2,300,000,000 Schleswig-Holstein war 35,000,000 And deaths (not complete). Crimean war 475,000 Italian war 1869 45,000 Schleswig-Holstein war 3,000 U. S. rebellion 800,000 Austro-Prussian war (1866) 330,000.000 Franco- Prussian 2,500.000,000 Other wars, etc 2(10,000,000 Total cost $12,065,000,000 Austro-Prussian war of 1866.. .. 45.000 Franco-Prussian war 215,000 Total deaths 1,183,000 These deaths are nearly all of the strongest young men, from 25 to 35 years old. WATCHES. (See p. 646 ; also Clocks and Watches.) WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Includes all New Holland west of 190 E. longitude, being estimated at 978,000 square miles. The settled part is not more than one-eighth of this area. Population, March 31, 1870, in- cluding 1,470 convicts, 24,785. First settled 1829, and was then called the Swan River Settlement. WOERTH. Defeat of the French under McMahon by the Germans under the Crown-Prince of Prussia, after most obstinate and bloody fighting, August 6, 1870. The French said to have charged the German line and broken it eleven times, always, however, finding fresh troops behind. WRECKS. (See pp. 198, 658; also Life-Saving Seamen.) Of 1803 casual- ties to vessels on the British coast in the year 1873-74, 346 were total wrecks, and 506 lives were lost. Lives (saved chiefly by life-boats), in 1871, on British coast, 4,336. T. YACHT. (See p. 199.) July 4, 1870, an " international " yacht race was begun, from Cork to New York, between the English yacht Cambria and the American one Dauntless. The Cambria won, arriving at 4 P. M. of July 27, the Dauntless, taking a more northerly route, came in two hours later. October 16, 1871, and six subsequent days, took place an inter- national yacht race between the English yacht the Livonia and the yachts of the New York Yacht Club. The Columbia and Sappho, of New York, won four out of the first five races, deciding the match. 64 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. z. . - ZANZIBAR. Set off from Muscat, 1806, for Majid, a son of the Seyyid (lord) of Muscat. At Majid's death, October 7, 1870, Barghash, his brother, succeeded. Treaty with England abolishing slave trade, June 5, 1873. ZEND AVESTA. The present Zend Avesta is said by the Parsees to be only three out of the original twenty-one nosks-or books. It consists of hymns, prayers, and liturgies, much as the Vedas do, and is in three parts, the Vispered, Vendidad, and Yacnas. The five Gathas or hymns in the Vendidad are considered the oldest part. Their age is very doubt- ful, though in part unquestionably great. Anquetil Duperron's French version, 177t ; Burnouf's, 1829-43 ; Spiegel's, in German, a later one. is the best ; and an English version of this by Bleeck was published at Hertford, England, 18G4. BUREAU OF STATISTICS, U. 8. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. ; Pa* the following rtatistics we are indebted to the courtesy of Hon. ALEXANDER DELM \n Director of the Bureau.] CUSTOMS DUTIES RECEIVED IN 1866. * During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,597.83 * " " June 30, " 46,175,132.33 * " " Sept. 80, " 50,843,774.24 f ' " Dec. 31, " 37,803,027.54 * Official. $181,467,531.94 t Commercial a.nd Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867. SHIPPING STATISTICS: TONNAGE OF THE UNITED STATES. Total. Tonnaae. 5,353.868 5,539,813 5,112,165 5,126,081 4,986.401 3,516,787 1,579.994 942,299 3,368,479 EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the year ending June 30, 1867 Domestic. Foreign. Total. In Am,. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. Heffistered. Enrolled and Incensed. Year. Sail. Steam. Sail. Steam. 1860, 2,448,941 97,296 2,030,990 770,641 1861, 2,540,020 102,608 2,122,689 774,596 1862, 2,177,253 113,998 2,224,449 596,465 1863, 1,892,899 133,215 2,660,212 439,755 1364, 1,475,376 106,519 2,t50,690 853.816 1865, $ old, 1,031,465 60.539 1,794,372 630,411 1865, ? new, 482,110 28,469 730,695 38,720 1866, S old, 341,619 42,776 443,635 114,269 1866, J new, 953,018 155,513 1,489,194 770,754 Gold Bullion,... Gold Coin, Silver Bullion,. Silver Coin,.... Total,. 298,854 1,500,041 70,081 248,978 2,753,954 8,425,227 15,800,152 8,186,837 1,581,763 33,993,969 none. 1,183,580 none. 307,181 1,490,761 none. 1,418,853 18,939 1,521,062 8,724,081 19,902,626 8,911,857 3,658,974 2,958,854 41,197,538 COFFEE STATISTICS. Statement exhibiting the consut-ption of coffee in the United States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 : Tear. Pounds. Tear. Pounds. 187,046,00ft 88,990,000 79,720,000 1861, 1862, 863, 1864, '%5, 1866, 10>087,OOC 128,146,000 169.915.840 66 UNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS, See page 68, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given for the first five year? are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the New York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66. The quantity for 1866 is takeu from the Supplement to H E. Horiug's Monthly Coffee Circular, 1867. COTTON STATISTICS. Tear. 1860-61, 1861-62, 1862-63, 1863-64, 1864-5, 1865-66, 1866-67, The figures relative to production, except for 1866-67, were derived from Neil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 1867, as 1,809,500 bales. The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, finance Report, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- 489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the exports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. fit Production. Bales. Exported. Pounds Bales. Peerage Price per pound. 3,656,086 3,126,622 17.42 cents. est. 4,800,000 5,064,564 = say 12,000 42.15 est. 1.500,000 11,384,986 = say 26,000 71 08 est. '500,000 10,830,534 - say 25,000 $111.14 CBt. 300,000 6,607.186 = say 15,000 75.75 2,214,476 1,554,744 44. est 1,900,000 est. 1,500,000 32.5 JEA STATISTICS. Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866: Fear. Oreen, Japan. Slack. Total. Pound*. Pounds. Pounds. 1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,001 162, 13,871,600 13,597,000 27,468,600 1863, 14,490,680 12,415,685 26,906,865 1H64, 13,564,295 9,573,251 23,137,546 1865, 18,874,199 10,979,234 29,853,433 1866, 29,643,187 . See Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir' cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 pounds. The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one pound per capita. TOBACCO STATISTICS. Tear. 1861, 1862, 1863 1864, 1866, HW. Production. Exported. Poundt. Leaf, pounds. 200,000,000 est. 160,000,000 136,736,596 est. 107,000,000 276,850,870 est. 112,000,000 197,460.229 est. 110,000,0nn 185,316,953 est. 149,000.0* 380.S01.600 160,826.248 >.d. Average priot Manuf'd, fos. Total. perlb., Leaf 14,783,363 174.783,363 9. cent*. 4,071,963 111,071.963 11.9 " 7,025,248 119,025,248 H9 " 8.586,494 118,586,494 14.86 " 7,294.165 156.294,105 12.6 ' 6,515,706 197,341,057 13. " THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 67 The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865 is given as found in the lie- ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 u taken from the Tobacco Circular of M. Rader & Son. The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns of commerce and navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and the disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, and in 1866 all the States. WHEAT STATISTICS. Tears. Production. Exported. Av. Price per bit Bushels. Wheat, bushels. Hour, bbls. at 1'ew Tork. 1861, 31,238,057 4,323,756 $1,18 to $1.46 1862, 189,993,500 37,289,572 4,882,033 1.30 to 1.50 1883, 191,068,239 36,160,414 4,390,055 1.33 to 1.58 1864, 171,695,823 23,681,712 3,557,347 1.48 to 1.83 1865, 159,522,827 9,937,152 2,604,542 2.22 to 2.70 1866, 151,999,906 5,579,103 2,183,050 1.85 to 2.75 No returns of the production of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was made at the Department of Agriculture. The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1866, and 1866 are taken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864 and 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which ia believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels. A barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. STATISTICS, TEARS 1867-77. (From public documents and other standard sources.) REVENUE of the United States from customs for ten years (to June 30), 1867-1876. 1867 $176,417,810.88 1868 164,464.599.56 1869 180,048,426.63 1870.... 194,538,374.44 1871 206,270,408.05 1872 $216,370,286.77 1873 188,089,522.70 1874 168,108,888.69 1875 157,167,722.35 1876 148,071,984.61 For the first five months of the years ending June 30, 1877 and 1876, the revenue from customs was as follows : 1877. 1876. Decrease. $57,80.1,772.50 $68,170,576.48 $10,368,803.98 COIN AND BULLION exported from the United States for seven years, 1868-9 to 1874-5, ending June 30. 1868-9 $42,915,966 1869-70 43,881,861 1870-1... 84.403,359 1871-2 72,798,240 1872-3 $73.905,546 1873-4... 59.699,686 1874-5 83,857,129 68 UNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS. COTTON. Production and exports of United States for nine years (ending June 30), 1868 to 1876. Exported, pounds. 784,763,633 644,327,921 958,658,523 1,462,928,024 933, 537, 413 1,200,063,530 1,358,602,303 1,260,418,903 1,491,405,330 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. Production, bales 0/440 Ibs. 2,593,993 2,439,039 3,154,946 4,352,317 2,974,351 3,930,508 4,170,388 3,832,991 4,600,000 SHIPPING- of the United States, nine years, 1867-1875. Registered (tons). Enrolled and Licensed. Licensed under 20 tons. Total JfercJiant Marine (tons). Sail. Steam. Sail Steam. All. 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1,187,714 1,810,344 1,353,170 1,324.256 1,244,228 1,232,1)82 1.229,865 1,233.678 1,362,138 165,522 221,939 213,252 192,544 180,914 177,666 193,423 195,245 191,689 2,563,232 2,7.33,167 2,526,093 2,677,940 2.805,274 2,971,309 3,215.915 3,312,146 3,238,390 41,047 62,860 52,126 51,767 52,191 55.790 66,824 59.583 61,515 2,834,535 8,118,895 3,041,073 4,171,412 3,194,970 3,326,194 5,539,584 3,615,042 3,685,064 1,122.980 1,199,415 1,103.568 1,075,095 1,087,637 1,111,553 1,156,443 1,185,610 1,168,668 3,957,515 4,318,310 4,144,641 4,246.507 4,282.607 4,437,747 4,696.027 4,800,652 4,853,732 TOBACCO. Product and exportation of United States, ten years, 1867- 1876. Production. Ibs. Exported, Leaf, Ibs. 1867... 313,724,000 1868... 320.982.000 1869 273,775,000 1870... 250.628.600 1871... 263,196,100 1872... 342.304,000 1873 372,810,000 1874 178,355,000 1875. 1876. 379,347,000 181.537,630 185,747,181 215,:67,604 234,936,892 213,995,176 318,0117.804 2*3,901,713 218,310,265 WHEAT. Product and exportation of the United States, nine years, end ing June 30, viz., 1867-1875 (in bushels). 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1S73. 1874. isr Production. 212,441,400 224,036,600 260,146,900 225,884,700 230.728,100 240,997,100 280,372,700 806,102,70'J As Wheat. 6,146,411 15,940,899 17,557,836 36,584,115 34,304,906 26,423,080 39,204.385 71,039.928 63,047,175 Exports. As Flour. 6,500,530 10,382,115 12,129.365 67,273,925 18,269,205 12,572,675 12,810,430 20,470,470 19,765,430 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS? 1851 to 1867. BKISO AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES D0KIS8 THOSE TEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS. ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 1810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected near Paris; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was erected at Edinburgh in 1851; and abattoirs form part of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, opened on June 13, 1855. In New York City abattoirs were established under the direction of the Board of Health, 1866. ABB ASIDES. A Mohammedan dynasty ; held the power of the Caliphs for 400 years until 1258. The Caliph Haroun al Rashid was of this line. ABECEDA.RIANS. A sect appearing in the sixteenth century ; held that it was better not to know how to read, as the Holy Spirit would convey a direct un- derstanding of the Scriptures. ABSTINENCE, TOTAL, from stimulating beverages: First temperance organi zation in the United States is said to have been effected by Dr. B. J. Clark, of Moreau, N. Y., 1808; "members fined fifty cents for intoxication;" Ameri- can Temperance Union formed in Boston in 1826 ; total abstinence from dis- tilled spirits, except when prescribed as medicine, proposed at a meeting hi Philadelphia in 1833, but voted down. See Temperance. Tetotallers in Eng- land organized in Lancashire, 1834. ABYSSINIA. A large country in north-east Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumitae (from its chief town Auxume) flour- ished in the first and second centuries after Christ. About 960 Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The young king escaped; and the royal house was restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant, Icon Amlae. In the middle ages it was said to be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions com- menced in the fifteenth century, but they were expelled about 1632 in conse- quence of the tyranny of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty gov- ernments. The religion of Abyssinia is a corrupt form of Christianity intro- duced in the fourth century by Trumentius. Missions were sent from Eng- land in 1829 and 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been given by Bruce, (1790,) Salt, (1805-9,) Ruppell, (1838,) and Parkyns, (1853). 70 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. ACADIA. Now called Nova Scotia, settled by the French So 1604, and finally ceded to the English in 1713. It was three times conquered by the English, and as often restored by treaty. Expulsion of French settlers (see Longfel- low's Evangeline) 1^55. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES were probably written by Luke, A. D. 62 to 68. ADMINISTRATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. (p. 205.) On the death of Pres- ideut Taylor, July 9, 1850* MILLABD FILLMORE, of NewYork (Vice-President), became President. He appointed soon after, the following Cabinet, viz. : t.ar Secretary of Treaauiy. I Secretary of "War. Secretary of Navy. Secretary of Interior. { Postmaster-General > Attorney-General Speaker H. Reps. Chief-Justice. ABRAHAM LINCOLN, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President. AKDREW JOHNSON, of Tennessee, Vice-President. [President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by Wilkes Booth, April 14, 1865.] ANDREW JOHNSON became President, April 15, 1866. LAFAYETTE 8. FOSTER, of Connecticut, elected President of the Senate. [Succeeded by BEN. F. WADE, of Ohio, 1867.] Wm. H. Seward, New York, (continued in qffice), Huah McCulloch, Indiana, do Euwiu M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, do Gideon Welles, Connecticut, do John P. Usher, Indiana, do James Harlan, Iowa, Appointed March, 1866. Orville H. Browning, Illinois, Appointed June, 1866. W. Dennison, Ohio, (continued in office), Alex. W. Randall, Wisconsin, Appointed June, 1866. James Speed, Kentucky, (continued in office), Henry Stanhery, Ohio, Appointed June, 1866. Schuyler Colfas, Indiana, 1863-'65-'67 Secretary of State. Secretary of Treasury. Secretary of War. Secretary of Navy. Secretary of Interior. Postmaster-General. Attorney -General. Speaker H. of Reps. .0 4,.,-..*-. fra Ann * n d>ti AAA The salary of each member of the Cabinet was raised in 1853 liom $6,000 to $8,000. ADMINISTRATIONS OF ENGLAND AFTER LOBD JOHN RUSSELL'S ADMINISTRA- TION, July 6th, 1846. [He and his colleagues resign Feb. 1851, but resume office March 1851.] Earl of Derby, Disraeli, Spencer H. Walpole, Duke of Northumberland, y Childs of Phila., appeared only 1863 and 18C4. At the present time (1867), no general alma- nac of any special value is published in the U.S. The " Family Christian Almanac" of the Tract Society has a wide oircuiation. ALPACA (or Paco). A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into England about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c., (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, York- shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. AMBASSADORS. The U. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambass- ador in the diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotentiary (Kent.) In 1867 the U. S. had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil. China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. To the smaller states, " Ministers resident " are sent, 22 in all. Number of con- suls from U. S. to foreign countries in 1862, 272. Some of these are known 76 THE WORLD'S PBOGBESS. as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 in France. The highest salaries are given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $7,500 each. Num ber of foreign consuls in U. S. in 1863, 356. AMERICA, CENIRAL, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since, much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala, (afterwards.joined by Nicaragua) and San Salvador, (afterwards supported by Honduras). The Litter were de- feated at Santa Rosa, June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 ; the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and Carrera, the dictator of Guate- mala became predominant over the confederacy. Population, 1859, about 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. AMERICA, SOUTH. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c. AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used by the American army exhibited a snake with thirteen rattles, on a crimson ground interlaced with white. On the 14th June, 1777, Congress resolved, "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the union be thirteen etars, white, on a blue field representing ' a new con- stellation.' " AMERICANISMS. A useful dictionary of Americanisms, compiled by John R. Bartlett ; first published in Boston, in 1848. ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of Herodotus, about 1687 B.C. It is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, A.D. 476. Modern history begins with Ma- homet (A.D. 622), or Charlemagne (768). ANAESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain. In 1863 Dr. Colton (dentist) of N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill effects followed the 3,000 cases he had up to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1864.) ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, IN ENGLAND. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously labored to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, which was established in 1824, effects much good this way. Laws on tin; s.ubject were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. ' Dogs were for- bidden to be used for draught by Act of Parliament, 1839. A society, char- tered by the State of N. Y. in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. Henry Bergh, who became its president in 1866. Its object is to prevent cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws prohibiting cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl- vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867. ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and continued to the present time) was commenced in London by R. & J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire de Deux Mondes, first appeared in Paris, in 1850. An American Annual Register was published for several years, but was not supported. Appleton'g Annual Cyclopedia, 1861-6, is a similar work, and very comprehensive. ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound volumes, published annually, con- taining poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, and illustrated by en- gravings. They first appeared in London, in 1823. They were imitations of Amulet 1827-34 Keepsake 1828-58 Hood's Comic Annual 1830-38 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 77 similar books in Germany. The duration of the chief of these publications ia here given Forget-me not (Aclrerman's).... 1823-48 Kriendehip's Olleiing 1824-44 Literary Souvenir (first as The Graces) 1824-34 The earliest American "Annuals" were the Talisman, published by E. Bliss, in New York, about 1830, 3 vols. (Bryant, Sands, and others contributors) ; the Token, S. G. Goodrich (Peter Parley), in Boston, 1837 (?) to (?), about 8 vols. ; and the Gift, Carey & Hart, Philadelphia, 1840 (?), about 5 vols. ANONYMOUS LETTERS. In England, the sending of threatening or libellous anonymous letters was made felony by several acts, 1722, 1827, 1847. Punishment transportation, imprisonment, and whipping. ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482. ANTIGUA. A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; settled hy the English in 1632. ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U, S. Here was fought a terrible battle on Sept. 17, 1862, between the Union army under Gen. Me- Clellan and the rebels under Lee. The latter after his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded Maryland, was immediately followed by McClellan. On the 16th Lee was joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the con- flict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The battle was indecisive ; but eventually the Rebels retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. 18 and 19. The Union loss was estimated at 12,469 ; the rebels lost 14,000. APPEALS. In the U. S. nearly all courts can hear appeals from those next inferior. The highest courts of the states are courts of appeal only. The Supreme Court of the U. S. sits on appeal from Circuit and Territorial Courts, and also from the highest state courts, whenever the question turns upon the validity of a treaty or law or authority of the U. S. (Statute of 1789.) APPENZELL. A Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the Swiss confederation in 1513. APPIAN WAY. An ancient Roman road,made by Appius Claudius Caucus, while censor, 312 B.C. AF'PLES. The Romans knew of 22 varieties of apples, according to Pliny. Ray reckons 78 kinds in his day, in England (1688). In the U. S. 200 varieties exist. Apple-trees of finest quality last 80 years. Some reach the age of 200 years. Throughout the U. S. the following appear to be the favorites : For summer apples, the Early Harvest, Sweet Bough and Red Astrachan ; for au- tumn, the Fall Pippin, Porter and Gravenstein ; for winter, the Baldwin and Rhode Inland Greening. The demand for the fruit is greatly in advance of the supply, and in London the American apple commands fabulous prices. In 1860, the yield of orchard fruit amounted to $19,000,000, the greater part of which was derived from the apple product. In 1865, the orchards in the State of New York yielded 16,275,505 bushels of apples. APPRENTICES. In the U. S. apprenticeship is not so common as in En- gland. The American apprentice rarely pays a fee to the master. In some eastern states farmers take them to learn husbandry, clothe them, and, wheL 78 THE WORLD'S PROGBESS. they leave present them with a sum of money. Whole number in the IT. S. in 1860 was about 55,000. There is a Library in Mechanics Hall, N. Y. City, containing 16,000 volumes, for youthful apprentices. For laws respect* ing them, see Kent's Commentaries. Number of apprentices in N. Y. State in 1865, 1,861. AQUARIUM, OR AQUAVIVARIUM. A vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other ; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea-weeds inartificial sea-water. In 1850, Mr. R. Warington dem- onstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up under the direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1850 Mr. Gosse published, " The Aquarium. " Mr. C. E. Hamrnett, jr., of Newport, R. I., published in 1859 his observations and experiments with Aquaria, which were very remarkable. Aquaria have been introduced into several public museums in the U. S., and they are also largely cultivated in private houses. AQUEDUCT. The greatest of modern or perhaps of any times is the Croton aqueduct, which supplies the City of New York with water from Croton lake, 40 miles distant. It was commenced 1837 ; its completion was publicly cele- brated in 1842; its cost was $10,375,000. It is carried across the Harlem river on a bridge 100 feet high. Chief engineer John B. Jervis ; contractor for the bridge, Geo. Law. The aqueduct which supplies Boston from lake Cochituate, 23 miles, was commenced in 1846; its completion celebrated Oct. 25, 1848 ; cost $5,370,818. That which supplies the city of Brooklyn, L. I., was finished 1858 ; engineer J. P. Kirkwood ; cost, $640,828. Jersey City, N. J., is supplied by an aqueduct 8 miles long from the Passaic river at Belleville ; W. S. Wliitwell, chief engineer. It was completed in 1856 and cost $640,000. Washington, D. C. is furnished with water from the Potomac by an aqueduct 15 miles long, commenced in the administration of Pres. Pierce. The water was first, admitted into it Dec. 5, 1863, at which time the cost amounted to $2,900,000 ; Capt. M. C. Meigs (U. S. A.) chief engineer. This aqueduct dis- charges 67,596,400 gallons in 24 hours, or nearly 3 times as much as the Cro- ton aqueduct. ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated into French by Galland, and published in 1704; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations. ARCHITECTURE, (p. 229.) Dates of notable buildings : Egyptian Pyramids, B.C. 1500 Solomon's Temple beeun ....B. c.1000 Temple of Jupiter, Koine,... B. c. 616 Babylon Imilt B. c. 600 Parthenon finished B. C. 438 Pantheon at Rome A. D. 18 ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. tions. Lt. Hartstein with the Arctic and release leaves Brooklyn, May 31, 1855, and finds Dr. Kane nt Lieve- iey, Greenland, Sept. 13, 1855 ; and returns to N. Y. with him Oct.ll, 1856 Coliseum A. D. 70 Basilicas at Rome A. D. 330-900 St. Sophia's, Constantinople begun. A. D. 532 Canterbury Cathedral A. D. 602 Mosque ot Omar A. D. 637 York Minuter begun A. D. 741 See North- West Passage, and Franklin's Expedi- Steamer Fox. Capt. McClintock, sails from Aberdeen (sent by Lady Frank lin) in search of remains of Franklin's expedition July 10, 185 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 79 Capt. MoClintock returns, bringing relics and remains of Franklin's expedition, and ascertaining his fate 1869 Mr. C. F. Hall sailed from New London, Conn., in ship George Henry May 29, 1860 Returned Sept. 18, 1862 He went again with strong hopes of finding some of Franklin's men. Discoven-d the fate of four who died from cold and starva- tion, June 1864 Dr. Hayes sailed from Bosx>n in schooner United States, and returned in fifteen months. Valuable surveys and experiments made by him July 10, I860 Capt. Parker Snow sailed from Eng- land in schooner Intrepid, in se:irch of Franklin's companions, June, 1861 Expedition from Sweden blockaded by ice and unable to accomplish its ob- jects, May 9, 1861 ARGENTINE (OR LA PLATA) CONFEDERATION. Originally fourteen, now thirteen, provinces Buenos Ayres having seceded in 1853. This country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1517 ; settled by them in 1553, and form- ed part of the great viceroyalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent at Montevideo. It was at war with France from 1838-40. Urquiza was chosen President for six years in 1854. See Buenos Ayres. ARIZONA, known as the Gadsden purchase, a territory of 30,000 square miles, purchased from Mexico by the U. S. for $10,000,000, in 1855. It had in 1856 about 5,000 inhabitants, chiefly Mexicans. By act of Congress, Feb. 24, 1863, the territory was organized and part of New Mexico added to it, the whole containing 131,000 square miles. The capital is Prescott. The first Governor appointed, in 1863, was R. C. McCormick. Population in 1866, white, about 8,000. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves. Population in 1860, 435,450, of whom 111,115 were slaves. The state "se- ceded " from the Union May 6th, 1861. Being unaided during the war by the Confederate Government, she manufactured her own war material. At the close of the rebellion I. Murphy was appointed provisional governor (1865.) Many of the plantations have been divided up for sale, and land can be bought at $1 to $5.000 per acre (L866). ARMY OF THE U. S. INCLUDING "VOLUNTEERS. The following list is official : Date. Regulars. July, 1861 14,108 Jan. 1,1862 19.871 Jan. 1,1863 19,169 Jan. 1, 1864 17,237 Jan. 1,1865 14,661 Vulunterra. Present for Duty. Aggregate. 169,480 .... 183,588 286,751 507,^33 527,204 175.917 679,633 69S,8<12 918.191 594,013 621.250 860,737 606.263 620,924 959,460 May 1,1865 797,807 1,034,064 From May 1, 1865, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of service. Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,975. By act of Congress, July, 1866, the regular army compri;-es45 regiments of infantry, 10 of cavalry. 5 of artillery ; 2 regiments of cavalry and 4 of infantry are col- ored troops. Total number of regulars in service, Jan. 1867, 54,300. The higher officers are ; 1 General, 1 Lieut.-General, 5 Major-Generals, and 10 Brigadier- Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbursed $1,029,- 239,000 among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the war was 280,751, of whom 5,221 officers and 90,886 men were killed or died of wounds, and 2,321 officers and 182,329 men died of disease. See EnJist 80 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ment. The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished tin army during 1861-65 : Cannon number 7,892 Artillery carriages number 11,787 Artillery projectiles (shot and shell) number 6,335.595 Grape and canister shot pounclb 6,539,999 Field artillery ammunition round*- 2.802,177 Small arms, muskets, rifles, carbinee, and p ftoi;: 3,477,655 Swords, sabres, and lance* 544,475 Infantry accoutrements compieiu scle 2,146,175 Cavalry accoutrements complete sets 216,371 Horse equipment.- sets 639.544 Two-horse artillery harness self 28,164 Horse blankets number 732,526 Cartridges for f-mall arms number 1,022,176.474 Percussion caps for small arms numu'ct 1,220,555,435 Cannon-primers 10,281 ,305 Fuses for shell 4,2^6,877 Gunpowder pounds 26,440,054 Nitre pom, ds 6,395,152 Lead in pigs ai.d bullets pounds 90,416,295 This only includes what was consumed in the army, and not what was used by the navy. ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the boring tube to that level. The fountains in Trafalgar Square in London are supplied by two of these wells. The great well at Paris was completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulct, at an expense of about 12,000. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81 Fahr., in twenty-four hours. These wells are now becoming common in various parts of the world. Tens of thousands of them are said to have existed in China from an early age. The U. S. Government have contemplated making them in the vast western plains on the overland route to California. ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were con- tributed to it by members, which sold for $7,500. The object of this society is to assist indigent and disabled artists. Established in 1859. ARTS, FINK. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the U. S. since 1850. The National Academy of Design founded 1828 ; its new build- ing, the first in the United States wholly designed for such a purpose, was completed and dedicated 1864. The amount annually expended in the U. S. for works of art has increased ten-fold in as many years. In 1864, 30 collec- tions of pictures in N. Y. sold for $500,000. The Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 pictures and sculptures. A handsome building ior the Yale School of Fine Arts was completed at New Haven in 1866, the gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition was opened with much distinction July, 1867. Over 70 paintings and 13 sculptures were sent to the Paris Exposition (1867) by the American Com- mittee ; See Paintings ; Tucket-man's Book of the Artists. ART UNION. For distributing works of art by lot. The first was in Germany founded at Munich in 1823 ; followed by those of Berlin (1828), Dresden, Leipzic, Bremen, Dusseldorf, Frankfort, Vienna, &c. " Roman Catholic Art- Unions " were started in 1851. London Art Union founded 1837; its receipts increased in nineteen years from $5,000, to $90,000 per annum. The first in the U. S., the Ameiican Art Union (originally the Apollo Association) was founded at N. Y., in 1839. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distrib- SUPPLEMENT, 1951-C7. 81 uting works to the amount of $453,853. It was closed in 1851 as being forbidden by the state laws against lotteries. ASCENSION DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the Church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day after hia resurrection from the dead, May 14, A. D. 33 ; first commemorated, A. D. 68. Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part of Mount Olivet where he last stood ; and St. Jerome says that it was vlaible in his time. ASSAY OFFICE, U. S. The one established in N. Y. City, in 1854 assayed more than $180,000,000, of gold, in the seven yearspriorto 1866. The follow- ing table, taken from the official returns in the Treasury Department, shows the collections on bullion and the amount of bullion assayed in each state and territory of the United States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1866 : States and Territories. Collectionx on Bullion. Bullion Assayed. California $294,121 149,020.250 Colorado 1,219 219860 Idaho 3,210 535,105 Missouri 4 815 Nevada 91.635 15,272,246 New Jersey 82 13,688 New York 43,774 7,295,803 Oregon 28,711 4,785,221 Pennsylvania 24,265 4,044,218 Khodelsland 13 2,211 Utah 361 60.278 Washington 837 139,533 Total $488,377 "'.'.'.'.*.*.'.'." $81,389,541 The foregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States Mint at San Francisco, which amounted to $20,000,000. ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the U. S. prior to 1843. At that time, a large comet suddenly appearing, public interest in the science was awakened. Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt. Davis, U. S. N., Prof. Hubbard, Naval Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomis, of Yale, Prof. 0. M. Mitchel, of Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell, of Nantucket, have contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first seen from Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The La Lande Astronomical Prize, 500 francs, was awarded by the French Acad- emy of Science to For the planets recently discovered see Planets. The Dudley Observatory at Albany, chiefly the gift of Mrs. B. Dudley, inaugurated Aug. 28, 1856. The progress of this science in theU. S. has been much accelerated by the labors of W. C. Bond at Cambridge, 0. M. Mitchel at Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell at Nantucket, now of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie. ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telegraph. ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. The first experiments in England at Wormwood Scrubs, 1840. First in Ireland near Dublin, 1843, given up 1855. See Pneu- matic Railway. AUGUSTINS. A religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustine, who died A. D. 430. These monks really first appeared in the 12th century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256. Its rule requires strict poverty, humility and chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were the rivals of the Dominicans. AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin awn's | ol 4* 82 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. the priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been for- bidden in the fourth century by Neetarius, archbishop of Constantinople. It was first enjoined by the Council of Lateran in 1215. It was one of Six Articles of Faith enacted by Henry VIII. in 1539, and by the Council of Trent ; but was abolished in England at the Reformation. Its revival in England was attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians, but with- out success. AURORA BOREALIS, OR NORTHERN LIGHTS. The most remarkable exhibitions of this phenomenon on record are those of 1560 in London, in the form of burning spears ; 1574 (described by Stow), and the close of the 18th cen- tury ; again in 1835, 1836, and 1837. In Northern Europe, this phenomenon, now very common, was very rare previous the 18th century. In 1859-60, the Aurora was very brilliant at several times, in different parts of the United Slates, and the telegraph wires were sensibly affected by the electricity. AUSTRALIA. The -smallest continent or largest island in the world, about one- sixth the size of North and South America, and ten times larger than Borneo, its area being about 3,000,0(0 square miles. Its colonization by convicts was first proposed at the close of the American war of Independence. It is now divided into four provinces : New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, (or Port Philip), and Western Australia (or Swan River). Capt Cook landed at Botany Bay. 1770 Sydney founded .1788 Gov. Biigh for his tyranny de- First Oh. of Eng. Bishop (Broughton)..1836 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 Trai sportatiou mispended 1839 posed by an insurrection 1808 | Transportation ceased 1853 AUSTRIA See p. 239. Trial by jury abolished 1862 Marriage of the emperor to Eliza- beth, daughter of Maxinrlian, duke of Bavaria Apr. 24, 1864 Alliance with England and France on the Eastern Ques- tion Dec. 2, 1854 Degrading Concordat with Rome AUK. 18,1855 Diplomatic relations with Sar- dinia broken off on ace. of at- tacks of Sardinian press March, 1857 Excitement on the address of Napoleon III. to Austrian minister, Huimer Jan. 1, 1859 Preparations for war. Banks of the Ticino fortified Feb. and March, 1859 Austria demands that Sardinia disarm. Refused Apr. 26, 1859 Austrians cross the Ticino Apr. 2ti, 1859 French troops reach Genoa Apr. 27, 1859 French emperor declares war... .May 3, 1859 Austrians defeated at MonteLello, May 20, 1859 do do Palestro, May 80-1. 1859 do do Magenta, June 4, 18i9 do do Mari^nano, June 8, 1859 Death of Prince Metternich, set. 86, June 11, 1859 Austrians def. at Solferino, June 24, 1859 Armistice agreed upon July 6, 1850 Emperors of France and Austria meet July 11, 1859 Preliminaries of peace at Villa Fran- ca, Lombardy tc belong to Sardinia Inly 12, 1859 Fruitless conference of envoys at Zurich Aug. 8, to Sept. 1859 For war against Denmark, and against Prussia and Italy, see Prussia. B BAALBEC, OR HELIOPOLIS, both of which mean "City of the Sun." An ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood (in 1757) and others. Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Antoninus Pius is stated to have built a magnificent Temple of Juj.iter here. The city was sacked by the Moslems, A. n. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. BADEN, (p. 242.) 1852, Frederic (born September 9, 1826), regent to Sept 5, 1856, when he was declared grand duke, and still remains so (1867). Heir, his son, Frederic William, born July 9, 1857. .SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 83 BALAKLAVA (small sea-port in the Crimea), BATTLE OF. Russians aboutl2,00<> commanded by Gen. Liprandi, British by Lord Rnglan. In this battle Lord Cardigan's cavalry made the famous " charge of the light brigade ;" only 199 out of 607 returning from the charge, Oct. 26, 1854. Another engagement here, Russians defeated, losing 2,000, Allies losing 600, March 22, 1855. Elec- tric telegraph between this place and London completed April, 1855. BALLOON, (p. 243.) An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Den- mark, Sept. 14, 1851 ; his corpse was subsequently found on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to pieces. On June 23, 1859, Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St .Louis in a balloon. After travelling 1,150 miles they descended in Jefferson county, New York, very narrowly escaping with their lives. A monster balloon, constructed by Mr. Lowe for the professed intention of an air-voyage to Europe, was inflated and exhibited at New York. May 1860, and again in Pennsylvania, but the weather or accident defeated the project. Equestrian accents were made by Green in London in 1850, and stopped by law, 1852. In France nscents on horses in balloons have been fre- quently made since 1850. Balloons were used for reconnoitering, during the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Army of the Potomac 1861-5. Ascents lor scientific observations made in England by Jas. Glai- sher, one ascent reaching 7 miles, 1862-5 BALLOT. Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks. A tract entitled ' The Benefit of the Ballot," said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, was published in England in the "State Tracts," 1693. The ballot-box was used in a political club which met in 1659 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster. The ballot has been an open question in British Whig governments since 1835. On June 30, 1857, the House of Commons rejected the ballot, 257 being against, and 189 for it. It became part of the electoral law of Victoria, Aus- tralia, in 1856. Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in France from 1840 to 1845, and was employed also after the coup d'etat in 1851. In the United States the ballot is used in all public elections. BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side. On October 21, 1861, by direction of Gen. C. P. Stone the heroic Col. E. D. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the rebel camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss, the force of the rebels having been misrepresented. Treachery was evident somewhere, and Gen. Stone himself was arrested, but released without trial. BALTIMORE, (p. 243.) Population in 1860, 214,037, including 2,213 slavas. On the 19th of April, 1861, U. S, troops passing through the city to the de- fence of Washington were fired upon and two men killed. Military occupa- tion of the place by Gen. Butler, May, 1861. President Lincoln, who passe i through Baltimore (1801) in disguise, to his first inauguration, was nomina- ted with great enthusiasm for his second term by convention there assem- bled (1864). BANKING SYSTEM, U. S. Before the outbreak of the rebellion, paper currencr issued from incorporated independent banks. In 1860, there were in the U, S. 1,562 banks, having an aggregate capital of $421,880,000, and a circulatioi of $207,104,400. In 1861, the banks generally were compelled to suspend specie payments. The government established" by act of Congress Feb. 25, 1863, a uniform national barking system. An additional act was passed June 3, 184. In Jan. 1866, theie were 1,579 National Banks. Capital, $403,350, 000. Circulation, $213,000,000. These banks deposit bonds with ths U. 3. Treasurv to the extent of one-third of their caoital. There ar3 14 citiw CC- 84 taining 218 banks, which are selected as points of redemption. Jan. 186*7, the national bank-note circulation was $291,093,294 ; total currency of the United States (circulation and deposits), $1,496,672,065. BANKRUPTS IN ENGLAND, (p. 245.) The number in 1850, was 1,298; in 1857, it was 1,488 ; in 1858, there were 1,346 ; in 1859, there were 959 ; and in 1860, no less than 8,470. In Scotland, there were 453 in 1857, and 445 in 1860. In Ireland, 73 in 1857, and 113 in I860. BANKRUPT LAWS IN THE U. S. A general bankrupt law was passed by Con- gress, April 4, 1800, and repealed 1803. Another was passed Aug. 19, 1841, and repealed 1843. An act " establishing a uniform system of bankruptcy in the U. S.," passed Congress, March, 1867, and is now in operation (July, 1867), the " Registers in Bankruptcy" throughout the Union having been appointed by Chief Justice Chase, as prescribed in the law. In ENGLAND, a Court of bankruptcy was first established 1831. An important act relating to the sub- ject was passed 1849, amended 1854, and further discussed for amendment 1859. See Commercial Failures. BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was estab- lished in 1823, by Sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 vol- umes were issued. BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners Num. ii. (1491 B. c.) The standard of Constantine bore the inscrip- tion, in hoc signo vinces " By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure of the cross. See Gross. The magical banner of the Danes, (said to be a black raven on a red ground), was taken by Alfred when he defeated Hubba, 878. f t. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, or oriflam- me, were the standards of France about 1100. See Auriflamma, Standards, &c. BAPTISTS, U. S. A. (p. 246). In 1858, they had 12,000 churches with about 1,000,000 members. In 1762, they had 56 churches only; 1792, 1,000; 1812, 2,432; in 1832,5,322; 1852, 9,500: 1866 (Baptist Almanac), they had 59:', associations, 12,702 churches, 7,867 ordained ministers, and 1,040,300 members. BATTLES, (p. 248.) In the British and French (allies) war with Russia : Silistria June 13-15, 1854 A'.ma Sept. 20, 1354 Balaklava Oct. 25,1854 Inkerman Nov. 5, 1854 Eupatoria. (Turks mid U.) Feb. 17, 1S55 Tchermiya Aug. 16,1853 Malakoff taken by the French, Sept. 8, 1855 Inpour, (Eusa. and Turks) Nov. 6, 1855 Sebnstopol March 22-4, 1855 7a British war against mutineers in India : Buidar, (KusB. and French) Dec. 8, 1855 Conflicts before Delhi, Mny 30 to July 23, 1857 Have-lock's victories before Cwn- Cawnpore, victory of Campbell, Dec. 6, 1857 Lucknow taken March 14-19, 1858 pore, .fee July 12 to Aug. 16, 1957 | Gwailor (Ko^e victorious) Jui el ,1858 Assault and capture of Dt-lhi, Begum of Oude defeated Feb. 10, 185S) September 16-20, 1857 | Allied (French and Sardinians) against Austrian* in Italy : Austrians cross the Ticino. I Mgentn, (Allies vict.)... June 4, 1859 April 27. 1859 | Mi srnano, do June 8, 1859 Montebello (Allies vict.) May 20, 1859 Solf. rino, do June 24, 1S09 i'ulestro do May 30, 1859 | See Sardinia, Naples, &c. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 85 Naval conflict in China : Mouth of the Peiho June 25, 1859 I French and English attack on Pekin Oct. 6,1360 BATTLES, Austrians against Prussians and Italians, war of 1866. Battle of CuBtozza, between Ital- ians and Austrian, [Italians defeated] .............. June 24,1866 Battle of Bkalltz in Bohemia, between Austrians and Prus- sians, [Austrians retreat]. July 27, 1866 Great battle of Sadowa, between Austrians and Prussians. [Nearly 500,000 men engaged. Prussians completely victo- rious] ................... July 3, I860 Austrians defeated at Olmutz, July 15, 1868 Nsval fight off Lissa, between Italians and Austrians. [Ital- ians lose two war ships]. July 20, 1866 BATTLES, U. S. In the War for the Union, 1861-5. Fort Sumter, Charleston, S. C., bombarded by the Rebels. April 12. 1861 Wilson's Creek, Missouri, (Na- tionals retreat and Gen. Lyon killed.) ................. Aug. 10, 1861 Carthage, Mo. (Nat. victory) July 10, 1861 Rich Mountain, Va., (Nat. vic- tory) ................... July 11, 1861 Bull Run, Va., (Nat. defeated) July 21, 1861 Lexington, Mo. (Nat. surren- der) ................... Sept. 20, 1861 Balls Bluff, Va., (Nat. defeated, Gen. Baker killed) ...... Oct. 21, 1861 Mill Spring, Ky. (Nat. victo- rious) .................. Jan. 19, 1862 Roanoke Island, N. C. (Nat. capture 46 guns, 2.500 prison- ers) ................... Feb. 7-8, 1862 Fort Donelsou, Tenn., (Nat. cap- ture 13,300 prisoners, 55 guns.) Feb. 16, 1862 Pea Ridge, Ark., (Nat. victo- rious) ............. March 6, 7, 8, 1862 Shiloh, Tenn., (Rebels retreat after desperate fighting). April 6-7, 1862 Island No. 10, Miss. River, sur- renders to U. S. forces, with 125 guns, 6,000 prisoners. April 7, 1862 Williamsburg,Va,,(Rebs. retreat) May 5, 1862 Winchester, Va., (Nat. retreat) May 25, 1862 Fair Oaks, Va., (Nat. defeated) M:iy 31, 1862 Seven Pines, Va., (Nat. victo- rious) ................... June 1, 1862 Seven Days' Battles near Rich- mond (Nat. repulsed). June 26-July 1, 1862 Bull Run, Va., ^at. defeated). Aug. 80, 1862 Anttetam, Md. (Rebs. defeated) Sept. 17, 1862 Fredericksburg, Va., (Nat. de- feated) ................ Dec. 13, 1862 Murfreesboro', Tenn., " Stone River " (indecisive ; Rebs. re- treat. Nat. loss very heavy). Dec. 31, 1862 to Jan. 8, 1863 Grierson's raid through Missis- sippi ....... April 17 to May 2, 1863 Chancellorsville, Va. (Nat. re- pulsed) ................ May 2;-4,1863 Champion Hills, Mississippi, (Nat. victorious. Siege of Vicksburg begins) ..... May 16, 1863 Gettysburg, Penn., (Rebs. de- feated) ............... July 1-4, 1863 Chickaraauga, Ga., (Rebs. de- feated) ............ .Sept, 19-20, 1863 Vicksburg, Miss. (30,000 prison- ers and 220 guns surrendered to U. S. forces under Gen. Grant) .................. July 4, 1863 Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prison- ers surrender to U. S. forces). July 8, 1863 Chattanooga, Ga,, (Nat. victo- rious) ............... Nov. 23-26, 1863 National " Red River Expedi- tion" under Gen. Banks, (de- feated) ................. April 8, 1864 Wilderness, Va. (indecisive*; loss heavy on both sides). May 5-6, 1864 Spottsylvania.Va., (Heavy nght- ing, but Rebels retire). May 10-12, 1864 Resaca, Georgia, (Rebs. retreat) May 15, 1864 Cold Harbor, Va., (Nat. re- pulsed) ............... June 1-3, 1864 Battles about Petersburg, Va., (indecisive) ......... June 15-19, 1864 Sherman fills in an attack on Kenesaw Mountain, Ga. June 27, 1864 Petersburg Mine, Va., (Nat. de- feated) ................. July 30, 1864 Terrible fighting about Atlanta, Ga., (Rebs. defeat.) July 20-22, 1864 Atlanta, Ga., taken by (Sherman. Sept. 2, 1864 Opequan, Va., (Gen. Sheridan defeats Early, Rebel).. Sept, 19, 1864 Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again defeated) ........... .Sept. 22, 1864 Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally defeated after gaining some success) ................ Oct. 19, 1804 Sherman starts on his march across Georgia ...... ...Nov. 11, 1864 86 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Franklin, Tenn., (Rebs. de- j Grant defeats Lee nt Five Forks, and continues fighting feated) Nov. 30, 1864 Nashville, Tenn., (Kebs. com- pletely routed, losing 60 guns). Dec. 15-19, 1864 Sherman enters Savannah, Ga. Dec. 21, 1864 Fort Fifher, N. C., taken l>y as- sult of U. 8. forces Jan. 15, 1866 Kingbton, N. C., (Rebs. re- pulsed) March 10, 1865 until the latter surrendered at Appomatox Court House, Va. April 1-9, 186i Gen. Johnston (Rebel) surren- ders to Sherman near Raleigh, N. C ApriT26, 186i The l:ist rebel army under Kir- by Smitli (surrenders wef-t of the Mississippi May 26, 1865 For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, 1 865. See Naval Battles, Atlanta, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vicksburg^ Nashville, Corinth. BAVARIA. Louis II. (b. 1845), became king on death of his father Maximilian, March 10, 1864. Population of Bavaria 1861, 4,689,837. BEDOUINS. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a form of Mahomntedanipm, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respect- ing him, B. c. 1911, Gen. xvi. 12. They are the scourge of Arabia and Egypt. BENEVOLENCE, BRITISH. During 1869, there were contributed to about thirty of the principal religious societies of Great Britain, $4,262,435, an average of $82,cOO a week, over $11,000 a day, and nearly $500 an hour. And yet this is but a portion of the amount given in that country for evangelical and be- nevolent purposes. The income of the British and Foreign Bible Society was $774,530; of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, $645,380; of the Church Mis- sionary Society, $610,440; of the Religious Tract Society, $489,490; of the London Missionary Society $366,440. BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES, (p. 255). The receipts of some of the principal be- nevolent societies of NeT York for the year ending April 30 were : 1857 JS58 1859 1860 1866 Amer. Tract Society $348,049 " Bible 441.805 390.759 415,011 429,799 642,625 " B.C. Foreign Missions, ....388,932 334,000 350,815 435,956 " Home Missionary Boc 178,060 175,970 188,189 185.216 ' Sunday S-chool Vnion (sales), 202,426 234,436 Charities, Missions, etc. In New York city, in 1866, there were about 300 re- ligious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total receipts of 28 leading societies in 1866, $4,766,698,81. These are national organizations, and the proportion contributed by New York city is from 10 to 15 per cent. BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's "Dictionary of the Bible," 1722-8 ; Kitto's " Cyclopasdia of Biblical Literature," (3 vols.) 1843 and 1866; and Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," (3 vols.) 1860. See Concordances. BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illus- trating Scripture history, with texts, carved in wood, a " block book," printed parly in the fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. Afac-simile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 1859. BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed was established by some Ro- man Catholic prelates, in France, in 1774. Chambers** Ed. Cl. The British and Foreign Bible Society distributed, during the forty-five years ending Jan, SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 87 1, 1851, more than twenty-three millions of copies in one hundred and forty different languages. The American Bible Society, in fifty years ending 1866. expended $10,434,953. BIBLIOGRAPHY, THE SCIENCE OF BOOKS. The following works on this subjecJ nre highly esteemed: Peignot, Manuel, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to. the Study of Bibliography, 1814; SCRIPTURAL Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824; Burling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographica, 1854-8; CLASSICAL the works of Fabri- cius, Clarke, and Dibdin ; ENGMSH Watts' Bibliotheca Britanuica, 1824; Lowndes' Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-61); FRENCH Querard, 1828 et seq. As a general work of reference, Brunei's Manuel du Librairt^ 1842, is exceedingly valuable. The most important work on English and American bibliography is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. R. 8vo., 1859-61. In 1866, Mr. John R. Bartlett published the bibliography of the American Civil War, containing 6,073 titles of books and pamphlets relating to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6. BIRDS. Divided by Linnaeus into six orders (1735); by Blumenbach into eight (1805); and by Cuvier into six (1817). The most remarkable works ever published on birds are those by our American Audubon, and those by John Gould in England ; the latter will consist, of thirty-one folio volumes of color- ed i late*, &c. Each set, bound, will cost about 500. Audubon's great work on Birds of America was engraved and published by him in Edinburgh, in four huge folios, about 1835 ; the subscription price was $800. It was repro- duced in seven smaller volumes in 1840, and in the original form in 1859-60, at New York. BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there were forty-one Episcopal Bishops in the United States. Methodist Episcopal Bishops in 1865 numbered twenty-two. Lieut.-Gen. Polk (Confederate), Protestant Episcopal Bishop, was killed near Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June 14, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops numbered forty-five. BLACK LETTER. Employed in the first printed books in the middle of the fifteenth century. The first printing types were Gothic, but they were modi- fied into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Natural History being then printed in the new characters. BLACK-MAIL. A compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the Low- landers to the Highlanders, for the protection of their cattle ; existed till within a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural improvement almost impossible. BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in raised Roman characters about 1848. There is hardly any department of human knowledge ih which blind persons have not obtained distinction. Laura Bridgman, bcrn in 1829, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, U. S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females: about one blind in 975. ASYLUMS FOR THE BLIND. The number in the U. S. in 1860 was 20. The first one was the "Per- kins Institution and New England Asylum," founded at Boston in 1832, by Dr. Howe and Col. Perkins. New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Phil- 88 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. adelphia Institute, 1833. Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 1837. At Raleigh, R C., 1848. Number of blind persons in the U. S. in 1860,11,125. Estimated at about the same number in 1866. BOLIVIA. A republic in South America, formerly of Peru; was declared indepen- dent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar, Aug. 11, 1826. The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres, took place in 1780-2. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre govern- ed ably from 1826-8; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834; after which many disorders occurred. In 1853 Iree trade was proclaimed. General Cor- dova president, 1855-7, was succeeded by Jose Maria Lenares, 1859, Gen. Cordova, 1860 and Jose M. de Acha, 1861. Population in 1855, 2,326,126. BOLOGNA, (p. 264.) During the Italian war of 1859, the Romagna threw off the temporal sovereignty of the Pope, and voted for annexation to Sardinia. On Oct. 2, the provisional government at Bologna decreed that all public acts should be headed " under the reign of Victor Emmanuel." BOOK-TRADE, UNITED STATKS. (p. 266.) The number of new books recorded as published during one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1,261. No accurate statistics have been compiled in recent years. In 1855 the number of new works and new editions recorded as then first published in the U. S. was about 2,400. There were in the U. 6. (1860) about 3,000 booksellers and 400 pub- lishers. In 1864 there were 2,028 separate publications; in 1865, 1,802, of which about 80 were histories and stories of the late war. The increased cost of paper and labor has raised the price of books about 60 to 80 per cent, since the rebellion began. BOOK-TRADE of GREAT BRITAIN, (p. 265.) Number of new publications in 1850, 4,400. In 1859 there were 5,507 different works entered for copyright, and 4,066 volumes and pieces of music. This is an increase of 700 per cent, on the returns of 1828: about 400 percent, on those of 1836, and about 50 per cent, on those of 1854. IP 18tf4 the number of publications was 3,553. BOOK-TRADE, FRANCE, (p. 266.) The value of books imported in 1855, was 1,829,470 francs. Value of exports, 12,344,855 francs; increased of exports since 1851, 30 per cent.- BORNEO, an island of the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Ai s- tralia, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The Dutch traded here in 1604, established factories in 1776, and still remain on the island. The Brit- ish chastised Bornean pirates in 1813, and again 1843, and in 1846 they took possession of a part of the island, Sir James Brooke being appointed "Rajah cf Sarawak." An English bishop for the island consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18, 1855. Insurrection of Chinese in Sarawak, Feb. 18, 1857 ; subdued by Brooke, and 2,000 insurgents killed. British government urged to purchase Sarawak, Nov. 1868, but declined. BOSTON, U. S. A. (p. 268.) The population in 1850 was 136,881 ; in 1856, 160,5^8 in 18HO, 177,902. Free Public Library, a noble institution, first opened 18c8. Population in 1867, estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an act was passed by the legislature uniting Roxbury with Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor. During the last twelve years, she has spent for teachers. $0,668,000 ; for school- houses, $1,600,000 ; incidentals, $1,357,000 a total of $6, 629,358, which is claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other city in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals iu the sev- eral high schools is $4,000. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS BETWEEN THE TJ. S. AND ENGLAND. The " Nor th-East SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 89 Boundary " between Maine and the British possessions adjusted by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty at Washington, 1842. The Oregon Boundary, adjusted by treaty at London, June 18, 1856. BRAZIL, (p. 272.) First steamship line to Europe, 1850 ; Slave trade sup- pressed, 1852 ; Railways commenced, 1852 ; Rio Janeiro lighted with gas, 1854. War with Uruguay. Brazilians march on Montevideo, Feb. 2, 1865. Alliance with Argentine Republic ; the emperor joins the army against Lopez, pres't of Paraguay, Aug. 1865. First steamship line from New York to Brazil, established through the agency of Rev. J. C. Fletcher, 186-. Kiddei and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) published in succes- sive editions 1859-1867. Prof. Agassiz, scientific explorations in Brazil, 1866. Preliminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, 1867. The plan is the gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years. BREWERIES, TJ. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, waa 969. In that year 3,235,345 barrels of ale and beer were manufactured. Number in New York State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater num- ber of breweries than any other city. BRIBERY IN THE U. S. An attempt to bribe, though unsuccessful, has been held a criminal offence in Virginia. Indictments for bribery have been rare in this country. BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS IN ENGLAND, (p. 217.) Borough of St. Albans disfran- chised for bribery, 1852. Elections at Derby and other places declared void by bribery in 1853, and at other places 1857-9. BRICKS. In the U. S. very fine bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Milwaukee, Wis. Number of brickmakers in 1860, 13,700. The time for burning bricks is 8 or 4 days ; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000 bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pressing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr. Sawyer, of Baltimore. A brick-machine patented by Mr. Gard, of Chicago, 1866, turns out by steam-power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of manufac- tories in the U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value- of "products, $10,253,734. BRIDGES, U. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge co., is 100 feet long over a chasm 215 feet deep. Another in Walker co., Alabama, 120 feet long and 70 high. There are also two in California, Calaveras co., remarkable 1'or their immense arches. The finest stone bridge in the U. S. is High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 114 feet high, and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia, has a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the U. S. was built by Mr. Finley about 1800. The Wheeling bridge over the Ohio, with a span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R. suspension bridge over the Niagara was built by Mr. Roebling ; completed in 1858. The span is 821 feet ; height 245 feet ; 14,500 wires are used in the cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long. Height of pier, 80 feet ; width, 45 feet ; size of cable, 12 inches ; cost $1,750,000. The R. R. bridge across the Susquchanna at Havre de Grace is 3,273 feet long; completed in 1865, after 4 years work of about 1,000 men. It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the river. Cost, $1,500,000. BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Frnncis, Earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, leaving by will, 8,000 to be given to eight persons, appointed by the president of the Royal Society, who should write each an essay on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the Creation. Th 90 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. essays (by Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckia.id. William Prout, J. M. Roget, and the Revs. William Whewell and William Kirby) were published in 1834-37. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. It holds annual meetings, the first of which was held at, York in 1831. One of its main ob jects is to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science. A volume containing reports of the proceedings is published annually. BRITISH AMERICA. United by act of Parliament under the name of Domin- ion of Canada, 1867. BRITISH MUSEUM, (p. 275). In 1846 the Right Hon. Tbos. Grenville bequeathed to the Museum his library, consisting of 20,240 vols. The Assy- rian sculptures and other treasures were collected by Mr. Layard between 1847-50. Great additions to, and improvements in the building have lately been made by the munificence of Parliament, independently of a large annual grant for scientific purposes. The present magnificent reading-room was opened to the public, May 11, 1857. Tue room contains about 80,000 vols., and will accommodate 300 readers. The library contains about 562,000 vols., exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. The alphabetical catalogue was completed from A to H in May, 1858 in above 1,000 folio vols. BROOKLYN, on Long Island, but really a suburb of the city of New York, in 1800 had but 3,298 inhabitants; in 1830 it had 15,292; in 1855 (then con- solidated with Williamsburg) it had 205,250. In 1860, it had 273,425 ; in 1865, 296,378. See Additions. rUDDIIISM. The religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia beyond the Ganges and Japan, from which Brahminism is derived. Buddha, or the Wise, flourished about 1,000 or 1,100 B. c. The Buddhists believe that the soul is an emanation from God, and that, if it continues virtuous, it will undergo various changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India about A. D. 596. BUENOS-AYRES, S America, (p. 278.) The independence of the province was declared July 19,1616, and it was recognized in February, 1822, as form- ing part of the Argentine Confederation; but for some years the country was a prey to civil w>ir under various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza, and Rosas The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1852, by Urquiza, to whom Buenos-Ayres capitulated, and Rosas fleeing to England, arrived at Plymouth, April 25, 1852. General Urquiza having been deposed Sept. 10, 1852, invested the city, Dec. 28. He defeated his opponent's squadron, April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces, July 13. and the civil war ended. In 1853, Buenos-Ayres seceded from the Argentine Confederation, and has been generally recognized as an independent state. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado was elected governor, Oct. 12, 1853. Dr. Valentin Alsina was elected governor for three years, May, 1857. Population in 1854 about 350,000. BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who would build or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A large number were organized in New York m 1848-49, but they do not appear to have been generally sustained. BURMESE OR BIRMAN EMPIRE. For the events of war with England, and of the Burmese war commenced in 1851, see India. The province of Pegu annexed to British empire, Dec. 20, 1852. War declared at an end, June 20, 1863. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 91 c CABINET, U. S., See Administration*. CABRIOLET. One-horsed cabriolets (vulgo, cabs) were introduced in Londol as public conveyances in 1823, when the number in use was 12. In 183C they had increased to 165. In 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of which about 1,500 ply on Sunday. Hackney-coaches there are now almost extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In New York and other Amer. cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but not being a desirable shape they were not popular, and soon disappeared. An improved pattern the coupe, was again introduced, 1865-6, and is used to some extent. CALENDS were the first days of the Roman months. The Nones of March, May, July, and October, fell on the 7th ; and their Ides on the 1 5th. The other months had the Nones on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, ad Grcecas Calendas, " on the Greek Calends," meant never. CALIFORNIA, (p. 286.) In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at 23,000. By the census of 1850 the number was 92,597 ; by that of 1852 it was 2t>4,435, of whom only 22,193 were white females. In 1856 the popula tion was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 15,000 Mexicans; 10,000 Irish; 10,000 Germans; 2,OoO English; and 15,000 various (white) nationalities ; 50,000 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1857 inclusive, 75,801 Chinese arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned during the same time. Population in I860, 380,000 ; in 1866, nearly 500,000. In 1865 there were 947 schools in the State, and over 100 newspapers and periodicals. From 1848 to 1864, her mines produced $816,500,000. Of this $541,600,000 has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360,000. Over 18,000,000 bushels of cereals were produced in 1863; 17,000,000 vines were growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine. CALORIC ENGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in 1833, and then considered a success, but not made practically available till 1862. In that year it was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons which it propelled from New York to Alexandria in the Potomac and back in very rough weather, February, 1853. This achievement created great excitement in the scientific world, but the speed attained was not commercially sufficient. Subsequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all purposes requiring a moderate power, has proved entirely successful, and is now extensively used in the United States, Cuba, Canada, and in many South American and Euro- pean States. It is inexplosive, entirely free from danger, consumes but little fuel and requires no water. Innumerable motors have been planned and patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only one (other than steam-engines) that has become an article of use and commerce is Ericsson's Caloric Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858. It establishes an epoch in the history of motive power. CA.NADA. Ottawa, formerly Bytown, was appointed the capital in 1858. A regiment of the line (the 100th) spontaneously raised in 1858. The upper and lower provinces united and designated Canada East and Canada West. Sir Edmund Head gov. gen. 1854, Grand Trunk Railway 850 miles long, from Quebec to Toronto, with branch to Portland, Maine, opened Nov. 12, 1856. Victoria Bridge at Montreal completed 1860, and opened with great ceremony by tfie Prince of Wales, 1860. Population in 1852: Upper Canada, 982,004; 92 THE WOBLD'S PEOGBESS. Lower Canada, 890,261. In 1857 it was estimated thus: I'pper Canada, 1,305,923 ; Lower, 1,220,514. The value of exports in 1857 was 6,751,666. Lord Monck gov. gen. Nov. 28, 1861. Population in 1861, 2,506,755. Products of the U. S. imported into Canada under the " Reciprocity Treaty," in 1862, $14,430,626. Imports in 1864, $50,619,217. Exports, $33,317,873. Total militia force, (1863) 305,140. Length of Railways, 2,000 miles. In Oct. 1864, a raid from the Canada side into St. Albans, Vermont, by fome confederates, created great excitement in both countries. Gen. Dix, U. S. A., ordered that U. S. troops should cross the lines and capture such raiders, if not surrender- ed. The government revoked the order promptly. The "Dominion of Can- ada," consisting of the United Provinces of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, &c., established by the Queen's consent, 1867. CANALS, (p. 288.) The Chesapeake and Ohio canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000 ; completed ; the Lachine canal, in Canada, 32 miles, cost $235,934 per mile; the Erie canal cost $19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in 1858, 388 ; cost $90,000,000. Tolls received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,- 436,639. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie canal 2,235,700 tons of pro- duce from the west were brought to tide-water. CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was founded by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859. Experiments to cure it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York (1866-7). CANNON, (p. 290.) In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American forts was a 24-pounder; in 1850 the largest was 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 Ibs. A vol. of reports of experiments in gunmaking was published by the U. S. Ordnance Department in 1856. Just before the rebellion Captain Pairott in- vented, at West Point, a rifled gun of great efficiency. The 10-pounder has a range of 5,000 yard?. The 800-pounder can throw a shot of 250 Ibs. 5J miles. The guns invented by Major Rodman during the war have a smooth chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 inches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pitts- burg in 1864; weight, 116,000 Ibs.; weight of shot, 1,000 Ibs.; charge, 100 Ibs. of powder. The guns generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt. Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and 11-inch bores are unequalled i'or powerful ef- fect in close action. An enormous Columbiad is mounted at Fortress Monroe, carrying shot of 525 Ibs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Ordnance Depart- ment (U. S.) provided 7,892 cannon for the army and navy. Steel cannon were first manufactured in the U. S. by Mr. N. Wiard of New York, June, 1861. In England, since 1850, great improvements in cannon have been, made by Whitworth, Mallett, Armstrong and others. Dahlgren of the U. S. navy (now Admiral) and others have also invented new constructions. An American cannon weighing 35 tons was cast in 1860. CANTON, (p. 291.) In consequence of an outrage on a British vessel the forts guarding the city were captured, and Canton was bombarded, Oct. 29, 1856, by order of Sir J, Bowring, who was afterwards censured by a vote of the House of Commons. Canton taken by the British and French, Dec. 29, 1857, and Yeb, the governor, was sent to Calcutta a prisoner. CAPITOL OF THE UNITED STATES. The corner-stone of the original edifice was laid by Washington, Sept. 18, 1798. It was burnt by the British 1814; re- stored 1818. Corner-stone of the new wings laid by Pres. Fillmore, July, 1851. The present structure is 751 feet long, and covers 3^ acres. The co- lossal statue of Freedom, by Crawford, was raised to the top of the dome Dec. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 93 2, 1868. The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of the mar- ble and the setting of the same was $2,402,000. CARICATURES. The modern caricatures of Gilray Rowlandson (H. B.), (John Doyle Jo = HB), R. Doyle and J. Leech are justly celebrated. The well-known "Punch" was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) have con- tributed to this amusing periodical. " Vanity Fair," commenced in New York, 1860, enlisted some of the best American talent in this department, but was short-lived. See Satire. CARNIVAL. (Carni vale, Italian, i e., Flesh, farewell!) A well-known festival time in the Roman Catholic Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice, about Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth and indulgence, and numbers visit Italy during its continuance. CAROLINA. See N. and S. Carolina. CARPET MANUFACTURE. The value of carpets manufactured in Mass, in 1855 was $1,362,000. Carpets imported into the U. S. in 1857, valued at $2- 181,200. In 1866 there were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but of these only six were capable of producing the fine class of carpeting required., in the best houses. CARTES DE VISITE. The small photographic portraits thus termed, are mid to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The Duke of Pa..'ma had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon fol- lowed in Paris, London, and in the United States. CASUALTIES FOR 1865. During the year 1865, there were 854 fires in the United States where the amount ol loss was $20,000 or upwards, at which property was destroyed amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, were $214,588,000. During the year there were 183 railroad accidents, by which 335 persons were killed and 1,4'27 wounded; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed, and 265 woundod. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents, by which 2, '204 were killed, and 8,356 wounded ; and 324 steamboat accidents, by which 5,372 were killed, and 1,579 wounded. CAUCASUS, (p. 297.) The subjugation of the Caucasian tribes has long been the object of the Russians, and seems now almost achieved by the capture of Sohamvl (Sept. 7, 1859), who was honorably received by the czar. CAWNPORE. A town in India; during the mutiny in 1857, was garrisoned by native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler. They revolted and were joined by Nana Sahib, who captured the place, June 26, and massacred great numbers of the British, without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore was retaken by Have- lock, July 17, 1857. CAYENNE, (p. 298.) Many political prisoners have been sent here by the French emperor since 1852. CEMETERIES, NATIONAL. For soldiers of the U. S. who fell in battle or died in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104,- 528 graves. Ten more were to be added, containing a total of 249, 397 graves. The " Antietam National Cemetery," has 8,0;>0 graves, half of them marked " unknown." Provision made by Congress in 1867 for substantial headstones and improvements. Oration delivered by President Lincoln at the dedication of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of New York, sev- eral new rural cemeteries have been opened (1840-67), viz., Woodlawn, Calvary, The Evergreens, &c. 94 THB WORLD'S PROGRESS. CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at eight different periods, vir, 1790. 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860. See Population. The Census is taken by the general government every ten years; that of New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is by those states taken decennially at intermediate periods, thus giving returns every five years. Other states have different periods for a census. In 1866, it was taken in the states of Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabama, Rhode Island, and Iowa. The number of persons employed in taking the U. S. census of 1860 was 4,481 ; expense to the Government, $1,045,206. CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In 1700, the entire population of the Anglo-Ameri- can colonies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775, 2,389,300. In 1790, the population of the United States alone was 3,929,827 ; and in 1860, 81,443,621. Anticipated population in 1900, 107,000,000. The unimproved lands of the United States, in 1860, amounted to 244,101, 818 acres ; improved lands, 163,^10,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at $6,645,045,007. Estimated product of our manufactures in 1860, $4,000,O i OO,0( "0. Com- mercial railroads in the United States, 35,935 miles, costing $1,432,649, 000. Civy railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,840. Slack-water canals and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. Real and personal property estimated at $19,089,156,289. Educational institutions reported, 113,006 ; teachers, 148,742 ; students, 5,417,880. Collegiate institutions, 445 ; students, 54,969. Churches, 54,000. Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. Revolutionary army, from 1775 to 1783, 231,791; vessels, 4. In 1812, regulars, 32,360; volunteers, 6,000; militia, 30,000; navy, 8 frigates, and 170 gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. In March, 1865, we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large calibre ; and the aggregate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,uOO. If the Confederate forces be added, the grand total would be reached of 4,000,000 of men at arms the largest force ever yet raised in any country or age of the world. Christian Almanac, CHALDEA. The ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. AV. portion of it,. The Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology. See Dan. 2, &c. CHANCELLORS, LORD, ENGLAND, (p. 245) Sir Thomas Wilde, created Lord Truro 1850 Sir Edw. jSuudcn, created Lord St. Leo nrds 1852 Robert Mousey Rolfe, created Lord Oanwortb 1852 Sir Fred. Thesiper, created Lord Chelingford 1858 John, Lord Ctmipbeli 1859 Richard Bethel, Lord Wi-stbury. June'26, 1861 Thomas, Lord Cranworth, :ig;,in July 6, 1865 CHANCE LLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., named from a hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 1863, between the Army of the Potomac under General Hooker, and the rebels under General Lee. On Apr, 28, the Union army ciossed the Rapp;ihannock ; on May 2, General " Stonewall " Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mis- take. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, Hooker was compelled to retreat across the Rappahannock. The struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9. CHANCERY. In the U. S. federal courts equity and law are both administered, and this system was adopted by the state of N. Y. in her Constitution of 184ft SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ofl CHARITIES OF THE WAR IK THE TL S. A careful statement made o'( the amount contributed by the people of the loyal states for philanthropic pur- poses connected with the war, not including the donations for religious or educational objects, gives the following noble record : The total contributions from states, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of soldiers, amounted to $187,209,608.62; the contributions of associations and individuals for tlr care and comfort of soldiers were $24,044,865.96 ; for sufferers abroad, $38'"< 040.74; for sufferers by the riots of July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633.13: making a grand total, exclusive of expenditures of the ^overn- ment, of $212,274,248.45. See Sanitary Comrnisaion, &c. CHARLESTON, S. C. Population in T860, 40,578. A severe fire ies,:-oyec the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861 ; 17 old hulks w>re sunk by U. S. forces to blockade the channel, December 21, J861. The .-. !t v surreo dered to National troops, February 18, 1865. CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self relatives; and British laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of he- chastity; and a husband or father in taking the life of him who attemptd t.v violate his wife or daughter. In 1,000 years from the time of Numa. "V; B. C., to the reign of Theodosius the Great, A. I). 394, only eighteen Homan vestals had been condemned for incontinence. CHATTANOOGA, BATTLE OF, U. S. Fought on Nov 23, 1863, between th} Union armies under Gen. Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. The Confederates were driven from every position. Or. tne right, Hooker stormed Lookout Mountain ; Thomas in the centre carriou the rifle-pits ; Sherman forced the left after hard fighting. On the 25th ch? A'hole of Missionary Ridge was in the hands of the Union army, and the eneuiy completely routed. This has been regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. Union loss about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoner? and 42 guns were captured. CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. Population in 1860, 109,260 : in 1865, estimated at i80,- 000. This city is the largest pork-packing depot in the country; 1,000,000 hogs are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in 1866, $2,457,673. CHICKAMAUGA, BATTLE OF, U. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a severe battle between the Union and Confederate forces, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. The Union right was completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen. Thomas withstood the fierce assaults of the enemy, and saved the army from a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been reinforced by Longsn-eet from Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union), withdrew to Chattanooga, and acted entirely on the defensive for some time after. The entire rebel loss, as stated in their papers, 18,000. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns. CHILI, S. America, (p. 304.) The present president (1859), Don Manuel Moutt, was elected Oct. 18, 18f>6. Population in 1855, 1,439,120. Civil war was going on in 1859. Population in 1857, was 1,558 468. Exports in 1857 amounted to $20,126,461. Jose Perez elected pres. 1861. Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the Guano isles, March, 1864. Pop. i" 1,558,319. CHINA, (p. 305.) Death of Taon Kwang. . .Feb. 25, 1850 I Rebels take Nnnkin, March 19, Rebellion breaks out in Q.uantr-si, Amoy, May 19, Hhangliae, Aug. 1850 Rebel emperor or pretender Tienth appear*... March, 1851 Sept. 7, 1868 Rebels besiege Canton unsuc- cessfully Nov. 1854 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Canton forts taken by the Brit- ish (see Canton) Oct. 8, 1856 Americans capture 3 f >rts, Nov.2t, 1856 Chinese bum European fac- tories, and murder English sailors Drc. 1856 Lord Elgin sent out as British envoy Murch, 1857 brilish destroy the Chinese fleet, June 1, 1857 British blockade Canton Aug. 1S57 Canton taken by English and French Dec. 28-9, 1857 TTeh, gov. of Canton, who is said to have beheaded 100,000 rebels, sent to Calcutta Jan. 1858 Forts at inouih of Peiho captured by the English and French. May 20, 1858 Treaty of peace signed by Key- ing, Lord Elgin, and Bar. Gros. June 28, 1858 ^Principal articles: Ambassa- dors to be at both courts ; free- dom of trade ; Christianity to be tolerated ; expenses of war paid by China ; tariff to be revised ; Chinese epithet of " barbarian" no longer to be applied to foreigners.] Mr. Bruce, British envoy, stop- ped at the mouth of the Peilio. Admiral Hope attempting to force the passage defeated, losing 81 killed, 300 wounded. June 25, 1851 Pekin taken by the French and English forces, and the em- peror's palace sacked 1860 Pekin given up by allies. . .Nov. 5, I860 English and French embassies established there 1861 Mr. Burlingame appointed U. 8. Minister to China 1861 Emperor Hien-fung dies, and is succeeded by Ki-tsiang. Aug. 24, 1861 Canton restored to Chinese. Oct. 21, 1861 English and French aid the gov- ernment against the rebels 1862 English Capt. Gordon defeats rebels and takes Nankin, and rebel emperor Tienwang kills himself .July 18, 1864 CHINA TRADE. A large trace is developed with China through the city of San Francisco. "Flour, wheat, 'umber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and vegetables are exported from that city in increasing quantities." The value of exports from the U. S. to China in 1862, was $4,323,500. In 1866, 2,530,- 000 Ibs. of tea were received through San Francisco ; in the same year one shipment reached New York, vi?, California and Panama, in 60 days. In 1867, a regular line of steamers was established between China, Japan, and Califor- nia, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New York. Anson Burlin- gume appointed U. S. Minister to China, 1861. CHLOROFORM. See Anaesthetics, CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most severe at the west, especially at Chicago, St. Louis, and Nashville. From July to Sept., 1866, there were 573 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and 583 in N. Y. city. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, LONDON, founded by Edward VI., 1552. CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in colors. CHRONOLOGY, (p. 309.) The following works are much esteemed : Play- fair's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by Sir EL Ellis in 1844, and by Mr. Rosse in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History is very useful. CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (p. 309.) The number of churches in England for Protestant worship, in 1851, was 14,077. Publication of " Essays and Re- views," and numerous Replies, 1861-2. The Church divided into High, Low, (or Evangelical) and Broad church the latter including those who hold the opinions of Dr. Arnold, F. D. Maurice, and others. Publication of a work on the Pentateuch by Dr. Colenso, Bishop of Natal, causes great agitation, 1863-6. The bishop deposed by Bishop of Capetown, April, 1864. This pro- ceeding declared by the Privy Council to be null and void, Oct. 21, 1865, "Oxford declaration" on eternal punishment signed by about 3,000 clergymen, and sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, May 12, 1864. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 97 CHURCH RATES in England in 1854 amounted to 318,200. Bill to abolish them passed by the House of Commons but defeated by the H. of 7-ords, 1858. CIDER. In the State of New York (1865), 591,379 barrels of cider were manu- factured. CINCINNATI, OHIO, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and N\-w Jersey. Population in 1795, 500; in 1800, 750; in 1810, 2,540; in 1820, 9,642; in 1830, 24,831; in 1840, 46,3S8; in 1850, 115,486; in 1860, Ifi 1,044. CINQUE PORTS, ENGLAND, (S. E. coast.) They were originally five: Dover, Hustings, Hythe, Rommey, and Sandwich ; Winchelsea and Rye were after- wards added. They are governed by a particular policy and are under a lord warden. The Duke of Wellington filled that office from 1828 to his death, 1862. CIRCASSIA. (p. 311.) By the treaty of Adrianople, in 1830, Circassia was surrendered to Russia by Turkey. But the Circassians, particularly under a native chief named Schamyl, have ever since carried on a war of indepen- dence with varying success against the whole power of Russia. In June, November, and December, 18o7, the Circassians were defeated by the Rus- siau governor, Prince Orbelliani, who also in April, 1858, conquered a large tract of country, and expelled the inhabitants. On Sept. 7, 1859, Schamyl was captured by the Russians, and treated with great respect. The Circas- sians became Mahometans in the 18th century. CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circum- ference, his exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archi- medes, about B. c. 221, gave it as 7 to 22. Abraham Sharp (1717), as 1 (and 72 decimals) to 3; and Layny (1719), as 1 (and 122 decimals) to 3. CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The largest circulating library in the U. S. is the Mercantile of N. Y. city. It contains 86,000 volumes, and has 10,000 mem- bers ;] 2,000 volumes were added in 1866, costing $15,000; 200 copies of the "Coa , of Joseph II." were bought to supply the demand, and liberal numbers of all new books of general interest. CLE11MGNT (France), COUNCIL OF. The celebrated council in which the crusade agains; the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to c minand it, in the pontificate of Urban II., 1095. In this council the tiaiue of pope was first given to the head of the Roman Catholic church, exclusively of the bishops, who used until this time to assume that title. 1 hilip I. of France was (a second time) excommunicated by this assembly. ffenault. CLOACA MAXIMA. The chief of the celebrated* sewers in Rome, the construc- tion of which is attributed to King Tarquinius Priscus (B. c. 588), and his successors. CLOCK (p. 258). The great Westminster (London) clock set up, May 30, 1859. The London watchmakers established the Horological Institute in 1858, which publishes a j ur.ial. In 1857, 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches were im- ported into the United Kingdom. Clockmaking of a cheap kind, on a large scale, was commenced in Connecticut in 18 . The American watch compa> nies, founded 1850, at Waltham, Roxbury, &c., make large quantities of supe- rior watches. Number of clock manufactories in the U. S. in 1860, 23 ; value of products annually, $1,181,500. CLUBS IN THE UNITED STATES. In NEW YORK : The most important are th 5 98 THE WOBLD'S PBOGBESS. Athenceum, founded 1859, in 5th avenue, afterwards in Union square, now (1867) in Madison square ; Century, founded in Broadway in 1 48, now 'n 15th street; Eclectic, founded 186- ; Jockey, founded 186- ; New York, 18-; Travellers', 186-; Union, 5th avenue and 21st street; Union League, founded Feb. 6, 1863, incorporated Feb. 16, 1865; University, founded 186-. The Century and the Athenceum were originated as " associations for the advanc-i- " it of literature and art." The Union League was started on the basis of *' unconditional loyalty " to the government, and to aid in the suppression of treason and rebellion. It was said to have made loyalty '' fashionable in the best circles." It raised three regiments of colored troops for the U. S. volun- teer forces, and otherwise rendered important services. In PHILADELPHIA, the Union League Club, founded Dec. 27, 1862, was the foremost of its kind in the U. S. It raised ten regiments for the government. It numbers 2,000 members, and has a magnificent club-house. One of the oldest clubs in Phila- delphia was the Wistar. In BOSTON, the Union League Club was founded in 1863. CLUBS originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met together at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the end of the sixteenth century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakespeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met at But- ton's coffee-house, as described in the Spectator. The present London clubs, some comprising 300, others about 1,500 members, possess luxuriously fur- nished edifices, several of great architectural pretensions, in or near Fall Mall. The members obtain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate charges. Many of the clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly the Athenceum (which see). The annual payment varies from 6 to 11 11s.; the entrance fee from 9 9s. to 31 lls. The following are the principal clubs : Kit-Cut 1703 Beef-Steak 1735 "White's (Tory) established.. .1736 Boodle's 1762 Literary Club (which see), termed also " The Club," and Johnson's Club 1763 United Service 1815 Travellers' 1819 Oxford and Cambridge 1829 Carlton (Conservative) 1-832 Reform (Liberal) 1836 Army and Navy 1837 "Whittington (founded by Douglas Jerrold and others) 1840 FRENCH. The first of these arose about 1782. They were essentia'ly politi- cal, and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton and Camille Desmoulins. From these two club? *;anie the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists, 1793, and fell in Us turn in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were re- vived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former eminence. COAL IN THE U. S. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. The "Statistics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, pub- lished in Philadelphia in 1854, give a full and reliable account of coal pro- ducts in all parts of the world. The Anthracite coal of Pennsylvania was first used by a blacksmith in the Wyoming Valley in 1775. Bituminous coal first mined in the U. S. in 1845. Total amount produced in I860, 6,218,080 tons. Amount of all coals in 1860, 14,333,992 tons. Coal is worked in fifteen of the states. The upper seam of the Pittsburg coal fields is estimated to contain 53,516 tons. A single lump of coal, weighing 4 tons, was sent to the Paris Exposition of 18^7. The area of coal in the U. B. is 206,939 squaw SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67, 99 miles; 470 milea is anthracite in Pennsylvania. The product in 1865 waa 22,000,000 tons, of which 10,000,000 was anthracite. The consumption of coal in France, in 1760 only 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. The United States produced between 8 and 9 millions of tons ; Belgium, 5,000,- 000 ; and France, 4,500,000, m 1855 COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect, which derives its color from feed- ing on the cactus, became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523. It was not known in Italy, in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. See Dyeing, In 1858, it was cultivated successfully in the Teneriffe, the vines having failed through disease. The import into England in 1850, 2,360,000 Ibs. In the United States the importation in 1858 amounted to $221,332. CODE NAPOLEON. The Civil Code of France, promulgated from 1803 to 1810. This was considered by the emperor as his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing. COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods is reported by the Secretary of the Treasury thus : 1821 Tea, 4,586,223 Ibs Coffee, 11,886,063 !bs. 1830 " 6.873,091 Ibs " 38,363,687 Ibs. 1835 " 12.331,638 Ibs " 91 753,002 Ibs. 1842 " 13,482,645 Ibs 107,387-567 Ibs. 1846 " 16,891,020 Ibs " 124 336,054 Ibs. 1856 " 240,676,227 Ibs. In 1867 a company was being organized to introduce the cultivation of coffee in South Florida. The duty on imports of coffee, by tariff of July, 1862, is five cents per pound. CDD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh'a treatise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin in 1844; in English in 1849. COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The gold coin- age consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half-eagles, quarter eagles, and dol- lars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first deposit of California gold for coining was made by Mr. David Carter, 1,804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. COINAGE of the U. S. Mint from 1793 to 1866; inclusive. 9. 1811 Earl of Stair 1744 Duke of Wellington 1827 Fieldmars! al Wade ..1745 Lord Hill 1H?8 Lord Ligonier 1757 Duke of Wellington again 1842 Marquess of Granby 1 766 Lord Hardinge ISft-J Lord Amheret 1778 Dukeof Cambridge 1856 COMMERCE. See Exports and Imports, Navigation and Shipping, &c. COMMERCIAL FAILURES The circular of Dun, Boyd, & Co., of N. York gives the following statistics of failures in the U. States : 1857 1858 1859 1860 Failures 4,937 4,225 3,913 3,676 Amount $291,750,000 195,750.000 164.294,000 $79,807,000 Of the 3,676 failures in 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers ; their debts amounting to $10,664,000. In the Northern States in 1862, the number of failures was 1,652 ; liabilities $23,049,300. In 1865, 530; $17,625,000. CONCEPTION, IMMACULATE, OF THE VIRGIN. On the 8th of September, 1854, the pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt or speak against it. The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488. CONCORDANCE. (P. 324.) Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare, remarkable monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, wa completed in 1844, after ten years' labor. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 101 CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA." The effort* of the Southern States for the extension of slavery , and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great seces- sion of 1860-1. See United States, also Chronological tables. On Nov. 4, 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the I South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union ; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or Creeds. See Apostles', Atfianasian, and Nieent creeds. Augsburgh Confession. Confession of Divines at Westminster agreed to, 1643. Congregational confession of Faith adopted in England, 1833. CONGRESS, U. S. A. The apportionment made by Congress, March 4, 1862, under the census of 1860, increased the number of Representatives to 242. There were also 9 Delegates from the Territories, who deliberate but have no vote. The Senators in 1862 were 62 in number. Each Senator and Repre- sentative is allowed $10,000 compensation for each Congress (two years) de- ducting for absence (1866). In the 89th Congress there were 52 Senators and 192 Representatives, the Southern States not yet being represented. In the 40th Congress, (1867), the same number, with the addition of Senators and Representatives from Tennessee. CONGRESS, " CONFEDERATE." Delegates from seven Southern states met at Montgomery, Georgia, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb, chairman. On the 8th, a constitution was adopted similar to that of the U. S. On the 9th, a President and Vice-Pres. were elected for the "Confederacy ;" Jeff. Davis and Alexander H. Stephens. Virginia was admitted into it May 7, 1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861. The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the approach of the National army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled again. CONNECTICUT. Population in 1850, 370,792 ; 1860, 460,670. This state sent 54,882 men to the National armies, 1861-5. CONSCRIPTION. A mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the French and other armies. On Sept. 5, 1798, a military conscription was or- dained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of age: from these selections were made. The present law of 1818 (modified in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual contingent from each department, for all the country, 80,000 men which may be increased. The duration of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted. A con- scription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian camp.'iign, and in Dec. of same year another for 300,000, after the battle of Leipsic. In the U. S., during the war for the Union. 1861-5, " drafts" were ordered and enforced at two different times. The first draft was the (nominal) cause of riots in New York, July, 1863. CONSERVATIVE, U. S. A term used in American politics, to denote the opposite of extreme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of 1860, Mr. Fillmore was known as the candidate of the " Conservative party," in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the north and the pro-slavery party of the south. 102 THE WORLD'S PBOGEESS. CONSOLIDATED FUND in England, (hence the term *' Consols,") was formed of the other funds in 1786. On Jan. 5, 1816, exchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. CONSTITUTION OF THE U. S. The great amendment to the constitution, abolishing slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three-fourths ol the states, 27 in number, ratified it and it became the law of the land, Dec. 18, 1865. Another amendment passed Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring all men to be equal before the law ; that representatives shall be apportioned according to the whole number of persons in each state; that no person who shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold any office under the U. S. government ; and that the validity of the national debt shall not be ques- tioned nor the rebel debt recognized. This amendment has not yet (1867) been ratified by three-fourths of the states. CONSULS. See Ambassadors. CONTRABAND OF WAR. A term said to have been first employed in the treaty of Southampton, between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and Holland both powers acted with much rigor towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. CONTRABANDS. U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their owners on the ground that they were " contraband of war." Since then the term has been used for " blacks or slaves." CONTRACTORS WITH GOVERNMENT, disqualified from sitting in the British Parliament, 1782. CONTRIBUTIONS, m AID OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE U. S., (1861-65.) See Charities. The contributions from states counties and towns for the aid and relief of Union soldiers, amounted to $187,209,608. The contributions of associations and individuals for the care and comfort of soldiers were $24,044,865 ; for sufferers abroad, $380,040 ; for sufferers by the riots of July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contribu- tions of the people of the loyal states, $212,274,248, The famous Sanitary and Christian Commissions, in which hundreds volunteered their services for the relief of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to the government during the war. See Sanitary, &c. CONVENTION, IN THE U. S. In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished men from the states met at Washington, D. C., as a Peace Conference, to pro- pose compromise measures between the north and south. Their propositions were referred to Congress, which rejected them. " Phila. Convention " of delegates, north and south, supposed to favor the policy of Pres. Johnson in regard to reconstruction, Aug. 14, 1866. Southern Unionists' Convention, Sep. 1, 1866, (opposing the policy of the preceding.) COPPERHEADS. A name given about 1863 to such members of the Demo- cratic party in the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on any terms. COPYRIGHT OF DESIGNS, for manufactures in England, first granted 1787, for 2 months, extended in 1794. Copyright on sculpture conferred for 14 years, 1814. Copyright on other designs extended to 12 months, 1839. Or- namental designs of all kinds fully protected, from 9 mos. to 8 jears, by act of 1842, and still further in 1860. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 103 COPYRIGHT IN THE TJ. S. The law modified so that the copy of the book ii to be sent to the library of Congress, instead of Smithsonian Inst. 1865. (?) The law of 1831 gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 years, and a right of renewal to himself, his wife and children for 14 yea*"9 more, mak- ing 42 years in all. No foreigner can secure a copyright unless residing in the U. S. So far (1867), the American government has refused or failed to re- spond to the British otter of reciprocity in literary copyright. A treaty for this purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 1854, but never acted upon. COPYRIGHT OF BOOKS, PRODUCE OF. The most profitable copyrights in the U. S. have been those on school text-books, many of which have yielded large sums to the authors. Of literary and historical works the most profita- ble have been the works of Prescott, Bancroft, Irving, Longfellow, Kane, Mrs. Stowe, and the several histories of the recent war (1865-7). COPTS. In Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity, derived from the Eutychians, a sect of the fifth century. CORINTH, U. S. A town in northern Mississippi; important during the war as a military position. After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Gen. Beauragard, (Confed.) entrenched himself there, and was partially besieged by U. S. forces under Gen. Halleck. Heavy fighting there May 27, 1862. The place waa evacuated by the rebels, May 29, 1862. CORN, INDIAN, U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of Agriculture for December, contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total result is 88C,000,OuO bushels. Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said to give as much heat per bushel as coal. Exports of corn in 1866 amounted to $1S>.299,879. COSTA RICA. A republic in Central America established in 1848. It has been much disturbed by filibusters from the U. S. See Nicaragua and Central America. On Aug. 14, 1859, the President, Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Josfc Montealegre made president. COSTUME. An attempt to introduce a semi-masculine female costume, known as Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer of Seneca, N. Y., was made in 184-, but with very limited success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline, ascribed to the empress Eugenie, originating a few months before the birth of the heir to the French throne (about 1854). The latter was the prevailing fashion until 1866-7 when it was superseded by a walking dress with a very small expansion. COTTON, U. S. (p. 334.) The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced '^stated in millions of pounds weight): 1821 1S30 1S40 1849 1860 1855 1856 1857 1858 124 mills., average price 16 cts. 298 " " 9 " " 14 it 6 u n 743 7.026 635 1098 1351 1048 1118 1859 1386m I860 1767 1861 307 1862 5 1863 11 1864 103- 1865 6J 1866 650 ills., average prl u H U II ( CO 11 Ctf ' 11 " 11* 1 234 ' 66 83 4 88 ' 43 Total value of cotton exported in 39 years, 2,883 millions of dollars. Value in 1859, 161 millions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the 6 years 1844-9, were as follows ; U. S. 78-J per cent. ; India, 10-J ; Brazil, 7 : Egypt, 3-^ ; West Indies, Ac., 4 per cent. In England a cotton supply association to obtain from Africa, India, &c., was formed at Manchester abou/ 104 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. J857. Lieut. Burton, who explored the interior of Africa in 1859, stttes 'Jmt cotton grows there in great profusion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth is manufactured by the natives. In the U. S. the estimates show a total product of 1,750,000 bales of 400 pounds each in 1866. The estimates are made up as follows : North Carolina, 91,000 bales ; South Carolina, 152,000 , Georgia, 205,OuO ; Florida, 36,000 ; Alabama, 220,000 ; Mississippi, 270,000 ; Loui- siana, 100,000 ; Texas, 300,000 ; Arkansas, 182,OuO ; Tennessee, 148,000 ; other States, 87,000 bales. In 1860 the product of the U. S. was 5,198,077 bales. Revenue to the government from the production of cotton in 1866, $18,409,655. Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. Imports of cotton manufactures in 1866, $30,166,300. COTTON GIN. This invention, in 1793, by Eli Whitney of New Haven, gave an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and prepares 300 Ibs. per day ; by the old mode only a single pound a day could be cleansed. COTTON GOODS Exported from Great Britain. Official Value. . Official Value. 1697 .... 5,915 1860 .... .52,012,430 1701 23,253 1861 46,872,489 1780 .... 355,000 I 1862 .... 36,750,971 1790 1,1 6^,369 11863 47,587,188 1800 .... 5,406,501 I 1864 .... 64.856,289 1820 20,509,926 ! In 1860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported of which 9,963,309 cwt. came from the United States, and 1,822,698 cwt from India. COTTON RAW Imported into Great Britain. Ibs. | Tbt. 1697 .... 1,976,359 1836 .... 264.000,000 1730 .... 1,545,472 1840 .... 6'.i2,500,000 1764 . . . . 3,870,392 i 1860 .... 1,390,938,752 1790 .... 31.500,000 1800 .... 56,000,000 1810 .... 13i>,500.000 1861 .... 1,256,984,736 1862 . . . . 523,973,296 1863 . . . . 669,583,264 1820 . . . . 151,500,000 I 1864 .... 893,304,720 COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following was the estimated, number of spindles in actual operation : Great Britain, 17,000,500; France, 4,300,000 ; Zollverein States, 815,000; Russia, 700,000, Switzerland, 650,000 ; Belgium, 420,000 ; Spain, 800,000 ; Italy, 800,000 ; Total, 27,485,000. In the U. S. in 1860, the number of spindles employed in the five New England states was 2,751,078; in 11 other states, 236,480. Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,335,727. The prices of cotton fabrics in the U. S. increased 172 per cent., or 81 per cent, in gold be- tween 1860 and 1866. COURT, SUPREME, OF THE U. S. By Act of Congress, July 23, 1866, no vacancy in this Court is to be tilled, until the number is reduced to one Chief-Justice, and six Associate Justices. Before this there were eight Associate Justices. The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts. COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers comand- ing distinct posts, and all general officers, can convene courts-martial. There are several limitations to the act. The number forming a court is from five to 13. Great numbers of these courts were in session during the late war. In 1866, 8,188 records of courts martial and military commissions were received and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Washington, D C. CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-stock company with this name wab established al SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 105 Paris, Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others. It takes up or originates trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle o< commandit^, or limited liabilities, and is authorized to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 2 millions sterling, the issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current ac- count. The society has apparently prospered, but is nevertheless considered by experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1716, and likely to end disastrously. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed; and in May, 1858, no dividend was paid. CRIME, NEW YORK CITY. Who Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent publication states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one months, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 German, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persona admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners ; 15,948 were Irish. 1,240 Germans, and 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015 admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 inmates of tne lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86,431 professed to be members of the church of Rome. Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616. 11,222 were convicted in the court of Special Sessions. During the war, there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See Prisons. IN ENGLAND. The number of convictions by trial in England and "Wales was, in Persons. Capital Offences. 1849., 21,001 66 1855 19,9T1 50 1858 13,246 t>3 1864. 14,726 32 Since 1848 there had been no commitments for political offences, such as treason or sedition, until the Fenian outbreaks and trials, in Ireland, 1867. [n 1856 there were 2,666 persons liberated on " tickets of leave." Expenses of crimi- nal prosecutions in 1856 were 194,912. CRIMEA, OR GRIM TARTAR*. War having been declared by England and France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, which after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c., sailed for Varna, where they disembarked May 29. The expedition against the Crimea having been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Enpatoria, about 30 miles from Sebas- topol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40 and 50,000 strong (under Prince Menschikoff), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See Alma and Rusno-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the Crimea in July following. CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern name of the "fardingale "of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoata made of whalebone, &c., revived in France, England and the United State*, since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of life, by coming in con- tact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, published Jan. 6, 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. See Costume, 5* 106 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, with two others, by St. Helena, May 3, 328 ; Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by a sick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him iu battle) Sept. 14, 615, and that day has since been commemorated as " the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," es- tablished in 642. It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, two miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantino, and that it led him to adopt it on his standards, with the inscription "/ hoc signo vincex" "in this sign thou shalt conquer." With these he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 27,312. Lenglet. Signing with the cross was first practised by Christians to dis- tinguish .themselves from the pMgans, about 110 ; and in the time of Tertulian, 260, it was efficacious against Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced about 431 ; and set up on eteples about 568 Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from churches, and crosses in the streets demol- poison, witciicraft, &.C. j ished by order of parliament. 1641 CRYSTAL PALACE IN J!EW YORK, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a cross, with a dome, was commenced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened 'to the public (Pres. Pierce being present), August, 1852. The building destroyed by fire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. Institute, Sep. 1859. CRYSTAL PALACE, HYDE PARK, LONDON, built for the Exhibition of the World's Industry in 1851. Its length was 1,851 feet, width, 408 feet, with ad- ditional projection. Entire area, 772,784 square feet, or about 19 acres. Building commenced Sept. 26, 1850, and finished and opened May 1, 1851. Closed to the public Oct. 11, same year. It cost 176,030. CRYSTAL PALACE AT SYDENHAM, near London, built chiefly of the materials used in the foregoing, was commenced August 5, 1852. Capital of the com- pany 1,000,000, in shares of 5. each. Area of grounds 300 acres. In its erection 6,400 men were engaged at one time. It was opened by the Queen, June 10, 1854. Great Handel festival held there June 20-4, 1859. In 1857 the receipts were 115,627 ; expenditures, 87,872. CUBA. Second expedition of Lopez, in connection with Col. Crittenden, of Kentucky, Aug. 1851, defeated ; Lopez taken and garroted at Havana, Sept. 1. Crittenden and 50 companions shot, August 16. Other prisoners sent to Spain, and were pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. See Ostend Con- ference. A proposition to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the Pres. of the U. S., with reference to the purchase of Cuba, was introduced by Mr. Slidell, in U. S. Senate, 1859. See Submarine Telegraph. CUSTOM DUTIES IN THE U. S. The amounts collected were in 1850, $39,000- 000; 1855, $53,000,000; 1863, $69,000,000; 1866, $179,046,630; from 1789 to 1861, $1,575,152,579.92. Expenses of collecting Customs and duties in 1863, $3,238,936 00. CYMRI, OR KIMRI (from which comes Cambria). The name of the ancient British who belonged to the great Celtic family, which, coming from Asia, occupied the greater part of Europe, about 1500 B. c. About A. D. 640,Dyvnwal Moel- mud reigned " King of the Cymri." See Wales. CYNICS, a set of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 896 B. c., Diog^ Laerl., Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 107 except morality ; were very free in reprehending vice ; lived in public, and practised great obscenities without blushing. Diogenes was one (died 323 B. c) DACIA. A Roman province, now part of Hungary. After many contests it was subdued by Trajan, A. D. 106, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was slain in battle. DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855, not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in this business in the U. S. In 1867, the number must be nearer 30,000. The art of photography on paper, however, has wholly superseded the former use of metal plates. See Photography. DALMATIA. An Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally con- quered by the Romans, 34 B. c. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at Spalatro, and retired there A. D. 305. Dalmatia was held in turn by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, till its session to Venice in 1699. By the treaty 01 Carnpo Formio, in 1797, it was given to Austria. In 1805, it was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, and ga w e the title of duke to Marshal Soult. In 1814, it reverted to Austria. DAMASCUS, (p. 343). Horrible massacres of the Christians there July 9, 1860. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest and Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, which was con- quered by Tryjan about A. D. 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. For some time after they were alternately in possession of the barbarians and Greek emperors; and afterwards of the Hungarians. The provinces having participated in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were afterwards severely treated by the Turks, but by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, they were placed under the protection of Russia. The Russians quitted these provinces in Sept., 1854, and an Austrian army entered (by virtue of a convention between the Sultan and Austria), and remained there till March, 1857, The govern- ment of the principalities settled at the Paris conference, Aug. 19, 1868. DARDANELLES, PASSAGE OF THE. (p. 343.') The allied English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the Sultan s request, Oct. 1853. DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which gave the full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from it, the first dauphin named in that treaty, was Philip, second son of Philip of Valois. Henault. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, was not called the dauphin. . DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, IN THE UNITED STATES. In 1840, there were 6,616 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population ; 7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228 ; 17,434 insane or idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. In the United States in 1860, there were 14,269 deaf and dumb persons. The institution for such persons situated at N. Y. city, is the largest for the " in- struction of deaf-mutes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in the world" (National Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec., 1868, 16, of whom 8 were deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded in 1817. Whole number of graduates 1,300. In 1862, there were 22 institu- tions in the country for the deaf and dumb, with 130 teachers and 2,000 pupils. Their annual support requires about $350,000, of which $300,000 is appropriated 108 THB WORLD'S PROGRESS. by the legislatures of 29 states. Among the most prominent and successful *>f the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, Dr. But- ler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston. DEATH, PUNISHMENT OP, U. S. Is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and arson, in the first degree. Capital punishment abolished in the state of Wis- consin, 1865. In England by the criminal law consolidation acts of 1861, the death penalty was confined to treason and wilful murder. A parliamentary commission respecting capital punishment was appointed early in 16(54. Capital punishment was restricted in Italy in April, 1865. DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, WEIGHTS, &c., was established in France in 1790, and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the English Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. The decimal cur- rency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal Association formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed laws legalizing the use of the Metric system in the country, in 1866, without at once substituting it for our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of Congress, July 27, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each state with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric system. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of In- dependence (North Carolina), was passed in May, 1775, two months before that drawn up by Jefferson at Philadelphia. DEDICATION. The dedication of books was introduced in the time of Maece- nas, 17 B. c., aud the custom has been practised ever since by authors, to solicit patronage or to testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and counsel- lor of Augustus Caesar, and was so famous a patron of men of genius and learning, that it has been customary to style any one imitating his example, the Maecenas of his age or country. The Scriptures speak of the dedication of the Tabernacle, B. c. 1490, and of the Temple, B. c. 1004. The Christians under Constantino built new churches, and dedicated them with great solem- nity, in A. D. 331 et sc/j. DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of pontifical origin. Bonnier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of Arts, A. B. By a further course of study for three years, they become Master of Arts, A. M. The title of Doctor of Medicine (M. D.), is conferred on students on their graduation from medical schools. But Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by faculties on distinguished persons. DELAWARE.' The smallest of the U. S. except Rhode Island. First settled in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm. Penu in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. This State bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous vote ia Convention, Dec. 8, 1787. Population 1790, 59,094 ; 1840, 78,085, includ- ing 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves; in 1860, 110,548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware Breakwater two-thirds of a mile long cost the Government $2,000,000. DELPHIN CLASSICS. A collection of the Latin authors, originally made for SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 109 the use of the Dauphin (in usum Delphini), son of Louis XIV, edited oy fluet, bishop of Avranches, Madame Dacier, and others. Each author i,! illustrated by valuable notes, with an index containing every word in the work. The number of volumes published was sixty, printed between 164V and 1691, except Ansonius, in 1750. A new edition with additional notes, published by Mr. Valpy of London early in the present century. DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by the people themselves (demos, peo- ple, and kratein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 179C (who termed their opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats was adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America (the southern states), and the abolitionists were called Republicans. Into these two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presidential election in 1856. In 1860, the Republicans formed "Wide-awake" clubs for electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham Lincoln, elected president, Nov. 4. Haydn. See United States, 1860, DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, compared (1850): Votes No. to Country. Pop. Votes. Pop. England ....17,000,000 630,721 * 1 in 26 Wales 850,000 37,924 1 in 23 Bcotiand.... 8,rOO,000 72,720 1 in 38 Ireland 8.000,000 98,006 linSl Fo. Votes. Votea to Pop. Country Pop. Gr and frdand \ ><*'> France ......... 34,000,000 250.000 1 in 137 United States.. 20,000,000 2,750,000 1 in 7 DENMARK. Frederick VII., son of Christian VIII., succeeded to the throne 1849. Danes defeat the Holsteiners at Idstedt, July 25, 1850. Friedrichstadt bombarded by Holsteiners, Sept. 29-Oct. 9, 1850. Treaty of European powers for settlement of succession to Danish crown, May 8, 1852. New constitution offered by the King, adopted Oct. 1,1855. Sound dues abolished for a compensation, March 14, 1857. Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian IX., Nov. 15, 1863. Danes retire from Holstein, Dec. 24, 1863, German troops enter Holstein, Jan. 21, 1864. Prussians tabe Schleswig, Feb. 6, 1864. Danes defeat the Allies in a naval battle ofl Heligoland, May 9, 1864. DENOMINATIONS, THE THREE (presbyterians, congregationalists or inde pendents, and baptists), were organized in 1727 as an association, with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. Haydn. DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God"). Formerly in England, anything (such as a horse, carriage, &c.), which had caused the death of a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished (1B46), D'EON, CHEVALIER, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several coun- tries, and been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was affirmed to be A female, at a trial at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wages as to his sex. He subsequently wore female attire : but at his death it was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. DEPUTIES, CHAMBER OF. The title given to the French legislative assembly, from the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852, when it took tue name of Corps Legislalif. DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, OF N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in the Gothic style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B. Wight ; cost, $150, * The Reform Bill of 1867, largely increased this number. 110 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. 000. There is an annual exibition of paintings, lasting from April to July See Arts, Paintings. DETROIT, MICHIGAN, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 1670, Came into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1783 surrendered to the United States. In 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same year. In 1805, the town was completely destroyed by fire. It was the capital of the State until 1850. Population in 1865, about 60,000. DIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, or " Mountain of Light, " found at Golconda in 1550, belonged to Nadir Shah and other Afghan rulers, brought to England and presented to the Queen, 1850. Its original weight 800 carats, reduced by cutting to 279 carats ; in shape and size like the pointed half of a small hen's egg ; value about two millions sterling. DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, 1244 B. 0. The game of Tali and Tersera among the Romans was played with dice. DICTIONARY, TJ. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriam), in 1844-5. A new and enlarged edition appeared in 1864; it contains 114,000 words, and 8,000 illustrations. Worcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, and contains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, *he latter at Cambridge, Mass. DILETTANTI, SOCIETY OF. Established in 1734 by several noblemen, desirous of encouraging a taste for art in Great Britain. It aided in publishing Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and other works. DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphlhera, a membrane). A disease developing a false membrane on the mucous membrane of the throat. So named by Bnv tonnjau of Tours, in 1820. It has been fatally prevalent in many parts of the U. S , particularly among children, 1859-60. The number of deaths by this disease in New York State from Dec. 1864, to June 1'865, was 2,942. DIPLOMACY OF THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britain, and France. (See p. ) OBEAT BRITAIN. 1852 James Buchanan, Pa. min. plen. 1863 James K. Ingersoll do. do. 1856 George M. Dallas, do. do. 1801 Clis. Francis Adams, Mass. do. FRANCE. 1853 James Y. Mason, Va. min. plen. 1857 Charles J. Faulkner, Va. do. 1861 Wm. L. Dayton, N. J. do. 1865 John Bigelow, N. Y. do. 1866 John A. Dix, do. do. By Act of Congress 1856, the salary of ministers plenipotentiary was raised as follows: Min. Plen. to England, $17,500; to France, $17,500; to Russia, Spain, Prussia, Mexico, Brazil, Chili and Peru, each $12,000. The " outfits" were abolished at the same time. Ministers resident to 19 other countries are paid $7,500. DIRECTORY, NEW YORK CITY. The earliest published was in 1786: a small volume of eighty two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city, United States Government, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address, the editor Ltates it was the " first directory ever attempted in this country." The New York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its first publica- tion. The Directory of 1866-7 contains 176,511 names; increase of 10,367 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ill 1865-6. The volume for 1867-8 contains 177,317 names a further ia crease of 806 only. DISPENSATIONS, ECCLESIASTICAL, were first granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These exemptions from the discipline of the church, with indulgen- ces, absolutions, &c., led eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 1517, and in England in 1534, et seq. DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, began in London with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholo- mew's Close, in 1770. It relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861. Low's Charities. DISPENSARIES, U. S. There are eleven in New York city. The oldest was founded in 1795. The poor receive treatment and medicine in them free of charge. DISTILLATION, U. S. The number of distilleries in the U. S. in 1860 wag 1,138, employing a capital of $24,253,000. Number in New York state in 1865, 67. The consumption of distilled spirits in U. S. in 1865 was about 40,000,000 gallons. It appeared in that year that for every three gallons that paid the revenue tax, five evaded the payment. The revenue amounted to $29,198,000. DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollars were issued from the mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The dollar is the principal silver coin in the United States. DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547; died 16J6). The first part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part in 1608. It is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before the second could be made ready for the press. Watts. DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, " because, mounted on horseback, with lighted match, he seemeth like a fiery dragon." Meyrick. The DRACONARII were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons for ensigns. The first regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it is be- lieved, in 1681. DRUSES. A warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon ; derive their origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine, to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors ; they do not practise circumcision, pray or fast, but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 1860, in consequence of dis- putes (in which doubtless both parties were to blame), the Druses attacked their neighbors the Maronites (wh ch see), whom they massacred, it was said, without regard to age or sex. DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS. The absolute and unqualified claim of sovereigns to tue obedience of their subjects, was defended in England by many persons of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g. by Hobbes, the free-thinker, in 1642, and by Sir Robert Filmer, in his Patriarcha, in 1860, and by the High Church generally. DIVORCE. In this country adultery is a ground of divorce in all the States. In Massachusetts, Maine, and New Jersey, wilful desertion for five years, and in some other States, desertion for two and three years, and some other causes, are ground for divorce. Divorce has been granted most frequently in Vermont, Connecticut, and Indiana. In Connecticut, cruel treatment is a ground of absolute divorce. The Ministers of the Gospel in that State have called the attention of the Legislature to the laxity of its Divorce laws. 112 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. DOGS, LAWS ABOUT, U. S. In New York dogs are required to be muzzled during June, Tuly, and August. A reward of fifty cents is given for every dog brought to the pound unmuzzled. Unless redeemed in 24 hours they are drowned. In 1866, 4,819 dogs were drowned in New York City, at au expense DUBLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. Opened by the lord lieut. May 12, 1853 ; closed Nov. 1, same year. DUELLING, (p. 356.) Duel between the duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchelsea, March 21, 1829 ; fifteen noted duels have since occurred in Bug- land. The most noted American affairs of the kind were these : two during the revolution, viz., Gen. Chas. Lee and Col. Jno. Laurens ; and Gen, Cadwallader and Conway (1778) ; Gen. Greene was challenged by a Capt. Gunn, of Ga., but refused to tight, and his refusal was approved by Washington. Gen. Hamil- ton killed by Aaron Burr, July 11, 1804. Com. Decatur killed by Com. Barron, Mar. 22, 1820. Henry Clay encountered John Randolph, April 8, 1826. Gen. Jackson killed Mr. Dickinson, and had other duels. Col. Benton killed a Mr. Lucas, and had other duels. Cilley, of Maine, killed by Graves, of Kentucky (both mem. of Cong.), 1838. Dewitt Clinton exchanged five shots with John Swartwout, 1802. See Millingen's Hist, of Duelling, and Sabine's Notes on Duels, 1855. E EAGLE, (p. 357.) An ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and cur- rent in the first years of Edward I., about A. D, 1272. The American gold coinage of eagles, half-eagles and quarter-eagles began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an eagle is of the value of ten dollars. EAST INDIA COMPANY. (Brit.) Chartered originally by queen Elizabeth, in 1660, with a capital of 30,000, was rechartered and extended its operations until in 1856 it maintained a military force at an annual expense of more than 10,000,000. By the act of Parliament, " for the better government of India," Aug. 2, 1858, the Company's jurisdiction of India was surrendered to the queen. See India. EARTHQUAKES, (p. 358.) An elaborate catalogue of earthquakes, with com- mentaries on the phenomena, by R. P. W. Mallet, was published by Brit. Association, 1858-9. Earthquake at Cape Haytien, St. Do- ! April 16, 1854 miugo, 5,000 lives lost, May 7, 1842. Ona*aca, in Japan; Shnoda, in Niphon, Rhod At Rhodes, snd Macii, mountains crushing a village, 600 lives lost, March, 1851 . At Valparaiso, 400 houses destroyed, April 2, 1861. In South Italy, Melfi destroyed, 14,000 lives lost, Ausr. 14, 1851 At Philippine ieles, Manilla nearly de- stroyed, Sept. Oct.. 1852. N. W. of England, slight., Nov. 9, 1852. Thebes in Greece, nearly dest. Sept. 1853 St. Salvador, 8. America, destroyed, nearly destoyed, Dec. 23, 1854. Jeddo nearly destroyed, Nov. 11, 1855. Island of Sander (Moluccas), 3,000 lives lost, March 12, 1856. In Calabria, several towns destroyed, 22,000 lives lost, Dec. 16, 1856. Corinth, nearly destroyed, Feb. 21, 1858. Quito ; much injured, and 5.000 lives lost, March 29, 1859. Mendoza, S. America, 7,000 lives lost, March i'O, 1861. Manilla, Philippine Isles, 10,000 persons perish, June 3, 1863. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, first built, 1696; destroyed by tempest, 1703 ; rebuilt 1706 ; burnt, 1755 ; rebuilt by Smea/on and finished, Oct. 9, 1759, and his structure still stands, 1861. EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Founded by James VL (I. of Eng.) 1582 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 115 New buildings erected 1789. Lord Brougham's discourse as Chancellor of the Univ., 1860. EGYPT. Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened Nov. 1, 1861. Said, Viceroy, July 14, 1854, dies Jan. 18, 1863. Ishmael, Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1863 ; visits France and England, July, 1867. EL DORADO (the " Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of a golden city ruled by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust, (which report was founded on a merely annual custom of the Indians), they organized various expeditions into the interior of South America, which were accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1660. Raleigh's expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 1617, led to his fall EDUCATION. Some of the most noted educational theorists were Fenelon and Rousseau, in France, 18th century ; Basedon, Walke, and Pestalozzi (Swiss), Fellenburg, Jacotot, and others, in Germany; Joseph Lancaster (d. 1839), hi England. In Prussia, all children from 7 to 14 are compelled by law, and un- der penalty, to attend school ; but this governmental system does not appear greatly to advance practical civilization and progress among the people. In France, a national system was adopted by Guizot, in 1833, from reports of the Prussian system by Cousin. IN ENGLAND (p. 3(>6). See Oxford, Cambridge, and Jf'on. In the reign of Queen Anne numerous "Charity" schools were founded, and many others by "Society" effort, in 1641 etseq. Jos. Lancaster started his "Monitorial" system, 1186, and originated the Brit, and For. School Soc., 1808. The Gov. grant of 20,000, in 1834, lor public education, was increased to 15f>,000 in 1852, and 450,000 in 1866. In 1851, there were 2,466,481 day scholars. Educational Conference, June 22, 1857, Prince Albert presiding. Industrial School Act passed 1857. In the U. S. Has been largely promoted and systematized since 1835, by the efforts and publications of Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, D. P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others. Am. List, of Instruction, organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830, and has held annual meetings since. During the last two years of the war, 1864-5, the very large sum of $848,000 was donated to New England colleges. The New England seminaries for young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the noble subsidy. The munificent donation of George Peabody ($2,000,000), to promote education in the Southern States was confided to a Board of Trustees, Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867 ; and Barnas Sears, President of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this Trust. See Colleges and Schools. ELECTRIC CLOCK AND BALL. Alexander Bain, of London, is said to have firsi, conceived the idea of working clocks by electricity in 1837 ; his clocks, as well as those of Mr. Shepherd, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric clock with four dials, illuminated at night, was set up in front of the office of the Electric Telegraph Company, in the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time ball was set up by Mr. French, in Cornhill, in 1856. A time ball connected with the observatory at Albany, placed on the Custom House, New York, 1860. ELECTRICITY, (p. 363.) Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, 1820. Far- raday (Lond.) discovered magnetic-electricity in 1831, and published il Re- searches," in 3 vols., 1833-55. Sir Wm. Snow Harris received 5,000 for hia invention of lightning conductors for ships. Important contributions to the knowledge of electricity and its uses, have been mado by Prof. Jos. Henry, and Prof. Page, of Washington, Prof. Draper, of Xew York, &c. 114 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. The electro-magnetic force was applied by M. Br* guet of Paris, in the manufacture of theodolites and the finer kind of mathe- matical instruments, in 1856. ELECTRO-PLATING. Carried to great perfection by Elkington & Mason, oi Birmingham, England, and the process has been introduced successfully into New York, 1858-9. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, (p. 364.) Prof. Morse's services to the world as the originator of the practiciil application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing, were acknowledged by the French government in 1859, by the voluntary pre- sentation to him of $80,000 (?) ; and by public honors and rewards from other governments of Europe in 1860. House's printing telegraph, 1846; Bain'a electro-chemical telegraph, 1846; Huglies's system, 1855; the American com- bination system (of the preceding), which can convey 2,000 words an hour, adopted by the American Telegraph Company, Jan., 1859. Wheatstone's automatic printing telegraph patented, I860. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. In 1860, in America, 45,000 miles ; in Eng- land, 10,000; in France, 8,000; in Germany and Austria 10,000; in Prussia, 4,000; in Russia, 5,000; in the rest of Europe, 7,650; in India, 5,000; in Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total in!858, 96,350. Over all the lines in the United States the number of messages per year is estimated at 4,000,- 000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for less than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See Submarine Telegraph. In the United States the overland line from Missouri to California was completed Oct. 22, 1861. A cable was laid across Chesapeake Bay from Fortress Mon- roe in 1861. Ninety-five lines of telegraph are laid under American rivers. ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer of Newgate street, London, has patented an in- vention by which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved plates, but the engraving itself actually produced by electrical agency. There are several processes by which this is accomplished, one of which, also pro tected by a patent, Mr. Palmer called Glyphography (about 1842). ELZEVIRS. A celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. EMIGRATION FROM GREAT BRITAIN, (p. 365.) increased from 129,851, in 1846, to 335,000 in 1851, and 368,000 in 1852 ; and then fell off as follows: in 1853, 829,000; in 1855, 176,000; in 1857, 212,000. About three-fifths of this emigration is to the United States; one-eighth to Brit. America; remainder to Australia. To THE UNITED STATES. The total number of alien emigrants who arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,624. From 1784 to 1819, the number did not probably exceed 150,000: in all. say 5.000,000 ar- rived from 1784 up to January, 1859. Of this number about 2,600,000 came from Great Britain and Ireland ; 1,600,000 from Germany ; 200,000 from France ; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway ; 40,000 from Switzerland, and 18,000 from Holland. (Appleton's Cyclo.) The commission for receiving emi- grants at Castle Garden, N. Y. city, was established in 1847. From that time to 1867, 3,658,800 emigrants have landed there. The number in 1865 was 237,397. See Aliens. ENCYCLOPAEDIA. Ths Iconographic Cyclopedia, 6 vols., based on a German work, published at New York, 1853-4. The Enjlish Cyelop&dia (Charles Knight), based on the Penny Cyclopaedia, 1855-60. The 8th edition of Ency- clop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's Cyclopaedia 1857-62, 16 vois. (N. York). Appleton's " Annual Cyclopaedia," begins with the year 1861, and SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 115 is a complete review of the great events in the world, of each year. The volumes, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war ENGLAND. For succession of events, see Chronological Tables, p. 160 to 120. ENLISTMENT, U. S. The following is a list of the various "calk' 1 ' for troo^z by the Government during the war : Date of Call. Number of Men. Term of Service. Number obtai-.td April 15, 1862 75.000 3 mouths 93,326 May to June 25, 1862 .....530,000 3 years 714,213 July2, 1862 800,000 3 years 431,9E3 Aug. 4, 1862 300,000 9 months 87,OOC Oct. 17, 1863 300,000 3 years > __. Feb. 1,1864 200,000 3 years $ - ruis A. D. 22-23 ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical His- tory of Mankind, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, established in 1843, publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi- dent. " It has published 3 or 4 vols. of " Transactions." The works of School- craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief in the original unity of the human race has been opposed in the works of Nott and Gliddon (Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. George Peabody, in 1866, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a museum and Professorship of Archaeology and Ethnology, also a Irke amount for the same purpose to Harvard College. ETNA, MOUNT (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1784, 477, 425, B. c. Eruptions also A. D. 40, 264, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern, name Tuscany. An ancient province of Italy, whence the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country wae conquered by a colonv of Lydians. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 117 to reinstate the Tarquins, 506. B. c. The vases and other works of the Etrus- cans still remaining show the degree of civilization to which they had attained. See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- ed 1771. EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith and others in 1845, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept 1857 at Berlin; in 1858 at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast. EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865. EXCHANGE (MERCHANTS') IN NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- ished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1796. About 20,000, 000 of these are often in circulation. EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, 16,389,486 ; in 1858, 17,902,000; 1860, 20,361,000; 1864, 19,558,000. EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. EXHIBITION OF 1851, in LONDON. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 0,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees 505,107. Net profits 150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to be held in!861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- gaged to guarantee 10,000, if 240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. The exhibition was opened by the duke of Cambridge and a distinguished company on May I, The Exhibition was closed on Nov. 1. when the total number of visitors (exclusive of attend- ants) bad been 6,117,450. 862 The success of the Exhibition was much impared by the de- cease of the prince consort, Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking out of the civil war in the United States of America. The foreign exhibitors in 1861, were 6666; in 1862, 16,456. EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed frcm Hampton Roads, Vn., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports ~* the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 118 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THE U. S. (Stated in round millions.) 1849 1850 1860 1861 1862 186:i 1864 1865 1866 Exports of Produce, of Manufactures. Total. Imports. |131 millions 16 millions 147 millions 147 million!. 134 816 204 182 249 217 254 406 .15 .48 .43 .ys .50 .45 .04 .61 149 364 247 '215 299 -.'62 318 530 .178 .362 .286 .275 .252 .329 .234 .437 EXPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN, (p. 318.) Total exports in 1850, 175,126,706. lu 1851, 190,397,810. Exports of British and Irish produce, in 1856 115,826,. 948. In 1857, 122,156,257 ; 1861, 125,115,133 ; 1863, 146,489,768 ; 1865, 218,865 EXTENSION OF TERRITORY OF U. S. Since the formation of the government in 1787, the following additional territory has been acquired : Sqaar* Miles. 699,599, Louisiana, &.C., by purchase of France, for $150,- 000,000. -1803 66,900, Florida, by treaty with Spain cost $6,489,000 1820 818,000, Texas, by annexa- tion, tendered by its people 1845 808,052, Oregon, settled by tbe treaty with Great Britain.. ..1846 Square Miles. 650,445, ' California, by neaty with Mexico 1848 Mesillia Valley (Ari- zona), by purchase of Mexico for $10,- 000,000 158 Russian America by purchase from Rus- sia, negotiated by Mr. Seward. Sec. of (State ....1867 F 5"AIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecli- sive battles between the rebels, under Gen. Joseph Johnston, and the army of the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862. FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain. Seen by Americus Vespucius; visited by Davis, 1592. Taken possession of by France, 1763; French expelled by the Spaniards, and in 1771 Spain gave up the sovereignty to England. A colony from Buenos Ayres set- tled at Port Louis, which was destroyed by Americans 1831. In 1833 the British nag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided there. FARTHINGS. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 1210. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles II., 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. FASTS, (p. 875.) Fast-days are appointed by the Reformed Churches in times of war and pestilence. The British gov. appointed a fast, March 21, 1855, for the Russian war, and Oct. 7. 1857, for the Indian mutiny. Pres. Buchanan appointed a public fast on account of threatened secession of slave states, which was observed Jan. 4, 1861. National Fasts appointed by Pres. Lincoln at dif. ferent times during tbe war. Fast on account of his assassination, May 1865. FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The following are the principal : SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 119 HCOHD CENTURY. Greek. Justin Martyr, d. about , IreiiSeus . . d. about Athenagoras. THIRD CENTURY. Greek. Clements . . d. about Origvn . d. about Latin. Tertullian . d. about Minutius Felix,.// about Cyprian . . d. about FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. Eusebius . . d. about c. * 166 200 217 Athanasius, . d. . Epbrern Syrus, d. about . Basil d. . . Cyril of Jerusalem, df. . . Gregory Nazianzen,d. . . Gregory Nysseu, d. about . . Greek. 9 253 220 230 258 340 (jiir^soslom . d. . . Cyril of Alexandria, d. , . . Latin. Arnoliius . Jl. . . . Lac i antius . d. about . . Ambrose d. . Jerome . . d. . . . Augustine * d. . . . 8T 378 879 380 389 394 402 407 444 3i '3 330 420 430 FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renewed in cheap-books, flourished about the end of the 15th century. Goethe's poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790. FEEJEE ISLANDS, or FIJI, in the Pacific Ocean. There are 80 inhabited islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,00 inhabitants. FENIANS. A society of Irishmen in the TT. S. and in Ireland, pledged to work tor the liberation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First attracted notice in the U. S. in 1863. In that year, Nov., a Fenian Congress met in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the order numbered 80,000. " Head Centre " Stephens figured conspicuously as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were held all over the country. la the Spring considerable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a body of them crossed over and engaged in a skirmish with Canadian troops. They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. In 1867, the excitement over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders were arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and was not an Amer- ican movement as indicated by Haydn, p. 297. FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts of Ajnerica in the 17th century. See Buccaneers. It was applied to Walker and other adventurers from the United States, who within the last few years endeavored to obtain possession of Central America and Cuba. FINLAND. A Russian principality, was conquered by the Swedes in the middle of the 12th century, who introduced Christianity. It was several times con- quered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. FIRE ANNIHILATORS. An article so called was exhibited in New York, 185-. but its practical usefulness has not been demonstrated. FIRE-ARMS, U. S. The Sharpe's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this country. During the war, great improvements were made in this branch of ordnance. The Spencer Repeating Rifle patented in 1860, carries seven cart- ridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 times before reloading; patented 1861. 120 shots have been fired from it in 5J minutes, including the time for reloading. The standard musket used in the U. S. Army, is the Springfield Rifle, muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenal (1866-7). 120 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS. FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In 1867, th following cities had introduced the new system as follows: Steamers. Men. Cost Baltimore, 7 114 $73,000 Boston, 11 281 162,098 Buffalo, 7 189 46,470 Cleveland, 6 56 39,000 Steamers. Men. Cost. Chicago, 13 110 $245,50fi Cincinnati, 12 140 141,000 New York, 34 664 869,957 FIRE-ESCAPES. In England the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first established in 1836 ; its object was not fully attained till 1843, when it was reorganized, beginning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1858, 504 fires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued by the Society's officers. In New York city the necessity for effectual means of escape from fires in large buildings was sadly shown by the loss of life by fires in tenement houses, 1859-60. Two or three different fire- escapes were exhibited in the autumn of 1860. FIRES IN THE U. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1866 inclusive were $214,588,000. In 1865, there were 354 fire*', where the loss was upwards of $20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $43,419,uOO. The largest fire of late years was at Portland, Maine, July 4, 1866. 1,6DO build- ings were burned ;" loss, $9,000,0 )0 ; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nash- Tille, Tenn., July 24, 1866, loss, $1,000,000. Colt's Armory, Hartford, burned, Feb. 8, 1864 ; Loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and University Medical College, N. Y., burned, May 21, 1666. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian Institute, Washington, partially burned Jan. 24, 1865; the Meteorological department suffered heavily. VLAG. See American Flag. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth century in Spain ; it was previously small and square. Ashe. The flag is said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, before which time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon The term flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what country a ship belongs. The honor-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England at a very early date, but it was formally yielded by the Dutch in A. i>. 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. Henault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Papaehin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 4, 1688. FLORIDA, (p. 378.) Passed an ordinance of secession from the U. S., Jan. 11, 1861, and seized the U. S. Navy Yard at Pensacola. Population, 1850, 87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. In 186fi, 77.747 white ; 62,677 colored ; total 140,424. Mr. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor, July 13, 1865. FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliariea in the pay of the British government. An act for the formation of the Foreign Legion as a contingent to the Russian war (1855) was passed Dec. 23, 1854. The endeavor to enlist for the legion, in 1854, in the United States, gave great offence to the American government. Mr. Crampton was dis- missed, and Lord Napier sent out as English representative. FRANCE, (p. 382.) For the succession of events in France, see Chronological Tablet, page 65 et seq. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 121 GOVERNMENT. New Republic proclaimed ; provi slonal government established, Lamarune at the head 1848 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte declar- ed Pres. by the Nat. Assembly, Dec. 19, 1848 Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the French. Votes for the empire, 7,839,552 ; noes, 254,501 : null, 63,609 Nov. 21, 1852 The Emperor proclatrned.. Dec. 2, 186J Empress : MARIE KCOENIF. (a Spa- niard), born My 6, 1826, married .Ian. 29, 1853 Heir : NApotEON-EcGENiE-Louis- Jean Joseph, bom. ...March 16, 1856 Heir presumptive, in default of Louis Napoleon's issue : Prince JEROME NAPOLEON, and his heirs male FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN. (p. 383.) The restricted diet of the Germanic Confederation was constituted at Frankfort, Aug. 10, 1850. The plenipoten- tiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklenburg, assembled here, and constituted themselves the Council of the Germanic Diet, Sept. 1, 1860. Prussia refused to recognize it. Frankfort annexed to Prussia after the war with Austria, 1866. FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb.10, 1866. FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN. His last Arctic expedition in command of H.M. Ships Erebus and Terror sailed from Greenhithe, May 24, 1845. His last despatches home were dated July 12, 1845. As no later news came from him, the British gov. in 1850 offered ^0,OOD reward to any who might discover or assist the missing ships. Several expeditions were sent in search of them from England and the U. S., viz. : 1. H. M. Bhip Plover, Capt. Moore, Jn. 1, 1848 2. Land Expedition under Sir J. Richardson and Dr. Rae, Me 1 1. 25, 1848 8. Sir Jaa. Ross, in the Enterprise anil Investigator June 12, 1848 4. Capt. Collinson and Com. Mc- Clure sailed in same vessels June 20, 1850 5> Capt. Austin, in the Rex, lute, &o Apr. 25 1850 6. Cnple. Penny and Steward, in the Ltxly Franklin, &c Apr. 13, 18CO 7. The QRINNELL (AMEB.) exm-d - tion, under Ue Haven (Dr. KANE, surgeon), in the Ai/vdnoe and Rescu* May 25, 1850 8. 8ir John Ross in the Felfa. May 22, 1850 9. Sir Ewd. Belcher's exnedition (5 vessels), Assistance, Ac. Apr. 15, 1862 Lady Franklin fitted out the four next (private) expeditions, viz. : 10. The Prince A lliert.... June 5, 1850 11. The same vessel .June 4, 1851 12. The Isabel, Com. Inglefield, Nov. 1852 13. The same vessel 1853 14. H. M. S. Rattlesnake.... Aut;. 1853 15. Second AMERICAN expid. (Dr. KANE, In the J.c/e,SSO,- 003. The fire risks in 1860, were $1,049,551,594; in 1866, $2,753,7da,107. The losses paid in 1866, were $15,312,750. INSURRECTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. Shays's Insurrection in Massachusetts, (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794 See the accounts of Conspi- racies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. INTEREST OF MONEY IN THE UNITED STATES. The rates vary in different States, viz. : In La., five per cent., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. .!., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. C., Tenn., Ky., Ind., III., Mo., Ark., and t!ie United States gov- ernment claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. C., Mich., and Wis., seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Miss., and Fin., eight percent. Laws ngainst usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Maine. Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury and double, or treble the usury in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. C., Ga., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. INUNDATIONS, (p. 426.) Disastrous one in the centre and south-west ol France, on the Loire, &c., damage over 4,000,000 sterling, Oct., 1846. In SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 133 south of France with immense damage, May and June, 1866. At Han* burg, the city half flooded, Jan. 1, 1855. IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). The Republic of the Seven Islands, Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, St. Muura, Cerigo, and Paxo, which were colonized by the lones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek people ; were subject to Naples in the 18th century, and in the 14th to Venice, which ceded them to France, in 1797, by the treaty of Campo-Forniio. They were seized by the Russians and Turks in 1800 ; and formed into a Republic. They were restored to the French in 1807, but retaken by the English in 1809. A new and very liberal constitution was granted in 1846. They are now among the free states of Europe ; Corfu is the seat of government. Population in 1856, 49,663. IOWA. One of the U. S. (territory 1838), admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 28, 1846. Population in 1840, 42,924; in 1850, 191,881 ; in 1856, 519,- 148, and 271 colored; in 1860, 682,000. In 1S63 she had 800 miles of rail- road completed. Value of the exports from her river ports in 1862, $8,2oO,- 000. Population in 1865, 754,732, of whom 3,607 were black. The State furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,- 216 pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are institutions for the insane and blind in the State. IRON. The value of the annual product of the CT. S. in 1860, was about $7,000,000, or about 1,200,000 tons. The quantity of pig iron produced in the U. S. in 1866, was 939,956 tons. 339,764 tons were manufactured into new and re-rolled rails; 129,858 in nails; 946,613 in castings over 10 pounds weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 1,000,000 tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 years. ITALY (p. 429). "Napoleon III. et 1'Italio," published Feb., 1859 The Austrian ultimatum rejected by Saidinia April 26, 1859 The Austrians cross the Ticino, April 27 ; and the French enter Genoa, May3, 1859 Peaceful revolutions at Florence, April 27 : Parma, May 3 ; Modenu, June 15, 1859 The Austrians defeated at Montebel- lo, May 20 ; Talestro, May 30 31 ; Magenta, June 4 ; Mariguano, June 8; SollVr.no June 24, 1859 Provisional governments established at Florence, April 27 ; Parma, May ; and Modena. (The sovereigns re- tire.) Juno 15, 1859 Insurreciionsin the Papal States : Bo- lojraa, Fcrrara, &c June 13-15, 1859 Massacre of the insurgents at Peru- gia by the Swiss troops June 20, 1859 Armistice between Austria and France July 6, 1859 Preliminaries of peace signed at Vil- lafranca ; Lombardy surrendered to Sardinia , July 12, 1859 Italy dismayed at first at the peace; great agitation at Milan, Florence, Modcna, Parma, &c July, 1859 Grand Duke of Tuscany abdicates about July 28, 1859 The Pope appeals to Europe asrainst the King of Sardinia .July 12, 1859 Garibaldi becomes commander of the Italian nrmy, and exhorts the Ital- ians to arm Juiy 19, 1859 Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, Aug. 11, and at Modena, Aug. 16, 1859 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Komiigna declare for annexation to Piedmont Sept. 3-7, 1859 Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscriptions in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for the Italians.. Oct., 1S59 Garibaldi, with a force of about 1 ,200 men, in two small steamers, em- barks from near Genoa for Sicily, May 6,1860 Garibaldi lands at Marsala, May 10 ; and after several victories takes possession of Palermo, May 27 ; and establishes a provisional govern- ment fur Sicily, which is entirely evacuated by Neapolitan troops, June 3, 1860 Garibaldi victorious at Melazzo, July 20-1, 186(1 Garibaldi lands in Calabria, Aug. 8; enters Salerno, Aug. ; enters Na- ples Aug., 1860 Francis II., King of Naples, retires to Gaeta. Aug.; siege of Gaeta commenced by Victor Emanuel, Oct.. 18f Gaeta capitulates Feb. 14, 1861 134 THE WORLD'S PBOGBE8S. IRVINGITES, or the followers of the Rev. Edward Irving, in England, who now call themselves the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged in 1853), and have church officers named apos- tles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852, lights on the magnificent altar and burning of incense during prayers were prescribed. Their Gothic church or cathedral in Gordon square was solemnly opened Jan. 1, 1854. It is said that all who join the church offer a tenth of their income for its support and exten- sion. They had 30 chapels in England in 1861. JAPAN. U. S. exped. under Com. Perry (7 ships of war), entered the Bay of Yeddo, Feb., 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships wrecked on the coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce, which was agreed upon, March 31. A British squadron for the same purpose reached Nagasaki, Sept., 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians followed ; and the Dutch made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-general for the U. S., made a new treaty, June 17, 1857, by which Nagasaki, Simoda, and Hakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in Yeddo in 1858, and effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening sev- eral ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 1858. Death of the Tycoon, August, 1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, 70 persons), reaches San .Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, June 9; New York, where they were received with a great military display, June 16; embarked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, July 1 ; reached Yeddo, Nov. If), 1860. A troup of Japanese jugglers arrived in the U. S. in 1866. In the spring of 1867, their performances in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their proprietor is under bonds to return them to Japan in two years. Commission- ers from Japan again visited Washington in 1867, and made purchases of large quantities of school books for public schools in Yeddo, and also bought from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of $400,000. Ministers of the U. S., England, France, &c., notified May, 1867, that Yeddo and other ports would be opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868. JEDDO, or YEDDO (p. 432). Severe earthquakes, Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 1855; during the latter 57 temples, 100,000 houses, and 30,000 persons were said to have been destroyed. JESUITS (p. 433). In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechismo Filoso- fao" or dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for kings, how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promisee made to their people. JEWS (p. 434). Alderman Salomons, first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, 1865 Seizure of Mortara, a Jewish child, by the Cath. Archbp. of Bologna, June 24 1858. Baron Rothschild takes his seat as M. P. for London (first Hebrew in Brit. Parliament), July 24, 1858. JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. City in the summer of 1866, by Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. Its object is to improve the breed of horses, and establish a better system of races. A park and course have been laid out at Fordham, near the city, at the expense of Mr Jerome. The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The celebrated horse "Kentuc- ky " won the 4 mile heat in 7.25. JUGGERNAUT (p. 436). The state allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian government in June, 1851. SUPPLEMENT. 1851-67. 135 KAFFRARIA, An extensive country in South Africa extending from the north of Cape Colony to the south of Guinea. The Kaffirs or Caffres first invaded the British colony at the Cape in 1831, and continued a warfare up to Dec. 20, 1852, when they were defeated and sued for peace. KANSAS. One of the United States (the 34th), organized as a territory, May, 1854, and by the same act the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was declared "inoperative and void" in both Kansas and Nebraska. Emigrant companies from Mass, began to arrive in July and founded the town of Lawrence. An association formed in Missouri, July 29, to "remove all emigrants" coming " under the auspices of northern emigrant aid societies ; " another formed Aug. 12 to introduce slavery. A. H. Reeder of Pa., app. governor, arrived Oct. 6. Election for delegate to Cong., Nov. 29 ; the polls mobbed by armed bands from Missouri; another election March 20, 1855, similarly controlled; Reeder superseded July 26 by Wilson Shannon of Ohio ; Topeka (" free State") Convention promulgates a Constitution Nov. 11; collisions, with bloodshed, between the "free state" and "pro-slavery" people commenced at this time, and continued more or less for many months. Topeka Const, accepted by the people Dec. 15, and under it Charles Robinson chosen governor, Jan. 15, 1856. Armed men from Ga., Alabama, &c., arrived in the territory April, 1856. Report of H. Repres. of U. S. on Kansas affairs, proving fraud and violence of pro-slavery invaders. Robinson arrested for treason, May 5, and imprisoned four months for taking office under Topeka Constitution. Raid of pro-slavery men on the town of Lawrence, May 21. Fight at Potawatamie May 26, and several other collisions for several months. Free State legislature at Topeka dispersed by U. S. troops under Col. Sumuer, July 4. Shannon re- moved, and John W. Geary of Pa. appointed in his stead Aug. A party led by Ex-Senator Atchison of Mo. repulsed in an attack on Osawatomie Aug. 29. Free state men driven by Missourians from Leavenworth, Sept. 1. Robinson and others released on bail Sept. 8, and Geary promising protection to free state men they gave up their arms. Topeka legislature met Jan. 6, 1857 ; the Speaker and others arrested by U. S. Marshal. Pro-slavery legislature at Lecompton provides for a convention. Geary resigned in consequence of ille- gal acts of Lecompte, U. S. judge, 1857. Robert J. Walker appointed gov- ernor, and F. P. Stanton of Tenn., secretary, June. M. J. Parrott elected del- egate to Cong. Lecompton Constitution promulgated, and caused great ex- citement Dec., 1857. Walker denounces it as a fraud, and resigns because the Const, is approved by the President. J. W. Denver of Cal. app. governor Dec., 1857. Lecompton Const, submitted to the people and repudiated by 10,226 votes. Convention at Wyandot adopts a Const, prohibiting slavery, July 27, which is ratified by the people (4,000 majority), Oct. 4. Under it Charles Robinson chosen governor Dec. 6. Kansas admitted into the Union under the Wyandot Constitution Jan. 29, 1861. Population in 1859, 69,950; in 1860, 143.645. Act establishing an "Agricultural College " passed Jan., 1863. The state furnished 19,500 men to the war. Efforts to advance the internal condition of the state are being made by the legislature every year. Asylums for the deaf, blind, and insane, have been organized. KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, defended 5 mos. by the Brit, under Gen. Wil- liams against a Russian siege, June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. KENTUCKY. Population in 1850, 771,424 and 210,981 slaves. In 1860, 933,707, and 226,902 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years 19 per cent., inc. of 136 THE WORLD'S PBOGBESS. slaves 7 per cent. There was a slight decrease of the population, caused by the war, in 1865. The state sent 63,995 white and 20,400 colored soldiers (Union) to the war. Population in 1865, 1,155,668. KINDER-GARTEN (children's garden). A system of education devised by Fro bel, but practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany, in 1849, and in England in 1851. The system, founded mainly on self- tuition, and en- livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in Ronge's " Kinder-Garten," published in 1858. KNOW-NOTHINGS, or the " American party." A political organization in the U. S., 1853, to insist that the Americans shall rule America. LACE. (p. 444) This manufacture has been so advanced by improvements, that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost 17, may now be had for 7s. Ure. LANGUAGE. Hon. George P. Marsh, in a recent lecture, stated that there were nearly 100,000 English words found in use by good writers, but that no single writer employed more than a very small proportion of the whole. Few scholars used as many as 10,OuO English words, and ordinary people not more than 3,000. In all Shakespeare there were not 15,000 words, and in all Milton but 8,000. TSere were but 800 of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. LAW. (p. 447.) The numbe." of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851, was 21,979, or about one to uvery fifteen hundred inhabitants. Monthly Law Magazine. ' Estimating their average receipts a $1,000 per annum, their ag- gregate income would reach within a fraction of twenty two millions of dollars. In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066; and in Georgia, 908. Livingston's Law Register. LEGACY DUTY, INTERNAL REVENUE, U. S. By the Revenue laws of 1861-62- 63, Legacies were included on the taxable list. A tax of 75 cents to $5. is imposed on " every hundred dollars of the clear value of interest in such prop- erty." In 1863, the revenue from legacies to parent, child, &c., was $25, 869, to nephew, niece, &c., $11,333, to uncle, &c., $921, to corporations, strangers &c., $18,470. Total Revenue from legacies and successions in 1S64, $310, 836; in 1865, $546,703 ; in 1866, $1,170,979. LIBEL, LAW OF, U. S. Action for libel lies against the proprietor of a newspaper edited by another, though the publication was made without the knowledge of such proprietor. LIBERIA. The number of American Africans in 1860, was about 10,000; na- tives under jurisdiction of the republic about 250,000. In 1 856 the sugar cane was introduced, and in May, 1860, a cargo of sugar was sent to N. Y. Palm oil reported in 1859, $500,OuO. A college, several schools, 2 newspnpers, and several churches bave been established (1859). Population in 1863, 422,000, of whom 16,000 were born in the U. S., and 6,000 rescued from slave-ships. The government is republican. Capital Monrovia. Revenue of the Republic in 1861, $149,550 LIBRARIES. The Astor Library, founded by the late J. J. Astor, who left, by will, $400,000 "for the establishment of a public library in New York," " which should be open at all reasonable hours, free of expense, to persons re- orting thereto." The original buildiug opened to the public Jan. 9, 1854. Another building of similar style and eitent was added by W. B. Astor, 1860. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 137 The whole contained in 1860 about 120,000 volumes, including the most val- uable, rare, and costly works purchasable. The free Public Library in Boston, opened Sept. 17, 1858, is a noble institution of a similar kind found- ed at a similar expense by several munificent citizens. It is wholly free to the public, and about 30,000 volumes are provided, which may be taken from the library by any resident of Boston. It is a remarkable fact that these 30,000 volumes had thus been freely loaned to all comers without loss or damage to the amount of $100 in 2 years. In 1864 there were 104 libraries in the U. S. of over 100,000 volumes, distributed among 23 of the states and containing 2,- 404,000 books, or about the total number in all the public libraries of the country. The Church and Sunday-School libraries were estimated to contain from 5 to 6 million volumes. In the work entitled " Private Libraries of New York" (Dr. Wynne) are found notices of over 40 collections of 4,000 and 12 with 10,000 volumes (1864). In 1859 the following statistics were com- piled : Number of Libraries in the U. S. with volumes reported, 1,297, es- timated, 1,593 ; libraries of common schools, 18,000; Sunday-Schools, 30,000; total, 50,890 libraries, number of volumes, 12,720,686. LICENSE TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Total receipts from this source in 1863, $6,824,178; in 1864, $7, 146,389 ; in 1865, $12,613,- 478 ; in 1866, $18,038,098. In 1865, the largest amount was received from wholesale dealers, $5,4-28,345. Retail dealers in liquors paid $2,807,225. Re- ceipts from bowling alleys were the smallest, $19,749. LIGHTHOUSES. In 1859, there were 491 light stations on the coasts of the U. S., including the Pacific and the lakes, the annual cost to govt. being $932,- 000. The No. of buoys and beacons was about 5,000. A large number of the lighthouses from Cape Henry to the Rio Grande, were destroyed by the Con- federates in the late war. LOANS, U. S. The following are the principal loans of the Government in support of the war against the Rebellion. Name of Loan. Length of Loan. Amount Issued^ Loan of Feb 8, 1861 20 years $18,415,000 7.30Dotes 3 " 139,999,750 Five-Twenties 5 or 20 years 514,780,000 Ten-Forties 10or40 " 172,770,100 Five-Twenties 5 or 20 " 91,789.000 Treasury Notes 3 years 178,756,000 7.30 Notes " " 134,400,000 " " " " " 437,210,400 See Arpleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, 1865. Finances- LONDON, (p. 458.) The population of London in 1861 was 2,803,034. LONGEVITY, IN THE U. S. In 1860 there were 2,960 persons over 100 years of age. In the State of N. Y. (1865) there were 108. LOTTERIES. In N. Y. and Pa. Lotteries have been declared by law to be " public nuisances," and to be indictable as such. The Am. Art Union was pro- nounced illegal, as a lottery, 1851. About 1820 there was a lottery at Natchez for building a Presbyterian church. At other times colleges, roads, ferries, hospitals, &c. have been aided by lotteries. They were still tolerated in Maryland, Georgia, and perhap's other States (1861). The "Crosby Opera House " Association, in 1866, was a lottery, in which the "opera house "at Chicago, was the principal prize. All who invested received a prize equivalent to their amount immediately on payment. The proprietors made large profits, as subscriptions came in from all parts of the country. LOUISIANA, (p. 460.) Population in 1850, 517, 762. In 1855, by state census, 138 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 587,774, including 244,000 slaves. In 1860, 666,413, including 312,186 slaves Ordinance of secession from the U. S. passed by Convention, Jan. 26, 1861 Motion to submit the question to the people was defeated by a large ma- jority. The principal portion of the state came under the authority of the Government before the close of the war. Number of men furnished to the Union army, mostly blacks, 40,000. Debt of the State in 1867, $13,358,0,)0. LOUVRE, (p. 460.) The magnificent buildings of the New Louvre begun by Napoleon I., and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the latter in groat state, Aug. 14, 1857. LYNCH LAW. Punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the legal authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who ex- ercised it upon the fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the " dismal swamp," North Carolina, when they committed outrages upon persons and property which the colonial law could not promptly redress. This mode of ad- ministering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and has prevailed more or less in recent years in the western border of southern states. LYNCH LAW, "A common phrase used to express the vengeance of a mob, inflicting an injury, and committing an outrage upon a person suspected of some offence. In England this is called Lidford Law." Bouvier. M MACADAMIZING. The inventor of this system of repairing roads (Mr. John Macadam), received a grant from Parliament in 1825 as a reward. MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, B. c. 167, when Mattathias, a priest, resisted the tyranny of the governor. Ills son Judas Maccabeus defeated the Syrians in three battles, B. c. 166, 165 ; but fell in an ambush, B. c. 161. His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, and after an able administration, was treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, B. C. 143. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, B. c. 135. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aristobulus, took the title of king, B. c. 107. The history of the Macca- bees is contained in five books of that name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha, and are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, but not by Protestant communions. MADAGASCAR, (p. 464.) The French were defeated in an attack on this island, Oct. 19, 1855. The native Christians have suffered much persecution, although the prince, the son of the reigning queen, embraced Christianity in 1846. The Rev. W. Ellis in 1858 published an interesting account of his three visits to the island, on behalf of the London Missionary Society in 1854-5-6. MADEIRA, (p. 464.) Since 1852, the vintages here have been totally ruined by the vine-disease. MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French and Sardinian army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Aus- trians were engaged. The former are asserted to have lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7,000 prisoners ; these numbers are still doubtful. The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. The emperor and king entered Milan on June 8 following. MacMahon and SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 139 Regnault d'Angely were created marshals of France for gallantry in the action. MAGNETISM. In 1831 electricity was produced from a magnet by Professof Faraday, who has since published his researches on the action of the magnet on light, on the magnetic properties of flume, air, and gases (1845), on dia- magnetism (1845), on magne-crystallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnet- ism (1850), and on the magnetic force (1851-52). In the present century our knowledge of the phenomena of magnetism has been greatly increased by the labors of Arago, Ampere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, PoggeudorS', Sabine, Lament, Tyndall, Du Moncel, &c. MAINE, (p. 466.) Population in 1850, 583,169; increase in 10 years, 16 per cent. Population in 1860, 619,958 ; increase in 10 years 6-J per cent. No. men furnished to the army and navy 1861-5, 71,558. MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol on which was situated an old tower, which the Russians strongly fortified during the siege in 1854-5. The allied French and English attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of 48 hours were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed and 1,126 wounded ; that of the French 3,338 killed and wounded. On Sept. 8, the French again attacked the Halakhoff; at 8 o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered redoubt In the Malakhoff and Redan were found 3,000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 Ibs. of gunpowder. MANASSAS JUNCTION, VIRGINIA, an important military position, where the Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named BULL RUN. It was held by the rebels under Beauregard in 1861, when they were attacked by General McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Run. McDowell had the advantage till about three o'clock, p. M., when the rebel Gen. Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first were taken for Union troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in dis- graceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1,011 wounded, 1,216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1,500. In March, 1862, when the army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, marched into Vir- ginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle between the northern and southern armies. In August, General " Stonewall " Jackson, after compelling Gen. Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar moun- tain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas, repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th General R. E. Lee (who had defeated McClellan before Richmond, June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate con- flict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, com- pelling the Union army to a hasty retreat to Centreville, wheiv they were once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan resumed the command, to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. See United States. MARONITES. A body of Christians in Asiatic Turkey, who recognize the authority of the pope. They live near Mt. Lebanon, and in Aleppo, Damaa- 140 THE WOBLD'S PBOGBESS. c is. and other places. They suffered severely in the massacre by the Dtuset in 1860, and some accounts make the Maronites the original aggressors. MAROONS. A name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island was conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes, abandoned by their former masters, fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitu- lated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and transported to Nova Scotia. JBrande. They were also sent to Sierra Leone ; and many of them are among the Dutch of Surinam. MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia), were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842. MARRIAGE, (p. 470.) The number of marriages in England and Wales in 1750 was 40,300 1820 was 96.883 1850 was 152,744 1800 " 73,228 1840 " 121,083 1858 " 156,207 Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrars' returns, that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the marriage register with their marks.* See Divorce. It has frequently been attempted to legalize a marriage with a deceased wife's sister, without success. A bill for this purpose passed the Commons, July 2, 1858, but was rejected by the Lords, July 23 following. MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music of this hymn are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, a French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of Marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army then at Strasburg. The hymn derived its name from the circumstance of some troops from Marseilles marching into Paris to the tune at a time when it was little known there, in 1792. JBrande. MARYLAND, (p. 471.) Population in 1850, 583,034, including 74,723 free colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per cent. In 1860, the population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years, 11 per cent.; decrease of slaves, 6 per cent. In 1861 desperate at- tempts were made by the Secessionists of the State to carry it into the " Con- federacy" and to betray the National cause but they were defeated by the predominant Union sentiment. See Baltimore. In 1865, the Legislature dis- fanchrised all Marylanders who had fought against the Union. Union troops furnished for the war . Disbursements for Union troops, $4,212,479. MASSACHUSETTS. Population in 1850, 994,514; increase in 10 years, 34 per cent. In 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, increase in 5 years, 16 per cent. These returns placed Mass, the 6th in the Union in population, In I860 the population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years 24 per cent. Total industrial production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail- roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war in 1861-5, 159,165, of whom about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865, 1,267,329. MATCHES, U. S. The tax on matches imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hun dred. The revenue from this source in 1865, was about $1,000,000. * In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1S20 ; 248,74 In 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As reppcctg Paris, the statistics of that city, which are very minute .ind curious, furnish the following classes as occurring in 7,754 marriages : Bachelors and maids, 6,456 ; bachelon a-id \vidowa, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers ai.d widows, 222. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 141 MEDICAL COLLEGES, U. S. There were 54 medical schools and colleges in the U. S. in 1862. The oldest is the University of Peun. at Phila., 1765. MEDICI FAMILY. Illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in Italy ; were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been banished from the republic, was re- called, and made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (Pope Leo X.), was the son of Lorenzo. Roscoe. From 1569 to 1737, the Medici family were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany. MEMPHIS. An ancient city of Egypt, ("of which the very ruins are stupendous;") is said to have been built by Mcnes, 3890 B. c. ; or by Misraim, 2188 B. c. It was erected by Alexander, 332 B. c. ; and restored by Sepdmus Severus, A. D. 202. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 B. c., began, and the founding of Alex- andria, 332, completed the ruin of Memphis. MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe and embraced many communities; but at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, were confined to four orders Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and others branched off. MENU, INSTITUTES OF. The very ancient code of India. Sir W. Jones, who trans- lated them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between Homer (about 962 B. c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B. c). Haughton's translation appeared in 1825. MEROVINGIANS. The first race of French kings, 418-752. MESMERISM. So called from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, of Mersburg. He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766; con- tending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused through the universe, a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani- mated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he. gained numerous pro- selytes to his system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government- at length appointed a committee of physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate his pretensions. Among these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their inquiries appeared in an admirable paper drawn up by the latter,' exposing the futility of animal magnetism, as the delusion was then termed, and the quackery of Mesmer. Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau and others announced their belief in it.* METEOR. Remarkable instances of the phenomenon are recorded by the Chi- nese as early as 644 B. c. ; by Greeks and Romans (a few only); by Kepler (1623), H.-illey, Humboldt, Ca'vallo, Bowditch, and others, 1676, 17i9. 1783, 1819. A meteor passed over N. Y., Conn., R. I., Delaware, &c., July 20, I860. Extraordinary meteoric display in Nov. 1833, partially recurring every Nov. till 1839, and again in 1841 and 1846. These weie described by Prof. Olmstead of New Haven. METHODISTS, (p. 478.) The first Methodist organization in the U. S. was at Baltimore, 1784, Wesley sanctioning it as the "Meth. Episcopal Church of America." Introduced in S. Carolina and Georgia, 1785. Secession of And- In 1859 the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, Archbishop "Whately being president, and the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes among the vice presidents. 142 THE WORLD'S PEOGBESS. Episcopal branch, 1830. Secession (on account of the slavery question) of the "Methodist Episcopal Church South," 1844. The northern branch had in 1860, 956,555 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual conferences," 24 colleges, 2 biblical institutes, and 120 seminaries. The "M. E. Church South" in 1845, had 6 bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 124, 811 colored members, 2,978 Indians. In 1859 the total membership was 721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 28 colleges and 27 high schools for females; and a publishing house at Nashville which issued 600 million pages in 5 years. The Meth. Prot. Church in 1858, had 90,000 members and 2,000 ministers. No. of Methodists in U. S. in 1863, 1,650,000; number of churches, 11,638 ; ministers, 10,911. MEXICO, (p. 479.) Herrera, president, 1848; succeeded by Gen. Arista, Jan. 15, 1851 ; who was compelled by revolution to resign, 1853, and Santa Anna was recalled and made president with unlimited powers. Insurrection of Alvarez, Jan. 1854 ; flight of Santa Anna, Aug. 1855, and elevation of Carrera for 27 days. Alvarez made president by a Junta, but after a few weeks resigned in favor of Comonfort, who confiscated Church property, March, 1856. New constitution promulgated by Congress, March, 1857, opposed by the army, and a new revolution (Jan. 1858), suppressed Comonfort, and elevated Zuloaga to the presidency. Juarez (chief-justice), claims this post, and retires to Vera Cruz, May 4, I860, assuming there to be the "Constitutional president." Zu- loaga deposed, and Gen. Miramon as chief of the Conservatives or Church party leads a war against Juarez, which ends in the triumph of Juarez, Jan. 1861. In July, 1863, an assembly of notables in the City of Mexico, declared Mexico a moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maxmilian arch-duke of Austria, who accepted it; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864; defeated the liberals in several engagements. In the spring of 1867, the French troops who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims made by France, and by whose assistance Maximilian had established himself in Mexico, were with- drawn. The liberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maximilian in Queretaro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared him a usurper, and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place, against the protest of all foreign ministers, June 19, 1867. Miramon and Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A state of anarchy has existed in Mexico for years, and Maixmilian's object was to reduce the country to order under a monarchy. The contest was waged with great bitterness and cruelty. City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867. MICHAELMAS. The feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman Catholic Church, under the title of "St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael is supposed by the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This feast is celebrated on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, accord- ing to Butler, was A. D. 487. MICHIGAN, (p. 479.) Population 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in 1840-50, 87 per cent.; 1850-60, 89 per cent.; in 1864, 803,745. In 1864, 600,000,000 feet of lumber was sawed in this State. Number of men sent to the army in 1861-5, 90,119. MILITIA, (p. 480.) In England a volunteer militia was raised during the Cri- mean war, 1854, and again during the Indian mutiny, 1857. U. S. The mili- tia force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertained from official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non- commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates ; a total of 2,090,109 men. Since the late war, most of the states have organized their militia into SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 143 more efficient system than formerly. Volunteers in the war are exempt from duty for a certain period ; in Conn, for 3 years. MINCIO. A river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French under Brune, Dec. 26, 1800 ; and by Eugene Beauharnais, Feb. 8, 1814. The provinces of Verona and Mantua are watered by the Mincio. MINES, (p. 481.) The deepest coal pit in England was opened about 1860, after nearly 12 years' labor. The shaft is 686-J yards deep, and its sinking cost some 1500,000. The seam of coal is 4 ft. 8 in. thick, arid is calculated to yield 500 tons a day for 30 years. The shaft is 12 feet in diameter, and near the bottom 19 feet. Here it meets an "incline" nearly half a mile long. U. S. The famous Hayward gold mine, in Ainadon county, California, extends 1,200 feet below the surface of the earth. In thirteen years, $7,000,000 have been produced from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock lode," in Nevada, discovered in 1860. It is owned by about 100 different companies. The length of mining shafts in the West varies from 500 to 1,000 feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S., is nearly $150,000,000. MINIE RIFLE. Invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 1800). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d' escadron. His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for ac- curacy of direction and extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and with various modifications by the British army in 1852. MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territory, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1857. Population, 1850, 6,077 ; 1860, 176,535 ; 1865, 248,848. A terrible Indian massacre occurred in this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a body, and commenced a series of fiendish outrages. 500 whites were mur- dered in cold blood, and millions worth of property destroyed. Their depre- dations extended over an area of 20,000 square miles in the western part of the State. Gen. Sibley finally checked and defeated them ; 2,000 prisoners were taken, of whom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862, over 8,000 fugitive whites were receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota. MINT. (p. 482.) In England, first regulated by Athelstan, about A. D. 928. See Coinage. MIRRORS, (p. 482.) In 1851 Mr. Pettigrew made known a mode of silvering glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deleterious use of mercury. MISSIONS, PROTESTANT. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world in 1860, was 1,369, who are distributed as follows: North America, 125 ; South America, 11 ; the Antilles and Guiana, 218 ; Northern Africa, 6 ; West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152 ; Western Asia, 74 ; India and Ceylon, 419 ; Burrnah and Siam, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To the above must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2,737 native helpers (1860). Modern missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a written language. 20 dialects of Africa have been thus supplied, and 500,000 persons enjoy oral teaching. See Benevolent Societies. ROMAN CATHOLIC. The receipts of the great Romish missionary society, the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, for 1857, from all parts of the globe, amounted to $838,000. Their expenditures in Europe were about $159,000 ; in Asia, $284,000 ; in Africa, $54,000 ; in America, $177,000 ; in the South seas, $73,000. The whole amount contributed on this continent was about $32,- 000. It is stated that Protestants in the U. S. alone, give more for foreign missions than the one hundred and fifty millions of Catholics in all part* of tne world. 144 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. MISSISSIPPI, (p. 482.) This State repudiated $5,000,000 of its bonds, in 1839 (?) Population 1850,606,326; 1860, 836,658; increase from 1840 to 1850, 61 per cent. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River ; vhe Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it "Missoissippy /" Hennepin " Meschasipi." Sape is river, running water ; the prefix means " great, " " big, " "Ordinance of Secession " from the U. S. passed Jan. 9, 1861. Wm. D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor, June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State Convention petition for the pardon of Jefferson Davis, Aug., 1865. MISSOURI. Population in 1850, 682,044, including 87,422 slaves. In 1856 911,001, including 101,605 slaves. Increase in 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1830 to 1840, it was 133 per cent. Pop. 1860, 1,201,214, including 115,619 slaves. Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this State to effect secession, but they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor conflicts and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. Sue United Staf.es and Battlet. War debt, $7,546,575 ; Common School fund in 1865, $678,660. MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were offered by royal proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. Northouck. MOLUCCAS, an archipelago (the chief of Amboyna) in the Indian Ocean, dis- covered by the Portuguese about 1511, who held them secretly till the arrival of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them ever since except from 1810 till 1814, when they were sub- ject to the English. MONACHISM (from the Greek, monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early ex- amples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantino (A. D. 306-322) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets ; of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the Stylitae (or pillar saints), died A. D. 456. He is said to have lived on a pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachism, published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Cassino, about A. n. 629. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., are so many varieties of Bene- dictines. MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe, president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European power to interfere in restraining the progress of liberty in North or South America. Upon thi* doctrine the U. S. protested against the establishment of French troops in Mexico in 1861-6. They were finally withdrawn in 1867. MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians June 9, 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello; and where (May 20, 1869), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 2000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The French lost about 700, including general Beuret. MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was con- quered by Solyman II. in 1626. It rebelled in the last century, and establish SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 145 ed an hereditary hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegoach, endured, but not recognized by the Porte. MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846. MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, were first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Piete were not established in France till 1777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, 1851-2. See Pawnbroker, p. 464. MONUMENT OP LONDON, begun in A. D. 1671, and finished in 1677. The pedestal is forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base from the spot where the fire which it commemorates com- menced. It is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its erection cost about 14,500. MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Hungary was completely de- feated by the Swiss, June 20, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones of the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone column in its place. MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and 5,760 members. MORMONS. In Utah, their chief settlement, Brigham Young, their leader, was made Governor by Pres. Fillmore in 1850. The TJ. S. chief justice being repu- diated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned, Col. Steptoe, U. S. A. was ap- pointed governor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the U. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied, he resigned. Alfred Cummings appointed gov. by Pres. Buchanan, and arrived with 2,500 U. S. troops, Oct. 5. His trains were attacked and open rebellion proclaimed ; but in March, 1858, the Mormon leaders submitted and order was restored. Army withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their elders and preachers were gath- ering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it, and subsequently printed it. In Europe the number of Mormoiia has been estimated as high as 100,000; and some are reported in Asia, Africa, and Polynesia. Their number in Utah was estimated at 50,000, in 1862, and composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate them- selves the " Church of Jesus of the Latter Day Saints." Their church organ- ization is composed of a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Pres- idency, consisting of their chief prophet Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and Daniel H. Wells; next the Twelve Apostles ; then the quorums of Seven- ties, of which there are said to be 62 organized in the territories, each having seven presidents and 63 members; then follow quorums of High-Priests, Elders, Priests, Teachers, and Deacons. A somewhat anomalous office is that of pa- triarch, which has been conferred on John Smith (son of Hyrum and nephew of their first prophet Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each settlement a High-Council, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for eaci ward, the wards containing from 500 to 1,000 persons. (National Almanac^ Reported schism among the Mormons, 1867. MORTALITY IN WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compiled a com 7 146 THE WORLD'S PBOGEESS. plete list of all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every reg- iment from all the Northern States during the war. This record shows that 280,751 officers and men lost their lives in the service; of whom 5,221 com- missioned officers and 90,886 enlisted men were killed in action or died of wounds, and 2,321 commissioned officers and 182,329 men died of disease. MOSQUITO COAST (in Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast have been long under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States has long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, the two governments cove- nanted not to " occupy or iortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any do- minion over any part of Central America." MOUNT VERNON. The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased for the nation for the sum of $ 200,000, raised by ladies' associations, origi- nated by Miss Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina, 1858-60. During the war of secession this place was carefully protected by the government. MUNICH, .the capital of Bavaria, and one of the most beautiful sites in Germany, was founded, it is said, A. D. 962. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, in 1632 ; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743 ; and by the French, under Moreau, July 2, 1800. Munich abounds in schools, institu- tions and manufactories. The University was founded bv king Louis in 1826. MUKFREESBORO, (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between the U.S. troops under Rosencrans and the Rebels under Bragg, Dec. 30, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863. The rebels were defeated. MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged public attention first through the theatre. There was one established at the Capital during Washington's ad- ministration ; also afterwards at New Orleans. About 1826 an opera troupe appeared in New York, under Signer Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Malibran, his daughter, met with great success as an opera singer. Other Italian troupes followed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New York, New Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the Amer- ican Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Her success has been complete. Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in all large towns of the U. S., and musical concerts are greatly encouraged. The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledged. Among eminent playera are Gottschalk, Mason, Mills. About $15,000,000 worth of Pianos are man- ufactured yearly. See Pianos. NAPLES (p. 489). A martial anarchy prevails ....... Dec., 1849 The chiefs of the Liberal Party arrest- ed in ................................ 1849 BettembriEi, Pofrio, Carafa, and others, after a mock trial, are con- demned, and consigned to horrible dungeons for life .............. Jui e, 1850 After n monstrances with tlie king on his tyrannical government (May), tyr the English, and French amhas^a- d?rs are'withdrawn ......... Oct 28, 1856 Attempted as.-assination of the king by Milans ..................... Dec., 1856 The < imiitiri seized.... ......... .hi r, 1857 Italian refugees, under Count Pisac- cane, landing in Calabria, are defeat- ed, and their leader killed, June 27- July 2, 1867 Death of Ferd:nand II., afier dreadful sufferings May 22. 1859 Accession of Francis II. The city of Naples suriendeis to Gari- ba!di without a struggle, und the king retires to Gaeta Sept., 1860 Gaeta surrenders 'o the Sardinians, and the king takes refuge inn Frei.cb vessel Feb. 13, 1861 Si e Italy and Sicily. NASHVILLE, U. S. The capital of Tenn., occupied by the Union forces, Feb. 23, 1862. Great battle fought here Dec. 16, 1864, between the forces of SUPPLEMENT, 185 1-6 Y. 147 Gen. Thomas (Union) and Hood (Confederate). The former had been be- sieged for several days when he marched ont and attacked Hood, taking 18 guns. On the 16th he completely routed him, taking 20 guns. This was the last campaign of the Southern army of the West. NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by the Emperor Frederic I., about 1180, for Wolram, a descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom are descended the royal house of Orange now reigning in Holland and the present Duke of Nassau. Population of the duchy in 1857, 434,064. Wies- baden was made the capital in 1839. In 1866, after the war, this duchy was annexed to Prussia. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN (at New York), founded 1826. The first President was Samuel F. B. Morse, who was succeeded by A. B. Durand in 1845, and he by D. Huntington in 1862. Corner stone of new Academy building laid Oct. 21, 1863. Building opened and inaugurated April 17, 1865. See Design, Paintings. NATIONAL DEBT OF ENOLAND. The annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257; and the total interest, including annuities, amounted to 27,699,740. On Jan. 1, 1851, the total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,'272,56'2 ; the charge on which for interest and management was 27,620,449. On Jan. 1, 1852, it was 765,126,582; the charge, 27,501,783. Mr. GLADSTONE'S ESTIMATE : England $3,995,, or 121 " Turkey 255,000 000, or 115 * Prussia 215,000,000, or 12 Portugal 175,000,000, or 40 Great Britain's revenue has never exceeded 70,000,000 per yenr; but the United States Government are now raising $540,000,000 per year. UNITED STATES. At different times: See Loans. In 1791 the debt was $75,463,476 In 1800 " " 82,976,294 In 1810 " 53,173,217 In 1816 " 127,334,934 In 1820 " 9 ,015,566 Jan. 1, 1865. it was. 66,243,721 Dec. 1, 1*61 " 267,654,153 Jan. 1, 1863 " 764,535,854 Dec. 1, 1863 - 1,293,243.544 Fel.. 13, 1865 2,279.552^484 In 1830 the debt was $13,565,406 In 1(^35 ' " 37,733 In 1845 " 16,^01,647 In 1848 " " 65,804,450 Aug. 31, 1865 it was 2,757.089,571 (It reached its highest figure at this date.) Jan. 1, 1866 it was 2,716,581,536 Nov. 1, 1866 ' 2,551,31i',o05 May 1, 1867 " :2,520,7S6,ti9C Sept. It67 " 2.500.000,000 NATURALIZATION LAWS, U. S. By the Constitution, Congress has power to establish " one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts have been passed since 1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a re- sidence of five years in the country to entitle any one to citizenship. In the city of New York between 1860 and 1860, about 60,000 persons were natu- ralized. NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, feathers, &c., into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it were, to engrave themselves ; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing from. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants; and in the same year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to the impressions. In 1849, Professor Leydolt of Vienna obtained impressions of agates a"d fossils. The first practical application of this process in England wae in " The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland,' 1 edited by Dr. Lindley. 148 THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md., founded during the Presidency of Mr. Polk, chiefly at the instance of Mr. George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy. During the wur it was removed to Newport, R. I. It has since been re-established at Annapolis. NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. in the war of Secession : The Confederate forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C., bombarded by fleet Of Com. Stringham, and taken by land forces of Gen. Builer.Aug. 28, 29, 1861 Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Coin. Foote Feb. 6,1862 Great naval action in Hampton Road^Va^MMrchS.O.ieeZ The Coi ifi'd. ram Merrimac from Nor- folk, attacks the U. S. frigates "Cumberland" and " Congress," and sinks them. On the follow- ing day the U. S. "Monitor" (battery of 2 guns), arrived in, time to save the frigate Minneso- ta, and finally forced the Merri- mac to withdraw in a disabled condition. 'Com. Farnigut, with a fleet of 50 ves-els and 26 guns, passes fortB Jackson and Philips, destroys the enemy's rams, and takes New Or- leans April 18,28,1862 Grand military and naval expedi- tion, under Dupont, captures forts at Hilton Head, 8. C Nov. 7, 1861 Fierce action at Port Hudson, Miss. Admiral Farraput, in attempting to pass the batteries, loses his flagship "Mississippi," March 14, 1863 Combined attack of ironclads upon Fort Sumter, 8. C., five disabled, the fort receiving no great injury. April 7, 1863 The Confed. ram Albemarlo at- tacks U. S. gunboats at Plymouth, N. C., sinks one, and disperses the rest April 19, 1864 Brilliant engagement off Cher- bourg, France, between U. 8. gunboat " Kearsarge," and Con- fed. privateer "Alabama." The latter sunk in two hours June 19, 1864 Admiral Farragut, with 32 vessels and 231 guns, enters Mobile Bay, silencing the fort*, and capturing two heavy ironclads. One U. 8. Monitor sunk by a torpedo. . . . Aug. 5, 1864 Gunboat fight near Memphis, Tenn. The Union fleet com- pletely routed the enemy's, cap- turing 3 and disabling 4 of their vessels June 6, 1864 Formidable fleet of ironclads and frigates with 300 guns, under Admiral Porter, attack Fort Fisher, N. C. Under cover of the terrible fire, land forces storm and capture the fort.. ..Jan. 15, 1865 For list of minor engagements, t-ee Greeley's " Amer. Conflict," VoL IL NAVY OF ENGLAND (p. 496). In July, 1856, it consisted of 271 sailing ves- sels, carrying 9,594 guns ; and 258 steam vessels, carrying 6,582 guns ; also 155 gunboats, and 111 vessels on harbor service. NAVY OF FRANCE (p. 496) has been greatly increased by the present empe- ror. In 1859 it consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and 37 steamers), and 398 other vessels, in all 449. NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (p. 495). In 1860 consisted of 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers, first class, 6 screw do., second class, 15 do., third class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 storeships, 6 re- ceiving ships total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there were 58 serviceable vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted of but 12 ships, with 187 guns. In 1862 there were 427 vessels and 3,268 guns; in 1863, 588 vessels, 4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 vessels, 4,610 guns. At the close of 1864 there were 62 ironclads completed or on the docks. Total number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1866, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 vessels were commenced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing $18,366,681. Total expenses of Navy Department from March 4, 1861, to June 30, 1865, $314,170,960. The first ironclad was the Monitor, built by Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, completed March 5, 1862. In 1866, the navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In commission, 115 vessels, 1,029 guns. Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service in 1866, 13,600. ITEBRASKA, U. 8. Organized as a territory, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 149 about 100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indijms. Admitted into the Union, March 1st, 1867. NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1861. Capital, Carsou City. Area, about 80,000 square miles. Population, I860, 50,668, of whom 16,260 were Indians on reservations, and 7,550 tribal Indians. Admitted ai a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union. NEW GRENADA (South America), visited by Columbus, and in 1586 conquer- ed and settled by the Spaniards. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- gota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, formed the republic of Colombia in 1819. After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic of New Grenada, in June, 1858, merged into the Grenadine Confederation, which includes Bolivar, Antioguia, Panama, and other small States. NEW HAMPSHIRE (p. 497). Population in 1850, 317,976; increase in ten years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,072; increase, 3 per cent. Number of troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 33,427. NEW JERSEY (p. 498). Population in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored persons. In 1860,676,084. Increase in 10 rears, 35 per cent. Number of troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 79,348. Population, 1865, 773,700. NEWSPAPERS (p. 500). Some of the chief dailies : N. Y. Herald founded 1835 | Times 1850 | Evening Post 1801 Tribune 1841 | Sun 1833 | Commercial Advertiser.1797 Washington Intelligencer... 1801 In 1860 there were 3,364 newspapers published in U. S., of which 613 were in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania ; 382 in Ohio ; 221 in Illinois ; and 219 in Mass. In England and Wales there were 272 ; in France, about 600 ; in Germany, 1,500 ; in Russia, 100. In 1866, the number of newspapers in U. S. about 4,000 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. In 1865, number in State of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,900. GREAT BRITAIN (p. 445). la 1855 the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished, except for postal purposes. In 1857, 71,000,000 newspapers passed through the London post-office. ESTABLISHMENT OP THE PRESENT PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. PuMic Ledger 1759 Morning Chronicle 1770 Morning Post 1772 Morning Herald 17S1 | Observer 1792 Bell's Htssenger 179S Daily. Times.... ...1788 Sun. .1792 Morning Advertiser. .1803 Globi- Standard 1827 Daily News 18^6 Daily Telegraph 1855 .1803 | Morning Star 1368 Weekly. Bell's LilV in London.lSSO Sunday Times.... 182'.' Atlas 1826 Llovd's Weekly Paper.t8J2 News of the World 1843 Athenaeum 1828 Spectator 1828 Leader 1 850 Press 18a3 Illustr'd London Newsl8i2 Saturday Review leC- Weekly Dispatch 1801 Examiner 1808 Literary Gazette 1817 John Bull 1820 NEW MEXICO, U. S. Ceded to the U. S. in 1848. Organized as a territory, 1850. Capital, Santa Fe. Population in I860, 83,000 ; besides 55,100 tribal Indians. NEW ORLEANS, U. S. (p. 500.) The chief city of Louisiana, called the " Crescent City " on account of the circular bend of the river on which it stands. Founded by the French in 1718. Ceded to the U. S. in 1803. Population then, 8,000 ; in 1840, 102,000 ; in 1860, 168,800, of whom 13,- 800 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleans surrendered to th 150 THB WOELD'B PEOGBESS. TT. S. forces, the naval commanded by Admiral Farragut, and the land forces commanded by Gen. B. F. Butler, April 26, 1862. The misrepresentations aa to Butler's " brutal tyranny, especially towards females, " as recorded by Haydn (p. 613), and believed in England, have been long since exploded. Butler superseded in the command of the city and the Department of the Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 1863. Gen. Canby appointed to the post, 1864. Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the " Radical Conven- tion," July, 1866. NEWPORT, R. I. One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S. In 1861 the Naval Academy was removed from Annapolis to this place. In 1865 it was re-established at Annapolis. NEW YORK, STATE OF. Population in 1860, 3,851,563 ; increase in ten years, 24 per cent. No. of school districts, 11,621. Pupils in public schools, 851,- 533. Volumes in school libraries, 1,360,507 (1860). Population in 1865, 3,831,777 ; decrease of 2 per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823,484, of whom 683,611 were natives. The number of widows in the State principally a re- Bultof the war was 137,980. It sent 473,443 troops to the war. Number of convicts in State Prisons in 1865, 1,873. CITY OF. Population in 1850, 514,547; in 1860, 805,651; in 2855, 726,386. The density of the popula- tion is about 32,000 to the square mile, including 1,100 acres of parks. Debt of the city in 1867, $51,000,000. Value of real and personal property in 1865, $608,784,355. On the eleven street railroads in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,821,625. NICARAGUA, a State in Central America, which see. In 1855 Walker, the fili- buster, became sole dictator of the State. By the united efforts of the con- federated States the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii 6, 15) is said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a vow of continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to keep it, he gave his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to marry any other man she desired. His followers are said afterwards to have main- tained the legality of a community of wives, as well as holding all other things in common, and are accused of denying the divinity of Christ. NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1864, Miss Florence Nightingale left Eng- land with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; they rendered invaluable services to the army in the Crimean war : a fund was raised in England to commemorate her services by founding an institution for the training of nurses. The subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to 44,039. The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. NINEVEH. The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see Asxyria), founded by Ashur, who called it after himself, about 2,245 B. c. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B. c. Abbe Lenglet. Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 B. c.), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 B. c. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which four centuries hnn uot only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had long been blotted out of the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. lol before us distinct as those of a living people ; the most interesting of the sculptures brought to England and now with Br. Museum is the bas-relief of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation of the Assy- rian god Nisroch (from Ifisr, an eagle or hawk), whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 B. c. 2 Kings xix. 37. In 1848 Mr. Layard published his " Nineveh and its Remains," and in 1853 an account of his second visit in 1849-50. A collection of bas- reliefs from Nineveh was purchased by Mr. Jas. Lenox, of New York, and presented to the Hist. Soc. 1859 (?) NITROGEN OR AZOTE (from the Greek a no, and zoo, I live,) an irrespirable ele- mentary gas. Before 1777 Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that t^ atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydro- gen forms the volatile alkali ammonia so freely given off by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. Population in 1860, whites, 679,965, slaves, 328,377, total 1,008,342. Ordinance of "secession" passed May 21, 1861. Loss by the State in the war, $250,000,000. Gen. Sherman marched across the State in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden wa8 appointed provisional governor. Legislature declared the ordinance of seces- sion " null and void" Oct. 7, 1865. NORTHWEST PASSAGE, (p. 504.) The honor of actually effecting the north- west passage was achieved by Capt. McClure, in the British ship Investigator, which sailed with the Enterprize, Capt. Collinson, Jan. 20, 1850. Admiralty chart showing the discovery published 1853. NOVARA (SARDINIA), BATTLE OF, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal Radetzky totally defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army. The contest began at 10 A. M. and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded; the Sardinians lost between 8,OUO and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, and 3,000 prisoners. The king of Sardinia soon after abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, the present king (1867). NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111 B. c., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B. c., when Nuuiidia became a Roman province. NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes Numismatic Chronicle. Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840), is a useful introduction to the science. Other foreign works are numerous. Eckfeldt and Dubois, work on the coins of the U. S. pub. 1842, with later editions. Works by Bushnell, Prime, and others, published at N. York, and by Snowden at Philad. O OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The first one was established in the country in 1834 at Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three and three-quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch telescope was placed in a tower at Yale College. In 1838, a small observatory was estab- lished at Hudson, Ohio, through the exertions of Prof. E. Loomis. In 1840, 152 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. one at Philadelphia for the "High School." In 1841, one at West Point, for the U. S. Military Academy. Bill to provide for a U. S. Naval Observatory pas- sed Congress, Aug., 1842. In ]844, under the superintendence of Lieut. Gilliss, U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and furnished with European instruments. Lieut. Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 1844. Capt. Gilliss appointed in 1861, vice Maury absconded. First volume of astro- nomical observations appeared in 1842, compiled by Lieut. Gilliss. The Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. B. Dudley, 1858. The one at Cincinnati founded by Prof. Mitchel, 1843. Cambridge Observatory, 1845. Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largest telescope in the country. The Yale " Scientific school " has a revolving turret for observations. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private individuals; the principal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Misa Mitchel. OHIO, U. S. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. April 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered Ohio. Population in I860, 2,377,917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent. Number of men sent to the War in 1861-5,317,133. In 1866 there were erected in Ohio, at a cost of $4,889,900, 4,850 houses, 1,158 barns, 78 mills, 811 factories. OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, were discovered at Titusville, Pa., 1859. The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There were in 1861 numerous wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per day. In August, 1861, the excitement on petroleum increased wonderfully by the discovery of wells which threw up immense quantities of oil in the valley of Oil Creek, Pa. ; 30uO barrels were obtained from a single well in one day. Wells were discovered later in Ohio, California, Kentucky, and West Virginia. From Penn. in 1860, 2,000,00u galls, were sent to market ; in 1861, 20,000,000. In 186*2, $60,(. 00,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S. The daily yield from the wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,717 barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, petroleum was the subject of number- less speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. In Jan. 1862, the price of refined oil was 40 cents in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as $1,10; in Dec. it fell to 40 cents again. In 1866-7 the petroleum fever had greatly diminished. OLYMPIC GAMES (p. 508). In 1858, M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games under the auspices of the Queen of Greece. OMNIBUSES (p. 508). In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omni- buses with 2<)4 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10 down the city. OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 Ibs. of opium were imported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that not more than one-tenth of this used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and physicians say that the habit of taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending every year. The duty on opium is $2.50 per Ib. ; on opium prepared lor smok- ing, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress 1864-5). OREGON (p. 511). Received into the Union as a State, 1859. Population in 1860, 52,566. In 1865 about 70,000. ORGANS (p. 511). A monster organ erected in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, England, June, 1857, which at times overpowered the 2,400 vocal and instru- mental performers. The largest organ in the U. S. is that in the Music Hall at SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 153 Boston, Mass., completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beecher's church at Brooklyn, 1866. OSTROGOTHS, or EASTERN GOTHS, were distinguished from the Visigoths (West- ern Goths) about A. D. 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &c., their great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553. OUDE, a large and rich province in North India, formerly a vice-royalty held by the vizier of the Great Mogul. On the dismemberment of his empire about 1760, it was seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the late royal family. YES ! A corruption of the French Oyez, hear ye ! The term used by a public crier in law courts, &c., to enjoin silence and attention ; very ancient, and the date not known. OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The oyster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858 was valued at $20,000,000. From Baltimore in 1860, $3,500,000 worth was distributed through the country. The trade of the town of Fair Haven, Conn., is almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation and export of oysters. OZONE (from ozein, to yield an odor), a name given in 1840 by M. Schonbein of Basel to the odor in the atmosphere developed during the electric dis- charge. It is considered to be a modification of the oxygen, and when occur- ring naturally, to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 ozonometers had been constructed by Dr. Lankester and others in England. M. Schoubein has since discovered another modification of oxygen, which he terms aidozone. PAINTING, IN THE U. S. (p. 513.) Allston of S. C. and Boston, Morse of New York, historical painters. More recently, Cole, Doughty, and Durand, in land- scape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and Elliot in portrait. In landscape paint- ing during the last 20 years great advances have been made ; and the works of Church, Bierstadt, Gifford, and others have won fame and honor beside the best European works. See List of Painters in Biographical Index, also Tuckerman's Book of the Artists, Spooner's Biog. Hint, of fine Arts, etc. PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of Geol- ogy. Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present century, may be reckoned as the fathers of this science. The Palaeontographical Society, which publishes elaborate monographs of British organic remains, was founded in 1847. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the author of an elaborate work on the Palaeontology of New York. A Professor- ship of Palaeontology established at Yale College in 1866. It was endowed by Geo. Peabody, Esq. PALESTINE. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re- taken, from the seventh to the tenth century, and after being the scene of the wars of the Crusades, and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman empire by Selim I. in 1516. PANAMA. The isthmus which joins North and South America. A new State, named Panama, was formed out of New Grenada in 1855. The present pres- ident (1860) is Jose de Osbaldin. The Panama Railroad opened 1855. PAPER. The manufacture of printing and writing papers in the United Statei 7* 154 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. has been greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made, especially in Conn., Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equal in quality to the best in England. The amount of capital employed in this business is estima- ted at $20,000,000. The quantity produced cannot be precisely calculated, but it is now (1867) probably greater than the product of Great Britain. Mass, manufactures more paper than any other State. Number of mills in 18R, 77; value of stock $5,381,671 ; Capital $3,875,000. The materials for making paper in the U. S. are various, such as rags, flax, worn-out bagging, cable-rope, straw, hay. hemlock, corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, canes and reeds. In 1855 there were in the U.S. 750 paper mills, 3,000 engines, pro- ducing 280,000,000 Ibs., which at 10 cts. per Ib. would amount to $28,000,000. The manufacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,776,000 Ibs. An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms in- terested in tlie manufacture of paper, in a single collection district of the United States, for the year 1865-'66 gives the following results: Total income of ninety-nine persons, firms and corporations, $948,988. Of these, one corpora- tion reported an income of $17 8,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of $314,000; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper pro- duced in the U. S. is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England. PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other banks in England, $89,585,000, total, $188,385,000; France, $121,1)70,000; United Slates, $148,929,000; in 1863 the circulation of the 1466 banks in the U. S. was $238,677,218. PATENTS, U. S. The patent Office of the U. S. at Washington, an extensive and imposing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of patents issued has rapidly increased during the last seventeen years, being nearly nine times as great in 18-^6 as in 1843. The numbers in some of these years are thus stated : (from I79v to 1850 the whole No. was 16,290): Ye:irs. Applied for. Granted. 1843 819 531 1850 2193 995 18S5 44:;5 2024 1856 4960 2910 Years. Applied for. Granted. 1857 4771 2710 1858 5364 3710 1859 6225 4538 The receipts of the office increased from $35,315, in 1843, to $245,942, in 180ft. Of the patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237 being from N. Y.), 23 to British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign applicants. No. of patents issued in 1863, 3,887. Receipts of office $179,378. Expenditure $189,803. PARKS. The great " Central Park," N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the sug- gestions of late A. J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kings- land, then mayor. It was authorized both by the Common Council and by the Legislature, within 100 days after ; the award of the commissioners of as- sessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into possession of the city, Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 50th to 106th St.: in 1859 it was extended to 110th St., and then included in all 843 acres ; being 2i miles long, J mile wide. The cost before extension was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590 was assessed on adjoining property ; the net cost being greater than was ever before known to be expended on a public park. It is now more than twice the size of Hyde Park in London ; but of its area 142 acres is occupied bv the two Croton reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr. Viele (185(1) wen; follow ed by the adoption of plans by Olmstead and Vaux, April 28, 1868, and the ap- pointment of Mr. F. L. Olmstead as Superintendent and " Architect-in-chief." Work on this plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 500 to 3600 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 155 persons have been employed to this time (1867) under the general direction of commissioners appointed by the Legislature. A park of about equ;il extent to the " Central Park," is projected but not yet (1867) completed for the City of Brooklyn. Public Park at Baltimore opened 1860. The "Common "at Boston (Mass.,) though small in extent, is one of the most beautiful city en- closures in the world. PAPIER MACH& This manufacture (of paper pulp combined with gum and sometimes China clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon spread over that district. Papier macne is now largely employed in ornament- ing the interior of buildings, &c. PARADISE LOST, the great epic of Milton, appeared first in 10 books in 1667 ; in 12 books in 1674. The author received for it the sum of 10, and his widow 8 more as full payment for the copyright. PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; and conquered by Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who established an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. Francia was elected dictator, succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The present (1859) president, C. A. Lopez, was elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognized as an independent State by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, by Great Britain in 1853, by the U. States in 185-. PARSEES, the followers ofZerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle of'Kadseah. their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- hilated .it the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay, where they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsce merchant, has been several years professor of Gujerati at University college, London. PARIS, (p. 516.) Immense improvements at great expense by Louis Napoleon, 1853-6. Great Industrial Exhibition opened by him May 15, 1855 ; visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855, the first visit of an English sovereign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VI. in 1422. The gieat Ex- position of 18f>7, opened April 1, attracted tens of thousands from all parts of the world and was visited by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, King of Prussia, the Sultan of Turkey, Viceroy of Egypt, &c. PARISHES. The boundaries of parishes in England were first fixed by Hono- rius, archbishop of Canterbury, A. D. 636. The parishes of England and Wales now amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were commenced A. n. 1538 PARLIAMENT, (p. 517.) The Peers took possession of their honse, that portion of the palace being ready ....April 15, 1847 The members of the Commons' House of Parliament assem- bled in their new house Nov. 4, 1852 Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted July 26, 1868 PARMA, (p. 518.) When the war in Italy began in 1859, the Parmeans rose, and established a provisional government, May 3 ; the duchess-regent retired to Switzerland. On Sept. 3, the annexation to Sardinia was voted. PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another without the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was some- what changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 156 THE WORLD'S PBOGBESS. 6s. to 6d. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859; in-Sweden in I860, and (with regard to British subjects) in France, Dec. 16, 1860 ; in Italy, June 26, 18ti2 ; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863 ; and are falling into disuse in other countries. The passport system was temporarily enforced in the United States dnring part of the war of 1861-4. PA.SSAU, TREATY OF. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was es- tablished, and which treaty was ratified between the Emperor Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 12, 1552. By this pacification the Lutherans were made at ease in regard to their religion. Henault. In 1662 the cathedral and greatest part of the town were consumed by fire. PAWNBROKERS, (p. 520.) Three golden balls suspended from the doors of pawnbrokers were the arms of the Lombard merchants, who were the first to publicly lend money on chattel securities, and who gave the name to the pres- ent street of bankers in London. They have been humorously described as meaning that there were two chances to one that the things pledged would never be redeemed. PEABODY FUNDS. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gtive 150,000 to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A large pile of building^, named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as homes for working classes. In U. S. Mr. Peabody, during a visit to the U. S. donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educational fund for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trus- tees, who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr. Sears, of Brown University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of Primary and Normal School education is to be the leading object. Mr. Peabody delivered over bonds, covering the amount of his gift, March 4, 1867. PEACE SOCIETY, AMERICAN. The first peace society in the world was found- ed at New York in Aug., 1815. A similar society was founded at Paris in 1821. PEACE SOCIETY in England was founded in 1816 for the promotion of uni- versal peace. It held its 43rd anniversary on May 17, 1859. A congress of the friends of peace, from all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. And afterwards in England in successive years, Bright, Cobden, Sturge, and others taking an active part. PELASGI. The primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 B. c. and in Italy about 1600 B. c. They have been termed Tyrrheui, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, &c. From the Pelasgi come the Dorians, .JEolians, and lonians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279; and by Yong-lo, 1471 ; visited by Lord Macartney in 1793; surrendered to the allied English and French armies, Oct. 12, I860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26 following, after peace had been signed. It was described as being in a very desolate state, with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 4,000,000. PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the rolls in 1860, was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their payment, $1,183,141. Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in 1860, In 1866, only 5 were on the rolls. Congress granted in 1866, to each of these, $300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. The war of the rebellion pro- duced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, July 1, 1866, was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement, $13,459,996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1866). SUPPEMENT, 1851-67. 157 PENNSYLVANIA. Population in 1860, 2,906,115. Number of common schools in the State in 1865, 12,950. The State furnished 362,284 soldiers for the war. It has under its care (1866), about 1,200 soldiers' orphans, appropriation having been made by the legislature to support such. PENS, STEEL. Gillott of Birmingham, employs nearly 1,000 hands for the con version of 2 tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly. In 1820-1, the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for 7 4s ; now the commonest pens can be sold at twopence the gross. Steel pens of a superior quality are now made to a large extent in the U. S. PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines. PERSEPOLIS. The ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been falsely accused of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 B. c. The fire is said to have been accidental and not extensive. Remains of this city still exist. PERU. Marshal San Ramon president, Oct. 24, 1862 General J. A. Pezet president, April 3, 1863 The Spanish ndmiral Pizon took possession of the Chincha isles (valuable for guano), belongin to Peru, stating that he woul occupy them till the claim of his government on tliat of Peru was satisfied .......... April 24, 1864 ging ould tiaries from Ohill and other states meet to concert measures for de- fence against European powers.. Nov. 1P64 Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands re- stored Feb. 3, 1865 Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 28; several provinces soon lost.. May 1865 The insurgents take Lima ; IVzet flies, and Canseco becomes president Nov. 1865 Congress at Lima : plenipoten- PERUGIA. A city of the Papal States, anciently one of the Etruscan Confedera- tion. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 B. c. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adhe- rents of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in- surrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss with great cruelty, Jan. 20, 1859. An American family who suffered by the violence of the Papal soldiers was afterwards indemnified. PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution. Petitions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV., petitions be- gan to be addressed to the house of commons in considerable numbers. In 1837, there were presented to parliament 10,831 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 persons. This right defended by John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, U. S., who presented a petition for dissolution of the Union. PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-springs were discovered in the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now termed " Petrolia," and others have been since discovered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. In consequence, numerous artesian wells have been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. In consequence of the importation of Inrge supplies of this oil into this country, and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at Irjff temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum" was passed in July, 1862. PETROPAULOVSKL A fortified Russian town, on the east coast of Kamtschat 158 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ka, attacked by English and French fleets, which were repulsed, Aug. 30, 1884 It was afterwards deserted and the fortifications destroyed. PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation: about the middle of the seventeenth century. The earliest reading pew with a date, is one at Gcddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook. PHARMACY. The knowledge of the chemical and medicinal properties of drugs and all other things employed medicinally. Pharmaceutical Society of Lon- don founded in 1841. It publishes a monthly journal. College Pharmacy in New York founded in 184-. PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF. Population in 1860, 585,529. During the war foi the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia was distinguished for its enthusiastic patriot, ism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field were most hospitably entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision was made for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Chibs. ( PHILOSOPHY, (p. 525). MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHT. ANCIENT SCHOOLS. Pythago- rean, about B. c. 500 ; Platonic, (the Academy), by Plato, 374; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic, by Diog- enes, 3HO: Epicurean, by Kpi- curus, 306 ; Stoic, by Zeno, 290 : Middle Academy, by Ar- cesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, by Oarneade*, 160. MODERN SYSTEMS, Rational. Ba- con, ab't A. D. 1624 ; Cartesian, Descartes, about 1 650 ; Reflec- tive or Perceptive, Locke, 1690 ; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elec- tive, Leibnitz, 1710; Common Sense, Reid, 1750-70; Tran- scendental, Kant, 1770-1860 ; Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14; -46- so/ule Identity, Schi-lling, 1800- 20 ; Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30: Utilitarian, Bentham, 1790-1830 ; Positive, Oomtc. 1830. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Greek and Latin. Thaies, about B. o. 600; Pythagoras, 590; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Eu- clid, 300; Archimedes, 287; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 100; Julius Cwsar, 50; Ptolemy, A. D. 150. lliddlt Ages. Arabians ; Ben Musa, 800; Alhnzen ; &c., 1100. Gerberl, Decimals, 959 ; Roger Bacon, Opus Majus, 1266. INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY. Copernicus's system published 1543 Tyc-ho Brahe 1546-1601 Kepler's Laws 1609-18 Bacon's If ovum Organum 1620 Galileo's Dialogues 1632 Royal Society begin.-(w)Aic/t see) 1G45 Otto Guericke Air-pump 1654 Hujyhens on Pendulums 165S Newton Fluxions. 1655 ; Analysis of Light, 1699; Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia, published 1687 ; Death 1727 Bradley discovers aberration 1727 Euler on Perturbation of the Planets 1748 Black on Ho:it 176'.! Laplace on Tick's 1775 Las,0i)0 " dead letters " annually fail to reach the persons addressed. The Pose Office re- ceipts were in 1854 7 millions loss H millions. 1855 7i do " 2? do 1856 7i do " 3 do 1857 -i do ' 3J do 1858 8 do " 4| do 1859 SJ do " 7i do 1860 8} do 6} do Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue, |11,163,000 ; expenditures, $11,314,000. In 1865, $12,099,787 worth of postage stamps were sold ; $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes ; $23,315 worth of stamped wrappers. 467, 500, 000 letters were conveyed in the mails, of which 2,35'2,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 4.368,000. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360, 12.'. The revenues of the year 1865, exceeded the highest annual receipts from all the states previous to the rebellion by $6,038,090. The most money that can be sent (1867), by one order by mail is $50. Length of postal routes in 1867, 180,900 miles. The revenue of the department for the year ending June 30, 1865, was $14,556, 158, and its expenditures $13,694,728 ; the rate of increase being 17 per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with the pre- vious year. Postage stamps to the value of $12,099,787 were sold, also $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. It is estimated that 467,591,600 letters were conveyed in the mails in 1865, of which 2,352,424 were lost or destroyed ; the number of dead letters was 4,368,087. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360, 122. The average annual increase of the revenue for the last four years over the preceding four years was $3,533,845. The Postmaster-General thinks SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 163 that in a few years, letter postage may be reduced to the rate adopted bj Great Britain. POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1856, 300 new money-order offices were added, making 700 such post offices. The largest amount that can be sent by any one order is now $50. The fees also have been changed the charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 up to $20 ; and 25 cents on any order over $20. POST OFFICE, BRITISH. The net revenue was in 1853, 1,104,000 ; in 1857, 1,293,971. Rowland Hill's penny postage was broached in 1837, and adopted in 1839. The numbers of letters in the last year of the old system was, 82,470,596. The number in 1856 was 478 millions ; in 1858, it was 528 millions. In 1855, books and pamphlets were first allowed to be sent by post, at the rate of Id. for 4 oz. The number of letters annually passing through the Post offices of Great Britain, with the uniform one penny postage system, ifl four times as great as in the United States, as by the following table : No. of Letters per Postal Postal Countries. Population. letters. 1,000 persons. expenses, revenues. United Slates 25,000,000 102,139,148 4,084 $12,722,470 $7,486,792 Great Britain 30,000,000 410,817,489 13,693 14,884,800 9,245,000 France 40,000,000 150,000,000 3,750 6,023,915 9,321,900 Sp:n: 14,000,000 30,775,686 2,209 1,095,398 1,281,761 Belgium 4,600,000 11,521,955 2,603 327,128 355,648 Holland 3,200.000 13,349,553 4,357 166,785 288,162 Switzerland 2,300,000 19,773,671 8,299 34f,028 447,752 PRAETORIAN GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (B.C. 13), and their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and his successors. At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters, actually putting up the imperial diadem for sale (as in A.D 193 when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They at times committed many atrocities, and were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312. PRESBYTERIANS, (p. 543.) The Presbyterian church in the United States was divided into the " Old Scchool," and the New School, 1837. In 1850, the aggregate No. of churches was 4,584, accommodating 2,040,000 persons. The Presbyterians of the Southern states formed an independent organization. Dec. 1861. The New School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., passed resolu- tions "that to support the President and the Government of the U. S. in relig- iously the duty of all good citizens " in the present crisis. Number of " Old Si-hool " Presbyterians May, 1865 who were communicants, 232,450; ministers, 2,301 ; churches, 2,629. "New School" communicants, 143,645; ministers, 1,694; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in other " schools " in 186-2, 200,000. Contributions of " Old School " in 1865, $2,400,000 ; " New School," $2,200,000. PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE, U. S. Several Papers were mobbed in the North in 1861 for expressing Southern sentiments. The N. Y. " Journal of Commerce," "News," "Day Book," "Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand Jury of the U. S. District Court at New York, as treasonable in their declara- tions ; the Government accordingly, refused them the privilege of the mails, Aug, 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting the publication of military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed the " Chicago Times." In 1 864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed for disloyalty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers passed resolutions that the restrictions on them were dangerous in their ten- dency. During the war the Press was free, so long as it did not express trea- son or give information to the enemy. PRINTING, (p. 545.) In the United States this important art has made great a* 164 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. vances during the last 10 years (1861). The best presses of Boston, and Cam brige, Mass., of New York, and of Philadelphia, have produced specimens, nearly or perhaps fully equal to the best in England or France. Excellence has been especially aimed at of late in this country, while economy and cheapness have been more studied in England. PRINTING TYPES first eiectrofaced with copper, about 1850. PRINTING IN COLORS was first commenced by the employment of several blocks, to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of Faust, A.D 1457, which has a letter in three colors). Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed (" Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach, 1519. in Germany ; others, by Ugo da Carpi in Italy, 1618). In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage published in England " Ilints on Color Printing," illustrated by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of colored drawings, which are still greatly admired, giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which expired in 1855. Since then great improvements have been made in the art. It has been applied to Lithography (hence, Chromolithograph)-). In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of water-color-drawings, by means of modifications and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1S51, he commenced color-printing by machinery, and has since used aqua-tinted plates ; and also electrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of color as well as durability. Haydn. This art is also practised considerably in the U. S., but has not been prominently recognized. Chromolithography, i. e. print- ing from stone in colors, introduced in N. Y. and Pbila., about 1848, has been carried to great perfection. PRINTING PRESSES, (p. 544.) The largest presses more recently constructed by Hoe & Co., of New York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These are the "ten-cylinder type-revolving printing machine?." Two of these have been supplied to print the London Times, and a similiar one is used by four daily newspapers in New York. The cost of each press is about $3i\<.0i>. Of the eight and six-cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great Britain, 4 in Paris, and 2 in Australia! The Adams printing presses are now manufactured by Hoe & Co. PRISONS. U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern Stntes in 1865, 26. No two are alike in their general construction. Average number of prisoners in them in 1865, 6,650. The Auburn silent system, inaugurated in 1812, is in pratice in most of the states. The Prison Association at New York chiefly promoted by Isaac T. Hopper about 1850. PRISONERS. During the "Rebellion," F. S., at the close of the war, 174,223 were surrended by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government also had in prisons in the North, 98,800. In 1863, there was a general ex- change of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 121,900 in return for llo,8(,0 Union soldiers. During 1863 the Confederates held an excess of prisoners. P'rom 1861 to 1864-, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, Ri.-h- mond. 35,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Ga. Capt. Wirz (Confed- erate) tried at Washington, D. C., for inhuman treatment to U. S. prisoners at the latter place, and executed Nov. 10, 1865. Union officers (prisoneis) placed under fire of Federal guns at Charleston, S. C., in retaliation for bombarding the city, 1864. PRIVATEER. A Tessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing with a license from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the shipa of the enemy. The practice first became general during the war betweei; SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 165 Spain and the Netherlands, about the end of the seventeenth century, and was very general during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856; but the U. S. govern- ment declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 there were 250 privateers commissioned by the U. S., of which 68 were from Baltimore, 55 from New York, 40 from Salem, and 31 from Boston. During that war 2,000 British vessels were captured by the Americans, a large portion being by privateers. About 500 American vessels were captured or destroyed by the British. See CoggeshalPs Hist, of Am. Privateers. The thirty-seventh Congress (1863) passed a Letter of Marque Bill enabling the President to cover every sea with Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy bring sufficiently effective. The Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers. Seven of them proved formidable. They captured 275 vessels of American merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued at many millions. The fleetest of these Privateers were of French and British build, and some of them manned by seamen from those nations. PUIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 1861 to the close of the war in 1865, 1149 Rebel blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for dis- tribution among seamen $20,501,927. The crew of the Kearsarge, which sunk the Alabama (Rebel) in the English Channel, received $300 a piece. PROPERTY IN THE U. S. In 1856, the real and personal property of the U. S was estimated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11, 317,611, 672 (more than 11,000 millions). By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,- 726,088, but this estimate is probably too low. The value of similiar prop- erty of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 millions. PRUSSIA, (p. 549.) The king takes the oath required by the new constituiion.Feb. 6, 1850 Treaty of peace between Prus- sia and Denmark July 2, 1850 Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 223,000 infan- try, 38,000 c.ivalry, and 29,000 artillery, with ],080tield-p'eces. Nov. 7, 1850 The Prussian troops commence their retreat from Hesse-Oassel Dec. 5, 1850 The king celebrates by a grand banquet the 150th anniversary of the. Prussian monarchy, Jan. 18, 1851 The king revives the council of state as it existed before the revolution of 1848 Jan 12, 1852 A Prussian Industrial exhibition opened at Berlin May 28, 1852 Prussia repudiates a customs union with Austria June 17, 1852 But agrees to a commercial treaty Feb. 19,1853 Continues neutral in the war.... Sept. 21, Oct. 13,1854 JJxcluiled from the conferences at Vienna Feb. 1855 Alarming illnessof the kin?, the prince of Prussia appointed regent fur three months Oct. 23, 185T Prince Frederick William of Prussia, married to the prin- cess royal of England.. Jan. 25, 1868 Prince of Prussia made permarent regent ......................... Oct. 7, 1868 Prussia declares its neutrality, but arms to protect Germ'y. M:iy & June, 1859 Death of the king and the accession of the Prince. of Prussiii, as William I. Jan. 2, 1861 War was declared by Prussia and Italy against Austria; Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover sided with Austria; The Prussian army occupied Hano- verandS;ixony. (foe Battles, Austrian and Prussian) ........ June 17, and 18, 1868 Negotiations for an armistice com- menced July 12, 1856. Prussian ad- vance in sight of Vienna, July 22. Treaty of Peace signed Aug. 30; Prussia acquired Hanover, Schles- wig.Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, parts of Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt ; by these annexa- tions her population became 23,583,- 000 ; the strength of Austria remain- ed united, hnf she paid Prussia $28,- 000,000 ; Venetian Province ceded to Italy : a vote on the question of annexation of Venetia to Italy was held in that province, resulting in 641,758 affirmative, 68 negative. Oct. 19, ! 868 The Kincr of Italy entered Venice, amid great demonstrations of joy Nov. 7, 18M 166 TOi WORLL'S PROGRESS. PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about A. D 140), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved around once in twenty-four hours. This system (still the official doctrine of the Church of Rome), was universally taught till that of Pythagoras (600 B. c.) was revived by Copernicus (A. D. 1530), and demonstrated by Kepler (1619), and Newton (1687). PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 1860, the sales of public lands reached 122,038,290 acres, which produced $136,401,302 (1860). In Sept. 1863, the amount of surveyed public lands undisposed of, was 133,487,495 acres : the quantity disposed of in 1863, was 2,966,690 acres, of which 91,354 were sold for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c. PUBLIC WORKS, AMERICAN. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than any other in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct at Rome, the longest in the world. The stone arch over Cabin John's Creek, in the Washington Aqueduct, is about 50 feet longer span than any stone arch in the world. The Suspension Bridge at Lewiston, and the railroad suspension bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span of the kind in the world. The United States Dry Dock at Brooklyn, is not equalled in di- mensions, nor surpassed in workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere. PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system ; and doubtless employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of our points the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced about 1485; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;) about 1750. In Sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parenthesis (). Q QUADRANGLE, OR QUADRILATERAL. Terms applied to the four strong Austrian fortresses in North Italy : (1) Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio, near the lake of Garda. It was taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and Russians in 1799; by the French again in 1801; but restored in 1814. It was taken by the Sardinians in 1848 ; but retaken by Radetzky in 1849. The Sardinians were about to invest it in 1859, when peace was made: (2) Mantua, on the Mincio ; (3) Verona : and (4) Legnano ; both on the Adige. QUAKERS, (p. 553.) lu 1682, Wm. Penn, with a company of Friends, colonized Philadelphia, where on Jan. 1, 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. In England, on Jan. 23, 18o3, Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to Parlia- ment on his affirmation. The Quakers had in England, 413 meeting-houses in 1800, and 371 in 1851. At a conference held on Nov. 2. 1858, it was agreed to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many of the peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. QUARANTINE. The quarantine system has long been enforced at the principal ports of the United States. The buildings used as quarantine hospitals, at Staten Island (near New York city), were burned by an "orderly mco" of citizens, who regarded them as a "nuisance," Sept. 1-2, 1858. QUININE OR QUINIA. An alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pellctier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine c.T.chona barks, especially of the yellow bark. R RACES, (p. 557.) The most eminent races in England are those at Newmarke^ established by Charles II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by Mr. Park SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 167 hurst (they have been annual since 1730) ; at Ascot, begun by the Duke of Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Doncnster, in 1776, and at Goodwood, begun by the Duke of Richmond (who died in 1806). The English Jockej Club began in the time of George II. The New York Jockey Club smd the race course at Jerome Park, established 1865-6. Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the Duke of Devonshire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 35$ miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, aged 26 years. Robt. Bonner of New York, is said to have paid $30,000 for Dexter, a fast trotter, Aug. 1867. RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast, destitute, ragged children set up in large towns. They existed in some parts of London previous to 1844, but did not receive their name till that year, when the " Ragged School Union " was formed. In 1856, there were 150 Ragged-school institutions, 16 refuges, where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. Upwards of 500 boys and girls have emigrated to the colonies. In New York and other large cities of the U. S., " Ragged Schools" have been established by benevolent in- dividuals, to the great benefit of many thousand destitute children, who would otherwise have received no instruction. " Mission Schools " also have gathered in thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been provided not only with oral teaching, but with lodging, food, and raiment. The ".Fourth Ward" and "Five Points " Missions are of this character. RAILROADS OF THE WORLD. /Area sq. mile. --, / Population > Miles of To mile To mile railroad. of RE. of KB. N. America 39,414.1 7,600,000 102.8 62,000,000 1,309.3 West Indies 410.3 100,000 243.7 3,500,000 8. 51:9.8 S.America 1,041.9 7,100,000 6,fcl4.4 22,500,000 21,595.1 Tot. Amer.... 40,866.3 14,800,000 362.1 78,000,000 1,908.6 Europe 50,117.5 3,600,000 718 285,000,000 5,680.6 Asia 3,660.3 17,400,000 4,753.7 789,000,000 213,097.3 Africa _375.4 11,700,000 81.166.7 200.000,000 632,765.1 Australasia. 607.7 3,200,000 6,285.7 1,600,000 2,632.8 Total of world 95,727.2 50,700,000 530.2 1,344,600,000 13,908.8 See table in detail, in Com, & Financial Chronicle, N. Y. RAILWAYS, (p. 558.) In England, the capital invested in railway undertakings has reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 is was 69 millions ; the railway mania and panic year was 1846, when 270 railway acts passed. Up to 1858, the sum of 308,824,851 had been invested in railways. In the U. S. In June, 1859, the length of railways in operation in the United States was stated to be 27,857 miles; cost $961,047,364. Increase since 1847, 24,067 miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was 35,935 miles; cost fl,432,649,000; cost per mile, $40,000. Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles; Ohio, 3,393; Illinois, 3,206; New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, 183, in which 335 persoHS were killed. IN CITIES. On the eleven street railroads in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same period were $4,623,583, and the expense $2,821,625. 168 THE WORLD'S PEOGBESS. RAILWAY TRAVELLERS. The statistics on this subject prove that this mode of travelling is much safer than the old modes. Thus in the French post sys- tem there were nearly seven times as many deaths as in an equal number of miles by railroad. Yet the number of accidents is inexcusably great, especial ly in the United States. The summary of several years shows Passengers. In Prussia, killed or wounded 1 in 1,294,075 In Belgium, In France, " 1,611.237 375,092 Passengers. In England killed or wounded 1 in 31 1 ,340 In United States, " " It8,459 The railroad travelling is more than six times as dangerous here as in Prussia, probably because the responsibility here exacted is less in nearly that pro- portion. DISASTERS. On Great Wesern (Canada) R. R., 42 killed, Oct. 27, 1854; Chicago and Rock Island 40 k. and w., Nov. 1, 1854; Camdea and Amboy, at Burlington, N. J., 23 k., 60 w., Aug. 29, 1855; Pacific R. R., near St. Louis, 25 k., 50 w., Nov. 1, 1855 ; Panama R. R., 43 k., 60 w., May 6, 1856 ; N. Penn. R. R., 60 k., 78 w., July 17, 1856: Grand Trunk R. R., Can- ada, 70 k., March 12, 1857; Central R. R., Utica, 8 k., 30 w., May 11, 1858 ; Michigan Southern, near South Bend, tf8 k., 50 w., June 27, 1859 ; 79 acci- dents occurred in the United States during the year 1859, at which 129 per- sons were killed and 411 injured. Total in 7 years, 903 accidents, 1,109 killed, 3,611' injured. RAPE, PUNISHMENT OP, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten years' imprisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. Du- ring the rebellion, death was inflicted in several instances, on soldiers convicted of rape. REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in England early in the present century, but it failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846, and received a gold medal from the jurors of the London Exhibition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also American, exhibited at the same time, was highly commended. McCormick's . received the highest prize also at Paris Exposition of 1867. REBELLION'S IN U. S. Shays's Rebellion in Western Massachusetts, 1786. The " Whiskey Rebellion" in Pennsylvania, 1794. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island, 1842. South Carolina troops fire on the steamer Star of the West, having U. S. troops on board, bound for Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, Jan. 9th, 1861. See Secession,, Treason. IN BRITISH HISTORY. The most im- portant were : Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compro- mised by the grant of Mngna Cliartu, Tune 15 following. See JUayna Charta. Of Wiilter the Tyler, of Deptford, vul- garly called Wat Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a tax-col- lector to his daughter. Having kilk-d the collector in his rage, he raised aparty to oppose the tax itself, which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381. Of Jack Cade in favor of the duke of York, against Henry VI., 1450. Under Perkia Wjirbeck, 1492, which ended in the execution of Wurbeok. Under the duke of Montnouth, 1685 ; it ended In his death. Of the Scots In favor of the Old Pre- tender 1716; quelled in 1716. Of tli e Scots, under the Young Pre- tender, 1745 ; suppressed in 1740, when lords Lovat, Balmcrino, and Kilmaruock were liehaad"d. Of the Americans, on account of tnx- ation, 1774. This rebellion led to a disastrous war, to the loss of the chief North American colonies and to the independence of tie United States, 1782. Canadian Insurrection, L>i-cember, 1837 to Nov. 1838. Of Chartists, Nov. 3, 1839. Smith O'Brien's Irish rebellion ; termi- rated in his defeat, Tipperary, July 29, 1848. Fenian outbreak in Canada, 18G6. In Ireland 1867. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 169 RECIPROCITY TREATY WITH CANADA, ratified at Washington, June 5, 1854. It allowed certain privileges of trade to both parties, and either could withdraw from it upon notice of one year. In Dec. 1864, the President was authorized to terminate the treaty. It expired March, 17, 1866. It was argued against the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of trade proved to be against the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen could have the same rights as the English, in the bays and inlets of Canada and the British Provinces. REPUBLICAN PARTY, U. S., first appeared as a distinct organization in 1854. The whig party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas Nebraska bill, and the repudiation of the Missouri Compromise. All who op posed the bill were called "anti-Nebraska," and afterwards " Republicans.' 1 In 1854, they carried most of the free state elections. (Greeley 1 * Jfutort/.) Their first presidential convention was held at Philadelphia, 1856. Gen. Fre mont was nominated for president but was defeated. In 1860, Republican Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who was elected. The south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In 1864, the vote of the country was overwhelmingly "Republican." REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES, (p. 561.) Harper's Monthly Magazine commenced in 1850. Putnam's Monthly (N. Y.), commenced Jan. 1853 ; sold to new pub- lishers, 1855, ceased Sept. 1857, new series 1867. Atlantic Monthly (Boston), commenced 1857 (Dec). Russell's Magazine (Charleston), commenced 1858, ceased I860. Hours at Home, 1866. The Galaxy (N. Y.), 1866. New Jersey Magazine 1867. BRITISH, (p. 561.) Tait's Mag., founded 1838 Dublin University 1833 North British Rev 1844 New Quarterly Rev... 1852 Household Words (Dic- kens) 1852 Lon. Quarterly 1853 National Rev 1855 All the Year Round (Dickens) 1858 Oiice a Week 1859 MacMillan's 1859 Cornhill Mag. (Thacke- ray) 1860 Temple Bar Mag. (Sala) 1860 St. James Mag I860 Good Words 1861 Popular Science Rev.... .1861 London Society 1862 Victoria 1863 Union Rev 1863 Fortnightly Kev 1865 A rgo.-y 1865 " Blgr:ivi:i " Mag 1866 Broadway 1867 Tlnsley's 1867 REVIVALS OF RELIGION. Remarkable interest and excitement on religious sub- jects in the United States in 1858 and 1859, extended in the latter year to Scotland and Ireland. REVENUE OF THE UNITED STATES, THE, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from cus- toms and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in I860 $43,000,000 1855 65,000.000 1859 SS.OOOJOOO 1860 $56,054,599 1861 41,476,299 1862 51,935,720 Revenue of the U. S, for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans): Year. Internal. Customs. Total. Expenditures. 1863 $37,640,787 *69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,790,630 1884 Ui9,741,134 102.316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144,C56 1865 209,464,215 84,928,'260 333,714,605 -.1,897,674,224 1866 , 309,226,813 179.046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,660 INTERNAL, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, waa $1,800,0(0,000. Between 1817 and 1861, no internal taxes were imposed on the people of the U. S. by the general government. During the years 1861- 2-3, Congress passed laws for increased revenue to maintain the war. The Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 different articles. The revenue from this source in 1862 to 1866 is stated in above table. REVIEW MILITARY, U, S. Grand review of a part of the national army at the 170 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. close of the war, at Washington, D. C., May, 1865. The army af the wesl under Sherman, and of the east under Mcnde, reviewed by the President, Cab- inet, and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 troops marched by the White House, occupying two days. Great numbers of citizens from all parts of the country were present to witness the sight. REFORM IN PARLIAMENT (ENGLAND), (p. 560.) A new Reform bill, introduced by Lord J. Russell, 1854, but withdrawn. Another by Mr. Disraeli, rejected Marcli 31, 1859. Another by the same passed through the House of Lords July 15 1867. REGENT'S PARK, LONDON. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging to the palace of queen Elizabeth. In 1814 improvements were commenced under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most beautiful part of London. It is nearly circular, and consists of about 450 acres, laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water and intersected by roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are sev- eral villas, and round the park noble ranges of buildings in various styles of architecture. RENTS IN ENGLAND, were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, A. D. 1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. In England, the duke of Sutherland received Lis rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland in the value of wool and sheep. The rental of England, including, land, houses, and mines, was six millions about the year 160<, and twelve years' purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen mil- lions, and the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Reve- nues. The present rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated lately in parliament at 127 millions. See Land, &c. RHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. Population in 1860. 174,621 ; in 1865, 184,695, of whom 112,107 were born in the state. It sent 25,455 sol- diers to the war. War debt, $4,000,100. RIOTS IN THE U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot, caused by the enforcement of the draft in N. Y. city, July 13, 1863. It lasted three dnyg. The rioters destroyed and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,0(;0. They were finally put down by the police and military. Loss of life estimated at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, Portsmouth, and Holmes County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. Brejid riots in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1863, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C., March 18, and at Richmond, Va. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Conven- tion broken up by ex-rebels and policemen; 30 negroes and a few unites killed. Attack on Judge Kelley at a public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867. Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866. RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in 1779. Population in 1800, 5,730; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in 1860, 37,910, of whom 11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many years for the eminent men it furnished to the councils of the nation. On the secession of Virginia, Richmond was made the capital of the "Southern C< n- fedcracy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object aimed at by the " Union army of the Potomac." The place was fortified with great skill. It fell April :>, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by the Confederates, which consumed the business portion of the city. The notorious "Libby Prison" was situated in Richmond. EOADS AND PAVEMENTS. The first general repair of the highways of Eug- SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 171 land was directed in 1288. Macadam's roads were introduced about 1818. Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London , at Whitehall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon after. In New York and some other American cities the best pavements have been those of square blocks of granite on a cement foundation ; particu- larly that known as the Russ pavement. In 1855, an iron pavement was in- troduced which has proved satisfactory. ROBBERS. First punished in England with death by Edward I.'s Laws, which directed that the oldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was pecuniary till that time. The most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in England, A. D. 1189, and Claud Du Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an his- torian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," J;tn. 1670. In later times the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1790. ROCHELLE (W. France). A sea-port on the Atlantic. It belonged to the Eng- lish for some time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. It became a stronghold of the Calvinist party in France ; and was vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou, in 1573. It was taken after a re- markable siege of thirteen months by Cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The Duke of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve the besieged ; but they, from distrust, declined to admit him. ROMAN CATHOLICS IN THK UNITED STATES, in 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1859: 1839 1849 1859 1839 1849 1859 Provinces 137 Dioceses 16 30 48 Bishops 18 26 45 The estimated number of Roman Catholics in the U. S., in 1863, was 3,177,000. ROME. (p. 567.) Priests 478 1000 Churches 418 966 2108 2334 The pope issues tlie bull estab- lishing a Roman Catholic hier- archy in England (see Papal Aggression) Sept. 24, 1850 Important concordat with Aus- tria Aui;., 1855 The pope visits different parts of his dominions .......June, 1857 Insurrection in the Romngna, at Bo- lOffna and Ferrara .Tune, 1850 They declare for adhesion to Pied- mont Sept. 1859 Accept Buoncoinpagni as Gove"nor- Qeneral Nov. 1850 RONCESVALLE (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne was surprised and defeated by the Gascons, and his renowned paladin, Roland or Orlando, elain, A. D. 778. ROSETTA STONE, discovered in 1799, and deposited in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek in- scription. It is a piece of black basalt, about three feet long, and 2 feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. : hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy Epiphanes (about 194 B. c.) It has been subjected to the investigation of Dr. T. Young and Champollion. ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Judengasse (Jew-lane), Farnkfort in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he placed the sign of the Red Shield (in German, Roth Schild). Having had deal- ings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to have been 250,000), in 1806, when the French held his country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large fortune, and re- stored the 250,000 to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sous con- tinued the business as partners. His son, Nathan began at Manchester in 1798, removed to London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, July 28, 1836. BOTTERDAM. The second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the thir- teenth century. The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it iii 1509. It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars, and from inundations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467. ROUEN, an ancient city of N. France, became the capital of Normandy in the tenth century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was re- taken by Henry V. Jan. 19, 1419 ; Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here May 30, 1431. With Normandy, it was subdued by the King of France in 1449. RUSSIA, (p. 569.) Russia demands an expulsion of the Hungarinn and Polish refu- gees from Turkey (see Turkey) Nov. 5, 1849 They are senttoKoniah, in Asia Minor Jan. 1850 Harbor of Subastopol completed, Feb. 1860 The czar concentrates his forces on the frontiers of Turkey Feb. 1853 Orign of the Russo-TurKish war. (which see) March, 1853 The czar sssues a manifesto to his subjects ; he will only com- bat for the faith and Christian- ity, April 23, 1854 Death of the Czar Nicholns ; no ehnnsff of policy March 2, 1855 Most exte. sive levy ordered by thecz:ir(at Nicolaieff)..Nov. 3, 1855 He visits his army at Sebastopol, Nov. 10, 1855 Amnesty granted to the Poles, May 27 ; political offenders, e. 1854. Lord Wroltesley. 1858 Sir Benjamin C. Brodfe. SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first "Sabbath school" was founded by Lad wig Hacker between the years 1740 and 1747 at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pa., among the German Seven-day Baptists there. The school room was used as au hospital after the battle of Brandy wine, fought in 1777. This event occa- sioned the breaking up of the schools about five years before the first Sundaj 174 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about SANDWICH ISLANDS, (p. 573.) Kamehameba IV. (or Tamehameha) when 20 years old, succeeded his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854. SANITARY COMMISSION, U. S. Organized under appointment of the Secre tnry of War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D. D., Prest., Fred. Law Olmstead, Secretary. [The Women's Central Relief Association had been previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies furnished through the Com'n estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central treasury to May 1, 1866, $4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed $229,328, and California, |l,233,977. The Metropol. Fair, N. Y., produced $1,184.487; that at Phila- delphia, $1,035,368; 12 others $425,000. See History Sanitary Commission, 8vo. Philadelphia, 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and dis- bursed Cor teachers at the South, in 1865, $318,670; for supplies, $490,756. Total, $809,425. SANITARY REFORM, U. S. The ventilation of buildings has been greatly improved since the publication of Perry's Essay on School Houses, 1833, and Barnard's School Architecture, 1838. This reform was specially needed in printing offices, bookbinderies, and manufactories generally. SANITARY LEGISLATION, England. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly attributable the honor of commencing the agitation on the subject of public health, about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of Health " having excited much atten- tion. Since 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been much employed by the government. U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury to carry out regulations of quarantine to guard against cholera, passed Congress May 26, 1866. States and cities enact local sanitary laws. Board of Health of N. Y. city, organized, 1866. See Sanitary Commission. SANSCRIT. The language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Sol- omon, has been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Joues, who published a translation of the poem, Sakuntala in 1783, discovered that a complete litera- ture had been preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts and translations of many works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanscrit at Ox- ford was founded by Colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, ap- pointed in 1832, translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams (elected 1860), published an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max Miiller published his history of Sanscrit Literature in 1859, and has edited part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an inti- mate connection between the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Sla- vonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. SARDINIA, (p. 574.) See Italy. Bill for suppression of convents passed March 2, 1855 Convention w th England and France s'gned, a contingent of 16,000 troops to be supplied against Russia April 10, 1855 10,000 troop* under G -neral La Marmora arrive in the Crimea, May 8, 1855 Who dUtinfltaieh themselves in the battle of the Tchernftyn,Auir. 16, 1856 The kirg visits London, dec. Nov. 80, &c. 1865 Important note on Italy from Connt Cavour to England Apnl 16, 1856 Count Cavour declares in favor of free- trade June, 1857 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca; Count Cavonr resigns, July, 1869 Treaty of peace signed at Zurich. Nov. 1859 Sardinian troop* besiege the King of Naples at Oueta ........Sept. 1860 Oaeta capitulates to Victor Enrmnuel, Feb. 13, 1861 SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 175 ST. DOMINGO. A city of Hayti. The Republic of St. Domingo was established in 1801. It has been frequently assailed by the rulers of Hayti, particularly by Faustin I., dethroned in 1858. ST. GEORGE. Tbi? patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Dio- cletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favorite with the emperor ; but complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, be was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290. ST. HELENA (an island in the South Alantic Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 15, 1815; and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. ST. LUCIA (West Indies). First settled by the French in 1350. Taken by the British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent's, Grenada, Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again seized by England the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. ST. MARK'S CHURCH at Venice, erected 829 ; St. Mark's Place, 1592. The old Gothic Cathedral (built about 1086). ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL (London). The first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675. The whole edifice was completed in 1710. The total cost (including '200 tons weight of iron railing) was 1,511,202. The length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to the east end is 510 feet; the breadth, from the north to the south portico, 282 feet ; the exterior diameter of the dome, 145 feet ; The height from the ground to the top of the cross, 404 feet. Architect, Sir Christopher Wren. ST. PETERSBURG. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city in May 27, 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first house ot brick; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the founda- tion of a house of the same material. From these small beginnings rose the imperial city of St. Petersburg ; and in less than nine years after the hovels had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. The winter palace was burned to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The rail- way to Moscow was finished in 1851. ST. PETER'S CHURCH, Rome. Originally erected by Constantine, A. D. 306. About the middle of the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present magnificent pile was designed by Bramante ; the first stone was laid by Pope Julius II. in 1506. In 1514, Leo X. employed Raphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed the work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of which 30,000 Ibs. of iron was used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18, 1626, the building having occupied .76 years. The front is 400 feet buoad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The length of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet; and the entire 176 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. height from the ground 432 feet. St. Peter's is the most sumptuous Roman Catholic church in the world. SARATOGA, BURGOYNE'S SURRENDER AT. Here General Burgoync, commandei of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans, in the war of Independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American General Gates, when 5,791 men laid down their arms, Oct. 17, 1777. SATIRE, U. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications are the Biglow Papers and Fable for Critics, by J. R. Lowell ; the New Gospel of Peace, castigating secessionists and peace democrats during the recent war ; the broadly humorous essays of " Artemus Ward, " Petroleum V. Nasby, and others ; and the very clever pictorial satires of Thos. Nast. SAVINGS BANKS, U. S. The number of savings banks in the New England states, New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 800 in 1862. The amount of deposits, $70,000,OnO. Massachusetts has more banks than any other state, the number being 93 ; deposits, $44,785,400. There are comparatively few savings banks in the states not mentioned above. On Nov. 20, 1851, the number of savings banks in Great Britain and Ireland, was 574, besides above twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable institutions. The depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but un- known number of persons : the amount of deposits was 32,893,511. SAVOY, (p. 575.) Annexation to France voted for by 130,533 against 235, April 22, 1860. The annexation completed 1860. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Pop- ulation, Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, younger son of Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 1844. Ernest II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818, (married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, May 3, 1842; no issue). Heir (presumptive); Prince Alfred of England, born Aug. 6, 1844, (in whose favor the Prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 19, 1863). SAXE-WEIMAR. Saxe-Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes have greatly favored literature, and their capital, Weimar, has been called the Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy in 1858, 267,112. SAXONY, (p. 576) 1854. John, Aug. 9, (born Dec. 12, 1801), the PRESENT (1861) king. Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, born April 23, 1828. SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Den- mark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Nor- mandy (about A. n. 91)0), and eventually England (1066). They were also culled Sea-Kings or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of America, about the ninth century. SCANDINAVIANS. The Scandinavian population of the United States is esti- mated at 180,000: namely, 150,000 Norwegians, 25,000 Swedes, and 5,000 Danes (1860). SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, IN ENGLAND. In 1851, there were 2,310 schools in connec- tion with the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland. They included: 1,713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the Free Church ; the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. In the same year (1851), the estimated sums voted for education were: for Great Britain, 150,000, for Ireland, 134,560. UNITED STATES. Schools both English and classical were almost instantly established by the SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 177 first settlers of New England on their arrival ; were soon made obligatory by law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and worse in the southern states. The present era of public schools commenced about 1800. Its important dates are: Connecticut school fund, established 1795 ; first state school sup't.. New York, 1812 ; first state school system, Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; school movement of 1825-40, com menced by publications of C:irier, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; Cousin's report or Prussian schools, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of Edu cation in Muss., 1837; Stowe's report on European schools, 1837 ; first nor- mal school, at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved principles and methods thus introduced have been increasingly put into prac- tice. The following totals for the United States are approximate for 1858 : children of school age, 6,933,441 ; public schools, 97,621 ; school funds, $49,- 324,884; expended for public schools in the year, $20,169,268. See Education, Colleges, &c. SCIENCE IN THE U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sci- ences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1802. Botanic garden and Professor of Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, founded by Congress, 1865. Among the important National and State publications are the U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkes, with its Scientific Reports, to be in some 30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on the Mexican Bounda- ries, Pacific Railway &c ; the Natural History of the State of New York, in about 20 quartos, the great work of Agassiz on Natural History, pub. by sub- scription, etc, etc. See Astronomy, Observatories dr., SCREW-PROPELLER consits of two or more twisted blades, like the vaues of a wind-mill, set on axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The princi- ple is as old as the wind-mill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bernoulli!, and others. In 1836 patents were obtained by F. P. Smith and Captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful application of the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw, the Archirnedfs and the Rattler, were constructed in the U. S. The latter was tried in England in 1845. Since then the screw-propeller has been largely employed in this country and in Europe. War vessels are now almost entirely propelled by the screw. SEBASTOPOL, or SEVASTOPOL. A town and once a naval arsenal, at S. W. point of the Crimea, built in 1784, by Catharine II., memorable for its eleven months' SIEGE, by the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Bombardment commenced Oct. 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great Rrdan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants were compelled to retire alter a desperate struggle, with great loss of life. " SECESSION," U. STATES. The election of Lincoln, the " Republican " candidate for president, Nov. 6, 1860 was made the pretext for the secession of several southern states for another Union ; the resignation of Federal officers in those states, and of members of the cabinet at Washington, and of several officers of 8* 178 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. the army and navy ; and the seizure of government moneys, forts, an J arsenal^ The chief incidents of these treasonable or revolutionary proceedings were the following : Resignation of 8. C. senators of theU. States Nov. 9-11, 1860 CJ. S. H. of Rep. appoints a com. of 33 on the state of the Union, Deo. 6, 1860 Resignation of Howell Cobb,Sec. of Trcas., U. 8 Dec, 10, 1860 U. S. stocks (5 per cent) sold for 89, Dec. 10, 1860 Resignation of Mr. Casi?, Sec. of State Dec. 14, 1860 South Carolina Ordinance of Se- cession passed .Dec. 20, 1860 Ma.;. Anderson transfers the U. States garrison at Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor Dec. 26, 1860 S. Carolina authorities seize Fort Moultrie and olher U. States property Dec. 28, 1860 J. B. Floyd, U. S. Sec. of War re- Big ,s Dec. 29, 1860 Forts Pulaski and Jackson, in harbor of Savannah, seized by Gov. Brown of Geo Jan. 3, 1861 B. C. commissioners'' demands refused by the President Jan. 3, 1861 Fast-day observed in the U. S. Jan. 4, 1861 Fort Morgan, Mobile, seized by the state Jan. 4, 1861 Steamer Star of the West with U. 8. troops for Fort Sumter, tired into by the rebels.. Jan. 9, 1861 Alabama secession passed Jan. 11, 1861 Florida secession passed, and U. S. forts at Pensacola seized Jan. Iv.', 1861 Goorgi-i secession passed Jan. 19, 1861 Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida senators of the TJ. States resigned Ja.i. 21, 1861 Louisiana secession passed. ....Jan. 28, 1861 Texas t-eceesipn pas.-ed Feb. 1, 1801 "Peace Conference" at Washington, Feb. 4, 1861 Louisiana delegation excepting Mr. Bouligny withdraws from Congress Feb. 5, 1861 Congress of seceding states at Mont- gomery, Ala., Feb. 6; elects Jeft'er- son Davis of Miss. Pres., and Alex- H. Stephens of Ga. Vice-pres..Feb. 9, 1861 Tennessee votes against secession, Feb. 9, 1861 Resolution guaranteeing non-interfer- ence with slavery in any state passed unanimously in H. of Reps.. Feb. 11, 1861 Jefl'erson Davis inaugurated Pres. of Southern Confederacy Feb. 18, 1861 The " Peace Con erence " at Washing- ton agrees on proposition for " com- prunTse," and adjourns March 1, 1861 Gen. Twiggs, having t-uriendered the U. States forces and property in Texas is dismissed from the U. 8. army as a traitor March 1, 1J61 Missouri votes againtt seces>ion, in convention March 1, 1861 Lincoln inaugurated Pres. of Un ted States March 4, 1861 See JSattlex, U. &, War, & : Also Tables, p. 190, &c. Mississippi secession passed, Jan. 9: and TJ. 8. forts and property seized there... Jan. 10, 1861 SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdhl, Hindostance for a soldier). The term applied to the native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided iu establishing British rule in India. For their mutinies, see India, 1857. SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS in England commenced 1716. Parliaments had been triennial from 1688 to that date. SERVIA. A principality nominally subject to Turkey, pouth of Hungary. The Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about A. D. 640, The Emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150; but they recovered their in- dependence in 1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by the Sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 1854, 985,000. SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the Apostlo John was commanded to write the epistle contained iu the 2d and 3d chapters of his Revelation, viz. : Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Phila- delphia, and Laodicea, A. D. 96. 1. Ephesus. Paul founded the church here, A. D. 57, and in A. D. 59, was in great danger from a tumult creat- ed by Demetrius. Kpbesus was in a ruinous state even iu the time of Justinian (A. D. 627), and still re- mains BO. 9. Smyrna. Now an important conr mercial city and seaport of Ionia. Polycarp, its first bishop, suffered martyrdom, A. D. 175. 3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same name, founded by Phil- etserus, B. o. 283, and part of Bithy SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 170' 6. Philadelphia. Was built by Attains Phila- delphus, king of Pergamos (about B. o. 159, 138) ; was taken t>y Bajnzet I. A. B. 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, " The city of God, " and is a miserable town ol 3COO lioui-es. 7. Landicea. In Phrygia near Lydia. hag suffered much from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place called Eskehissar. " The old Castle." nla. It was renowned for Its libra- ry. Attalus III., the last king, be- queallied his kingdom to the Human people, B. C. 133. It IB still an im- portant place called Bergamo. Parch- ment is said to have been invented here. 4. Thyatiro. Now a mean town of 2000 hoimos, called Akhissar, " White Castle." 6. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom of Cro3sus (B. c. 560), is now o miserable village, named Bart. SEWING-MACHINE. The practical sewing-machine was the invention of Elias Howe, an American mechanic. These machines are all of American origin. Haydn. To America unquestionably belongs the honor of giving to the world the first practical sewing-machine. Here also, it has received its fullest development. Mr. Howe's patent was granted in 1846. Very little advance was made for the next six years. Since that period the sales of reliable ma- chines have been as follows : 1858, 2,509 : 1854, 4,469 ; 1855, 3,515 ; 1856, 7,225; 1857,12,715; 1858, 17,589; 1859,46,245. The machine has been improved, and adapted to all branches of sewing. Indeed it has revolution- ized, and developed every department of needlework ; introduced new branches of industry : rendered healihful, pleasant, and profitable an employ- ment hitherto proverbially unhealthful, and proved itself the most beneficial invention of the age. In the domestic world it ranks as do railroads and telegraphs in the commercial. The importance of this invention to the manufacturing interests of the U. States was estimated in 1860 at $342,000,- 000 annually. The following table exhibits the economy of the sewing ma- chine in stitching the various parts of the following garments. BT MACHINE. Hours. Minutes. Gentlemen's shirts 1 16 .. Frock coats 2 88 ., Satin vests 1 14 ., S ; lk dress 1 13 ., Merino dress 1 4 . BT HAND. Hours. Minute*. 14 26 16 35 7 19 8 27 .. 8 27 SHAKESPEARE'S NATIVE PLACE, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick. Shake- speare was born at Stratford, April 23, 1564, and died on his natal day, 1616. Shakespeare festival was held at Stratford, April 23, 18S6. In 18*47, a number of persons of distinction interested themselvos for the preservation of the house in which Shakespeare was born, then actually set up for sale. In the end Shakespeare's house was sold at the auction mart in the city of London, where it was " knocked down " to the United Committee of London and Stnitlbrd for the large sum of 3,000, Sept. 16, 1847. In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, John Shakespeare, no relation to the poet, gave 2,500 to purchase the adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in order to ensure the poet's bouse from the risk of fire. SHEEP, U. S. They have generally been reared to supply mutton rather than wool. Of late, however, much attention has been paid to breeding them for their value in producing wool. The number of sheep in 1850 in the U. S. was 21,723,000; in 1860,22,471,000. Ohio, New York, and Indiana, produced the most. California, in I860, had 1,076,000 sheep ; in 1867, 3,000,000. The rnvages among sheep by dogs is very great. In 1866 about 500,000, wortb $2,000,000, were killed by dogs. 12 merino ewes from Westminster, Ver- mont, took the first two premiums at the Agricultural Exhibition at Hamburg, in 1863, against all the best breeds of England, France, Saxony, Prussia, and 180 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Silesia. They were sold for f 5,000 to a Count of Silesia. This result, mr prising to Americans, gave a new impetus to sheep-raising in the U. S. SHIBBOLETH. The word by which the followers of Jephthah tested theii Opponents, the Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 B. c. Judges, ch. xii. The term is now applied to any party watchword or dogma. SHIPPING OF THE U. S. (p. 524.) Tonnage at different periods. Yt'irs. Tonnage. I Yearn. Tonnage. 1861 5,539,813 | 1865 (old) 3,516,787 1862 5,112,165 | " (new) 1,579994 1863 5,1-26081 I 1866 (old) 942,299 1864 4,986,081 | " (new) 3,368,479 The above table shows the loss of American shipping, or its transfer to for- eign flags during the rebellion. The total tonnage of the United States, June 30, 1858, was 5,049,808 tons ; of which registered for foreign trade, 2,499,741 ; enrolled and licensed, 2,502,086 ; steam navigation, 72<,390. In- crease for the year, 108,965 tons. In 1860, the tonnage of the U. S. was 5,353,868 tons. In the same year there were built 212,892 tons. Amount of licensed tonnage in 1866, 2,256,947 tons. Since the year 1860, American ship-building has greatly declined. In November 1866, there was but one vessel in the course of construction in New York City, and but twoin'Boston. This is due to the great cost of material and labor in seaboard cities. Ships which cost $100 per ton in N. Y., cost only $60 in the same cuirency in the British Provinces (1867). In 1860, two-thirds of American imports were carried in American ships ; in 1866 nearly ihree-fourths in foreign vessels. Number of ship-carpenters in the U. S. in 1860, 13,392. Before the war the Stars and Stripes led the carrying trade of the world. Not only was there a larger tonnage afloat under our flag than under any other, but American ships had the preference for enterprise, speed, and care of cargo, which gave them the lead in every port and on every oce;in. The entire tonnage of Great Britain in 18P1 was 4,806,826 tons; and that of the United States, 6,539,813 tons. In the trade of this country we kept the lead without the assistance of discriminating legislation. During the rive years ending with 1861, the carrying trsicle of New York amounted tc $1,644,000.000, of which over $1,000,000,000 was done under the America!, flag, leaving but little more than half that amount for the flags of all other nations on "the globe. With the advent of war there came a disastrous change. The few privateers fitted out in English ports, chiefly through the assistance of British capitalists, turned the scale against us, and almost the entire fleet of American vessels was forced to engage in the government service, lie idle at the dock, or transfer thi-ir ownership to a foreign flag. Thus in the four years which followed, out of f.l, 700,00(>,000 of foreign trade for the city of New York, less than $400,000,000 were done under the Stars and Stripes, while over $1,300,000,000 were curried under foreign flags. In 1865 the entire foreign commerce of New York was $429,100,1:29, of which $346,750,622 was in foreign ships, and only $82,349,607 in American Miips. This is a humiliating and exasperating record; yet in the recent Fenian movements our government and people refused to retaliate. Chr. Almanac. 8IAM. A kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam was re- discovered by the Portuguese in 1611, and a trade established, in which the Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a Cephalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreigt minister of Siam, and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 1865 with a view of converting the king, without effect. Sir John Bowring SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 181 succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and commerce between England and Siam, which was signed April 30, 1855, and one with France in August following. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in England Oct., 1857, and had aii audience with the queen to deliver magnificent presents on Nov ; Ifl A treaty with the United States negotiated by Townsend Harris, 1859, SIAMESE TWINS. The two persons known under this name, are twins, born about 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually possessed by sepa- rate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilagi- nous band at the pit of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and were first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were exhibited. No connexion exists between them but this band, and their prox- imity seems in no way to inconvenience either. They are perfectly straight and well made, and walk with a gait like other people, being perfect in all their parts, and having all their functions distinct. After having been exhib- ited for several years in England and the United States, the Siamese Twins went to Georgia, where they settled on a farm, married sisters, and now (1860) have several children. SICILY^ See Italy. SICYON. An ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded it is said about 2080 B. c. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achaean league formed by Aratus. It was the country of Polycletes (436) and Lysipuus (238), the sculptors. SIDON (Syria). A city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus about 537 ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332. See Phoenicia. The town was taken from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral Stop- ford and Commodore Charles Napier, Sept. 27, 1840. SIEGES, (p. 583.) of Rome, 1849; of Sebastopol, 1854-6 ; of Kara, 1855; Delhi, 1857 ; Gaeta, Oct. 1860 to Feb. 13, 1861. SIK HS. See Punjab and India. SILISTRIA. A strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken by the Russians, Sept. 26, 18:>9, after nine months' siege, and held some years by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854, it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, under Prince Paskiewich, and many assaults were made. Russians commenced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing near. SILVER COIN, U. S. The silver coinage of the U. S. Mint, for one year, end- ing June 30, 1859, was $7,336,609. From 1793 to 1859, inclusive, it amount- ed to $122,694,836. In England, in the first ten years of Victoria, the amount of silver coined was $2,440,614. It is supposed that the silver coin- age of the world amounts to twelve hundred millions of dollars. The largest amount coined in any one year in the U. S. was $9,077,571 in 1853. In the year ending June 30, 1863, the coinage was $1,564,297, in 3,053,150 pieces. Of this $1,040,638 came from the mint at San Francisco, Cal., and the rest from Philadelphia and New York. The coinage in 1866, including two and three-cent pieces, was $1,183,330. A tax of 8 cents per oz. was levied on silver ware in use, by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Revenue from this source to the government in 1863, $18,372; in 1866, $128,522. This tax re- moved, 1866. SIMPLON. A mountain road leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed 182 THE WOBLD'S PBOGBESS. by Napoleon in 1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes bj galleries through solid rock. It has eight principal bridges. The number of workmen employed at one time varied from thirty to forty thousand. SINKING FUND, IN ENGLAND. First projected by Sir Robert Walpole, whose act was passed in 1716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated surplus of 900,000 in the revenue was augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of one million, which was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the national debt. la July, 1828, the sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus of revenue. SINOPE (SINOUB). See Russo-Turkish War. SKATING. Invented probably by the Scandinavians who used the sharp-edged shank hones of sheep or deer, or strips of fir wood, though Olaus Magnus (d. 1555) mentions the use of iron. At first the skater pushed himself about by an iron-shod pole. Wooden skates with iron blades were invented in Holland. From 1855 to 1861 various means were contrived to improve skates, by attaching a shoe to the wood, making it wholly of steel, jointing the wood, setting it on springs, &c. A skate for floors has been invented, running on small wheels of India rubber. SLAVERY, (p. 586.) There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 B. c. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admit- tance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their houses, till by their services or labor they had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 B. c. Caecilius Isodorus left to his heir 4,1 16 slaves, 12B. c. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329. Serfdom, a modified form of slavery, was abolished by Frederic I. of Prussia, in 1702; by Christian VII. of Denmark, in 176n, by the Emperor Joseph II. in his hereditary states in 1781 ; and by Nicholas I. of Russia on the imperial do- mains, in 1842 : whose successor, Alexander II., effected its total abolition throughout his empire, amid much opposition (1860-1). IN THE UNITES? STATES (p. 532) before the war of independence all the states contained slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men are born free and equal," was declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar slave holding in that state. Before 1790 the further intro- duction of slaves had been prohibited in five other states. On July 13, 1787, Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance "for the govern ment of the territory to the N. W. of the Ohio," which contained an " unalter- able " article forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory. After 1800, several of the states prayed without effect to be relieved of this prohibition. In 1803 Louisiana was purchased, which act was considered by many as fatal to the constitution. In Feb. 1820, the celebrated Missouri Com- promise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was permitted in that state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to the north of 36 30' N. Lat. In 1845 a fresh contest arose between the slave-holders and their opponents at the annexation of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom could obtain was a similar division to that of Missouri, Dec. 29, 1845. In 1850 another compromise was effected : California was admitted as a free state ; but the Fugitive Slave Act was passed (which see). In 1854 the Missouri compromise was abrogated with the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave-holding states ; in the latter of which civil war ensued. See Kansas ; United State*. An attempt to create a slave rebellion took place in Virginia, headed by Julie SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 183 Brown, and failed, in Oct. 1859. Number of slaves in 1850, 3,204,313 ; IE 1860, 3,999,283. Upon the secession of the southern states, Mr. A. H. Steph eiis, of Georgia, declared that " slavery " was the corner stone of their confeder- acy (1861). During the war, slaves were held to be "contraband of war" by the IT. S. Government. By act of Congress, June 19, 1862, slavery was forever excluded from the territories. Jan. 1863, the great " Emancipation Proclamation" of President Lincoln was issued, declaring all slaves in the rebellious states free, on the ground that it was a " fit and necessary war meas- ure for suppressing such rebejlion." Slavery was finally abolished from the United States by act of Congress, January, 1865. See Constitution. SLAVE TRADE, U. S. Since 1855 the proposition to reopen the slave trade has been discussed in several conventions and public assemblies in the southern states. This infamous traffic is denounced in the "Republican plat- form" (Chicago, June, 1860), and is repudiated also by the congress of the 44 Southern Confederacy" (Feb., 1861), but the latter abolished the death penalty affixed to its prohibition by the laws of the U. S. In defiance of these laws a large number of slavers have been fitted out, chiefly in N. Y. and other northern ports, during the years 1858, '59, '60 ; several have been seized be- f-.re sailing and many others captured with slaves. Treaty with Great Britain for further measures against trade in slaves, 186- SNUFF-TAKING. (p.589.) In England, in 1858, 2,573,925 Ibs. of snuff and cigars were imported. See Tobacco. SOCIAL SCIENCE. The British National Association for the Promotion of So- cial Science originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. Its ob- ject is to promote improvements in the administration of law, in education, in public health, and in social economy. It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birmingham. 30CIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS, Literary and Scientific, in the United States. See Academies (p. 202). American Ethnological Society at N. Y. American Oriental Society at New Haven. American Geographical and Statistical So- ciety, N. Y. | American Institute (for Agriculture and Useful Arts), N. Y. National Academy of Sciences 1S65. In nearly every State of the Union there is an Historical Society, devoted to the collection and preservation of historical records, printed end in MS. ; several of them have published transactions and collections. That uf the Mass. Hist. Soc. comprises about 30 vols. The N. Y. Hist. Soc. has published 6 or 7 vols. GREAT BRITAIN. All in the list below are in London, except othherwise stated. An act was passed Aug. 11, 1854, "to afford facilities for the establishment of Institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," by grants of land, &c., and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are exempt- fed from the operation of the act. SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, *C. Royal Society Charter 1662 Society of Antiquaries (Charter 1751) 1717 : Society of Dilettnnti 1734 Royal Society of Edinburgh (Charter 1783)1739 Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 1753 Koyal Irish Academy ....Charter 1783 Linnean Society. . .(Charter 1802) 1788 Horticultural Society (Charter 1809) 1804 Medico-Chirurgical Society (Charter 1834) 1805 London Institution i 805 Geolog cal Society. .(Charter 1826) 1807 Royal Society of Literature ....... (Charter 1826) 1820 Royal Asiatic Society.... Charier 1823 Mechanics' Institution, London. . . 1823 Zoological Society 1826 British Association i83l Entomological Society 183J *84 THE WOKLtfS PROGRESS. Statistical Society 1834 lioyal Institute of British Archi- tects (Charter 1837) 1835 Botanical Society 1836 .Numismatic Society 1886 Electrical Society 1837 Ornithological Society 1837 Royal Agricultural Society 1838 Camder, Society 1838 Royal Botanical Society 1839 Microscopical Society 1839 Ecclesiological Society 1839 Pharmaceutical Society 1841 Philological Society 1841 Dublin Philosophical (Society 1842 Archaeological Association 1843 A rchaeological Inst itute 1843 Sydi-nham Society 1843 Ethnological Society IMS Sy ro-Esryptian Soc ety 1 844 KaySoc.ety 1844 Cavendish Society 1846 Hakluyt Society 1846 Institute of Actuaries 1848 Parker Soc ety 1840 j A run del Society. 1849 Percy Society 1840 ' .Percy society. London Libra _ Shakespeare Society 1840 .1840 Meteorological Society 1851 Photographic Society 1853 Uorological Institute 1858 Chemical Society..." 1841 SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), celebrated as the site of the chief struggle on the great battle of June 24, 1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the Austrians under General Hess; the emperor being present. The Austrian s after their defeat at Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and was expected there to await the attack. But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tus- cans on the other, induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive, which they did on June '23. The conflict began early the next morming, and lasted fifteen hours. The French attribute the victory to the skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and Kiel; the Austrians to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers ; of the allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiera killed and wounded. This battle closed the war ; preliminaries of peace be- ing signed at Villa Franca, July 12. SOUTH CAROLINA, (p. 591.) Population 1850, whites, 274,463 ; free colored, 8,960; slaves, 384,984 ; 1860, whites, 303,186; slaves, 407,185. Ordinance delaring " Secession " from the United States, passed Dec. 20, I860. The " Star of the West " with U. S. troops lor Fort Sumter, tired on and repulsed from the harbor, Jan. 1861. Gen Sherman marched unopposed through the etiite early in 1865. B. Perry appointed Provisional Governor June 30, 1865. Ac't of Secession repealed Sept. 15, 1865, by the State Legislature. Debt of the State in Sept. 1866, exclusive of past due coupons and military debt, $4,426,440. South Carolina included in the " Second Military District," by act of Congress 1867, and Gen. Sickles appointed Governor. In Sept. 1867, he was removed by the President, and succeeded by Gen. Canby. SPAIN, (p. 591.) KTarvaez exiled to Vienna... Jan. 1863 General O'Donnell, Concha, and others, banished Jan. IS, 1854 Ptone to Boulogne " ....Malta to Sicily " ,...L verpool to Holyhead " ....Across Bnss's Strait .Dacca to Prau .Barcelona to Port Million .Cape San Antonio to Iviza ,.. .Toulon to Corsica " ....Holyhead to Howih (near Dublin) " ....Malta to Alexandria " . ...Xew Haven (England) to Dieppe...... .. 1862.... Fortress Monroe tntia to Newfoundland " . ...Valentia to Newfoundland (completed from 1SC5, about) " ... .Newfoundland to Cape Breton 1867 Key West to Havana Length th.tf in Ci-n- Jfitft. ductort. 27 4 80* 6 12 3 110 6 5 3 85 1 49 1 80 1 140 4 280 2 140 1 30 1 368 3 24 60 1 26 2 240 1 116f 1 180 1 76 2 195 1 64 1 1,535 1 80 4 23 1 ISO 4 211 1 1,450 1 55 8 66 1 32 1 l,8t'4 1 1,864 1 85 1 191 T Time in Operi titm, tn July, .867 about. Iti years. 14 14 " 13 " 12 " 11 19 " 10 9 " 9 " 9 " 9 6 " 8 8 8 3 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 6 4 18 month*. 14 11 " 10 " 10 ' SUGAR. The following is the official statement of the amount of sugar im ported into this country from 1851 to 1860: Value of Sugar. Duty paid. 1851 $13,478,700 $4.043,600 1852 13,977,300 4,183,200 185:'. 14,168,300 4,250,500 1854 11,6-04.600 3,481,300 1855 13,284,600 3.989.400 1856 21,255,100 6,388,500 Value of Sugar. Duty paid- 1857 $41,596,200 $12,478,800 1858 18.96,600 4,557,200 1859 28.345800 6,802,800 1860 28,931,100 6,943,400 Total Ten years . . $206, 557,800 $57, 1 1 S.70C The sugar crop of Louisiana last year was valued at $24,988, 0(.0. The average for five years has been $17,000,000 (1861). In New York state in 1865, 9,635,200 pounds of maple-sugar were produced. Pennsylvania pro- duces 2,6(10,000 pounds a year. The sorghum-sugar plant has lately been in- troduced from China, and sugar produced from it in considerable quantities. Sugar from beet-root is also pronounced a success. 10,000 pounds were manufactured in Livingston county, Illinois, in 1867. SUNDAY LAWS. (p. 003.) In the state of New York, the laws against selling liquors, mid npainst certain theatrical performances on Sundays, have caused much discussion, and some resistance, chiefly on the part of the German and Irish population, but are still enforced (1867). SUNDAY SCHOOLS. See Education and Sabbath School*. SURNAMES. See Sirnames. (p. 566.) SUSPENSION BRIDGES, (p. 604.) See Bridge* SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 159 SWEDEN, (p. 604.) Death of Bernadotte, whose son Oscar, ascends the throne, March 8, 1844 Treaty of alliance with Knghind and France Nov. 21, 1855 Banishment decreed agai .si Catholic converts from Luther. anisra Oct. 1857 SWITZERLAND. Declaration of neutrality In the coming Italian \var. March 14, 1860 Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary troops at Demonstration tn favor of Italian Independence.. Dec. 17 sM Charles XV. (born May 3, 1826), the PRESENT (1861) king of Sweden and Norway.. .July 8, 18M Heiress : Princess Louisa, bcrn Oct. 31 1861 Naples ; the confederation for- bid foreign enlistment. July and Aug. 1861 TARIFF. A schedule of duties charged by government on goods imported. The British tariff in 1840 comprised 1,042 articles; the number was reduced (by sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the number was greatly reduced in 1860. See Customs Duties. TAXATION. U. S. Before the rebellion the revenue of the U. S. general Govern- ment was raised wholly from customs and sale of lands. Subsequently, to support the war, direct taxation was imposed. The direct taxes in 1865, amounted to $211,129,529. See Revenue, Debt, &c. TEA, in ENGLAND, (p. 610.) Imported tn 1850 50,11 2,384 Ibs. I Imported in 1857 69,116,000 Ibs. " "1856 86,200,414 " | " "1858 74,222,000" The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850, amounted to 5,471,641, and the amount in 1852 was 6,902,433. The duty upon tea had been grad- ually reduced from 2*. 2%d. to one shilling only per pound, in 1858. In UNITED STATES. Value imported in the years ending June SO, 1855. 1866. 1857. 1858. 1859. $6,930,986 $6,893891 $5,757,860 $6,777,295 $7,306,910 Amount consumed in U. S., 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1S66. 26,520,000 Ibs. 27,468,600 Ibs. 26,906,365 Ibs. 23,137,546 Ibs. 29,953,433 Ibs. 29, 643, 1ST Ibs. TELEGRAPH. See Electric Tel. and Submarine Tel. TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, (p. 611.) Legislation against intemperance in the U. S. has been attempted in several States. The " Maine Law " passed chiefly through the influence of Neal Dow, 1851, was adopted essentially by Connec- ticut (1856), New York (1856) and Massachusetts (1856). It was strongly enforced in the latter State, although vigorously opposed by many, L8t>6-7. It was repealed in Maine, 1856. TENNESSEE, (p. 612.) Population in 1850, 763,154, and 239,460 slaves; in 1860, 859,528, and 287,112 slaves. Ordinance of " Separation " passed May 6, 1861. The eastern part of the State was noted for its loyalty to the Union during the war. State debt in 1865, $1,213,700. At the State "election , Aug. 1, 1867, Governor Brownlow, of the " Union " or Radical ticket, was re-elected by a majority of nearly 50,000, chiefly made up by the negroes, who voted in this State for the first time. TEXAS, (p. 613.) Population in 1860, 416,000, and 184,956 slaves. Ordinance of Secession from the United States passed Jan. 1861. Debt in 18B5, $s,192- 000. After the war, Gen. A. J. Hamilton was appointed Provisional 190 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Governor, by Pres. Lincoln : but at the first election after the restoration, (1866) a Secessionist, (Throckmorton), was elected. Texas included in 6th Military District under Sheridan, March, 1867. THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God). The science which treats of the nature and attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in which they may be discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. 1. Inspired (including the Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c.); 2. Natural ; which latter Lord Bacon calls the first part of philosophy. Butler's Analogy of Religion (1736), and Paley's Natural Theology (1802), are eminent books on the latter subject. The "Summa Totius Theologiae" by Thomas Aquinaa (born about 1224), a standard Roman Catholic work, was printed with com- mentaries, &c., in 1596. THESSALONICA. A city in Macedonia (now Salonica). Here Paul preached A. R. 63 ; and to the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took place iu 390, by order of the emperor Theodosius Thessalonica partook of the changes of the Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the emperor Andronicus in 1425; taken by the Turks in 1430; burnt July 11, 1856. TIARA. The triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys are of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction ; and on the death of a pope, his arms are presented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was a high round cap. Pope Damascus II. first caused himself to be crowned with a tiara, A. D. 1053. John XIX. was the first who encompassed the tiara with a crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295; and Benedict XII. formed the tiara about 1334. TIMBER-BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by M. T. Blan- chard, of Boston (U. S.), for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhi- bition of 1855. A company was formed for its application in England in 1856. TIMES NEWSPAPER, LONDON. On Jan. 13, 1786, Mr. John Walter published the first number of the Daily Universal Register, price 2|rf. In 1788, the name of the paper was changed to the Times. Dr. Stodart editor in 1812. Dr. Barnes was the next editor. On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed by steam power. The powerful articles contributed by Edward Sterling gained the paper the name of the Thunderer. In 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and exposing a scheme organized by a company, to defraud by forgery all the influential bankers of Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action for libel. The jury found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of one farthing damages, but the judge refused costs. Subscriptions were set on foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse the proprietors for their immense out- lay in defending the action. This they firmly declined ; and the money was expended in establishing Times Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at flbrist's Hospital, and other schools; marble tablets also, commemorating the event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in other places. These were the greatest honors ever conceded to a newspaper. Iu Oct., 1845, the Times ex- press was for the first time conveyed to India overland, by the agency of Lieut Waghorn. Of the number of the Times for Nov. 19, 1852, containing the life of the Duke of Wellington, 69,000 were sold the ordinary number being then 86,000 ; the present circulation is stated to vary from 47,000 to 56,000. In 1854, the proprietors gent Mr. W. H. Russell as their special correspondent to the seat of war in the Crimea, and in 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the United States. SUPPLEMENT, 1851-6*7. 191 TITHES (p. 616). Abolished in England, 1860. TOBACCO. In a recent lecture in England, the Dean of Carlisle stated that in 1865, 33,000,000 pounds of tobacco were consumed in that country, at an ex- pense of $40,000,000, over $26,000,000 of which went in duties to the govern- ment In 1821 the average annual consumption was llf ounces to each person ; in 1853 it had risen to 19 ounces. In France much more is consumed in proportion to the population, the emperor clearing $20,000.,OCO annually by the government monopoly. In Denmark the annual consumption averages 70 ounces to each person, in Belgium, 73 ounces, and in America, the average is vastly higher. It is calculated that 2,000,000 tons, or 4,480,000,000 pounds of tobacco are annually used in the world, at a cost sufficient to pay for all the bread corn used in Great Britain. It is boasted that 100,000,000 of the human race are smokers. In New York city it was stated that there were in 1860, about 200,000 smokers, each using two cigars daily, making, at an average of four cents each, the sum of $16,000 daily, or $6,840,000 a year, wasted in smoking in this city alone. The cost in 1867 would be at least double. There were, in 1860, about 900,000,000 cigars manufactured in N. Y., amounting, at the s;ime price, to $36,000,000. The total exports of tobacco from the United States in 39 years (1821-59), amounted to $339,274,520. The production of tobacco in the northern states has increased wonderfully since 1850. In 1850, N. Y. State produced 83,000 Ibs. ; in 1860, 5,765,000 Ibs. ; Conn, produced in 1850, 1,267,000 Ibs. ; in 1860, 6,000,000 Ibs. The exports of tobacco from the U. S. in 1862, amounted to $12,325,356, being almost entirely from the north. See Treasury Statistics in appendix. TRACTARIANISM. This term is applied to certain opinions on church matters propounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were pub- lished, in England, 1833-41. The principal writers were the Revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams. TRANSYLVANIA. An Austrian province ; was part of the ancient Dacia. In 1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the Emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till 1699, when the Emperor Leopold I. finally incorporated Transylvania into the Aus- trian dominions. TRAVELLING IN ENGLAND. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter nearly two days, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the journey was accomplished in six or seven hours. By the Great Western Rail- way express (63 miles) it is done in 1-J hour. TREATIES, (p. 621.) Constantinople, treaty of May 8, 1854 Washington, Reciprocity treaty be- tween Great Britain nnd the U. 8., respecting Newfoundland fishery, commerce, &c July 2, 1854 OF TIIK U. S. (p. 622.) Treaty with China signed at Tien Tsin June 13,1858 1854 Paris, treaty of (and Russian war) April, 1856 Paris (settlement of Neufchatel affair) My 26, 1857 Zurich (Austria, Frai.ce, nnd Siircii- nia) Nov. 10, 1859 Treaty with Mexico, negotiated by Mr. McLane, but rejected by the tT. 8. Senate 1860 Treaty with Kuesia for purchase of Sitka, ratified June 1867 Treaty with Japan, negotiated by Com. Perry, signed March 31, Another treaty with Japan, by Town- seud Harris, signed June 17, 1857 TRIALS, U. S. Noted trial of Aaron Burr, on the charge of treason against the U. S. in preparing an expedition against Mexico, held at Richmond, May, 192 THE WOULD S PEOGEESS. 1807. Burr acquitted. Trial of John Brown for treason against Virginia. (See Harper's Ferry). The assassins of Lincoln tried at Washington, 1866. Trial of Capt. Wirz, for cruelty to Union Prisoners at Andersonville, 1865: he was convicted and executed shortly after. Jeff Davis, President of the Southern Confederacy, admitted to bail in the sum of $100,000, by U. S. Dis trict Judge Underwood, Richmond Va., May, 1867, to appear before him on the charge of treason at the succeeding term of the Court. Trial of John II. Surrutt, for complicity in the murder of Pres. Lincoln, lasting about thirty days, ended Aug., 1867, by the disagreement of the jury. TRIESTE. An Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It was held by the French in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of the overland mail to India, it has risen to great commercial importance TROWSERS. Distinguished by looseness from " pantaloons," which were orig- inally cut to sit tight to the leg from thigh to ankle. Pantaloons began to supersede small clothes during the French revolution ; the loose trowser began to be worn after 1815; and have become as decidedly a normal form of gar- ment, as were the " breeches " of the last century. TRUCE OF GOD (Treuga Dei\ A term given to a cessation of the private feuds and conflicts so general, during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy strenuously exerted their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussilon, A. D. 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy between Saturday even- ing (at none?) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar regula- tions were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of the Church, especially the Lateran Council, in 1179. TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about a mile southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge in Wales. The Con- way Tubular Bridge (1846-8) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and there- fore requires no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Ste- phenson and Mr. Fairbairn. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world is that over the St Lawrence, Canada (see Bridges). TUNIS. In July 1856, the Bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. The Bey died Sept. 22, 1859 ; and no disturbance ensued on the accession of his successor. TURKEY, (p. 626.) Christians admitted to office in Tur- key June, 1849 The Turkish government refuses to fmrrender the Hungarian and Po- lish r. fugei s on the joint demand of Kussia and Austria Sept. 16, 1849 Russia .-u-peniis Intercourse with the Porte Nov. 12, 1849 Treity with France respecting the Holy Places (which. ).... Feb. 13, 1852 Russian manifesto against Turkey June 26, 1863 War declared ngalnst Bussia (-co War) Oct. 6, 1863 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years English ambassador at Con- stantinop'e, returned lo Ei eland, Jan.: he in succeeded liy Sir. H. LytitmBiilwer ; accredited July 12, 1858 Massacre of Christians at Jedda July 25, 1858 Turkigh financial reforms be Secretaries of S'.ata Dec. 10, 1795 > Sept 11, 1789 Secretaries of the Feb 3, 1795 Treasury. Sept. 12,1789 Jan. 2, 1795 Secretaries of War. Jan. 27, 1796 Sept. 26,1759 Nov. 7, 1791 Post Masters Gen. Feb. 25,1705 Sept. 26,1789 Jan. 27, 1794 Attorneys General Dec. 10, 1795 Speakers of the House of Representatives. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793. ,'onathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. SECOND ADMINISTRATION; 1797 to 1801 ; 4 years. John Adam?, Thomas Jefferson, Timothy Pickering, John Marshall, Oliver Wolcott, Samuel Dexter, James M'Henry, Samuel Dexter. Roger Griswold, George Cabot.* Benjamin Stoddart, Joseph Habersham, Charles Lee, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. Virginia, 1797 Vice President. Appointed. Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) Secretaries of Statt Virginia, May 13, 1800 Sei Connecticut, (continued in office.) Secretaries of the Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 Treasury. Maryland, (continued in office.) ) May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of War Massachusetts, Connecticut, Feb. Massachusetts, May Maryland, May 21, 1798 $ Navy. Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen. Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General. 3, 1801 3, 1798 / Secre'nriw of the Jonathan Dayton, Theodore Sedgwick, Speakers of the House of Representatives. New Jersey, 5th Congress, Massachusetts, 6th do. THIRD ADMINISTRATION; 1801 to 1809; 8 years. :797. 1793. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 President. Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 > v . George Clinton, New York, do. 180 ^ Vice Appointed. James Madison, Virginia, March 5, 1801 Secretary of SttU, Samuel Dexter, Mass, (continued in office.) } Secretaries of thf Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 \ Treasury. Afr. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established it 17981 206 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. Henry Dearborn, Benjamin Stoddart, Robert Smith,* Joseph Habersham, Gideon Granger, Levi Lincoln, lohn Breckenridge. Ctesar A. Rodney,' Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B Varnum, Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B. Varnum, James Madison, George Clinton, F, [bridge Gerry, Robert Smith, James Monroe, James Monroe,t Albert Gallatin, George W. Campbell, Alexander J. Dallas, William Eustis, John Armstrong, James Monroe, William H. Crawford, Paul Hamilton, William Jones, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Gideon Granger, Return J. Meigs, Caesar A. Rodney, William Pinkney, Richa-i Rush, Massachusetts, March 5,1801 Secretary of \V>r. Md. (continued \n office.) I Secretaries of the Maryland, Jan. 26, 1832 j Navy. Georgia, (continued in office.) i Post Masters Ge- ConnecticiK Jan. 26, 1892 { neral. Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 j Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 V Attorneys Central Delaware, Jan. 20, iai7 > Speakers of the House of Representatives. North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803. North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. Massachusetts, Kith do ISO/. FOURTH ADMINISTRATION; 1809 to 1817; 8 ye..w. Virginia, March 4, 1809 President New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) ) v - p,...,,,,... Mass. 1813, (died Nov. 23, 1814) $ vl ' Appointed. Maryland, March 6, 1809 Virginia, Nov. 25,1811 Secretaries of Slat* Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) Secretaries of the Treasury. Secretaries of War Tennessee. Feb. 9, 1814 Pennsylvania, Oct. 6, 1814 Massachusetts, March 7, 1809 New York, Jan. 13, 1813 Virginia, Sept. 27, 1814 Georgia, March 2, 1815 South Carolina, March Pennsylvania, Jan. Massachusetts, Dec. 19^ 1814 ^ " avy- Connecticut, (continued in office.) ( Post Master? Ge- Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ neral. Delaware, (continued in office.) ) Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys General Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S Joseph B. Varnum, "Henry Clay, Henry Clay, Languon Cheves, Henry Clay, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Massachusetts, llth Congress, 1809. Kentucky, Kentucky, , South Carolina, < Kentucky, 12ih 13th 14th do. do. do. 1811. U812. / 1814. 1815. James Monroe, , Danic D. Tompkins, FIFTH ADMINISTRATION ; 1817 to 1825 ; 8 years. Virginia, March 4, 1817 President. New York, John Q. Adam?, William H. Crawford, Isaac Shelby ,t John C. Calhoun, Massachusetts, Georgia, Kentucky, South Carolina, do. ' 1817 Vice President. Appointed. March 5,1817 Secretary of Sta'c. March 5, 1817 Secretary of Trea Benj. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, (continued in office.) ) c,^ . / ,. Smith Thompson, New York, Nov. 30, 1818 \ Secretaries of the Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, Dec. 9, 1823 ) Return J. Meigs, Ohio, (continued in office.) I Post Masters O*- John McLean, do. Dec. 9, 1823 i neral. Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) I . .... William Win, Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 S Altonle ' Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Crotcninshield, of Massachusetts. Secrstary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these apt nntments ; and Mr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end ol Mr. Jtflerson's aihnv oistration. * James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of Ww. ' Isaar Shelby declined the appointment. 4DM DICTIONARY OF DATES. 207 ADMINISTRATIONS (UNITED STATES) continued. Speakers of the House of Representatives. Henry Clay, Kentucky, 15th Congress, 1817. Henry Clay, Kentucky, > I6th , $ 1819. John W. Taylor, New York, \ I6th da ? 1820. Philip P. Harbour, Virginia, 17th do. 1821. Henry Clay, Kentucky, 18th do. 1823. SIXTH ADMINISTRATION; 1825 to 1829; 4 years. John Q.. Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1825 President. John C Calhoun, South Carolina, do. 1825 Vice President. Appointed. Henry Clay, Kentucky, March 8,1825 Secrstiry of Sta'i Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7.1825 Sec'y cf the Ti ea James Barbour, Virginia, do. '1825 > c..,,.:-., < Ws Peter B. Porter, New York, May 26, 1828 $ t>ei Samuel I, Southard, New Jersey, (continued in office.) Sec'y of the Navj . John McLean, Ohio, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen William Wirt, Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General Speakers of the House of Representatives. John W. Taylor, New York, 19th Congress, 1827. Andrew Stephenson, Virginia, 20th do. 1828. SEVENTH ADMINISTRATION; 1829 to 1837; 8 years. Andrew Jackson, John C. Calhoun, Martin Van Buren, Martin Van Buren, Edward Livingston, Louis McLane, John Foreyth, Samuel D. Ingham, Louis McLane, William J. Duane, Roser B. Taney, Levi Woodbury, John H. Eaton, Lewis Cass, John Branch, Levi Woodbury, Mahlon Dickerson, William T. Barry, Amos Kendall, John Mr.P. Berrien, Roger B. Taney, Benjamin F. Butler, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829. Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 22d do. 1831. John Bell, Pennsylvania, 1835 EIGHTH ADMINISTRATION ; 1837 to 1841 4 years Tennessee, March 4, 1829 President. South Carolina, New York, do - |!U < Vice Presidents. New York, Appointed. March 6,1829 Louisiana, Delaware. 1831 1833 Secretaries of State Georgia, 1835 Pennsylvania, March 6,1829 Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, 1831 1833 1833 Secretaries of the Treasury. New Hampshire, 1834 Tennessee, Ohio, March 9, 1829 1831 Secretaries of War North Carolina, New Hampshire, MarCh 9 ' ill (Secretaries of the New Jersey, 1834 $ Navy> Kentucky, March 9, 1829 f Post Masters Ge- Kentucky, 1835 \ neral. Georgia, March 9, 1829 ) Maryland, New York, 1831 > Attorneys General 1834 ) M.irtin Van Buren, Richard M. Johnson, John Forsyth, Levi Wooilbury, Joel R. 1 oinsett, Mahlon Dickerson, James K. Paulding, Amos Kendall, John M. Niles, Benjamin F Butler, Felix GrunJy, Henry D. Giipin, Junes K. Polk, Robert M. T. Hunter. New York, 1837 President. Kentucky, 1837 Vice President Appointed. Georgia, (.continued in office.) Secretary of State. New Hampshire, (continued in office.) Sec'y of Treasuiy South Carolina, 18371 New Jersey, (continued in office.) > Secretaries of Wil New York, 1838 S Kentucky, (continued in office.) ) Post Masters Ge- Connecticut, 1840 ( neral. New York, (continued in office.) i Pennsylvania, > Attorneys General. Pennsylvania, 1839 ) Speakers of the House of Representative*. Tennessee, 1837. Virginia, 1830. 208 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [ADI, JLDMINISTRATIONS (UNITED STATES) continued. NINTH ADMINISTRATION ; 1841 to 1845. -4 year*. William II. Harrison, Ohio, Died one month alto .' inauguration, and 1&41 Preside -.t. John Tyler, Samuel L. Southard, Willie P. Mangum, Virginia, New Jersey, North Carolina, 1841 Vice Presi font, became ac ing Prea, Acting V. Pres. and Pres. Senate. Daniel Webster, Abel P. Upshur, Thomas Ewing, Walter Forward, John C. Spencer, John Bell, John C. Spencer, George E. Badger, Abel P. Upshur, David Henshaw, Francis Grander, Charles A. Wickliffe, John J. Crittenden, Hugh S. Legare, John Nelson, Massachusetts, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Tennessee, New York, North Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, Kentucky, Kentucky, South Carolina Maryland, Speakers of the House of Reepresentatives. Kentucky, Virginia, 1841 ; 1841 \ Appointed. 1841 ( Secretaries of Stafa. 1841 \Secretaries of tb 1841 [ Fieasuiy. 1841 ( Secretaries of War. Secretaries of the m Nay y- 1841 > Post Masters Gea 1841 \ eral. 184H 1841 > Attorneys Genera.'. 1841 J John White, John W. Jones, TENTH ADMINISTRATION ; 1845 to 1849; 4 years. 1841 1843 James K. Polk, Tennessee, 1845 President. George M. Dallas, Pennsylvania, 1845 Vice President. Appoint ;d. James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, 1845 Secretary of State. Robert J. Walker, Mississippi, 1845 Secretary of Treas. William L. Marcy, George Bancroft, New York, Massachusetts, 1845 Secretary of War. 1845 > Secretaries of the John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1847 \ Navy. Cave Johnson, Tennessee, 1845 Post Master Gen. John Y. Mason, Isaac Touc.ey, Virginia, Connecticut, 1847 S Attorneys General. Speakers of the House of Representatives, John W. Davis, Indiana, 1845. Robert C. Winthrop, Massachusetts, 1847. ELEVENTH ADMINISTRATION; 1849 to 1853; 4 years. Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, John M. Clayton, William E Meredith, William B Preston, George W. Crawford, Thomas Ewing, Jacob Collamer, Reverdy Johnson, Howell Cobb, Louisiana, 1849 President. New York, 1849 Vice President Appointed. Delaware, 1849 Secretary of Slate. Pennsylvania, 1849 Sec'y of Treasury. Virginia, 1849 Sec'y of the Navy. Georgia, 1849 Secretary of War. Ohio, 1849 Sec'y of Interior.* Vermont. 1849 Post Master Oen. Maryland, 1849 Attorney General. Speaker of the House of Representatives. Georgia, 1849. ADMINISTRATIONS OP ENGLAND, AND OP GREAT BRITAIN, from tl e accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : KINO HENRY viii. Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . ?529 Bishoo Fisher and Earl of Surrey . I!i09 Card_ial Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 Lord Audley, chancellor ; archbishop Cranmer . . . . : 535 * A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. Mote. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several admir.is- Uations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, were co-ifirmed by the Senate, a? stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate f th Vnitd States." Am. Almanac, *c. *-.! DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 Aw? nrd Cron.wel! (earl of Essex) . 1534 Du hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and wai, AI B ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 215 governed by a race of kings, the descendants ofj-Eneas. When Amulius dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a life oT celibacy, 'jy obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, therely to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, frustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be thrown into the Tiber, 770 B.C. But the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and called them Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamud LMpa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the next year founded Rome. Varro. ALBAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Caesar was the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, A.D. 286. A stately monastery was erected here to his memory by Offa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. ALBAN'S. ST.. BATTLES or. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI., of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated army perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2. 1461. ALBANY, city, capital of the State of .New- York, founded by the Dutch in 1623, and by them named Beaverwyck ; capitulated to the English in 1664, and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 : in 1830, 24 ; 238; in 1840, 33,721. ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about A.D. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- guedoc, and at Toulouse ; they opposed the disciples of the Church of Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon de Montfort commanded against them, and at Beziferes he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called b> Julius Caesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion of the country, 54 B.C. The Romans conquered it. and held possession about 400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See Uritain. New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver in 1792. A.LBUERA, BATTLE OF, b tween the French, commanded by marshal Soult, 216 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ALH and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men previously to their retreat. ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may b had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yet few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years afici Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians are said to have invented this mysterous art. wherein they were followed by Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, about A. D. 410. Fab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. Ri/mer's Feed. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow- der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans believe, inimitable by any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- torius. Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel : it was written about A. D. 610. See Koran, Mahometism, Mecca, &c. ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as distinguished persons on account of the experience their age had given them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to A. D. 882. After the Danes .vere settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor- mans introduced that of count, which though different in its original signifi- cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in tho United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. Al.E AND WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. Twke'i Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 B. c. Herodotus as- cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis the wife of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre- paring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation from the Egyptians. Tacitus. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina. king of Wes- sex. Booths were set up in England A.D. 728. when laws w< re passed for their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charlej U., 1660. See Beer. Wine.. 4LG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 217 ALEMANNI, OR ALL MEN, (i. e. men of all nations, . a body of Suevi, defeated by Caracalla, A. D. 214. On one occasion 300 000 of this warlike people art said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at tha head of 10 000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. Gibbon. ALEXANDER, ERA OP, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem- ber 12, 823 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and. in conse- quence, the year 1 A. D. was equal to 5503. Thia computation continued to the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 A.D.), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date be- came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian eta, uihich, see. The date is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 54y2. ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by Alexander the Great. 332 B. c. ; taken by Caesar, 47 B. c., and the library of the Ptolemies, containing 400 ; 000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered by the Saracens, whtn the second library, consisting of 700 000 volumes was totally destroyed by die victors, who heated the water for their baths for six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph Omar, A. D. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was ags in taken by the British, under General Frazer. March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by thenv Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey. ALEXANDR1 A. BATTLE OF, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- tack and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie. amounting to about 15 000 men, which had but recently debarked fought March 21, 1801. The British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris : and since called after him. Alexandrines, about A. D. 1164. Nuuv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, has the following well- known couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified: " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, Tha' like a wound-etl snake, drags its slow length a-long." ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely known. Diophantus first wrote upon it probably about A. D. 170 ; he is said to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590. when algebra came into feneral use. Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the octrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province, 44 B. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and h seized the government, A. D. 1516; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur- key. Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653. and terrified into pacific measure* with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow- ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775 10 218 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ALM 1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, inder lord Exmouth, Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol- ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bouriaont and Duperr^, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834. Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836. General Damremont attacked Constantina (which, see}, Oct. 13, 1837 ;" since when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec . 22. 1847. See Morocco. ALI, SECT OF. Founded by a famv us Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- homet, (having married hit daughter Fatima.) about A. D. 632. Ali was called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God. always victorious ;" and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, that the lirst four successors of Mahomet Abubeker, Omar. Othman, and Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the '-cut- ting sword of God." all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos- tor's famLy was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. Ali was assassinated in 660. ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to -A. D. 1377. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to bo half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail. 1483. ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, A. D. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular" day is assigned. The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the year. The- reformers of the English church provided offices only for very remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a groat number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition. ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest instances, of which Blair gives Psalm Ixxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen- ser's Faerie Queene is an allegory throughout ; Addison, in his Spectator, abounds in allegories; and the Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663. is per- fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich 'n allegory. ALLIANCES. TREATIES OF, between the high European Powers . See Coalition, Treaties. &c. Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631 Alliance of Vienna . May 27, 1657 Alliance, the Triple . . Jan. 28, 1668 Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 Allianci;, the Hague Jan 4, 1717 Allance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718 Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731 Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756 Germanic Alliance . July 23, 1735 Alliance of Paris . . May 16. 1795 Alliance of Petersburg April 8. 'SOS Austrian Alliance . . March 14, !8!2 Alliance of Sweden . March 24 iS12 Alliance of Toplitz . . Sept. 9, 1813 Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, 18)5 ALMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- dars were anciently in use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostrodamus. the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merliii, 1566. Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were. 4MJJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 219 ALMANACS, continued. Jobn Somer's Calendar, written in Ox ford .... On in Lambeth palace, written in Finit printed one, published at Buda First printed in England, by Richarc Pynson Tybault's Prognostications . Lilly's Ephenieris . 1380 1460 1472 1497 1533 '644 Poor Robin's Almam.c . 1655! Lady's Diary . . . 1705 Moore's Almanac . . 1713 Season on the Seasons . . 1735 Gentleman's Diary . . 1741 Nautical Almanac . . . 1767 Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin'B. Philadelphia) .... 1733 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500.000 copies were annually sold. The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was abolished in England, 1834. ALMEIDA, BATTLE or, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was defeated with considerable loss August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 B. c. Blair. But Josephus affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was akpfi, called by the Greeks a^pha, and abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B. c., brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- lowing : A, B, T, A, I, K, A. M, N, O, II, P, 2, T, T. Those letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters, 0, X, *, H, about 1224 B. c. ; and Simonides added Z, "V, H, ft, about 489 B. c. Arundeliaii Marbles. When the E was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters till 399 B. c., when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets of the different nations contain the following number of letters : English . .26 German . . 26 French . . 23 Italian . . 20 Spanish . . 27 Sclavonic . . 27 Russian . . 41 Latin . . . 22 Greek . . 24 Hebrew . . 22 Arabic . . 28 Persian . . 32 Turkish . . 33 Sanscrit . . 50 and Chinese . . 214 ALPHONSINE TABLES Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com- mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. ALTA.RS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 B. c. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. Hero- dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 136 ; and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- ported their use. ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about A. D. 1300; it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in 220 THE WORL1 8 PROGRESS. [ AMI 1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1767 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulj thu- ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but it is usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru. Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing coin- nies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and ave the name of Amazon to the river, which had .previously been called daranon. dAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. Qumtus Curtiui. They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B. c. The Amazons were con- stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned off; whence their name from the Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred females were in her train. Herodotus. AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England among others, they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709. when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780. Phillips. AMIJER, Of great repute in the world from the earliest time; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 B. c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king dom; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in favor of each opinion. AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means true, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- plies, so be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been genejallj used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prnyei A.MENDE HONORABLE, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped off. a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into court and was obliged to pray pardon of God. the king, and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used foi making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party; A MM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 AMERICA: See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, A.D. 1492, on the llth of Octo- ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. This grea* navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci ( Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. Newfoundland, the first British colony in this quarter of the world, discover- ed by Cabot, and by him called Prima Vista. .... 1497 Virginia, the first English settlement .on the main land . . . 1607 New England, the second, by the Ply- mouth company . . . 1621 New York, settled by the Dutch . . 161' [For other occurrences, see Tabular Views United States. See also separate states, Maine, the lender !" 222 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ANA by Jephthah, 1188 B.C. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, but Saul overthrew them, 1093 B. c. They were afterwards many times van- quished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed all the walls, 198 B. c. Josephus. AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by Thrasybulus. the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with two branches of olive. 409 B. c. Hume's Essays. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, fr the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated co-jacil, which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some c'ties of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 B. c. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons. and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. Suidas. AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in full senate " Omnium mulierum virum, et omnium virorum mulierem." In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built A. D. 79 ; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in A. D. 1100 ; and its building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was built in 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was restored in November, 1813. See Holland. AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The Egyptians had a great variety; so. had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. Pliny. Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood of the true cross, about A. D. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and sell amulets and charms even to this day. Ashe. ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about A. D. 1525, and was known in England before 1549. Jphn of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- tists of Munster (who are. of course, properly distinguished from the existing mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv- ance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster they called Mount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and ING ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223 they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Minister was taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than th not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 B. c. The odes of Anacreon are much prized; their author lived in a constant round of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his eighty- fifth year. Stanley's Lives of ike Poets. ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our Saviour. " Quid est verilas?" we have this admirable anagram, " Est vir qui adest," The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. Henault. ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews: the ana- thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec Joshua Vi. 17), Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, A. D. 387. tiuch ecclesias- tical denunciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- beth's reign. Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic, countries to this day. Ashc. ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 B. c. But Erasistratus and Hero- philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living; criminals, about 300 and 293 B. c. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodiss of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical plates were designed by Vesalius, about A. D. 1538. The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680. Freind's History of Physic. ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- - ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- able to GOD ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. ANCHORS FOR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian. Slrabo. Anchors were first forged in England A. D. 578. The anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost 450. Phillips. A NEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- vented by Wolfius.'in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. ANGELIC KNIGHTS OF ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, A.D. 456. The Angdici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus. emperor of Constantinople, 1191 The Angelica 1 , an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louis* Ton-lli. A. D 1534. 224 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ANT ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Somo will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. Cave', Hist. Literal. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, and was valued at 65. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. Wood. ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Trealyse of Fysshinge. the first book printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in 1653. ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. Haydn. ANGLO-SAXONS, OR ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- lage near Sleswick. called Anglen, whose population joined the first Saxon freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa. assumed the title of king, A. D. 575: the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. Dr. ' Burnet. ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and abbreviated A.D. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See Era. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west and 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French and American Exploring Expeditions, under D Urville and Wilkes, respec- tively on the same day, Jan. 19. 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, aa the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Brisow, of the British Navy, fell in with land, Avhich he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the year 1830. ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 549.755 millions, in the year of the world 1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the ANT] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only j and then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- ries that preceded the Flood : I. . . 10 n. . 40 III. . . 160 IV. . 640 V. . . 2,560 VI. . , . 10,240 VII. . 40,960 Vin. . 163,840 IX. . . 655,360 X. . 2,621,440 XI. . 10,485,760 XII. . 41,943,040 XIII. . . 167,142,160 XIV. . 671,085,640 XV. . 2,684,354,41W XVI. . 10,737,4J8,2 This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. \JVTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. Le-nglet. They were introduced into the church service in ,386. Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus, Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea Islands, &c. ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30. and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi- cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. Bmjle. We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- cesses, about 1410. Priestley. ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good works are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 B.C. In one day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 B. c. In this city, once the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris- tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 5492 years B. c. A \TIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- podes existed, about 368 B. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate oJ pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- ing 1 this doctrine, A. D. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes Island. Brookes. ANTIQUARIES, AND ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption of the Goths into Italy, in A. D. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 years B. c. ; but this has very little pretensions to 10* 226 THE WORLD'S PROGK ESS. [ AWJ credit. A soc'ety was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and others, in 1572. Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its discoveries, &c., under the title of Archceologia, in 1770. The Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York, an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them from prison. Jan. 27, 1847. ANTI- TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it was adopted by Laelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. See Arians, Socini- ans. and Unitarians. ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in A. D. 517. Its fine exchange built in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu- tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who. after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse" surrendered the citadel to the French after a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about A. D. 95. Irenezus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the . sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545. et seq. Rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from the time of Justin Martyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A. D. 139. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged by the coxmcil of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. Ashe. APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea. who taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; thai his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin as through a channel; that there were two sons, one born of God. the other of the Virgin, &c, Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in A. D. 378. APOLLO. TKMPI.KS OF. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1203 B. c. See Delphi. His temple at Daphnac, ARA] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 227 built 434 B. c., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burn* iu A. D. 362. and the Christians accused of the crime. Lenglet. APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while after their time. Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. A POSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century ; the second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, A. D. 300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. Herodian. This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augus- tus, in favor of Julius Caesar, B. c. 13. TiUemont. APPEAL OP MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817 a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the statute book, 59 George III., 1819. APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in England; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. 1282. APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having introduced Januarius and Februarius before it 713 B. c. Peacham. AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water. AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, which was therefore called the Appian-way, about 453 B. c. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of Rome. JLa.vy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen- dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. AQUiTAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians made no figure in history till A. D. 622. when, under the new name of Sara- 228 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [JUL cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- phet, and made considerable conquests. Priestley. ARBELA, BATTLE OF. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus. which decided the fate of Persia, 331 B. c. The army of Darius consisted of 1.000.000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40.000 foot and 7,000 horse. Arrian. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- ling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed (o load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. Plutarch. ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in their manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley, surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery they honored him as a god. 1521 B. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of miliUry glory, although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of other states. Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by (Eno- trus into Italy, 1710 B.C., and the country in which it settled was afterwards called Magna Gratia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 B. c. Idem.. ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about A. D. 320. Atha- nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- terbury, A. D. 596. ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532. ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau- dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on whicb was written "Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and Philip threw back the arrow with these words : " If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. A.P.CHERY IN ENGLAND. It was introduced previously to A. D. 440, and Ha rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bow? of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range ol the lon-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it. is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members. 21 Rich- ard II. 1397. Slmce. The citizens of London were formed into companiet of archers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporal* UMJ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 229 body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VOL 1538. Northouk's History of London. ARCHES, TRIUMPHAL, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected A. D. 114) and Constantino were magnificent. ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 B.C. Their King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials , for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 B. c. The art passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this dignity, 1070 B. c. ARCOLA, BATTLE OP, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, A. D. 1570. Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bay. For the subsequent and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon. Back, &c., see North- West Passage. AREOPAGIT^E. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 B. c. Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areas pagos, the Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. ARGENT ARIA, BATTLE OP. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40.000 men, A. D. 378, Dufresnoy. ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the figure of a ram. it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder, 1263 B. c. Dnfresnoy. . This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 B. c., or 1080 years b 230 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ARI fore the first Olympiad. Blair. The nine kings from the founder wer called Inachidce, of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to the country. When the Heraclidae took possession of Peloponnesus, B. c. 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece. Euripides. Inachus founds the kingdom . B. c. 1856 Phoroneus reigns sixty years . 180" Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747 The city of Argos built by Argus, son qfNiobe 1711 Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his father, and reigns .... 1641 Keign of Triqpas; Polycaon seizes part of the kingdom, and calls it af- ter his wife, Messenia . . 1552 Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 Sthenehts reigns .... 1485 Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- crificed theirs. (See Flzmbeaux)*.Q. 1425 Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose hfe had been preserved by his wife, de- throne? Uanaus .... !425 Reign of Abas . . . 1384 Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- sius '' . 1361 Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas- sion for him of Sthenobcea . . 136i Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344 Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My- cenae (which see.) .... 1313 eppse Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians. A. D. 1686. It waa lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present and first king. January 25, 1833. See Greece. ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny tLe divinity of CHRIST: they arose about A. D. 815. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- tus was burnt, 1553. Varillas, Hist de I'Heresie. ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales. about 600 B. c. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 300 B. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A. i>. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books o( Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 into Spain, 1050 into Eng- land. 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of t/ie World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic (de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur- ham, 1622. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdolagia, in 1617. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 B. c. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE. and two doves: this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told three floors the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slavta (UtM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 231 A.RMADA, THE INVINCIBLE. The famous Spanish armament so called con- sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea. and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away J'or Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis- persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5.000 men; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but one ship. Rapin, Carte, Hume. ARMAGH. SEE OF, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. ARMED NEUTRALITY". The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to the empire of the sea; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- menia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor shippers of fire: they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whose priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, prior to marriage. Martin's Memoires sur L'Armenie. City of Artaxarta built . . B.C. 186 Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93 He is called to the throne of Syria, as- sumes the fastidious title of "King of Kings," and is served by tributary Artaxias is deposed . . B. c. 30 He is restored to his throne, and dies. Blair Reign of Venones . . A. D. Zenon reigns .... Tigranes IV. reims princes . . . . . 83 Tigranes defeated by Lucullus . 69 He is cited to Rome, and deposed Again defeated, ana lays his crown at Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power the feet of Pompey . . 66 His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54 Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- lius Caesar . . . .48 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against Marc Antony ... 36 Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver chains to Egypt, to grace his triumph . . . .34 paramount in Armenia . 62 Armenia reduced to a Persian province under Sapor . . . 365 Subdued by the Saracens . . 687 Irruption of the Turks . . 755 Again made a Persian province, under Uffan Cassanes . . . 1472 Subdued by Selim II. . 1022 Overrun by the Russians The Armenian soldiers crown his son, Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1828 Artaxias .... 33 (See Syria.) A RMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, A, D. 552 : the Ecclesiastical year on the llth August. To reduce this last to our time, add 651 years and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- spondence with Europeans. ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in theii 232 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ AKH natural position And motion, the whole being comprised in a frame It it said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 B. c. ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England : especially asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis. They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their -necessity, in securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I, favored the ioctrines ol the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Durt) in 1618 Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. Brandt. ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of tlui twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle A. D. 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 and again in 1808. ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other lefence 'han the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, A. D. 449. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail. Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. Mcyrick. ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the PliO3nicians. See the various weapons through the 'volume. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017, B. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B. c. Eusebius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies : Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain. 310 000 ; Prussia, 350 000 ; Tur- key, 450.000 ; Austria, 600.000 ; Russia. 560 000 ; and France. 680.000. ARMY. BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official records : sum voted jE7,847,(Xfl ditto I7,973.(X>J ditto 26.743.000 ditto 39.1;V).000 ditto 18,AV3,UOO ditto 6,991,000 In 1845. the army, of all ranks, numbered 100 ; 011 men: and the sum v)ted was .C4,487 : 753. See Militia, and Volunteers. 17CO, Time of war ; troops of the line . amount 110,000 men 1800, War . ... ditto 168,000 men i810, War ; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men 1815, Last year of the war . . ditto 300,000 men 1830, Time of peace; war incumbrancea ditto 89,100 men 1830, Peace .... ditto 89,300 men AK8 | DICTIONARY CF DATES. 232 ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one. contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege ol 1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. Voltaire. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 1543. Rymi's F&dera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 1728. See Irm. AJITS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of these seven liberal arts, namely grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760. at the rooms of this society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process uf time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 19,1824. See British Museum; British Institution; National Gallery, (f-c. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES; containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B. c., and said to have been sculptured 264 B. c. They consist of 37 statues. 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wore found in the Isle of Paros in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are Greek, of which there are two translations: by Self/en, 1(528; by Prideaux, 1676. See Kidd's Tracts; and Parson's Treatise, 1789. ASCALON. BATTLE OF ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300.000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than 40 000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, A. D. 1192. Rymer. ASH- WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in A. D. 487. first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was abolished, "as being a mere shadow, or vain show." ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world peopled ; here the law of GOD was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of the arts and sciences have been derived. Pardon. ASPERNE BATTLE OF. between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and the French, fought on the 21st May. 1809 and two following days. In this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20.000 men, and the loss of the French was more than 30 000 : it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that lie had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- bury and others to assassinate king William III., near Richmond, Surrey, ai 234 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. j AM he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was lo have been con- summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. Hist. England. ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria., a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans, settled in Persia, in A. D. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- ferrat in 1192 ; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan of Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 1257 : and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the title of "Ancient of the Mountains." ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur- nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. Burke. It began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furu sh 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- dencies. Alison. ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, A. D. 45. Mary is reported to have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted in 813. ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Cresar, A. D. 43. It is certain that assu- rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern- ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 1601. Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire that of Bacchus .wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 B. c. It arose out of the union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 B. c. When this last- named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- rians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. I^englet. The lower of Babel built. Genesis x. , Babylon and makes it the seat of her 6 ; xi. 1. Blair B.C. 2247 dominion. Lenglet B. c. 2U17 The kingdom of Babylon begins 2345 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, Astronomical observations begun by the Chaldeans - - - 2234 Belus rtigns 55 years. f7sAer 2124 Ninus. son of Bclus, reigns in Assyria, and names his capital after himself 2069 Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- lishes what is properly the Assyrian monarchy, of whirh Nineveh was the eat of empire. Hlair 2059 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes and India. Lenglet 1976 The Arabs seize Nineveh 1937 Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus. Hlair .... H4fi He makes his daughter, Artossa, sur- named Semiramis II., his associate on the throne - - - 1431 Belatores reigns - ... 1421 The prophet Jonak appears in the si rcets of Nineveh Blair 840 Nineveh taken by Arbaces - 820 AST] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 235 ASSYRIA. PROPER. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 B.C., and the kingdom continued until 621 B. c., when Sarac, or Saruanapalus II., being besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, and the conquerors divided Assyria. Blair. It was finally conquered by the Turks in 1687 A. D. Priestley. Pl.ul raised to the throne, about the year. Blair B.C. 777 He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a sword. Blair; 2 Kings xv. 19, -M 770 Tielath-Pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and makes great con- quests .... 740 Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports the people, whom he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and others, and thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. -Blair 721 He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five years. Blair 713 Sennacherib invades Judea, ard his ge- neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- lem, when the angel of the Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of hia army. Isaiah xxxvii. - B. c. 711 [Commentators suppose that this mes- senger of death was the fatal blast known in eastern countries by the name of Sarnie/.] Esar-haddon invades Judea, ant 1 takes Babylon. Blair - . - 690 He invades Judea Blair - 677 Holofernes is slain by Judith - - 677 Saosduchinus reigns. Usher 667 Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyptians. Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. Hunault. The early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted to it. 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon. 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she. and all the European princes, were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. Sir Walter Scott has made ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of Babylon, about 2234 B. c. Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- vanced in Chaldaea under Nabonassur; it was known to the Chinese about 1100 B. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 B. c. Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Tholes, 640 B. c. Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 B. c. Hipparckus began his observations at Rhodes. 167 B. c. began his new cycle of the moon in 143. and made great advances in the science, 140 B. c. The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- ered, by Ptolemy, A.D. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ; nd was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. The Alphonsine tables (which see) were composed - - A.D. 12Si Clocks first used in astronomy, about 1500 True doctrine of the motions of the pla- netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 The science greatly advanced by Tycho Brahe, about - ... 1582 True laws of the planetary motions, by Kepler ----- 1619 Telescopes and other instruments us'ed in astronomy, about - - - 1627 The discoveries of Galileo were made Jwut 1631 The transit of Venus over the sun's disk first observed by Horrpx, Nov. 24 A.D. 1633 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante. See Bologna - - 165i The aberration of the light of the fixed stars discovered by Horrebow 1C5C Discoveries of Picart - - - 166C Map of the moon constructed by Here- hus - ... 167C Motion of the aun round its own axis proved by Halley - . -1670 Discoveries of Huygens - - - 1681 Newton's Principia published, and tb 236 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Herschel. March 13. See Georgium Sidus .... 1781 Mecanique Celeste, published by La Place .... 1796 Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 1801 Pallas, by Ur. Olbers, March 28 1802 Juno, by Harding, Sept. 1 1804 Vesta, by Olbers - - 1307 Neptune, by Le Verrier - - 1S46 United States astronomical expedition to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut ASTRONOMY continued. system as now taught incontrovertibly established - - - A. D. 1687 Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- stead ..... 1688 Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by Cassini ..... 1701 Aberration of the stars clearly explained by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange 1780 Uranus and satellites discovered by Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - -1849 Toe distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles; so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the sun. it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four hundred years ago. Objects of Science. ASYLUMS, OR PRIVILEGED PLACES. At first they were places of refuge for those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high, that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories. Salis- bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwins-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This security was abolished A. D. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed until the reign of George I. See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. ATHANASIAN CREED AND CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between A. D. 333 and 361. Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- tury. Du Pin. ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- nosa. a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscicnciares, because they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England we have had writers tinctured with it. Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." l*ord Bacon. " 81 *TT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 Diev, n'emstait pas il faudrait Vinventer :" If a God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent one. Voltaire. ATHEN^EA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of Minerva. One of them was called Panathensea, and the other Chalcea ; they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 B. c. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 B. c. Plutarch. ATHENAEUM A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athenaea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, A. D. 125. Tillfmont's Life of Adrian. ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent ruins yet attest its former grandeur the seat of science and theatre of valor. The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned in Bceotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or Noah's flood^ that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was repeopled. and twelve cities founded. 1556 B. c. The first state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 yearSj but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in its thiri state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes of Greece. Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in A. D. 1204, and the Turks in 1687. Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- vince of European Turkey ; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, and the seat of its legislature, established und^r King Otho I.. January 25th, 1833. See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from B. c. 1556 to B. c. 21. ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius. about 1630; its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley. Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish , and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. ATTAINDER, ACTS OF, have been passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses 5.3 cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III. 1694-5. Blarkstone. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln 's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683. was reversed under William, in 1C89. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (wi i was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. ATTILA, surnamed the " .Scourge of God," and thus distinguished for his con- quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, A. D. 447. He invaded the Ro 238 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ AU< man empire with an army of 500 000 Huns, and laid waste all the province!. He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico about A. D. 4o3.Gold.smit/i. ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bilh agaiast the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William da Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278,Bcatson. ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 -'practis- ing lawyers" in the United States is given in the Lawyer's Directory, 1850. ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1620. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. See Astronomy. AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. AUERSTADT, BATTLE OF. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his memorable Berlin decree. See Berlin Decree. AUGSBURG CONFESSION OF FAITH. The confession of articles of faith drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- ony, his son. and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. AUGSBURG, LEAGUE OF. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 1686. See Munstcr and Ni- meguen. AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 B. c. There was a com- munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is aamed, was the inventor of augury by birds. Vossius. The augurs of Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and flight of birds, and various strange casualties. Livy. AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of Augustus Caesar, from whom it was named in the year b B. c., because in this month lie was born, wis created consul, or chief magistrate thrice DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239 triumphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made ac etid of th.3 civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March. ^STERLITZ, BATTLE OF, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- sia. Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic- tory of the French led to the treaty of Presbtirg, which was signed Dec. 26, same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2. 1806. See Prcsburg. AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. O< a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- nected with Australia have lately been formed in London. AUSTRIA, anciently the Berfic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about A. D. 1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in the German language implies. Rodolph, count of Hapsburs, seizes Austria from Bohemia, and makes himself archduke - - - 1273 Revolt of Switzerland from the house of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. - 1307 Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to three crowns trie imperial, and those of Hungary and Bohemia; his family still possess the empire, 1438 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage of Maximilian with the heiress of that province . -1477 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- gon and Castile - - - 1496 Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and their dependen- cies, abdicates, and retires from the world, leaving his German dominions to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II. See Spain 1557 The Protestant princes of Germany, being oppressed by the house of Aus- tria, call in the aid of GustavusAdol- phus of Sweden, and this leads to the treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 Leopold I reigns. See Germany - 1658 Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, who marries the celebrated queen of Hungary, Maria Thei%i, daughterof the deceased emperor, Charles VI. 1745 Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 Relfgious toleration granted - - 1776 The emperor controls the pope - 1782 Rign of Leopold II. - - -1790 Reign of Francis II. ... 1792 Austria becomes a distinct empire, and Francis II. of Germany takes the title of I. of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804 The emperor issues his declaration against France - - Aug. 5, 180r> Napoleon, after many victories, enters Vienna - - - Nov. 14, ia5 Vienna evacuated by the French, Jan. 12, 1806 They again capture it May 13, 1809 But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, the daughter of the emperor - - April 1, 181C Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand - - March 2, 183.") New treaty of commerce with England July 3, 1838 Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1S3H Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- forms; Metternich resigns and flies; freedom of the press and national guard granted by the emperor March ia 1W3 The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- lition of the censorship and conven tion of the states ; the people demand more, and are refused March 18, '' Milan revolts, and contends successfully with the soldiery - March 23, " Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia March 23, ' Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion Marci The emperor retires to Innsbruck May 53, ' Austrian army under Radetsky holds in check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in Lombardy - - May " Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29i * 240 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [AZQ AUSTRIA, continued. Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates ; his orother, summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 1>*1& blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 18U detsky ... June ' Haynau takes Brescia, after great Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it March 30. '- The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days Insurrection at Vienna ; Couht Latour, May 16, ' minister of war, killed by the mob; Haynau takes command of the Aus- the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June , k measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment new ministry; the emperor flies June 11, ' Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, " The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey Aue. 11, " Prince Windischgnuz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. sieges Vienna, 17th; bombards the city and masters it Nov. 2, ' ; Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon tfie formation of the Germanic Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head of that body. AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; and since its first practice in A. D. 1203, more than one hundred thousand victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. Ashe. AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invontion of masts and sails for ships, 1240 B. c. AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, A. D. 1439 ; and were settled by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with boech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal; another abounding in sweet flowers, and he therefore called it Florcs; and all full of hawks, and he therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took S'ace here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. ere are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called. Sabrina gradually disappeared Dec. 1812. BACJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 241 BABEL, THE TOWEB. OF, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B c. The temple of Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one c f them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb i >i the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there honored with the company of the god. Blair. HABINGTON S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. BaV ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of hia own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband. 1586. BABYLON, EMPIRE OF, founded by Belus. supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C. Lenglet. Ninus of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy- rian empire, by uniting the two soveieignties, 2059 B.C. According to Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years; according to Justin. 1300 years; according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by Ninus, B. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 B. c. See Assyria. The tower of Babel built - B. c. 2247 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called Nineveh - - -2245 The astronomical observations are be- in at Babylon by the Chaldeans lair ; Lenglet 2234 Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- pire over the neighboring states, de- feats the Babylonians, and makes them tributary. Usher -2124 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names his capital after himself, Nineveh. Lenglet B. c 2069 Babylon taken by"Ninus - 2059 The Assyrian empire ends - 820 Belesis governs in Babylon - 766 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - 680 Nebuchadnezzar reigns - 604 He lakes Jerusalem. Lenglet 587 He is driven from among men - 569 Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 Taken by Darius. Usker . - 511 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world ; and in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidae. Its greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it was but a desolate wilderness; and at present the plao.e where it stood is scarcely known to travellers. Rollings Ancient Hist. BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus. and were there called Dionysia, about 1415 B. c. Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under the name of Bacchanalia. BACHELORS. The Roman tensors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altarSj and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. Vnsxius. Aft<;r twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England. 12. 105. for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling. 7 William III. 1695, Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants in 1785- BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (ilecidedlv '>ne of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 B. c. It if 11 242 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ uu stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the Conquest. Henry. BADAJOS, SIEGE OF. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. BADEN, HOUSE OF, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- ringen, who died A. D. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branchei of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Badtn- Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. BADEN, TREATY OF, between France and the emperor, when Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate ; it was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation, hi 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right of public meeting. Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt. May, 1849. Insur- rection at Carlsruhe ; the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West Passage. BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, A. D. 762 taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the Turks. Blair. BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece ol Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander.. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, A. D. 51. BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the llth Octo- ber, 1492. The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- rendered to Captain Rogers. BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, al) felonies were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and Mary and in later reigns. BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- rei-e prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff 1548. There are still some places v/here the chief-magistrate is called bailiff as the high builiffof Westminster. The term Bum-baili/\ a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for hid good b* havior. -- -Blackstoite. AL j DICTIONARY OF DATkS. 243 BALANCE OP POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control ambition ; the principle is said to he a discovery of the Italian poli- ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Andhelme. who died A. D. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might s>ing who could." Bede. Alfred sung ballads. Malmsbury. Canute com- posed one. Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV, ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. Viner. BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may make the laws." Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesmac nas said, "Give ' me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between Hen. V11I. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of Gold. 1520. Guiccio.rdini. In the next century, they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by MM. Montgolfier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. Romairi perished in an attempted voyage from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire. June 14, 1785. At the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by a parachute, Sept. 21. 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 23.000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. BALLOON, THE NASSAU. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city in 1797. Population in 1790. 13503; in 1810, 35583; in 1830, 80,625; in 1840, 102,313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British under general Ross. Sept. 12, 1814. BALTIMORE, BATTLE OF, between the British army under general Ross and the Americans ; the British in making an attack upon the town were unsuo- 244 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BAA cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great low; the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. BANK. The first established was in Italy, A. D. 808, by the Lombard Jews, ol whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower oil London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles T. laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 16-10. The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmith! in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own vain* able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. Bank of Venice formed - - -1157 Bank of Geneva - - - 1315 Bank of Barcelona - - - 1401 Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 Bank of Amsterdam - - -1607 Bank of Hamburgh -1619 Bank of Rotterdam . - 163C Bank of Stockholm . - 168 Bank of England - - - "694 Bank of the United States 1791 and 181?. BANK OF ENGLAND, (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- sideration of 1.200000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 1797, when notes of one and two pounds were put into circulation. Silver tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV.. were made current. Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- culation is as follows : In 1718 (earliest account) - JE1, 829,930 1778 .... 7,030,680 1790 . . . 10,217,000 1800 .... 15,450,000 1810 .... 23,904,000 In 1815 .... .26,803.52) 1820 .... 27,174,000 1830 ... 20,620,000 1835 .... 18,21o.220 1840 - - - - 17,231,000 The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The re.turns of issues, &c. are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted. " that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of the chief towns of the kingdom; as Birmingham. Bristol. Exeter, Glouces- ter. Hull. Leeds, Liverpool. Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c., all formed since 1828. See Punds. BANK OK THK UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. $10.000.000. A new one with cap. of 835 000 000. 1816. The act of Congress rechar- tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The " removal of the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney. secretary of the Treasury, (W. J, Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order.) Sept. 23, 1833 Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for. and tho ibilitr assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c.. introduced by BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 246 Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter oa their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834. Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837. Sub-Treasury Bill passed Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9. 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- ti res Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a " Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of a.V < he Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng land and New- York, May 10 16, 1837 ; legalized for one year by legisla- ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. BANKRUPTS, IN ENGLAND, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VIII. 1543. Again, 8 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before the commissioners, May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, passed October 1831. Statutes at Large. NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1700 - - - - 38 1 1800 - - - 1339 1725 - - . .416 1750 - - 432 1775- - . - -520 1810 - - - 2000 1820 - - 1358 1825 - . - 2683 1830 - - 1467 1835 - - - 954 1840 - . 1308 1844 - - - 1064 According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826. there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. BANNOCKBURN, BATTLE OF, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and Edward II. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 60,000 English were killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. Barbour. BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galli- can church, about A. D. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the church of England to this day. BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised by all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, and was baptized by John. A. D. 30. Originally the people were baptized in rivers ; but in tho reign of Constantine, A. D. 319, in great cities they built chapels, or places sp)cially to baptiz* in, which in the eastern countries wa? 246 THE WORLD'S PRC CRESS. [ BAE by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they use sprinkling ; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; our fonts answer the same end. Pardon. BAPTISTS, OR ANABAPTISTS, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about A. D. 1525, but much earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists ia 1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. See Anabaptists. B ARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every thing in its peregrination. Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century B. c. In England, bar bers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the former sign BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company wan formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute of Henry VIII BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century. Merlin in the fifth The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. See Ballads. BARNET, BATTLE OP, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- ward IV gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. Brooks. BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principlo of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature'** abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, aud made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1696; marine in 1700. BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into T/iane, and by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- tory of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned to parliament; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the firaf AT] DICTIONARY or DATES. 247 precept to be fl/und is of no higher date than the 49th Henry III., 1265. Th first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beaucharap created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first sum moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, aod com- pelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of the forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete armor in the reign of Henry III. Bealson. B ARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- ditary: instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- geants, &c. BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- ville Island, in lat. 74 26' N., and long. 113 47' W. The strait was entered on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55 below zero of Fahrenheit. BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF ST. This dreadful massacre in France com- menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even as regarded the female and the infant. BASTILE OP PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France between the years 1587 and 1594 ; yet 'it was pulled down by the infuriated populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Grfeve, and having had their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. "The man with the iron mas>k," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, November 19, 1703. See Iron Mask. 3ATAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. B ATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome. The thermae of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla. Strabo. BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was taken of William's chiefs, amounting to 629. and called the Battel-roll ; and among these chiefs the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were dis- tributed, 1066. 248 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. BATTLE, WAGEB OF. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal oi murder, Ashjord v. T/wrnton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818. the court allowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of battle; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this mode of trial, 59 George III., 1819. Statutes at large. BATTERING-RAM. TcsLudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 B. c. These ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our battering cannon. Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter- ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re- building the new edifice in 1675. B A.TTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu- lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. Lenglet. The following are the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in guieral history, and are those also that are most commonly referred to : B.C. A,ctium (the empire of Rome is con- firmed to Augustus) - - - 31 Arbela (FaU of Persia) - - 331 A. D. Aboukir ( Turks) - July 20, '1799 Acre (Siege commenced) Mar. 18, 1799 fair Sydney Smith) May 27, ibid (Storming of ) Nov. 3, 1810 Adrianople (Constantine) 323 Albuera - - - May 16, 1811 AK'ord (Covenanters) - July 2, 1645 Alexandria (Abercrombie) Mar. 21, 1801 A. D. Berwick - - - - 1378 Bilboa (British legion) Dec. 21, ia36 Ulackheath (Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 Blackrock (Amer. tf Brit.) Dec. 3, 1813 Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814 Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1704 Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485 Bothwell Bridge, Scotland - - -1679 Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 Bovines (French and Germans) - - 1214 Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 1794 Brandywine - - - Sept. 11, 1777 Brcchm, Scotland - - - 1452 Brenau (A'.istrians and Bavarians) 1743 Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757 Briar's Creek - - - - 1779 Brienne - Feb. 29, 1814 Bridgewater (Americans and British) July 25, 1814 Buena Vista (Amer. and Mexicans) Feb. 22, 1847 Buenos Ayres (Popham) June 21, 1806 '(Wnitclock) July 6 1807 Aleiers (Exmouth) - ' Aug. 27,' 1816 Alderton Moor - - - - 1&43 Agiricourt - - Oct. 23, 1415 Aliwal (India) . Jan. 20, 1846 Almanza,, in Spain April 4, 1707 Amoy (City taken) - Aug. 27, 1841 Almeida Aug. 5, 1811 Anjou, or Breagne - - 1421 Antoign - - Aug. 13, 1792 Arcola - - - Nov. 19, 1796 Ascalori (Richard I.) Sept. 3, 1191 Assaye ( Wellesley) . Sept. 23, 1803 Auerstadt - - Oct. 14, 1806 Augsburg - - - Aug. 24, 1796 Autnerlilz - - Dec. 2, 1805 Badajos - Mar. 11, 1811 Balkan, passage of the - July 26, 1829 Baltimore - Sept. 12, 1814 Bannockburn - - June 25, 1314 Barnot (Edward IV.) April 14, 1471 Barrosa - - Mar. 6, 181 1 Ilautzea May 20, 1813 Ilayonne . : - Mar. 19, 1794 Belgrade 1456 . . . . . . . 1717 Bunker's Hill V - ' - June'l?', 1775 Busaco - - - Sept. 27, 1810 Brownstown (Canada) - Aug. 8, 1812 B.C. Cannae ( Victory of HannibaJ) 216 Carthage {taken by Publiits Scipio) 146 Choeronea ( Tulmidas) 4-17 (Philip) . . - - 333 (Sytla) -86 Cnidos (Lysander killed) - * 39! Cranon, in Thessaly - - - 322 Cyzicutn - - - 406 A. D. Calais taken - - -Jan. 7, 1558 Calcutta (India) June 1756 Camden (Amer. If Brit.) Aug. 16, 1786 ( Inter It Hi it ) April 25 1781 Beanington (Amer 4 Brit.) Aug. \777 Bergen - - - Aprfl 13, 1759 - Sept. 19 and Oct. 2, 1799 atorgen-op-Zoom (taken) - - 1747 Mar 6 1^11 Campo Santo .... 1743 Canton (Bogus forts taken) Feb. 26, 1841 Camel Nuovo - - Sept. 29, 1SO Castella Apnl 13. 18)3 Beroeina - Sept. 7\ 1812 DICT.ONARY OF DATES. 249 BATTLES, continued. A. . Cw=ano (Prince Eugene) - 1705 Castlebar (French) Aug. 28, 1798 Castislione - - July 2, 1796 Castiilon, in Guienne - - 1453 Charlero! .... 1600 Charteroi Fleurus - June 17, 1794 Charleston (taken by the British) May 12, 1780 Chepultepec(4m.4-Afer.)Sept. 12-14, 1848 Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 - - - Oct. i814 Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 (stormed) Jan. 19, 1812 Clontarf, Ireland 1039 Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, 1837 Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) - 1848 Corunna, (Moore) Jan. 16, 1809 Cowpens (Amer. 44 Newbury 16H (second battle) _ OU. 20, Iti-JI Sept. 4, 1812 Sept 7, 1812 Oct. 22, 1812 New London (burnt by tlu. British) 1731 New Orleans - Jan 8, 1815 Niagara, Fort - - - Nov. 1813 Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402 Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779 Northallerton, (or the battle of the Standard) 113k' 250 THE WORD'S PROGRESS. B AIT L KS, continued. Norwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, Novi (Suwarrow) Aug. 16, ... Jan. 8, Ogdensburg (British and Americans) Feb. 22, Oporto - - - May 11, Ouerburn (Chevy Chase) - Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, Pharsalia Philippi (Roman Republic ends) Palo Alio (1st of Amer. Sf Mex.) May 8 Parma (Austrians and French) (Suwarrow)- July 12, Penaacola (taken by general Jackson) Nov. 20, Peterwarden Aug. , Pfaffendorf ... Aug. 15, Pinkey - - - Sept. 10, Plattsburg (Americans and British) Sept. 11, Poitiers Prague 1779 ' Sobraon (India) - Feb. 1C, 1W 1799 | Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 1800 : St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) 1453 (second) - - - 1461 1813 St. Denis (Montmorenci) 1567 1809 St Dizier, France . Jan. 27, '814 1308 St. Sebastian - - MayJ. 1836 1708^ Stamford - - - Mar. 13. 1470 B.C. Stony Point (taken by the Amvri cans) 1779' 48 i Stratton (poet Waller) May 16, 1643 42 ; Talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809 A.D. ! Tarragona - - - Jan. 24, 818 , 1846 i Tewkesbury - - May 4, 1471 1734 Thames (America** and Brit.) Sept. 1313 1799 ; Thermopylae^ Greeks) - July 13, 1822 Patay (Joan of Arc and the English) 1429 Tiilt-nont (French and Allies) 1705 Pavia (French andAustriins) Feb. 24, 1525 j Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) - 1762 Sept. 19, Nov. 9, May 6, Jan. 2, July 8, Dec. 26, July 28, June 16, Princeton (Amer. <$ Brit.) Pultowa (Charles XII.) Pultusk - Pyrenees ftuatre Bras Quebec (or the plains of Abraham) Sept. 13, (death qfMontgomery)Dec. 21, - - - April 28, ftueenstown (Amer. tf Brit.) Oct. 13, Ramilies (Marlborough) May 23, Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9, Rosbach - - Nov. 17, - Nov. 5. Sackett's Harbor (Americans and British) - Salamanca ... July 22, 'san Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) Oct. 17, Savannah (taken by the British) Dec. 29. Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16, Sedgemoor ... July 5, Seidlitz (Poles) - . Mar. 31, Sem pach ... July g f Seringapaiam - ( Tippoo reduced) (Tippoo killed) May 4, Shrewsbury - July 21, Skenesborough - July 7, Srnolensko - - - Aug. 27, 1814 1717 1760 1547 1814 13M 1620 1757 1777 1709 1806 1813 1815 1759 1775 1760 1812 1706 1846 1382 1787 1813 1812 1813 1777 1778 1762 1685 1831 1386 1791 1791 1799 1403 1777 1812 Tournay Toulon Aug. 30, 1813 May8, 1793 Oct. 1, 1793 April 10, 1814 Mar. 29, 1461 Toulouse Towton , Trenton (Amer. (f Brit.) Dec. 26, 7, 1776 Turin (French and Germans) - 1706 Ulm .... June 21, 1800 - (surrendered) Oct. 29, 1805 Valenciennes - . May 23, 1793 Varna (surrenders) Oct. 11, 1{125 Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) March 27, 1847 Villa Franca Vimiera ( Wellington) Vittoria, Spain Wagram Wafcefield Warsaw - (taken) April 10, 1812 Oct. 21, 1808 - - 1702 June 21, 1813 July 5, 1809 Dec. 31, 1460 Oct. 10, 1794 Nov. 8, ibid Sept. 8, 1831 Washington (btimt by the British) Aug. 1814 Waterloo June 18, 1815 White Plains (Amer. $ Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 - Nov. 30, ibid Wilna (Poles) - - June 12, 1831 Worcester - - Sept. 13, 1642 (Charles II.)* - . - 1651 Wyoming massacre - July 1778 York (Canada) captured by Ameri- cans - - - April 27, 1813 York Town (surrender of Cornwaltis) Oct. 19, 1781 B. 0. Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) 202 Zela. (Casar : veni, vidi, vici) - 47 A. D Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) 1697 Zurich - - . . . K BAVARIA, HOUSE OF. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century: thit house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel- phian family ; Henry Guelph was made duke jf Bavaria by Conrad IL em- peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, was made duke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was * This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England. N. B. Many of the above battles are described more fully under iui-,h name. BW j DICTIONARY OF DATES 251 erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- ber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimous vote, Oct. 17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich ; the king abdicates in favor of his son, Maximillian II., March 22, 1848. KINGS OF BAVARIA. i 1825 Louis, 13th October ; abdicated, 1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1848. tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian IL BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wi ought bj Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of William, 1066. Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now presei ;ed in the town-house of Rouen. Agnes Strickland. BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This weapon was invented at Bayonne. in France (whence the name), about 1670. According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 1603, "with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty." BAZAAR, OR COVERED MARKET. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. BE \DS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in Roman Catholic devotions, A. D. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased persons for the repose of whose souls a certain number of prayers were re- cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. Butler. BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the beard should give a handle to their enemies. 330 B. c. Beards were worn by the Romans, 297 B. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest. A. D. 1066, until the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724: her beard measured 1 yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy beard, and her whole body covered with hair. Diet, de Trevoux. The great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. BEAUVAIS, HEROINES OF. On the town of Beauvais being besieged b^ Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80.000 men. the women under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege. July 10, 1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 252 Beauvais walk first in a. procession on the anniversary of thc-ir delivsranc* Heiiauit. BECKETiS MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a moment of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I. who have not about me one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when lie cried out, "I charge you. in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed him on the spot with repeated wounds : all which he endured without a groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Henry VIU. 1539. Stowe. BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the skins of beasts. Wkittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in his famous retreat, 401 B. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty paid on " ale called here," one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 1834 amounted to about 60.000. See Brewers. BEES. Mount Hybla. on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages; and Eumelus. of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B. c. There are 292 species of the bee. or apis genus, and 111 in England. Strange to s*y, bees were not originally natives of New England : they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. Hardie't America. BEET- ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff first produced sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of sugar from beetroot was lately erected at the Tliames-bank, Chelsea. BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle. in 120". The '-Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern times. Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they couhl, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a branch cf the order in 1311. BEHEADING or DecoUatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by William the Conqueror, 1074. when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. Sal',,K>n's Cfacn, English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, partita- EKL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 253 1789 1792 larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* BEHRiNG'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the Belgae, who were conquered by Julius Caesar, 47 B. c. Under the dominion of France so late as A. D. 1369 ; formed into a kingdom in 1831. Became an acquisition of the house of . Austria .... 1477 ! Charles V annexed the Netherlands to the crown ol Spain - - - 1556 Seveji provinces, under William, prince of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny of Philip 11. ; freed- . - - 1579 The ten remaining prorinces are given to the archduke - - 1596 The**; again fall to Spain - - 1648 Seven again ceded to Germany 1714 And three to France - - 1748 Austrians expelled ; but their rule after wards restored The French entered Belgium Nov. 1 United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 Placed under the sovereignty of the house of Orange - - - 1814 The revolution commences at Brussels Aug. 25, 1830 The Provisional Government declares Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the Dutch are driver, to the citadel, from whence they cannonade the town, Oct. 27, 1830 Belgian independence acknowledged This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831. was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- admissible. BELGRADE. BATTLE OF, between the German and Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1450. Belgrade was taken by Solyman. 1522; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 1717 (see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbaeh, in 1790. BELGRADE SIEGE or. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei taken in May, 1717. uwder prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, th Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, in which the Turks lost 20000 men; after which Belgrade surrendered Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. by the Allied Powers, announced by Van der Weyer - Dec. 26, 1331 Duke de Nemours elected king; but his father, the king of France, refuses his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831 M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected king - - - July 12, 1831 He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1S1I The king of the Netherlands recom- mences the war - Aug. 3, 1831 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] A conference of the ministers of the five great powers is held in London, which terminates in the acceptance of the 24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter ol Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 The French army returns to France Dec. 27, 1832 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much mischief ensues - - April 6, 1834 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London April 19, 1839 * Amon? other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentior.ed the Lady Jan* Graf, brheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury the latter remarkable for hel resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused M ili it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, anil ;it length took it off, after wangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughter if George, duke of Clarence, and last of 't> royal line of Piantageiiet. Mny 27, 1541. llumt 254 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BEH BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish church, used in excommunication, which see. BELLES-LETTRES, OR POLITE LEARNING. We owe the revival of the belles- lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunette, Latini, and other learned men in different countries, about A. D. 1272. Gen. Hist. Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. Fon- tana. Literature began to flourish in France. Germany, and England, about this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- beth, and flourished in that of Anne. BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o them, about 569 B. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, tha potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- ces of the Romans. BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The responses of the Dodonaean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. Slra&o. The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna, about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, by ring- ing them, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. Stowe. Great Belief St. Pauls, weighs - Ibs. 8,400 Great Tom of Lincoln - - 9,8*4 Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 St. Peter's, at Rome - Ibs. 18,607 Great Bell at Erfurth - - 28,i24 St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127.836 Bell of the Palazzo, Florence 17,000 | Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 fhe last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at .66.565 sterling. In its fusion great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the people. BELLS, BAPTISM OP. They were early anointed and baptized in churches. Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c., in 1501. Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- tized by the name of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent, in the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious solemnity. Ashe. BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it possessed over other religious communities, about A.D. 1100. The Bene- dictines appeared early in England : and William I. built them an abbey on the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, in Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- nated Bened'etine dames. Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals. 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishopt, 4600 bishops. 4 emperors. 12 empresses, 46 king-? 41 queens, and 3600 saints, Their founder was canonized. Baroniut BEN] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255 BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century; till then the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should become vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VET. to his nephew, in. 1534. NotUia Monastica. The number of benefices in England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10.533, and the number ol glebe-houses 5 ; 527 ; these arc exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- ferments. The number of parishes is -11,077, and of churches and chapels about 12.000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which ther are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no glebe-houses. See Church, of England. BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par- ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if the ordinary said " Lcgit^ ut clcricus," the offender was only burnt in the hand, otherwise he sufFere'd death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. Stowe. Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c., IN THE UXITET STATES. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American Almanac, 1846) as follows : For theological education and other religious objects - - 81,054,966 For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594 For charitable purposes 2,162,412 For miscellaneous objects (such as monuments, &c.) - - 438,321 Total - 34,751,293 [Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula- tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25 000 ; in 1845, about 114 ; 000. Few cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- habitants.] BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES some of the principal in the United States. Formed. Income, Amer. Board of Com. Foreign 1849. Missions - - - 1810 - 8260,897 Amer. Sunday Sen. Union - 1824 207,764 " Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 " Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428 " Home Miss. Society - 1826 157,460 Formed. Income. 1849. Amer. Education Society 1816 - 832,754 Colonization Society 1819 17,414 " Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 Presbyterian Board Missions - 126.0] 3 United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be given to the distitute Irish March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from New York on same errand, ,,uly 8, 1847. Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, JB47. BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the Mogul empire. See India. The English were first permitted to trade to Bengal - A. D 1534 Factories of the French and Danes 1664 First factory at Calcutta 1690 The settlements first placed in a state of defence - - - 1694 Calcutta bought, and fortified - . 1700 Iln garrison consisted of only 129 sol hers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla ; and the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 17r-6 Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of Benjal in the Company, by which the virtual sovereignty of the country was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1764 Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal mtde the chief presidency - - J me 16, 177S See India. 256 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. BERESINA, BATTI E OF. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage ol it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20 000 men in the battle, and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. BERGEN, BATTLE OF, between the French and allies, the latter defeated. April 14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4 000 men; and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5 000 men. On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it was defeated; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous Berlin decree. See next article. BERLIN DECREE a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English- men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806. See Jena. BERMUDAS OR SOMMERS' ISLES discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31. 1780. Another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven xshore, July 20, 1813. BERNARD, MOUNT ST. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14. 1800. BERNARD1NE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- Icme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all traveller! gratis for three days. Brooke. BERWICK. Tin's town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king- doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173. and again in 1210. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England. 1333; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648. and afterward! to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603). the forti- fications, which were formerly ve-y strong, have been much neglected. BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of CHRIST. The Bethlehemite monks, who M 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished city. It now contains a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. Ashe. BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an earthquake, A. D. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of Amtirath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 B. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. Herodotus. BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at Alexandria, 277 B. c. Josephus. It was commenced 284 B. c. Lenglet. In 283. Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of Josephus. Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and each pair translated the whole; and on subsequent comparison, it was found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. Justin Martyr. BIBLE, ANCIENT COPIES OP THE. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was writ- ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, about A. D. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1100. BIBLE, BISHOPS'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch; bishops Davis and Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham. the Psalms, &c. ; bishop Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park- hurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha ; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts ; and archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed A. D. 1568. BIBLE. DIVISION OF THE. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was mad by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228; and tbis division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. BIBLE. EDITIONS OP THE. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- rome. A.D. 405; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to l>e authentic: it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 55. (See Books.'} The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of tb'ji edition was made, ] 538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches, 258 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [BO, 1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot : s Indian Bible, one of the first books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be trans- lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed Spanish Cerinan English French - Swedish Danish Dutch 1478 1522 1531 1535 1541 1550 Russian Hungarian Polish Modern Greek Turkish Irish 1560 | Portuguese 1581 1589 1596 1638 1666 1685 - 1748 Manks Italian Bengalee Tartar Persian African Chinese 1771 1776 1801 1813 1815 1816 1820 Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared \n several in- stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. Wood's Fasti. Oxon. BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following : The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1709 ; French Bible Society. 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society. 1812; American Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: with us. the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. Viner's Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, I James I. 1602. Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794. Statutes at large. B(LL OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, was obtain n d from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all manner of arts and expedients to avoid it. Charles was constrained to pass it into a law. The Bill of Rights declaratory of the rights of British subjects, passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only written law respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. Viner's Statutes. BILLS OP EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their property from nations where they were persecuted, A. D. 1160. Anderson. Bills were used in England, 1307. The only legal mode of sending nrmey from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698 first stamped. 1782 duty advanced 1797 again. June 1801; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825 the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions o/ pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria. July 1839. SILLS OF MORTALITY FOR LONDON. These bills were first compiled about A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, fter the BiS j DICTIONARY OP DATES. 259 great plague of that year; and however imperfect they still are, they yet fiord valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : In the year 1780, Christenings 1790, Christenings 1800, Christenings 1810, Christenings 1820, Christenings 1830, Christenings 1840, Christenings 16,634 18,980 19,176 19,930 26,158 27,028 30,387 In the year 1780, Burials - - 20,50? 1790, Burials . - 18,038 1800, Burials . - 23,068 1810, Burials . - 19,092 1820, Burials . 19.348 1830, Burials - - 23,&M 1840, Burials - - 26,774 BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were introduced in England in 1827. BIRDS. Divided by Linnaeus into six orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the young." Duteranomy, xxii. 6. BIRMINGHAM, ENGLAND. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, A. D. 872 ; but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil- liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- thew Boulton, in 1764. BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti- tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, SOI. of a common person, 2s. 7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg. who had five children at a birth. September 3 1783. Phillips. The wife of a man named Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at a birth, in October 1800. Annals of London. BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in a certV.ii district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. Petet, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred A. D. 65. The bishops of Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. Warner. BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first was appointed in A. D. 180. See York, London. They were made barons. 1072. The Conge d' Elire of the- king to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Consii d' Elire, 26 Henry VIII. 1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar- tyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 1641. Regained their seats. Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil jxwer, and were tried and acquit- 260 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ VLA ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancrpft) and five bishops were suspended lor refusing: to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689, and were deprived 1690. 'Warner's Ecclcs. Hist. The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thei eupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded in 1846. See Manchester. BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first planted at Saiger, was founded A. D. 402. thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick. BJ SHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. Ths see of St. Andrew's was founded by Her&ustus, king of the Picts. whc, according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of Regulus. a Greek monk of Patrae. about A. D. 370. The bishops were deprived of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- lution. 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. There are now, however, six bishops belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- burgh. Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. BISHOPS, PRECEDENCY OF, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be ext to viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops; the others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de- cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. The others rank according to consecration. BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New-York and Penn- sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 4 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. It originated with Julius Caesar, who ordered a day to be counted before the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 B. c. See Calen- dar and Leap Year. B1FHYNIA. Conquered by Crcesus, about 560 B. c.; and again by Alexander, 332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed it to the Romans, 40 B. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in A. D. 1327, took Prusa its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed Constantinople. BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the iwpection of visitors, under Henry VIII.. 1535 in order to blacken them and hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase ' I'll set you down in the black book." BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of BLO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William III., 1696-7. Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eatvn was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen':) Bench. BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and oecame heredi- tary in families in France and England, about A. D. 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. Dugdale. BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known in ancient Gaul. Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was introduced in 1795. JBlanchtment des Toiles. BLENHEIM, BATTLE OP ; between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. Fought Aug. 2, 1704;. Hume. BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. See article Eastern Empire. BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides. Freind. Blisters are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretaeus, physician of Cappadocia, about 50 B. c. Clerc's Hist, of Physic. BLOOD CIRCULATION OP THE, through the lungs, first made public by Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Fatl or Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by whom it was fully confirmed. 1628. Freind's Hist, of Physic. BLOOD, DRINKING OF. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- tem by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness, drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 262 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BEJ strength, 1438. Henault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah. Gen. ix. nd to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. BLOOD, TRANSFUSION OF. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans- fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera- tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac- tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Med. Jour. " One English physi- cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind's Hist, of Physic. BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell'* household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of 500 per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673. BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock- ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. Anec. oj Btnayer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. BOARD OF TRADE AND PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- spection was abolished in 1782; and a new council for the affairs of trade was appointed, Sept. 2. 1786. BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat^bottomed boat was again brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, IL, DECAMERONE, a collection of a hundred stories or novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, as is said by Petrarch, "possessing many charms." A copy of the first edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for 2260, June 17, 1812. This identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819. BCEOTIA. the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia. Cadmeis, and Boeotia ; and it gave birth to Pin- dar, Hesiod, Plutarch, D*-mocritus, Epaininondas, and the accomplished and beautiful Corinna. BOI DICTIONARY OF DATES, 263 BCEOTIA continued. Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- mea B. c. 1493 Reign of Polydore - - - 1459 Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone Laius - - 1388 CEdipus, not knowing his father La'ius, kills him in an afiray, confirming the oracle as to his death by the hands of his sou ..... 1276 CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- solves her enigmas - - 1266 War of the Seven Captains - - 1225 Thebes besieged and taken - B. c. 1216 Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215 The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages of obscurity follow - - - 1126 Battle of Chjeronea, in which the The- bans defeat the Athenians - - 44? Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- nians at Leuctra, restores his country to independence, and puts it in a con- dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 371 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- bakis and Athenians, near CliKronea - 338 Here the greatness of this country ends. Alexander destroyed Thebes, the capital, 335 B. c., when the house of Pindar alone was left standing, and all the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. Strabo. BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830 The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scot- land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres. BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 B. c. The exclamation of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes: the title of king was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown was elective till it came into the house of Axistria, in which it is now here- ditary. See Germany. The Sc'.avonians, seizing Bohemia, are ruled by dukes - - A. D. 550 City of Prague founded - - 795 Introduction of Christianity - - 894 Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III., who spreads devastation through the country - - - 1041 The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, ths first king .... 1061 The regal title is farther confirmed to Ottoacre I. - - - - - 1199 Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his arms into Prussia ... 1258 Ottoa;re, refusing to do homage to the emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- quished, and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Carniola - - - 1282 In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of silver are first discovered, and agri- culture is encouraged and improved (et sea.) .... 1284 Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his vices, is assassinated - - - 1305 John, count of Luxemburgh, is choeen to succeed .... 1310 Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 King John slain at the battle of Crecj fought with the English - 346 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first Reformers, are burnt for heresy, which occasions an insurrec- tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed them, is deposed, and the Imperialists are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the late emperor and king, and receives the crowns of Bo- hemia and Hungary - - 1417 The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1458 Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia, on the death of Po- diebrad - - - -1471 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anns, sister of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown - 1527 The elector palatine Frederick is driven from Bohemia - - - - 1618 The crown is secured to the Austrian 1643 1742 1744 1757 1775 1806 family by the treaty of Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia Prague taken by the Prussians The memorable siege of Prague Revolt of the peasantry The French occupy Prague See Germany. BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the offence of poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punished by boil- ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman.. suffered in th same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 264 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOO BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting (as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer. Nov. 10, 1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its pavement. Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth century. Taken by the French, . 7% ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; restored to the pope in 1815 Austrians expelled by the people. August 8, 1848. BOMBAY, INDIA. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II.. 1661. Granted by Wil- liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were lost. Feb. 27, 1803. See India. BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a century after. They came into general use in 1634. having been previously used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in France, in 1681. Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen* inch bomb-shell weighs 198 Ibs. BONDAGE, OR VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this species of servitude was' ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See Villain. BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im- perfectly understood. Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science f'reind's Hist of Physic. BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attalus, king of Pergamus, about 198 B. c., at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still more ancient are preserved. BOOKS, PRICKS OF. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, by Alfred, about A. D. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30/.; and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices varying from 101. to 40/. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkitis. has been declared worth 500 guineas. Butter, A yet more superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3 : 000^. Times. II DccamcroHC of Boccacio, edition of 1471. was bought at the duke of Rox- burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260/.. June 17. 1812. Phillips A copy of the " Mazarin Bible " being the first edition and first book ever printed (byGuttemberg at Mentz in 1465) was sold at auction in London BOOJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265 in April 1846 for 50% This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. BOOKS, PRINTED. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first printing was. as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schaeffer, his son-in-law. Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their h'rst printed works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity on Faust ; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was linished in 1460. See article Devil and Dr. faustus. The second printed was Ciozfo (It Officiis. 1466. Bkiir. The first book printed in England was Tlte Game and Play of the C/iesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, .in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vitce, in 1762. Ludan's Dialog-ties was the first Greek book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. Stotce's Chronicles. The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigrew, (Biblio. Sussex.) the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies are now known to exist all but one being in public libraries in Europe. [See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of New York. BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is supposed to have been bound about A. D. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the book on which Eng. kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick. A. D. 1100. Velvet was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna- mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial stale, in the fifteenth century. It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- keeping in 1569. Anderson. BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new works published in successive years is thus stated : Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 1S28 - 842 - - 5,654 1830 - 1,142 . . 5,9-26 1834 - 1,220 - - 6,074 Gt. Brit. France. Germany 1836 . 1.332 . 7,891 1849 - - . 1850 . . 7.20S - The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount tc 56.474, or 1681 each year. England. The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years. from 166G to 1680, was 3,550; equal to 253 yearly; but deducting th 12 266 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOO reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new books may be computed at much less than 100. The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts," issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," waa 5.280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 each year. The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was. according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : deducting one fifth for reprints, we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. Mr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publicaf ions pro- duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average impression of each volume at 750 copies; annual total. 1,125 000 volumes: value at 9s. a volume, .506 250. " The number of reprinted volumes, particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about .750,000." France. The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive work (Notions Statistiques sur la Librarie}, published in 1827, estimated the number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French press in 1816 at 66 852 883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any thing inferior. The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly review," there were printed in France, 3.413 works, in French and other languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. Germany. The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book- fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michaelmas, which are attended by the booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, as France, Switzerland. Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ; the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 6,000 in 1827; and it now exceeds 7,000. " An Augsburg paper states," (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) " that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printed in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of more than 1 000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now living upwards of 50 000 persons who have written one or more books The total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated from 6 to 6 000,000 dollars." Russia. In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. Sweden. There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- holm 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping. and 1 in several otler places. BOOK-TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES. The number of new works wh-cb appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, forming DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 1,300 volumes and the cost of which may be estimated at $1.220,vXX). la 1836. the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500 000. Boston, New York. Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : originals 1,030. reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ; number of volumes printed (1,000 for each edition), 1,884,000. In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more frequent in the United States than in any other country. IVlany reprinted English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale ;f a book in America amounted to 100.000 copies, whereas in England only four editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of. The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments amounted in 1836, to 8 1,350,000. The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- ported literary productions in 1834 : Original. Reprint. Education 73 9 Divinity 37 18 Novels and Tales 19 95 History and Biography 19 17 Jurisprudence - - 20 '.Jrtginal. Reprint. Poetry - - - i 3 Travels . - - 8 - 10 Fine Arts - - 8 - Miscellaneous works 59 43 3 Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- pilations in geography, from 100.000 to 300 000 copies have been sold in ten years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly doubled. [The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in trie Booksellers' Advertiser, edited by G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly register AMERICAN PUBLICATIONS January to June, 1849. Original. Reprint. \ Original. Reprint. Education Divinity - - -25 Novels and Tales - 18 History - - - 20 Biography 15 Travels - - - 21 - 7 Metaphysics 3-8 7 25 28 1 Miscellaneous -25-10 12 Law ) Juvenile > not ascertained. Periodical 11 For six months - 200 - 128 Total, 328. Political Economy Medicine 12 Science - - -11-9 Poetry - - 11-6 The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 907 B. c. BORODINO OR MOSKWA, BATTLE OF. one of the most sanguinary in the records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians: commanded on the one side by Nipoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff, 268 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 2-40,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14. with little opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the French military power over Europe. See Moscow. BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 and into the Irish, 1365. BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride, and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is mentioned as occurring A. D. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished by Malcolm III. in 1062. Haydn. BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean- actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by order of the emperor Spartacus. in 438 B. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- vince of the empire. A. D. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the Turks, Sept. 8. 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- miral.Greig, Dec. 81, same year. See Dardanelles. BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people. 1770. The celebrated "Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- ton and Bunker Hill.} The cause of American freedom was nowhere more actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was born here, Jan. 17 ; 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18038; in 1810, 33.250; in 1820. 43,298; in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220 ; 243 tons. BOSWORTH FIELD, BATTLE OP, the thirteenth and last between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl ot Richmond, afterwards Henry VII.. the former being slain, Aug. 22. 1485. The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- tests between the " Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king- dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings losl their lives. BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. The Hislaria Plantarum, of Theophrastus, written about 820 B. c. Authors on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and others, between 1635 and 1600. Mdchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus, the fiist botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's ay* 100] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 269 tern, in 1758. At the time of Linnaeus's death, A. D. 1778, the species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11.800. The number of species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100.000. BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Woks and Transportation. BOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1568. See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 A. D., for these articles and other vessels have been found in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. BOULOGNE, FRANCE. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. See next article and France. BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in 1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160.000 men and 10 000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17 000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- sion. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, IN THE UNITED STATES. Award of the king of the Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions, Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9, suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. army. March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- ton, 1842. Oregon boundary 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, June 1846. BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- ties a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. Elements of Commerce. BOUNTY, MUTINEERS OF THE SHIP. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Islands. April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. BOURBON, HOUSE or. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justl; 270 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ EOT styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- teed by the peace of Utrecht. 1713. Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact took place. 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791. and were restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that year. See France. 30URBON, ISLE OF, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the Island. See Mauritius. BOURDEAUX (or BORDEAUX) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of England , by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poitiers in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. BOURIGNONISTS a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and some thousands of sectarists. about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. She died in 1680. BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at Tunbridge. Memoircs de Grammont. BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to Apollo. Known in England previous to A. D. 450. The use of them was a'gain introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- aged by Richard I., 1190. Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long- bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and were discharged by a trigger. BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pngilatus of the Romans, and a favorite sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing have declined. BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his eenius virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lecturea fa vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 271 Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and September to November endowed 1691. BOYNE. BATTLE OP, between king William III. and his father-in-law. James II., fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy A. D. 620, and devolved upon Lam- bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of Burjnmdy. and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In tho seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 174G again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium. BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armilltE were usually distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. Nouv. Diet. Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are female ornaments to the present day. BRAGANZA, HOUSE OF, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and bloodless revolution in Portugal, A. D. 1640, when the nation, throwing off the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. Abbt Vertot. BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- thagoras is thought to have learned from theni his doctrine of the Metemp- sitc/iosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. .They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- ments. Slrabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- positaries of the whole learning of India. Holwett. BRANDENBURGH, FAMILY or, is of great antiquity, and some historians say it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified Brandenburgh, A. D. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- stowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title ol Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 97. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. BRAND YWINE. BATTLE OF, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the seventh generation from Adam. Bible. Brass was known among all the early nations. Us/ier. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted with its use. WhMaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to tho ground, 146 B. c., the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists bad long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 272 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BRB and silver with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Article! made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig nificant, were yet highly valued. Du Fresnoy. BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. Th goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov- ered 1730 (see Diamonds'). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil war ensued. See Portugal. BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 B. c. Univ. Hisi. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages; see Exodus xii. 15. Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 B. c. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, A. D. 1594. Renault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread ; and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- isiana (1) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat < a white unctuous earth. Greig ; PkillipsS'tt& t fcldb &&**<, ArH^Hi/wvcvA, BREAKWATER AT PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the bottom, and more than thirty at the top. and consumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason. 937 B. o. The breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor, BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793. and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the pow er o/ France ceased here. BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Ho- norius, about A. D. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled front Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other coun- tries, and at length it became general. SRI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. RRESLAU, BATTLE OF, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under prince Severn, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody 01? both sides. Nov 22, 1757, when Breslau was laken; but was regained the same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. BREST. It was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 B. c. possessed by the English. A. D. 1378 given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10. 1784. From this great depct of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England during the late war. RRETHREN IN INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de I very, in William I.'s invasion of England, 1066. BRETIGNY, PEACE OP, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- land retained Gascony and Guienne. acquired Saintonge. Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy ; England was also to receive 3 000.000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders about A. D. 108"b ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the type called brevier at the present day. BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo Saxon ancestors. Tindal. "One William Murle arichmaultman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold. 1414." S'owe. There are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 *'A Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which there are in England about 1400 ; there are. besides. 28.000 victuallers, &c., who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the land for bribery, in 1288 ; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,OOOZ. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole. secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- citing a bribe, January 1784. BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable offence, Messrs. Sykos and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 12* 274 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BR./ an election. March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; and several similar instances have occurred since. BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about A. D. 44. Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. Saxon Chron. The size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. See Building. BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by 1 he ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her parents ; it is mentioned 880 B. c. BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king Jot, n, near Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality near to Bride's well; 'but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- . lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented to account for it At Shaff hausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him. yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July . 29, 1848. BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built at Bow, near Stratford, A. D. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, or iron, 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge. 1845. BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are BRI DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 distinguished fiom bulls. The latter are ample, and always .vritten OB parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces and dispensations, as well as business. DRIENNE, BATTLE or, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. t BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus a prince of the Britons, 380 B. c. It was granted a charter and became a distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell. 1655. Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the recorder, into the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did not terminate until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, and many lives lost. Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832 ; four were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during his trial by court-martial. Jan. 9, same year. BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu- scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively Albion to only one. PLiny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar, 65 B. c., but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- erals. Plautius. Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty pitched battles with the natives, A. D. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, A. D. 85. Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York - - - - A. D. 306 The Roman forces are finally with- drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the natives against their northern neighbors the Picts and Scots Having expelled these, the Ans'o-Sax- ons "attack the natives themselves, driving them into Wales Many of the natives settle in Armorica, since called Brittany - - - 457 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven kingdoms - - Reisn of the renowned Arthur - Arrfval of St. Augtistin (or Austin), and establishment of Christianity - Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, becan his reign - - - 678 The Saxon Heptarchy ends - - 823 See England, and also Tabular Viewa^ p. 75, &c. That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance, a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. Phillips's Annals. BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was the 51 - 61 - 61 First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under Julius Caesar - - B. c. 55 Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 Expedition of Claudius into Britain, A. D. 40 London founded by the Romans - 49 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 slain, and London burnt A vast army of Britons is defeated by Suetonius, and 80.000 slain Reicr. of Lucius, the first Christian king (.if Britain, and in the world - - 179 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Eboracum - - - 207 He dies at York - - - - 211 Carausius. a tyrant, usurps the throne of Britain - - - - 286 He is killed by Alectus, who continues the usurpation - - - - 293 Constantius recovers Britain by the de- feat of Alectus - - - - 296 449 455 45. 936 596 276 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [BR grant by parliament of 20,0001. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,00(M. The library contained 60,000 volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art. and by the transference to its rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian. and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- ham-house by George III. See Cottonian Library, and other collections. BROAD SEAL OF ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the crown, by Edward the Confessor, A. D. 1048. Baker's Chron. BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- nese. Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, in 1757. B&OCOLI : an Italian Plant. Pardon. The white and purple, both of which are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. Anderson. About 1603. Burns. The cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- land and came into great abundance about 1680. Anderson. BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736. Statutes at large. See Pawn- brokers. BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels and various other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 10, 1792,) was the most, colossal ever made ; . it contained 60,000 Ibs. weight -of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added one fifteenth of lead and silver. BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers and the severest penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women. 8 Henry H. 1162. Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which amounted to 20 000 ducats a year, 1471. Ital. Citron. BROWNISTS. a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- tions and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all othei communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a beiufice in the church of England. Collinses Eccles. Hist. BRUCE S TRAVELS undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The illustrious Bruce the " Abyssinian Traveller/' set out in June 1768, and pro- ceeding first to Cairo he navig'ated the Nile to Syene. thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea. and. arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar. the capital *%C J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 sinia, iu Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 1773, and died in 1794. fcHUNSWICK, HOUSE OP. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family 01 Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry JI. of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick: Barbarossa in a war .against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re sentment on him. and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the farnilj of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, lie retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession. Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several branches. The present duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this last sprang the royal family of England. A revolution took place at Bruns- wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1880. BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 174G. Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 25. See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the H6tel de V-iUe, whose tur- ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and Law's Bubble. BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and ' Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. The principal commanders of the first expedition were. Montbar. Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont. in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Bucliau, who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, whea her followers dispersed. BUCHAREST, TREATY or. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. BUCKINGHAM PALACE, LONDON. Buckingham-house, built 1703, wa pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site and aftei 278 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. LBC*, expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri- sius, of Argos, about 1370 B. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and sih er, 302 B. c. See article Armor. BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II. j but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman II. at the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- gary \vas annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See Hungary. BUENA VISTA, BATTLE OP, between the American force, of about 5 000 men, un- der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000. under Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806; and was retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, July 6. 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816 : the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- nos Ayres and Monte Video. England and France blockaded the port of Bue- nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- ished by Trajan, A. D. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; Selden traces the latter to 1251. Warton. BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be referred in England to Benedict, or Benet. a monk, about A. D. 670. The first bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged ii in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl < I Arundel about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, A. D. 687; and are subdued by the emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving ont eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymei BUO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 279 home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186 ; subdued bj Bajazet, 1396. Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. BULL, OR EDICT OF THE POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of anuient use. and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated goldon bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal; and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, A. D. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet- tors, and consigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 1688. BULL-BAITING, OR BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of Spain arid Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an anrnse- ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the CLink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence of the late Mr. Windham. who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- tom, May 24, 1802. Butler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru- elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260: abol- ished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There wan a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. BULLETS. Those of stone were in use A. D. 1514 ; and iron ones are first mentioned in the Fcedera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, instead of iron. Ashe. BUNKER HILL, BATTLE OF, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 1054 killed and wounded ; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 60,000 people present, June 17, 1843. BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE OF FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads throughout the volume : Napoleon born at Ajaccio, in Ital Aug. fs, 1769 He first distinguishes himself in the command of the artillery at Toulon 1793 He embarks for Egypt - May 10, 1798 Js repulsed before Acre - May 27, 1799 He returns from Egypt Aug. 23, 1799 Deposes the French directory, and be- comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 Sends overtures of peace to the king of England - - - Jan. 1 1800 His life attempted by an "infernal ma- chine" - - - Dec. 21. 180C 280 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [BUH BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE OF FRANCE conlinued. Elected president of the Italian, late Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1602 Elected consul for 10 years - May 8, 1802 Made first consul for lite - Aug. 2, 1802 Accepts 'he title of emperor from the senaVe in name of the people May 13, 1804 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 Crowned king of Italy May 26, 1805 Divorced from the empress Josephine Dec. 16, 1809 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 A son, the fruit of this marriage, born, and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 His overtures of peace to England re- jected April 14, 1812 [The reverses of Bonaparte now follow in quick succession.] He renounces the thrones of France and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 Again appears in France ; he quits Elba and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 Enters Lyons - March 10, 1815 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 Joined by all the army March 22, 1815 The allies sign a treaty for his exter- mination - - - March 25. 1815 He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 Leaves Paris for the army June 12, 1815 Is defeated at Waterloo - June 18, 181i Returns to Paris June. 20, 1815 And abdica'es in favor uf his infant son - - - June 22, 1815 Intending to embark for America, he arrives ai Rochefort - Juiy 3. 1815 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the Bellerup/ion - July 15, 1' 1 Transferred at Torbay to the A'orthum- berlcmd&mi sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, It ) 5 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- creed by the allied sovereigns he shall remain (or life) - Oct. 15, ; Sit The family of Bonaparte excluded Ibr ever from France by the law of am- nesty - - - Jan. '2, 1816 Death of Bonaparte May 5, 1(521 His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22. 1832 The French chambers decree, with the consent of England, that the ashes of Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 The Belle Poule, French frigate, arrives at Cherbourg with the "-emains of Napoleon, in the care of lie prince de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1840 They are interred with great solemnity in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England A. D. 12G5 ; in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 1413. Viner's Statutes. See Borough. BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- ished with death. BURGOS. SIEGE OF. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica- tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, A. D. 413. Conrad II. of Ger many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy. 1034. Bui- gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip li. of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body (o earth The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the mo.st ancient graves. See Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. Eusebivs. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 5% ; burial in cities. 742 ; in consecrated places. 750 ; in church-yards. 758. Vaults were erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- land, 1606. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland IT'^'.h and woollen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1605 again, 1673.. See Cemeteries BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were iu UR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 281 stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. Slmoe. A tax wao exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, J650, and foi that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Goo. III. 1783. Statutes. See Bills of Mortality. BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. The monsler named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- cuted with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar murders), December 5, same year. BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alorn- pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. See India. BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among th: Romans, Jews, and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest in the ascending and descending degrees The Jews had two ways of burn- ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio anima, to burn the soul. See Suttees. BURNING ALIVE, IN ENGLAND. Even in England (see preceding article') burn- ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered in this manner. See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree, parish priest of St. Osith, London. 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer. archbishop of Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was very general about 1225 B. c., and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. BURNING-GLASS AND CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen,>1680; of Buff'on, 1T4 7 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- ments of the fusion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning miri or : * It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shocking violence* aisd barbarities were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake; besides those who were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered by fire were i bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen t 34 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 5i women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar- diner and Bonner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derive t ravage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 282 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BYZ BURNING-GLASS AND CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued. Subs/a.iccs fused. Pure gold Silver - - - Copper ... Platina Cast iron Steel Weight. Time. 20 grains 4 seconds. 20 grains 3 seconds. 33 grains 20 seconds. 10 grains 3 seconds. 10 grains 3 seconds. 10 grains 12 seconds. Substances fused. A topaz An emerald A crystal pebble Flint - Cornelian Pumice stone Weight. Timt. 3 grains 45 second*. 2 grains 25 seconds 7 grains C seconds. 10 grains 30 seconds. 10 grains 75 seconds. 10 grains 24 seconds. Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. BlfllYJNG ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia. where Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 B. c. The ROIDID vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dn.ss or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 B. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive 274 B. c. The vestal Cornelia A. D. 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species of torture until they died, October, 1831. See Greect. BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same with the Jiermee of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 B. c. Pliny. Busts from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A. D. 1466. Vasari. BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii pro- vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. The butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. Annals of London. BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early Romans it was used only as a medicine never as food. The Chris- tians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- tury. In 1675. there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba; than any butter made from cow's milk. Mungo Park. BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- tons, 8 George I. 1721. The ^nanufacture owes nothing to encouragement from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- proved . Phillips. BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round the globe. June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name. Au- gust 16 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill foilune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack." Belkhambers. E FZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 716 B. c. Eusebiiis. It was taken by the Romans, A. D. 73, and was laid in ruins by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantino in 338 ; and after him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople CADJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283 c. CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins wore cabalists, and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, vhe lord Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- dale, 22 Charles II. 1670. Hume. CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so efiiJy as the reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, A. D. 690; Oft'a. king of the Mercians, 758, and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great about A. D. 896. SpeLman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members :* Lord president. Lord chancellor. Lord privy seal. First lord of the treasury. Chancellor of the exchequer. Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. President of the board of control. President of the boari of trade. Master of the mint. First lord of the admiralty. In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War. the Woods and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of England. CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy in 1812. CADDEE, OR LEAGUE OF GOD'S HOUSE. The celebrated league of independence in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, A. D. 1400 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Graj league, 1424. CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 20 000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 B. c. Priestley. One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, * The term cabinet ccuncil is of comparatively modern date, and originated thus : the attain of slate, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the earl of Stratford, and the lord Cottington ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or- nament ; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer ; the two secretaries, Vane and Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up ihe committee btat, reproachfully called the junto, and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet council. LORD CIJL HEM J0. 284 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [oil. against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1687 Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces. October 1800. Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. CAESARS, ERA OP THE ; OR SPANISH ERA, is reckoned from the first of January 38 B. c., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa. Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV.. of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year ; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming flood, A. D. 1642. CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in A. D. 969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 1754 ; when 40 000 persons perished. Set on tire by a lady of the beglerbeg, Dec., 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801. CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- barded by the English. 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France. April 24, 1814. See France. CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort. 146 of the British were crammed into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supremo court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. See Bengal and India. CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived from Gael or Gael-men, or Gadcl-dmne. corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died A. D. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of Caledonia ; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- able Bede says, that it retained this name until A. D. 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia,. The ancient inhabitants appear 04L.J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who passed over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth centurj of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- rities'), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders and the inhabitants of the southern borders, Caledonian monarchy, said to have been (bunded by Fergus 1., about B. c. 330 The Picta from the north of England settle in the southern borders - - 140 Agrieola carries the Roman arms into Caledonia, with little success, in the reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- bred II. - - A. D. 79 He is signally defeated by the forces of Corbred - - - - -80 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia in the reign of Donald I. - - 201 The country is invaded by the Scuyths, or IScots. and the government is over- thrown, about A. . 30fc' The ( Caledonian monarchy is revived by Fergus II. - - - - 404 After many sanguinary wars between the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts, unites the whcje country under one monarchy, and gives it the name of Scotland - - - 838 to 843 See SCOTLAND. The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- able fictions. CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between ihe western ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, and opened in 1822. CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304 days, A. D. 738 B. c. The year of Romulus was of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius. 713 B. c. corrected this calendar, by adding two months ; and Julius Caesar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 B. c. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the llth, instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis- sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 yuars, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible tc correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are avoided. See New Style. (!ALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Con pany, in 1831. Calico printing, and th 286 THE WORLD* S PROGRESS. [ CAJ. Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. Anderson. Calicoes were pro- hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. CALIFORNIA, LOWER, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, 1534; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate Ulloa. 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. CALIFORNIA, UPPER, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the i!l-used natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New ""alifornia 1769. Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by Com. Montgomery. July 8. 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper California May- August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c., 1846. Cali- fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. C-^n- vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, Dec. 1849. CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Sophi of Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- sors of Mahomet. The calipliat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, A. D. 631. In process of time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. Sir. T. Herbert. CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed. 472 B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. Htlinshed. CALLAO, IN PERU. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, A. D. 168". The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, with the exception of one man. who was standing on an eminence, and to whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced by Beguin. in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known SODM centuries before. CAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 CALVARY, MOUNT. The place where the REDEEMER suffered death, A. D. 33. Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter en Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, A. D. 142. Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all Christian countries. CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angoulfime, where he composed his Insti- tutio Christiana: ftehgionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. Ho subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561 where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. Colville. June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. CAMBRAY, LEAGUE OF. This was the celebrated league against the republic of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. Shakspeare, Cambrics were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- beth, 1580. Sbowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 1786. but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is now allowed. CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta,, and of most ancient standing, being fre- quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by Sigebert. king of East Angles, about A. D. 631 ; but it lay neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first. Peter-house is the most ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. CAMERA LUCID A. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674. Woofs Ath. Ox. Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural magic, about 1500. Mnreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- nent ; the last was produced in 1839. CAMF.RONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.- -Burn"t. 288 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ OAR CAMP. All the early warlike nations had - camps, which are consequently most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. t AMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about A, D. 1520; it was taken by the Eng- lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free- booters of St. Doraingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, iu 1662. CAMPERDOWN, BATTLE OP. Memorable engagement offCamperdown, south of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. G \MPO FORMIO, TREATY OF, concluded between France and Austria, the latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan. Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands. Oct. 17, 1797. CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, A. D. 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628. but was re- stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. Eustace. Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head. Jan. 5. 1838. Lord Durham, governor general. Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The. insurgents concentrated at Napierville under command of Nelson and others. Nov. 6; some skirmishes took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford. governor of Lower Canada proclaims martial law, and a reward of 1 000 for Papi- neau, Dec. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Caroline, American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12. 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Mct- calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, took the oath Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia men! House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for payin* losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves). Aug. 15, 1849. Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean CAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289 was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- menced in 1676. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg. commenced 1751. That oetween the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, A. D. 1134. That from the Durance to Marseilles, France. 83 000 metres, of which 17,000 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only that are navigable total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. Williams. CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie cannl in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu- nate Isks. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, A. D. 1402; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida. so famous in history. It was seized by the Saracens, A. D. 808, when they changed its name. Taken by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194. and held by them till the Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200.000 men perished, 1669. CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the lower classes in England about A. D. 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle') are made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which is fragrant, and yields a bright light. CANDLEMAS- DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse- crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. CANNAE. BATTLE or. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50 000 Africans. Gauls, and Spaniards; and Paulus JEmilius and Terentius Varro, 88000 Romans, of whom 40 000 were slain. Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushel.'* of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 2! . 216 B. c. Bossuet. CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform us that it was a primitive nd universal custom, and many of the South 13 290 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. American tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I, The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in America See Anthropophagi. CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as A. D. 1338. According to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but ,his Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. Rymer's Fasdera. Louis XIV. upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See Artillery. CANNON, REMARKABKK. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon, in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland; this piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, "Charge me well, and sponge me cleat., I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. Phillips. CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, A. D. 380. Usher. Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. Paschier. Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon law autho 1 -, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. Stowe. CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. TaUent's Tables. Saints have so accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. H<:>iaidt. CANTERBURY. The Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who reigned A. D. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous for the shrine of Becket (see Becket} and within it are interred Henry IV. and Edward the Black Prince. CANTERBURY, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF. This see was settled by St. Austin, who preached the gospel in England A. D. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of K;nt. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great farorsupon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas a Becket, mur- dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- litan of all England and is the first peer 'in the realm having precedency of all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see hath yielded to the church of Rome. 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil state of England. 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St, Austin was the first bishop, 596 The see was made superior to York, 1073, CAP] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 291 See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at .2816. 11 5. 9d. Bcatson. CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver- ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into medica. practice by Aretaeus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 60 B. c. Prei'iid 1 . History of Physic. CANTON. . The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822. a fire destroyed 15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and more than 1000 persons in October 1833. CAOUTCHOUC, or INDIAN RUBBER, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, called HtKvia caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. See India Rubber. CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the ^ead, and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a. one period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is icferred to the year 1449; the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VU. into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 2Qd. (40 cts.) nor cap above 25. 8d. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the French in 1632. but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745; and re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng land at the peace of 1763. CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. TAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally called the " Cape of Tempests." and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20. 1497. Planted by tho Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795 and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again token by sit David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8 1806 ; and finally ceded to England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March 1820. The Caffres have made several irruptions on the British settlement] here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown, in Oct. T8tf4 Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26. 1848. 292 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CAf CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients undei the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, A. D. 1416. CAPE ST. VINCENT, BATTLES OF. Admiral Rooke, with twenty shij/s of war, and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch raen-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being' in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off this Cape, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 3000/. a year. CAPET, HOUSE OP, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, A. D. QST.Henault. CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temy.le was built to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- quinius Priscus. 616 B. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- stroyed by lightning, 188 B. c. ; by fire, A. n. 70. The Capitoline games in- stituted by Domitian, A. D. 86. CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 B. c. The suc- cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes II. became king of Cappadocia. Pharnaces is declared king - B. p. 744 in the throne^ poisons five of her own His successors are unknown for nearly three centuries. * * * * * * Reign of Ariarathea I. - - 362 Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- rathes is crucified - - - 322 Defeat of the Panhians - - - 217 Irruption of the Trocmi - - 164 Mithridaies, sumamed Philopator, as- cends the throne ... 162 Orophemes dethrones Philopator 161 Attains assists Philopator, and Oro- phenies dethroned - - - 154 Philopator joins the Remans against Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 children, the suth and only remaining child is saved, and the queen put to death . -153 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes VII. Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. Ariarathes VIII. assassinated Cappadocia declared a free country b 1 the senate of Rome The people elect a new king Ariobar zanes His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns He is dethroned by Marc Antony Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, dies, and bequeaihes his kingdom to 153 97 M m m His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- the Roman empire - A. n. 17 CAPRI. The Capreae of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- rius and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful rotreat, during the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sii Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. C'APUCHTN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, from their wearing a great Capuc/wn. or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or hood sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about A. D. 1525. Altho igh th, CAB. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293, rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for theil extreme poverty and privations. Ashe. CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 B. c. Th covered cars (currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the Elder, according to others. CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, A. D. 1498. The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- ment in Sept. 1820. CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, atd constitute the conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit. 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say in 1623. Du Cange. CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. during the interval;} of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought him to his grave. Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of wisdom. Malkm. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. Dainef Harrington. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed in England, 1756. 428 : 000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th Jan. 1840. Part. Reports. CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since follov/ed by bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. De Piks. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the initials H. B., ar<* political satires of considerable humor and merit. Haydn. C A RLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. CARLSBAD, CONGRESS OF, on the affairs of Europe: The popular spirit ol emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchic* and free institutions, August 1, 1819. CARMELITES, OR WHITE FRIARS, named from Mount Carmel, and one of tht four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. Their rigor was moderated about 1640. They claim their descent in an no- 294 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [oaf, interrupted succession from Elijah. Elisha, &c. Mount C%rr;iel has a monas- tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often referred to in Jewish histories. " See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." Pope. CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, amounting to about 860 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See 2V. r sleeping at macins, and he found that u cherkml their slumbers. 318 THE WO] LD'S PROGRESS. \ CO* was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tnllius, about 573 B. c. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century E. c. ; but others are bel'.eved to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 B. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was coined '206 B. c. Iron money was used in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. Dufresnoy. Julius Caesar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and moro simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon their money: the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- ceived divine honors. COIN IN ENGLAND. The flist coinage in England was under the Romans at Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after A, D. 1351. Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and maney was found only in the coffers of the barons. Stowe The first gold coins on certain record, struck, 42 Henry HI. A. D. 1257 Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (Cam- den) 1337 First large copper coinage, putting an end to the circulation of private lead- en pieces, dec. .... 1620 Halfpence and farthings coined 1665 Guineas first coined, 25 Char. IL 1673 Sovereigns, new coinage - 181 1' Half-farthings - - . . 1843 Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee: after- wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed fo> more. SeeGui?ieas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826 See Gold. MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIONS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. Elizabeth - - jE5,832,000 I James II. - - 3,740,000 James I. . . 2,500,000 | William III. - -10,511,900 Charles I. - - - 10,500,000 Cromwell - - 1,000,000 Charles II. - - 7,524,100 Anne - - - 2,091,026 George I. - - 8,725,920 George II. - - 11,966,576 George III. and regency. gold - - 74,501,586 George IV. - - 41,782,815 William IV. - - 10,827,603 Victoria, to 1848, 82.370.814 The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. Davenant. It was estimated at sixteen millions 1762. Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- ty millions in 1786. Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. PluUips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of coin, 1830. Duke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching forty-five millions. See Gold. COIN OP THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from that time to 1836 was thus : Pieces. Value. Gold - - 4,716,325 . - $22,102,035 Silver - - - 115,421,762 - 46,739.182 Copper - - 77,752,965 ' . 740,331 Total - 197391,502 . - 869,581,549 1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 ''' $81,436,155 Total in 66 years - 343,231,250 pieces. - 8151,017,714 The gold coinage consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half eagles, quarter eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. COL J J1CTIONARY OF DATES. 319 COINING. This operation was originally performed by the metal being placed between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill wai invented by Antonie Brucher. and introduced into England in 1562. An en- gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. COLT). The extremes of heat and cold are found to prcduce the same percep- tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. Greig. Perhaps the cold- est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796. when the thermometer was 16 below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See Frosts, Ice. COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been A. D. 72. The splendid Colisaeum of London, and one of its most worthy objects of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, A. D. 1140; but sonje authorities say. not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cambridge, and John de Beverlcy at Oxford, and that they were the first doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. CheshunMI!ollege founded A. D 1792 Mareschal College, Aberdeen A- D. 1593 Maynooth College - - - 1795 Doctor's Commons, civil law Durham University ., -. Edinburgh University - Eton College - Glasgow University Harrow Highbury College King's College, Aberdeen - King's College, London - 1670 1580 1441 1451 1585 18-26 1494 1829 Collegf 1'hysicians, London - - - 1518 Sion College .... 1329 Sion College, re-founded - - 1630 Surgeons, London - - -1745 Trinity College, Dublin - - - 1591 University, London ... 1826 Winchester College - 1387 COLLEGES IN THE UNITKD STATES. The first established was Harvard, at Cambridge. Mass., by John Harvard, 1638 ; and this is now the most im- portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William and Mary, in Virginia. 1693. Third. Yale, at New Haven. 1700. Fourth, College of New Jersey. Princeton, 1746. Fifth. Columbia, New- York, 1754. Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh. Brown University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. Ninth, Rutgers. New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard Cottrge opened Jan. 1, 1848. COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league. 1260. The Jews were expelled from here in 1485. and the Protestants in 1618. and it has since fallen into ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11 000 vir- gins said to have been put to death along with her. COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have 320 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [COL declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chief* have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prej to civil war, aud the stability of the union is far from assured. New Grenada, discovered by Colum- bus - - -A. D. 1497 Venezuela discovered - - - 1498 1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, under a captain-general - - 1547 The history of those provinces under the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- niards, presents but one continuous scene of rapine and blood. Confederation of Venezuela - - 1810 Independence formally declared - - 1811 Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 Battle of Carabobo, the Royalists wholly overthrown - - June 24, 1821 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1824 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico formed - - - June 30, 1624 Alliance with Guatimala - March 1628 Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- sident of the republic - Aug. 1326 Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 1326 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23. 1S36 Padilla's insurrection April 9^ 1829 Conspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar - Sept. 25. 1828 Bolivar resigns his office of president of the republic - - April II, Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies ... Dec. 17, 1830 nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May M, 1840 COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by Thrasymachus about 373 B. c. Suidas. It was known to Aristotle. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the sixteenth century. COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, amounts to about 2 500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- tion, were 770 280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (20,000,000 sterling) was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1, 1834. COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- cated by Jefferson as early as 1777. urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod- Washington ; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henrj Clay Liberia purchased 1821. COLOSSLS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 B. c. It was thrown down by an earthquake 224 B. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens on their taking Rhodes in A. D. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been impaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, Tve'.ghing 720,900 Ibs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria Uu, Fresiwy. COLUMBIA, DISTRICT CF. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown. COM J D ;TIONARY OF DATES 321 and Alexandria ; but in 1&13 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion an^ Colon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 B. c. They performed the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 B. c., and Menander that of new, 320 B. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he flourished 220 B. c. Statius Caecilius wrote upwards of 30 come- dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 B. c. The comedies of Laelius and Terence were first acted 154 B. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- land about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy (the School far Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best after- piece (the Critic'), in the English language. See Drama. COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of the heavens, 135 B. c. Justin. A remarkable one was seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. Stowe. These phenomena were first rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. See the three next articles. COMET, BIEL A'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point ot the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela. an Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its i evolu- tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. f!OMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest astronomer of England. Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same todies, and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the cornet of 1456, of 1531. and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in about seventy-six years it appeared in 1759. and came to its perihelion or. March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- eracy of maritime cities A. D. 1241. See Hanse Towns. The discoveries of Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 14* 322 THE WORLD S I'UUUKb&H. . L o'OM sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England to engage extensively in its pursuit. See the various articles connected with this tnwject. COMMERCE. See Navigation. COMMERCE, NEW-YORK CHAMBER OP, instituted 1783. COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings. 1 Edward I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308. Anderson. See Treaties. HOMMON COUNCIL OF LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appella- tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people. COMMON LAW OF ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has given the force of law, or rules generally received and heij as law, called lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), A. D. 890. The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. See Custom. Laics. COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- liament, and the Directory (which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. COMMONS HOUSE OF. The great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the rirst commons were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. Goldsmith. Slowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bills (which see,) in 1832: ENGLISH. County members Universities Cities and boroughs - WELSH. County members Cities and Boroughs - 144 4 323471 15 14 29 English and Welsh - 500 SCOTCH. County members Cities and Boroughs IRISH. County members University Cities anu boroughs 30 23 5J 64 2 39-106 English and Welsh - 500 Total (see Parliament) 658 COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles 11. The form of the government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II.. who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. See ROME. The greatest and most renown- ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 B. c., when the govenv CON J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 32$ ment of kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- ria. Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Caesar this republic had the Euphrates. Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, in the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- til the battle of Actium. from which we commonly date the commencement of the Roman empire, 31 B. c. COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named the Steel-yard society, established A. D. 1232. The second company was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket. in 1248. Stowe. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thvre are ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 1 Mercers A. D 1393 2 Grocers .... 1340 3 Drapers - - - 1489 4 Fishmongers ... 1384 5 Goldsmiths ... 1327 6 Skinners .... 1327 7 Merchant Tailors - A. D 1466 8 Haberdashers - - 1447 9 Sailers .... 1553 10 Ironmongers ... 14&4 11 Vintners .... 1437 12 Clothworkers - - - 1482 COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankrupts. COMPASS, THE MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- moved, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian. A. D. 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in- troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe. an English di- vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. Biog. Die. The measuring compass was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of Dec. by the church, in 1389. CONCEPTIONISTS, an order of nuns, established 1488. 324 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ con CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, ic 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and frequent. CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Anstotle and Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It Tvas first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published nis classification of the Tcstacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685; and that of Largius in 1722. CONCLAVE TOR THE ELECTION OF POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used lor the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a pope. The conclave had its rise in A. D. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical palace till they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. CONCORDANCE TO THE BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, A. D. 1247. Abbl Lenglet. CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff was sign- ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, A. D. 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine'was a reputable title, very different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which \i formed by giving the left, hand instead of the right, and called half -marriage, is still in use in some parts of Germany. CONFEDERATION AT PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- tile. at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See Champ de Mars, Bastile. CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, ll?e minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258.000 troops to serve in case of war. and they established a dk t at Frankfort, July 12, 1806 See Germanic Confederation. CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court pulace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance o.' the king. 2 James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 325 was executed in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same view was held in 1661. CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the church of England. Burnet. TONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian .hurch; it was used by Peter and Paul ; and was general, according to some church au- thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into a sacrament by the church of Rome. CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held during the continental wars; but the following were the most remarkable congresses of Europe : Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad Aug. 1, 1819 Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 Congress of Troppau Oct. 20, 1S consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- ted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in the latter church in 1549. Stowe. CONSISTORY COURT IN ENGLAND. Anciently the Consistory was joined with the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The ehief and most ancient Con- sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of Arches. CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. Among the recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- ties of note : Of Anthony Babington and others, i the Duke of Ormond, wounded hiin. kgainst Elizabeth - - A. D. 1586 I and would have hanged him ; and TVi Gunpowder Plot (which see) 1605 lnurrection of the fifth monarchy men kgainsf. Charles II. - - 1660 O* Blood and his associates, who seized who afterwards stole the crown - 1671 The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, and English Jesuits to assas- si late Ch. II. revealed by the infa- DON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327 mous Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and others ..... 1678 The Meal-tub plot 1679 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house plot) .... 1683 Of Simon Fraser. lord Lovat, against Queen Anne. ' - - - - 1703 Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- turn the government - - - 1802 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when lord Kilwarden was killed July '23, 1803 Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, against Bonaparte - Keb. 15, 1801 Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820 CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the United States .... 1807 John Henry's secret mission from the British government, to undermine the American union, exposed, Feb. '25, 1819 CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF. The celebrated council of divvies (!) which con- demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend him. but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. Hume. CONST ANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here, A. D. 328. Taken by the western crusaders who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. Retaken by Michael Palasologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Palaeologus, the last Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as- sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe See Eastern Empire and Turkey. CONSTANTINOPLE, ERA or. This era has the creation placed 5508 years B. c. It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from September to the end. CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arctums, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, are mentioned by Job, about 1520 B. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- lations ; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud. Ptolemajus, about A. D. 140. CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 328 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [con it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. Lord Sowers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in this respect that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. Lord Bolingbrokt The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power; on the contrary, he sees his equals in tho co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in the LAW. Sheridan. CONSTITUTION OP THE U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- gates from all the (then) states, May. 1787. Ratified by the several states at different times. See the respective states. The 60th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. CONSTITUTION AND GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- riere. capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important naval victory of the U. S.. it caused a strong sensation. For others see Naval Battles. CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome. 509 B. c. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year: Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambace"re, and Lebrun, were made consuls ; and subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com- mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485. CONTRIBUTIONS, VOLUNTARY. In the two last wars voluntary contributions to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,CKXM. ; and200.000/. were transmitted from India in 1799. CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through out the volume. CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in A. D. 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 81, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 CONVICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk Island. Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- portation. COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the Endeavor, on his first voyage. July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. Sir Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772. and returned in July 1775. I his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why* nee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were incorporated in 1501. COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, A. D. 1443. In 1728 more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arseaal, admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed. 1795. Copenhagen was bom- barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- ral Gambier and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- boats, and immense naval stores. See Denmark. COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of tho planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. This system was published at Thorn, A. D. 1530; and may in many points be regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. Gassendus. COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold. Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 500.000 times its weight in water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. Bmjle. The mine of Fahlun. in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty * A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768. settins forth the a.! van- Uges which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then appioachmg transit of Venus over the "sun were taken in the South Sea. The shij] > Endeavor was, in consequence, prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed in July 1768, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observa- tions made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed by men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; tne distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761. is now settled at 106,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,000. Butler. 330 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [CO? mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wit liara III. COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money. See Coin. In England, copper-money is of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland (lohwh. see) com- menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. Ci )PrER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in Germany, about A. D. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. See Engraving. COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. IN ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, A. D. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en- acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving. 17 George III., 1777. Copyright protection act. 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu- facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary Property. Haydn. COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, April 29, 1802 granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. COPYRIGHT, PRODUCE OP. The following sums are stated to have been paid to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. POBTRT. Byron's Works (in all) - - ,20.000 Moore's Lalla Rookh - - 3,000 Rejected Addresses - - - 1,1)00 Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after ten years' publication) - - 1,000 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto 1,500 FICTION. It was estimated that Scott's novels produced for copyright at least - 250,000 Bulwer received lor his novels, each 1,200 to 1,500 Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. Johnson for - 63 BISTORT. Fragments of English History, by C.J. Fox- - - .5,000 History of England by Sir J. Mackin- tosh ..... 5,000 Ditto, by Lingard - - - - 4,633 Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 1 anil remainder, .600 per annum for ten years, say ... 3,000 Prescott's Historical Works are said to have produced to the author (who yet owns the copyright) before 1850 - 8100,000 BIOGRAPHY. Life of Wilberforce - . -4,000 Life of Byron, by Moore - - 4,000 Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 Irving's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4,000 Goldsmith received for " Animated Nature" .... Noah Webster is said to have derived 1000 per annum from his Spelling Book. 800 COR] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See Hemp. CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus in 1376 B. c. In 146 B. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Aero- corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls. The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans. Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, (Abbe Lenglet) . - B. c. 1520 Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first called by its name - - 1410 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon the city (.idem) - - - 1375 The Pythian games instituted, it is said by Sisyphus - - - - 1375 The reign of Bacchus, whose successors are called Bacchidse, in remembrance of the equity ot his reign - - 935 The Corinthians invent ships called A colony goes to Sicily, and they build Syracuse - - - B. c. 732 Sea fight between the Corinthians and Cprcyreans - - - 664 Periander rules and encourages genius and learning - - - . 629 Death of Periander - . 585 The Corinthians form a republic - 582 War with the Corcyreans - - 439 The Corinthian war (which see) - 395 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Araius 242 The Roman ambassadors first appear triremes ; vessels consisting of three benches of oars - 786, Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius Thelestes deposed, and the government who sends to Italy the first fine paint- of the Prytanes instituted : Auto- ings there seen, they being part of the menes is the first on whom this dig- nity is conferred ... 757 at Corinth .... 228 orimh destroyed by Lucius Mummius who sends to Italy the first fine paint- ings there seen, they being part of the spoil (Livy) .... 146 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it is attributed to Callimachus, 540 B. c. CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun B. c. 395, by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc- tra, which see. CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B. c. Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 B. c Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its importation into England, in 1686. CORN LAWS IN ENGLAND. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn 1 ' or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its importation when corn should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- scale" of duties passed July 15, !828. Another, April 29, 1842; act fixing 332 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f COB tt duty on wheat at is. until Feb. 1849, and after that atl. per quarter, passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws and the Anti-Corn Law League which had been formed in 1841 was there- fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at Constantinople, in A. D. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronatiou of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. Matthew Paris. Rymer. CORONATION FEASTS, AND OATH. The oath was first administered to the kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The fdtes given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of former times. CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in A. D. 925. Coroners for every couivty in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward I. 1276. Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mai colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of illness. Aug. 22, 1843. CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet. 1604. Beatson. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. Idem. CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- arate societies of every manual trade and profession. Plutarch,. CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, IN ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in law, any matter within the compass of their charter. Cowel. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, A. D. 1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oath?, and conditions. Blackstone. CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans 231 B. c. In modern time*, Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730; and was sold to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 333 ill 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to hif creditors, an I died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel- street, Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near hia grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street : " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and ae opened a parliament in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was -elin- quished by the British, Oct. 22 ; same year, when the people declared for the French. CORTES OP SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ol Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810; and they settled the new constitution, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- ularly convened. CORUNNA, BATTLE OF, between the British army under sir John Moore (who was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height- ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, and are in general use. Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint more highly than most other nations. Richardson. A stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau- tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a plane. Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 B. c. Blair. The first record of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- resenting the earth. Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography respectively. COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia,, Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste- phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast bodj of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- vin< ibly COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote antiquity The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a torture, and their gain ents. which were always white, were so clear and thin, th-U 334 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ COT their bodies could be seen through them - Ovid. As relates to costume worn on the stage, ^Eschylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited to their characters, about 436 B. c. Parian Marbles. COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crorapton invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that more than one thousand millions sterling have be >n yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- ed in 1774. Haydn. HISTORT OP COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED TEARS. The following brief items of the history of cotton, from 1730 to 1836, are taken from a South Carolina 1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn in England by machinery. 1735. The Dutch first export cotton from Surinam. 1742 First mill for spinning cotton erected at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ; but not successful in its operations. 1749. The fly shuttle generally used in England. 1750. Cotton velvets and quillings made in England for the first time. 1701. Arkwright obtained the first patent for the spinning frame, which he further improved. 17(38. The stocking frame applied by Hammond to making of lace. 1773. A bill passed to prevent the export of machinery used in cotton factories. 1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 1782. First import of raw cotton from Brazil into England. 1782. VVatt took out his patent for the steam-engine. 1783. A bounty granted in England on the export of certain cotton goods. 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. < !art- wright steam engir.es used in cotton fac- tories. 1785. Cotton imported into England from the United States. 1780. Bleaching first performed by the agency of the oxymuriatic acid. 17N7. First machinery to spin cotton put in operation in France. 176V. Sea Island cotton first planted in the United States; and upland cotton first cul- tivated for use and export about this time. 1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents the cotton gin, which he patents. 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton erecied in Switzerland. 1799. Spinning by machinery introduced into Saxony this year. ina paper: 1803. First cotton factory built in New Hampshire. 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely introduced into England. 1807. The revolution in Spanish America begins to furnish new markets for cotton manufactures. 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in tho United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa tented by John Bum. 1813. The India trade more free, and more British manulactures sent thither. 1814. The power-loom introduced into the United States ; first at Waltham. 1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents higher than since 1810. New method of preparing sewing cotton by Mr Holt. 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama cotton lands. 1820. Steam power first applied With suc- cess extensively to lace manufactures. 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. \8'~3. First export of raw cotton from Egypt into Great Britain. 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 25 cents per pound. 1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented in England by Roberts. 1827. American cotton manufactures first exported to any considerable extent. 1829. Highest duty in the United States on foreign cotton manufactures. 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced a machine from the United States into Eng' land for the purpose of making cards. 1832. Duty on cotton goods Imported inta the United States reduced ; and in England it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, to work them more than ten hours per day, or more than nine hours on a Saturday; IB consequence they work at something else. 1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 1835. Extensive purchases madeof cottoi lands by speculators and others. 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cent*. eou] DICTIONARY OF DATES. COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment by sir Robert Cotton, A. D. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the protectorate, was secured to the pxiblic by a statute, 13 William III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's- yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 17&3. COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- endon. See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c. COUNCILS OP TUB CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches or ecclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - A. p Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to suppress the Donatists ; three fathers of the English church went over to attend it - The first Oecumenical or General Ni- cene, held at Nice, Constantine the Great presided ; Anns and Eusebius condemned for heresy. This council composed the Nicene Creed - At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- sius was canvassed The first held at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy gained ground At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which lasted eighteen months At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and Constantine obliged them to sign a new confession of faith The second General at Constantinople ; 350 bishops attended, and pope Da- masius presided The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- lestine presitfed - Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar- cian and his empress attended The fifth at Constantinople, when pope Vigi'.ius presided The sixth a.! Constantinople, when pope Agatho presided Authority of the six general councils re- established by Theodosius Tho second Nicene council, seventh Ge- neral; 350 bishops attended - Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the emperor Basil attended The first Lateran, the ninth General ; the right of investitures settled by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and til* emperor Henry V. ' " ' 50 314 325 335 337 342 347 359 381 431 451 553 680 715 787 869 1192 The second Lateran, tenth General, In- nocent II. presided ; the preservation of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, the principal subject, which occa- sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- thers of the church - - A. D. 1139 The third Lateran, eleventh General ; held against schismatics - - 1179 Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 bishops and 1000 abbots attended; Innocent III. presided - - - 1215 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under pope Innocent IV. - - 1245 Ol Lyons, the fourteenth General, under Gregory X. - - - -1274 Ol'Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth General; Clement V. presided, and the kings of France and Arragon at- tended. The order of the Knight Templars suppressed - - -1311 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre- gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, and Alexander elected - - 1409 Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; Martin V. is elected pope ; and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- demned to be burnt - - - 1414 Of Basil, the eighteenth General 1431 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- ral, begun by Julius II. - - 151S Continued under Leo X. for the sup- pression of the Pragmatic sanction of France, against the council of Pisa, &c. till 151v Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- ral council, styled (Ecumenical, as re- garding the affairs of all the Chris- tian world ; it was held to condemn the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. Abbe Lenglet 1544 336 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ co\ COUNCILS, FRENCH REPUBLICAN. The council of A NCIENTS was an assembly of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 1, 1795, together with the council of FIVE HUNDRED ; the executive was a Directory of FIVE. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos. and Sieves, consuls pro- iisoires. See France. COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun- sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William III. 1696. Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel 6 & 7 William IV... Aug. 1836. COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. See Commons, and Parliament. COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 B. c. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about A. D. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, A. D. 1463. Henault. COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 B. c. See Areopa- gitte. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 B. c. Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other countries. COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- stitutions. COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects o/ the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between England and Scotland, was formed in 1643; it was declared to be illegal by parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. COVENTRY. PEEPING TOM OF. The great show fair of Coventry owes its origin to the following tradition : Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been famed evei since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown to this day. To commemorate this event, A. D. 1057, at the great show fair the ma/or and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom ORE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 33^ paniod by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to he! limbs. COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the .eats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- warded by parliament with the mmificent grant of .10,000, June 2. 1802. See Inoculation, Small-Pox, Vaccination. CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, A. D. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the ono side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel- led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. See Poland. CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 220 B. c.Livy. CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol- lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. CRANMER, LATIMER, AND RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati- mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555; and Cran mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in- duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time. " This unworthy hand !" Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit !" CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about A. D. 680. It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used for mourning. CRAYONS. They were known in France before A. D. 1422 improved by L'Oriot, 1748. CREATION OP THE WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and DufYesnoy, 4004 B. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. Whiston. The first date agrees with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation: some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- logue entitled Critias. asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of years j and we are told that the astronomical records of th ancient CbaJ 15 338 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ JB.I deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 years. CREATION, ERA OP THE. In use by many nations. This era would be found convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud make it 5344 ; and ditlerent chronologers, to the number of 120, make it vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 6411 , but th Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years: therefore, it is now gener- ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while after their time. Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship in the Greek church at Antioch. and subsequently into the Roman church. This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about A. D. 746. The Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in A D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 340. See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds. CRESSY, OR CRECY, BATTLE OF. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French nobles, together with 30 000 private men. were slain, while the loss ot the English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich feathers, with the motto <: Ick Dien" in English, " I serve ;" and in memory of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- land. F'roissart, Carte, Hume. CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers : and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. CRETE. Now Candia. whick see. This island was once famous for its hundred cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 B. c. It was conquered by the Saracens. A. D. 808; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the Turks, in 1669. Priestley. CRIME. "At the presetit moment," observes a popular English writer, ' a one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, as an almost necessary consequence, into crime. 1 ' A comparative view of foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and ignorance on this great mass of the population. In North America pauper- ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pro DICTIONARY OP DAlES. 339 meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- ence is painfully exemplified : Scotland. England. Ireland. Instruction to the people- - 1 in 11 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 Criminals among the people 1 in 5093 I in 920 - 1 in 468 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law of England, passed 8 George IV., -1827. An act for consolidating and revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by statute 4 William IV., 1834. See Executions, Hanging, Triau, &c. Haydn. CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica C/iersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. The Genoese were expelled by the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were tributary to the Turks until 1774. The' Russians, with a large army, took possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following year; and secured to them in 1791. CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoeYnakers. Crispin and Crispianus were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- velled to Soissons, in France, about A. D. 303, to propagate the Christian religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. Ou this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them as their tutelar saints. CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 B. c. Blair. Of this class were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- ical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Waies of Litera- ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Mo-nthly Revunc, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756; the Edinburgh Review, in 1802; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The North, American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818; the Am-r-i- can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827 ; the New York Review, by Prof. C. S. Henry, 1835; the Sout/iern Qudrterly, at Charleston, 1842. See Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. CROCKERY. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and Greeks, so early as 1390 B. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza. in Italy, about A. D. 1310; and it is still calisd/ayewce in French. See Earthenware- 340 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS f cm, CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story of the Araalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." Selden. The first Ro- man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 B. c. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first vorn in En- gland by Alfred, in A. D. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 1276; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295; and Benedict XII, form- ed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown with two circles. Rainaldi. CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians. Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Among early acc'ounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- padocia. when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discoveitd among the prison- ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year of his age, 322 B. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- tine, A. D. 330. Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. CRUSADES, OR HOLY WARS. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy Laud, he doplored. on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul - gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a general war, A. D. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300.- 000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. Voltaire. The holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name o( Croise"s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God : s will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, cost the lives of 2 000 ; 000 of men. Voltaire. IUB A . Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albermarle in 1762. but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, defeated May, 1850. CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we reai of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. Hollen. The Pe- brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng 1 ,sh feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe extremity of the middle finger. Col-met. CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. CCLLODEN BATTLR OF. In which the English, under William duke of Cum- berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, near Inverness. April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men CYC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 341 in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. Smollett. Immediately after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30.- 0002. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome, in 1788. Cl/RACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800 : th French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to * single British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. CURFEW BELL. From the French couvrefeu. This wi,s a Norman institu- tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I., A. D. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. Rapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I., A. D. 1100. CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1705. CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands opposed to lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is derived from A. D. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, for 20,0002. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. Stowe. They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,0002. in the year 1666. Davenant. jei4,ooo 50,000 148,000 168,000 500,000 1,555,600 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool. 3d. ; on every last of hides, 6d. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. Artnals of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George III., 1782. See Revenue. CUSTOMS (DUTIES) IN THE UNITED STATES. The amounts collected were, in $27,528,113 - 26,712,668 23,747.964 - 31,757,070 See Tariff. CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen ' lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, A. D. 463. Blair. In 1530 they amounted to In 1592 ditto In 1614 ditto In 1622 ditto In 1642 ditto In 1720 ditto In 1748 they amounted to In 1808 ditto In 1823 ditto In 1830 United Kingdom - In 1835 ditto In 1840 ditto J62,000,00fi 9,973,240 11,498,768 17,540,323 18,612,906 19,915,296 1789-9. 1800 1305 1810 - 1815 12,936,487 8,533,309 7,282,942 1820 1825 - 1830 1835 - 1840 15.005,612 - 20,098,714 21,922.391 - 19,39.1,311 13,499,940 1845 1846 1847. 1848 - 342 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ D us CYCLOPEDIA. See Encyclopedia. CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record It was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, but smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele. by whom, we are told, it was used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 B. c. Tho festivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory- bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 B. c. CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 B. c. Diog. Lion of GOOQ francs. LAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343 DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Ahraham. Gen. xiv. It is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 B. c. It was taken by the Saracens, A. D. 633; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the gospel, about A. D. SO. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pacha lie. DAMASK LINENS AND SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish weavers; and the manufacture was brought to England by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between the years 1571 and 1573. Anderson. I AMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the t> ppoint- ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 B. c. DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 B. c. Eusebius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on the Roman stage. 22 B. c. Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into England from Italy A. D. 1541. In modern times, the French were the first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance (contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. Spelman. DANES, INVASIONS OF THE. The invasions of this people were a scourge to England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks \ipon Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. DANTZIC. A commercial city in A. D. 997. Buscking. It was built, accord- ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the French after a siege of four months, May 5. 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til- sit, it was restored to its former independen je, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10.000 head of cattle and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9, 1829. DARDANELLES. PASSAGE OP THE. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor Mahomet IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous to8, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine followed : 100 000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword ; and plunder to the amount of 62,000,000^. sterling was said to be collected. DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple ol Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyous, 1263 B.C. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- ple was burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 B. c. A new temple was raised by the Alcmaeonidae. and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered by the people of Phocis of 20 : 000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car- ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning the temple was 449 B.C. The second sacred war was commenced c Delphi being attacked by the Phocians, 356 B. c. Du Fresnoy. DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and it began Dec. 7. 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark rested on Mount Ararat. May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 B. c. Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. Sepiuagint B.C. 8246 Jackson - 3170 Hales - . 3155 Josephus - 3146 Persian - B. c. 3103 Hindoo - -3102 Samaritan - - 2998 Howard - - 2698 Playfair - B. c. 2352 Usher - - 2348 English Bible 2348 Marsham -2344 Petavhis - B. c. 2329 Siraucliuis - 2293 Hebrew - - 2288 Vulgar Jewish 2104 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction (!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built to guard against the calamity; but the season happened to be a very fine dry one, A. D. 1524. DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 B. c. according to Eusebivs. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus. whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. DELUGE OP OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 B. c. Blair. Bnffon thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. DEMERARA AND ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were taken by the British. 1796 but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri and the Tcutoncs, who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones Bottled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the Jutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signi- fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. DEN DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 DENMARK, continited. Reign of Sciold, first king - B. c. 60 The Danish chronicles mention 18 kinss to the time of Radnor Lodbrog - A. D. 750 [Ragnor is killed in an attempt to ):- vade England, and for more thai 1200 years from this time the Danes were a terror to the northern nations of Eu- rope, and at length conquering all England. See Dares.] Reisn of Canute the Great - - 1014 Reiin of VValdemar the Great - - 1157 Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, makes immense conquests - - 1223 Gothland conquered - - - 1347 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are united into one kingdom - 1397 Revolt of the Swedes - - -1414 The nations reunited ... 1439 Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 Accession of Christian I., from whom the present royal family springs 1448 Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 Lutheranism established by Christian III. 1536 Danish East India Company established by Christian IV. - - - -1612 Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- testant league .... 1629 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and makes large conquests 1658 The crown made hereditary and abso- lute 1660 Frederick IV. takes Holstein. Sleswick, Tonningen, and Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, and drives the Swedes out of Norway - - 1716 et seq. Copenhagen destroyed by a 5re which consumes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 The peaceful reign of Christian VI., who promotes the happiness of his subjects .... 1730 Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- denly confines his queen, Caroline Matilda, sister of George III. who is afterwards banished. See ZellJan. 18, 1772 KINGS OP A. D 714 Gormo I. 750 Ragnor Lodbrog. 770 Siaefrid. 801 Godefrid. 809 Olaus I. 811 Hemming. 812 Si ward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight. 814 Harold and Regner; the latter made prisoner in Ireland, and died in a dungeon there. 849 Siward Il.deposed. 856 Eric ; killed in battle 858 Eric II. 873 Canute I. 915 Frothon 920 Gormo II. 925 Harold. 928 Hardicanute 930 Gormo III. 935 Harold in. 960 Suenon. The counts Struensee ad Brandt an seized at the same timt on the charge of a criminal intercourse with the queen; and the former confessing to avoid the torture, both are beheaded for high treason - April 28, 1772 The queen Caroline Matilda dies at Zell - - - May 10. 1773 Christian VII. becomes denuvjcd, and prince Frederick is appointed regent 1794 One-fourth of Copenl agen is destroy sd by fire - - - June 9 1736 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or destroying 13 ships of the line, of whose crews 1SOO are kill- ed. The Confederacy of the North (see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- solved - - - April 2, 1801 Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart bombard Copenhagen, and seize the Danish fleet 01 I? shins of the line, 15 fi eates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to Denmark, in exchange for Norway 1814 Commercial treaty with England - 1824 Frederick bestows a new constitution on his kingdom - - 1831 A new constitution offered by Christian VIII. - - Jan. 20, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein de- mand separation from Denmark March, 1848 The king grants freedom of the press and of public meetings March, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- volt and join the great German na- tion March 26, 1848 Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ- izes the Grand Duchy of Posen March 26, 1848 Danes victorious over the Germans, April 10: but driven out of Schleswig April 23, 1848 Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- while) - - - July 10, 1848 Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1848 (See Copenhagen.) DENMARK. 1014 Canute II. the Great. 1036 Hardicanute II. 1041 Magnus I. 1048 Suenon II. 1079 Harold IV. 1060 Canute III. assassinated. 1066 Olaus II. 1097 Eric III. 1 106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 1138 Eric V. 1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldcnar for assassinating prince Canute. 1157 Waldemar the Great. 1182 Canute V. 1202 Waldemar II 1240 Eric VI. 1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition again* the Prisons. 1252 Christopher I., jioLsoned by the bwhop of Arhus. 348 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. DU 15U3 Frederick. 1334 Christian III. 1559 Frederick II. 1588 Christian IV. IMS Frederick III. 1670 Christian V. 1699 Frederick IV. 1730 Christian VI. 1746 Frederick V. 1766 Christian VII. 1808 Frederic VI. 1839 Christian VIII. died Jan. a, 164& DENMARK, continued. 1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 1286 Eric VIII. 1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of seven years.) 1340 Waldemar IIL 1375 Olaus III. 1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and Norway. 1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 1439 Christopher HI. 1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 1481 John. 1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a dungeon, where he died. PENIS, ST. An ancient town of France, six miles Irom Paris to the north- ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, famous foi its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolt ion; the lattei desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place ol sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. : DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned in those days for witchcraft, A. D. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing. DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, A. D. 272. Tillemant. DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B. c. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 B. c. Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in A. D. 613. Lengkt. DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpour was the first known ; and where the mines of Golconda were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was valued by M. Romeo de 1'Isle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400.000J. The diamond called the " mountain of light," which belonged to the king of C bul, was the most superb gem ever seen : it was of the finest water, and the size of 0IBJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a h.ilf. The great dia- mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 104.166Z. besides an annuity for life, to the owner, of 1041i. which was refused ; but it was afterwards sold to Catharine's favorite, count OrlofF, for the first mentioned sum, with- out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold to the king of France for 125 .0001. in 1720. DIANA, TEMPLE OP, AT EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It wzu set on tire on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratns, who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 B. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the Goths, in their naval invasion, A. D. 256, Univ. Hist. DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in stituted 498 B. c.. when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap pointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. Caesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B. c. DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B. c. Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini. a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages, about A. D. 1500. Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to think." Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768; and from this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- printed in I adon, under the supervision of E- H. Barker, 1832. Numerous abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since bvn published. See Encyclopedia. DIET OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of this empire may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name. The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : the college of electors, the college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, waa held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, wa? held in 1629 350 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I and the famous t.iet of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the German princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany, IHEU ET MON DffOIT, "God and my right." This was the panic ot the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, in France. In this battle (which see) the French army was signally defeated ; and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et man droit" the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained A. D. 1198. Rymer's Fadera. DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 B.C. Quintil. Jnst. Orat. Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. Pardon, DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine. A. D. 323 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long before. Slrabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- diction are coeval with Christianity ; there are twenty-four dioceses, of which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York. DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- tians in the reign of Diocletian. DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and in the completeness of the illusion. DIPLOMACY OP THE UNITED STATES. Great Britain and France. GREAT BRITAIN. 1783 John Adams. 1739 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 1792 Thomas Pinckney, ol'S. C., min. tlen. 1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do! 1796 Ruius King, do. do. 1803 James Monroe, Va. ) Jointly, 1806 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 1808 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do. 1815 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 1896 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 1828 James Harbour. Va. do. 1830 Lou's McLane, Del. do. 1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 1832 Aaror Vail, charse d'affaires. 183(5 And Sievenson, Va., minister plen. 1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. ISto Louis McLi.ie, Md. do. 1846 Georse Bancroft, Mass. do. !849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. List of ministers plenipotentiary to 1776 B. Franklin . S l)eane . & A. Lee, com' rs 1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaires. 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 1796 C. C. Pinckney, S C. > ,,. 1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, \ ao> 1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, and W. Vans Murray, do. 1801 James A. Bayard, Del.. CD. 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. co 1804 John Armstrong, do. QO. 1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. Jo. 1813 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo. do. 1615 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do. 1823 James Brown, La. io. 1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do. 1833 Edward Livinzston, La. do. 1836 I,ewis Cass, Midi. co. 1844 Wm. R. King, Ala. do. 1819 W. C. Rives, Va da DIV J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 DIRECTORY, THE CHURCH. The book so called was published in England at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par- liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There were some general hints given, which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an ordinance of the parliament in 1644. Bishop Taylor. DIRECTORY, FRENCH. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux- embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November 1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An- cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, who, with C'ambace'res and Sie"yes, became the ruling power of France, the three governing as consuls, the first as chief. Nov. 9, 1799. DISSENTERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish model*! of church government and discipline. They were reproached with the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza- beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was established at Wandsworth, near London. Nov. 20, 1572; and now, in Lon- don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis- senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. c. 17. By this act. called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act. so much of the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c. was repealed, May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- orating effect have been since passed. DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc- trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 B. c. Augurs were instituted by Numa at Rome, 710 B. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, fyc. DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, B. c. The diving-bell was first used in Europe, A. D. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before A. D. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in Ireland, were drowned, June 1. 1783. The Royal George man-of-nar, which was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving- bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed in sub-marine surveys. The first diving-bdie was the wife of Captain Mor- ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- vilius at Rome, 231 B. c. Blair. At this time morals were so debased, that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 352 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. to be neade of more easy obtainment in England, in A. D. 1539. The bill to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. DOCKS OP LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the principal: The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in July 1799; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31. 1805. The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil. Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysos- tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, A. D. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley. the former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about A. D. 725. See Collegiate Degrees. DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See article Civil Law. DOG. The chien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole race. Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it possesses from 1 nature the greatest share o/ instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vienna. DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end on the llth of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the stm, as the cause of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varie* in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may. by the same rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. Dr. Hutton. DOGK. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by ' Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars; and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that a sound woulA net reach our earth from Sirius in !)0,000 years, and that a cannon ball, flying with it usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thesce *o our globe DOR } DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353 prince so named. Anafesto Paululio, A. D. 697. The Genoese revolted against their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173. and was observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- pensed with. See Adriatic. DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec.. 1791. Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 20, 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti. in which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- mingo ; acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- i icane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently occurred. DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as by the first seven letters of the alphabet A. B, C. D, E ; F, G; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap years count two letters. DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, and were founded by St. Dominick approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and the order was 6onfirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216. under St. Austin's rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called Blackfriars. DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualu Anslite. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. A. D. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legiblo. consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties oi England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. " This dome's- day book was the tax-book of kinge William." Camden. The taxes were levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522. when a more accu- rate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Dooni's-day book. DORIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. The most ancient of the five, the invention of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name to 354 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesus took place 1104 B. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native country. DOR1 . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, A. D. 1446. It arose in the breaking down of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 800 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- pally upon points '..( justification and grace. The synod condemned the tenets of Arni'iius. Aitzema. DOUAY. IN FRANCE. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, A. D. 1569. Douay was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710 ; and retaken by the Drench next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of th> Bible, which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the sucv.essive popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes of Catholic divines. DRACO, Liws OF. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 B. c. Sigonius de Repub. At/ien. DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, No. 13, 1577. and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1688. His expeditions' and victories over the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- rosity; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents to Indian chiefs. Stowe. Rapin. DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon. on a movable scaffold, 562 B. B. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 656 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thcspis, on a wagon, 536 B. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- gedy, performed at Athens Alccstis, this year, and was rewarded with a goat. 536 B. c. Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- dred plays, of which ten obtained the prixe ; he died 340 B. c. DRAMA iv ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Lncinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- tuted the games called Sccnici, which were amusements entirely new. Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 B; c. ^subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute; and DBO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355 afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 B. c. Lwy. Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the singing - to a younger exhibitor. Livy. DHAMA, MODERN. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. Warton. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin of sacred comedy. Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of tlie church, is said to have constructed a drama about A. D. 364, on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama , but this is not clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas it Becket, asserts that " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual characters were introduced in Henry VII.'s reign. The first regular drama acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino. at Rome, in the pre-. sence of pope Leo X., 1515. Voltaire. The English drama became perfect in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- speare, and his associates in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's and Davenant's. in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. DRESDEN, BATTLE OF, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, who were 200.000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff' made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. Slowe. Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearis>. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600/, ; and he had a suit of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rulues, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cnur. DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland. A. n. 1767. The second society is sail to have been formed at Milan, in 1768; the third in Hamburg, in 1771; the fovrth at Paris, in 1772; and the fifth in London, in 1771. Similar societies 356 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DUK have been instituted in other countries. The motto of Ine Royal Humane Society in England is very appropriate : Lateat scintillula forsan a small spark may lurk unseen. DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with supreme authority" In England they were chosen out of the best families, that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and supreme .judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed Caesar's first landing, 55 B. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, A.D. 59. Rowland'} Muna A/Uiqua. DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb, " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as A. D. 747. Constantino, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed from the beast only in shape, A. D. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built A. D. 140. DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia. Du Gauge. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in A. D. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. John- son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6d., and that o/ the gold 9s. &d. Pardon. DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, took place A. D. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France. 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- duced into England. 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling was checked in the army, 1792. See Battle, Wager of; Combat, fyc. As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- macteric. Sir J. Harrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- tence of the law. Hamilton. DUKE originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duce*. Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of Edward HI., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, A. D. 1336. Robert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, pi ince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to the king's eldest son, A. D. 1398. . DUKE GRAND. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged EAR J BICTIONARY OF DATES. 357 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night, and his svn. Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pop*: Pius V. in 1569. DUNBAR. BATTLE OP, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English undo* Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and Frent h. and put into the hands of the English, June 24. 1658, the last year of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,0007. t< Louis XIV.. in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for tifled ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. DUNSINANE, BATTLE OF. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who i was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. DURHAM, BATTLE OF, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. DYEING, ART OF. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in tke north,'' (of England) 1628. E. EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a spear; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 B. c. When Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, A. D. 802. The eagle was the im- perial standard of Napoleon ; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages the hia-hest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They had. anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute foi king. 358 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. EAK EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of Miletus about 640 B. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring &n arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 B. c. The Greeks taught the sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1676. The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. EARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient; nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans. 716 B. c. The art was revived and improved in Italy, A. D. 1310. Wedgewood's patent ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See China. Porcelain. EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, B. c. 435. Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. These principles at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with- out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted froni the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all that have occurred : One which made the peninsula of Eubaa an island - - B. c. 425 Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, swallowed up ... 373 One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and m< unted on a stately horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it occasion- ed (Livy) . . -358 Duras. in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants; and twelve cities in Campania also buried - - 345 Lysimaohia totally buried, with all its inhabitants .... 283 Awful one in Asia, which overturned twelve cities - - - A. D. 17 One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried 79 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a .id two in Galatia, overturned - -107 Antioch destroyed - A. D. 114 Nicpmedia, Csesarea, and Nicea in Bithynia, overturned - - 126 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and towns damaged. - 357 Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants buried in its ruins 356 One felt by nearly the whole world 543 At Constantinople : its edifices destroy- ed, and thousands perished - - 568 In Africa; many cities overturned 660 Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 500 cities were de- stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- ed all calculation - 742 In France, Germany, and Italy - 301 Constantinople overturned, and til Greece shaken - SU One felt throughout England - - 1081 One at Antioch ; many towns destroy- DICTIONARY OF DATES. EARTHQUAKES, continued. ed : among them, Marissum and Ma- mistria - - - A. D. 1114 Caiania in Sicily overturned, and 15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 One severely felt at Lincoln - -1142 At Calabria, when one of its cities and all its inhabitants were overwhelm- ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1 186 One again Celt throughout England - J274 At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit- ants perished .... 1456 One left in London : part of St. Paul's and the Temple churches fell 1580 In Japan, several cities made ruins, and thousands perished 1596 Awful one at Calabria - - 1638 One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in Pekin alone - 1(>62 One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- ed Port Royal, whose houses were ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 persons perished - - - 1692 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, and 300 villages. Of Caiania and its 18.000 inhabit- ants, not a trace remained; more than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 persons perished - - 1726 Again in China; and 100,000 people swallowed up at Pekin - - 1731 One in Hungary, which turned a mountain round - - - 1736 Lima and Callao demolished; 18,000 persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 One at Palermo, which swallowed up a convent : but the monks escaped 1740 In London, the inhabitants terrified by a slight shock . Feb. a, 1750 Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 1752 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 40,000 persons swallowed up 1754 Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes most of the nouses, and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, were swallowed up,and whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- turned. In Spain, a large pan of Malaga became ruins. One naif of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. Above half of the island of Madeira became waste; and 2,000 houses in the island of Meteline, in the Archipelago, were overthrown : this awful earthquake extended 5000 miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 One in Syria extended over 10,000 square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1751 One at Martinico, when 1600 persons lost their lives - - Aug. 1767 At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in- habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 EASTER So called in England from the Saxon goddess East re. The festival of Easter was instituted about A. D. 68 ; the day for the observance of it was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 597. It was orda : ned by the council A destructive one at Smyrna - A. D 1771 AtTauris: 15,000 houses thrown down, and multitudes buried - - 1780 One which overthrew Messina and a number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 40,000 persons perished - - 1783 Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening of the earth swallowed up many houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 1789 Another fatal one in Sicily 1791 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing forth its names overwhelmed the city of Torre del Greco - - -1794 In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 persons lost their lives 1794 The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama destroyed, including the cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of whose people were, in one second, hurled into eternity - - - 1790 One at Constantinople, which destroy- ed the royal palace and an immen- sity of buildings, and extended into Romania and Wallachia. - - 1800 A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 persons lost their lives - - 1805 At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 Awful one at Caraccas (which see) 1812 Several felt throughout India. The district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons were buried with it - - June 1819 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns ; great damage sustain- ed, and thousa'nds perished - -1819 One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1826 One in Spain, which devastated Mur- cia, and numerous villages; 6000 persons perished - March 21, 1829 In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks were experienced at Bor- gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many nouses were thrown down, and not a chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 In many cities of Southern Syria, by which hundreds of houses were thrown down, and thousands of the inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1837 At Martinique, by which nearly half of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island damaged - Jan. II, 1839 At Ternate : the island made a waste, almost every house destroyed, and thousands of the inhabitants lose their lives - - Feb. 14, 1810 Awful and -iestructive earthquake at Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts of Armenia 3137 houses were over- thrown, and several hundred persons perished - - July 2, 1840 Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840 360 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. EUL of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full m.on that occurs aftei the 21st of March. EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, A. D. 364, and ended in the, defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and laud, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst off he enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of thu conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, A. D. 1066. The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adi.ltery, probate of wills, administrations, &c. Blackstone. ECCLESIASTICAL STATE OR STATES OF THK CHURCH. See Rome. In A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the same year a conclave was permitted to be held atVeniee; and, in 1800, cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his temporal soverejgnty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogelici, and Philalethes. or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex- andria, about A. D. 1. Dry den. Also a sect, so called in the Christian church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of the doctrine of the Christian. ECLIPSES. The theo-y of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 B.C. Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19. 721 B. c. at 8' 40" P. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary eclipses of the sun and moon : OF THE SUN. That predicted by Thales; observed at Sardis (P/my, /6. ii.) - B.C. 585 One at Athens (Thucydides. lilt, iv.) - 424 Total one ; three days' supplication de- creed at Rome (Livy) 188 One (leneral at the death of Jesus Christ (.Josnphus) - A D. 33 One at Rome, causing a total darkness at noon-day (Liry) - 291 One observed at Constantinople 968 In France, when it was dark at noon- day (Du f/esnoy) - June 29, 1033 In England, where it occasioned a total darkness (Win Malmsb.) - - 114C Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning (Cnmdcn) June 23, 1191 The true sun, and the appearance of another, so that astronomers alone could distinguish the difference bj their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) u!* Again : total darkness ensued (idem) 1331 A total one ; the darkness so great that the stars shone, and ilie hinls went to roost at noon ( Olcf mVon's Annals of Geo, I.) . . April 2-5, 1711 DJ J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 36 I ECLIPSES, continued. Remarkable one, central and annular in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7 1820 OP THE MOON. The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon (Plolvmy, lib. iv.) - B. c. 721 Apain, in Asia Minor (.Polybius) 211 One at Rome, predicted by Q,. Sulpitius Callus (Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 188 One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their revolt (Tacitus) A. D. 14 A total one, observed at Sardis ( Thu- cydides,lib. vii.) ... 413 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun. and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B. c. EDEN GARDEN OF. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 27 N. iat., now swallowed up b*y the Persian Gulf, an event which may have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 B. c. The country of Eden extended into Armenia. Calmet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. Genesis ii. 8, 9. EDGEH1LL, BATTLE or, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. CDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by whfch Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to France 800000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain : others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. An- der xon's Orig. of English Commerce. EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served iu many instances as models for our magistracy. Pardjm. EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and flnesi cities of the empire. It derives its name in ancient records, Dun Edin, signifying the " hill of Edin" from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, A. D. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Ca nelon. king of the Picts. 330 B. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and befor* the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 16 362 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [EOT EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of Ii> struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New York, Oct. 20, 1830. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,0002. for national education, pro- posed in parliament by Lord John Kussell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the grant, July 11, 1839. E<} ALI'ffi. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of Louis XVI his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. Ho was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. i EfiYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 B. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; it was conquered by Cambyses 525 B. c. In A. D. 639, this country was wrest- ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius. by Omar, calif of the Saracens. Tht> famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, hi 1171. Selim I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys till 1799. when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, under Bonaparte. In 1801. the invaders were dispossessed by the British, and the government was restored to the Turks. See Turkey, for modern events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) B. c. 2188 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (Abb'. Lenglet, Blair) 2126 Attunes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 Busiris builds Thebes (.Usher) 2111 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits to be repre- sented in sculpture and painting (.Usher, Lenglet) -2100 The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt and hold it 260 ^ears ( Usher) 2080 The lake of Moeris constructed - 1938 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921 Syphoas introduces the use of the com- mon letters ( Usher) . . 1891 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters (Blair, Lenglet) . 1822 Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all Egypt {Lenglet) - - 1821 Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt as a slave (Lenglet) - - 1728 He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 His father and brethren settle here 1706 Sesostris reigns ; he extends hte do- minion by conquest over Arabia, Persia, luuia, anil Asia Minor (Lens- let)' 1618 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1616 Rarnpses, who imposed on his sub- jects the building of wajls and pyra- inii Is. ami other labors, dies ( Lenglet) 1492 Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the Keil Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, Bk:ir) 1492 Reign of Egyptus, from whom the country, hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt (Blair) B. c. 1486 Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks) who had the faculty of as- suming whatever form he pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, fire 1189 [These fictions were probably intend- ed to mark the profound policy of this king, who was eminent for his wisdom, by which his dominion flourished. Blair.] Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages Judea, and carries off" the sacred ves- sels of the Temple - -971 The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with Petubastes (Blair) 825 The 'dynasty of Suites (Blair) 781 Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roasted alive ( Usher) 737 Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 660 He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, the longest siege in the an- nals of antiquity ( Usher) 647 Necho begins the famous canal be- tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- terranean sea (Blair) 610 This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotua) 609 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries(C/sAer) - - - 581 Apries taken pnsom " am) strangled in nis palace (Diod. ^lieu/us) - - 571 The philosopher F/thagoraa comes from Santos intr Egypt, and is in- structed in the i. /steries of Egyp- tian theology ( Usher) SM * The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. Ai to the achiet ements of this monarch, '.hey are supposed to have been the labors of several king% tonbuied by tlu Egyptian priests to Sea>stris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. KLi. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 363 EGYPT, continued. The line of the Fharaohs end? n the murder of Psammenuus by Camby- ses (Blair) - B.C. Dread: a! excesses of Cambyses ; he put.-, the children of the grandees, male and It-male, lo death, and makes the com try a waste (Herodotus) He sends an army of 50.000 men across the desert to destroy the temple of Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish in the burning sands (Justin) Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again subdued by Xerxes (Blair) A revolt under Inarus (Blair) Successful revolt under Amyrtreus, who is proclaimed kins (Lenglet) Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its temples pillaged ( Usher) Alexander the Great enters Egypt, wrests it from the Persians, and builds Alexandria (Blair) Philadelphia completes the Pharos of Alexandria (Blair) The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- tament made about this time The famous library of Alexandria also d^tes about this period (Blair) Ambassadors first sent to Rome Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils, and 2500 statues and vessels ol gold and silver, which Cambyses had taken from the Egyptian temples (.Blair) .... Reign of Philometer and Physcon At the death of Philometer, his brother Physcon marries his queen, and on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son of Philometer in its moth- er's arms .... He repudiates his wife, and marries her daughter by his brother ( Blair) ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. Ru/kead's Statutes. Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following: act depriving excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their votes. 17S2. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. ELECTORS OP GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic body mad choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- peror. Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1618; and a ninth in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to eight, in 1777 ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. See Germany. ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 i. c. Electricity was imperfectly discovered A. D. 1467. It was found in various substances by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its power, of tonductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed tha "Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightninj 526 524 624 487 463 414 350 332 283 283 283 269 His subjects, wearied with his cruel- ties and crimes, demolish his stat- ues, set tire to his palace, and he Hies from their fury (Blair) m. o. He murders his son by his new queen ; also his son by her mother, sending the head and limbs of the latter as a present to the parent on a feast day Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he recovers liis throne ; and dies Pestilence from the putrelaction of vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- sons perish in Egypt - - Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famoui city of Thelxjs destroyed after a siege of three years (Diod. Siculus) Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa- mous Cleopatra (Blair) - - During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Alexandria is be- sieged by Ca?sar, and the famous library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) - - - Csesar defeats the king, who, in cross- ing the Nile, is drowned; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra reign - - - - - Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 years of age) and reigns alone She appears before Mark Antony, to answer for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty, he follows her into Egypt ..... Antony defeated by Octavius Ca?sar at the battle of Actium (Blair) Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves; and the kingdom becomes a Roman prov- ince - - - . 129 128 138 82 A 47 45 43 40 31 30 364 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ EM* was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au- rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1709. ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius). and discovered the mode of combining the metals ; constructed what is very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the whole science into a system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism. ELECTRO-M AGN ETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, .n 1807. This analogy was established in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, Germany, the United States and other countries ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, ^aving more or less bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by Winckler, at Leipsic, 1746; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery oi "Galvanism," at Bolonga, 1791. Prof. Volta's "Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 1801 ; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great advance made by Prof. Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832, patented 1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles. See Supplement. ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- tory of the Maccabees informs us, that " to every elephant they appointed 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood," (fee. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. Baker's C/iron, ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol- pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- dosius the Great, A. D. 389. ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived chieflr from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; they were purchased of him by the British government for 36,OOW., and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the lead. The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible. BMP J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 365' but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mummies, some of which, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to embalm his body. John xix. 38. EMBARGO IN ENGLAND, This power is invested in the crown, but it ia rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all -easels in the ports of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting. EMBER DAYS, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians; but we learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- larly excelled in this decorative species of needle- work. Of this art very early mention is made in the Scriptures. Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeuf, Tapestry. EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru; but there is a gen- uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American colonies West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales. Swan River, Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154 291. In tho decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were registered as born in Great Britai land Ireland -148,212 Germany 58,018 Denmark .... 210 Switzerland - - 319 Other countries or unknown 3,013 France - .... 7,749 Sweden and Norway . .903 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs!. This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter Fatima. about A. D. 650. Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers (another title being joined). EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode uf putting criminals tf 366 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, paiticularly by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. Southern. Wil- liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr faaiily, in Rat- clitfe Highway, London. Dec. 8. 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustnj Caesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 B. c. Valens was the first emperor of the Eastern empire, A. n. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of Germany, crowned by Leo III. A. D. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1826. EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy- pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of Agrigentum. about 473 B. c. ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his reign, about A. D. 887. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, A. D. 1749. ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedia Methoilique, to which Voltaire, Diderot. D'Alembert. and other savans contri- buted was published in Il82etseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- cyclopedia printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia,, edited by Sir David Brewster. was published, 1810 et scq., and republished in the United States. Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica. edited by Professor Napier, and published by A. &C. Black Edinburgh in 1840 etc.. was stated to have been 126,000 of which 23000 were pa '.d to the contributors. This was pro- bably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter- prise. The Encyclopedia Metrttpolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished writers in Great Britain. The German, Conversations Lcxium, published 1796-1830 and ujxm the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com- menced in Philadelphia in 1829-30. Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844. ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was called camp- master-general in 1634. Captain Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. Th corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has NO] .DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 colonel- in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at Washington. EXGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- land, in a general council held at Winchester, A. D. 829. This appellative had been used as far back as A. D. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons and land, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England and Wales were united A. D. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ENGLAND, NEW. See New England. ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of tho most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had been continued from the time of the Conqueror, A. D. 1362. The English tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the Latin disused, May 1731. ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United States during the last ten years. ENGRAVING ON COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their appearance about A. D. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about A. D. 1632. De Piles. ENGRAVING, LITHOGRAPHIC. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of London in 1817. ENGRAVING, MEZZOTINTO. The art was discovered by Siegen. and was im- proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further impuved it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non about 1662 ; he com- municated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of engraving. 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en- graving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, OM of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincography, fyc. ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, aftcf it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in- 368 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. '[ EFI definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, ti Philadelphia, in 1819. ENGRAVING ON WOOD, took its rise from the brief mahlers, or manufacture: s of playing-cards, about A. D. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood en- graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date A. D. 1423. ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, A. D. 1739. The London Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. Wicquefort. The court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, A. D. 1639. EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure wa? one of the seven wonders of the world; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to perpetuate his memory, 356 B. c. Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt A. D. 260. Univ. Hist. EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- trol the royal power, 760 B. o. They were five in number, and acting as censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the kings, and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities. EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See HOMER. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the founder of it, about 300 B. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with itself. His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about A. D. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example : " Videt et erubuit lympha puclica Deum." And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Di Doddridge, on the words Dum vivimus vivamus, is the finest specimen IB *ur language: " Live while we live !" the epicure will say, " Anil taste the pleasures of the present day." " Live while we live !" ihe hoary preacher cries, " And give to GOD each moment as it flies." Lord ! in my view let both united be, We live in pleasure when we live to thee. Doddridj* E1U J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369 EP1RUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early histor y is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign, who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- lenms) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 B. c. He was killed in the temple of Delphi, about 1165 B. c. Reign of the great Pyrrhus - B. c. 306 He enters into a league against Deme- trius ; the battle of Beraea - - 294 Expedition into Italy ; he gains his firs battle against the Romans ie gains another great battle - is conquest of Sicily is last battle with the Romans He takes Maeedon from Antigonus 2RO 279 273 Expedition against Sparta - t. u He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile thrown at him from a house-top by a woman Philip unites Epirus to Maeedon Its conquest by the Romans 273 27.!. *aa 167 274 I Annexed to the Ottoman empire A D. 1466 97d ! 274 EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It may be said to have been instituted A. D. 33. when Peter sat in the bishop's chair at Rome. Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bis)u>pt. In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 600 Burnet. EPISCOPAL CHURCH, IN THE UNITED STATES. Episcopacy established in New- York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- sylvania and Provost of New-York, consecrated in London. 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the epigram. Boileau. EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- rus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 B. c. Bossuet. EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow- ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- larly adopted. See Eras. Creation - - - - B. c 4001 Deluge .... 2348 Calling of Abraham 1921 Argonautic expedition - 1225 Destruction of Troy '*.' 1181 1st Olympiad ... 776 Building of Rome Nabonassar The Seleucidae The battle of Actium The Christian era Diocletian 753 747 312 38 1 281 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, A. D. 130. When the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year; once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; ntxt in the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. Blair. EQUITY. COURTS OF. To determine causes according to the rule of equity and conscience, rather than acccrding to strict law, A. D. 1067. See Gum- eery. ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order, a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser. after which 16* 370 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f ran the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb 26. 747. The era of the Seleucidae (used by the Maccabees) commenced 312 E. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. See Indictions. The Ro- mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 B. c. ; and afterwards from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- ples of Mahomet began their ffegira from the flight of their prophet from Mecca, which occurred A. D. 622. ERAS OF THE CREATION AND REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christian* have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefly used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of tte World, and the appearance of our REDEEMER, which last the Christians ha vo made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. Cassiodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, A. D. 525, and in Eng- land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in this work. See Crealwn, and Christian Era. ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; and the first expenditure of its erection was 6 000.000 of ducats. It forms a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according to the computation of Francisco de los Santos it would take up more than four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 11 000 windows belonging to this edifice. ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, or attendants on a knight. BbwnL In England the king created esquires by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a .pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the armiyerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, A. D. 1345. Stowe. Mciji-ick's Ancient Armor. ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- covered by Kunkel. in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however is disputed for about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson of Boston well known as a geologist and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery; but to Dr. Morton, of Boston probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating by actual experi- ment the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren Charming, and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- burgh, and Dr. Booth of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube &c. Etheri/ation was first used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The hubstance VE] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 calLd chloroform, originally discovered bj r Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. RTH1CS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and government: the Chinese, who are said "to have been acquainted with astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorm Siculus as happening 1693 B. c., and Tlmcydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring, 734. 477, and 425 B. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 B. c. Lii-y. Eruptions A. D. 40. 253, and 420. Carrera. One in 1012. Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15 OOC inhabitants perished in the burning ruins. 1169. Eruptions eaually awful and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444. 1536 1537, 1564 : and in 1669, -vhen tena of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766. 1787, 1809. 1811, and in May 1830. when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. EUCLID, ELF.MKNTS OP. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 300 B. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented by Thales, Pythagoras. Eudoxus. and others ; but Euclid was the first who reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynaeus, in A. D. 1533. EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 B. c. Leng- let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. BUST ATI A, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690; and again by the British forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3 1781. It was recovered by th* French under the marquis de Bouille", Nov. 26. same year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- stored in 1814. EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in A. D. 44 ; Luke in 65 ; and John in 97. In 95 John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of Patmos. and there, in the year 96 he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100, Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of the adopted Evangelists. EVESHAM, BATTLE OF, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and Simon de Montfort. earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated, and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. af one period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, " Do not 372 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [B kill me, soldier, I nm Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broke up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons; fought August 4, 1265*. EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 B. o. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in Jaii. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1 S44, EXCHANGE (MERCHANTS') IN NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, nlso of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting vif officers whose functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the ; barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Faucon bridge, bishop of Lon- don, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- ment from Jan. to May the 24th. Charles II. 1673. Stmce. The English ; and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia- ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an office opened in 1643. and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for. members of parliament in 1782 See Revenue. AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OP GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS. 1744 Great Britain - - JE3,7S4,072 1786 Ditto - - - 5,510,114 1808 Ditto . - 19,867,914 1820 Ditto - . - 26,364,702 1830 United Kingdom - .18,644,385 1834 Ditto . - 16,877,292 1837 Ditto - - - 14,518.142 1840 Ditto . . . 12,607,766 1845 Ditto - - 13.585,593 1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- fine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to e of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar punishments in aid of their respective religions. Phillips. EXCOMMUNICATION BY THE POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- cates by bell, book, and candle. See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab- solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, " his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II.'s reign ; and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208. when all England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin wera excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul- gences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her. EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight year/) DICTIONARY OF DATES. it Is shown that no less a number than 72.000 criminals were executed. Stoiee. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the numbef of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840 they had decreased to 62. Parl. Returns. EXECUTIOKS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS. In the year 1820 - 43 In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1835 - nil In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1830 - 6 In the year 1837 2 In the year 1838 - nil In the year 1839 In the year 1840 In the year 1841 - 1 In the year 1842 - i In the year 1843 1 EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief Flying Fish, and Sea GulJ smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads. Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At^ tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes (flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS OP THE UNITED STATES FROM 1791. fears. 1791 Imports. $52.58)0.000 Exports. $19,012,041 years. 1820 Imports. 74,450.000 - Exports. 69,691.669 1702 - 31,500,000 20,753,098 1821 62,585,724 64,974;3Si! 1793 31,100,000 26,109,572 1822 83,241,541 - 72,160.281 1794 - 34,600,000 33,026.233 1823 77.579.267 - 74,699,030 1795 - 69,756,268 - 47,989,472 1824 - 80,549,007 - 75,986,657 1796 - 81,436,164 67,064.097 1825 - 96.340,075 - 99,535,388 1797 - 75,379,406 - 56,850,206 1826 - 84,974,477 77,595,322 1793 - 68,551,700 61,527,097 1827 - 79,484,068 - 82,3;-4,827 1799 - 79,'8,148 78,665,522 1828 88.509,824 - 72,264,686' 1800 - 91,252,768 70,971,780 1829 74,492,527 - 72,358,671 1801 111,363,511 - 94.115,925 1830 . 70.876,920 73,849,508 1802 - 76.333,333 72,483,160 1831 - 103,191,134 - 81,310,583 1803 - 64,666,666 . 55,800,033 1832 - 101,029.266 - 87,176,943 1804 - 85,000,000 77,699,074 1833 - 108.118,311 90,140,433 1805 - 120,000,000 95,566,021 1834 - 126,521,332 - 104,aJ6,97:: 1806 . 129,000,000 301,536.963 1835 - 149,895,742 - 121,693.577 1807 - 138,500,000 - 108,343,150 1836 - 189,980,035 . 128,663,040 1808 56,990,000 22,439,900 1837 - 140,989,217 - 117,419,376. 1809 59,400,000 - 52.203,231 1838 - 108,486,616 - 113,717,404 1810 85,400,000 66,757,974 1839 - 121,028,416 . 162,092.132 1811 53,400,000 - 61,316,831 1840 - 131,571,950 104,805,891 18 L2 77,030,000 38,527,236 1841 - 127,946,177 - 121,851,803 1813 . 22,005,000 - 27,855,997 1842 - 100,162,087 - 104,691,534 1814 - 12,965,000 6,927,441 1843 - 64,753,799* - 84,346,480* 1815 - 113.041,274 52,557,753 1844 - 108,435,035t - 111,200 046t 1816 - 147,103,000 81,920,452 1845 - 117,254,564t - 114,646 ,606t 1817 . 99,250,000 87,67 U569 1846 - 121,691,797t - 1 13,488 5l6t 1818 - 121,750,000 93,281,133 1847 146.545,638t 158,64f,6221 1819 . 87,125,000 70,142,521 1848 - 154,977,876t - 154,032 .131* EXPORTS, GREAT BRITAIN. Edward III., by his encouragement of trade, turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,000.'., and the imported to only 38,OOOZ. VALUE OF EXPORTS PROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OP THB WORLD, VIZ: In 1700 - JE6,097,120 In 1820 - 51,733,113 In 1842 - 102,180,517 In 1750 In 1775 . 10,130,991 16,326,363 In 1830 In 1835 - 66,735,445 78.376,732 In 1843 In 1844 - 100,260,101 117,877,278 In 1800 38,120,120 In 1840 97,402,726 In 1845 131,564,503 In 1810 45,869,839 In 1841 . 102,705,372 In 1846 - 134,509,114 * Only nine months of 1843. t For the year ending June 30. 374 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ FAI* The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows : In 1311 -.116,479,678 I In 1843 - -JE1 13,844,259 I In 1845 - - jE145,961,749 In 1842 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 - - 100,879,986 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the United Kingdom was 85,281, 958Z; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65 598 028Z. But even this great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. Brit. Revenue Returns. EYLAU, BATTLE OF, between the French and Russians, one of the most bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. F. FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, B. c. 477. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful as any made since." Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. Sir William Jones. The well-known ^Esop's fables (which see), were written about 540 years B. c. Plutarch. FACTIONS. A.mong the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about A. D. 90 Both the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- cular color than the rest; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, between the blue and green, when 40.000 were killed on both sides, the name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in England by Alfred. A. D. 886. Spelman. They were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Feriee, at which the monks celebrated Ihs festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- mand for goods, wares &c. They were called wakes from the people making merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about A. D. 800 in the first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. FALKIRK, BATTLE OF, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots, commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40, 000 of the latter were slaih rSV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. FAMINES, AND SEASONS OF REMARKABLE SCARCITY, The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1708 B. c. Usher ; Blair. In a famine that raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 436 B. c. Liry. Awful famine in Egypt - A. D. 42 i voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, A; Rome, attended by plague - - 262 j and vermin - - - A.D. 1315 In Britain, so grievous that people ate i One in England and France (.Rapin) 1353 the hark of trees ... 272 ! Again, one so great, that bread waa In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306; made from fern roots (Sloice) 1438 In Eng\atid. where 40,000 perish 310 ' Awful one in France ( Voltaire) Awlul one in Phrygia - - - 370 One general in Great Britain go dreadful in Italy, that parents ate i One which devastates Bengal - their children (Dufresnoy) 4501 At the Cape de Verds, whrre 16,000 per In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 sons perish Again, when thousands starve - - 823 ( One grievously felt in France Again, which lasts four years - - 954 i One severely felt in England - Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 Again, throughout the kingdom In England and France ; this famine leads to a pestilential fever, which lasts from 1193 to - - -1195 Another famine in England - - 1251 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden flier cepting the supplies - Scarcity of food, severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 1693 1743 1771 1775 1789 1795 1801 1813 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients: Cape hoc flabellum ct ventulnm huic sic facito. TERENCE. The modern custom among the ladies was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England from France. Stmoe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in church. Pardon. FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called comedies. See article Drama. FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, to appease the anger of God, in the second century, A. D. 138. Retained aa a pious practice by the reformed churches. Eusebius. FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, 1490 B. c., but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- mon, 1005 B. c. Josep/ius. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be observed by all Christians. A. D. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- tled at the Reformation, ct seq., see Book of Common Prayer. FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa. a feast which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- viously but ten months, by Numa. 713 B. c. See Calendar, and Year. FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex- cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons,' about A. D. 600. The 376 THE AVORLD'S PROGRESS. [ r slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1008. This was done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XL in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 20 George II. 1746. Littleton; Ru/kead; Blackstone. FKUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791. FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M rocco States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than - seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth century. FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became checks to each other. Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, tl" at " NO FICTION OF LAW SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT. AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional maxim is now a rule of law. FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert I.. A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, before the invasion of the Moors, A. D. 710. Into England by the Saxons (see Feudal Laws). Into Scotland directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview (an open plain) the name of The field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the interview, are at Windsor Castle. Butler. FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at hand, when JESUS should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect JEP us CHRIST king at London ! Cromwell dispersed them, 1663. FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia about A. D. 900. They were first known in England about the year 1253 previously to which time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi or worshippers of Fire, since known by the appellation of Gnebres. still numerous in the coun- tries of the East. 2115 B.C. Justin; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and FIR] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 taught this theory about 506 B. c. Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire as to Moses in the burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, A. D. 1378; they were brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- land in 1489. when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the earl of Kildare, who was then chief governor. Muskets were first used at the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier with these weapons. Uttoa. Voltaire states, that the Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against tho Genoese, in 1377; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See Artillery. FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although the forcing pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about the year 1663 ; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Efflngham. after- wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. Rapin. f'IRE- WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages : they were invented in Europe at Florence, about A.D. 1360; and were first exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 1000 persons perished on this occasion. June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by fire-works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Ballonn. PJRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. In New York, destroying 600 warehou- ses and r roperty to amount of $20,- 000,000 - - - Dec. 16. 1835 At Washington, destroying the General Post Oflice and Patent Office, with 10,000 valuable models, drawings, &c. Dec. 15, 1836 New York, destroying 302 stores and dwelling-houses, and property worth $6.000,0004 lives lost - July 19, 1845 St. John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the whole town destroyed 6,000 people made houseless - - June 12, 1846 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and burned to death - - June 14, 1840 1, 158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1833 Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued New York ; 46 buildings ; loss. $10,- 800,000 . - - July 13, 1S46 000.000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, Philadelplua ; 52 buildings ; loss, $500.000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and property valued about $6.000,000 April 10, 1845 Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt, immense loss of property, and se- veial lives. May 28, 1845. Another, burmnp 1.300 dwellings; in all, two- thi-dsofthe city - June 28, 1845 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 At Albany ; GOO buildings, besides steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over, loss, $3.000,000 - Aug. 17. .849 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, $750,000 - - Sept. 9, 1848 At St Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 blocks of houses destroyed, loss about $3.000.000 - - May 17, 1849 At Philadelphia, 300 houses July *, 1860 378 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [po FIRE OF LONDON, THE GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four days eighty- nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House Guildhall Sion College, and many other public buildings, besides 13 200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2. 1666, and continued three days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of houses. Hume; Rapin; Carte. FI RST FRUITS. Primitive among the Hebrews. They were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits were instituted by pope Clement V., in A. D. 1306; and were collected in England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the first fi uits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- sors. Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes ol the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Viet., April 1838. FLAGELLANTS, SECT OF. They established themselves at Perouse, A. D. 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- lation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad Schmidt, was burnt. 1414. FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgae ; conquered by Julius Caesar, 47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, A. n. 412. It was governed by its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725. by the treaty of Vienna, it was annexed to the German empire. Priestley, Flanders was overrun by the French in 1792 and 1794. and was declared part of their Republic. It was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. See Belgium. FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in A. D. 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. See article Hemp. FLODDEN FIELD, BATTLE OF, between the English and Scots. James IV. ol Scotland having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy; and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10 000 of his army were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513. FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla. and en- larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- built by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- aces university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be fourd the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad- emy, and the Accatlemia detta Crnsca. were instituted to enrich the literature and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799; and was restored in 1814. FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot sailing under the English flag, in 1 197. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven- FLO] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 379 turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539. Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro. overran the penin- sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut oft" a few years after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange foi Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and coded it to the United States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them.' Another protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 1842. General Jessup general Taylor, and others were engaged in it. The Seminole chief Osceola. was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723; in 1S40, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A floren was issued by Ed- ward III. which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337. Cam~ den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. As/te. The florin ; f Germany is in value 2s. 4d. that of Spain 4s. 4%d. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland 2s.Aylife. FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of our gardens were conveyed by that channel. Beckmann. With what good- ness does GOD provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even the most remote countries contribute towards them ! Sturm. From the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers the periods of whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the following : FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. Acacia, N. America, before - A. D. Allspice shrub, Carolina - - Anmseed tree, Florida, about - Arbor Vitse, Canada, before Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope Auricula, Switzerland Azarole, S. Europe, before Bay, royal, Madeira Bay, sweet. Italy, before Camellia, China - - Chaste tree, Sicily, before Christ's thorn. Africa, before Canary bell-flower, Canaries Carnation. Flanders - Ceanothus, blue, New Spain Canary convolvulus. Canaries Convolvulus, many-flowered Coral tree, Cape - . Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape Coral tree, tremulous, Cape Creeper, Virginian, N. America Dahlia, China - . Dryandra, New Holland Evergreen thorn, Italy Everlasting, great- flowered. Cape Everlasting, giant, Cape Fernbush, sweet, N. America Fox-glove, Canaries - . - Geranium. Flnnders Gillyflower. Flanders - Gold plant, Japan 1783 1640 Golden bell-flower, Madeira 1777 172 Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer 17b6 ica. before ... 1683 1596 Heath, ardent, Cape 1800 1774 Heath, beautiful, Cape 1795 1567 Heath, fragrant, Cape 1803 1640 Heath, garland, Cape 1774 1665 Heath, perfumed, Cape 1803 1548 1811 Honeynower, great, Cape - Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 1683 1806 1570 Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 1752 1596 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America 1656 1696 Hyssop, south of Europe, before - 1548 1567 Jasmine, Circassia, before 1548 1818 Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - 1629 1690 Judas-tree, south of Europe, before 1596 1779 Laburnum, Hungary 1576 1816 Laurel. Alexandrian, Portugal, before 1713 1791 Laurestine, south of Europe, before 1596 1789 Lavender, south of Europe, before 1568 1603 Lily, Italy, before 1460 1803 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 1803 Lily, red-colored, South America - 1623 1629 Loblolly-bay, N. America, before 1739 1781 Lupine tree, Cape, about - 1793 1793 Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America 1688 1714 Magnolia, dwarf, China 1786 1698 1534 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America Maiden hair. Japan - 1734 1567 Mignionelte, Italy 1528 380 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [FOB FLOWERS, continued. Milk-won, great-flowered, Cape - 1713 Milk-wort, showy. Cape 1814 Mountain tea, N. America, before - 1758 Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 My i tie, candleberry, N. America - 1699 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before 1596 Olive, Cape, Cape - 1730 Olive, sweet-scented, China - 1771 Oleander, red, south of Europe 1596 Paraguay tea, Carolina, before 1724 Passion-flower, Brazil - 1692 Passion-flower, orange, Carolina 1792 Pigeon-berry, N. America - 1736 Pink, from Italy - - - 1567 Ranunculus, Alps - - 1528 Roses, Netherlands ... 1522 Rose, the China, China - 1789 Rose, the damask, Marseilles, an south of Europe, about 1543 Rose, the Japan, China - - 1793 Rose, the moss, before - 1724 Rose, the musk, Italy - 1522 Rose, the Provence, Flanders 1567 Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China 1821 Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon - 1621 Rose without thorns, N. America, be- fore - - - 1726 Rosemary, south of Europe 1548 St. Peter's wort, North America - 1730 Sage, African, Cape - - 1731 Sage, Mexican, Mexico 1724 Sassafras tree, N. America, befort 1663 Savin, south of Europe, before - 1584 Snowdrop, Carolina - - 1756 Sorrel tree, N. America, before - 1752 Sweet bay, south of Europe, before 1548 Tamarisk plant, Germany 1560 Tea tree, China, about - - 1768 Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - 1739 Trumpet-flower, N. America - 1640 Trumpet-flower, Cape 1823 Tulip, Vienna - - 1578 Virginia creeper, N. America, befor 1629 Virgin's-bower, Japan - - 1776 Weeping willow, Levant, before - 1692 Wax tree, China - - 1794 , Winter berry, Virginia 1736 Youlan, China ... 1789 FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. Plutarch. The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ; and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru- ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co- relli came over. See Music. FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib- nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. FLYING. ARTIFICIAL. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main- tained the possibility of the art and predicted it would be of general prac- tice, .A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away pre- viously to the accomplishment of these predictions. FONTAINEBLEAU, PEACE OP, concluded between France and Denmark in 1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na- poleon and the royal family of Spain. Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon- tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon- tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, April 6, 1814. FONTENOY. BATTLE OF, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe, and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians. commanded by the duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12 000 men, and the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the day would be their own; April 30, 1745. FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off in a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early W)U J DICTI3NARY OF DATES. 381 ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia- tion into Christianity were instituted in A. D. 167. POOLS, FESTIVALS or, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of absurdities and indecencies were committed, A. D. 1198. Fools or licensed jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu- roj.0), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many a? 38 forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- shire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, A. D. 1079-85. Stmce. FORGERY IN ENGLAND. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 1634. FORGERY", REMARKABLE EXECUTIONS FOR. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn. Jan- uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4 200/. : the greatest interest was made, and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came before the council, the minister of the day said to George III., " if your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- son's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner ol using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate the Italian fashion since I came home to England," A. D. 1608. FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. FO THER1NGAY CASTLE. Northamptonshire. Built A. D. 1408. Here Richard III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8. 1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng- land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England. FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Even in ancient times the state made provision for the preservation of exposed children ; but foundling hospitals are a modern institution. That of Paris was established in 1640, and up to 1807 had received 464,628 children. In France, the number of foundlings in 1784, was 40,000 in 1798, over 51,000 ; in 1822, 138,500. The increase in Europe during the last fifty years has been very great. In England these hospitals are of comparatively recent date. Catherine H. built tostly one near Moscow, where 8000 infants were succored. 382 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [TRA FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul, in the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Ger- many, then inhabiting what is still called Francouia. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution, France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided, lirst into 84. and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Views, 65 et seq. The Franks, under their leader Phara- niorul, ssttle in lhal part of Gaul till late calli d Flanders - - A. D. 420 Reign ol Clovis the Great - - 481 [The Events in I- rench History and the succession of sovereigns will be found in the Tabular Views in this volume, commencing p. 65.] 72(1. CLilcleric II. 737. Charles Mattel ruled with despotic sway during an interregnum. 742. Childeric III., the Stupid ; turned monk. THE CARLO VINGIANS, Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- tel ; this race called Carlo vingians. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great; also emperor of Germany. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, the Debonn'iire ; dethroned, and im- 752. 768. S14. 877. 879. 887. 898. 923. 936 954. 986. 987. 996. 1031. 1060. 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314. 1316. 1316. 1323. risoned in a monastery. irl irles 11., surnamed the Bald; poi- soned by his physician Henault. Louis the Stammerer. Carloman and Louis III. The latter died, 832. Carloman reigned alone. Charles the Fat ; an usurper. Eudes er Hugh. Chanes III., the Simple ; -leposed and died in prison. Rudolph. Louis IV., d'Outremer ; died by a fall from his horse. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said b> his wife Emma. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by his wife Blanche, and in him ended the <"ice of Charlemagne. THE CAPETS. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of kings are called Capevingians. Robert the Sage. Henry I. Philip I., the Fair. Louis VI., the Lusty Louis VII., the Young. Philip II , Augustus. Louis VIII., the Lion. Louis IX., called St. Louis ; died in his camp before Tunis ; canonized. Philip III., the Hardy. Philip IV., the Handsome. Ixiuis X., Ilium. John, who reigned only eight days. Philip V., the'Lonsr. Charles IV., the Handsome ; king of Navarre. HOUSE OV VALOI 1323. Philip de Valois. 1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savoy in London. 1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise; thl first prince who had the title of dau- phin. (See article Dauphin.) 1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. 1422. Charles VII., the Viet xioug. 1461. Louis XL, detested for his atrocious cruelties. 14a3. Charles VIII., the Affable. 1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed the Father of his People. 1515. Francis I. 1547. Henry II. : died of a wound received at a tournament. 1559. Francis 11. ; married Mary Stuart. afterwards queen of Scots ; died the year after his accession. 1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, hia mother, obtained the regency, which trust she abused. 1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland ; murdered Aug. 1, 1589, by Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar. In this prince was extinguished the houso of Valois. 1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran- cis Ravillac. (See Jtavillac.) 1610. Louis XIII., the Just. 1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled Dieu-Donne. 1715. Louis XV'., the Well-Beloved; bu". which surname he lost. 1774 Louis XVI.. his grandson ; guillo- tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. 1789. The Revolution commences with the destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. FRENCH EMPIRE. 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe- ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes the iron crown, May 26, 1805. Re- nounces the thrones of France and Italy, Apr. 5. 1814. BOURBONS RESTORED. 1814. Louis XVIII. ; ascends the thron* May 3, 1814 ; dies. Sept. 16. 1824. 1824. Charles X. ; deposed, July 30, 1830; retires to Rambouillet same dajr, and subsequently seeks protection in England. HOUSE OF ORLEANS. 1830. Louis-Philippe; u'urlartt! "king of the French," August OL DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and an- ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure In Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for coun- ties on persons having 40s. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. Ruff head'* Statutes. See Electors. FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in A. D. 1209, or, according to some authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, A. E 1536-38. FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar- anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806. FREDERIC KSH ALL, SIKGE OF. Rendered memorable bv the death of Charles XIL, of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer- book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a pis- tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele- brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North." FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and httrmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build- ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec- tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been fixed at the year A. D. 674 ; although by other authorities it is assigned ^ much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded A. D. 926. Free- masonry was interdicted in England, A. D. 1424; but it afterwards rose into great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema- sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738. FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng- land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of Edward III., 1362Stowe. FRENCHTOWN, CANADA. This town was taken from the British by the American general. Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri- can commander and his troops were made prisoners. FRENCH WAR. in North America. The first war between Franco and Eng- land, which was carried on also by the American colonies; 1689 The French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco. Me.. &c., 1690 ; but were d ifeated by Schuyler at La Prairie. 1691. Peace of Ryswyck. 1697. "Queen Anne's war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine 1703. French and Spanish invade Carolina. 1706. Expedition from New Eng.and against the French in Part Royal, 1707 ; and against Canada 1710 ; both failed. Peace of Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England, 1744; Louisbourg' and Cape Breton taken bj English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French en- 384 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. (^ FRC croachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3 Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &e. taken by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the Eng- lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes. 1758. Ticon- deroga. Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763. French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week; so called from Friga. a goddess wor- shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory oi our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday. FRIEDLAND, BATTLE OF. between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com- pletely vanquished the allies, with- the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 60,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by which Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nea-ly half hei dominions. FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman, .,. D. 1642. Visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by capt. Cook, who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi- tion of the natives, 1773. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, ENGLAND. These useful institutions originated in the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See ClmrUies. FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia; Han- over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol- land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Prise (some- times, though rarely, written Cheval de Prise, a Friesland Horse} is derived from Friesland, where it was invented. P ROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng- lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up 1 o a third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. FROSTS The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, A. D. 401. Univ. Hist. A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred miles from the shore. Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035. Speed. The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable rUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 385 year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the effectg of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year more than 400,000 men. FRUITS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned as having been introduced into Italy, 70 B. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., and of Mary and Elizabeth, between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Flowers. Among others of less note, were musk-melons plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun- dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips. &c. ; also saffron, woad, and other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with- out success. Hacklmjt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits whose introduction into England has been traced : FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame Almond-tree, Barbary - - A. D. 1548 rica, before - - - A..D Apples, Syria - - - -1522 Mulberry, the paper, from. h pan, before 1754 Apple, the custard, North America - 1736 Nectarine, Persia - Apple, the Osage, ditto - - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - Apricots, Epirus - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China Cnerry-trees, Pontus ... JOO Oranges Cornelian cherry, Austria 1596 Peaches, Persia ... Currants, Zante .... 1533 Pears, from various climes Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils Fig-tree, south of Europe, before 1548 Pippins, Netherlands Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 Plum, the date, Barbary Grapes, Portugal ... 1528 Pomegranate, Spain, before Lemons. Spain - - - 1554 Quince, Austria Limes, Portugal .... 1554 Quince, the Japan Lime, the American, before - - 175 Raspberry, the flowering, N. America Melons, before .... 1540 Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before Mock orange, south of Europe, before- 1596 , Strawberry, Flanders 1629 1562 1730 1771 1595 1562 1568 1525 1522 1596 1548 1573 1796 1700 1696 Mulberry, Italy - - 1520 Strawberry! the Oriental Levant 1724 M ilberry. white, China, about - - 15% Walnut, the black, N. America, before 1629 FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in A. D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues (the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689. Mif- timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of the Bank of England. Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea- ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- house. 1751. Three and a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui- ties 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1762. Five per cent, annuities. 1797, and 1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks they were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions and tne mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 47. Funeral orations have a hea- then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 B. c. They were in- dispensable among the Romans ; the custom of led horses took place A. D 1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain- ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus 353 B. u. Po- pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral 17 386 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ on which was done by her son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Juliua Caesar did the like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo- tus, 580 B. c. FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux- ury advanced, they were used by princes as linings for their tents. They were worn by our first Henry, about A. D. 1125. Edward III. enacted that all such persons as could not spend 100Z. a year, should be prohibited thii species of finery, 1337. G. GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were invented by the Corinthians, 786 B. c. Blair. They were built at Athens, 786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting in them, see Pulybius. GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent ; it was first noticed in 1767, by Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani. wife of Dr. Galvani of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvani having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon : and in 1791. Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject. Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu- rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among philosophers. See Electro-Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles of galvanic electricity by Volta. presented him with a gold medal, and 3000 livres. in 1808. Phillips. See Mesmerism. GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the north of Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters : and they protested against ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume- rous" statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time GAMING, EXCESSIVE. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. Camden; Stowe. Act. prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time), 33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and the games of Faro. Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739. Ruff/ieads Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaming house in London for one season have been estimated at 150 OCKM. In one night a million of mouey is said to have changed hands at this place. Leigh. (JAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under Iheir 'espectiv heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted ou new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The game.s were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See the Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular, and other Games. GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art ol building houses. Walpolc. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine. Of fruit, flower, and kitcho i gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt, SAR I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 387 the prototype. Idem. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a par- terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for n description of one in that of our William III. Idem. The art of gardening became better understood in England about A. D 1500, before which time many of our vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about 1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : ROOTS AND VEGETABLES. Carrots Brocoli Flanders Cyprus Plums Oranges Damaseut Spain Rice, from Ethiopia Beans - Greece Lemons Spain Buckwheat Asia Peas - Spain Pink Italy Borage Syria Provence-rose Marsc illM Cresses Crete FRUITS AND FLOWERS Convolvulus Canaries Cauliflower Cyprus ' Arctopus Cape Asparagus - Asia Jasmine Circassia Bell-Power Canaries Lettuce - Brabant Elder-tree Persia Cherr.^s Pontus Artichokes - Holland Tulip - Cappadocia Figs Italy Garlic The East Daffodil Italy Date-plum Barbary Shallots Siberia Lily - Syria Mulberry - Italy Horse-radish China Tuberose - Java, &c. Nectarine Persia Kulney-btins East Indies Carnation Italy, &c. Passion-flower Brazil Gourds - Astracan Ranunculus Alps Pomegranate Spain Lentils France Apples Syria Rosemary Italy Chervil . Italy Apricots Epirus Laburnum - Hungary Celery - Flanders Currants Zante Laurel Levant " Potatoes Brazil Damask-rose Damascus Lavender Italy Tobacco America Hops - Artois Peaches Persia Cabbage - Holland Gooseberries Flanders Quince Austria Anise - Egypt Gilly-flowers Toulouse Weep. Willow Levant Parsley Egypt Musk-rose Damascus Fennel - - - Canaries Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c. were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask- rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal. of Plumstead, in Sussex 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng- land in 1533. brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by archbishop Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers, carnations, the Provence rose, &c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots from Vienna. 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 1600. See Flowers; Frutts. G ARTER, ORDKR OF THE. This institution outvies all other similar institu- tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of his mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour- naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor , it was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia- meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were entertained at the king's own expense of 100^. a week. In 1346, Edward gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with suc- cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner; and Edward the Black Prince 388 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [GEH his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so- vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order, A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in- scription in old French " Honi soit gui mal y pense " evil to him who evil thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled Equites aurece Periscelidis. knights of the golden garter. Beatson. GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton, in 1739. Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi- nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis- play of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge- nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex- tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) first lighted with gas, 1823-4. GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because una gazetta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. Trusler. A gazette was printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in 1715. Nouv. Diet. Hist. GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub- lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary arc used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter was forged with a view of affecting the funds, May 22, 1787. The fraud succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. Phillips. The Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis- sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision is final. See Church of Scotland. GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the title of General of the French armies, A. D. 1203. Henaidt. It is observed by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo^ upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, hi 1629. GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about A. D. 800. The Repub- lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire- land for permission to settle in that country : the Irish parliament voted 60 OOO/. to defray the expenses of their journey, and t > purchase then? lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came tr OEO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it : at this period many Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge- neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro- mans. 115s. c., and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1715. Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con- querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without effect. Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren- dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The T.igurian Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25, 1805. It surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18, 1814 ; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849. GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap- plied to them the terms ecuyers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gen- tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended, about A. D. 1430. Sidney. GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth, surrounded by the sea. Iliad. He accurately describes the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, about 568 B. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati- cal bases, about 135 B. c. It was first brought to Europe by the 'Moors of Barbary and Spain, about A. D. 1201. Lenglet. The invention of the mari- ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, A. D. 1489. GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds, created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand yoars 390 IHE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ GE* upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to the same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worl ds, not spoken of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not, by arguments drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teemiDg with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been called into being. Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blomfield. GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inucdations of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 B. c. The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 B c. The conchoid curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 B. c. The science of geometry was taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. Stowe. GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, which, see. GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle- thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82 : 584 ; in 1840, 691,392, including 280.944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist ; but that instead thereof, a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar- rangement was adopted in 1815. by the allied sovereigns ; and Germany is now governed by a diet, consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman historians about 211 B. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent states until 25 B. c., when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans to subdue them, although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about A. D. 290. In 432, the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive country; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, became master of the whole, A. D. 802. Charlemagne crowned emperor of the I Charles III. was the first sovc reign who West at Rome - - A. D. 800 He adds a second head to the eagle, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany are united in him - 802 Ix>ui3 (De.uonnaire) separates Germany from Franca - -814 added " in the year of oui Lord" U his reign .... 871 The German princes assert their inde- pendence, and Conrad reigns - 9iS [The electoral character assumed about this lime. See ieclurt.\ 913 ttER J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 391 GERMANY, continued. Reign of Henry 1. (king) surnamed the Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919 Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned emperor by the pope 962 Henry III. ronquers Bohemia, wasting it with fire and sword - 1042 Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders through Germany, where they mas- sacre the Jews ... 1095 Henry IV. excommunicated by pope Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1106 Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- vestitures, with the pope - 1122 The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin 1140 Conrad 111. leads a large army to the holy wars, where it is destroyed by the treachery of the Greeks - - 1147 Teutonic order of knighthood - - 1190 Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, chosen by the electors - - 1273 The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. - - - 1356 Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who are burned alive (see Bohemia) - - - 1414 Sisismond being driven from the throne, Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. (In his family the crown resides for three centuries) - - - 1438 The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 1439 The empire divided into circles 1512 Era of the Reformation (Luther) 1517 Abdication of Charles V. - - 1556 War of the two parties, the Evangelic union under Frederick, elector pala- tine, and the Catholic league, under the duke of Bavaria - -1618 Battle of Prague, which lost the elector palatine the crown - - - 1620 Treaty of Westphalia - -1648 John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats the Turks in many battles, and obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna 1683 The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699 The Pragmatic sanction (which see) 1722 The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- pied with wars against the Turks, and in establishing the Pragmatic sanc- tion, in favor of the succession of his daughter, Maria Theresa, married to the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 1742 Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of Austria, the celebrated Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; ana is elected emperor - - 1745 Joseph II. extends his dom.nicns by the dismemberment of Poland - -1772 Again, by the final partition of that de- voted kingdom - - - 1795 [In the ruinous wars between Germany and France, the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his territories west of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 1793, et seq.] Francis I. assumes the title of empe- ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1804 Dissolution of the German empire ; for- mation of the Confederation of the Rhine - - - July 12, 180! General agitation among the people, and demands for reforin granted in various degrees by sovereigns of Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those of the smaller principalities of Ger- many - - Feb. and March, 1848 A federal union of the German States demanded by Prussia March, 1848 Congress of deputies at Frankfort Mil- ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1843 German Parliament meets at Frank- fort - - - May 18. 1810 The archduke, John of Austria, elected by the parliament as lord-lieutenant of the Empire - - June 29, 1848 He is installed at Frankfort, and names his ministers - - July 15, 1848 Great excitement in Germany on ac- count of the execution iit Vienna of Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, for aiding the insurrection Nov. C 1848 A. D. EMPERORS C P GE J4ANY. 800. Charlemagne the Great. 814. Louis the Debonnaire. 840. Lothaire. 855. Louis II. 875. Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. 878. Louis III., the Stammerer. 879. Charles HI., the Gross. 887. Arnould. 899. Louis IV. 912. Otho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the dignity on account of his age. 912. Conrad, duke of Franconia. 919. Henry I., the Fowler. 936. Otho I., the Great. 973. Otho II., the Bloody. 983. Otho III., the Red ; poisoned. 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria; the Holy and Lame. 1024. Conrad II., the Salique. 1039. Henry III., the Black. 1055. Henry IV. ; deposed. 1077. Rodolphus ; killed in battle. 1080. Henry IV. ; re-instated. 1105. Henry V. 1125. Lothaire II. 1138. Conrad III. 1152. Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned in Bo- hemia. 1191. Henry VI., the Sharp. 1198. Philip ; killed at Bamberg. 1208. Otho IV; deposed. 1211. Frederic II. ; deposed. 1245. Henry VII ; killed. 1246. William ; killed in battle. 1273. Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, tft first of the Austrian family. 1291. Adolphus; deposed. 1298. Albert I. ; killed by his nephew. 1308. Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest, IB the consecrated wafer. 1314. Louis IV., cf Bavaria; killed by a fall from his 1 jrse. 1347. Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 1378 Wenceslaus. king of Bohemia. 1399 Frederick. Duke of Brunswick. 1400. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. 1410. Sigismond. king of Hungary. 1437. Albert II., duke of iustna and kiaj of Bohemia. 1440. Frederick III., archduke of Austria. 392 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Gift GERMANY, continued. 1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress of Burgundy. 1519. Charles V., king of Spain. 1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 1564. Maximilian II. 1576. Rodolphus II. 1612. Matthias I. 1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary. J637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 1658. Leopold I., ditto 1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. 1711. Charles VI. 1742. Charles VII. 1745. Francis I. ; husband of Maria There** queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 1765. Joseph II. 1790. Leopold II. 1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em peror of Austria only, in 1806. 1806. Confederation of the Rhine (which tee). 1815. Germanic Confederation. 1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria. (See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning p. 76 ; see. also, Austria, Bavaria. Prussia, Wurlemburg. &c.) There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Ma.ne (one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck. which was the head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- ward III. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of Marlborough in A. D. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con- tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. Zuinglius. : 'The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara. who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. He was nine feet nine inches high." Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- es long ; he died in September 1806 in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Gibel- Tarik, Mountain of Tarik, whence its present name) in A. D. 712. In the year 1462 the king of Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors; and the English, under sir George Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake. and admiral Byng. bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since continued an appendage to the British crown. Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 21st July, and taken on the 24th. A. D. 1704 Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- ous English but 400 - Oct. 11-, 1704 The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the loss of the English is only 300 I7!B Memorable siege of the Spaniards and French, whose prodigious arma- ments" (the greatest ever brought against a fortress) were wholly over- thrown. The siege continued from July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 * The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12.000 of the best tnopi of France. 1UOO pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, *her SLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 393 QTLDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 B. c. The capitol was the first building on which this enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. Trusler. A single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. Dr. Hcdley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole am/ma- niac was first introduced by Margaritorie. in 1273. The art of gilding on wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. G1SORS, BATTLE OF, in France, between the armies of France and England, iu which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the day was " Dieuet man droit" "God and my right;" and from this time it was made the motto to the royal arms of England. A. D. 1198. GLADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans. 263 B. c., probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 B. c. When Pacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- tion of his triumph for 123 days. A. D. 103. Their combats on public thea- tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, A. D. 325. Fi- nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. Lenglet. GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in A. D. 1180. Its charter was obtained from James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest commerce was in salmon, about 1420. GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. Glass- houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of Tiberius; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were formed of glass before A. D. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. Anderson. The manufacture was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557. St-owe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- ted, 1845. GLASS, PAINTING ON. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about A. D. 1500. It is said the art existed in England towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530. 6I.ENCOE. MASSACRE OF. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain ; and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carryin? 212 guns; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town . and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were ex- pended hy the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red hot balls, and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general Elliot. Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy' 3 loss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,GOO,OOOt sterling B it their srand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred Sept. 13, 1732. 17* 394 THE ^WORLD'S PROGRESS. f GOB in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principa. circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an- tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and evening star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres the sphere ol the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of tire, the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the stars, about 506 B. c. Aristarchus, of Samos. main- tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun; which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 B. c. The first voyage round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- lan's squadron. 1520-4.' The first English navigator who performed the same enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. See Circumnavigation, and Earth. GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from the Caesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of Rome, and was called doxology because it began with 8<5{o, glory, A. D. 382. GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in- famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con- sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which they differed among themselves as much as they did from others. GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc- tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by the celebrated Le Brun. by appointment of the king, A. D. 1666. Du Fret- twy. GODFATHERS AND GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir- cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander; according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about A. D QUO I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395 130. In Catholic countries they haro godfathers and godmothers in the baptism of their bells. UOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty-four carats ; that used in our coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which Lst gold was dis- covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex- clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- fernia, April 1848. GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as stated in the Mining Journal : Gold. Silver. Mexico 6,436,453 - JE139,818,032 Chili 2,768,488 - 1,822,92* Buenos Ayrea 4,024,895 - 27,182,673 Russia 3,703,743 - 1,502,981 17,003,579 _ 170,326,610 The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3$ times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, $4,"377.50Q. Those of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6, Indian Archipelago, 4|, Africa 14. See Coin. GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- cover his treasures, which the perfidious ^Eetes, king of Colchis, had seized, after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the re- covery of the golden fleece, 1263 B. c. JOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, about 432 B. c. Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar cycle, add one to the date and divide "by nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number. GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on Friday, April 3, A. D. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Fri* 396 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [oov day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en- joined on this day. GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora- cle, 330 v. c. GORDON S " NO POPERY " MOB : occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon. It consisted of 40.000 persons who assembled in St. George's Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging,, burning, and pulling down the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overct rning the civil power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 6th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. Annual Register. GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel A. D. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 485. Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, and banished to the isle of Patmos. Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of Christ. Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, A. D. 1377. Bishop Burnet. GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian. Pontus. Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire A. r> 251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, A. D. 269. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric. became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till A. D. 653, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. GOVERNMENT, COST OP, IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. In an elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, viz. ; CUtAi J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 397 in the United States : aggregate of national expenditure, for each in habitant ... 80 97 Aggregate of State expenditure, fo each inhabitant - - 50 Aggregate of town or city expendi ture, for each inhabitant - 92 Total cost of Government in the United States, per head - - $2 39 or 847,800,000 if the population is loch, the average is equal, per head, to - - - 1233 In France, according to Chevalier, in 1833, the cost was about 1,250 millions of francs, or 40 francs per head say - - - $7 M Thus, France pays about three times, and Great Britain five times as much for Government as the United States. (See Adminiatra- 20 millions. I lions of the United States.) In England, according to Maccul- GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Crocks as the altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that Account. They would not partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods ; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat in all Christian countries from the earliest times. Lenglet. GRAMMARIANS, OR CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 B. c. Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- cero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, ^Elius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenaeus. and other distinguished men, were of this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- cover one error." GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. Stowe. GRANICUS, BATTLE OF, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20.000 horse. Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 B. c. Bossuet. GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about A. D. 1200. See Chimneys. GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about A. D. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about A. D. 1615; and Hook pub- lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at Florence, about 1633 ; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, about 1687. URjECIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies 398 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ORB but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say tlat it extended to the southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Graecia compre- hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. Lempriere. GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient king named Grsecus ; and another king named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls the inhabitants, indifferently. Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 el seq. Sicyon founded (Eusebius) B. c. 2089 Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) 2042 Revolt of the Titans War of the Giants - - - * Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius) 1856 Reign of Ogyges in Boeotia (idem) - 1796 Sacrifices to ihe gods first introduced in Greece by Phoroneus - - - 1773 According to some authors, Sicyon was now begun (Lenglet) - - 1773 Deluge of Ogyges (which see) 1764 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under CEnotrus : the country first called (Enortria, afterwards Magna Grchcia (Eitsebius) 1710 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences (Eusebius) 1582 Cecrops comes into Attica (idem) 1556 The Areopagus instituted - 1506 Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) - 1503 Reign of Hellen (idem) -1459 Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters, settles in Bceotia ... 1493 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called Sparta .... 1490 Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship ever seen in Greece - - 1485 He gets possession of Argos. His fifty daughters - ... 1475 First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, by the latui Dactyli (Eusebius) - 1453 Iron discovered by the Idtei Daetyli - 1406 Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 1384 Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches the art of making bread - - 1383 The Isthmu.i games instituted - - 1326 Mycenae created out of Argos - 1313 Argonautic expedition (which see) - 1263 The Pythian games by Adrastus - 1263 War of the seven Greek captains - 1225 The Amazonian war ; these martial fe- males penetrate into Greece - - 1213 Rape of Helen by Theseus - -1213 Rape of Helen by Paris ' > - 1198 Commencement of the Trojan war - 1193 Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of the month Thargelion (27th May, or llth June) - - 1184 ^Bneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and arrives in Italy - - - 1181 Migration of the /Eolian colonies, who build Smyrna, . 980, and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company. 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when the company's ships brought them home. Tindal. The Greenland Fishing Company was incorporated in 1693. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flarnstead-hill, so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- flector ; and among other tine instruments and objects is a famous camera obscura. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregor, XIII., from whom it derives its name, A. D. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710; and adopted by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to eleven days. See Calendar, and New Style. GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, A. D. 715 ; it was the last kingdom pos- sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again, in 1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops and caused an insurrection in this island, which was not finally quelled till June, 1796. GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant " ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute. 37 Edward III. The Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- don, incorporated in 1429. tSUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus. A. D. 1493. It was colonized by the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to allure nr J DICTIONAHY OF DATES. 401 the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was. however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig- nation began in Italy, A. D. 1139, and distinguished the contending armiea during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the Ghibelines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England. See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards (JeorgelV., in 1816. GUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolic^ Que.tiiones of Achilles Bocchius, 4to. 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there called the Mounaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax. England (see Halifax ; Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea. A. D. 1673. They were then valued at 30s. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- wick, in Germany, about A. D. 1320. But many writers maintain that it wa?, known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi- nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Nullitate Magia, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. GUNPOWDER PLOT IN ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- troying the three estates of the realm king, lords, and commons there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the enterprise Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the famify of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter. Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, as did Guy Faux, January 31. 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in tho late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who. after having be- stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It 402 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [HAD cost him 18793J., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense SUBU of 219,499^, A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,OOOZ. was made to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest- ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna- sium gumnos, nudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. . , GYPSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about A. D. 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- cendants of a great body of Egyptians who re\olted from the Turkish yoke, and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal rece^ tion in 'hat age of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against theii itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex- ecuted at one assizes for haying associated with gypsies for about a month contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120.000 gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. H. HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, passed for the security and liberty of individuals, May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. Blackstone. HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- horse (haqueiiee) was let out on hire for short journeys: these were latterly harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called coche-h-haquenee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori- gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary. 1694. Surrey of Ijondon. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on the outside of the vehicle. HAGUE. Once called the finest vitta.ge in Europe : the place of meeting of the States-General, and residence o f the former earls of H'/lland, the r^in^es of RAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 403 Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip II. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon -the five articles of the re- monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague, entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces here. August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu- ary, 1795; favoreo. by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce between England and Holland, December 16, 1837. HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the appellation Gallia comata ; and cutting off the hair was inflicted as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par- ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution. Isidorus ffispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, A. D. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion in 1795; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England, which yielded 20.0002. per annum. HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human life. Butler. HALLIDON HILL. BATTLE OK, near Berwick, between the English and Scots, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13.000 slain, while a com- paratively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III., July 19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of Scotland. Robertson. HALIFAX, YORKSHIRE. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma- nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys, shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim- inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment ; but king James I. in the year 1620. took this power away: and the town is now under the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. HALLELUJAH AND AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 B. c. ; and their intro- duction f-om the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome, one of the primitive Latin fathers, about A. D. 390. Cave's Hist. Lit. HAMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper Tandy, (see Napper Tandy.) October 1799. British property sequestrated, March 1801. Hamburgh' taken by the French after the battle of Jena in 1806. Incorporated with France. January 1810. Evacuated by the French on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813 ; and -estored to its 404 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [IIA? independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses; it con- tinued for three days, May 4, 1842. HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his mother, Jane Seymour, died; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the Bible. See Conference. HANGED, DRAWN, AND QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. Stowe. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen. Verden, and other duchies and principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, A. D. 1692. It was seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom, Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus duke of Brunswick Luneburgh elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be admitted into it. and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428 : with forty ships, and 12 000 regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. In 1630 the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the name were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. HAPSRURGH HOUSE OP. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria, HAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405 whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany and archduchy of Austria, A. D. 1273. See Germany. HARLEQUIN". This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance used to call him Harlequino, little Harley. Menage. Originally the name implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now means an expert dancer at a play-house. H ARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra- ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 350 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur- rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. Dr. John- son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party -olors, and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III., 1352. HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings. in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge. Franklin. The in- vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp before Saul. 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20.000Z., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi- tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per- fected in 1772. HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration ol Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814. H ASTINGS, BATTLE OF. one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng- land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. HASTINGS. WARREN, TRIAL OP. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government which, it was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of 100,OOOZ. from the nabob of Oude. and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months, 406 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. |~HEa 1788-95, Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- tings, attracted universal admiration. HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, A. D. 1404. They are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510: before this time both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. Stmce. Very high crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- land in 1784. and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 1804. HAYTI, OR HAITI, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus .n 1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it. they are said to have de- stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3 ; 000.000 of its inhabitants, including women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, A. D. 1606. Bourgain- ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was not connected, but composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the name they now bear. HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen; but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen ; and in the end, to lessen the expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. Potter. HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred A. D. 1004. Abont twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. ffEGIRA, ERA OF THE, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, A. D. 622 ; the era commences on the following day, viz : the 16th of July. Many chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July ; but Cantemir has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Mahometism and Medina. DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 407 HEIDELBERG, AND HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- heim. Here was the celebrated HeildelbergTun, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University of Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, contained in 1840, 622 students. HELEN. RAPE OP, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 B. c. Helen was the most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him. however, she was released yet innocent, by her brothers; and after her return to thd court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice ol Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen : carrying her away, though not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris. Priam, received her in his palace without difficulty; and Menelaus, assembling the princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc- tion of Troy followed, 1184 B. c. Paris was previously married, his wife being (Enone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his d^ath by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to (Enone, whom he had so basely deserted; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. HELENA. ST. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival of St. Helena, A. D. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 6, 1821. HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a depftt for British mer- chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel. Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of the British crown. HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christo- pher Scheiner in 1625. HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English king? had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306. Gwillim. HELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore despeT te \i 408 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HEK resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 B. c. The Spartans, not satisfied with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery; and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the prisoners of war, by the degrading name of ffclotce, and further exposed them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 B. c. But in the Pelo- ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward ed with their liberty, 431 B. c. But this act of justice did not last long; ami the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the Lacedemonians. Herodotus. HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was dire< ted to be sown for fishing-nets, A. n. 1538. Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- ported from Russia in British ships, 17 695 tons of hemp and flax. Sir John Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 100,000 tons. More than 180,000 Ibs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings', in England was gradually formed from A. D. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent. and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in A. D. 828, when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. HERACLID^E, THE, or the return of the Heraclidae into the Peloponnesus : a famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after the destruction of Troy, 1104 B. c. HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of the world. Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a horse ; and the ancient French a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which see. Heraldry, as digested into an art. and subjected to rules, may be ascribed in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800; and in the next, iiO Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152; it began and grew with the feudal law Sir George Mackenzie. It was at length methodized and perfected by the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in 1096. HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, A. D. 79. Herculaneum was buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper under the surface. All traces of them were lost until A. D. 1711. from which year many curiosities works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sh William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in tho museum of Portici. HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here tics arc those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- tholic church. Baron. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by torture in Roman Catholic countries. Bttrnet. See Inquisition. Simon Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome A. D. 41. Thirty heretic* came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were H1G J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 408 branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of him- (^ ger and cold, 1160. Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession.'' of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re- pealed, 25 Henry VIII., 1534-6. HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged in dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebaij, and became the first example of a monastic life, about A. D. 250. HERO AND LEANDER: their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she *li- recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from her. tower, and perished in the sea, 627 B. c. Livy, Herodctus. HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. Anderson. The British Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, THE. Herchel's seven, ten. and twenty-feet re- flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus (which, see), March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 17?3 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- tains, emitting tire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new nebulas, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars which he had discovered. HESSE, HOUSE OP. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry V., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,0002. three per cent, stock, was v transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the American war, at 302. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion there in 1798. HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single picture* \^ and engravings of the things they would represent. Woodward. Hiero- glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 B. c. Usher. The earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- tion, or when forgotten, imagined. Phillips. ^ &^^/ VAtA I UvA. [UGH CHURCH AND LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned 18 410 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HOI the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents Low Church, or moderate men. 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sa- cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to British liberty, the 25th of Edward III. 1-552. By this statute two living witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- set it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. By the 40th George III. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes your Grax, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. HINDOO ERA. or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 B. c. or 756 before the De- luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 B. c. : and the Saca era, A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con- sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, A. D. 476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about A. D. 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the English universities until the years 1724 and 1736. when Regius professor- ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. HOHENLINDEN, BATTLE or, between the Austrian and French armies, the latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and their loss in prisoners to 10.000 more, November 3, 1800. HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion of Francs and Frisians. Sovereignty founded by Thierry, first count of Holland A. D. 868 The county of Holland devolves to the counts of Hainault - - -1299 It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy - . - 1436 100,000 persons are drowned by the sea breaking in at Uort 1446 Burgundy and its dependencies become a circle of the empire - - - 1521 They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecution cause a revolt in Batavin - - - - l-V The revolted states with William, prince of Orange, at their head, en- ter into a treaty at Utrecht 1671 HOL.] HOLLAND, continued. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 411 They elect William as Stadtholder - The Siadtholder, William, is assassi- nated - - - - The Dutch East India company found- ed - - - - - After a struggle of thirty years, the king of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- tavians free - - - The republic wars against Spain in the East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- nish galleons, value 20,000,000/. ster- ling - Cromwell declares war against Hol- land, and many naval battles are fought ; Blake signally defeats Van Troinp - William, prince of Orange, having married Mary, daughter of James II., is called to the British throne The office of Stadtholder is made here- ditary in the Orange family Era of the civil war - - The French Republican army march into Holland; the people declare in their favor - - The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, He arrives in England - Jan. 21, Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- nally defeats the Dutch Oct. 11, The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren- dered to the British admiral Duncan, without firing a gun - Aug. 28, A new constitution is given to the Ba- tavian republic; the chief officer (R, J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1579 1584 1602 1609 1635 1653 1688 1747 1787 ' 1793 1795 1795 1797 1799 1805 Holland erected into a Kingdom, and Louis Bonapaite declared king June 5, 1806 Louis abdicates - July 1, 1810 Holland united to Franco July 9. 1810 Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed to its dominions Nov. 18, 1813 The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- vereign prince of (he United Nether- lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 He receives the oath of allegiance from his subjects March 30, 1814 And takes the title of king as William I. --- March 16, 1815 The revolution in Belgium (which see) commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 The Belgians take the city of Antwerp (u>Aic. .ee) - - Oc 27, 1830 Belgium is sepai-ated from HoLiJid. and Leopold of Cobourg is elected king - - July 12, 1831 Holland renews the war against Bel- gium - - - Aug ?. 1831 Conference in London on the affairs of Holland and the Netherlands termi- nates, see Belgium Nov. 15, 1831 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London April 19, 1839 Abdication of William I. in favor of his son Oct. 8, 1840 Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 The king promises his assent to all re- forms passed by the chambers March 14, 1848 New constitution appears, April 17, 1348 IL Death of William IL March 17, U49 STADTHOLDERS. ETC. A.D 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- vinces owe their foundation and glo- ry : killed by an assassin, hired by Philip of Spain. 1584 Henry Philip William. 1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 1625 Frederick Henry. 1&47 William II. 1650 William III. made Stadtholder in 1672, and king of England in 1689. 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass ing a ferry in Holland. 1711 Charles Henry Frizo. 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadl- holder. 1751 William V. KINGS. 1813 William I. 1840 William II 1849 William III., present king, (1852.) See Belgium. HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first discovered. In 1605, et seq., various parts of the coast were traced by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the south extremity, was discovered by Tasruan, in 1642. The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of. in his Britannic majesty's name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New Smith, Woks, and Van Diemen's Land. HOLY/ ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- ber 26, 1815. HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as A. D. 120.- Ashe. 412 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [" HOI HOMER'S ILIAD AND ODYSSEY. The misfortunes uf Tioy furnish tee two most pei feet EPIC* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that has ever lived ; about 915 B. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. Univ. Hist. The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury tc mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to sleep with them always on his pillow. Darwin. HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 B c, He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis- tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. MONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that he died in the night from suffocation, 453 A. D. His death is, however, ascribed to another cause. See Attila. ' HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words : " Honi soit qui mal y pense," " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- supported by sufficient authority. Goldsmith.. HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius. about 102 B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor. HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, A. D. 1524, and weiv used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un- wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed nnd their use was prohibited in 1528. Anderson. At present the re .in- between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the * The epic poems of HOMER and VIROIL, the Gierusalemme of TASSO. the Paradise Lot! ol MII.TON. and the Henriade of VOLTAIRE, are the noblest that exist j and MILTON'S JH coneiderec 10 rank next to HOMER'S. " Paradise Lost is lot the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr JHJ ox, " only because ii is not the first." Butler HUD] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Herefor 1, Kent, and Worcestershire. HORATII AND CURATII, THE COMBAT OP THE, 669 B. c. The Romans and the Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome. HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40.000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12.000 horsemen. 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the horse is equal to that of five men. Smeaton. A horse can perform the work of six men. Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural \ horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England, amounts to about 350.000/. per year. See Race Horses. HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in A. D. 1048. They became a monastic order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital. Southvvark. a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793., and endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499/. See Infirmaries. HOST, ELEVATION OF THE. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- tration enjoined, in A. D. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. Dr. A. Rees. HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B. c., when L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the invention of water-clocks (which see), 158 B. c., the time was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult: one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- glasses not being then known in England, A. D. 886. HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a North- West passage to the Pacific Ocean. A. D. 1610; but in fact, this part of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. Th forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 414 HE WORLD'S PROGRESS. HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing "with horn and with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all loss occa- sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed by riotous assemblies. HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of th reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. Tha memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St, Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. See Bartholomew, St. A con- siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas. HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 B. c., and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the Christ iar era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, neaded by Attila, whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of " The Scourge of God." In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians. Croats, Russians, and Vandals ; be- sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Svvabians Saxons. &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. Stephen receives the title of Apostolic king from the pope - - A. D. 997 The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sons of Jenghis Khan, throughout Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- ria, Servia, and Da 1m alia - - 1342 Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342 He dies, and the history of Hungary now presents a frightful catalogue of crimes ..... 1378 Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, queen of Louis, is drowned, and king" Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and causes ihe rivers of Hungary to flow with blood - - - - 1378 The unhappy Hungarians call the Turks to their assistance - - 1380 Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond in battle .... 1389 Sigismond recovers from this blow, and makes Wallachia and Moldavia tributary to him - 1390 He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is elected emperor of Germany - 141C Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of Hungary, thus laying the founda- tion of the subsequent power and greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- vades Hungary, and takes Buda; battle of Mohatz (.which see) - - 1526 Buda sacked a second time by the Turks, and all the inhabitants put to the sword .... 1540 Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 n.ea in a fruitless attempt to take Buda from the Turks - - 1631 He at length carries Buda by storrn, and delivers up the Mahometans to the fury of the soldiers - - 1698 Temeswar wrested from the Turks by prince Eugene .' < . 1711 " l"he Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of queen ; and consa 3uenliy, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of king "bus. m 1383, when Mary, the daughtei of Charlis Duras, came to the crown, she was styleJ It'ing Mary. EUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 HUNGARY, continued. Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace of Belgrade - - 1739 Temeswar incorporated with the king- dom of Hungary - - -1778 The struggle for independence com- menced in 1848 Count Lomburg, Austrian commission- er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the emperor of Austria ; martial law proclaimed; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- atia, appointed to the supreme gov- ernment, - Oct. 3, 184S | Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- dent of the defence committee and dictator .... Oct. 1848 [Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] Hungarian army advances within six I miles of Vienna ; .'ellachich also ad- vances there, Ocuber 11; Kossuth retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, Hungary declares itsdf an independent republic - - Dec. 184J Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 184$ Ukase of Russiar. emperor Nicholas, declaring his purpose of aiding A-us- tria against Hungary - April 26, Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 1SW The war ended by the complete subju- gation of Hungary, and the flight or execution of her leaders. See Germany. KINGS OF HUNGARY. A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 1038 Peter I., deposed. 1041 Otto, killed in battle. 1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is again deposed, and has his eyes put out. 1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother Bela. 1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 1073 Geisa I. 1076 Si. Ladislaus. 1095 Ooloman. 1114 Stephen II., surnamed Thunder; turn- ed monk. 1131 Beta II. ; he had his eyes put out by his uncle Coloman, so that his queen ruled the kingdom. 1141 Geisa II. 1161 Stephen III. 1173 Bela HI. 1191 Emeric. 1200 Ladislaus II. 1201 Andrew II. 1235 Bela IV. 1275 Stephen IV. 1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 1291 Andrew III. 1301 Wenceslaus. 1304 Otho. 1309 Charles Robert. 1342 Louis I. the Great. 1J583 Mary. 1389 Mary, and her husband Sieisnvfld. 1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the Turks. 1444 Ladislaus V., poisoned while an infant. 1458 Matthias L, son of Huniades, late re- gent. 1490 Ladislaus VL 1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the Turks. 1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 1527 Ferdinand, king of Bohemia. 1534 John Sepusius, again. 1539 John II. 1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor o/ Germany. 1573 Rodolphus. 1609 Matthias II. 1618 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany 1625 Ferdinand III., ditto. 1647 Ferdinand IV. 1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 1687 Joseph, ditto 1711 Charles VI ditto. 1740 Maria Theresa. 1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. See Germany. On the death of Charles VI., in 1740. his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See Germany. HtlKS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in A. D. 93, and the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by them, about A. D. 433. 100 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- pagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as 4-16 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PIAJI a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the name of Hungary, which see ; see also Attila. HUSS, JOHN; His MARTYRDOM. The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a refor- mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was sooa thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the sanu fortitude and constancy of mind by JEROME OF PRAGUE, the intimate com- panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1410. See Cranmer, and Martyrs. HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their tirst onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather,'' Pardon. HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. Beckmann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 A. D., and Archimedes was killed 212 B. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science in 1746. HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 300 B. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 12(7 B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The science was revived by Galileo, about A. D. 1600. The theory of rivers was scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla- tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, about A. D. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals. I. F i MBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira. wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical effusions ; and from her free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 700 B. c., by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on lh< old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. Herodotus. ;DO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 417 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than th< water which composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782. Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cotd. ICE TRADE, THE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to leave their native country, A. D. 871 : according to some accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles: 12 rivers were dried up; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or water; and 34 others were materially injured. ICELANDIC LITERATURE, ROYAL SOCIETY OF, in Copenhagen. Their library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 26, 1847. ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen- tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her aegis ; Venus, drawn by Swans or pigeons; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun. moon, stars, and other objects ; and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images. The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the early part of the eighth century. See Idols. IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Cascaand other conspirators, 44 B. c. IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there ia one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- nus, king of Assyria, 2059 B. c. Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 B.C. Dufresiwy. Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de- troyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 A. D. Dufresnoy. In Britain, thfl 18* 418 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. { im- religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity. ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 B. c. Troy (wkic/i see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 B. c. ; and Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296 years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus, king of Sparta, 1204 B. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 B. c. Troy was taken after ten years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the inhabitants to the sword, or carried them oft' as slaves, 1184 B. c. Ap^lo- durus. ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 1789 it was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population in 1810, 12 ; 282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. 1LLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were called Alumbrados, about A. D. 1575; and after their suppression in Spain, they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was. that they obtained grace, and attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776. ILLUMINATED BOOKS AND PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, drawings and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiquity ; and illuminated pages are. many of them exquisitely painted. Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with their likenesses, about 70 B. c. Plin. Hist. Nat. IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia- ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 13, 1788; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29. and his acquittal, June 12. 1806. Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke o5 York, commenced Jan. 26. and ended March 20, 1809. in his acquittal Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be- fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty's defence. Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, NOT. 10, 1820. See Qiwen of George IV. IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of Great Britain became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admit ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster. January 22, 1801. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 419 The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since the passing of the Reform Bill (which, see), in 1832, there are 471 English ; 29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members in all 658. In the Lords, 459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, Parliament, and Reform. IMPORTS OP MERCHANDISE IN THE UNITED STATES. See Exports, &c. Table, p. 317. VALUE OP IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD. IP '710 .50 1175 JE4,753,777 I In 1800 7,2S9>562 1810 - - 14,815,855 1820 ,30,570,605 41,136,135 36,514,564 Inl83jO 1840 1845 jE46,2t5,24) 62,004,000 - 85,28i.,953 IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im- postors, would fill a volume; they have been, of course, found in every country, and have existed in every age. The following are selected from various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : Aldebort, who, in the eighth century, pre- tended he had a letter from the Redeem- er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and deserts, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by the inquisition of Spam, in 1360. George David, son ol a waterman at Ghent, styled himself the nephew of God, sent into the world to adopt children worthy of heaven ; he denied the resurrection, preached against marriage, in favor of a community of women, and taught that the body only could be defiled by sin ; he had many followere ; died at Basle, 1556. Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- tended to be the son of Basilowitz. czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had put to death ; but he maintained that ano- ther child had been substituted in his place : he was supported by the arms of Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- sians, who invited him to the throne, and delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- ing czar, and all his family, whom he cruelly put to death : his imposition being discovered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. D'Alembert's Revolutions of Russia. Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- stantinople and other places, by person- ating our Saviour, 1666. IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. Two men crucified, both pretending to be the Messiah ; and two women executed for assuming the characters of the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry ill., Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- tion, by pretending to inspirations from heaven, fortelling that the king would have an early and violent death if he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anne Boleyn. She and her confederates wert hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534. Rapin. In the first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with Philip of Spam, Elizabeth Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se- creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made for the purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the queen and the priiiv,?, and also against the mass and confession, for which she was sentenced to stand upon a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- mon-time, and make public confession of her imposture, 1553: she was called the Spirit of the Wall. Baker's Chron. William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 34 Eliz., 1591. James Naylpr, personated our Saviour ; he was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, and his tongue bored through with a hot iron on the pillory, by sentence of the House of Commons, under Cromwell's administration, 1656. v alentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, who pretended to cure all diseases by stroking the patient ; his imposture de- ceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in England, where it fell into disrepute, in 1066, upon his examination before the Royal Society, after which we hear no more of him. Birch's Memoirs of '.he Roy. Society. Dr. Til us Oates. See Conspiracies. Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits within her, so imf osed upon many persons (among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they espoused her cause, 1726. The Cock-lane ghost, imposture by WiiMana Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. Johanna Southcote. who proclaimed hel conception of the Messiah, and had a mul titude of followers; she died in Dec. 1814. IN THE UNITED STATE* Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed W be the Messiah, New- York. 1830-31. Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. IMPRESSMENT OF SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient 420 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. *na> practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- lic boards, and none except by an officer with a press-warrant. INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by tho Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. INCEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns Physcon married his brother's queen, then repudiated her. and married her daughtt r by his brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 B. c. See Egypt. In our own country. Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own daughter, A. D. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil June. 1760; and the son of that incestuous marriage. Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar- ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, in Oct. 1826. she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the Commonwealth, in 1650. INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 1802 ; but was abandoned. In 1803. it was revived, at the rate of 5 per cent, on all incomes above 150/., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6 per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced In 1801, at Is. in the pound - ,4,650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - 11,500,00(1 In 1805, at Is. 3d. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,935 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657.9372. ; from fund- ed and stock properties, 2 885 505Z. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,0882. and salaries and pensions, 1,174.4562. ; total, sixteen millions and a half. Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax of 21. 18s. 4d. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 1842; it produced about 5.350,0002. a year. This tax was renewed for three years more, in March, 1845. INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- sion fur synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421 The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull ol pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. Aste. INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by Alexander, 327 B. c., and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, A. D. 1000. whom 123 perish in one night. See Blackhole. - . May 19, I7c*i Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards lord Clive ; he defeats the sotibah, at Plassey ' - - June 20. 1757 Warren Hastings becomts governor of Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773 Supreme court established - - 1773 Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 The strong fortress of Gualior taken by major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 Hyder Ali overruns the Carnati-, and defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 He takes Arcot - Oci. 31, 1780 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of Madras - - - June 22, 1781 Hyder AH signally defeated by Sir Eyre Coote - - - -July 1, 178) Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo Saib Dec. 11, 178^ Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hust- ings, Trial of Feb. 13, 1783 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages - - March 19, 17SG Government of lord Mornington, after- wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered .... 1800 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 Marquis Cornwallis resumes the gov- ernment - - July 30, 180T. Act by which the trade to India was thrown open ; that to China remain- ing wiih the company July 31, 1813 Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823 Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- vernor-general - July 4, 1828 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- ban VIII. ^ANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to the Roman calendar by Numa. 713 B. c. He placed it about the winter sol- stice, and made it this first month, .because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business. This g' id was painted with two faces 432 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ JEN because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among us, was originally taken. JANUS, TKMPLE OF. at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in the l : jne of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during above 700 years, viz : under Numa, 714 B. c. and under Augustus, 5 B. c. ; and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed in war. JANVILLIERS, BATTLE OF, between the French and Prussians, in which, after an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814. JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo; and was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous :* the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period beg\ns with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See Jcddo. JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20 000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814. JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1 680,000 inhabitants, a num- nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- sionaries; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expe.led in 1622. and the inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. JEMMAPPES. BATTLE OF, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern times ; 40.000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrencbed in woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, whhh lasted four days. According to the most authentic account.', the number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, OH that of the French to 12 ; 000, Nov. 6, 1792. JENA. BATTLE OP, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the empero. 1 Na- pVeon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with the Ions of 80.000 slain and nearly as many thousands ^nade prisoner.* In 7E8 | DICTIONARY OF DATES. 433 this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced tfl tterlin, Oct. 14, 1806 JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, AND ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander ot the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. JERUSALEM. Built 1800 B. c. The first and most famed Temple was found ed by Solomon, 1015 B. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday. October 30, 1004 B. c., being one thousand years before the birth of Christ Blair ; Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 B. c. and by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 B. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, A. D. 70 after one of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1.100,000 of the Jewa perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by the emperor Adrian, A. o. 130. .The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the Saiacens in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70000 intidels were put to the sword, 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in February 1799. See Jews. JESTER. In some ancient works a jester is described as "a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, A. D. 1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by which their number was not to exceed 60 That clog, however, was taken off by another bull. March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III.. Pius V., and Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- erful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier. and other missionaries, the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at F iris. Tho Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 1764 ; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerai \ in othe 1 - states 19 434 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. j" JET* and even where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se- cret and extensive existence. JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, A. M. 4004, in the year o<.' Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- ment of the common era. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, A. D. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 6; ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and his Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, A.D. 33. JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322 ; 916i. sterling. Jewels were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidae until the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 B. c. See Tabular Views, p. 6 to p. 42. JEWS, MODERN HISTORY OP. Tims takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple are sacked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- tudes destroying themselves A. D. 70 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 [They are now banished from Judea by an edict of the emperor, and are for- bidden to return, or even to look back upon their once flourishing and be- loved city, on pain of death. From this period, the Jews have been scat- tered among all other nations.] GENERAL HISTORY. Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at a solemnization of the Passover, they sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich tradesman at Paris, for which the criminals are executed, and all Jews banished France - - - 1090 The Jews massacred in London, on the coronation-day of Richard I., at the instigation of the priests - -1089 600 being besieged in York castle by the mob. they cut each other's throats to avoid their fury - 1190 Jews of boih sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- bers inhumanly butchered, by king John - - 1204 They circumcise and attempt to cruci- fy a child at Norwich ; the offender* are condemned in a fine of 20,000 marks ..... 1235 They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which eighteen are hanged 1255 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as interest upon a loan of 20s. Stow?. 1262 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- hold, passed .... 1269 Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to wear a plate on his breast signifying that he was a usu- rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 267 Jews hanged and quartered for clipping coin - 1277 They crucify a child at Northampton, for which fifty are drawn at horses' tails and hanged - 1282 15,660 Jews are apprehended in one day, and are all banished England. Rapin . . . - 1287 Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in a castle, where, for want of weapons, they throw their children at the'-, en- emies, and then destroy on. 'mother 131 A fatal distemper raging in Europe, they are suspecied of having poison- ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are inas- (acred. Lenglet. - - - 1343 500.UXI Jews are banished Spain, and 150.000 from Portugal - - 1492 They are banished France 1491 After having been banished England 365 years, they are re-admitted bv Cromwell, in virtue of a ueaty with Manasseh Ben Israel - - 1G53 JUD J DICTIONARY OF DATES 435 JEWS, continued. Statute to naturalize them in England, passed ..... 1753 This act repealed on the petition of all the cities in England - - - 1754 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are declared to be citizens of France .... 1790 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, convened by the emperor Napoleon Jan. 20, 1807 London Society for promoting Christi- anity among the Jews - - 1808 Alexander ol Russia grants land on the sea of Azoph to converted Jews, Sept. 1, 1820 Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- land, lost on the second reading, by a majority in the Commons, 228 again* lt May 17, 1338 Moses Montefiore. esq., elected sheriff of London ; and knighted by the queen, being the first Jew on whom that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 18J7 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per- mitting the title of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew who ren- ders himself worthy of it - - \8ft Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a persecution of the Jews be- gan at Danascus. See Damascus Feb. 1, lffl JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En- glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1431 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her age. Voltaire 's Pucelle d} Orleans. JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well known in the law. Magna, Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. I JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII., in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at which period it is now fixed JIJDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius Anglite : these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglict was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I. 1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil- liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- potism, and other judges were seized and condemned. 1388. The prince of Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535. Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the crown. 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the judges in England was established by making their appointments patent* for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, *36 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f TUL one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat aa vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813. JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have been John Jay, appointed, 1789 ; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796 ; Oliver Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. IT. S. Cir- cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several Statci are thus appointed : By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Louisana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York,* and Maryland. THE TERM OP OFFICE of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina. Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; and for one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. THEY ARE REMOVABLE By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As- sembly, in New York. JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire land in cases of lunacy from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Court*, of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad from the Courts of the Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William IV. 1833. "UGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera- tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted verm if- lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated at 1,200.000 annually: of these a great many never return, and to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones: the temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. JOGURTHA, THE WAR WITH. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- duce his kingdom, commenced 111 B. c. and continued five years. Cicciliua Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and afterwards Sylla and Marius; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been inmiortali/.ed by the pen of Sallust. JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new eonrti ration of 1846. JUR. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 437 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun- dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of C. Caesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the year, 713 B. c. See those months severally, and article Year JUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. It had its name Junius, which some derive Junone, and others d Juniori- bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 B. c. See Year. i ^UNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes; Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd. Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but '.he matter is still hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with me." Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole. TiJPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for-; mer, it is said 3000, B. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, made about 600 B. c., and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo, A. D. 1610; but Jansen. it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemerj appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false verdicts. Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. JURIES. COERCION OP. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used : to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A i jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agre upon a verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or candle, till they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not eat it. Leon. Dyer. 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791. Phillips. 438 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ KIE JUSTICES OP THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment, and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. JUSTINIAN CCDE. Wherein was written what maybe termed the statute law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed A. D. 629. To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body of civiJ law (corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. Blair. K. KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. Brevvster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, A. D. 1690; and was taken possession of by Russia in 1097 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by Behring, in 1728. Four mouths, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. KENIL WORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected subsequently by John of Gaunt ; and its remains now form one of the most picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 10(KM. a vast expenditure in those times. KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. Was a pa r t of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad raitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73 677 ; in 1810, 406,511 , in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779 : 828, including 182,258 slaves. KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 1193 B. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again upon divorce or separation. El EL, TREATY OP. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and th diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. f.IH j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 439 KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rey, the French Rot, all come from the Hebrew Rosck, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first founder of a kingdom, 2245 B. c. Du Fi-esnoy. Misraim built cities in Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B. c. Most of the Grecian states were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject : there was a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice, th3 quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, were all prescribed. KING Q-F ENGLAND. The style " kir.g of England," was first used by Egbert A. D. 828; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king of the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of " king of Ire- land." by British sovereigns, was not assumed until .542, when Henry VIII, changed Lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- uary 1, 1801. when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : "Georgius Tertius, Dei Gratia Britanniarum Rex, Fidei Defensor," "George the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King. Defender of the Faith." KING OF THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title of " king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of " king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in 1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," August 9, 1830. See France. KING OP HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals ot Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See Hungary. RING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- tained them the title of " king of the Romans," this people being compre- hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected next emperor; he obtained the title of " king of the Romans," but failed 5a succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son. upon his birth, in April, 1811 : but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 6, 1814. KING'S BENCH, COURT OF, IN ENGLAND. Obtained its name from the king sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control as others, because- the law presumes the king to be here in person. The name of this court has been altered to that of Qiieen's Bench, since the 440 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ KJ*. accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. KIND'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar ciedulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- teen years, 92.107 persons were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712. her royal intention to touch publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un- til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. E.LNG'S SPEECH. The fast royal speech from the throne was delivered by Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus- tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become chief of a new administration, said " Canning being now minister, of one thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- cal blunders in king's speeches ; these things will still be wiitten in the same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in a perspicuous and pure style." Cobbett. KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ; he was the founder of the Babylonian monarchy, 2245 B.C. Usher. Menes or Misralm, makes his son Atholas, surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Toso- thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 B. c. Blair. Ninus founds the As- syrian monarchy, 2059 B. c. Lenglet. FUSSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, and began with Adrian I. or Leo HI. at the close of the eighth century. From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord in homage, first practised, A. D. 709. KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose of promoting the Erotestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they effected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of the club. The clnb took its name from one Christopher Kat. a pastry-cook, who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and who served them with pastry. Bmmjer's Life of Queen Anne. KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who. after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 750 B. c. Livy. KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain. France, and Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru- saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they wen- the chiel amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Dot Quixote. RN1GHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, ufl DICTIONARY OF DATES. 441 confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarchy The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was Athti- stan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, A. D. 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. Ashmole's Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine, 38 Henry III. 125-1. Salmon. KNIGHTHOOD IN EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- valry, knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state ol anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a-guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men ol the highest rank and largest possessions, adtiission into the order was deemed a great honor. MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND Alcantara, instituted - - A. D. Alexander Nevskoi, Russia Amaranta, Sweden ... Angelic Knights, Greece - Annunciada, Mantua ... Annunciation, Savoy Argonauts, Naples ... Avis, Portugal - - Band, Spain .... Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed. See Bannerets - Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See Bath - Bear, Switzerland - - - - Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by Frederick I. - Blood of Christ, Mantua - Bro;herly Love, instituted Burgundian Cross - - - Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San- cho III. ..... Carpet, England - Catharine, Russia . . - Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir- temberg - - Christ, Livonia .... Christ, Portugal ^*r" Christian Charity, France ,.. Cincinn.itus, America Conception of the Virgin Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- tian Ernest, elector of Brandeuturgh Crescent, Naples - Crown Royal, France - Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by Christian V. - - - - Death's Head, Female Order, by the widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe Mersburgh Dove of Castile * Dragon, Hungary Ear of Corn, Brittany - - Glephan' Denmark, by Christian I. - Ermine, France - ' darter England - HONORARY ORDERS OP KNIGHTHOOD. 1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh 1700 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by 1645 Philip, surnamed the Good 456 Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel 1618 Golden Shield and Thistle - - - 1355 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. 1382 1147 1232 1725 1213 1701 1603 1708 1535 1156 1553 1698 1719 1203 1319 1590 1783 1619 1660 1448 802 1671 1709 1379 1439 10.30 1478 1450 1350 1685 1429 1785 1370 1559 1816 Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - 1559 1 193 1211 1092 1738 1048 1206 Guelphic, Hanover Holy Ghost, Rome Holy Trinity Hospitallers (tehich see) Januarius, Naples - Jerusalem. See Malta Jesus, France Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII.. 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 16'0 Knot, Naples .... 1351 Lu Calza, Venice - - - - 1400 Legion of Honor, France, instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte - - - 1802 Lily of Arragon - - - - 1403 Lily of Navarre - - - -1048 Loretto, Lady of - 1587 Malta. See Malta. 1531 Martyrs. Palestine - - - 1319 Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 1792 Mauritians, Savoy - - 1430 Merit, instituted by the landgrave of Hesse Cassel - 1785 Merit, Prussia .... 1740 Noble Passion, Germany - - 1704 Oak of Navarre, Spain - - - 722 Passion of Jesus Christ, I ranee I3t>2 Pius, founded by Pius IV, - - 15fi& Porcupine, France ... 1393 Red Eagle, Prussia - - 1792 Redemption, instituted - 1212 Rosary, Spain - 1172 Round Table, Enrhmd See Knightt of the Round TiMe - G2B ,St Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribe* to this saint the InttodactioDof Chris- tianity into Muscovy) - - - 1698 St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed 1452 ; and again by James VI. - 1605 St. Anthony. Ethiopia 367 442 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [cir St. Michael, Germany . . 1618 St. Patrick, Ireland - . . 1783 St. Puul. Home .... 1540 SL Peter, Rome - - - - 1530 St Rupert, Germany, by tt.3 archbish- op of Saltzbureh - - -1701 St. Sepulchre. Palestine - - - 10W St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, grand-duke of Tusrany - 1561 St. Thomas of Aeon - - - -1370 Saviour, Greece - - June 1, 1833 Seraphims. Sweden - - - 1331 Ship and Crescent, France - - 1289 Sincerity, instituted by the elector of Saxony - - - - 1CX Slaves of Virtue, Germany - -1662 Swan, Cleves - - - - 960 Sword, Cyprus - . . -1195 Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived - -1772 Templars. See Templar* . 1118 Teste Mcrte, Wurtemburg - - - 1652 Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia - 1522 Thistle of Bourbon - - - 1370 Thist'e of Scotland, 812; revived - 1540 Trinitarians, Spain - - - 1594 Truxillo, Spain - - . - 1227 United Ladies fcr the honor of Lie Cross, in Germany ... 1666 Virgin Mary 1233 Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607 Warfare of ( :hrist, Poland - - - 1705 Warfare of Christ, Russia - - 1325 Wins of St. Michael, Portugal - - 1165 Wladimir, Russia - - - 168S KNIGHTHOOD IN EUROPE, continued. St. Anthony, Hainault - - -1382| St. Blaze, Aeon - - 1250 ; St. Catharine, Palestine- - -1163; St. Catharine, Russia - - 1698 1 St. Denis, France ... 1267 ! St. George, Austria - - - 1470 1 St. George, Carinthia - 1279 St. George, Defender of the Immacu- late Conception, Bavaria - 1729 St. George, England ; instituted by Ed- ward HI. See Garter - - 1349 Si George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by Frederick III. - - - - 1460 St. George, Rome - - - 1496 St. George, Russia - - - - 1782 St George, Spain - - - 1318 St. George, Venice - - - - 12UO St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of Juliers and Cleves - - 1417 St. James, Holland - - - - 1290 St. James, Portugal - - - 1310 St. James, Spain - - - 1030 St. Jerome, Germany - 1154 St. John of Aeon - - - - 1370 St. John of Jerusalem ... 1048 St. John of Malta - - - -1522 St. John of Rhodes - - .1300 St. Julien, of Alcantara - - -1176 St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572 St. Louis. France - - - - 1693 St. Mark, Venice, 830; renewed 1562 St. Mary the Glorious - - - 1233 St. Mary de Merced, Spain - - 1218 St. Michael, France - - - - 1469 KNIGHTS, FKMALE. The title of knight, which was given to men of snperioi worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to womer also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved thj city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149. by their stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. KNIGHTS or THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about A. n. 528. Asser's Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those jousts and tournaments. Beatson. KNIGHTS OK THK SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by Doomsday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, were greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but the latter or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence called knights of the shire, A. D. 1307. KMviHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted A. n. 1118 They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, and possessing great riches ; fifty -nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct. LAB | DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Thei: order WM abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Viennt, in 1312 ; and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given to the knights of Malta. See Malta. KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of cutlery, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon- don, 5th Eliz., 1563. Chamberlain's England, edit. 1683. See Forks. KORAN, OR ALKORAN OF MAHOMET, written about A. D. 610. Its general aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and *this language, which cer- tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho. met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty- three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de- scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis- sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. Dr. Jortin. The leading artujle of faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq. It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran; Islamism; Mecca; Mahometism, fyc. LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon England, May 19, 1692. LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com- mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast away on two different islands of the New Hebrides a fate authenticated by various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. LA VENDEE, WAR OP. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history: the first was built by Daedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 B. c. ; the second in Egypt in the isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, 683 B. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the Hetrurise, about 520 B. c. Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. Heroiktus. The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of 444 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ LAM Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton Court that is much visited. LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in Fraace and Flanders in 1320 ; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills foi the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. LACED^EMON. See Sparta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lclegia, in Laco- nia, 1516 B. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedse- mon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 B. c. The city of Sparta was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is mosl known. The Lacedsemon republic became famous in History after 700 B. c. particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. Thucydides ; Priestley. LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were therefore called Lef-days two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women of eminence or gentility. See Lord. JrfADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in nun*; ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, he named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are called to this day. LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about A. D. 350, according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord- ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th of March. LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen years old. He raised a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re- inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re- ceived from C6ngress the sum of $200,000 and a township of land in reward for his services ; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine. Septembef 7, 1825. LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages; they were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 8000 drachmas. A. D. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. . Lamps were in general use through the streets of London up to the clow LAN] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445 of the 1 8th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lampa in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture; of this kind is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq. See Safety Lamp. LA.NCASTERTAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell; they were not much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder, who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry VIII. 1544. The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,OOOZ. in 1600. It was about 14,000,OOOZ. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has been recently estimated in parliament at 1 27 millions, but authorities vary much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. LANDGRAVE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it be- came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. L A NGSIDE, BATTLE OP ; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at "Workington, in Cumberland, on May 16 ; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth. LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea- ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians, and the pro- foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there- fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other nations, C4V B. c. Herodotus, Polycen., Strabo. LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, spoken iL the east : Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazygian, remain^- ing yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin sprung the Italian, French and Spanish ; and from the Spanisli the Portu- guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotcit, 446 THE WORLD'S PBOGBESS. [ LAI &c. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world Of these, 937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American language? and dialects. Professor Adelung. LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, A. D. 872-901. Stowe's Ghron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, with glass sides, A. D. 1415. The pellucid laminae of the ox horn have served for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are preferred. See article, Lamps. LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great eminence as statuaries; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by human hands. LATERAN, COUNCILS OP THE. They were held in the Basilica of the La- teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry V., 1122; by the second council were secured the temporalities of ecclesias- tics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179; the fourth on church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots; and the fifth was the famous council of Julius II., 1512. LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 B. c. Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines frequently cost thousands of pounds. FjATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named alter the Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken in Italy, about A. D. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 B. c. It is the extent of the earth or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, and made it 69.493; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68. 732; and Lambton, in latitude 13, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; and Biot, 68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 less than at the equator; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. LATIUM. Now the city of Romania; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 901 B. c. Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium under ^Eneas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulua had founded the city of Rome in their country. LAW] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 447 LATTER-DAT SAINTS. A new sect, whose principles aro variously repre- sented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary mucli from those of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generatioi of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 B. c., were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- nians, 623 B. 0. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of Solon, 578 B. c. The Spartan laws of Lyourgus were made 884 B. c. ; they remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermoginian codes were published in A. D. 290. The Theodosian code in 435. The Jus- tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. Blair. See Civil Law. LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the Saxon, in A. D. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of Blngland, waa compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1136; Henry II. 'a confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194. See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation by Henry III., 1216, et seq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charter of the. Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, ' That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. Lord Mansfield. LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in 1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des- perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same fatal year, 1720. Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet. LAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign 1291. Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common Pleas. The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, in 1604. There are about 12uO barristers in England: and the num- ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers in the United States, was published iy New York. 1850. 448 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LEA LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri- tain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes- dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use in 1236. LEAGUES, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the, Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, who was then of the reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg, 1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. LEAP-YEAR, OR BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- mers of Julius Caesar, 45 B. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in the course of years caused 1700 and 1800 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 be a leap-year ; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Year, Gregorian Calendar, &c. LEARNING AND THE ARTS. These were carried to their height among the Greeks during the fourth century B. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about A.D. 1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, came Brunette, Latini, and numerous enlightened men ; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- ragement to literature and the arts. The illustrious Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England The reign of Anne has been called by some the "golden," by others, the " Augustan age" of English literature. LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 B. c. The ancients un- derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, Oct. 28, 1788. Phillips. The duty on leather produced annually in England, 450,000i, and in Ireland, about 50,l)00i It was abo- lished in both countries, May 29, 1 830. l.EPJ DICTIONARY OK DATES. 449 LEGHORN'. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796, but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 B. 0. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B. c , the legion consisted of 5000 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 B. c., it was 6200 soldiers, besides 700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, about 5 B. c. ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions. A Legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with a vexillum, or standard guarded by 1 men. LEGION OP HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the state, military deeds, and for public virtue; instituted by Napoleon Bona- parte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept 7, 1631. The siege of Leip- sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Leipsic in vain, but they took it two years afterwarda though they did not retain it long. In the late war? it has frequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article. LEIPSIC, BATTLE OP. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive o' modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the, one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; tin former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was los> by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80.000 men perished in the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces ol artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- den, entered 'Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and .18, 1813. LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church from Ash- Wednesday (which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- tion. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday which is now called the first Sunday of Lent; and the four days beginning were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number ol fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. Baker's Ghron. LEPANTO, BATTLE OK. The great naval engagement between the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men. while the Turks had 250 galleys of which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed and prisniers ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey, Oct. 7, 1571. Vouaire. 450 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LEX LETTERS. Those of the alphahet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian 1822 B. c. Usher, Blair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in England by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels and for repri- sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. Rymer's Fcedera. They were first granted in 1295. Baker's Ohron. They are usually granted in time ol war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of belligerent nations. Powel. LETTERS TIE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. Hist, of the French Reool. LEUCTRA, BATTLE OF. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at the village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans, under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotns, king of Sparta, the victory being with the former. In this battle, Cleombrotus and 4000 Lacedemonians were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, 37 B. c. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the Thebans. Plutarch. Xenophon says 1400, out of whom 400 were Spartans. LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all things to a level or equality. Collier. There were various associations of this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the churches which Luther had left standing ; and then finding an army in their followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head ol 40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma- gistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him: 7000 of the enthusi- asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; ne was taken and be- headed at Mulhausen, iu 1525. Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. LEWES, BATTLK OF. Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In tlrs battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken prisoners. One division of four of Moutfort's army, a body ol Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de- struction. See Evesham. LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters as having been compiled 1100 B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in P]urope about the close of the fif- teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. See article, Dictionary. LEXINGTON, BATTLK OF. This battle claims distinction as being the first fought hptwf-pn Great Britain and the United States of America, in the w Lin] DICTIONARY OF 1TVTES. 451 if independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn. sent from Bos- ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by ilio Americans and 273 of them were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. LEYDKN. SIEGE OP. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, and d iring which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, A. D. 1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce- lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel ladec with 10,000 Ibs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which aflfectec the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the Britisli law whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteent of the world, is deemed a libel. " The greater the truth, the greater the li^el," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gor- don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison- ment for five years and fined 500., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Morning Post's libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000/. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Ambigtt, of which he was found guilty, Feb. 21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England 1820. Act regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was made with good motives and for justifiable ends. LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by American Colonization Society, 1822; Jehudi Ashmun was the first supei- intendent of the colony; new Constitution Roberts elected president Oct. 6, 1 847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- gust 1, 1849. LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom; reh'gion a mere state trick 1 with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in A. D. 1525; and the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account ra history was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 B. 0. The second of any note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was nearly de- stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 B. C. 400,000 valuable books iu MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. Blair. The first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B. c. Strabo. The first library at Rome was instituted 167 B. 0.: it was brought frcm Ma- cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great, about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- sisting of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. No-ito. Diet. Ifixt. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of th Palatine 452 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LIB Apollo should be committed to the flames under the notion of confining the clergy to the attention of the Scriptures From that time, all ancient learn- ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has beet emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The earlf Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in tht destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Chee-wang-tee, ordered all writings to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew as from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc- ceeding emperors with great difficulty. r JBRARIISS ix EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain- ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- Holy accessible are in this proportion, viz.: in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit- ants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412; in Bavaria, 339; in Tuscany, 361; in Prussia, 200; in Austria, 167; in France, 129; in Belgium, 95 ; in Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention of printing, is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- brary for the use of the public, A. D. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmo de Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna, (imperial,) 1440 ; Vatican, 1465 ; &c. See talk, below. Jn the following tables, the libraries containing leas than 10,OCO volumes each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are not taken into the account : France has 170 Public Li- braries, containing Belgium has 14 do. Prussia " 44 do. Austria " 48 do. 4,000,000 vols. 538.000 " Denmark " 5 2,400,000 " Tuscapy " 9 2,400,000 " G. Britain " 83 Taking the capital cities we find the following results : Saxony has 6 containing 654.000 vols. Bavaria do. do. do. do. 1,267,000 645,000 411,000 1,771,498 Paris has 9 Public braries, containing Brussels has 2 do. Berlin " 2 do. Vienna " 8 do. Milan " 2 do. Li- 1,474,000 vols. 143.500 " 6311,000 " 458,000 - 1 230,000 u Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they vuld stand as follows : Vf>la. Dresden has 4 containing 840,500 vols. Munich "2 " 800000 " Copenhagen "8 " 657,000 u Florence "6 " 818.000 " London "4 " 490,500 " Founded. founded. Vol*. Paris (1) National Lib., 1505 824,000 Milan, Brerea Lib., 1797 170,000 Municn, Royal Lib., 1550 600,000 Paris (8), St Genevieve, 1624 150,000 Petersburg imperial Lib., 446,000 Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, 1760 150,000 London, British Museum, 1753 435.000 Florence, Magliabecchian, 1714 150,000 Copenhagen, Royal Lib., 1550 412.000 Naples, Koyal Lib., 150,000 Berlin, Koyal Lib., 1650 410,000 Brussels, Koyal Lib., 1839 1H8,500 Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1440 818,000 Kome(l), Casanate Lib., 1760 120.000 Dresden, Koyal Lib., 1656 800,000 Hague, Koyal Lib., 100,000 Madrid National Lib., 1718 200.000 Paris (4\' Mazarine Lib, 1661 100,000 Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 200,000 Rome (2), Vatican Lib., 1465 100.000 Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 1765 187,000 Parma, Ducal Lib., 1760 100.000 Paris (2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180.000 The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order: Founded. Vols. Founded. Volt. Gottingen, Univ'ty Lib., 1786 860.000 Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115.000 Breslau, University Lib., 1811 850,000 ! Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,000 Ox i-rd. B-xlleian Lib., 1597 220,000 Copenhagen, University Lib., 1780 110,000 Tubingen, Utiiv'ty Lib., 1562 800,000 : Turin, University Lib., 1486 110,000 Munich. University Lib., 200,000 Louvairif, University Lib , 1689 105.000 Hcidi-lburg, tlniv'ty Lib., 1708 200.000 Dublin. Trinity College Lib.. 104.2S9 Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166.724 ; U|>sal, University Lib., 1621 100,00(1 Bologna, University Lib., 190 150.000 KHangen, University Lib., 1748 100,000 Prague, University L'b., 1777 180,000 Edinburgh, University Lib., 1582 90,864 LIB] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 453 Tho largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the Founded. Volx. 1 British Museum, London, 1753 4-3.5,000 1598 220,000 Eoyal Institution, London, London Institution, Founded. 2 Bodleian, Oxford, 8 University, Cambridge, 1484 166.724 i London Library, 4 Advocates. Edinburgh, 1682 148,000 : Sion College, &c. 6 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 104,289 I LIBRARIES IN THB UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief public and college libraries in the United States in 1849, was stated to be 1,294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain ovei 10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 th precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus Vote. [ Vol*. 6 Mercantile Library, New York, 82,OC. 1570; and first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. LOGA11ITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of num- bers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent Scotchman (sir John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence called Napier s bones. The invention was afterwards completed by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- hffe. Chaucer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ; he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith, London. Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. Moreri ; Carte. LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In Englnnd they were understood to be com- posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice.- -Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 20 458 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [LOO by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private persons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229. They had offices in Lombard-street, which great hanking street is called after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of lilizabeth. LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their ser- vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, A. D. 548 They passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan, in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and made considerable conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and annexed his territories to the German empire. La Combe. See Milan, Ac. LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes 54 B. c. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In A. D. 61, it waa known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta waa the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of trade and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. Tacitus. It is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Ltid, an old British king who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood ; but its name is from Llyn-Din, the " town on the lake." See Fires, Plagiie, Ac. LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of Charles I, being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic record for upwards of 3000 years Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per- fect health ; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There are some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia; and at Dantzic a man is said to have died at 184; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged 186 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood : but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is no fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degre* in the Canaries, 162 B. C. Harrison made a time-keeper in A. D. 1759, which in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763, he applied for the reward of 20,000/. offered by that act, which he received The celebrated Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet bring the longitude almost to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but Newton has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lambeth, in 1673. Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them in the last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great perfection of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single plate, th walla of large rooms. LOT] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 459 LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought , into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1670, since when tho general principle of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in- genuity. There are about 250.0UO hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for the supreme majesty of GOD and CHRIST, and in that sense cannot be ap- plied to any other being. With us, it is a term of nobility. See Lords and Baron. The word lord h abbreviated from two syllables: it was originally Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, " ia worth observing, for it was composed of hlaf, a load of bread, and ford, to give or afford ; so that Hla/ord, now Lord, implies a giver of bread ; be- cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the poor; for which reason they weie called givers of bread." See Ladies. The nickname of " My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. Haydn. LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne, the first peer, was made earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; Copsi, earl of Northumberland : Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer can- not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per- son ; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. See Baron ; Earl ; Ma/rquesf, &c. LORDS, HOUSE OP. The peers of England were summoned ad consulendum, to consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205. The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until some ages after the conquest. Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. Goldsmith. And writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer- tain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof' they have seats in this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new- made peers; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire- land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115 earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English prelates, and 4 Irish bishops in all 456 peers. LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued day and night until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in. 1 630. Lotte- ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was draws in Dublin 460 THE WORLD'S PBOGRESS. [LUT in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the national convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England. 1826 ; aud an act was passed imposing a penalty of 50i for advertising foreign or any lotteries in the British newspapers, Is36. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng- land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures LOUISIANA, ONE OF THE UNITED STATES. First explored by the French, and received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., arid a settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a colony. His efforts were followed up by one Crozat, a man of \vealth, wh* held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 1731, the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for $15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States W. of the Mississippi. In 1812 the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu- tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76,556 ; in 1820, 153,407 ; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including, 168,452 slaves. IiOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign of Dagobert, A. D. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms, but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. LUCCA, THE DUCHY OF, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard king- dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's .demand for "eforms, Sept. 3, 1847: appointed a regency and again fled, Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of 215,- 000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847. LUCIA, ST First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi- nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was restored to France at the peace of 1 802 ; but was again seized on by Eng- land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. See Colonies. LUNEVILLE, PEACE OF, concluded between the French republic and tl.e em- peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treat}' of Campo Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. LUSTRUM. Au expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman people, at the end of every five years," after the census had been taken, 572 B. c. Every five years were called a IvMrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub- lished his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who WM LYCJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461 deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such a height as to declare his commission unbounded ; t.hat no crime could be committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences, not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven. Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and thus began the Reformation in Germany. Mekhior Adam, in Vita Lutheri. LTTTZEN, BATTLE OP, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed tl e victory, it was manifestly on the side of France; but in this engagemei.; marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurt- zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to. and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did not produce peace. LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, BATTLE OF; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, the most illustrious hereof his time, and the chief support of the Protestant religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles I. of England, was foully killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the battle of Lippstadt. LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken and pillaged by the French in 1543; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544; by the French in 1684; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken by the French in 1701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century ; it surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795 The garrison, on the capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re- public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of the Rhine immediately after. LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the his- tory of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and black game from the Umbrian forests. Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, waa distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals; his halls were named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to serve it in the hall of Apollo; this feast for three persons casually met, would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con- fined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free estate of 100J. pe days, March 6, 1820. MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. Of 800 English nobles on Salisbury Plain, May 1, A. D. 474. Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber- land, A. D. 580. Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, in the night of November 18, 1002, and the 28d Ethelred II. At Lon- don it was most bloody, the churches being no sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for tho per- formance of a treaty but newly conclud- ed. Baker's Chronicle. Of the Jews in England. Some few press- ing into Westminster Hall at Kichard I.'s coronation, were put to death by the peo- ple ; and a false alarm being given that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, the people in many parts of England, from an aversion to them, slew all they met In York, 500, who had taken shelter in the castle, killed them- selves, rather than fall into the hands of the multitude. A. D. 1189. Of the Bristol colonists, at Cnllen's Wood, Ireland (see Culten's Wood), A. D. 1209. Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dispossess its members of the Spice Islands, A. D. 1623. Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland tr> O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Up- wards of 80,000 British were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. Si? William Petty. In tho firsc two or Inieu days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were destroyed. LorrtClar- endon. Before the rebellion was entire!/ 474 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. MASSACRES, continued. suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massacred. Sir W. Temple. Of the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe, May 9. 1691. tieeGtencoe. Of 194 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes perpetrated by the ii.&ur* fent Irish, at the barn of Kculiabogue, reland, in 1798. Sir Rich. Musgrote. Massacre of 64 American prisoners at Dartmoor, England, (disowned by Brit- ish Government,) April 6, 1315. WASTE II OF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principaJ courts of Europe Following the usage in other countries, a master of the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James L 1603. Bnktr. MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in a cause was made to a master, A. D. 1588 ; and the masters have since been chosen from among the most learned equity members of the bar. MASTER OP THE ROLLS IN ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for that name. MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and disci- pline; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to the Egyptians, so early as 1950 B. c. Josephus de Antiq. Jud. MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins imply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow, the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. MAURITIUS. The isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, A. D. 1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and erected to his memory a monument, which for its grandeur and magnifi- cence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husbaud. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B. C. MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majores; though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Pompilius by adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, which before was the third, 713 B. c. tf AY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed ir MBC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 47o England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the dav. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May-day, an ente-tainmeut at her house in Porttnan-square, to that unfortunate class the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from the mistress of the feast. MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, IRELAND. Founded by act of parliament, and en- dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of student* who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, 35 Geo III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of this college, at the instance of the government, to which 30,0001. for the en- largement of the buildings, and26,000/. annually, were granted by parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy in England. MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel ruled with despotic sway, A. D 735, el seq., under the last kings of the Mero- vingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by port- reeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date from the reign of Richard I. MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 B. c. Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- wards ; they were very early known in Plngland. Standards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London. 8 Richard I., A. D. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. D. 571. The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, A. D. 604. Two miles from the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 1871 B. c. MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in- troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology for instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved and elevated. The first writing on mechanics, was by i The water-mill was probably invente 1 Aristotle, about . . . B. o. 820 in Asia ; the first that was described The Statera Romana invented The fundamental property of the lever and other instruments was demon- strated by Archimedes . . . 205 The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use; the Romans found one in Yorkshire ** Cattle mills, molce jumentarice, were also in use by the Romans, and in parts of Europe . . . . ** was near on of the dwellings of Mithridates . . . . B. c. 70 A water-mill is said to have been erect- ed on the river Tiber, at Rome . 50 Floating mills on the Tiber . A. D. 586 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice about .... 1078 Wind-mills were in very general use in the twelfth century . . . ** 476 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MEM MECHANICS, continued. Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg . . . .A.D. 1882 Theory of the inclined plane inves- tigated by Cardan, about . 1540 Work on statics, by Stevinns . 1586 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo 1688 Theory of oscillation, Huygens 1647 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren 1662 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer .... 1675 Application of meclanics to astrono- my, parallelogism of forces, laws of motion, &c., Newton . A. D. 1679 Problem of the catenary with the analysis, by Dr. Gregory . . 1697 Spirit level (and many other inven- tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to 1702 The Mechanics' Institute in London was formed in .... 1828 Mechanics' Institute in INew York formed 1S88 Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli; he died . . . .1679 Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in England. MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It revolted from Arbaces 820 B. c., and afterwards became an independent kingdom, and conquered Persia ; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the Mede, 536 B. c., Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, and shared its fate. Blair; Priestley. Revolt of the Medes. Blair. B. c. 820 The country was subjected to the As- syrians. Idem. .... T66 Fbraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, Armenia, and other countries . 647 Battle of Rages; the Assyrians defeat the Medes. Blair. . . . .625 War with the Lydians; the hostile ar- mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun so alarms them, they conclude peace without striking a blow . . . 685 The reign of Astyages. Blair. . . 585 Cyrus made king of Persia . B. c. 559 Astyages deposed by Cyrus . . 550 Croesus king of Lydia defeated, and his throne seized by Cyrus . . . 646 Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar to death : and makes Astyages (or Darius, the Mede) viceroy . . 638 By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be- comes master of all Persia ; and this era is properly the commencement of the Persian empire. Lenglet. . 867 The Medos were a brave people, but they degenerate^ and introduced' lux- ury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast of at least live husbands. Aspin. MEDICAL LITERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES. The Medical Reposi- tory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. MEDICIN E. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the East, about A. D. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of medicine Is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. MEDINA, IN ARABIA DESERTA, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained in a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Maho- met was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, A. D. 622. This flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira, a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or quit one's country or friends. MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- sented to us as if they were present. Cardan. Simonides, grandson of Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 B. c. Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger- many in 1807. See Mnemonics. MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religious MES] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 477 who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held bj Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders Dominicans Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders subsequently branched from them. MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is of very early date. The various properties of conic sections were dis- covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., about 218 B. c. MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to havo been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. Pardon. They are, how- ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of latitude as they recede from the equator. MERCHANT from inercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurers' society (see Adventurers Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it extended to England in Edward III.'s reign; and was formed into an English corporation in 1564. Haydn. MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found in vast quantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 tons; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon. A. D. 1512. Now). DicL The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Croi- lius early in the seventeenth century; the first directions for its preparation were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Oberlin, of Vienna, 1785. MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and good-humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. L'Estrange. Johnson. MESS ALI ANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about A. I). 310 Baronius, Annal. MESSENIA, now Manra-Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom was commenced by Policaon, 1499 B. c. It is celebrated for its long and san- guinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred cities, most of whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the Achaean league 21C B. c. MESSENIAN WARS The celebrated wars between Lncedemon and Messenia Tho first began 743 B. c., and was occasioned by violence having been offered 478 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MET to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion commoi. to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend the females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and atone period made so great a carnage, thai the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the end Ithome was taken, and the Messetiians became slaves to the conquerors. The second war was commenced 685 B. c. to throw off the galling Spartan yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the Messenians who fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 B. c., it endured ten years, when the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. MESSINA, IN SICILY. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city then called Zancle, 671 B. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the Saracens A. D. 829. Priestley. In the eleventh century Roger the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- pression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since which it has been handsomely rebuilt. METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned as "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metala are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me- tals. METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be traced farther back than the fifteenth century the period when an extraor- dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly called the revival of learning. < s METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from % one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em- balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 B. c. METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. " Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, "is not to form a sect, or to bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians Christiana in heart and life, in temper, word, and work such as lived in the early days of Christianity, and such as we may conceive may still live." The methodists may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford A. D. 1729; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Metho- dislcK, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence of the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But thesd missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organiz- ed for their support, until 1817. MID] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 479 MEXICO. Discovered in A. D. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortes, whose name is infamous ou account of his cruelties to the vanquished, A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in 1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its in- dependence. Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822. Mexican constitution proclaimed by the president Vitioria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles suppressed, May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. Mexican revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June, 1 830. Civil war between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president. March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. G, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- redes against Santa Anna. Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without Woodshed, and Herrera made president, Dec. 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846; and subsequently, at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States rati- fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be- comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War of the United States and Mexico. Signor de la Rosa, first Mexican minister to the United States after the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving, representing figures on cop- per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of i* is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, A. D. 1648 ; but baron Heinikin state* that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza- beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving. MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territory ceded to England by the peace of 1763 ; made a separate territory of the United States in 1805 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by gen- eral Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528; in 1820, 9,048; in 1830 31,639; in 1840, 212,267. MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, A. D. 1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, F.R.S., who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. Biog. Did. UIDWIKERY "Women were the only practitioners of this art among the H 480 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MIL brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 B. C., is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic.* It ad- vanced under Celsus, who flourished A. D. 37, and under Galen, who lived A D. 131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- tution of the College of Physicians, 10 Henry VII., 1518. The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and after his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., 1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B. C. It submitted to the Romans 222 B. c. ; was formed into a republic A. D. 1221 ; and lastly was governed by dukes from A. D. 1395 until 1505, when it was conquered by Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan by Charles V. of Ger- many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept 8. 1847. Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848; followed by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov- ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on proposed union with Piedmont. 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather than allowed, as law. Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several times proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the insurrection of June, 1848. MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- jects soldiers, A. D. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involves in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the * Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hleropholus, her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to her patients. This brought her int > so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. !She confessed her sex to the judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. Hyg.fa. 274. DICTIONARY OF DATES. appointment of officers are different in the different States See Encyclo- pedia Americana. The aggregate militia force of the United States, as re- ported in 1848, was 1,888,538, but as the returns in some instances were for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac- cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, who, while she slept, was laid by her side ; but perceiving who he was, she threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. Democritus was the first who taught that the via, lactea was occasioned by a confused multitude of stars, about 428 B. c. MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex- piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation; and that during the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to tho effect that our blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- tion, before the final completion of beatitude. Burnet. MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and dresses for woman, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption. of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In 1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while the perfumed coxcomb [' He was perfumed like a milliner." S/takspeare.] measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady phrases to females of distinction.* Butler. MILLS The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. See article Mechanics. MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, occurs 47 Henry III., 1262. Ruding. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, and salt exist in great abundance, in various States: lead mines in Mis- souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Copper, Tin, Gold, &c. MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40 30' nort"- lat , and between 91* 10' and 102* west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants from the United States about 1845-6. * I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but as one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons haranguing upon the merits of muslin or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of con- tempt ; for the-employmeul that degrades this man might have p cserved a woman from proa tltntion. Dr. Southey 21 482 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MIS MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and .sir John Leake in August 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured by the British, without the loss of a mac, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up at the peace of 1802. MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about A. D. 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk into neglect. MINT OP THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N. C., 1837 ; at Dahlonega, 1838. See Coining. MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B. o. See Looking Glasses. MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a toitle. about 1782, was the first actress announced as Miss. G-alCs Lives of the Players. MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. The Jesuits had missions to China (which sec), and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 4,1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions, The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810; first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Ceylon. 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Che- rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- tions of about $200.000. The statistics of its operations in various parts of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical science, to say nothing of re>igion and civilization, have been very important. The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists. &c, are also nu- merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Benevc~ lent Societies. MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat- chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, together with Alabama, constituted the "Mississippi Territory" until 1817, when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929 in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves. MOG] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 483 MISSOURI, one of the United States. "Was included with Louisiana in the purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French in 1764, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the terri- torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise,' which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis- souri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, in- eluding 58,240 slaves. MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele- brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital is said to have amounted to 100,000,0002. See Law's Bubble. MITHR1DATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to ba the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 B. c. It was formerly thought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the capital medicines of our shops. MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 B. c., and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on arr ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." B ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down hia throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 B. c. Lenglet. MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or lesa magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day. MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world* The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- ides the younger, 477 B. c. Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Technica of Dr. Grey is an esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no ticed in the London monthly periodicals. MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke t March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provi- sional government appointed, April 9, 1848. MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards known as Turks, Tartars and Moguls The first conqueror of the Mogul empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died A. D. 1236. Timour Beg became great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of th* nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 484 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MOH MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or almost universal monarchies, the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman, Set them respectively. MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in A. D. 270 ; and according to others, in A. i>. 305. The suppression of monastic houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantino IV., among other persec itors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear at Ephesus . he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that their eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St. Austin arrived in England A. D. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and his successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, whose descendants enjoy, them to this day. MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge- nesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed tu the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 B. c. Money was made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- dity. See articles, Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mint, &c. MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- serts to avoid the Decian persecution about A. D. 250. St. Anthony is sup- posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular monastic life, A. D. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VI1L about 1535. MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622; and were totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640. Ander son's History of Commerce. MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra- MORj DICTIONARY OP DATES. 485 ordinary enthusiast, about A. D. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- fore the close of the second century. Cave's Hist. Lit, MONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je- suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the "Rebellion Losses" Act; the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849. MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar- tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of conjunction of the sun and moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. Opacity of tho moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by Thales, 640 B. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 B. c. Diog. Laerl. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at full moon is 90,000 times less than the light of the sun. Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times less Bouguer. MOORS. They first invaded Spain, A. D. 173. Univ. Hist. The Saracens in Spain, beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, A. D. 1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XL of Leou and Castile, slew 200,000 Moors in one battle ; three leagues round the country was covered with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- nand V., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to the number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. Priestley. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- garded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 B. c. And Grotius is esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times, about A. D. 1623. Bate, &c. MORAVIANS. UNITED BRETHREN. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt ; while the Brethren say that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who* died at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now so general MORGARTEN, BATTLE OF, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to/' Joe Smith" is said to have been made in the state of New York, about, 1835. Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe 486 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ; Smith, Rigdon, Ac., to the Missouri militia, under Gen Atchiuson, Oct. 28, 1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1814. .. The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, and the Mormons emigrated to Deseret and California, 1848-9. MOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the Romans it underwent various revolutions. About A. D. 1116, Abdallah, a leader of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces shook off their dependence: but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with Franco provoked by Abd-el-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, commenced May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 1 6, 1844. Abd-el-Kader taken prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. MORTARS. A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was taken by Tamerlane, 1382; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This city was entered by the French, Sept. 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- ters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 22, following. Tins city has been since rebuilt. MOSKWA, BATTLE OP, between the French and Russians. See Borodino. MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting . themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- ted A. D. 1609. MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II., 1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dieu et mon Droit was first used by Richard I., A. D. 1193. The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, ". I serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiendrai, "I will maintain," was adopted by William III., 1 688. And Semper eadem was or- dered by queen Anne to be Used as her motto. MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition of grief for a friend lasted for seven days; and upon extraordinary occasions it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief lor the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in Europe is black; in China it is white; in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; and it was white hi Spain, until A. D. 1498. Herrera. MUNSTER, TREATY OP, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Muuster, Oct. 24, 1648. MUSj DICTIOXARY OF DATES. 487 MURDER. Th,e highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephotae was established by Demophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 B. c. The Per- sians did not punish the tirst offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarchy, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VUI.'a lime, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed )>enefit of clergy in 1503 Aggravated murder, or petit treason, may happen in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III., 1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com- mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance. The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July 1836. Haydn. MUSEUM Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexander, like the Pryta- neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus. who here placed his library, about 284 B.C. See British, Museum, &c. MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal Cain. Cameleou Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And Zarlino to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B c. The flute and harmony or concord in music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 B. c. Du Frennoy. Pythagoras maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient author- ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third century. MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin, a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, A. D. 1025. Blair. The notes at present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical compos ; - tion in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the science. .The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries about 1616. MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, ENGLAND. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was established in 1741. and other musical societies followed The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- sic established 1822. MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 12 Henry VIII. 1521. Carte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the musket into use hi the Low Countries, 1569. Branxtone. MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling raoss, which the French call mousse. According to others it was first brought 488 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [MTI from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were fir,st worn in Eng- land in 1670. Anderson. They were manufactured in great perfection in England in 1778. MUTES. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- ciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in A. n. 1605. see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III judgment is awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778 Another on a charge of burglary, at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, Aug. 21, 1801.- Phillips. MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. BRIG SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie ; nrd- shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. MUTINY OP THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty. MYCALE, BATTLE OF, fought September 22, 479 B c., between the Greeks and Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- mos with an immense booty. MYCENAE. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclida? Perseus removes from Argos to Mycenae, and reigns, 1313 B. c. Mycena? destroyed by the Argives, 568 B. c. MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in- stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks The Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B. c. The laws were 1. To honor parents; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 8. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civil- ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, A. D. 389. MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated : and persons who had rendered themselves renowned an kings or leaders in this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding of men living in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortal, and therefore after death the multitude wore easily taught to reverence them with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations, and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to have introduced mythology among the Egyptians. 1521 B.C.; and Cadrnua the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 B.O. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 489 N. NABONASSER, ERA OP. This era received its name from the celebrated prim* of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 B c. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ; if after Christ, add to it 748. NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exaltation to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name till then was Swine-snout, A. D. 687." Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 956 : and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules; but at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new names, to show they are about to lead a new life, arid have renounced the world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it up to the Allies, in 1814. NANTES, EDICT OF. See Edict. NAPLES. The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of thia country. The Goths having become masters of Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by Belisarius, general of the Eastern empire - - - A. D. 637 The Lombards next get possession of Naples, and are dispossessed by Charlemagne ... $00 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of France, obtains the crown from the pope, to the exclusion of the rightful heir, Conradin, who is beheaded, aged sixteen years - 1266 The French becoming hated by theSi- cilians, a general massacre of the in- vaders takes place, one Frenchman only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers March 30, 1282 Peter of Arrngon reigns - - 1282 The two crowns disjoined - 1308 Charles Durazzo, becoming king of Hun6,1805 Treaty offensive and defensive be- tween France and Naples Oct. 8, 1805 1'erdinand is again driven from Na- ples, and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned king Feb. 6. 1806 Joseph abdicates for the crown of Spain - - - June 1. 1808 The crown is transferred to Joachim Mumt - - -July 1,1803 Naples is surrendered to aBritishfleet, nnil Ferdinand re-enters June IT, 1815 Execution of Joachim Murat Oct. 15,1815 Revolutionary movement, headed by general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 Suppression of the Carbonari Sept.16, 182>i Reign of Francis I. And of Fenlinand If. 1826 Nov. 8. 1880 Commencement of the dispute rela- tive to the sulphur monopoly,( which Is afterwards amicably adjusted) March 15, 1840 Demonstration in favor of Pins IX. and reform, fired upon at Naples, and arrests made - Dec. 15, 1847 Sanguinary disorders at MesbinaJan.4,lS48 Rebellion at Palermo, &c. Jan. 12, 1848 Palermo bombarded Jan. 13-19, 1848 The king signed a constitution Jan.2S, 1848 Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar- rison - - - Feb. 22, 184S The parliament of Sicily declares that island independent ; Messina bom- barded by theNeapolitan fleet Ap.3, 1S4S The national guard raises barricadesat Naples - - May 14. 184S The people put down by the king's troops ; 1440 killed - May 15, 1843 TheSlcilian parliament elects the duke of Genoa as king of Sicily July 10, 1S48 Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1843 New constitution conceded to Sicily March 6, 1849 Catania bombarded and reducedAp. 5.1349 NARVA, BATTLE OF, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men. while the Swedish army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. NASKBY, BATTLE OF, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fair- fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by lord Astley; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory was with the parliamentary forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfor- tunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all his cannon and baggage, arid 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 14, 1645. NATIONAL DEBT op ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted in the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought to be of alarming magnitude. In 1702, On the accession of queen Anne, the debt amounted to- - - - 14,900,000 In 1714, On the accession of Qeo.L it amounted to . 54,000,000 In 1749, Gco. II.; after the Spa- nigh war.it amounted to 78,000,000 In 1763, George III.: end of the 7 years 1 war, It amounted to .... 139,000,000 In 17S6,ThreeyearsaftertheAme- ric(inwar,ltamonnt'd to 268,000,000 In 1798, The civil and foreign war, In 1845J Funded debt It amounted to - 462,000,009 NATIONAL DEBT or THE UNITED STATES, at different times. In 1802, Close of the French Re- volutionary war, it a- mounted to - 571.000,000 In 1814, Close of the war against Bonaparte - - 865,000,000 In 1S17, "When the Irish and Eng- lish exchequers were consolidated 848,282,477 In 1880, Total amount of the funded and unfunded debt - - - 840,184022 In 1840, Total amount of ditto 789,578,000 In 1791 the debt was In 1SOO " In 1810 a " - In 1815 u " In 1816 " - In 1820 " $75.468 476 82,97,294 58.178.217 99.8-53.660 127.:t84,!34 91,015,566 In 1880 the debt was In 1835 " * In 1839 " - In 1845 " tt In 1848 '. 768,789,241 - $49,565,406 - 87,733 - 11,9*3,733 - 16,801,647 - 66,804,450 NATURALIZATION. It is denned to be "the making a foreigner or alieu. a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it DICTIOXARY OF DATES. 491 both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did nM belong to." The first act of naturalization in England passed in 1437 ; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural- ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year, on the petition of all the cities in England. See United Stales. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OF FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe Sieyes, the states of France constituted themselves into tl>e National Assem- bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Etat repaired tc the Jen de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. NATIONAL CONVENTION OF FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, " That the citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. The foundation of this great institution was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the Angersteia collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. Sir G. Beau- mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed and opened in 1837. N JLVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon record, 1263 B. c. Da Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 B. c. Blair. The fol- lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the page of history. BEFORE CHRIST. First sea-fight on record, in which the Corinthians conquer theCorcyreans 664 The Athenian fleet under Themistoc- les, with 380 sail, defeat the Per- sian, consisting of 2000, at the straits of Salamis - - - - 480 Again, at the mouth of the river Eu- rymedon ; Cymon, theAthenian ad- miral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and army. In one day. Herodotut 470 The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Al- cibiades, the Athenian ... 410 The Spartan general, Lysander, total- ly defeats the Athenian fleet under Conon; bythis victoryhe puts an end to the maritime power of Athens - 407 The Persians engage Conon to com- mand their fleet, with which he en- tirely vanquishes the Lacedemonian fleet, and takes 60 sail out of 90 - 400 The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan at Cnido& : Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is killed; and the mari- time power of the Lacedemonians destroyed. Thueydidet - - 894 The Koman fleet employed in the siege of Lilybsenm, burned by the Carthaginians - - - 249 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lntatius ... 243 The Roman fleets vanquished by Hannibal, the Carthaginian gene- ral ; 800 galleys taken, and 18,000 prisoners ; second Punic war - 209 At Actium,between the fleets of Octa- vianusCwsarandMarcAntony. This battle decides the fate of the latter, 800 of his galleys going over to C- sar, by which he is totally defeated 81 ANNO DOMINI. The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and sinks 2000 of their ships. Du fresnoy - 96f 492 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NAVAL BATTLES, continued. The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto. The Christian fleet consisted of 206 gal- leys, and 30,000 men. The Turks, out of 250 galleys, saved only 100; and lost 80,000 men in killed and prisoners. Voltaire - 1571 Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani- ards. This was a bloody conflict and decisivevictoryandsettledfor a time thesuperiorityof theDutch,Apr. 25, 1607 NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 800 sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire coast. Aseer's Life of Alfred - 807 Near bluys; Edward III. defeated the French fleet of 400 sail, which were all sunk. 30,000 French were killed in this engagement - - 1340 The English and Flemings; the latter signally defeated - 1871 English and French, in which the latter power loses 80 ships - - 1889 Near Mifford Haven; the English take 14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 Off Barfleur ; the Duke of Bedford takes 600 French ships - - 1416 In the Downs : the French fleet cap- tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 Bay of Biscay ; English and French, the latter defeated - - - 1512 Sir Edward Howard defeats the French under Prejeant - - 1518 In the Channel; the British defeat the French fleet with great loss - 1545 TbeSpanisfiArmadadriven from the EnglishChannel tothe roadof Calais, bya running fight the Spaniards los- ing 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are sain defeated, and obliged to bear awayior Scotland and Ireland,when theirfleet isdispersed in astorrn.and they lose 17 more ships, and 6000 more men. See Armada, July 19, 1588 Dover Straits ; between the Dutch Admiral, Van Tromp, and admiral Blake. TheDutch surprise the Eng- lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 40 English, six of which are taken or destroyed ; and the Dutch admi- ral sails in triumph through the channel, with a broom at his mast- head, to denote that he had swept the English from the seas. June 29, 1652 In the Downs ; same admirals, and nearly same loss Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet off Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war and 80 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, and Blake the English admiral - Feb. 10, 1668 Again, near Portland, between the English and Dutch ; the latter de- feated .... Feb. 18, 1658 Again, off the North Foreland The Dutch and English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war each. Van Tromp commar..d by -ommodore Pre- ble Aug. 1804 Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the British ship Leopard, for refusing to be searched .... 1807 Frigate President, vs. British sloop Little Belt May Hi, 181 1 Constitution captures British frigate Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 18.2 Captain Elliott captures two British frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8, 1812 Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro lie. Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by British 74, Poiciiere - Oct 20. 1812 Frigate United States, captain Decaiuri captures British frigate M;c-- 'oniari 1912 Constitution, captain Bainbriage, cap- tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1819 Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures British ship Peacock, captain Peake, Feb 23, 1811 494 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, [ NA> NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. [Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- aded by British.} Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the Briiirh frigate Shannon . June 1, 1813 Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop Pelican - - Aug. 14, 1813 E :ii Enterprise captures the British brig Boxer - - Aug. 1813 Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 Fir til la, commodore Chauncey, cap- tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario. Oct. 5, 1813 Frigate Essex, commodore Pviter, cap- tured by frigate Phcebe and sloop Cherub - - - March 28, 1814 Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, surrendered to British frigate Or- pheus . . April 21, 1814 Sloop Peacock, captain Warringum, captures British brig Epervier April 29. 1814 Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- torious over the British on lake Cham- plain - - - Sept. 11, 1814 Frigate President, surrendered to the British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 181* Frisate Constitution captures British brigs Cyane and Levant, off Maileria Feb. 1818 Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil, Feb. 23, 18 E U. S. naval force under commodore Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly with the land force under general Scott) 1847 NAVARINO, BATTLE OF, between the combined fleets of England. France, and Russia, under command of admiral Codrington. and the Turkish navy, in which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an " untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 B. c. The first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, !J16 B. c. The first account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing round Africa 604 B. c. Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander the Great, 335 B. c., its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch. Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- tion by Gunter - A, D 1620 Middle latitude sailing introduced - Mensuration of a degree, Norwood Hadley's quadrant Harrison's time-keeper used Nautical almanac first published Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass - - - - - 1820 See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, tfc. 1623 1631 1731 1764 1767 Plane charts and mariner's compass used about - - - A. D. 1420 Variation of the compass discovered by Columbus - - - - 1492 That the oblique rhumb lines are spi rals, discovered by Nonius - 1537 First treatise on navigation 1545 The los; first mentioned by Bourne 1577 Mercator's chart 1599 Davis's quadrant, or back-staff, for measuring angles, about - - 1600 NAVIGATION, INLAND, OF THE UNITED STATES. An official report of U. S; Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- ghanies navigable for steamboats, 16 674 miles ; entire length of lake coast, of which 2000 belong to British possessions. 5000 miles. The steamboat tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249 055 tons. Aggregate value of commerce on the western rivers. 0183 609,725. Estimated amount of lake tonnage, $61,914.910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at different periods, see Shipping.] NAVIGATION, INLAND, OF GREAT BRITAIN. Mr. Nimmo. in his evidence be- fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, " we have more inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well th WAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 495 navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. Haydn. This state- ment scarcely agrees with the preceding. NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194. See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- tion Act. for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849, NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at Portsmouth. N. H., 1781; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The Constitution launched at Boston. Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See Naval Battles.} NAVIES OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OP EUROPE AND AMERICA, 1846. Relative naval In commission. Building, ordina- ry, Lct. 510 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ORD ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 B. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracle? were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several sorts of oracles ; as first, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep not awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but it immediately afterwards ceased. Lempiiere ; Pardon. ORANGE, HOUSE OF. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais. daughter and heiress of Godfrey count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 1732. ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. London. ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in- nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- suming lie would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- ' The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course (X iture ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or le^s into scalding water, which if t>* brought otil without hurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime. ORB. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 511 ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III.. 1261. Law Diet. Rymer't f'cedcra. ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he waa to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe- culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca. 1592 ; by sir Francis Drake, 1578; by Vancouver. 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia of Boston, United States, May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808 ; Pacific Fur Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth ol the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813: occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- ded at the 49th parrallel oflat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 1846. Population at that time about 20.000. Territorial government esta- blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at- tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B. c. The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions, in churches, in A. D. 658. BeUarmine. Organs were used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. Ammonius. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile oft'; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60 stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. ORGANS IN ENGLAND. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark to Scotland in A. D. 839. and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; and united with Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689. ORLEANS, SIEGE OP, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI.. king of France ; and it was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and expiate 512 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ov> the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the construction of the clepsydra? and other horological automata. Ptolemj devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about A. D. 130. The planetary clock of Fine"e, was begun A. D. 1553. The planetarium of Be Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, was invented by Charles, earl of Orrery ; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. Rowley of Lichh'eld, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery ha/ been greatly improved of late years. OSTEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spa- niards, from July 1601 to September 1604. when it surrendered by an honor- able capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies. it was retaken by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745. but restored in 1748. In the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In, 1792. the French once more took Ostend. which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed to Clys- thenes, about 510 B. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to he banished, ab arts et focis. But this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing Hyperbolus. a mean person. OTAHEITE, OR TAHITI. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, NOT. 1843. Sei- zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. OTTERBURN. BATTLE OF, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- glas, who was slain by Henry Percy surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. Wahingham. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman [. on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, A. D. 1293. See Turkey. OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re- warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to bo allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph wag called ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capital. DICTIONARY OF DAIES. 513 whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumiui Tubertus w as the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 B. c. OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, ONE OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. Discovered bj captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island- ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. XFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to hav^ been a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. bishop of Winchester ; first called St. Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 Oriel College. King Edward II. ; Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale. and R. Whitwick, clerk - - 1620 Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward 111. - - - 1340 St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - - 155< University. Said to have been founded by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- liam of Durham - - - 117V Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy his wife - - - - 16'2 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent- ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- inally called Gloucester College 1714 HALLS. St. Albans .... 1547 St. Edmund's - - - - 1269 St. Mary's .... 1616 St. Mary Magdalen - - - 1602 New Inn Hall .... 1392 important agents in the chemical of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, COLLEGES. All Souls' College, founded by Henry Chichely. abp. of Canterbury A. D. 1437 Baliol. John Baliol, knt., and Deborah his wife ; he was father to Baliol king of the Scots - - -1263 Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester .... 1516 Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- eter - 1314 Hertford College .... 1312 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen Elizabeth - - - - 1571 Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop of Lincoln .... 1475 Magdalen. Waynflete. bishop of Win- chester - - - - 1458 Merton College. Walter de Merton, bishop of Rochester - - - 1274 New College. William of Wykeham, OXYGEN AIR OR GAS. One of the most phenomena of nature, and the processes Aug. 1774. P. PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in A. D. 1540. PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- lief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout the Roman empire, A. D. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. Tillemont. PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. Osymandyas (See Egypt} causes his exploits to be represented in painting 2100 B. c. Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. 335 B. c. The ancients considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to have been the inventor of the grotesque. 332 B.C. PUny. The art wa 22* 514 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, *ho on that account was styled Pictor, 291 B. c. Lity* The first excellent pictures were brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 B. c. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about A. D. 14. Paint. ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in A. D. 66. Bode, the Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, ia awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in oil, 1416. Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec- tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is A. D. 1523, about which time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity was John Watson (born in Scotland. 1685), who commenced painting por- traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist ; born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708 : painted his first portrait in Lancaster, Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738 ; first painted in 1760: he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756). William Dunlap (New Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists in succession in the United States. See Dunlap's Arts of Design, &c. PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted them 24 000. for their support. 3000 were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss Protestants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 Anne. 1709. Anderson. PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilns, as he was build- ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 B. c., though some maintain that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^Eneas, 1183 B.C., * Parrhasiuscf Epheaus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended for pre-eminence in their profession, ami when they exhibited their respective pieces, the bird* came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said. "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was ths painting, ami Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, ll Zeuxis has dec^ivei the birds; but Parrhasius lias deceived Zeuxis!" Panhasius dressed in a purple robe, ruid wore ft crown of gold, railing himself king of painters, 415 B. c. Plutarch. TAP] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosannas, A. D. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in their hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga palmata, in which the figures of the palin-trees were interwoven. PALMYRA, RUINS OP, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, A. D. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly of wJ ite marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than eveii Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed to touch one another. PALO-ALTO, BATTLE OF. See Battles. PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about A. D. 604. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, A. D. 1137; they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library of Medici at Florence, as the Pandect\ Macdonough, at same time. POE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 531 PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greec* and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 B. c. ; but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, A. D. 1397. The first company of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See Drama. PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were made in the Saxon language in A. D. 786. They were made in Norman- French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 ; and they so continued un- til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to DC taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the courts of law till 1731. POET LAUREAT. Seldcn could not trace the precise origin of this office. The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- lings were his annual stipend. Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exc/i. Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I., in 1615. granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks; and in 1630. this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to 1(KM. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REION OF ftUEEN ELIZABETH. Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, _ [ Nahum Tate, died - A. D. 1716 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 Col ley Cibber, died - - - - 1757 William Whitehead, died - - 1785 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 Henry James Pye, died - - -1813 Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 William Wordsworth, died - - 1850 The present laureate is Tennyson. POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in description. Hazlitt. The exact period of the in- veption of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- lirno. Exodus xv. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us. flourished about 907 B. c. Parian Marb. Iambic verse (which see} was introduced by Archilochus. 700 B. c. Du Fresnmj. For odes, see article Odea. We are told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to England by Aldhelmi or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of the seventh century. who died - - - A. D 1598 Samuel Daniel, died - ; "-. ., 1619 Ben Jonson, died 1637 Sir William Davenant, died 1668 John Dryden ; he was deposed at th revolution ... 1688 Thomas Shadwell, died - - 1692 532 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. { POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maxim us, who ordered them to be pub- licly executed, 331 B. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re- markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death,. POITIERS, BATTLE OF, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and Jchn king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standaid ol France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two I ings, prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory, Sept. 19, 1356. Carte. POLAND. Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it tc invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. A. D. 550; and a kingdom under Boleslaus A. D. 999. Poland was dismembered by the emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- tersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- st-.< 992 cal dignity - - - A. p. [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his reign was so prosperous that every succeeding native sovereign was call- ed a Piast.] Introduction of Christianity Red Russia added to Poland - 1059 Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of Cracow with his own hands ; his kingdom laid under an interdict by the'pope, and his subjects absolved of their allegiance - - -1080 He flies to Hungary for shelter; but is refused it by order of Gregory VII., and he at length kills himself - 1081 Uladislaus deposed - - -1102 Premislaus assassinated- - - 1295 Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 The Wallachians treacherously carry off 100,000 Polew, and sell them to the Turks as slaves - - 1498 Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 Abdication of John Casimir - - 1669 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724 Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 He abolishes torture - - 1770 An awful pestilence sweeps away 250,000 of the people - - -1770 The evils of civil war so weaken the kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the royal plunderers, the empress of Russia, emperor of Austria, and king of Prussia .... 1772 The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 A new constitution is formed by the virtuous Stanislaus - -May 3, 1791 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on various pretexts, pour their armies into Poland, 1792, et seq.] The brave Poles, under Poniatowski and Kosciusko, several times contend successfully against superior armies, but in the end are defeated. Kosci- usko, wounded and taken, is carried prisoner to Russia - 1794 Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 [Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- POL 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533 POLAND, continued. em 30,000 Potss of all ages and condi- tions in cold blood.] Courland is annexed to Russia 1793 Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 Kosriusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, Feb. 12, 1798 Treaty of Tilsit (.which see) - July 7, 1807 [The central provinces form the duchy of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] General Diet at Warsaw - June, 1812 New constitution - Nov. 1815 Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; the army declare in favor of the peo- ple - - Nov. 29. 1830 The Diet declares the throne of Poland vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 Battle of Growchow, near Praga: the Russians lose 70tO men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1881 Battle of Ostrolenka ; signal defeat of the Russians - - May 26, 1831 The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831 Grand Duke Constantino dies. June 27, 1831 Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) July 14, 1831 Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 183) [This last fatal event terminated the nemorable and glorious, but unfor- lunate struggle o( the Poles.] Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth form an integral part of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and the treaty which had made it inde- pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848 DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND. 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- sassinated. 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus; he refused the title of king : deposed 1300 Winceslaus. 1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 1333 Casimir the Great, kiHed by a fall from his horse, while hunting. 1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by his daughter, 1383 Hedwigis, who married, in 1335 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em braced the Christian religion, and took the name of Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to Poland. 1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 1447 Casimir IV. 1492 John Albert. 1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia. 1507 Sjgismund I. 1548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose 1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue ceeding to the French throne. 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- vania. 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king o Sweden. 1632 Uladislaus VII. 1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 1674 Juhn Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter regnum for a year. 1693 Frederick Augustus II., forced to r sign. 1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re lire in 1710. 1710 Frederick Augustus II., again. 1733 Stanislaus I., again. 1733 Frederick Augustus III. 1764 Sui>:';ausAugustus resigns the crown So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old met when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect. POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see Nffrth-west Ptu tcge. t 9. 550 Lechus I. His posterity held the dukedom for about 150 years. 700 Cracus I. 1 " Cracus II., assassinated by his brother. * Lechus II., deposed. 750_Venda, drowned herself. 760" Premislaus. who on being elected was named Lescus or Less. 804 Lescus II., killed by the French. 810 Lescus III. 015 Popiel I. 830 Popiel II. 842 Piastus. a country peasant 861 Zemovitus. 892 Lescus IV. 913 Zemomislaus. 964 Miecislaus. surnamed the Blind. 999 Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid. 1025 Miecislaus II., went mad. 1041 Casimir the Pacific. 1058 Boleslaus II., killed himself. ;082 Uladislaus, gumamed Humanus. 1102 Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-moulh. 1.40 Uladislaus II., fled. 1U6 Boleslaus IV., the Curled. 1173 Miecislaus III., deposed. 1178 Casimir II., surnamed the Just. i!94 Lescus V., relinquished. 1200 Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a few months restored Lescus V. ; but for bad conduct he was again forced to relinquish the government. 1203 Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired. 1206 Lescus V., a third time, being chosen by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- ceeded by his son, an infant. 1228 Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 1279 Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., died 1289. An interregnum of five years, when the Poles chose 534 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ POM POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- stellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne- ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say; of Noah, who reigned and flourished 1970 B. c. Univ. Hist. POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by si*: ute, June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in intioduchig a suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness. Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. 1776. POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- ning man. Pardon. The term was first used in France about A. D. 1569. Henault. POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England A. D. 1378. The re- bellion (>f Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz. a duke 1001., a marquis 80/., a baronet SOL, a knight 201., an esquire 101., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took two wives; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- dius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene- fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See Marriages. Polygamy forms an article of the Mormon Creed. POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lan- guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols. folio, was printed A. D. 1511-17 r. the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co- pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483J. for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printel at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols. folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- ris, by Le Jay, h. 10 vo's. folio. 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by Bryan Walton, in t vols. folio, \Qbl.-Brujiet. POMPEII, RUINS OF. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished by an earthquake in A. D. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of August. A. D. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen- ed at the time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles we*e for] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 535 exhibited The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried city ; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, A. D. 1750. "ONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was beseigcd by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. K.VNTUS, The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- tus, Kuxinus} is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus Dy Darius Hystaspcs. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants o* tLe kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. Tigranes ravages Cappadocia B. c. 9f Mithridaies enters Bilhynia, and makes himself master of many Roman pro- vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to death - - - - - 8t Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaero- nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain - 85 Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this time - - - -74 The fleet of Mithridates defeats that un- der Lucullus, in two battles - - Ti Mithridates defeated by Lucullus - t/& Mithridaies defeats Fab^is - - 68 But is defeated by Pompey - 65 Mithridates stabs himself, and dies - 63 Reign of Pharnaces - - - 63 BatUe of Zela (see Zeld) Pharnaces defeated by Caesar - - -47 Darius reigns - - - 39 Polemon, son of Zeno. reigns - - 36 Polemon II. succeeds his lather - A. B. 33 Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- rius Ilystaspes - - - B. c. 487 Reign of ?4rthridates I. - - - 383 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 Mithridates II. recovers it - - 336 Mithridates III. reigns - - 301 Ariobarzanes II. reigns - - - 266 Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capi- tal by the Gauls, . 1204, which continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. /OOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By an ancient statute. 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law. the poor were to be sustained by ' parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor But no compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII.. 1535. The origin of the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, ".600. 188.811 665,562 819,000 1,556,804 2,184,950 4,952,421 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hy- geuus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phc:as emperor of th In 1580, the Poor Rates were 1680, they amounted to 1698, they amounted to 1760, they amounted to 1785. they amounted to 1802, they amounted to In 1815, the Poor Rates were 18'20, they amounted to 1830, they amounted to 1835, they amounted to 1840. they amounted to 1845, they amounted to x-5,418.845 7,32'J.594 8,111/122 6,356,345 5,468/;99 5,54%650 636 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. F POP East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho- cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII. , a layman, was made pope 1024. The first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. Vuier's Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse. 1161; and also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown off his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom oi Sngland, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all EngHsh books. 1541. The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des- titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in effigy at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22. 1798, and died at Valence, August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Wag dethroned May 13. 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2. 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry, May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 16. 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 24, and thence goes to Portici. near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See Italy ; Rome; Reformation, fyc. POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences for crime led to the reformation. 1522 Adrian VI. 1523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII. of England. 1534 Paul HI. 1550 Julius III. 1555 Marcellus II. ; died in 21 days. 1555 Paul IV. : fiery and haughty. 1559 Pius IV. 1566 Pius V. 1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re- formed the Calendar, (which see). 1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 1590 Gregory XIV. 1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months. 1592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 1605 Paul V. 1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 1623 Urban VIII. 1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel. 1656 Alexander VII. ; liberal and learned. 1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 1670 Clement X. 1676 Innocent XI. ; refoimed abuses. 1689 Alexander VIII. 1691 Innocent XII. : abolished nepotism. 1700 Clement XI. 1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff of his family. '' When Louis, kin? of France, and Henry IT. of England, met pope Alexander HI. at the castle e/Torci. on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that" submisei ?e manner into the castle." Ifume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman (hat ever obtained the tiara, llii arrogance was such, that ne obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss 1m fo3t,hold bis stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brek*pewe. lie was elected to the popedom in 1154. POP j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 537 1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Ven ice, as Pius VII., March 13. 1823 Annibal delta Gensa,Leo XII., Sept.28 1831 Mauro Capellari, Gregory XVl..Feb.2. 1816 Maslai Ferreui, Pius IX., icugurate<< June 21, aged 54. - - June !ti. POPES, continued. 1724 Benedict XIII. 1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses. 1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise arid pious. 1758 Clement XIII. 1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli. 1775 Pius VI., February 14. For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular Views, from page 60 to page 115. POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda, and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit. On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan- dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated and believed without offence." Gibbon. POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 20, 1680. Rapin. POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best and latest authorities. Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Got/ia, &c., be stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these Europe is supposed to contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions; America, 75 millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in A. D. 1377 was 2 092.978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483. it had increased to 4 689.000. The following tables of the population of the United Kingdom are from official returns : POPULATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOB ONE HUNDRED YEARS. Year 1700 1710 - 1720 1730 - 1740 1750 - 1760 Population 5.475,000 ditto 5,240,000 ditto 5,565,000 ditto 5,796,000 ditto 6,064.000 ditto 6.467,000 ditto 6,736,000 Year 1770 1780 1790 1801 - 1821 1841 - Populaiion 7,428,000 ditto 7,953.000 ditto 8,675,000 ditto 10,942,646 ditto 14,391,631 ditto 18,844,434 POPULATION OP THE UNITED STATES. Year 1830 1840 r See the several States Population 12,866,9-20 ditto 17,053,353 Year 1790 Populaiion 3,929.827 1800 - - - ditto 5,305,9-25 1810 - - - ditto 7,239,814 1820 - - - ditto 9,638,131 PRESENT POPULATION OF THK CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OF THE WORLD Chinese empire Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000 Holland . . - 5,lOfr,OcO (Balbi) 180,000,000 United Stages of Dutch monarchy Russia 58,500,000 America* 17,063,000 (tottU) - t4,750,OTil Russian empire 72,000,000 Turkey - - 12,000,000 Bavaria - 4,600.000 France 36,500.000 Ottoman empire Sweden and Noi Austria - 34,599,000 (total) 24,500.000 way- 4,550,000 Great Britain am I : Persia . - 11.800,000 Belgium - 4,50r,000 Ireland - 27,000,000 Mexico 9,500,000 Poland 4,250,000 British empire 15S,000,000 Kingdom of the Portugal . 3,950,000 Japan - - - 27,000,000 two Sicilies - - 8,750,000 Republic of Co Spain - - . I7,f X),000 Brazil - 6,250,000 lumbia - 3,350,000 Spanish empire Sardinia - - - 5,800,000 Eccles. States- 2,970,000 (total) 19,500,000 Morocco - 5,200,000 I British America 2,950,600 23* In laiO. In 1850, estimated at 22,000,000. 538 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. poa POPULATION, continued. Switzerland 2,450,000 St. Petersburgh 405,000 Hamburgh 172,0* Denmark - - 2,400,000 Vienna - 395,000 Lyons 168,008 Hanover 1,780,000 New York (1845 371.000 Palermo 147,000 Wirtemberg - - 1,680,000 Moscow SSSiOOO Marseilles 146,000 Saxony 1.650,000 Grand Cairo - 3-35,000 Copenhagen 145,000 Tuscany - - - i;550,000 Lisbon 298.000 Turin - 143,000 Baden - - 1,400,000 Aleppo - 280,000 Seville - 142,000 CITIES. Berlin - 280,000 Warsaw 141,000 Cities. Inhab. Amsterdam - 274,000 Tunis 138,000 London (Parlia- Madrid 270,000 Baltimore (1848 134,000 mentary Ret.) 1,776,556 Philadelphia (184 8) 258,000 Prague 133,000 Jeddo (reputed) - 1,690,000 Bordeaux 247,000 Smyrna 132.000 Pekin ("reputed) 1,600,000 Bagdad 245.000 Brussels 30,000 Paris ... 1,000,000 Mexico fc25,000 Florence 1:2,000 Nankin - - - 850,000 Rome - 824,000 Stockholm - l*l,OU) Consian-inople - 800,000 Rio Janeiro - 200,000 Munich j 13,000 Calcutta 710,000 Milan ' "' 193,OOU Dresden 1 14.000 Madras . - 435,000 Barcelona 183,000 Boston (1845)- 114,000 Naples 410,000 Frankfort - 110,000 PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annies, it being formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried on in China at King-te-ching, at least since A. D. 442, and here still the finest porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain^ and Dresden China. PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth ; burnt by the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3,677 ; in 1820, 8.581 : in 1840 15,082. PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taker, from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residance of Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte, Elba, and France. PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were established in the reign of Henry VIII. PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman arms about 250 B. c.. and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors. A. D. 713. They kept possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- tural daughter, and. as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, which he was to hold of him, A. D. 1093. Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here - - - A. D. 472 Invasion by the Saracens - - 713 The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, and Alphousos HI. stablishes episcopal sees - 900 Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish Kings, and is proclaimed king by his army - - - - 1131 Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- o bon from the Moors 1141 MR] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539 PORTT/GAL, continued. The kingdom of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189 Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his country, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal - - - 1279 Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted, - - - '.279 to 1325 John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into Africa - - - 1415 Madeira and the Canaries seized 1420 Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, discovered - - 1498 Discovery of the Brazil's - - 1500 The Inquisition established -1526 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain - : -1580 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, duke of Braganza, on the throne. His posterity still possess the crown - - - 1&40 The great earthquake which destroys Lisbon. See Earthquake 1755 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and narrowly escapes deaih - - 1758 [This affair causes some of the first families of (he kingdom to be tortured to death, their very names being for- bidden to be mentioned; yet many were unjustly condemned, and their innocence was soon afterwards made manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- pelled on this occasion.] Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- pensation from the pope to enable his daughter and brother to intermar- ry. See Incest. . 1760 The Spaniards and French invade Port- ugal, which is saved by the valor of the English - - 1762 and 1763 : Regency of John (afterwards king) cw.ng to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 j The Court, on the French invasion, emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 ; Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 Convent ion of C'intra (see article under that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 Constitutional Junta -Oct. 1, 1820 i Return of the Court - - July 4, 1821 j Independence of Brazil, the prince re- gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 The king of Portugal suppresses the constitution June 5, 1823 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel departs, VTES. or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac- knowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines 1 ), Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. PRETENDER, THE YOUNG. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, a:ii! sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilda of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,OOOZ. was offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es- caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died ; n 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Fngland, born March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the Lead of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none . admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- bers were named the Rump, to whom nothing remained to complete their wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. Goldsmith. PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamen or high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular sects. PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. Ashe. PRIMOGENITURE, RIGHT OF, an usage brought down from the earliest times. The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the absence of his father was priest fc> the family. In England, by the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., i068. PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention haa been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and letters. Speculum Humana Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscoua and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about A. D. 1438." Th leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afl awards pasted to 546 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PR* getlier. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the Tractatus Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which was commenced in 1444 and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schaeffer cast the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of COMPLETE FEINTING, 1452. Adrian Junius; Du f^resnoy. Boole qfPsalnis printed -1 A. D. 1457 The Durandi Rationale, first work primed with cast metal types 1 1459 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this time. Collier. But this statement is discredited by Dibdin.] A Liny printed. Dufresnoy 1 -1460 The first Bible completed. Idem! 1460 [Mentz taken and pi undered, and the art of printing, in the general ruin, is spread to oiher towns] - -1462 The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German (whence our English, or Black Letter) until - - 1465 Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same year - - - - 1465 Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) - 1466 Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467 A Chronicle, said to have been found in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- lace (the fact disputed), bearing the date Oxford, anno - - - 1468 William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the first press at Westminster" 1471 He printed Willyam Caxton' s Kecuyel of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul le Feure. PHILLIPS - - - 1471 His first pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of Chess, and Tally's Offices (see below). DIBDIN - - - 1474 dSsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed 10 be the first book with its leaves numbered - - 1434 Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a Greek book printed (ap Aldi) 1476 He introduces the Italic - - 1496 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew A. D. 1498 Homer, infolio, beautifully done at Flo- rence, eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius "438 Printing used in Scotland - - i609 The first edition of the whole Bible was, strictly speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see Polyglot 1517 The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - 1550 The first Newspaper printed in Englana (see Newspapers) .... 1588 First patent granted for printing - 1591 First printing-press imprtved by Wil- liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - 1601 First printing in America at Cambridge, Mass., when the Freeman's Oath and an Almanac were printed - - -639 First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. Hardy's Tour. 1704 First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips. 1720 Stereotype printing suggested by Wil- liam Ged, of Edinburgh. Nichols. 1735 The present mode of stereotype inven- ted by Mr. Colden, of New York - 1779 Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- land in the last century. Phillips.} See Stereotype. The printing-machine was first suggest- ed by Nicholson .... 1790 The Stanhope press was in general use in -1806 Machine printing (see Press) - 1811 Steam machinery (see Press) 1814 TITLES OP THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE. The Game and Play e of the Chesse. Trans- lated out if the Frenche and emprynted by -me Willia n Caxton Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer of our Lord God a thousandfoure hondred and Ixxiiij. TUI.LY. The Bokeof Tulle of Olde age Emprynted by me simple persons William Caxton in to Englysshe as t/tep at/sir solace and re- verence of men growynir in to old age the fij day of August the yere of our lord Jti.cccc.lxxij. HERBERT. THE POLYCHONYCON. The Polt/cronyron conteyning the Berynges and Dfdes of many Tymes in eyght Bakes. Imprinted by William Caxton after hav- ing somewhat chaunged the rude and aide Englysshe, that is to wete (to wit) cer- tayn Words which in these Days be nei- ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the second day of Juyll at Weslmestre the xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward the fourth, and of the Incarnation of oure Lord a Thousand four Hondred four Score and tweyne [1482.] DIBDIN'S TYP. Anna. THE CHRONICLES. The Cronicles of England Enjmted by mr. Wyllyam Caxton IhabbeyofWestmynstre by London the v day of Juyn the ytre of thincarnacion of our lord god M CGCC.LXXX. POLYCHONICON. Pofycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth diyt of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne if kinge Harry the seuenth and of the /;* *To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, where the first primins-press in England was erected in 1471, by Wrlliarn Caxton, encouraged b/ the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced ' The Game and Play of the Chesse," '.te first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which il was printed, tut all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. Ltigh. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 547 PRIMING, continued. carnacyon of our lord MCCCCLXXXXV Emprynled by \\ ynkyn Theworde at Weslmestre. HILL OP PERFECTION. The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the hous of St. Ann. the or- der of the vharterouse Acco-nipiyshe[d] aiMfynysshe[d] alt Westmynster the uiii day o/'janeur the yere of our lord Thou- sande CCCC.LXXXXVII. And in them yere qfkynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de worde. AMES, HERBERT, DIBDIN. ENGLAND. The Descrypcyon of Englonde Walys Scot- land and Ireland speaking of the. Noblesse and Worthynesseofthesame lyanysshed and enprynted in Flete strete in the syne of the aionne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our lord a M.CCCCC and ij. men- sis Mayiis [mense Mali]. DIBDIN' s TYP. ANT. THE FESTIVAL. The FeslyvaU or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken out of the golden legend en- prynted at Ion Jon in F letestrete at ye synt of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the yere ol our lord M.CCCCC. VIH. And ended the xi daye nf Maye. AMES. THE LORD'S PRATER. As printed by Caxton in 1483. Father our that art in heavens, hallowed bt thy name : thy kyngdome come to ut ; /hjf will be done in earth as is in heaven : oure every days bred give us to day ; and for- give us oure tresspasses, as we forgivt them that tresspass against us ; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver usfrom all evil sin, amtn. LEWIS'S LIPB or CAXTON. A PLACARD. As printed by William Caxton. If it p/ese any man spiritual or temporal to bye onypies of two or thre comemoracios of Kalisburi use' enpryntid after the forme of this presit lettre whiche ben wel and truly correct, late him come to westmon- ester in to the almonestye at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good there. DIBDIN'S TYP. ANTIQ,. Among; the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in the Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block. See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic- toria, 1839. PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in A. D. 722 in England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first seized upon by Edward I. in 1285. on the breaking out of a war between England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414. Rymers Fadera. PRISONERS or WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of war in England were 12 000 in number. Sept. 30, 1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commence- ment of the then war, was 44.000. June 1781. Phillips. The English pri- soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, Sept. 1798. Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the French, &c., in England to 47.600, in 1811. Idem. This was the greatest * Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies (Pica, Latin), as u sup posed from the different coloi ol the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign print W. Wheatley. 548 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ("PRO number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period cf th last war. PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan- thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits. Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems adopted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel- phia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady Miss Dix, of New York who has accomplished more than any other per- son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. PRIVY COUNCIL, ENGLAND. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted by Alfred, A. D. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and despatch, and Charles II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the principal officers of state (councillors ex nfficio), and ten lords and five com- moners of the king's choice. A. D. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri- buted by order of government : Captain to have three-eighths, unless under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants. &c., one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. one-eighth ; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth ; ordinary and able seamen, marines, &c., two-eighths PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonns, who having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 B. c. Ashe, " Until the end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." Addison. PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign- able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804. and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish Church, Ctmgregatw de Propaganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by pope Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc- ceeding pontiffs. VROPERTY TAX IN ENGLAND. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid the king in a war with France. \b\2.Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro- posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this tax : they wore required to declare on oath the real value of their effects , but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to givi fEU J DICTIONARY OP DATES 549 an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres- pondents in foreign countries At length, by agreement, the king was pi sased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves. Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount in the last years of the late war. The assessments on i jal property, under the property- tax of 1815, were 51,898,4232. PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa- ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter are Hosea, Joel. Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed by Cyrus, 538 B. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem (Isaiah, xxix. 1 8) executed by Titus, A. D. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in Scripture. PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op- position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, .vith the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- stance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See biitheranism, Calvinism, $*c. PROVISIONS REMARKABLE FACTS CONCERNING THEM. Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. Burton's Annals. When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain (the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, A. D. 1202. Mat. Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. Dufresnoy. Wheat Is. per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. Stowe. The price of provisions fixed by the common-council of London as follows : two pullets, three-halfpence ; a partridge, or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299. Stowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn 31. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two dozen of eggs. 3d. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common- council above recited, 7 Edward II. 1313. Rot. Parl. Wine, the best sold for 20s. per tun. 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 1390, this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. An- derson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, foi one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. Stmce's Chronicle. PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 32C B. o. The Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in- THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PEB habited the Riphaean mountains ; and from these the country was called Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- nifying near, and Russia Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known until about A. D. 1007. St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Christianity, but is murdered by the pagans - - A. D. 1010 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by dreadful ravages - - - * * Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 The Teutonic knights, returning from the holy wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia, and the conversion of the people - - - - 1225 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- tal of Prussia .... 1286 The Teutonic knights, by their barba- rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It is repeopled by German colonists in the 13th century - - - * * * Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by purchase from Sigismond, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- denburg .... 1415 [This Frederick is the head of the pre- sent reigning family.] Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- tives against the oppression of ihe Teutonic knights - - - 1446 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master of the Teutonic order, renounces the Roman Catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as a fief of Poland - - - -1525 University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert .... 1544 The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the electorate of Brandenburg, and so continues to this day - - 1594 John Sigismund created elector of Bran- denburg and duke of Prussia 1603 The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric of Minden transferred to the house of Brandenburg - 1648 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an independent state, under Frede- rick William .... 1657 Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish the part he had taken in restoring peace to Europe - - - 1660 The foundation of the Prussian monar- chy was established between the years 1640 and - - - - 1680 Frederic HI., in an assembly of the states, puts a crown upon his own head, and upon the head of his con- sort, atid is proclaimed km" of Prus- sia, by the title of Frederick L - 1701 Ouelders taken from the Dutch - 1702 Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neun- burgh, and Valencia, and purchases the principality of Tecklenburgh - 1707 Reign of Frederick the Great, during which the Prussian monarchy is made to rank among the first powers in Europe - - A. D. 1740 Breslau ceded to Prussia - - 1741 Silesia, Glatz, eW '24: 554 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ QU* Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instruc- tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696. QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, A. D. 1127, whereby all merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. QUATRE-BRAS BATTLE OF, between the British and allied army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815. QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was slain. December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 1815 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,OOOZ. Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12.000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June 28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was Semiramis. queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 B. c. She embellished the city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name of queen, that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of king. See note to article Hungary. QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate Investigation. May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi- nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her funeral, Aug. 14. QUEENS OF ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who iier* i 1.1 ii 7,000 Frie elves at tins iiuie, uy name, lu guveniiiieui, lu UK imprisoned in lieu 01 an equal numuer in uanger (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 1:20 sentenced) were transported to America, by an order of council, UJ64. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them lor some months, an em- bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service Huf the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by the Dutch, who liberated !W of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in thai jrw. See Ptngue. Of the 120 few reached America. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 555 died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty- five ac tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen. The following list includes all these royal personages : Of WILLIAM I. was married September 12, 1299. Survived Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and died 1084. WILLIAM II. This sovereign died unmarried. Of HENRY I. Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of Scotland ; she was married November 11, 1100; and died May 1,1119. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- vaine ; she was married January 29. 1129. Survived the king. MAUDE 01 MATILDA. Di lighter of Henry I., and rightful heir to the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- sd in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry V., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou. 1130. Was set aside from the English succession by Stephen. 1135; landed in England and claimed the crown, 1 139. Crowned, but was soon after defeated at Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with Stephen, which secured the succession to her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. Of STEPHEN. Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of Boulogne ; she was married in 1128 : and lied May 3, 1151. Of HENRY II. Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; and died 1204. [The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of this prince. Of RICHARD I. Berengera, daughter of the king of Na- varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- vived the king. Of JOHN. Aviso, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; she was married in 1189. Divorced. Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of the count de la Marche ; married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on whose death he was remarried to the count de la Marche. Of HENRY III. Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- nastery, whither she had retired Of Edward I. Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 17K? ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. Margaret, sister of the king of France ; s>w the king. Of EDWARD IL Isabella, daughter of the king of France; she was married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she wt confined for the rest of her life in her ovn house at Risings, near London. Hume. Of EDWARD III. Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland and Hamault ; she was married January 24 1328; and died August 16, 136i. Of RICHARD II. Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperor Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married in January 1382 ; and died Aueust 3, 1395. Isabella, daughter of Charles Vl.of France; she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the mui- cler of her husband she returned to her fa- ther. Of HENRY IV. Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; she died, before Henry obtained the crown, Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- vived the king, and died in 1437. Of HENRY V. Catherine, daughter of the king of France > she was married May 30, 1420. "She outliv- ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudol , grandfather of Henry VII. Of HENRY VI. Margaret, daughter of the duke of Aiijou ; she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and died in 1482. Of EDWARD IV. Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1, 1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in | confinement. EDWARD V. This prince perished in the Tower, in the 13th year of his age ; and died unma ried. Of RICHARD III. Anne, daughter of the eail of Warwi-k, and widow of Edward, prince of Wales, whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She ia supposed to have been poisoi.ed by Richard (having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to make way for his intended marriage with the princess Elizabeth of York. Of HENRY VII. Elizabeth of York, princess of England, daughter of Edward IV. ; she was marrie* January 18, 1486; and died February 21 1503. 556 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [QUB QUEENS, continued. Of HENRT VIII. Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She was married June 3, 1509; was the mother of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- wards formalfy divorced, May 23, 1533; died January 6, 1536. Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She was privately married, before Catherine was divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- er, May 19, 1536. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. She was married May 20, 1536, the day after Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, Oct. 13, 1537. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of Cleves. -She was married January 6, 1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died in 1557. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; and was beheaded on Tower hill February 12, 1542. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. She was married July 12, 1543. Survived the king, after whose death she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and died September 5, 1548. EDWARD VI. This prince, who ascended the throne in his tenth year, reigned six years and five months, and died unmarried. LADY JANE GREY. Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen on the death of Edward. In ten days after- wards returned to private life ; was tried Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 1554, when but seventeen years of age. MARY. Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II. of Spain. July 25, 1554 : and died Novem- ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 1598. ELIZABETH. Daughter of Henry V1I1. Succeeded to the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. Of JAMES I. Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter if Frederick II. ; she was married August 2), 1689; and died March 1619. Of CHARLES I. Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. king of France : she was married June 13. 1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and died in France, August 10, 1669. Of CHARLES II. CATHERINE, infanta of Portugal, daughta of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. ; h< was married May 21, 1G62. Survived th king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 21, 1705. Of JAMES II. Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde irl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep tember 1660 ; and died before James ascend- ed the throne, in 1671. Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution in 1683, she retired with James to France ; and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur- vived her consort seventeen ye*rs. WILLIAM and MART. MARY, the princess of Orange, daughtei >f James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, Iff, T ; ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- cember 28, 1694. ANNE. Daughter of James H. She married George prince of Denmark, July '$, 1683 ; succeed- ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen children, all of whom died young ; lost her husband, October 28, 1/08 ; and died August 1, 1714. Of GEORGE I. Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol Zell. She died a few weeks previously to the accession of George to the crown, Jute 8, 1714. Of GEORGE II. Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and died November 20, 1737. Of GEORGE III. Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke ol Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married Septembei 8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. Of GEORGE IV. Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. Se article Queen Caroline. Of WILLIAM IV. Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; eh was married July 11, 1818; and survived th king. VICTORIA. Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen daughter of the duke of Kent ; born May 24 1819 ; succeeded to ihe crown June 20, 1837 crowned June 28, 1838. Married her ccusir prince Albert of Saxe-Cotwrg-Gotha, Feb- ruary 10, 1840. QUEENSTOWN, CANADA. Taken by the troops of the United States of AmerL RAC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 557 ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated th Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the same day. QinCKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- ver was discovered A. D. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, tho chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. QT7IETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists in France. His principal tenet was, that tht. purity of religion coi/sisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of absolute rest and inaction in which the sect'supposed the soul to be, when arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma- dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released through the interest of Pension, the celebrated archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect sprang up about 1678. Nouv. Diet. QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in A. D. 553 ; but some say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. Phillip* QUITO. A presidency of Colombia (which, see) celebrated as having been (he scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. R. RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chaiir ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz- Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket, although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup. value 100 guineas. RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes- sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an in- strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now teen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton. who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish- ment proposed in the privy council of putting the asiassin to the rack, a; being contrary to the laws, 1628. See RavdUi. 558 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BA RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, OXFORD. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40,000. to the Uni- versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1. 1714. The first stone oz the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 1749, and was opened April 13, same year. R ADSTADT, PEACE OP, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. CON- GRESS of commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but en rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 1485 B. o. Heylin. RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram- ways in and about New- castle so early as the middle of the 17th century; but they were made of wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 : " The manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal-merchants," Life of Lord-Keeper North. They were made of iron, a. 1 . Whitehaven, in .1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament (with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. EXTENT OP RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. Great Britain and Ireland United States (in 1849, 6,117) Germany (in 1849, 3,100) ' Holland - Belgium Miles. 3,375 3.800 1,570 200 1.095 France ... 2,200 Miles Italy - . . 115 Denmark - - 106 Cuba 800 Russia - 52 British Colonies - - 1,000 East India - 500 Total length of railways opened throughout the world : in 1847, 21,761 miles. In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ; in 1834. the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, tho North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed foi one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- ponding ratio. Tuck's Railways, 1847. BAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES. In Janaary 1849, the lines complete ed reached an aggregate of In New England 1,219 miles. In New York 840 do In other parts of the United States 4,058 do. Total .... 6,117 do [See Amtrican Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.] RAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convej granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- cester, July 6. same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 1837 Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb. 12, 1840. RAILROADS IN FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident on that from Paris to Versailles. 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 8, 1846. RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the fiist in Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. RAMILIES, BATTLE OF, between the English under the duke of Marlborough and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on Whitsunday, May 23. 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settlipg the honors which had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his daughters. RATISBON, PEACE OF, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, and in some parts of France are still unknown. RAVENNA, BATTLE OF, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, bu"t perished in the moment of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 11, 1512. RAVILLAC'S MURDER OF HENRY IV. OF FRANCE. The death cf Ravil- lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, May 14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil. pitch, and rosin wero poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain; and his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to b 560 TILE WORLD'S PROGRESS. E.E1 puiled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through thu streets. REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20. in 1782. The discus- sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers (106 to 22) June 4, 1832. REFORMATION, THK. The early efforts for the reformation of the church may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of Aqui- leia. employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri. Melancthon. Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca. Browne, and Knox. The eras of the Reformation are as follows : In England ( Wickliffe) A. D 1360 In Bohemia (Huss) 1405 In Germany (.Luther) 1517 In Switzerland (Zuinglius) 1519 In Denmark 1521 In France ( Calvin) .... 1529 In Sweden (Petri) - - A. D 1530 In England (Henry VIII.) 1534 In Ireland (Browne) 1535 In England, completed (Cranmer,! u cer, Fagius. Sfc.) - - 1547 In Scotland (Knox) .... 1560 In the Netherlands - - . 1562 Protestants first so called 1529 The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession to the throne, 1668. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Lmther, Protestants, ifrc. RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false gods among the heathens. Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. Phillips. Religious ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- troduced by Enos, 2832 B.C.. Lenglet. See the different sects as described throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced with the Reformation (which see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv- ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. REPEAL OP THE UNION OF GRKAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. An Irish associa- tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 1841. 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf. on Oct. 8, was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were brought to trial, Jan. 16, 1844. RETREAT OP THE GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10000 Greeks who had joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though undo! lEV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 561: continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was- enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops \.( moun- tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 216 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosophei who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 B. c. Vossius. REVENUE, PUBLIC, OF ENGLAND. The revenue collected for the civil list and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- nary, 1.200 000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. Raised to 6,000000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 1690. Salmon's Ckron. Hist.. ENERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONQUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. William the Conqueror William Kul'us - Henry 1. ... - .400,000 350,000 300,000 250 000 Henry VIII. .... Edward VI. .... Mary ..... Elizabeth .... James I. Charles I. .... Commonwealth Charles II. James II. William III. .... Anne (at ihe Union) - Georse 1. .... Georse II. .... George III., 1786 - Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom George IV., 1825, ditto - William IV.. 1830, ditto - .Ditto, 1835, ditto Victoria, 1845, ditto 800,000 400,000 450,00(1 500,000 600,0(1 895,819 1,517,247 1,800,000 2,001,855 3,892,205 5,691,803 6,762,643 8,522,540 15,572.971 65.599,570 62,871,300 55,431,317 50,494.732 51,067,856 Henry II. ... Richard I. John .... Henry HI. - Edward I. Edward II. Edward HI. - Richard II. 200,000 150,000 100,000 80,000 150.900 100,000 154,000 130,000 100000 Henry V. - Henry VI. ... Edward IV. 76,643 64,976 100000 Richard III. Henrv VII. . 130,000 400,000 REVENUE OF THE UNITED STATES, THE, is derived chiefly from customs and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 1790 1795 - 1800 1805 - 1810 .'.815 - 1820 84.399.473 . 5,926.216 10,624,997 - 13,520,312 9,299,737 - 15,411.634 16,779,331 1825 - 1830 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 - 8 21,342,906 I 1840 24,280.888 1844 16,993,858 28,504.519 - 29,769.134 29,499.247 - 26,346.791: 35,436,750 - 34,163,6X5 1845 - 48,288,219 1846 - 18,032,846 1847 - 19,372,984 1848 - 30,399,043 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. The first publication of the character of a re- view was the "Journal des Savants," established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis de Sallo. It was at first pxiblished weekly, and contained analyses and cri- tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De Sallo died in 1669. and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society ol learned men. and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued ; but in 1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- tributors, as De Sacy, Langl^s, Re"musat, Biot, Cuvier. &c. Numerous other literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few years. The Gentleman's Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly Review, in 1749, were the first works of t'he kind published in Lor.don, that obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals irLich preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated by Nichols; viz. " Weekly Memorials, or an Account of Books lately set forth. 1 24* 562 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ REV 1688-9; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; ' New Memoirs of Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 18 vols., 1728 to 1736; "Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. The Gentleman's Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the tirst editor, who died in 1754. leaving the work in the hands of his associate, David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author of " Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession; and the appellation assumed a.id retained by the conductor of the work from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag- azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is spoken that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which literary history has upon record." A new series of this work vas begun January, 1834; the fifst series having been completed in 103 voluues The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was established in 1749, by Ralph Griffiths, LL. D., who continued to ;onduct it 64 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was continued until 1844. and had many able contributors. The first series, from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 1825 108 volumes. The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to 1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished upwards of 2 620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive. 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 to 1803, inclusive.. 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series was begun in 1815. The British Critic ("London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom died in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the Work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first published in monthly numbers ; bi'* * v om 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of "The British Critic acid Theological Review," until 1843. when a new work, called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- bers of the ecclesiastical establishment; and maintained Tory and High Church principles. The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri- odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith (the first year). Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham, and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time^ upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- what less than 9000. The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early at 1812. it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain- REV ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 563 ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles. It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- bered sir Walter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected with the government. The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1806. It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert Hall, and John Foster. Present eoitor, Josiah Conder. First Series, from 1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members of the established church, was commenced in 1802. and maintains what are commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel Charles Wilks. Most of the volumes of this work have beoi republished in this country. Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 1 he Westminster Review, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- iham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- lation. First editor. John Bowring. LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. The Foreign Quarterly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted to foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united to the Westminster Review. Amer. Almanac, &c. REVOLUTION, ERA OF THE. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. REVOLUTIONS, REMARKABLE IN ANCIENT HISTORY. The Assyrian empire de- stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or Greek monarchy, by Julius Caesar. 47 B. c. The Eastern empire, founded by Constantino the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman. A. D. 306. The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, A. D. 802. This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria. A. n. 1273, from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about A. D. 1293. See also the Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, France, Portugal, &c. REVOLUTIONS. THE MOST CELEBRATED IN MODERN HISTORY. In Portugal, A. D. 1640. In England 1688. In Poland, 1 704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia, 1730 and 1762. In Sweaen. 1772 and 1809. fn America, 1775. In France. 1789, 1830 and 1848. In Holland. 1795. In Venice. 1797. In Rome, 1798. In the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rome, 564 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. RIO Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary. &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary onlj the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec- tively. REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES IN THE UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- rary journals !f i several places in this country, particularly Boston, New York, and Philadelphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support ot had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary an3 religious reviews and magazines : PHILADELPHIA. Aitkin's Pennsylvania Magazine was the most popular before the Revolution; Thos. Paine and Francis Hopkinson, editors Amer. Museum, pub. by Matthew Carey, (to 1792) - - -1787 Literary Magazine and American Register, C. Brockden Brown, (to 1810) - - -186 Portfolio, pub. n onthly from 1809 by Jos. Den- nie; edited by Nicho- las Biddle.1812-16. and 1816-21 by J. E. Ha'l - 1801 Analectic Mag., Mo^^ Thomas, (to 1820) 'PIS Amer. Quar. Review, Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827 Graham's Magazine Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale Striker's American Re- gister, (quarterly) - 1647 Southern Quarterly Re- view, at Charleston, (to 1833, recommenced 1842) - - - 1823 Southern Lit. Messen- ger, at Richmond, by T. W. White - - 1834 Biblical Repertory and Theological Review, Princeton, N. J. - 18 RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before A. D. 406 ; it was rebuilt in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, becouse Clovis the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814. RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium 200 B. c. Abbe Lcnglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus. 87 B. c. Idem. " We are first to consider what is to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. BOSTON. Founded. 1 NEW YORK. American Monthly Ma- N. Y. Magazine and gazine, (the first) es- Literary Repository, tablished by Jeremy (to 179*) - 1787 Gridley, continued 3 Literary Review. R. C. years, about - - 1745 Sands, the whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. The three Horatit. Roman knights, and the three Curiaf.ii, Albans, having been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 B. c. Livy. See Tubular Views, p. 15 to p. 63. Foundation of the city commenced by 753 476 Romulus - -B.C. Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the title of king of Italy, which ends the Western empire - - A. D. Rome is recovered for Justinian, by Belisarius .... 537 Retaken by the Gotha - - - 517 Narses, Justinian's general, again re conquers Rome Papal power established Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, and becomes free - - - 726 Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem- poral dominion of Rome - - 756 Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor of the West - - - - 800 &c. The pope refuses ; the people attack the palace, and at 7 p. M. the pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- nistry - - Nov. 16, 1848 The pope, after being a prisoner in his palace for seven days, escapes from Rome to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis- Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at Rome ..... 1347 [The popes continued in possession of the city and territories. See article Popes and Italy.] The recent struggles of Rome for free- dom commenced in - - - 1848 Mazzini's first proclamation Oct. 29, 1848 Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- ter, assassinated at the senate-house. The populace march to the Quirinal, and present their demands to the pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- stituent assembly, a new ministry, guise of a servant Nov. 24, 1848 Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- stituent assembly convened Dec. 29, 1848 - 553 , The Roman republic proclaimed ; Maz- - 606 i zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 French armament against the republic reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 French repulsed under the walls of Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 days, and false promises on the part of the French - - July 2, 1849 Rome entered by the French under Ou- dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi and his force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 Oudinot surrenders the government into the hands of three commissioners of the pope, who begin the work of reaction - - Aug. 3, IS49 Letter of the French president, dictat- ing the basis of the restoration of the pope's temporal power, viz. : general amnesty, secularization of the admi- nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- ral government - Aug. 18, 1849 Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 ROSARY. "We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary and the Holy Office," A. D. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary aa being said in 1093. ROSES, THE WHITE AND RED. The intestine wars which so long devastated England, were carried on under the symbols of the White and the R?.d Rose, and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan- 568 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ RCM caster chose the ied roses as their mark of distinction, and thote of York were denominated from the white. These wars originated with the descend- ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- chard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the tkirt son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, particularly ir the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle foughv, May 22 1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., I486 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger many in 1302, and again early in the 1 7th century. They swore fidelity promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans. Magi of Persia, and Gymno sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava lurs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. Tim latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. ROYAL ACADEMY OP ARTS IN ENGLAND. Instituted 1768, under the patron- age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first president. Leigh. ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, LONDON. This institution, for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- berden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in th metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. ROYAL INSTITUTION, LONDON. This institution was formed in 1800, un- der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as " The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thii establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. Robert Boyle and sir Win. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in th apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College. Oxford ; where the society continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a bodj politic and corporate, by the appellation of the ' President. Council and Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge." RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, whom he confined ; above 160 more wore excluded j and none but the most determined of the Independents about 60. \ver DICTIONARY OF DATES. 569 permitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 1649. Goldsmith. RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of thia vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, A. D. 882, which is the earliest au- thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in subjection till 1540. when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conqueie4 Siberia. The foundation of the present monarchy laid ...... A. D. 1474 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- to the East, 1509 to .... 1534 Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, signifying great king, and drives the Tartars clear out of his dominions, 1534 to ...... 1550 The navigation from England first dis- covered by Robert Chancellor - - 1554 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 30,000 of the people - - - -1571 The Novogorodians having intrigued with ihe Poles, Ivan orders the chief inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- ces before his eyes .... The race of Rurick, who had governed Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1598 The imposition practised by Demetrius See Impostors. ..... 1606 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their own kins, Sigismund II., upon the throne of Russia .... 1610 Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 Revolt from Polish tyranny - - - 1613 Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617 Reign of Peter I. or the Great He visited England, and worked in the - 1682 dock-yard at Depiford - 1097 Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 The Russians begin their new year from January 1 ... 1700 Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given to Anne of Courland - - -1730 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 Peter III. dethroned and murdered ; suc- ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OF RUSSIA. 1606 Chousky. murdered. The young prince, the rightful heir, till now immured, put to death A. n. 1763 The dismemberment of Poland com- menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177* This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- ing criminals; and dies - -1790 Murder of the emperor Paul, who is found dead in lus chamber, March 23, 1801 Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 The grand-duke Constantino renounces the right of succession Jan. 26, 1822 The emperor Nicholas is -crowned at Moscow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 182C Nicholas invested with the order of the Garter - - - July 9, 1827 Peace concluded between Russia and the Persians - - Feb' 22, 1828 War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared - - April 26, 1823 [For the disastrous consequences to Turkey of this war, see Turkey and Buttles.] The war for the independence of Poland, against Russia Nov. 29, 1830 This war closed with the capture of Warsaw, ami the total overthrow of the Poles. See Warsaw Sept. 8, 1831 [For the events of this last war, see ar- ticle Poland.] Cracow, which had been erected into a republic, and its independence gua- ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, is occupied by a Russian and Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836 Failure of the Russian expedition a- gainst Khiva - Jan. 3, 134g Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of .fie Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- ther to the emperor of the French - 1806 For subsequent events, see Naples. KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he . 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. resigned it lo the emperor Charles I 1808. Joachim Murat; he was shot, October 13, VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in lieu of it. 1718. Charles VI. emperor. 1734. Charles, second son to the king of Spain, resigned in 1759. 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former king. 1815. 1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand HI. of Sicily ; now of the United King- dom of the Two Sicilies. 1826. Francis I. 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov 8. SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accom- Elish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- ;rmo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet. a Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af- front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out " Let the French die !" and. without distinction of rank, age, or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number ol 8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there the massacre became general throughout the island. SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Herodotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The sieg of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 B. c. The fol- lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cea tary : Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- I Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vessels parte ; siege raised after \ jirst used by a French en- 60 days, open trenches. I gineer named Renau, 1816 Algesiras, 1341. | Alkmaer. 1573. Almeida, August 27, 1610 Amiens, 1597. Ancona, 1798. Angouleme, 1345 584 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SIEGES, continued,. Antwerp, 1576. I 'se of in- fernal machines 1583,1585 1706, 1792, 1814. Arras, 1414. Ath, 1745. Avignon, 1226. Azoff, 1736. Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- ken by escalade on the night of April 6, 1812. Bagdad, 1248. Bangalore, March 6, 1791. Barcelona, 1697, 1714. Bayonne,*1451. Beauvais, 1472. Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 1688, 1717, 1739, 1769, Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. Bergen-op-Zoom, 1588, 1622, 1747, 1814. Berwick, 1293. Besancon. 1668, 1674. Bethune, 1710. Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. Bologna, 1512, 1796. Bornmel ; the invention of the covert-way, 1794. Bonifacio, 1553. Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. Bouchain, 1_676, 1711. Boulogne, 1545. Brannau, 1744, 1805. Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. Brescia, 1512, 17%, 1799. Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807. Brisac, 1639, 1703. Brussels, 1695, 1746. Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 1812 ; raised. The French in their retreat blew up the works, June 13, 1813. Cadiz, 1812. . Caen, 1346, 1450. Calais, 1347, ( British histo- rians affirm that cannon were used at Cressy, 1346, and here in 1347. First used here in 1388. RY- MER'S FCED.) 1558, 1596. Calvi, 1794. Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811. Candia ; the largest cannon then known inEurope used here by the Turks, 1667. Capua, 1501. Carthagena, 1706. Castillon, 1452, 1586. Outa, 1790. Chalons, 1 199. Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 1736, 1794. Chartres, 1568, 1591. Chaves, March 25, 1809. Cherbourg, 1450. Chincilla. Oct. 30, 1812. Ciudad Rodrigo, 170o; July 10, 1810 ; Jan. 19, 1812. Oolberg, 1760, 1807. Colchester, 1645. Compiegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794, Coni, 1691, 1744. Constantinople, 1453. Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. Corfu, 1715. Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794. Cracow, 1772. Cremona, 1702. Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 to Jan. 12, 1814. Dendermonde, 1667. Dole, 1068, 1674. Douay, 1710. Dover, 1216. Dresden, 1745, 1813. Drogheda, 1649. Dublin, 1500. Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. Edinburgh, 1093. Figueras, Aug. 19, 1811. Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. Fomenoy, 1242. Frnderickshal ; Charles XII. killed, 1718. Frederickstein, August 13, 1814. Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793. Gaeta, 14-33, 1707, 1734, 1799, July, 1806, 1815. Genoa 1747, 1800. Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. Ghent, 1576, 1708. Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See Gibraltar), 1782. Glatz, 1742, 1807. Gottingen, 1760. Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. Gravelines, 1644 Grenada. 1491, 1492. Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. Guastalla, 1702. Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. Haerlem, 1572, 1573. Ham, 1411. Harfleur. 1415, 1450. Heidelberg, 1688. Herat, June 28, 1838. Huningen, 1815. Ismael: the merciless Suwar- row butchered 30,000 men, the brave garrison, and 6000 women, in cold blood, Dec. 22, 1790. Kehl, 1733, 1796. Landau, 1702, et sea., 1713, 1792, and 1793. Landrecis, 1543, 1712. Laon, 991, 1594. Lripsic., 1637, et sea., 1813 Lemberg. 1704. Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. Leyden, 1574. Liese, 1468. 1702. Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. Li to, 1747. Limerick, 1651. 1691. Londonderry, 1689. Louisbourg, 1758. Lyons, 1793. Maastricht. 1576, 1673. Vau- ban first came into nottet, 167< 1743, 1794. Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. Malaga, 1487. Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. Marseilles, 1544. Meniz, by Charles V., IKjK 1689, 1792 et sea.. 1797. Melun, 1420, 1559. Menin, 1706, 1744. Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. Messina, 1282, 1719. Metz, 1552. Mezieres, 1521. Middleburgh, 1572. Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746. 1792, 1794. Mtnt-argis, 1427. Montauoan, 1621. Montevideo. Jan. > 908. Mothe : theFrench, taught fry a Mr. Muller, an English engineer, first practised tht art of throwing- she/Is, 1634. Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504. 1557. 1792, 1799, 1806. Nice, 1705. Nieuport, 1745, 1794. Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. Olmutz, 1758. Orleans, 1423, 1563. Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. Padua, 1509. Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594. Parma 1248. Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796. Perpignan, 1542, 1642. Philipville, 157S. Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 168S, first experiment of firing artillery a-ricochet. 1734, 1795. Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. Quesnoy, 1794. Rennes, 1357. Rheims, 1359. Rhodes, 1522. Riga, 1700, 1710. Rochelle, 1573, 1627. Rome, 1527, 1798. Romorer.tin ; artillery firti used in sieges -VOLTA.IAS 1256. Rosas, 1645. 1795, 1808 Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. Roxburgh, 1460. St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 181X Salamanca, June 27 1812. Salisbury, 1349. Saragossa, 1710, 1809. Saverne, 1675. Schweidnitz ; first experi- ment to reduce aftrrtrcM 8IL 1ICT10NARY 05 DATES. 585 SIEGES, continued. by springing globes of com- pression, 1762, 180?. Scio (see Greece), 1822. Seringapatam. 1799. Seville 10%, 1248. Smolensko, 1611. Soissons, 1414. Stralsund ; the method of throwing red hot balls first practised with certainty, 16754Z13, 1807. TarifarDec. 20, 1811. Tarragona, May 1813. Temeswar, 1716. Thionville, 1643, 1792. Thorn, 1703. Thouars, 1372, 1793. Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. Toulon, 1707, 1793. Toulouse, 1217. Tournay, 1340, 1352, 1581. 1667, 1709, (this was the best defence ever drawn from countermines), 1745. 1794. Treves, 1675. Tunis, 1270, 1535 Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. Urbino, 1799. Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. Valencienes, 1677, 1794. Vannes, 1343. Venloo, 1702, 1794. Verdun, 1792. Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 18IJ Vienna, 1529, 1683. Wakefield, 1460. Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. Xativa, 1707. Xeres, 1262. . Ypres. 1648, 1744, 1791 Zurich, 1544. I Zutphen, 1572, 15S6. SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in A. D. 1460. In 1786. London swarmed free negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. The settlement attacked by the French. September 1794 : by the natives, February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B. c. Known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk. A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- lemagne sent Offa. king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, A. D. 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain and also into the south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Castle. 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in London, at Spital- fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660. which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 Ibs. was sent to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copenhagen, weighing 560 Ibs. and worth 1680/. In England silver-pk;* and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty and ambitious man. A. D. 709. Tijrell's Hist, of England. Silver knivea. spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say, others, by Phidon of Argos. 869 B. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius I'ictor, 269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 B. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which were 22j grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver cohi in England. See Shillings, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 25* 58C THE WORLD'S PRO DRESS. f SLA were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 155. in silver, being a yearly average of 444,33(M. Parl. Ret. SIMONTANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called frirn their founder Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Roma about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet ho had many followers, A. D. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting iu London, held Jan. 24, 1834. SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancien. custom both among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the modo and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian II. A. D. 386, eccle- siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with A tedious sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of the world. St. Augustin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, A. D. 602. SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- nefactor ; Pkilopater, lover of his father ; PhUometer, lover of his mother, &c. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- tides was called the Just ; Phociou the Good ; Plato, the Athenian Bee ; Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagy rite ; Pythagoras, the Samian Sage ; Menedaemus, the Eretrian Bull ; Democritus. the La.ughing Philoso- pher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, A. D. 1100. The old Normans used f*itz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used 0, for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed Mac. as Macdonald. son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. Rymer's Fazdera, vol. x. SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 B. c. See Helots. SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of * great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their serfi^es or labor, they had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as jav him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, *o fatten his lampieys, 42 B. c Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves 12 B. c. Bi,A J DICTIONARY OF DATESs 587 SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known; and laws respect- ing the sale of slaves wat made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse me&, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever second desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, *nd, on running away, become a slave to his master, 1547. BLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 1481 Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- soners for the Christian market. The Abb Raynal computes that, at the time of his writing. 9.000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, "Add 1.000.000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768. the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, the annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been sold in the West Indies.* Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 9, 1847. SLAVE TRADE OF ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should * European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, recollecting (hat for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and that a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. HOOPER'S LETTERS ON THE SULY TRADE. " But," says BUTLER, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with Im- punuy. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us th* Frowns and the judgments of heaven. " By foreign wealth are British morals changed, And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." 1M trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February 1815. Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, 1817; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic contina to be cncoiraged in several states. Haydn. 588 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ 3511 ue devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and ihat the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantable negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, and carried off 42,000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. After several other efforts of humane and just HKO, the question was introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then minis- ters. March 31, 1806; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament, March 25, 1807. SLAVERY OP THE AMERICAN INDIANS IN EUROPE. Many of the early navigators to Ame- rica, including Columbus himself, carried considerable numbers of the aborigines to Europe, where they were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- bella commanded the liberation of Indians held in bondage in her pos- sessions, in - - - 1501 SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See The first negro slaves in the English colonies of North America were brousht to Virginia in a Dutch vessel ofwa'r - -1620 Negroes " who had been fraudulently brought from Guinea" to Massachu- setts (the first in New England), were sent home at the public expense by the general court of that colony - 1646 Gorton and Roger Williams made a de- cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 White slaves were sold in England, to be transported to Virginia: average price for 5 years' service, JE5 while a negro was worth JE25. Bancroft 1672 Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 The Quakers abolished slavery among themselves .... 1754 Resolutions against the slave trade passed by the firs', congress of the colonies .... 1774 i n 1810 Act against the external slave trade In 1820 passed by congress of the United In 1830 Slates 1789 In 1840 but the next /ear the slavery of Ji- dians was recognized as lawful ; and the practice of "selling the natives of North America into foreign bondage continued for nearly two centuries. The excellent Winthrop enumerates Indians among his bequests. Ban- croft. Slave Trade. [Slavery had been already prohibited in most of the northern States in their constitutions.l Act of congress against fitting out ves- sels for slave trade - - 1794 Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- ted States from holding property in foreign slave vessels, linked States vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1801 Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, the introduction of slaves into the United States - - - - 180 Act declaring the slave trade piracy, punishable with death - - 1820 [Slavery has, however, been continued in thirteen of the States. See Mis- souri. ] The number of slaves in the United States in 1790 was - - 697,697 In 1800 896,849 1,191,364 1,538,0(54 2,010,436 2,467 ,:i>5 SLAVES. EMANCIPATION OP. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for the 'promotion of industry among the manumitted slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20 ; 000,000i. sterling, passed 3 and 4 William IV.. Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act, slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became free. BLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says h slept fifty-seven years ; and when he awoke, he found evei y object so al tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years, BOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 589 696 B. c. We have many, and even very late, instances of persons in these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect success at Adrianople, A. D. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr. Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie- sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithjon, a na. tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835 : and left 100,000 " to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846. Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. SMOLENSKO, BATTLE OP. One of the most memorable of the celebrated Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusotf succeeded to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. SMUGGLERS IN ENGLAND. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against smuggling was enacted in 1736. SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- ably more than 3,000 OOOOZ. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, there were imported L622 : 493 Ibs. of snuff, of which 196 ; 305 Ibs. were entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88.2632. See Tobacco. SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, washed theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. SOBRAON, BATTLE OF ; INDIA. The British army, 35 : 000 strong, under Sir Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and iu attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thouars, and queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by the French government. SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or 590 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ soa gammed on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in all ages and nations : by Pythagoras B. c. 466, and Plato B. c. 422, among the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among tho Jews ; by the first Christians A. D. 34 ; by several of the fathers of the Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, A. D. 1515 ; by Campunella, A. D. 1623 ; and byBabeau. in France, A. D. ; but the principal modern teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was bornatBesanconin 1772; and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in A.D. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of England, who first taught it publicly in "London in 1834. Through the instru mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and '.he Shakers, adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. SOCINIANS. So called from their founders. Faustus and Lae^us Socinus. They taught that Jesus was a mere man. who had no existence before h was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per- son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about A. D. 1560. Pardon. SODOM AND GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed by fire from heaven. 1897 B. c. Bible, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 B. c. In his system of the universe he placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits round it a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. How truly the poet says " He who through vast immensity can pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one universe, Observe how system into system runs, What other planets circle other suns, What varied beings people every star, May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." Pope, SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance from Egypt, 1012 B. c. The temple solemnly dedicated. Friday, October 30, 1004 B. c., being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. Usler, Lengiet. SORCERERS AMD MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions. 38 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 6 Eli- zabeth. 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instance! of the punishment of son erers, see Witchcraft. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591 SOUDAN OR SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterward* made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, A. D. 1165. after having killed the caliph Caym. SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles on the sea. See Acoustics. SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. (Edipus, took extraordinary soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W.. about 300 mile froia the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight employed amounted to 450 Ibs., 1840. SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States; first settlement was made under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670. and at Charleston 1671 ; re- ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss. Germans, and Irish at various times. This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73 ; " nullification ordinance " passed Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249000; in 1810, 415.115; in 1830. 581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327 : 538 slaves. bOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, to the value of 2 014.000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100.000Z. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10.00W., and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 1CKM., to the enormous price of 1000Z. See Law's Bubble. SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal. fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun- try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun- dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et seq. The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain from the Romans - - A. p. 412 The Visigoths enter Spain under their leader, Euric - ... 472 The Saracens from Arabia invade the country - - - 713 et seq. Pelagiup, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed tang of Asturias - . . 718 Alphonsus II. refusing to pay the Sara- cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo- rious, and obtains the appellation of " the chaste" - - A. D. 791 st teg. Inisjo. first king of Navarre, &c. - 83C Ferdinand I., count of Castile, talros the title of king - - r* I* 1 * 092 THE WORLDS .ROGRE3S. SPAIN, continued. Union of Navarre and Castile - A. D. 1031 The kingdom of Arragon commenced under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 Leon and Asturias united to Castile 1037 Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of Bourbon - - -1087 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize the dominions they came to protect, and subdue the Saracens - 1091 et seq The Moors defeated in several battles by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - -1118 Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one great pitched battle - - 1 135 University of Salamanca founded - 1200 Leon and Castile re-united - - - 1226 Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- tile and Leon - 1236 The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, their last refuge from the power of the Christians -1238 Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - - 1252 The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of France 1276 200,000 Moors invade Spam - - 1327 They are defeated by Alphonsus XI., with great slaughter - - - 1340 The infant Don Henriquez, son of John the First of Castile, first had the title of prince of Asturias ... 1388 Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole Christian dominions of Spain are uni- ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the power of the. Moors finally extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 Columbus issent from Spain to explore the western world - - - 1492 Ferdinand conquers the greater part of the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512 Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of Spain ' - 1516 Charles V. ol Spain and Germany re- tires from the world . - - 1556 Philip I. commences his bloody perse- cution of the Protestants - - 1561 The Escurial began building - - 1562 Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580 The invincible Spanish Armada de- stroyed. See Armada, and Naval Battles - - - . 1588 Philip III. banishes the Moors and their descendants, to the number of 900,000, from Spain - 1610 Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704 Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to the crown - 1759 Battle of Cape St. Vincent Feb. 14, 1797 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3.000,- 000 dollars, seized by the English Oct. 29, 1804 Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, Battle of Oct. 31, 1505 Sway of the prince ol Peace - - 1806 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his father Treaty of Fontainebleau July 25, 1807 Oct. 27, 1807 The French take Madrjc A.. D. Ma'Ch, 18U8 The prince of Peace disn fssed by he king of Spain - March 18, ia Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of Ferdinand - - March 19. 180tf And at Baycnne, in favor of his " friend and ally," Napoleon, when Ferdi- nand relinquished the crown, May 1, ]80h The French are massacred at Madrid, May 2, 1H03 Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne - - May 25. 1308 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 He retires from the capital - July 29, 1808 Supreme Junta installed Sept. 1606 Madrid retaken by the French, ar.d Jo- seph restored - - Eec. 2. 1808 The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, Dec. 5, 1008 [Spain now becomes the scene of the struggle called the Peninsular War, for the events of which see the arti- cles severally.] Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the Cortes - March 8, 1821 Removal of the king to Seville, and thence to Cadiz - March 20, 1823 The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823 Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- solved ; executions - Oct. 1823 Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 The French evacuate Cadiz Sept. 21, 1828 Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830 Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- ing the king's indisposition, and a complete change made in the minis- try Oct. 25, 1832 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to his brother's throne, should the king die - April 29, 1833 Death of Charles IV.. and his queen assumes the title ol governing queen, until Isabella II., her infant daughter, attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 The royalist volunteer? ui.-armed, wnh some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 Don Carlos lands at I'orinmouth with his family - - June 18, 1834 He suddenly appears among his ad- herents in Spam - July 10, 1831 The peers vote the perpetual exclt-sion of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug. 30, 1034 [Here commences the desolating evil war, in which British auxiliaries take the side of the queen.] Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa, and is ennobled - Dec. 25, 1831 General Evans retires from ine com- mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- rives in London, after having achieved various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837 Madrid is declared in a state of siege. Aug." 11, 18J7 [Espartero and ither Chrislino ge lerale DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593 SPAIN, continued. engage with the C&.- ists, and nume- rous conflicts take place with various success. ] Madrid is again declared in a slate of siege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838 The Spanish Cortes dissolved June 1, 1839 The Carlists under Marota desert Don Carlos - - - Aug. 25. 1839 Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France Sept. 13, 1839 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the war, enters France with a body of his troops - July ~, 1340 The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 Espartero makes his triumphal entry into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 The queen regent appoints a new min- istry, who are nominated by Espar- tero .... Oct. 5. 1840 The abdication of the queen regent of Spain - - Oct. 12, 1840 [She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; visits France ; next settles in Sicily ; but returns to France.] Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during the minority of the young queen - - Apr. 12. 1841 Insurrection in favor of Christina is commenced- at Pampeluna by Gen. O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of the kingdom - - Oct. 1841 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid, and his followers are repuls- ed, and numbers of them slain by the queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 Roilil, the constitu'ional general, enters Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841 Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 Espartero makes his triumphal entry into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 An insurrection breaks out at Barce- lona ; the national guard joins the populace - - Nov 13, 1842 Battle in the streets between the national guard and the troops : the latter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 The troops evacuate the citadel, and retire to Moutjuich - Nov. 17, 184S The regent Espartero arrives before Barcelona, anit demands its uncondi- tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 Bombardmer.t of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1848 It capitulates - Dec. 4, 1S42 The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 The revolutionary junta is re-establish- ed 4. Athanasild. 507. From this year to the year 687 rxtow kings reigned. 687. Egica or Egiza. 697. Vitizza. 74t. Roderick; killed intaUteinTM An interregnum till 718. Pelagius. 736. Favila; killed by a boar in huntirv 594 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. SPAIN, continual. 738. Alpho.isus I. ; Catholic. 757. Froila I. ; killed by his brother Aure- lius. 768. Aurelius. 774. Silo. 783. Mauregat. 789. Veremond. 791. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste. 324. Ramiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracen? to the sword in one battle. 860. Ordogno I. 8to. Alphonsus III. ; eurnamed the great; deposed by his son. 910. Garcias. 914. Ordogno II. 923. Froila II. 924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 931. Ramiro II. , killed in battle. 950. Ordogno HI. 955. Ordoano IV. 956. Sancho I., the Fat; poisoned with an apple 967. Ramiro III. 982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty. 999. Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of Viscu. 1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 103f>. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and Castile. 1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and Garcias in Galicia. 1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant; in Castile and Leon. 1109. Alphonsus VII. 1122. Alphonsus VIII. 1157. Sancho III., the Beloved, In Castile; Ferdinand in Leon. 1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 1214. Henry I. 1236. Ferdinand HI. the Holy; in him Cas- tile and Leon were reunited, and per- petually annexed. 1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 1284 Sancho IV.. the Brave ; Peter HI. in Arragon. 1295. Ferdinand IV. 1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 1350. Peter tl-. Ciuel ; deposed. Reinstate* by Edward the Black Prince of Eng land; afterwards beheaded by hi subjects. 1368. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned tf a monk. 1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to CastiU . 1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 1406. John II. 1454. Henry IV the Impotent. 1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in wlm, by his marriage with Isabella, th kingdoms of Castile and Arragon were united. 1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queer> Joan. 1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germany, resigned both crowns, and retired to a monastery. 1555. Philip II., married Mary, queen-reg- nant of England. 1598. Philip III., son of the preceding; he drove the Moors from Grenada and the adjacent provinces. 1621. Philip IV., his son j a reign of nearly continuous and unfortunate wars with the Dutch and France. 1665. Charles II. 1700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson to Louis XIV. of France : resigned. 1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few months. 1724. Philip V. ; again. 1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamedthe Wise ; he distinguished his reign by acts of liberality and beneficence. 1759. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of hia son anil successor. 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of of France, also forced to resign. 1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- leon; deposed. 1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded by his daughter. 1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29 ; who came to tna tnrone wnen tnree years of age. While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from the kingdom. SPANISH ARMADA AGAINST ENGLAND. See article Armada. SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is supposed to have been the first king. 1516 B. c. From Lacedaemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history of Lacedaemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, from Lelex to the settlement of the Keraclidae, comprising about four hun- P1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595 drcd and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidsc as absol.tte monaiehs, till Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors by Theoporapus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- two years, 147 B. c. Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular V'iews : Greece, page 7, et seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu- tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. 'Ihe women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, they brought disgrace upon their country. Abbe Lenglet. SPECTACLES AND READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina. a monk of Florence, in Italy, about A. D. 1285. Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvi- no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise an Spec- tacles. .SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- ed by Anaximander, 552 B. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- vented by Eratosthenes about 255 B. c. The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 B. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to * the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 B. c. Lucretia with her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius. was preserved in the tej- ple of Fortune. Augustus Caesar usually wore no garments but such as were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- vented at Brunswick, about A. D. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious mechanic, near Bls-ckburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine. with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Har- grave's ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, and. for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, h worked his machinery by horses; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of the Derweiit, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. P attips. SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it WM the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689. when the city was burnt by the French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet t 59G THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ STA condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine ir.il- lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, on the following quantities of spirits, viz. Rum, 2 830.263 gallons ; brandy, 1,167,756 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 gallons; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons; mak- ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! Parl. Returns. SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533. by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. STAMP-DUTIES IN ENGLAND! The first institution of stamp-duties was by statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act. a memorable statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3.126,535/. ; and in 1840, for the United Kingdom, 6.726 817/. See Newspapers, &c. STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em- peror himself, A. D. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily. STANDARD of MAHOMET ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- ried in procession about 1768. when several hundred Christians who igno- rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace The IMPERIAL STANDARD was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. WAR-CHAMBER, COURT or. So called haply from its roof being garnished with stars. Cake. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth\ but from the S/arra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in theii sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- teiuptible. Goldsmith. It was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There wer* STE] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 597 from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting f oioe. Gibbon. STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 B. c Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 R. c. Job, He- siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 B. c., in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- covered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar System, SI ATES-GENERAL OF FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- viously to the Revolution it had not met since A. D. 1614. The states con- sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a a eontest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly. STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. Mortimer. STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 B. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which- he afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678. STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as : 'a way to drive up water by fire," A. D. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. Papin's digester invented - A. D. 1681 Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising water - - - 1698 Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal Society, about - - - 1699 Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen .... 1713 First idea of steam navigation set forth in a patent obtained by Hulls 1736 Watt's invention of performing conden- sation in a separate vessel from the cylinder .... 1765 His first patent ... 1769 His sngines upon a large scale erected in manufactories, and his patent re- newed by act of parliament - - 1775 Thomas Paine proposed the application of steam in America .... 1778 Engine made to give a rotary mc'^n - 1778 Watt's expansion engine - - - 1778 Double acting engines proposed by Dr. Falck on Newcomen's principle 1779 Watt's double engine, and his first pa- tent for it granted .... 1781 The marquess Jouffroy constructed an engine on the Sa6ne - - - 1781 Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga- tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's Im. Curios.) .... 1783-t Oliver Evans' experiments in the same 1785-6 Rumsey 's experiments in the same in Virzinia 1787 W. Syminston made a passage on the Forth and Clyde canal - ... 1789 First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry Jackson 1791 Jouffroy's experiment* in fnat* - 17* 598 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [STI STEAM ENGINE, continued. Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer on the Hudson 1797 First experiment on the Thames - 1801 The experiment of Mr. Symington re- peated with success .... 1802 Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 Oliver E vans' experiments in locomo- tive engines in Penn. ... 1804 Woolfs double cylinder expansion en- gine constructed .... 1804 Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river Hudson, built by himself, and named "The North River;" engine by Boul- ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33 hours: FIRST STEAM NAVIGATION on record - - - 1807 The next three steam-boats in the world were the Car of Neptune, - - 1808 The Paragon 1811 The Richmond 1812 all in New York. Steam power to convey coals on a rail- way, employed by Blenkinsop -1811 Steam vessels first commenced plying on the Clyde (FIRST in EUROPE) - 1812 Steam applied to printing in too Timet office. See Press - - 1814 There were five steam vessels in Scot- land (Part. Returns) in - - - 1813 First steam vessel on the Thames brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 18W The first steamer built in England (.Part. Returns) 1816 The Savannah /.earner, of 350 tons, went from New York to Liverpool in 26 days - - - - July 15, 1819 First steamer in Ireland - - - 1820 Captain Johnson obtained 10,000f. for making the first steam voyage to In- dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed from Falmouth - Aug. 16, 132 Locomotive steam carriages on rail- ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829 The Railway opened (see Liverpool) - 1830 The Great Western arrives from Bris- tol at New York, and the Sirius from Cork, same day, being their first voy- age, in 18 days - June 17, 1838 War steamers built in England - - 1838 First steamer ol the Cunard line was the Britannia to Boston ; after a pas- sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840 STEAM BOATS IN THE UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States gave an aggregate of 700 vessels whole tonnage, 153,600 tons ; but these returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great : probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000 tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United States, in 1838, was 3,010. STEAM VESSELS OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. TEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ; Year. England. Scotland. Ireland. Dependencies. Total. 1814 - n 5 1 6 1815 . - 3 5 2 10 1820 - - 17 14 3 9 43 1825 112 36 3 17 168 1830 - . 203 61 31 20 315 1835 - -344 86 68 48 545 1845 . - 694 139 79 89 1001 STEEL- YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated bi* lance in the Pentateuck The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- tioned in 315 B. c. STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac- tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The An, Scribendi Character is, printed about A. D. 1412, is the oldest system ex- tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1690. There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement and great simplicity. STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about A. D. 1350. Anderson. STEREOTYPE See Pnvting. It is said that stereotyping was known in 1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. . Stone paper was made in 1796. STONF.HENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosiaa in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, A. j 600 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [sxc 476.- -Geoffrey of Monmouth Erected as a sepulchral monumtnt of Am- brosius, A. D. 600. Polydare Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, ii which the Druids officiated. Dr. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet- ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis- tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets. STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo- rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, A. D. 944 One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 600 houses fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the barons, perished, 1215. Holinshed. It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- pests of rain and wind, A. p. \'SA. A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through a chamber where Edward I. and his queen were conversing, did them no damage, but killed two of their attend- ants: Yi&.Hoveden. A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which fell on the army of Edward III., then on its march. The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe- mia, on setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, arid her ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in the har bor, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. Richard's second queen also brought a storm with her to the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was lost, and many ships cast away, 1389 Idem. A hurricane throughout Europe, which did very considerable damage ; more remark- ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the day that Cromwell died. Moi'tirner. A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1690. The storm called the "Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- land. The devastation on land was im- mense; and in the harbors, and on the coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703." A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack Drontheim, A. D. 1719. One in India, when many hundreds of ves- sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen. greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 30,000 pei-sons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. A dreadful hurricane at the Havana; many public edifices and 4048 houses were de- stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, Oct. 25, 1768. Annual Register. An awful storm in the north of England, in which many vessels were destroyed, and 4 Dublin packets foundered. Oct. 29, 1775. At Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 700C of the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. One hundred and thirty-one villages ami farms laid waste in France, 1785. A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. Awful hurricane on the western coast of England, and in Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- wickshire ; 'M persons were killed in Li- verpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were drowned in the neighborhood ; the coast and harbors were covered with wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels lost being nearly half a million sterling. In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more were burnt, the wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer- ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- hood scarcely sustained any damage. Jan. 6-7, 1839. ' Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 houses destroyed, and 1038 injured. Oct 10-11, 1846. Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, ic. Aug. 21.1848. rfTOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle, of * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000/. sterling. The number of per sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in hips blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. T el vo men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Treei were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddysione light-house was destroyed. AIM! in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winsianley. ami the persons who were with him. The bi hop ol Itaih itnd Wells and his lady were killed in be>l in their palace, in Somersetshire. MulU tuUM of cattle wern also lost; In one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. SCO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601 the room, the roof being open. Apartments were wanned too by port- able braziers. See Chimneys. STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, I y Louis- Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of the parties. The prince was afterwards snipped off to America by the French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France. STRATTON-HILL, BATTLE OP, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16, 1643. STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. AM6 Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udine about A. D. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in England. STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 B.C. Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar. A. D. 1582. See Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. STYLE. ROYAL, OP THE KINGS OF ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and Titles. SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- ticularly in wool ; 30.000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 1340. Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20. 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be vigorouslj prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should enter into a sej>arate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to the amount of many tens of millions sterling. Phillips. SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18. Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. SUCCESSION, ACT op. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and th crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act cf June 12, 1701. SUCCESSION, THE WAR OF. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French prince, grandson of Louis XIV. should succeed to the throne of Spain. Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded; 1702 to 1713. See UtreM, Peace of. SUGAR, Sa*.-charum offidnarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to th 26 602 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ 8Ui ancient Jew s. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 32.') B. c. Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage. Lucan. The best sugar was produced in India. Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, A. D. 625. In large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. Robertson's History of Charles V* SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Er- ropeans by a Venetian, A. D. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1659, though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. Anderson; Mor- timer. See Beet Root. SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish history is that of Saul, 1055 B. c. Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in- stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, think- ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- troyed themselves, 606 B. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 B. c. In the Catholic church, ii the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. A FEW OP THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT OASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. Suicide of sen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 Of marsharBerthier - - June 1, 1815 Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 8, 1815 Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822 Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 Of lord James Beresford April 27, 1841 Of the earl of Munster - March 20. 1842 Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25, 1845 Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845 Of Haydon, the eminent painter June 22, 1845 There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- able passion for sircide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi- nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. STJLTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about A. D. 1055. Vattier. It * About the year 1138 the susar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to Madeira, ana finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date stu ;.r was intrsdiiced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte l>encoa pounde." In 1840, tho imports of sugar into the United Kinsilotn were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., of which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about fiv million 1 ! and a half sterling. StJP] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 603 was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth century of the Hegira. STJMMATRA, ISLAND OP. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committee piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street unless she were drunk ; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 450 B. c. Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ed- ward III. and Henry VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c. SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 B. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about A. D. 1200. when it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculas were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length taken together exceeded 50.000 miles, April 19, 1779. SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 -B.C. Pliny, 1, 2. The first erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided into hours, 293 B. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, A. D. 613. Abbe Lenglet. SUNDAY, OR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance was made by Constantino, A. D. 321. Eusebius. The council of Orleans prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Sunday Sports, au- thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. Rapin. Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. SUPREMACY OVER THE CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the .hurch as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VHI. ghook off' the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself. Oui kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- ferred upon then, by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 604 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ sw tli 2 ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others, beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. Haydn. /URGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate study from philosophy. &c., about 410 B. c. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about A. D. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; ^Etius, 600 ; Paulus ^Egineta in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. SURGEONS, COLLEGE OF. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that " no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and a new charter in 1800. SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, A. D , 316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 j and again 1 Elizabeth, 1568 ; and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. SUTTEES, OR THK BURNING OF WIDOWS. This custom began in India from one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present at many of these sacrifices. On February 4. 1743, he saw a young and beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude s.nd courage that astonished every witness of the scene. Holwell. The English government in India have dis- couraged these self-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though rarely, taken place. SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used A. u 628. Introduced in judicial proceedings about 600. Rapin. FROFANE SWEARING made punishable by fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1696. Seo OaUts. SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi- tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of the country. Oylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.C. 57 I barbarians, falls upon the NorA >. During (his reign, Odin, surnamed the Europe, making vasts conquest* . * Divine, at the head of a swarm ot | WE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 605 SWEDEN, continued. Yrige, founder of the family of the Yn- lingars, reigns - - - B.C. JThe early history of the kingdom is altogether involved in fables and ob- scurity.] 32 Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- duces Christianity among his people, about .... A.D. 1000 Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike people and invasions of other coun- tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 Stockholm founded - - - 1260 Magnus Lade I us establishes a regular form of government - - - 1279 The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, is made eleciive ; and Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, or the Foolish, king of Norway, is elected ..... 1318 Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361 The crown made elective - 1320 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - - 1365 Sweden united to the crown of Denmark and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 University of Upsal founded - -1476 Christian 11., " the Nero of the North," massacres all the Swedish nobility, to fix his despotism - - - 1520 Th Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the valor of Gustarus Vasa 1523 He makes the crown hereditary, and introduce? the reformed religion - 1544 The titles of .ountand baron introduced by Eric XIV. .... 1561 The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, between 1612 and - - 1617 He is slain at Lutzen - - - 1633 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1643 Abdication of Christina - - -1654 Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 Charles XII., '' the madman of the North," begins his reign - - 1699 He makes himself absolute- abolishes the senate - - **' KINGS OP A, D. 825 Regnard Lobrock. * * " Reigns uncertain.] 966 Eric, the Victor. 994 Oluf, or Olil'Sckotkong. 1026 Edmund Jacobson. 1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 1041 Haquin. 1056 Steukell, or Steenchel. 1060 Ingo 1. ; assassinated by his brother. 1064 Halstan. JOSO Philip. 1100 Ingo 11. ; died in a monastery. 1130 Ragwald; murdered by the Visigoths. 1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 1144 Suercherll. 1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels. 1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- nute, who reigns. 1163 Canute, son of Eric X. 1192 Suercher HI., SOP. of Charles ; killed in battle. 1211 Eric XL 1Z4 John I. Battle of Pultowa, where Chai!i U defeated by the czar of R.ssia. See Pultowa -AD. 170S He escapes to Bender, where after Uree years' protection, he is made prison- er by the Turks - - - 1713 He is restored and after ruinous wars, and fighting numerous battles, he is at length killed at the siege of Frede- rickshail - - - Dec. 11, 1718 Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- it government .... 1719 Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- terwards called Linnaeus - - 1741 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, who are beheaded - - 1756 Despotism re-established 1772 Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772 Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16: he expired the 29th - 1792 The regicide was dreadfully scourged with whips of iron thongs three suc- cessive days ; his right hand was cut off, then his head, and his body im- paled - - - May 13. 1792 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- vernment assumed by his uncle, the duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809 Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, Nov. 12, 1810 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 Alliance with England July 12, 1812 Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon - March 13, 1813 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 181S Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 SWEDEN. 1223 Eric XII. 1250 Waldemar. 1276 Magnus II. 1290 Uirgerll. 1318 Magnus IIL ; dethroned by 111* iubjct 1365 Albert. 1397 Margaret. 1411 Eric XIII.; abdicated. 1441 Christopher. 1448 Charles VIII. 1458 Christian I. 1497 John II. 1520 Christian II. 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 1569 John III. 1592 Sigismond I., kinj << Poland 1606 Charles IX. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus II. 1632 Christina; resigned her crovm ' 1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke of Dt t Fonts. 1660 Charles XI. 606 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SWEDEN, continued. !S99 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of Frederickshall. 1718 Ulrica Eleanora; resigned when her husband was elected. 1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse- Cassel. 1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. 1771 Gustavus III., Adolphus. 1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 1809 Charles XIII. 1818 Charles John XIV., Bernadotte, Feb. ft 1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but ec- centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the New Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man. of the Word, of heaven and of hell concerning all which subjects error and ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its proper fruits love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered by Julius Caesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 B. c. This canton has given name to the whole confederacy. * The Helvetian', converted to Christian- ity by Irish missionaries - A. D. 612 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 Becomes subject to Germany - - 1032 Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - -1179 Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions the memorable revolt under the pa- triot William Tell. - - 1306 Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 A malignant fever carries off, in the can- ton of Basle, 1 l,aX) souls - - 1314 Form of government made perpetual - 1315 Lucerne joins ihe confederacy - 1335 Tlje canton of Zurich joins, and be- comes head of the league - - 1350 Berne, Claris, and Zug join - - 1351 The Grisons league (see Caddee) 1400 Second league of the Grisons - -1424 The third league of the Grisons - 1436 Swiss soldiers tirst enter into the pay of France, under Louis XI. - -1480 Union of Fribourg and Soleure 1481 Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledge* Swiss independence - - - 1499 Schaff hausen joins the union - - 1501 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and other powers 1516 The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop compelled to retire - 1519 The Gnson leagues join the Swiss an- federacy as allies - - - 1544 Appenzel joins the other cantons 1597 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town ; but in the end is defeated - - 1602 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- nual festival commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] Independence of Switzerland recognized by the treaty of Westphalia (see Westphalia, Peace of) - A. D. 1648 [From this period until the French Re- volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- lity, disturbed only by the changes arising out of their various constitu- tions.] Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 Domestic strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and democratic parties; France interferes - - - 1781 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum in Ireland (see Geneva) - - 1782 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjugation by France - - 1798 The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the federal government restored ; and a landamman appointed by France, May 12, 1802 Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate from the republic - July 13, 1802 Switzerland joins France with 6,000 men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 The Allies entered Switzerland in the spring of 1814. The number of can- tons increased to 22, and the indepen- dence of Switzerland secured by the treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 passes resolves against the Sonder- bund, and troops ol Uri attack canton Tessino Nov. 4, 1847 Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov. 10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 Neufchatel .leclares independence, Feb. 29, 1848 DWORDS. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 1879 B, ;. Univ. Hisl. The sword is one of the earliest irnplementf TR] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 607 of wai , The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andicuj Ferraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 3724. SYCAMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. In JVlrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have spnung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. SYDNEY", NEW SOUTH WALES. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it has a legislative council, which was lirst held July 13, 1829. See New South Wales ; Convicts, tf-c. SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- gogues. There are in London six synagogues. SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, A. D. 673 : the last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533. 3YN9D OF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally ujon the points of justification and grace, 1618. Attzema. SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 B. c.Eusebius. 749 B. c. Univ. Hist. Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was slain, 212 B. c. (see Sicily). S3 r racuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with ^any thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, Aug. 6, 1757. ^ SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particxilars are gleaned from Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, bein involved in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires (w.ixcA see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after th3 battle of Ipsus. Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidse) founded the celebrated city of Antioch. Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, i. e. Con- queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 JEra. of the Seleucidde (ichich see) - 312 Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death of Antigonus - - - - 301 City of Antioch founded - - 299 Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his fathe.s' queen, Straton- ice, he pines away nearly to death , but the secret being discovered, eht is divorced by the lather arid marner, by the son." - - - B. c. 2W * This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of rmvsic. Erasistratus, the illustrious father of anatomy (jointly with Herophilus), had observed, than wnen 608 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SYRIA, continued. Battle of Cyfopaedion - -B.C. 281 Seleucus is ibully assassinated by Ce- raunui,. Lengtet. - - - 280 Ar.tiachus defeats the Gauls, and takes the name of Soter, or Saviour - 275 Rei?n of Antiochus 11., surnamed by the Milesians Theos, or God ! - - 2C1 Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance with S;nyrna anil Magne.sia* - - 243 Reiffr. of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- raunus. or Thunder - - - 226 Battle of Raphia, i". which Antiochus III. is signally defeated - - 217 Antiochus^ conquest of Judea - - 204 V-'ar with the Romans begins - - 192 Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes the title of Theos-Epiphanes, or the Hlustiious God ! - 175 He sends Appolomus into Judea ; Jeru- salem is taken; the tei>ple pillaged; 40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 40.000 more sold as slaves - - 170 Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus with her own hand - 124 Reisn of her son Antiochus Grypus, whom she attempts to poison ; but he compels his mother to swallow the deadly draught herself 123 Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and ot Grypus at Antioch - - 111 Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus Asiatichus, about - - - 65 Conquest of Syria - - A.D. 970 [This conquest is made by the Fatimite caliphs who rule in Egypt.] Revolt of the emirs of Dair.ascus 1067 The emirs of Aleppo revolt - -1068 The Crusades from Europe commence (see article Crusades) 1095 [The Christians ultimately conquer that part of Syria called the Holy Land. See Jerusalem ] Noureddin conqunrs Syria - A.D. 1166 Saladin puts an end to the j.ower of '.he Fatimue dynasty - - - 1171 The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 125f Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who expel the Crusaders - - - 129! Syria overrun by Tamerlane - 1400 Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 151? After the conquest by Selim, Syria con- tinued in possession of the Turks till the invasion of Egypt by the French. July i, U9y Bonaparte defeats the Mameluk-js with great loss - - - Aug. 6, 17f*~ He overruns the country, and takes Ga- za and Jaffa - ... 170-- Siege of Acre - March 6 ts Ma/ 27, 17.CJ Bonaparte returns to France from E- gypt .... Aug. 23, 1791) Egypt is evacuated by the French army Sept. 10, 1801 Mehemct Ali attacks and captures A "re, and overruns the whole of Syria, 183i-32 Ibraham Facha, his son, defeats the ar- my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 [Numerous battles and conflicts follow with various success. ] Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 The Tu i kish fleet arrives at Alexandria and places itself at the disposal of Mehemet Ali -' - - July 14, 1839 The Five Powers propose to the Pone to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 16, 1839 Death of the celebrated lady Hester Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 Treaty of London (not signed by offend- ed France) - - July 15, 1840 Capture of Sidon Sept. 27, 1S40 Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. 1C 1840 Fall of Acre (see Acre) Nov. 3, 1840 After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pr.chalic of Egypt hereditary : n the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13. 1841. This result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its 3< utinu- ance among the great powers of Europe. yet the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frania, his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age. and of exceeding beauty. Oa discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder. Erasistratus adopted an expedient which was the foundation of his great fame. He informed tr.e king that his heir must die, as he languished under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Sdcucus, il is the object of his lovel" "My wife" answ.red the physician. " Then resign her to him," said the king. "But if," said Erasistratus " it were the queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another ?' M Yes,' 1 replied Seleucus, " I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to j?av my sen's life." "Then be at twice!" Biog. Diet. ease," Erasistratus rejoined, " for the object of his love i Stra * This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Os.'uici J was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles IL FHBj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 609 T. TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. TALAVERA, BATTLE OF, between the united British and Spanish armies under sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French army, amounting to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastian!, July 27 and 28, 1809. 1 ALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality of the Jews, the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second century ; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, wero collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimoo- ides in the twelfth century. 1 AMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet. sul- tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself. 1403. C/ialcon- dUa's Hist. Turk. TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in- troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719. when ananas were first brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. Guicdardini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 1'ARENTUM, WAR OF. The war which the people of Tarentum suppoited against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arid which is greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken B. 3 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis Khan, >., D. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the eighteenth century. TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various name* 26* 610 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TBA in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. " In the raigne of king Edward the Third only th/ree taverns were allowed in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke. and the other in Lombard- street." Sir Henry Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff's merriment. Skakspeare l Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is tho White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- lished in 1480 : this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by an act of Edward T I.. 1552. to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster. 6 in Bristol. 3 in Lincoln. 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in F!xeter. 3 in Salisbury. 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich. 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Taverns were licensed in 1752. T./XES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 55L English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 B. c. D Eon's His- toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by William I., 1067. and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, as in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 1377. Camden. First taxation of the British colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- ment, &c. YE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, beginning with the words Te Deum laudamus We praise thee, O God. It is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about A. D. 390; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a great victory or for a bounteous harvest. TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India Company took up the trade. Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715 The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DITV IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS. 1726. - IDS. 700,000 1766. - - 7,000,000 1792. - . 13,185,000 1800. - 23,723,000 1805. - IDS. 24.133,0001 1825. - Ibs. 27.803,668 1810. . - 25,414,000 1815. - - 26,368.000 1820. - 25,662.474 1830. . - 30,544.404 1835. - - 44.360.550 1640. - - 33,068,556 In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000.0002. annually. Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese teas in England. Report of the House of Commons, 1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- land, is about 22 000 000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great Britain is 30000000. Evidence in the House of Commons. 1830. The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4 278 463 ; while that of coffe was 89,102 872. TEM j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 611 FEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, abo&t 1768. The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but tha first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor- thumberland at Sion. TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsia, because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when Mie plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, bv varying the combinations of two revolving crosses ; and also to spell any particular words, letter by letter. See Electric T'legraph. TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1671. Roger Bacon, about A. D. 12-50, described telescopes and microscopes ex- actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 1609. Galileo imitated their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton; and finally by Martin. Hall, Dolland. and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- tory of Madrid, which cost ll.CKXM. in 1802 ; but the Herschel telescope, made 1789 1795, is superior: it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- meter, 3J inches thick, weighs 2118 Ibs.. and magnifies 6400 times. See Hersckel Telescope. TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that the first reat public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the most prominent of tha first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Ger- many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon other orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, and it suftvred great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 612 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [TEW in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed in England, and finally in 1340. TEMPLE, LONDON. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased by the professors of the common law. and converted into inns. They are called the Inner and Middle Temple. TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. Eusebius, The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. ApoUonius. For tem- ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 B. c. Rebuilt, 536 B. c. Pillaged by Antiochus, 170 B. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 B. c. Destroyed by Titus, A. D. 70. The temple of Apollo, at DELPHOS, first a cottage with boughs, built of stone by Trophorius. about 1200 B. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 B.C. A new temple raised by the family of the Alcmaeonidae, about 513 B. c. Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B. c. To rebuild it, employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, A. D. 260. The Temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w, th her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded from all aliments. Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years B.C., is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. The heathen temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantino the Great. A.D. 331. See Heathen Temples. TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1796. Population in 1790, 35691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. TESr ACT. The statute of Charles II.. directing all officers, civil and mili- tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, &c., was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. TEUTON!, OR TETJTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made prisoners, 101 B. c. See Cimbri. TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Chri*tian army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The order was confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine III., A. D. 1191. See Prussia. &c. TEWKSBURY, BATTLE OP, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after- wards Richard HI. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French k.'ng, Lewis XI., for 50 000 crowns. This was the last battle between the honset of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. THE] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 613 I EXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re- public an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dip- agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrant from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indeper dence rommenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an- nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 1C, June 8, 1844.] THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption took place, May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot passengers, March 25, 1843. THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 u. c., was the first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 B. c. Theatres were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of August 24, A. D. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar Sienna, A. D. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room, Is. Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663. and issued frc^ Drury-lane ; it runs thus : " By his Majestic, his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Humov- rovs Lieutenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi- tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New York, 1832. See Dra-ma, Plays, &c. THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- tompylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 614 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ run gates, 20 ; 000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cam. byses. king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia. Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Baotia. Thebes was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus; the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 B. c. It was dismantled by the Romans, 145 B. c. Livy ; Thucydides. THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- ly punished theft with death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- tion was taken away. 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel'h acts, 9 and 10 George IV. THEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. and they taught a union with all men who believed in one God. but who reject- ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that their religion was better because older and more simple than that which waa given by God to the Hebrews. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- Ter, founded 1808. THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, A. D. 1609. Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentw. Invent^ ed by Sanctorio in 1610. Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years subsequently. THERMOPYLAE. BATTLE OF. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the defile of Thermopyla3, withstands the Whole force of the Persians during three days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 B. c. -Vossius de Grezc. Hist. THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects were Called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to nil Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their origin, as the Achasans, the ^Etolians. the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the deluge of Deucalion, 1503 B. c., and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. See them severally. rHRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 B. c. ; and it so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 B. c. By- zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which Constantinople was built. The Turks took th country under Mahomet 11., A. D 1463. - Priestley. Tl. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 615 TIIR ASHING -MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerlj in use. The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. THRASYMENUS, BATTLE OF. A most bloody engagement between the Car- thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 B. c. No less than 15.000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10 000 taken prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10 000 Romans made their es- cape, all covered with wounds. Livy ; Polybius. THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a present by the council King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on. bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, "Hold ! hold! doctor; another turn would make me confess any thing." THURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero worshipped by tjie ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which was consecrated to Thor, s-till retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 B. c. ; and Caesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler. A. D. 1598; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove universal gravitation, about 1683. TILSIT, PEACE OP. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- vation of Napoleon's three brothers. Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 19 following. TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry IV., about A. D. 1400. Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in France in 1560. Voltaire's Gen. Hist. TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60 000 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand on an acre ; in peace, 32 000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102 600 acres, and 1026 pel annum. Allnut. England imports about 800 000 loads of timber annually, exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lath wood, &c., together with about 8,000,- 000 of deals and deal-ends. Parl. Ret. 616 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [TOS TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 B. o. Early au- thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each twelve inches long; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being f great rarity, A. D. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks^ Watches, &c. TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par- ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his son. Edward the Black Prince, 1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in Europe, A. D. 1240. Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 400,0002. TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B. c. Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary. Wickliffe. "I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- ocracy." Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, A. D. 786. Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be basely murdered, A. D. 794. Burn's Eccles. Law. Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, A.D. 844. Henry's Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800. Henaulk. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 1215. Rainaldi. TITLES ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and " My liege" conferred upon him, 1399. The title of " Excellent Grace" was conferred upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to ' Majesty" the present ' Sacred," or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It wag first observed at St. Domingo, A. D. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- TOPj DICTIONARY Of DATES. 617 iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured only for exportation for some years. Stance's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 6s. 1(W. per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II. An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in lie- land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ijreland be purchased in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England ! n 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen millions of poundsx Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached to forty millions of pounds. Parl. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all t'ae southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was $7,551,122 Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad taste of this weed. TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, A. D. .642. Taken by the English, 1672; re- taken. 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse in 1781. and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English. April 14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup- tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of queen Anne's reign. TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, A. D. 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes were used in 1663. TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, commenced in England about 21 Edward III.. 1346. The first granted to the kings of England for life, 6 Edward IV., 1465. Cumngham's Hist. Taxes. TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich. A. D. 1653. Vol- taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 100Z. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- holders his share produced him 3000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,116,- 244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798. Haydn. TOPLITZ. BATTLE OF. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated. 1762. Battle of Toplitz, August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a tripl* 618 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty ol Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in England so late as the 1st Elizabeth. 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal. 1776 ; in France, by order of Louis XVI.. in 1780. although it had not been practised there some time before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gustavus III., 1786. It yet continues in other countries. TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col- lector of tithes and taxes. Eiicyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ; while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. Ashe. The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (which, see}, in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. Phillips. In our revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but. oddly enough, at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See Whigs. TOULON, FRANCE. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered. August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. TOULOUSE, FRANCE. Founded about 615 B. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- tablished here to extirpate heretics, A. D. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about A. D. 850, and consisted of a frater- nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. TOULOUSE. BATTLE OP. The final battle between the British Peninsular army under lord Wellington and the French one of the most bloody that had been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult, whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight- ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. TOURNAMENTS OR JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavalieis used to perform, to show tOW I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 619 their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tourner, " to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised A. D. 890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance in 1136. One was held in Smithtield so late as the 12th century, when the taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the kirg's death in a few days, June 29. 1559. Tournaments were from this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour being the ' Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison in it as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- neral Labourdonnaye. Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- pieces, May 6, 1794. TOURS, BATTLE OP. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying fiammer. We are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahornedan; October 10, A. D. 732. TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar (Genesis xi.), 2247 B. u. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 B. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos}, 280 B. c. Tow- ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above the ground, and covered with, conical roofs of the same materials. Of these productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. TOWER or LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more than what is now (Jailed the White Tower, which appears to have been first maiked out by William the. Conqueror, A. D. 1076, commenced in 1078, and completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- built; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, and many murders See England. TOWTON, BATTLE OP. This gieat battle is supposed to be the most fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the lattet 620 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f u of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subject* fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower ; his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OP, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng- land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad- mirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first tragic poet at Athens, 636 B. c. Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the first gained by ^Eschylus, 486 B. c. Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- cles, 470 B. c. Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 B. c. Ibid. Another by Astydamus, 377 B. c. Ibid. See Drama ; Plays ; Theatres. TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected A. D. 114, by the directions of the emperor Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the emperor. TRANSFUSION OF THE BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- longing life, A. D. 1483. Henault. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English physician, who died in 1691. practised in this way. Friend's Hist, of Phys Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri- tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. TRANSPORTATION OF FELONS IN ENGLAND. The first criminals were ordered for transportation instead of execution, A. D. 1690 ; but banishment for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. Phillips. More recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was transported for forging a frank, (IQd. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable by transportation for life. TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- tablished by the council of Placentia, 1096. The word " transubstantiation' was first used by Peter of Blois about 1166. John Huss, in subsequent times, was the first opposer of this doctrine; he was burnt by order of thi council of Constance, A. D. 1416. Caws Hist. Lit. DICTIONARY OF DATES. 621 TRAPPTSTS, OR MONKS OF LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart- ment of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- cipline, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were shipped by the French government at Painboeuf, Nov. 19, and were landed from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain there the extreme rigor of their order. RAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635. Rapin. TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise water for the irrigation of the fields. The 'read-mill lately introduced into the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. TREASON. See High Treason. It wa* punished in England only by banish- ment till after Henry I. Baker's Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment was dreadful hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive. Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason, which passed both houses in 1788. PETTY TREASON may happen three ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior so declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any foreign nation was entered into A. D. 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions; Leagues, &c. Abo, peace of - Aix-la-Chapelle - - Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of Akermann, peace of Alt Radstadt America, peace wilh Amiens, peace of Armed Neutrality - Arras, treaty of .. Arras, ditto ... Au2sburgh, league of - Baden, peace of Barrier treaty - - Basle, peace of Bassein, India - . Bayonne, treaty of - Belgium, treaty of London Belgrade, peace of - - Berlin, peace of Berlin decree - Berlin :onvention Breda peace of .. Bretisny, peace of Bucharest, treaty of Cambray, league of Cambray, peace of - Gunpo-Formio, treaty of Carlo witz, peace of 1743 Carlsbad, congress of 1668 1748 Cateau-Cambresis, peace of Chaumont, treaty of 1826 Chunar, India 1706 Cintra, convention of - 1783 Closterseven, convention of 1802 Coalition, first, against France 1800 Coalition, second, ditto 1435 1482 Coalition, third, ditto Coalition, fourth, ditto 1686 Coalition, fifth, ditto 1714 Coalition, sixth, ditto 1715 Concordat - 1795 Conflans, treaty of 1802 Constantinople, peace of 1808 Constantinof !e, treaty of ia39 Copenhagen, peace of 1739 Cressy ... 1742 Dresden 1806 1808 Family compact Fontainebleau. peace of 1667 Fontainebleaui treaty of 1360 Fontainebleau, concordat at 1812 Friedwald, treaty of 1508 Fuessen, peace of 1529 Ghent, pacification of 1797 Ghent, peace o f America) 1699 Golden Bull -1811 1554 - 1814 -1781 - 1801? 1757 - 1792 - 1799 - 1805 - 1806 - 1809 - 1813 . 1801 . 1463 1712 1833 - 1660 - 1544 . 1745 1761 - 1679 - 1785 - 1813 - 1551 - 1745 157S - 1814 - 135f 622 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. TTJH TREATIES, continued. Grand Alliance - Greece, treaty of London Hague, treaty of the Hague, treaty of the Halle, treaty of Hamburgh, peace of Hanover treaty Holland, peace with Holy Alliance Hubertsberg, peace of Interim .... Kiel, treaty of Laybach, congress of League ... Leipsic, alliance of Leoben, peace of Lisbon, peace of London, treaty of (Greece) London, convention of (Turkey) Lubeck, peace of Luneville, peace of Madrid, treaty of Methuen treaty - 4 Milan decree Munster, peace of Nantes, edict of - Naumberg, treaty of Nice, treaty of Nimeguen, peace of ' Noyon, treaty of Nuremberg, treaty of Olivia, peace of Paris, peace of (see Paris) Paris, treaty of Paris, peace of (Sweden) Paris, capitulation of Paris, treaty of - Paris, peace of Paris, treaty of Partition, first treaty Partition, second treaty - Passarowitz, peace of Passau, treaty of ,.- .' -f Petersburg, peace of Petersburgh, treaty of - Petersburgh, treaty of Petersburgh, treaty of Peterswalden, convention of Pilnitz, convention M" Poland, partition of - Pragmatic Sanction Pragmatic Sanction Prague, peace of Presburg. peace of - Public good, league for the - .. .. e , , _. TREATIES OF THE UNITED STATES. Some of the most important: 1689 1829 Pyrenees, treaty of the Quadruple Alliance - 16T.9 1718 - 1659 Radstadt, peace of - 1714 - 1669 Radstadt, congress of -1797 1610 Ratisbon, peace of - -1630 - 1762 Ratisbon, treaty of 1906 - 1725 Religion, peace of - 1556 -1784 Rhine, Confederation of the 1806 -1815 Ryswick. peace of -1697 - 1763 St. Germain's, peaco of i570 1548 St. Germain-en- Laye i679 -1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with -1721 France .... -1795 -1570 Seville, peace of - - 1792 -1631 Sicirod, peace of - 1613 1797 Smalcald, league of- -1529 -1668 Spain, pacification of (London) 1834 - 1829 Siettin, peace of - 1570 1840 Stockholm - 1630 - 1629 Stockholm, peace of - 1719 -1801 Stockholm, treaty of - 1724 - 1526 Stockholm, treaty of - 1813 -1703 Temeswar, truce of 1664 - 1807 Teschen, peace of -1779 - 1648 Teusin, peace of 1595 - 1598 Tilsit, peace of -1807 - 1564 Tolentino, treaty of 1793 - 1518 - 1678 Toplitz. treaty of - Triple Alliance ... . - 1813 -1717 - 1516 Triple Alliance of the Hague -1668 - 1532 Troppau, congress of - 1820 1660 Troyes, treaty of -1420 - 1763 Turkmauchay, peace of 1828 - 1796 Ulm. peace of . - 1620 1810 Utretht, union of - 1579 1814 Utrecht, peace of - - 1713 - 1814 Valenjay, treaty of -1813 - 1815 Verona, congress of -1822 1817 : Versailles, peace of - 178S - 1698 Vienna, treaty of - . - 1725 -1700 Vienna, treaty of alliance .1731 1718 Vienna, definitive peace .1737 1552 Vienna, peace of .1809 - 1762 Vienna, treaty of, March 23 - 1815 - 1772 Vienna, treaty of, May 31 1815 - 1805 Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - - 1815 - 1810 Vossem. peace of -1673 - 1813 Warsaw, treaty of - - -1768 - 1791 Warsaw, alliance of - -1683 1795 Westminster, peace of - - 1674 - 1439 Westminster (with Holland) 1716 - 1713 i Westphalia, peace of -1648 1653 Wilna, treaty of - -1561 1805 Worms, edict of 1521 1464 Wurtzburg, treaty of - 1610 Alliance with France Feb. 6. 1779 Treaty of Paris (independence secured) Sept. 3, 1783 Treaty of commerce with Prussia - 1785 Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain (Jay's) - ... 1794 Treaty with the Six Nations and other Indian tribes - - 1794 Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1796 Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by J. Q. Adams) - - - 1799 Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- trick Henry &c. Sept. 30, 180!) Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe and Pinckney rejected by the Ame- rican government - - - 18M Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, signed by J. Q. Adams, Gallatin, and H. Clay, for the . ited States, clos- ing th "war of 1812," iut leaving the original dispute much as before- 1814 Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 1915 Treaty with the Choctaws and Chero- kees 1816 Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 132S Treaty with the Creeks, Osases, Ac. 132S Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- ing American citizens for spoliation! DICTIONARY OP DATES. TKI J TREATIES, continued. during the war with Napoleon Nov. 13, 1826 Treaty wilh Brazil March 18, 1829 Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 Treaty with Russia (commercial) Dec. 18, 1832 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster : ratified by the senate (39 to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 Treaty with China, negotiated by C. 623 Cushing ; ratified by the Be: ate Jan. 16, 1S4< Treaty of peace will. Mexico, signed at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 ; ratified by the senate (with modifica- tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame- rican commissioners Sevier and Clif ford, and Mexican minister Rosas May 30, 184? Treaty with Great Britain, respecting Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between North and South America ; signed at Washington by Sir II. L. Bulwer and J. M. Clayton - June, 185C Elms, in Switzerland, 335 yeajs. Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem. 800 years. Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. [For proofs and details see the article re- ferred to.] TREES, AGE OF. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al- manac for 1838, p. 102, are, The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland, 700 years. (Someoaksare supposd to have lived 1,500 years.) Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Gene- seo, New York, 500 years. Yetc trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, 1,200 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 2,500 years. TRENT, COUNCIL OF. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. The first council assembled A. D. 1545, and continued (but with interrup- tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last council was held. TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but thero is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. Phillips. TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tribuni Pletns. Magistrates of Rome, first chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 B. c., at the time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- cer. The first two were C. Licinius. and L. Albinus; but their number was soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom the island capitulated. Feb. 21. 1797; they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. ITIIN1TY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by all Christian sects except those called Unitarians (which see~). Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used the terra Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His Defence of ChristianUy was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. Wat-kin* 624 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. {" TEC An order of the Trinity was founded, A. D. 1198, b> John de Matha and Felix de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of lifteen persons, was insti- tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri. in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 1813. TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28. 1668. TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two sorts the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their different pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus. Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See Rome. TROUBADOURS OR JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 B. c., and married the daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy; and Ilus, his succes- sor, converted it into Ilium. Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1231 nor. Blair B.C. 1546 Reign of Priam or Podarces - - 1224 Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 | Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the the city of Dardania infl 1480 Reign of Ericlhonius - - 1449 Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- ple are called Trojans - 1374 The rape of Ganymede - - 1341 sacking of Troy. Warner's Iliad, book xxiv., line 9&4, Pope's edit. 1204 Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks to recover Helen - - 1198 Troy taken and burned in the night of Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - 1314 I the llth of June, i. e. 23d of the Reign of Laomedon - 1260 Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia; He- sione delivered from the sea-monster. month Thargelion. Parian Mar- hies. 408 years before the first Olympiad. Apollodorus 1184 jEneas arrives in Italy. Lenglet 1183 Blair, Usher . . -1225 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, And received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe- TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 625 dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo WM nearly in ruins. Priestley. TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain. ArbuShnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, A. D. 1095. It was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. TROYES TREATY OF, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814. TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great in 336 B. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, A. D. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained by Moreland, 1671. TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tu- isco, or Tiw, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. See Week Days. I'UILERIES, PARIS. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, A. D. 1564 ; con- tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly those of 1789 and 1848. TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, A. D. 1578, and have always been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of Alcmaer. in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was carried to England from America, about 1663. TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its waters. A. D. 1606. UNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 B. c, Besieged by Louis IX. of France. 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V.. when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blakfc, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 27 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Till TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of tw parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about tfap head. The sash of the Turk's turban is white linen; that of the Persians,, ied woollen. These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color, to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong j-laces and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- ed it to the king of Sardinia. TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars , but by reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of many races of men. Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca 571 604 610 6ti> 622 631 - 1095 (see Mecca) - - -AD. His imposture commenced (see Maho- melanism) .... The Koran written (see Koran) Flight to Medina (see Medina) JEm of the Hegira (see Hegira) Death of Mahomet Holy ware begin (see Crusades) The Turkish empire first formed under Othman at Byihinia - - - 1298 The Turks penetraie into Thrace, and bike Adrianople - - - 1360 Amuraih I. institutes the Janizaries, a guard composed of Christian slaves bred Mahometans - - - 1362 Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is at length taken by Tamerlane (see Tamerlane) .... 1403 The Turks invading Hungary, are re- pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- der Mahomet II., which ends the Eastern Roman empire 1453 Greece made subject to the Mahome- tans (see Greece) 1458 The Turks penetrate into Italy, and take Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout Europe - - 1480 Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja- nizaries; he murders his father, bro- thers, and (heir sons ... 1512 He lakes the islands of the Archipelago from the Christians - - ~ - 1514 He overruns Syria ... J516 Adds Egypt to his empire - 1516 Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 Rhodes taken from the knights of St. John, who go to Malta - - 1522 Solyman II.. with 250,000 naen, is repuls- ed before Vienna - - 1529 Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an end to the fears of Europe from Turk- ish power (see Lejxintu) 1571 Amurath II. ascends the throne ; stran- f lea his five brothers - - - 1574 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during tnis reign] The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous Schah Abbas A. D. 1585 Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - - 1595 Great fire in Constantinople - - 1606 Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles his father and four brothers - " 1624 The Turks defeat the Persians, and take the city of Bagdad - - - 1639 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman 1687 Peace of Carlovuz - - - 1699 Mustapha III. deposed - 1703 The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 Belgrade taken from Austria; and Rus- sia relinquishes Azoff - - 1739 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the English and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish .... 1770 The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 [This ends the disastrous war with Rus- sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the Turks having lost more than 200,000 men. Ashe.} War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 Passage and repassage of the Darda- nelles effected by 'he British fleet, but with great loss v ee Dardanelles) Feb. 19, 1807 The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- dered, and Mustapha IV. called to the throne May 29, ISlW Treaty of Bucharest (ickid, see) May 28, 813 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- turning from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the deserts of Arabia ; 20 only wt re saved Aug. 9, 1812 Subjection of the Wai-habees - - 1819 Ali Pacha of .lanina, in Greece, declares himself independent - -1820 Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia March 6, 1821 The Greek Patriarch put to death at Constantinople - - Ap ril 23, '821 TtJR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 627 TURKEY, continue i. Horrible massa:re at Scio; the most dreadful in modern history (see note to Greece) - April 23, 1822 Sea-fight near Mltylene - Oct. 6, 1824 New Mahometan army announced to be organized - - - May 29, 1826 Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 Firman of the sitan abolishing the Ja- nizaries .... 1826 Fire at Consta ninople ; 6000 houses re- duced to ashes - August 30, 1826 Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see Navarino) Oct. 20. 1827 Banishment of 132 French, 1 20 Engl ish, and 85 Russian settlers, from the Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 War with Russia - - April 26, 1828 The emperor Nicholas takes the field against the Turks - May 20, 1828 The Russian emperor arrives before Varna .... Aug. 5, 1828 Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 The sultan leaves his capital for the camp, bearing with him the sacred standard - - Sept. 20, 1828 Dardanelles blockaded Oct. I, 1828 Suirender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828 Russians retreat from I efore Schurala, October 16, 1K8 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French - - - Oct. .'!0, 1828 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians Nov. 10, 1828 Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa near Schumla - June 11, 1629 Adrianople is entered by the Russian troops - - - Aug. 20, 1829 Armistice between the Russian and Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1849 Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14. 182 Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 1830 St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 He defeats the army of ti.e sultan in Sy- ria, with great loss - - Juvly 30. 1832 A series of successes brings the ar ny of Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues of Constantinople, and the sultan has recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833 A Russian force enters the Turkish ca- pital .... April 3, 1833 Treaty with Russia, offensive mil de- fensive - - July S 1833 Office of grand vizier abolished by the sultan - - - March 30, 1838 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849 1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I. 1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 1359,Amurath I., his son ; assassinated. 1388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison. brother. 1397 Isa Belis; killed by his b 1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 1410 Musa; strangled by his brother. 1413 Mahomet I. ; succeeded by his son. 1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 1451 Mahomet 11. ; left the empire to his two sons. 1481 Co lacus, his grandson ; succeeded by his father. 1481 Xemin ; obliged to abdicate in favor of his brother. 1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 1595 Mahomet HI. . succeeded by his son. 1604 Achmet ; succeeded by his brother. 1617 Mustapha I.; succeeded by his nephew, 16 17 Osman'I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, TURKISH EMPERORS. and his uncle restored. 1622 Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc- ceeded by his grandson. 1623 Amu rath IV., succeeded by his brother. 1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, succeeded .by his son. 1655 Mahomet IV., deposed ; succeeded by his brother. 1687 Sulyman III. ; succeeded by his bio- ther. 1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew. 1695 Musiapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV., deposed and succeeded by hw brother. 1703 Achmet HI. ; deposed. 1730 Mahomet V.; succeeded by his brother. 1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother. 1757 Mustapha HI. ; succeeded by his br ther. 1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV. 1789 Selim HI. 1807 Mustapha IV. 1808 Man. Khan II. 1S39 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England A, D, 1524, and to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- ous particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are nativea neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- ing larger do not differ from ours. Smyth. TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious Tases THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f TYK enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces oi oak. by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. TURNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663. Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. 11 TSC ANY. This country was created into a dukedom, A. D. 1530. It came into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French iu March 1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tie title of king of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after- wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ; but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present granu- JUKC Leopold IT (cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 Grand-duke grants a national militia. The grand-duke granted a liberal con- stitution .... Feb. 1848 Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 The grand-duke flees from Florence The chambers meet. Provisional government proclaimed, Feb. 9, 1&49 Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- can troops - - - May 10, 1841 The grand-duke re-enters Florence and resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as king. TYLER, WAT, HIS INSURRECTION. It arose in the opposition of the people to the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leade r awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dis- persed, 1381. TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B. c., and they retired from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 B. c. Taken by Nebu- chadnezzar. 572 B. c., and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 B. c. S/rabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes were the ,iege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the flames Phillips. VYRE, ERA OP. Began on the 19th of October, 125 B. c., with the month Hy- perberetseus The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub ran] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 629 tract 124 ; and ir* the given year be less than 126, deduct it from 126, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. U. ITBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about A. D. 1640. UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia ari Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- l ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the \ treaty of Partition in 1795. ULM, PEACE OF, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great battle between the French and Austrians. in which the latter, under gen- eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36 ; 000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. JMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis. that umbrel- las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds ot soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high priests were anointed at their inauguration; they also anointed the vessels of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, A. D. 527. As a religious rite, extreme unction was in common use, A. D. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received unction from the pope, 590. Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as extreme unction. See Anointing. UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- * For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe- minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. The female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in (ear of rain, borrowed the umbrttlafrom Wilks's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome ID the maid's pattens," As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us, that he had "a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out 'Frenchman! why don : t you get* coach V " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, i were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther 'information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in ihe hall to hold Jver a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage. '' This man's sister was compelled to Quit 1 is arm one day from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adus, th.it "he persisted for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners begnn (a use theirs, and then the English. Now it is become a great trade in London." New Monthly Magazine. 63(5 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ONI r. . -, ?'-T Tfi,-' 1 ' ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted. UNIFORMITY, ACT OF. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles IT., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. UNION OP THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- . standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- . ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year. UNION WITH IRELAND. The UNION of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND, propos- ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British parliament, July 2, 1800. j UNITARIANS. This sect began A. D. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533. proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. The British realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub- lin. See Union. UNITED PROVINCES, THE SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- ish yoke. A. D. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand. Utrecht, Friesland. Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht. Jan. 23. 1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of Orange as their stadtholder; and formed the alliance ever since known as the ' Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by the appellation of the <; Seven United Provinces." Their independence was acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated. WI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 631 July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed , Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe- Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium. DNITED STATES OP AMER CA. See America; and the separate States, Maine, ' ; fit - 1565 Mechlin, Flanders - . - 1440 Dole, Burgundy - - ... - 1426 ; Mentz . 1482 Douay, French Handera . J562 Montpelier - . .1196 Dvasden, S 'xouy ! - ! V 1694 Moscow - 175< 632 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. UNIVERSITIES, continued. Munster 1491 Naples 1216 Orleans, France 1312 Oxford (see Oxford) 886 Paderbom 1592 Padua, Italy 1179 Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 Paris, 792 ; renovated . - - 1100 Parma 1599 Pa via, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 Perpienan 1349 Perugia, Italy 1307 Petersburg!) 1747 Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged .... 1552 Poictiers 1430 Prague 1348 Rheims, 1145; enlarged 1560 Rome Sapienza ..... 1303 Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - - 1419 Salamanca 1240 Salerno 1233 Saragossa, Arragon > 1474 Siguenza, Spain .... 1517 Sorbonne, Paris - - - .1253 Strasburg 1538 Toledo. Spain 151f Treves, Germany - - - 147; Tubingen, Wirtemberg ... 1473 Turin - - - . . 1403 ITpsal, Sweden .... 1477 Utrecht, Holland .... 1636 Valence, Dauphine .... 1475 Valencia in the thirteenth century. Valladolid 134< Wirtemberg - - 1502 Wittenberg ... . 1502 Wnrtzbnrp 1403 UNIVERSITIES IN UNITED STATES. See Colleges. UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irving s chapel, in London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue." She was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. Ann. Register. fRANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 6s. Sd per annum for 100Z., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- beth. 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623. when the word in- terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 1714. See Interest. U fRECHT, TREATY OF, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began here (see United Provinces), A.D. 15 "9. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the PAL] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 633 French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1796. V. FACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Jenner. He made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pus from the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. .Tenner subsequently published the result to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro- duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,000^. for the dis- covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years. 22 Henry VIII., 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII.. 1535 ; and a third time convicted, death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as respects the character of the offender. VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705. but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. VALENCIENNES, SIEGE OP. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the dnke of York, 1793. It was retaken, together with Conde". by the French, on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30. 1794. VALENCAY, TREATY OF, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, OB agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De- cember 8, 1813. VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it it called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- dom under Claudius II. at Rome. A. D. 271. It is said that on this day the birds choose their mates ; whence, probably, came the custom of young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of Valentine. VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinion! of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopri* 27* 634 THE WORLD'S pr.oGRESS. [VEH forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called ^Eones, or Ages. He taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms : to these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- tiousness. VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any navigable communication between the North Pacific aud North Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and died in 1798. VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Gem uny and Gaul, A. D 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out. and attacked in turn by the Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread devastation wherever they appeared. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633. It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sover- eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In England, a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee. Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1786 ; in Holstein, in May 1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded A. D. 1448, is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican," was first used by Voltaire, 1748. VENEZUELA. Wben the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in 1830. See Colombia. VENI, VIDI, VICI. " I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when ho vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus. 47 B. c. See Zcla Battle of. VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 B. c. Marcellus con- j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 635 quered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 u. c. Th islands on vhich the city is built began to be inhabited, A. D. 421, by Ital- ians, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- ous nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the morass by Entinopus. by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. Priestley. Venice was first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), A. D. 697. The republic was not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gav<* it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 1830. Venice declares herself an independent republic - - Aug. 18, 1848 Provisional government decrees an as- sembly wilh full powers to be elected by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 inhabitants - - Dec. 29, IMS Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is again in the power of Austria, Aug. 22, 1849 VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- triloqui. and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi. i. e. people that speak out of. their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See NOTE to article Cook's Voyages. The diurrjal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- setts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 1764 : claimed also by New- York, and granted to that colony by parliament in 1664 Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of 830,000, in 1790. The state admitted into the Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 86,689; in 1810, 217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679; in 1840, 291,948. VERSAILLES, PALACE OP. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV.. in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which was finished in 1708. and was the usual residence of the kings of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building 636 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [vw to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tout Jf\ gloires de France ; and freely opened to the public. VERSAILLES, PEACE OP. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day. the definitive treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to Franca Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use few grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey translated part of Virgil's ^Eneid into blank verse, which is the first composi- tion of the kind; omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the ottava rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. the Italian language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into Italy in his heroic poem La Tcseide, having copied it from the old French chansons. Metropolitan. Vrissino is said to have been the first introducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. Vossius. See Poetry. VESTA. The planet Vesta (ths ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. Annual Register. VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire, consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother of Romulus was one of the vestals. ^Eneas is supposed to have first chosen the Vestals. Numa, in 710 B. c., first appointed four, to which number Tar- quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were selected and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 B. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 B. c. ; and the ves- tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, A. D. 92. Bibliotheque Uni- verselle. VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and the cities of Pompeii and Hemdaneum were overwhelmed by the burning lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds wore suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it: this eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, when VtJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 637 Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town ot Torre del Greco was a second time hurned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been several eruptions since. VETOES OF THE PRESIDENTS or THE UNITED STATES. The power of can celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : by Washington, twice; Madison, four times; Monroe, once; Jackson, fiva times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two third* of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, Februarj 20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846 French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, J846. VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city in 1136. and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. of England, 40,000/., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70 000 of his best troops. 1529. Again besieged in 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who totally defeated the Turkish army of 100.000, which had cannonaded the city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austria and Hungary. See next articles. VIENNA, TREATY OP, WITH SPAIN. The celebrated treaty signed between the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. VIENNA, TREATY or ALLIANCE, between the emperor of Germany, the king of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. VIENNA, TREATY OF WITH FRANCE. A definitive treaty of peace between the emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; signed Nov. 18, 1738. VIENNA, PEACE OF, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol. Dalmatia, and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging tc adhere to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, October 14, 1809. VIENNA, THE ATI KS OF. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. Th* treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Countries on the one part, Mid Great Britain, Russia. Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 638 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in tha house of Orange. May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Laueriburg, June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, June 8, 1815. VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hajd labot being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to the vill or lordship; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat- tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties to be made free at easy rates, A. D. 1574. Stmoe's Chran. VLME1RA, BATTLE OF,, between the British, under sir Arthtr Wellesley, and the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21, 1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- ant career. VINCENT'S, ST. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763. the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffriei mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 B. c. Some think the vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, A. D. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in England in 1552; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes, and Wine* VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they might dip their bread, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their repast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking. * The following is a tradition in relation to the vine : When Adam planted the first vin, ami tsft it, Satan approached it, and said. " Lovely plant ! I will cherish thee ;" and thereupon taking three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slaved them at the root of the tree, and their blood has been imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, you are cheered by its influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you becoT.e furious, and rave and bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reasor. nnkb. and, like tin hog, you wallow in the mire. Aslte. t] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 639 There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not proper for drinking till diluted. AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin was invented towards the close of the same century. Abbe Lengiet. The fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as A. D. 1200. in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. VIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according to their belief, August 15, A. D. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the Greeks in the eleventh century ; its institution in the West is ascribed to Gregory XL, 1372. A distinguished writer says : " The Indian incarnate god Chrishna. the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years B. c. It appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." Sir William Jones. \1RGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast, exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter ! I can give thee, to preserve thee from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 B. c. VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river the first white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa- nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established the Church of England, by law, 1662; took an early and prominent part in the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Cortf- wallis. at Yorktown. October 19. 1782. Constitution of the United States adopted June 25. 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 640 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ WA Hamsun, and Taylor ; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and many distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974,622: in 1830, 1,211,272; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. VISIER OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in his bosorn, and carries away with him. Kiwlles. VTTTORIA. BATTLE OF. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in ths annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com- manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. Mar- shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington totA Jourdan's only remaining gun ! VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 B. a. by authentic historians. See Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in A. D. 79. See Vesuvius. The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred A. D. 1004. For an ac- count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783. see Iceland. In Mexico, a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out, Sept. 13. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, May 1, 1808. VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large army, and 85 ; 000 men voted for the sea. England subsidized 40,000 Germans, raised the militia to 100.000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70.000 were Irish. The English volun- teers were, according to official accounts, 341 600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war, Congress authorized the enlistment of 50.000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, but less than 30.000 were actually needed or enrolled. VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order of Necho, pharoah of Egjpt, when some Phoanician pilots sailed from Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 B. c. Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is- land in a skirmish) in 1619-20. The era of voyages of discovery wet the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumnavigators, and A0r*- Weal Passage. W. WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first fixed by act of parliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylers, and other coverers ot houses, had not more than 3rf. per day (about 9d. of our money) ; and their J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 641 servants l^d. Vincr's Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 14ii, the waget of a bailiff' of husbandry was 23s. id. per annum, and clothing of the price of 5s. with meat and drink ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd. 20s., clothiug 4s. ; common servant of husbandry. 15s., clothing 40d. ; woman-servant, 10s.. clothing 4s. By the llth Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a day, without meat and drink ; or with meat and drink 4d. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. The following were the WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. Year. a. d I Year. s. d. In 1350 per diem. In 1460 ditto In 1568 ditto 4 In 1688 per diem. In 1716 ditto 9 In 1740 ditto 10 In 1632 ditto ') 6 j In 1760 ditto 1 year. . d. In 178S per diem. 1 4 In 1794 ditto 1 6 In 1800 ditto 2 In 1840 ditto 3 EVAGRAM, BATTLE OF, between the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20.000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. WAKEFIELD. BATTLE or, IN ENGLAND, between Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkiste fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but the earl of Warwick es- poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. This battle was fought December 31, 1460. WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- ticular saint ; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and was continued among the Saxons. Whitaker. Women were hired among the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carina. The Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their friends. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might lie inactive. 1VALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Tope Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence; but the Catholic bishops were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates. A. D. 1203-4. One of the monks the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf. having been as- sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to ma - ch into the heretical district.. All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon de Montfort. commander of this crusade, and the whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued with fire and sword. Neither sex. age, nor condition was spared , the coun- try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such wag the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman wa* constituted first inqui- sitor-general, 1208. 642 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS [ WAH WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern wa elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- cessible mountains, about A. D. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England by act of parliament. 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain. WALES PRINCE OP. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April. 128%. Im- mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh tuief tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eick Dyn" literally in English. "This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king." These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians assert, to "7cA Dien," which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 1307- Myvyrian Archaeology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dien" see the article under that head. WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva. the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries revolted from Philip, 1566. Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in this part of England. Pardon. WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- sonage : His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall he struck him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- ger 1" Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am in- deed going; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravitj of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the death and resurrection of Christ. Calmet's Hist, of the Bible. WAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 643 War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural wri- ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain 3563 B. c. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria. 2100 B. c. Usher. He is supposed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 1184 B. c. The longest siege was that of Azoth, 647 B. c. The most famous sortie was that of the Platacans from their city, 428 B. c. It is computed that from the beginning of the world to the present time, no less than 6.860.000.000 of men have perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- man species as now inhabit our whole earth. WARS : CIVIL, OP GRKAT BRITAIN. The most remarkable civil wars of Great Britain are the following : That of A. D. 1215-16. The war of the barons against Henry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of th<> White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion, 1798. WARS. FOREIGN, OF GREAT BRITAIN. The wars in France, in which England was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, Poictiers. and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the reign of Henry VI.. and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It was to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c. FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. War with Scotland, 1008 Peac 3 1092 War with Scotland, 1542 Peace. 1546 " France, 1116 u 1118 " Scotland, 1547 ' 1550 Scotland, 1138 " 1139 France, 1549 ' 1550 France 1161 " 1186 France, 1557 ' 1559 i France 1194 " 1195 Scotland, 1557 ' 1560 France 1201 " 1216 France, J562 ' 1564 '' France 1224 1234 Spain, 1588 ' 1604 v France 1294 " 1299 Spain, Wst ' 1629 11 Scotlan 1, 1296 < 1323 France, 1627 ' 1629 11 Scotlan d, 1327 * 1328 Holland, 1651 ' 1654 " France 1339 * 1300 Spain, 1655 ' 1660 " France 1368 ' 1420 France, 1666 < 1668 u France 1422 < 1471 Denmark, 1666 ' 1668 11 France 1492 *i anie year Holland, 1666 ' 1668 (I France 1512 * 1514 Algiers, 1669 ' 1671 11 France 1522 1527 Holland, 1672 " 1674 11 Scotland, 1522 ' 1542 " France, 1689 " 1697 The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, Fiance, and Spain, was sig-ned by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of Ryswick, Sept. 20,1697 It concluded this last war. THE GRKAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN. War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. War with Spain Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- cluded 1721. War; the Spanish War. Oct. 23, 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 30, 1748. War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed also on April 30, 1748. War ; the Seven years' war, June 9, 1756. Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. Genera peace of Feb. 10, )?** 644 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ WAB WARS, FOREIGN, OF GREAT BRITAIN continued. War with the United States, July 14, 1774. Peace of Paris, Nov. 30. 1782. War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed same time, Jan 20, 1783. War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace signed Sept. 2, 1783. War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peac of Amiens, March 27, 1802. War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- nally closed, June 18. 1815. War with the United States, June 18, 1812. Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. For the wars with India and China, see three countries respectively. In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish war, 54 millions ; in the Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American tear, 136 millions ; in the war of the French Revolution, 464 millions ; and in the icar against Bona- parte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war. in 127 years (from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023 millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin- sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and tbe inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted to one million two hundred thousand. WAR ; REVOLUTIONARY, ending in the independence of the United States, com- menced by the battle of Lexington. April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended by the Treaty of Paris. 1783. This war cost S135.193.700. WAR, THE, OF 1812, between the United States and Great Britain : First difficulty respecting the search of i War declared ... June 19, 1812 American vessels - - -1806 Gen. H. Dearborn appointed comman- Chesapeake United States frigate fired der-in-chief. on -1807 [See Battles and Naval Battles.] Non-intercourse act passed - - 1809 j The war opposed in New England, and United States frigate President, engag- levies of troops refused by Mass , ed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt ! Conn., and R. I. May 16, 1811 Treaty of peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815 President Madison's war message to congress - June 1, 1812 i VAR AGAINST ALGIERS, to punish piracies, 6. ' Viner's Abridgment. W1TENA-MOT, OR WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- nified the assembling of the wise men in the great coimcil of the nation. A \vitena-mot was called in London, A. D. 833. to consult on the proper means to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, A. D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several countios of Eng- land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for maty centuries after their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of twelve months following one another, which they denominated L/ycabas, that is. the march of the wolves. Abbe Pluche. WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ; and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's frst sight of Eve : " He laid him down and slept and from his side A woman in her magic beauty rose ; Dazzled a.id charmed, he called that woman 'bride.' And his first sleep became his last repose." Besser, Iran I'.ated by Bowring. The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that state : Aristotle, Socrates, Pittacus. Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante. Milton, Steele. Addison, Dryden, Molifere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick. and lord Bacon. Woman ; as she is, ana as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : li Die when you will, you need not wear, At heaven's court, a form more fair Than beauty at your birth has given ; Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, The voice we hear, and you will be An angel ready-made for heaven !" Lord Herbert. WOOD-CUTS, OR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to Reuss, a German, A.D. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought 656 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ wo to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c. in 1789-1799; and more recently by Cruikshank, and others. WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the Com- mittee of the Highland Society." proves, from indisputable records, that from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men- tioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of it was introduced by John Kempt 1 and other artisans from Flanders. Thi? was the real origin of the English wool manufactures. Edward III.. 1331. Rymer's Fazdera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae- sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- fore A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edwan/ III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about A. D. 1340. Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing. Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- feit 51., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712. and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, than in all England at the Revolution. Chalmers. QUANTITY AND DECLARED VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE POL- LOWING YEARS : Quantity. Pieces Yards - - Declared value 1800. 1,022,838 4,213.677 3,914,661 1825. 1,741,983 7,798.610 .6,194,926 1830. 1,747,036 5,561,877 JE4,608.592 1840. 2,143.796 8,170,642 5,921,116 WORCESTER, BATTLK OF. in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated'them ; the streets of the city were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his crowning mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 3, 1651. WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was created September 1, 5508 B. c. Most chronologers. however, mention tho year 4004 B. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- tun, about 640 B. c. The first geographical table and map of the world was WOR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 657 made by Anaximander, about 560 B. c. Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoraa and his system, about 539 B. c. Stanley. The magnitude of the earth cal- culated by Eratosthenes, 240 B. c. The system of Copernicus promulgate^ A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669. WORMS, DIET OP. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, April 17th. in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and his triumph was afterwards complete. WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Copt of the Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of tho Latins, and the Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B. c. Usher. Religious worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. Phillips. In all nations, whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant states. Sherlock. IVORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after Saxon divinities the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden. Thor, Friga, and Saturn. Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy ; and they be- lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood. Edinburgh. 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation : " To our traisl friendis, the Lairds ofArn- :i!ly and Kinvaid. " Traist friends, after maist harty com- mendacion. toe pray you faill not to pa'is incontinent to the kyrk of Dunkeld, and tak doun the haill images thereof, and bring furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- pinly. And siclyk cast down the altaris, and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- ments ofidoU'trye. And this ye faill not to do, at ze teill 1o us singular empleseur ; 28* and 30 committis yow to the protection of God. From Edinburgh, the tii of August 1560. ' Faill not, hot ze tak guid heyd that nei ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be onr ways hurt or broken - either glassin wtrk or iron wark. ' AR. EHOYLL, 'JAMES STEWART " RDTHVEN." G58 THE WOR.LD S PROGRESS. [ WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained ita name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, ID which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. Anderson. Worsted-stocking knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard. When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, utterly regardless of the sufferers. Phillips. The loss of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 1830. it appeared by Lloyds List, that 677 British vessels were totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss varies ; but it is always many hundreds. SOME OF THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. Of the Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Phoenix, 44 ; La Blanche, 42 ; Laurel, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle., 24 ; Scurliorough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Cameleon, 14 ; En- deavour, 14; and Victor, 10 guns; British vessels of war, all lost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in October, 1780 Of the Royal George, capsized in Ports- mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 persons perished - June 28, 1782 Of the steamer Home, from New York to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull to Dundee; 38 persons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- ling and her father, 15 persons were saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 Of the Pennsylvania, Oxford, and St. Andrew, packet ships, in a great gale off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 Of the Poland from New York to Havre, struck by lightning, May 16, 1840 .Of the President steamer, from New York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- sengers on board; sailed on March 11, encountered a terrific storm two days afterwards, and has never since been heard of - March 13, 1841 Of the Peacock, one of the United Slates exploring expedition, at the mouth of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- day and smooth water July 18, 1841 Of the Missouri United Slates steam- frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 Of the United States schooner Sftark, wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1846 Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship. This stupendous vessel grounded in Dundrum bay, on the east coast of Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1846 Of the United States sloop of war Bos- ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846 Of the United States brig Somers, cap- sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39 drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 Of the West India mail packet Tweed ; about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston, burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost, Aug. 24, 1848 Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134 lives lost - - June 27, 1840 See Fires, and Steam Vessels. It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- ally lost; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary wear and tear. WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ- ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- phics, 2112 B. c. Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latiua by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phretiicia, 1494 B.C. Thucydides. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmua, 1493 B. c., brought the Phoenician letters into Greece. Vossius. The commandments were written on two tabks of stone, 1491 B. c. Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- rus, Parchment, Paper. " I would check the petty vanity of those who light good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding 1ERJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 659 them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr professor Person by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed." DR. PARR. X. XANTHUS, SIEGE OF, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the loss of their liberty, set tire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, much against their will ; 42 B. c. Plutarr.h XENOPHON, RETREAT OF. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Mufe, led in the memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat; but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con- ducted exploit on record; 401 B. c. Vossius XERXES' CAMPAIGN IN GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue 01 servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1.700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at Thermopylae, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes- sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther- mopylae (which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes. Aug. 7, 480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 300 000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It wu formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels ot fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were kid fast- bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and 660 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [YE* beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 B. c. Y. FEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 B. c.; and it was corrected by Numa 713 B. c., and again by Julius Caesar, 45 B. c. See Calen- dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours ; 48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 B. c. The siderial year, or return of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and stiJl partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Je>vs dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe- nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris- tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians and Armenians on the llth of that month. Nearly all the nations of the Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. of France, in 1654, published an arret, the last article of which ordered the year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written on and from January 1. See New Style, &c. YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. YEAR OF OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was Charles III., emperor of Germany: he added "In the year of our Lord " to his reign, A. o.^879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by the English ; ancTis the mode of designating the year from the birth of the Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras. FEAR, PLATONIC. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36.000. The ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies and go through a second course of being. FEAR, SABBATICAL. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this ear the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and lave rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-iiinth year was called the JUBILEE YEAR, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven, and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original familiee nli estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. Hist. Jews. TEAR. SIBERIAN, AND IN LAPLAND. The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent traveller : , June 23, Snow melts. | July 25, Plants 'n flower. July 1, Snow gone. i Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. July 9, Field quite green. I Aug. 10, Plants shed their wed. July 17 Plants at full growth j Aug. 18, Snow. FOR] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 661 The snow the i continues upon the ground for about ten months, from AIH gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are , together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks* duration in these countries. 5TEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishet anol fixqs a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim- ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise legal space of time. f ELLOW FEVER, THE, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ; 670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fletl from the city. In 1804, 40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- lity was great, and 50.000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it proved fatal to many thousands. FOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 B. c. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. Abbe Lenglet, Dufresnoy. IfORK. The Eboracum, of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England. Here Severus held an imperial court, A. D. 207 ; and here also Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix of lord has been granted. FORK, ARCHBISHOPRIC OP, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it is said, so made by king Lucius, about A. D. 180, when Christianity was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should !> restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about A. D. 622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot- tish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre- gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them wai 662 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [" ZAM first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609Z. 19s. 2d. per annum. Beatson. YORK CATHEDRAL, ENGLAND. This majestic fabric was erected at different periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again been destroyed by tire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap- pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria. about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch- bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands, and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829; the damage estimated at 60.000/., was repaired in 1832. YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS OP THE HOUSES OP. The first battle be- tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22. 1455. The last was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, or While Ruses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty great battles were fought with different success, and half the country was depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See Roses. YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri tish army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. Z. ZAMA, BATTL: OP, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- sive of the fate of Carthage; it led to an ignominious peace which was granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; B. c. 202. ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio (which, see), October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with Ragusa. August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified at till ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 6G3 Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 6, 1816. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 22, 1817. ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, A. D. 535; he taught that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. Ashe. ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh with these words, A. D. 1543. ZEALAND, NEW, IN THE PACIFIC. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 1777, htt found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. ZELA, BATTLE OP, in which Julius Cfesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the senate of Rome, in three words: li Veni, vidi, vici" "I came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 B. c. Sue. C;ara, ' Great decisions,' jurid. Judah bar Nachman ( Riban), Compendium of the preceding. 930 Saadii Gaon, ' Philosopher's Stone,' ' Book of Faith,' 'Grammar,' &c. Sherira, 'The Book of Answers,' history. 1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. Joseph Chin'g, Grammarian. Judah Barzelloni, 'Rights of Women,' ju- ridic. Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium of Hebrew History.' Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian. Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.' 1100 Alphes, d. 1103. 'Compendium of the Talmud.' Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee Lexicon.' Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d. 1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.' Joseph ben Meir (Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com- mentary on Talmud.' Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- phical. Abraham Ahen Ezra, very learned Com- mentaries on the Bible. Tam. d. 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book of Righteousness. Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam), d. 1171. ' Commentary on the Talmud.' Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173. 'Travels.' Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- logy. Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. Moses K i ruin. Grammarian. David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian. Abraham bar Dior (Rabad), d. ] 199. Cab- balist. Abraham ben David (Rahad), Jurist. Moses ben Maimon (Rambam), 1131-1205. Yad Hazaka.' (he f'ong hand, a very celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, &c. (This author is better known by his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 1310 Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. Eliakim, Ceremonies. Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. Eliezer Miggarmisa, Eihics, Commentaries. Asher, Compendia of Talmud. Perez Haccohen (Haraph), Cabbalist. Moses ben Nachman (Ramban), d. 1260. Law of Man,' a celebrated book on Ceremo lies, &c. Moses Mikkotsi, 'Great Book of Piucepi*, ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs ant Fables.' Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.- Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- matical and Philosophical works fron the Greek and Arabic. Solomon ben Adras (Ras/iba)., Theology. Meir, Meditations, on ' Maimoiiides.' Meriachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason foi the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' Isaac Israeli, ' Foundation of the World,- History. Judah, son of Benjamin, Ruial. Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac Dura, 'On Forbidden and Permitted Food.' Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a Ritual of much authority. David Abudraham, astronomy. Levi ben Gerson (Ratbag), d. 1370. ' Com- mentary on the Law/ Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. Isaac ben Sheshat (Ribash), 'Questions and Answers on Various Subjects.' Moses Haccohen, ' Help of Faith.' Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bpcnan,' a polemic work against Christianity. Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritba), Commen- tary on Maimonides.' Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.' Eihics and Theology. Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.' 1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual. Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher, ' Foundation of Faith.' Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer* on the Law.' Joshua Levita, 'Introd. to the Talmud.' David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.' Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- mentary. Isaac iTarro, ' Explanations of the Bible.' Elias Levi, Grammar. Solomon ben Virga, ' History of the Jews.' Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.' Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juchasin,' Sacred ccl Jewish History. Moses Iserle, Astrology. Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' Azarias Edomaeus, History and Philology. Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and Chronology. Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. David Cans, History. 1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1735, Philosophy AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. ,. D. St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelist*. St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlere. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GREEK. 667 GREEK. Ill AGINATION SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC .C. 900 Homer, ' Iliad,' ' Odyssey,' (Sec. Hesiod, ' Works and Days,' &c. B.C. 900 B. C. 900 700 TyrtKus, Elegies (fragm'ts.) Archilochus, Satires, Ele- gies (fragments). 700 '00 Aicaeus, Lyrics (fragments). Sappho, Lyrics (fragments). Solon, d. 55$. Epimenides. Stesiehorus, 033-553 Lyrics (fragments). Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- ments.) Anacreon, Lyrics. GOO GOO Pythagoras, Philosophy. 500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics. jEschylus, 525-456, Trage- dies. Pindar, 518-439, Odes. Bacchylides, Lyrics. Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- dies. Euripides, 480-486, Trage- dies. Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- dies. 500 Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) Hecataeus, Hist, (fraemn'ts.) Herodotus, d. 484, History. Thucydides, 471-391, Histo- ry of Peloponnesian War. Antiphon, Orations. Andorides, Orations. Lysias, 458-378, Orations. 500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy. Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso phy. Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo sophy. Socrates, 468-399, Philoeo Phy. . 400 Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) Menander, 212-291, Come, dies (fragments.) 400 Ctesias. History (fraem'ts.) Xenophon, 444-359, History, Philosophy, &c. Isa?us, Orations. Isocrates, 536-338, Orations. Dinarchus, Orations. Lycurgus, Orations. Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- tions, ^schines, 389-314, Orations. 400 Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- cine. Democritus, 450-357, Philo- sophy.. Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- phy, Criticism. Theophrastus,d. 288. Ethics Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- phy. 30C Bion, Idyls. Moschus, Idyls. Lycophron, ' Cassandra.' Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams. Theocritus, Idyls. Aratus, Poem on Astrono- my. Cleanthes, Hymns. Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- naut ics.' 300 Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 300 Euclid, Geometry. Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi- losophy. Apollonius, Conic Section* Archimedes, d. 212, ' Sphew and Cylinder,' &c. Eratosthenes, Philosophy. 668 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND gCIBNTirid 200 Nicander, Theriaca. 200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal History. Apollodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' Mythology. 200 100 Meleager, Epigrams. 100 Conor., Mythology. Scymnus, Poetical Geogr. Dionysius Halicarnassus, 'Roman Antiquities.' Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- ography 7 Diodorus Siculus, General History. 100 Strabo, Geography. Pausanias, Description of Greece. Plutarch, Biography, Morals ology. 600 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. Syncellus, History. John Malalas, History. 800 Theodorus Studites, 75>- 826, Sermons. Photius, d. 891, 'BtblJo- theca.' 900 900 Leontlus, History. Genesiits, History. 900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' OnChrU tian Faith.' 670 I-HE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIKNTIMft 900 900 Const. Porphyrogenneta, 905-959, Hist. Selections. Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives of Saints. 900 1000 1000 George Ceclrenus, History. John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, Ahridg. of Dion Cassius. John Scylitza, History. 1000 Theophylactus, Theology. Michael Psellus, Mathema- tics. 1100 C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- danthe and Dosicles,' novel. 1100 Nicephorus Bryennius, d. 1137, Byzant. Affairs. Anna Cotnnena, Reign of her father Alexius. Const. Manasses, History. Zonaras, History of Ro- mans, History of Jews. Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, History. John Tzetzes, History in Verse. Cinnamus, History. 1100 Euthymius Zygabenua, Theology. Suidas, Lexicon. Eustathias, Commentarie* on Homer. Isaac Tzetzes.Commentary on Lycophron. 1200 1200 Joel, History. Michael Glycas, History. Georee Acropolita, Hist. Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. George Pachymer, Hist. 1200 Nicephorus Blemmidas, Theology. 1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, Poems. Maiimus Planurles, Anth- ology. Leo Pilatus, Literature. 1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, History. Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- clesiastical History. Niceph. Gregoras, History. John Cantacuzenus, Hist. George Codinus, Hist. Michael Ducas, History. 1300 1400 Detnet Pamperes, Tales. Marullus Turchoniota d. 1500, Poems. 1400 Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. Origin of Turks. Laonicus Chalcondyles, History of Turks. George Phranza, History. 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 1415, Grammar. Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, d. 1450, Philosophy. Eman. Moscopulus, Notes on Hesiod. Bessarion, 1395-1472, The- ology. Geo. of Trebizond, 1396- 1463, Aristotelian. John Argyrophilus, An'sts* telian. mo 1600 1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, 1453-1513, Philology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 671 IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECOT.ATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1COO 1600 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The ology. 1700 Kallinikus, Poems. Nicholas Caradza, Trans- lation of Voltaire. 1700 Alexander Maurocordato, History of the Jews. Meletius, Geography. 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. Marcus Tharboures, Me- chanics. 1700 Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics. Nat- ural Philosophy. 1700 Ducas, Translation of Thu- cydides. 1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics. <800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. Christopulus, Anacreon- tics, Opera. Calvos, Lyrics. Ilarion, Translation of So- phocles. 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, Hist, of Wallachia, England. &c. Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir W. Wallace.' John Hardyng, Chron. of Thomas Littleton, d. 1487, England. Law. Lord Berners, Trans, of Froissart. Stephen Hawea, ' Passe- W. Caxton, Translations. tyme of Pleasure." John Skelton, d. 1529, Satires, Odes. Douglas of Glastonbury, Chron. of England. ISOO Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530. 1500 R. Fabyan. d. 1512. Chron. 1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524, 'Thistle and Rose.' of England and Ffance. Philology, Medicine. Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, Trans. Virgil. Thomas More, 1480-1535, Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus- ' Utopia.' bandry. Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, Sonnets. T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of John Ileywood, d. 1565, Houses of York and Lan- Thomas Elyot. Philology. Drama. caster. H. Latimer, 14751555, Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7, John Leland, rf. 1552, Eng- Sermons. Poems. lish Antiquities. eo. Gascoigne, d. 1577, W. Cavendish. 15051557, Orima. 'Life of Wolsey.' J. Ball, 14951563, 'Lives Roger Af-cham, 1515 15ft of British Writers.' ' The Schoolmaster.' Ralph Hollingshed, d. 1581, Thomas Wilson, d. 1581 Chronicles. Logic and Rhetoric. Geo. Buchanan. 1506-1582, Thomas Tusser, d. 1580, History of Scotland. Husbandry LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 679 IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND aCIEVTIFIO Philip Sidney, 15541586, J. Fox, 15171587, Bock 'Arcadia.' of Martyrs. Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, Drama. Edm. Spenser, 15531598, 'Faery Queen." J. Jewel, 1522-1570, Di- W. Shakspeare, 1564 vinity. 1616. Drama. N. Fitzherbert, 15501612, R. Hooker, 1553--1600, Ea- John Lylie, 15501600, ' Euphues." Biosraphy. John Stowe, 15271605, clesiastical Polity. W. Gilbert, 15401603, Chronicles, Topography. ' On the Loadstone,' Sir T. North, Translations L. Andrews, 15651626, John Fletcher, 15761625, of Plutarch. Sermons. Drama. F. Beaumont, 15861615, Drama. 600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 1600 J. Pitts, 15601616, Biog. 1600 Edward Coke, .550-1634, Epigrams. of Kings, Bishops, &c. Law. Sir H. Wotton, 15681639. Richard Knolles. d. 1610, John Napier, 15501617 Poet. History of the Turks. Logarithms. Wm. Camden, 15511623, Antiquities. R. Hackluyt, 15531616, Naval Histories. W. Raleigh, 15521617, Historv of the World. Samuel Daniel, 15671619, History of England. John Hayward, d. 1627, J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. English History. Ben Jonson, 15741637, J. Speed, 15551629, Hist. Drama. of Great Britain. Robert Buncr, 1576 i63i, P. Massenger, 15851639. Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, ' Anat. of Melancholy.' Drama. Antiquities. Francis Bacon, 15601626, J. Harrington, 15611612. R. B. Cotton, 15701631, Philosophy, History. Trans. Ariosto. Antiquities. Wm. Harvey, 15781657, E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. S. Purchas, 15771628, Circulation of Blood. Tasso. Collection of Voyages. M. Drayton, 15631631, Poems. G. Sandys, 15771643, Thomas Roe, 15801641, John Selden, 15841654, Translations, Poems. J. Daniel, 15621619, Travels in the East. E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581 Antiquities, Law, Hist. J. Harrington, 16111677, P&ems. 1648, History of Henry ' Oceana.' W. Drummond, 1585-1649, VIII. James Usher, 15801666 Poems. R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. Divinity, Sermons, Hist John Donne, 15731662, of England. Thos. Hobbes, 15881679 Satires, Essays. Metaphysics Geo. Wither, 15881667, W. Dugclale, 16051686, Satires. James Shirley, 15941666, Thomas Fuller, 16081661, History, Biography. Antiquities, History. W. Chillingworth, 1602- Drama. Clarendon. 1608 1673, His- 1644, Theology. Sir J. Suckling, 16091641, tory of Rebellion. Isaac Barrow, 16301677 Poems. Thomas May, d. 1650, His- Divinity, Mai hematics. John Denham, 16151668, tory of Parliament. J. Pearson, 16121686, Tragedies, Cooper's Hill. Samuel Butler, 16121688, Izaak Walton, 15931683, Biography. Divinity. Brian Walton, 16001661 Hudibras. B. Whitiocke, 16051676, Polyglot Bible John Milton, 16081674, History. Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, ' Paradise Lost.' Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- Divinity. Edm. Waller, 16051687 Poems. W. Prynne, 16601667, Alger. Sydney, 16171683 Discourse on Govenv A. Cowley, 16181667, Poems. History, Politics. merit.' Thos. Browne, 1605-1682 A. Maxwell 16201678. ' On Vulgar Errors.' Poems. Edmund Castell, d. 1685 Lexicon Heptag'otton. R. Cudworth, 1617-168$ Metaph/sica.' 680 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIBHTIFIC. 1600 1600 1600 J. Eve'yn, 16201706, ' Svlva.' H. More, 16141687, The- Rochester, 16481680, Win. Temple, 16291710, ology. T. Sydenham, 16241689, Satires. Memoirs, &c. Medicine. Roscommon, 16331684, W. Sherlock, d 1689, Di- Poems. vinity. N. Lee, 16561691, Drama. J. Tillotson, 16301694, John Bunyan, 16281688, Sermons. Pilgrim's Progress.' John Dryden, 16311701, Archbishop Leight m, 16131684, Divinity. Tragedy, Satire, ' Virgil.' R. Baxter, 16151691, Thos. Otway, 1651 I68t>, Tragedy. R. Brady, d. 1700, History 'Saint's Everlasting Rest.' of England. R. Boyle, 1627 1691, Theology, Chemistry. UTO John Pomfret, 16671703, 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 1700 'The Choice.' Foedera. John Ray, 165ftv- 1705, Bofr any, Natural History. John Locke, 16321704, Metaphysics. R. South, 16331716, Di- vinity. lohn Philips, 1676-r08, 'Splendid Shilling.' Thos. Parnell, 16791718, S. Ockley, 16781720, 'The Hermit.' Oriental History. Isaac Newton. 16421719 Geo. Farquhar, 16781707, Thos. Hearne, 16781735, ' Principia,' Comedies. History and Antiquities. J. Flamsteed, 16421719, John Strype, 16431737, Eccl. History, Biog. Astronomy. R. Hooke, 1635 1702, Ph Gilbert Burnet, 1643 1715, osophy. ' History of his Times.' B. de Mandeville, 1670 Matthew Prior, 16641721, L. Echard, 16711730, 1733, ' Fab. of the Bees. 1 Poems. History of England. Edm. Hal ley, 16561742, R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, Thos. Carte. 16861754, Astronomy. Essays. Politics. Daniel Defoe, 16601731, History of England. John Potter, 16741747, Hans feloane. 16601753, Natural History. ' Robinson Crusoe.' be. Antiquities. Jcs. Addison, 16721719, Sir W. Petty, 16231682, ''Spectator,' 'Cato.' Ac. Statistics. Nich. Rowe, 1673-1718, Tragedy. J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Corn- ed V. A. Clark, 16961742, Dl W. Conzreve, 16721728, vinity. Philosophy. Comedy. D. Waterland, 16831740, lohn Gay, 16881735, Divinity. Beggar's Opera,' Fab. M. W. Montague, 1690 Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, History of Rome. R. Bentley, 16611740, Divinity, Philology. 1762. Letters. C. Middleton, 16331750, A. Baxter. 16871750, Met Robert Blair, 16991746, Life of Cicero, &c. aphysics. 1 The Grave.' Lord Bolingbroke, 1672 6. Richardson, 16891761, 1751, Politics. Literature 1 U arissa,' ' Pamela,' &c. G. Berkeley, 16841753. Metaphysics, Ethics. P. Doddndge, 1701-1751 Divinity. Jas. Bradley, 1692-1762, Astronomy. F. Hutcheson. 16941747, Moral Phil tsophy. D. Garrick, 1716-1779, T. Sherlock, 107&-1761, Drama. Diviniiy. I Foote, 17201771, C. Maclaurin, 1696174*, Drama. Mathematics. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH 681 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 7UO R. Rodsley, 17031764, 1700 John Swinton, 17031767, 1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694 Drama. History, Antiquity. 1773, Letters. Jona. Swift, 16671745, Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, Satires, Tales, &c. Cyclopaedia. L Watts, 16741748, B. Hoadley, 16761761, Hymns. Polemics Edw. Young, 16811765, Bishop Butler, 16921758, ' Night Thoughts.' Alex. Pope, 16881744, Divinity. I'oetry. -, 1 * . W. Somerville, 16921743, ' The Chase.' . Allan Ramsay, 1696 -1758, ' The Ge-.tle Shepherd.' Rich'd Savage, 16981743, Poems. Jas. Thomson, 17001748, J. \V esley, i703 1791, Ti- 'Seasons.' Lord Lyttleton, 17091778, vinity. John Dyer, 17001758, History, Poems, Divin- D. Hartley, 17041757, Poems. ity. ' Observations on Man ' H. Fielding, 17071754, James Granger, d. 1776, Soame Jenyns, 1704 1?37, ' Tom Jones,' lology. C. T. Pollen, - I84 Theology, Essays. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENJH. 687 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 1800 Tieck, Poems, Novels. 1800 Augt. Neander, 1850, Ecclesiastical History. 3. L. C.Heeren. 1842, History. H. Berghaus, Geography. A. von Humboldt, Travels, History. 1800 Olbers, 1840, Astro- nomy. Hahnemann, 1843, Homoeopathy. A. W. Schlegel, 1846, Criticism, Essays. Humboldt, Scicnc*. Liebig, Chemistry. FRENCH. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 500 Venan. Portunatus, Latin Poetry. 500 Gregory of Tours, 554695, History. 500 600 600 Marculfe, ' Chartm Re- gales,' &c. 600 700 700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 700 800 Theodulph, d. 82], Hymns, Theology. Servatus Lupus, d. 862, Epistles. Hincmar, d. 882, Epistles. Abbon, ' Siege of Paris.' 800 Ado, d. 875, Chronicle. 800 Agobard, d. 840, Theology Paschasius Radbert, 'Trail- substantiation. 1 900 Adalberon, d. L030, Psetry. 900 Flodoafd, 896966, Chron. Dudon, History of Norman Conquest in France. 900 1000 Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles. 1000 Aimoin, d. 1008, History of France. 1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry, Mathematics, &c. Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic, and Astronomy. Berengarius, d. 1088, Theo- logy. IBM Wm. of Poictiers, 1071 1126, First Troubadour. HJldebert, 10671133, Po- etry. Bechada, Norman Poetry, ' Gestes de Godefroi.' 1100 Guibert. 10581124, Histo- ry of First Crusade. Pierre Theutbode, History of Crusades. Marbodaeus, d. 1123, Bio- graphy. Suger, 10821152, Life of Louis le Gros. 1000 Anselm, 10331109, Scho- lastic. Pierre Abelard, 10791142, Theology. Bernard of Claimux, 1091 1155, Mystic. 688 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND S01EWIIP1* 1100 Geoffroi Galmar, Anglo- Norm. Chron. in verse. Rob. Wace, 'Roman de Rou.' Fouque, a Troubadour. Alexander of Bernai, Poet- ry, Fables. 1100 Hugh de St. Victoire, 1097 1140, Geography, Histo- ry, and Theology. 1100 Peter Lombardus, d. 1164, Theology. Alain de 1'Isle, d. 1208 Theology, E'-hica. 1200 John JEgidius, Poem on Medicine. William le Breton, 'Deeds of Philip,' in verse. P. Gautier, 'Alexandrieda.' William de Lorris, 'Roman de la Rose.' Jean de Meun, Contin. of ' Roman de la Rose.' Esi;v de Bezier, Last Troubadour. [200 Pierre de Poictiera, Sacred History. Geoffrey de Villehardouin, Conq. of Constantinople. Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- tory of France in verse. W. Rubruquis, Traveller. Jean de Joinville, 1260 1318, Hist, of Louis IX. 1200 Vincentius of Bt-*UYaU, Encyclopaedia. Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271, Theology. 1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- man Chronicles. Philippe of Vitri, Transla- tion of Ovid. 1300 John Froissart, 13371402, Chronicles. 1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine. John of Paris, d. 1306, Th.e- oloey. W. Durand, d. 1333, Law. W. Occam, d. 1347, Law. 1400 Alain Chartier, d. 1458, Poetry. Corbeil. Satire. D'Auvergne, d. 1458, Po- ems. Clement Marot, 14631525, Poems. 1400 Philip de Comines, 1445 1509, Hist, of his Times. 1400 Peter d'Ailly, 13501425, Astronomy. John Gerson, 13631429, Scholastic. Raymund de Sebunda, d. 1432, Theology. Henry of Balma, d 1439, Mystic. James Lefevie, 1436 i537, Theology. Wm. HuSaeus, 14671540, Jurist. 1600 F. Rabelais, 1483-1553 Satires. J. du Bellay, 1492 1560, Poems. Bteph. Jod-Ks, 1532 15T3 Odes. 1 rage ies, G 1115, C ronicles of Russia. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 1000 Yaroslaf, Code :f Laws. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY RUSSIAN. 699 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND 8C1EN 11710. 1100 1100 Theodosius,d.ll20, Annals. Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro- nicles of Russia. 1100 The Expedition of Ighor, a celebrated Poem, author Unknown. Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, Chronicles of Russia. 12(10 1200 Job/ 1 of Novgorod, History Si Russia. 1200 [The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit ol knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.] 1500 1500 1500 Sudebuek, Code Jf Laws. 1600 1600 Simeon of Polotsk, Poems, Spiritual Dramas. 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The^ ology, Spiritual Dramas. 1700 Cantemir, 1708-1744, Sati- rical Poems. Lomouosoff, 17111765, Poetry, History, Science. Trediarioflski, Poems. Popofski. Trans!. Pope. Sumarokoff, 17181777, Drama. Kheraskoff, 17331807, 'The Russiad.' Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. the Iliad. Petroflf, 1736 1799, Transl. the Eneid. Kniajnin, 17421794, Drama. J. Khemnitzer, 17441784, Fables. Klushin, Comedies. EphimiefT, Comedies. AblesimofT, Operas. G. R. Derjavin, 17431810, Lyric Poetry. H. Bogdanovttch, 1743 1803,' Dushenka,' Poems Vizin, 17451792, Come dies, Tales. Nicoleff, Tragedies. 1700 KhilkofT, History of Russia. V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, Chronicles of Russia. Cherbatoff, History. Golikoif, History. 1700 Theophanes, Se:mons, Plato, 17371812, Sermon* P. S. Pallas, 17411811, Natural History. MuravieflT, 17571816, His lory, Didactics. Euge'nius, History. 1800 MaikofT, Comic Poems. Dmitrieff. Lyrics. Fables. OzerofT. d. 1816. Tragedies. P. Sumarokoff, Poems, Tales. V. A. Jukofski, b. 1783, Poems. Milonoff. d. 1821, Satires. Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul lus. Gneditch, Transl. Iliad, Odes. KrylofT, Fables. 1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History of Russia. ' Kachenofski, History. G. Glinka, History. Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis covery. Gretch, History of Russian Literature. Timkowski, Journey to China. 1800 Shishkoff, CriticMm. Augustin. Sermoo*. 700 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. IMAGINATION. PACT. PEGU L ATI VB AND 8C.BKT7I 8 BOC Mahomet, Koran. NO XX) Lehid, && 757, Poems. Zohair, Poems. Aharun, Medicine. Kais E. Ameri, or Amrul- kais, Poems. 700 700 00 Jafar. Chemistry. Abu Hanifah, 699767, Thft- ology. Abun Massab, Poems. Abunowas.702 810, Poems. Kehashi. Poems. A>.u Obeid, d. 838, Fables. Muham. ben Omar, History. 800 800 SOO Asmai, 740530, Theology. Kendi, Philosophy. J. ben Serapion, Medicine. Almamon, Astronomical Tables. Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. Alfragan, Astronomy. A.Temain,804 845, Poems. Nasir Khosru. Metaphys. Albumazar, 805835, Ma- thematics, Astronomy. Wahab, Travels. Bochari, 810870, ' Tlw Abuzeid, Travels. Sahih,' Traditions. I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History. Abu Jafar, 838922, Hist. Bochteri, 821882, Anthol. Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, Translations from Greek. Geber, Chemistry. Abu Mohammed Abdallah, Literature. 900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 900 900 Albategni, Astronomy. Rases, d. 922, Medicine. Ben Musa, Mathematics. Almotanabbi, d. %5, Azophi, Astronomy. Poems Said ben Batrik, 876937, General History. Eutychius, History. Massudi, d. 957, History and Geography. Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- Ibn Haukal. Geography. telian Philosophy. T. 1000 Ferdusi, 9321020, 'Shah Nameh,' Epk 1000 Almuyadad, History of Saracens in Sicily. 1000 Achmet, Treatise on Dreams. Poem. Ibn Mesua, Medicine. Avicenna, 960- 1038, Philosophy, Medicine Abu! Ola, 9731057, Poems. Abulcasis, Medicine. Jelaleddin, Correction of Calendar. Arzachel, Astronomy. LITEEAET CHRONOLOGY ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 701 IMAGINATION. FACT. PECtTLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. 100 100 Gazali,1058 1112, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Alhazin, Optics. Hairi, 10541121, Moral Tabrizi, d. 1136, Commen- taries. Poems. P. Peleki, d. 1181, Poems. P. Khakani, d. 1186. Poems. Algazet, Antiquities, &c. Ben Idris, 6, 1099, Geog. Alchabit, Optics. Astron. A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems. Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo- Jaafai ebn Tofail, ,1. 1198, telian Philosophy. 'Hal ben Yokdan,' a Novel. I. Elfaredh,d.l234, Poems. 1200 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. Abdollatif , Topography of Eg.vpt. Abuldem, d.1244, History. P. SaadL 11931291, ' Gulis- El Haravvi, Travels. Caswin d. 1274, Natural tan, 1 'Bostan.' History. Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, Medicine. Elfaragi, Poems. Abulfarage, 12261286, Universal History. Elmacin, d. 1302, History of Saracens. P. Nasireddin, 12011273, Astronomy. P. Fadlallah, History of Mo- guls. 1300 1300 Abulfeda, 12731333, 1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. Geography. History. Novairi, ({.1331, Universa' History. Mohammed Ibn Batuta, Travels. Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, Geography. Abu Shameh,6.1299. Hist P. Turan Shah, rf.1377. Hist P. Hafix, d. 1395, Odea. Jafei, d. 1868, Biography Firuzabadi, 13291414, ' The Camoos.' 1401 P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, Life of Tamerlane. Dictionary. Makrizi, 13671438, Hist. THug Beg. 13031444, Arabohah, d. 1460, Life o Astronomy, Chronology. Timur. Baccai,d.l480, Biography Babacushi, d. 1481, Politics. P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond Gen. Hist, to A. D. 1474 V. Jand, d, 1486, Poems. T. Baber. d. 1530, Autobio- graphy. 1500 Alhassan, Description o 15^ Africa. Jabacushi, d. 1 566. Morali. Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni versa! History. 702 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1HAO1NAT. !)JJ. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC, 1800 1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. Abulgazi, 16001663, Hist, of Tartars. T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675, History. P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph. Moham. Hossain, > Borhani Kata,' Dictionary. iroo P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- nals of Hindostan. 1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIEXTIFIO. 1600 1600 1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627, Sermons, , Wm. Wirt, 1772 1834, Edmund D. Griffin, 1804 Politics. 'British Spy.' 1830, Travels in Europe, John M. Mason, D. D. Lectures on Literature. 17701829, Divinity, &c. Sermons, &c. John D. Godman, d. 1830, John II. Hobart, D. D., Anatomy, Natural Hist., 1776-1830, Sermons, , &c. Natural History. James Kent, 17631847. Comment, on Am. Law. Hugh S. Legare, 1797- 1843, Miscellanies. Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me- taphysics. E. A. Poe, 1811-1849,Poerrs Tales. J. F. Cooper. 17S9 1851 Novels, &c. Albert Gallatin, 1761-184& Ethnology, Philology. J. C. Calhoun, 178&-l8n Politics, Speeches. HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS, WITH THE HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTIQUITY. Atari's, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, &c. Abreta'nus, a surname of Jupiter. A'firon, a very voluptuous Grecian. Aby'la, a famous mountain in Africa. Acan'lha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. Acas'tus, the name of a famous hunter. Ace'/us. one of the priests of Bacchus. Achtv'm'mes, the first king of Persia. Acha'tes, a trusty friend of ^Eneas. Ach'eron, a son ot v ritan and Terra, changed into jEo'us, one of the four horses of ths tun. jEscula'nus, a Roman god of rir,h. j$cula'pius, the god of phy.t/^ jEthat'idcs, a son of mercury. jE'thon, one of the lour horses of the sun. sEt'naMs, a title of Vulcan. jEto'los, a son of Endymion aud Diana. Agamem'non, a brother of MenelauSj captain-general of the Greeks ., t_A .^ege of Troy. Aganip'pe, daughter of the river Permessus, which flows from mount Helicon. Age'nor, the first king of Argos. a river of hell lor assisting the Titans in their. Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry, war against Jupiter. j A^clas'tun and Agesi'laus, names of Pluto. Achil'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and, Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. Thetis, a goddess of the sea. who, being dip-j A'jaz, one of the most distinguished princes and ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in heroes at the siege of Troy, vulnerable in every part except his right] Alku'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli, heel, by which she held him ; alter signafiz- A/ci'des, a title of Hercules, ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, Alci'nous, a kiiig of Corcyra. as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by Pans with an arrow. Acid'alia and Armafla, names of Venus. Acida'lits, a famous lonniain of Bosotia. A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, because he rivalled him in the affections of Galetea. Ac'mon, a famous king of the Titans. Ac'ra/us, the genius of drunkards at Athens. A ''tabon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. Adme'tus a king of Thessaly. Adu'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by Venus and Proserpine. Adras>tea, the goddess Nemesis. JE'rtcws, one of the infernal judges. JE'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. jEge'iis, a king of Attica, giving name to the JEsenn sea by drowning himself in it. JSei'na, a particular favorite of Jupiter. jE'gis. a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. jE'gle. one of the three Hesperides. jflffon, & wrestler famous for strength. Aleyp'tus, son of Neptune and Lybia. jEVlo, one of the three Harpies. jEne'as, son of Anchises and Venus. jEo'lus, the god of the winds Alct'oneus, a giant slain by Hercules. Alci'ope, a favorite misiress of Npptune. Alcme'na, the wife of Amphiiryon. Alec'tn, one of the three Furies. Alec'tryorii or Gal'tus, a favorite of Mara Al'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter. Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. Alat'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter. Amalttue'ti, the goat that suckled Jupiter. Amliarcafle, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. Ambro'sia, the food of the gods. Amtmon. a tille of Jupiter. Ampltiarafuf, son of Apollo and Hypermnestrai a very famous augur. Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penel f . Amp/ii'un, a famous musician. Amphitrine, the wile of Neptune. Amyntor, a king ol Epirus. ing odd Ana'tis, the goddess ol prostitution. Anccz'us, a king of Arcadia. Andro'gnus, the son of Minos. Androm'ache, the wife of Hector. Androm'eda. the daughter of C'epheus and Ca- Biope,who, contending for the prize of beauty with the Nereides, was by them oound to a rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea monster ; but Perseus slew the monster, anrf married her. Ange'rona, the goddess of silence. HEATHEN DEITIES, E*iO. 705 An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. Aiitte'as. a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; he was squeezed to death by Hercules. An'teros. one 01 ihe names of Cupid. Anteverfta, a goddess of women in labor. An't/tia. and Argi'ya, titles of Juno. An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. Aon'ide.!, a name of th Muses. Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'tis, lilies of Venus. A'pis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines ; alter his death they worshipped him in the form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry. Anch'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva into a spider, lor presuming to vie with her at spinning. Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus. Argenti'nus, and JEscula'nus, gods of wealth. Arni, priests of Ceres. Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele. Ca'brus, a god of the Phaselitae. Ca'cus, a son of Vulcan. Cad'mus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who, searching in vain for his sister, built the city of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of the Greek alphabet. Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand. Co/ca, and Conserva'trix, titles of Fortuna. C&c'ulus, a robber, son of Vulcan. Cai'neas, a title of Jupiter. Cal'chas, a famous Greek soothsayer. Caiis'to. the daughter of Lycaon. Cclli'ope, the muse of heroic poetry, Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, wfcn reigned in the island of Ogygia. where sa entertained and became enamored of Ulys- ses, on his return from Troy. Cam'bies, a gluttonous king of Lydia. Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of the Medes and Persians. Camtz'na, and Carna, goddess of infanta. Ca'nes, a title of the Furies. Cano'pus, an Egyptian god. Cor'aua, a household goddess. Carmen'ta, a name of Themis. Car'na, a Roman goddess. Carya'tis, a title of Diana. fused 30* Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were s/iid starve their parents to death when 70 yean | old. and to train up dogs for war. 706 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Cfusan'dra. a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo. Castai'iUts, the Muses, from the fountain Cas- talius, at the loot of Parnassus. Casftor, son of Jupiter and Leda, between whom and his brother Pollux immortality was al- ternately shared. Ca'tius, a tutelar god to grown persons. Ce'crups, i he first king of Athens. Ceiit'no, one of the three Harpies. Cen'laurs, children of Ixion, half men, half horses, inhabiting Thessaly. Cepha'lus, the son ol Mercury and Hersa. Cvpheus, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia. ijerau'nius, a title of Jupiter. Get 'berths, a dog with three heads and necks, who guarded the gilss of hell. Utrca>lia, festivals in honor of Ceres. Ce'res, the goddess of agriculture. (Je'rus, or Xe'rua, the god of opportunity. Chol'cea, festivals in honor of Vulcan. Char'ites, a name of the Graces. Cha'ron, the ferryman of hell. CM'mera, a strange monster of Lycia, which was killed by Bellerophon. Chi'ron, the preceptor of Achilles. Chro'mis, a cruel son of Hercules Chrysao'rius, a surname of Jupiter. Chry'sis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. Ci'r'ce, a famous enchantress. Ci~'rtia, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, mhenre the winds issued which caused a divine rage, and produced oracular responses. Cithcb'rides, a title of the Muses. Clau'sina, a name of Venus. ClauJsius, or Clu'sius, a name of Janus. Cleo'medes, a famous wrestler. Cli'o, the Muse presiding over history, and pa- tro/iess ol heroic poets. Clo'tho, one of the three Fates. Clytemnes'lra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her adultery with Jigislhus. Cocy'tus, a tiverof hell, flowing from Styx. Culli'na, the goddess of hills. Compita'lia, games of the household gods. Co'mus, the god of festivals and merriment. Concor'dia, the goddess of peace. Conserta'tor, and Cus'tos, titles of Jupiter. Con'sus, a title of Neptune. Corti'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos. Coryban'les, and Cuff'tis, Tiests o' f'ybele. Cre'on, a king of Thebes. Cn'n/s, a priest of Apollo. Crinis'sus, a Trojan prince, who could change himself into any shape. Orae'sMs, a rich king of Lydia. Cro'nia, festivals in honor of Saturn. Ctea'ibus. a famous Alheriian parasite. Ou'niu, the goddess of new-born infants. Cu'piil. son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, eniiles. &c. Q^clops, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye in (he middle of their forehead. Cyb'ele, the wife of Saturn. Vyc'iius. a king of Liguria; also a son of Nep- tune, who was invulnerable. f}yUe'nius, and C'amil'lus, names of Mercury. Cynoceph'ah, a people of India, said to have heads resembling those jf dogs. Uyn'iliiii. and Cyn'ttiius, Diana, and Apollo. oarjtsa'a, a title of Minerva. y'rio, Cythere , lilies of Venus. D&danion, the son ol ,ucifer. Dad'alus, an artificer of Athens w ho formed th< Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts and sails lor ships. Da'mon, the sincere friend of Pythias. Dcb'mon, Bo'nus. Dithyram'bus, anc Dionyaf- iun. titles ol Bacchus. Da'nae, the daughter ol Acrisius, king of ArgO8 seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden shower. Duna'ides, or Be'lides, the fifty daughters 'if. Danaus, king of Argos, all ol whom. excerK Hypermnestra, killed their husbands, i he so.is ol their uncle ^gyptus, on the marrnge night : they were therefore condemned tt draw water out of a deep well witli sieves, so that their labor was without end or suc- cess. Daph'ne, a nymph beloved by Apollo. Darda'nus, the lounder of Troy. Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an account of the Trojan war. De'a Syr'ia, a title of Venus. Dec'ima, a title of Lachesis. Deian'ira, the wife of Hercules. Deida'mia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of . Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus. while he lay concealed in woman's apparel in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to the Trojan war. Deiape'a, a beautiful attendant on Juno. Deiph'obe, the Cumean sybil. Deiph'obus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. De'lia, Del'ius, Diana and Apollo. De'las, the island where Apollo was born. Del'phi, a city of Phocis, famous for a temple and an oracle of Apollo. Del'phicus, DidymaSus, titles of Apollo. Dem'ades, an Athenian orator. Der'bices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who punished all crimes with death. Deuca'tion. son of Prometheus, and king of Thes saly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre served from the general deluge, and re-peo pled the world. Dever'ra, the goddess of breeding women. Diag'oras, a Rhodian, who died lor joy, because his three sons had on the same day gained prizes at the Olympic games. Dia'na, the goddess of hunting. &c. JJi'dn. daughter of Belus, the lounder and queen of Canhage, whom Virgil fables to hav burnt herself through despair, because ^Ene- as left her. Di'es. and Dies'piter, titles of Jupiter. Din'dyme, Dindyme'ne, titles ol Cybele. Diom'edea, a king of ,/Etolia, who gained grew reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; ln t tyrant of Thrace. Di'one, one of Jupiter's mistresses. Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux. Di'rcb, a title ol the Furies. Dis, a title of Pluto. Discor'dia, the goddess of contention. Itniiiiilu'i'ii. a title of J iii'n JJomidu'cus, and Domi'tius, nuptial god*. Dom'ina, a title of Proserpine. JJry'adt*. nymphs of the woods and fin HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 707 K EcM'on, a companion of Cadmus. Et'lio, daughter of Aer and Tellus, who pined away for love of Narcissus. Edon'id*s, priestesses of Bacchus. Etlii'ca, a gcddess of new born infants. Egr:'ria, a title sf Juno; also a goddess. E/ec'tra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly temnestra. who instigated Orestes to reveage their father's death on their mother and her adulte.or ^Egisthus. Vfu.9, and Eleuthe'rfse, titles of Bacchus. Klsusin'ia, leasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- pine. Elo'ides, nymphs of Bacchus. Empu'stK, a name of the Gorgons. Endym'ion, a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso- lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited him by night in a cave of mount Latmus. Enia'lius, a title of Mars. En'yo, the same as Bellona. Epeus, the artist of the Trojan horse. Epig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who besieged Thebes, a second time. Epi/ai'nea, sacrifices to Bacchus. Ejiistro'phia, and Ery'cina, titles of Venus. Ejiizepk'rii, a people of Locris, who punished those with death that drank more wine than physicians prescribed. Era'/u, the muse of love-poetry. Er'ebus,Ai\ infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox; a river of hell. Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated Eriotfio'nius, a king of Athens, who, being lame and very deformed in his feet, invented coaches to conceal his lameness. Erin'nys, a common name of the furies. E'ros, one of the names of Cupid. Kros'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his name, set fire to the celebrated temple of Diana at Ephesus. Ete'ocles, and Poly'nices, sons of CEdipus, who violently hated, and at last killed each other. Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- band Cataneus, from affection. Bitc'rates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du- plicity, and dissimulation. h umin'ides, a nan.i < ' '.he Furies. fi-tn/iror'yni;, one of the three Graces. ctM-u'pa, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said, was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white Dull, into Crete. Eui-y'dJe, one of the three Gorgons. JJuryd'; ce, the wife of Orpheus. Eurym^.-i.".. an infernal deity. Euler'pe, t..? muse presiding over music. Euthy'mus, a very famous wrestler. Feb'rua, Flor'ida, Fluo'nic, titles of Juno, Fe/i'rua, a goddess of purification. Feb'ruus, a title of Pluto. Feli'cilus, the goddess of happiness. Fer'culus, a household god. Fere'trius, and Fulmina'lor, titles of Jupiter. Fero'nia, a goddess of woods. Fesso'nio, a goddess of wearied persons. Fid'ius, the god of treaties. Flam'ines, priests of Jupiter, Mars, ula, the goddess of lies. Fahtili'nns, a rod of infants. Fa'ma, the goddess of report, &c. Fas'cinum. a title of Priapus. Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. Cloihos. I.achesis, and Atropos, intrusted with the lives of mortals, f mount Helicon, dedicated to Apollo. Ilippol'ytus, the son of Theseus and Antiope or Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his stepmother Phsedro. At the request of Diana, jEsculapius restored him to life, after he had been thrown from his chariot, and dragged through the woods till he was torn in pieces. Hinpi'na. the goddess of horses and stables. Hi ttc'riaj the goddess of history. tJvrtm'sis, a name of Venus. tiii'r-ts, a title of the sun. Hos/ili'na, a goddess of corn. Uy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and jEthra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- thee, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They were chanzed by .Tupiter into seven stars. tfy'Wo,a mountain in Sicily, universally famous Tor its thyme an ffy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or a* some say nine, others fifty, killed by Iiercu les in the lake Lerna. Hyge'ia, the goddess of health. IJyl'lus, the son of Hercules and Dejnnire. Hy'men, the god of marriage. llype'rion, a sun of Coelus and Terra. uyptiptyle, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban- ished for preserving her father when all :hi other men of the island were murdered t>r their kindred. lac'chus, a name of Bacchus. lan'the, the beautiful wife of Iphis. laps' tus, a son of Ccelem and Terra. lar'bas, a cruel king of Mauritania. Ica'rius, the son of Oebalus, who, Vaving re- ceived from Bacchus a bottle of wine, went into Attica, to show men the use of it: but, making some shepherds drunk, they thought he had given them poison, and therefore threw him into a well. Ica'rus, the son of Daedalus, who, flying with hia father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring too high, melted the wax of his wings, and fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian sea. Fda, a mountain near Troy. Idcb'a Mater, a name of Cybele. Id(b'i Dact'yli, a priest of Cybele. Ida'lia. a name of Venus. Id' man, a famous soothsayer. Idu'thea, Jupiter's nurse. lli'one, i he eldest daughter of Priam. ttis'sus, a river in Attica. 1'lus, the son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom Troy was called Ilium. Impera'tor, a name of Jupiter. In'achis and 1'ses, names of lo. I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and wife of Aihamas. Intercido'na, a goddess of breeding women. Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of Juno. In'uus, and Inc'ubus, names of Pan. J'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi- ter into a while heifer; but afterwards re- suming her former shape, was worshipped as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the name of Isis. Inh'idus, the twin brother of Hercules. Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- temnestra, who, standing as a vicMm ready to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana, was, by that goddess, transformed into a white ban, carried to Tauris, and made bar priestess. Fphis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas. Iph'itus, son of Praxoniites, wiio instituted Olympic games to Hercules. Pris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was Juno'i favorite companion, and her messenger on affairs of discord, &c. Ptya, the son of Tereus and Progne, murdered and served up by his mother at a banquet before Tereus. in revenge for hi'j having vio- lated her sister Philomela. Ixi'on, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened ii hell to a wheel perpetually turning round, for boasting thai he had lain with Juno. HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 709 Janfitor, and Juno'nius, titles of Janus. ja'nus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and Creusa. Ja'son, a Thcssalian prince, son of jEson, who by Medea's help brought away the golden fleece from Colchis. Jo'casta, the daughter of Creon, who unwittingly married her own son, CEdipus. Ju'iw, the sister and wife of Jupiter. 'u'no, Infer'na, a name of Proserpine. Juno'nezs, guardian angels of women. J'Jpiter, a son of Saturn and Ops the supreme deity of the heathen. Ju'piter Secun'dus, a name of Neptune. Ju'piler Ter'lius, Infer'nus, or Sty'gius, seve- ral appellations given to Pluto. Juven'ta, a goddess of youth. La'chfsis, one of the three Fates. Lacin'ia, and Lucil'ia, titles of Juno. Lactuna, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses. Man'na, Mel'anis, Mer'etrix, Migoni'tis, am Mur'cia, titles of Venus. Mars, the god of war. Waitso'lus, a king of Caria, who had a most magnificent tomb erected to him by his wife Artemisia. Hfede'a, daughter of jEtes, king of Colchis, a famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob tain the golden fleece. MeditrVna, a goddess of grown peaeons. Medu'sa, the chief of the three Gorgons. Mtgcb'ra, one of the three Furies. Megalen'sia, festivals in honor cf Cybele. Mega'ra, the wife of Hercules. Melani'ra, a name of Venus. Me'licb, nymphs of the fields. Mc'lius, a name of Hercules. Welo'na, the goddess of honey. Melpomius, a famous prophet and physician. Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. Polyphe'rmts, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- tune, with but one eye in the middle of hli forehead. Pomo')M, the goddess of fruits and autumn, Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. Prainesti'na, a name of Fortuna. Pr&s'tes, a title of Jupiter and Minerva, Praxit'eles, a famous statuary. Pri'am, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris. Hector, &c ; he was the las: king of Troy. Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, and sister of Philomela ; she was turned into * swallow. Prome'theus, son of lapetus, who animated a man that he had formed of clay, with fire, which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole from heaven, and was therefore chained by Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture continually preying upon his livet. Propy'ltba, a name of Hecate. Prvs'erpine, the wif of Pluto HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 711 Proet, asea god, who could transform himself into any shape. Psy'che, a goddess of pleasure. Pyl'advs, the constant friend of Orestes. Pyr'amus, and This'be, two lovers of Babylon, who killed themselves with the same sword, and occasioned the turning the berries of the mulberry-tree, under which they died, from while to red. Pryai'tis, one of the four horses of the sun. Pyr'r/MS, son of Achilles, remarkable for his cruelty at the siege of Troy. Py't/ion, a huge serpent, produced from the mud of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games. Pythonis'sd, the priestess of Apollo. Quad'rifrons, a title of Janus. Qui'ej, a goddess of grown persons. Quieta'lis. and Quietus, names of Pluto. Quinyua'tria, feasts of Pallas. Rect'us, a title of Bacchus. Re'dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. Regi'na, a title of Juno. Rkadaman'thus, one of the three infernal judges. Rfie'a, a title of Cybele. Rhe'a-syl'via. the mother of Romulus. Robi'gus, a god of corn. Rom'ulus, the first king of Rome. Rumi'na, a goddess of new-born infants. Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. Rusi'na, a rural deity. S Sabafzia, feasts of Proserpine. Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. Salmone'us, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder. Sa'lus, the goddess of health Sanc'us, a god of the Sabines Sator, and Sorri'tor, rural gods. Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. Satur'nus, or Sat'urn, the son of Cffilus and Terra. Sat'yrs. the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- sters, half men, half goats. Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. Se'ia, and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn. Sel'li, priests of Jupiter. Sen'ta, a goddess of married women. Sera'pis. See Apis. SXt'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac- chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and was drunk every day. Si'mis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. Sis'ypkus, the son of ./Eolus, killed by Theseus, and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and numerous robberies. Sol, a name of Apollo. Som'nus, the god of sleep. Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, who destroyed herajlf because CEdipus solved the enigma she proposed. Sta'ttt, a goddess of grown persons. Sten'tor, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to have been as strong and as loud as the voice* of 50 men together. Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. Styx, a river of hell. Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. Summa'nus, a name of Pluto. Sylva'nus, a god of woods and fore&ts. Syrens, sea monsters T Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. Tanta'lus, a king of Paphlagonia, who, self- ing up to table the limbs of his son, Polop*. to try the divinity of the gods was pluneea to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- ment for his barbarity and impiety. Tarta'rus, the place of the wicked in hell. Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter carried away Europa. Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. Telema'chus, the only son of Ulysses. Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the resort of the gods. Ter'minus, the god of boundaries. Terpsicho're, the muse of music, &c. Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. Tha'lia, the muse of comedy. The'mis, the daughter of Coelum and Terra, the goddess of laws, oracles, &c. Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. The'tis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- dess of the sea. Ti'tan, son of Coelum and Terra, and the elder brother of Saturnus. or Saturn. Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter. Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter. TrVtonia, a name of Minerva. Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding OM a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but they at last captured and destroyed it. Tuteli'na, a goddess of corn. Ty'ro, one of the Nereids. U Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence was eminently serviceable to the Greeks ti the Trojan war. Unx'ia. a title of Juno. Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons. Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. Valloma, a goddess of valleys. Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune. Ve'nus, the goddess of love, and txauty. Vergilf!te, a name of the Pleiades. Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. Vertum'nus, the god of ipring. 712 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Vea'ta, Che goddess of fire. Viafles, deities of the highways. VtbilHa, tlie gotldess of wanderers. Virgmen'sis, a nuptial goddess. Virago, a name of Astrea and Fonune. Virj/is, and Visca'ta, titles of Fortune. Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, at liqme, was dedicated to her, whither the married couple repaired after a quarrel, and returned together friendly. Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. Puff can, the god of subterraneous fire. , one of the horses of Achilles, born of the harpy Celoeno, a river ne&r Troy. call** also Scamander. Z Za'greus, a title of Bacchus. Zep/i'yrus, son of ./Eolus and Aurora wuo pas sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put for the west wind. Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, who accompanied the Argonauta, ami UroT the Harpies from Thrace. Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very tiptrt in music. Ze'us, a title of Jupiter. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PABT I. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY from the Creation to the Birth of Christ 4004 years. II. MODERN CHRONOLOGY from the Birth of Christ to the present time 1850 years I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. I. From the Creation, to the Deluge, 2- From the Deluge, to the Call of Abraham, 3 From the Call of Abraham, to the Exode from Egypt, 4 From the Exode, to the Kingdom of Saul, 6 From Saul, to the Captivity of Israel, 6 From the Captivity, to Alexander the Great, 7. From Alexander, 4004 2348 1656 years The Antediluvian Period, 2348 1921 427 years. The Dispersion Period. 1921 1491 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 1491 1095 396yearo The Theocratic Period. 1095 588 507 years The Monarchical Period, 330 258 yearn The Persian Period. 330 to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years. The Grecian Period. 6 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 to the Birth of Christ, 146 years The Roman Period. ' From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned o. BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to A. o.the Year of our Lord. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. FIRST PEKIOD (the Antediluvian) 1656 years. B.C. 1004 THE CREATION OP THE WOELD (Hebrew Pentateuch.}* The fall of man and the promise of a Saviour. The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman a husbandman. rcS75JThe death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. 8^74 ^eth born, the third son of Adam. Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t 3769 Enos born. Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He In- troduces the use of weights and measures. Jo- sephus. Tytler. 3'!79 < 'ainan born. Irad. 36ii9 Mahalaleel born. Mehujael. 3544 Jared " Methusael. 3382 Enoch " Lamech polygamy introduced. 331 7 (Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) Jabsl, Jubal, Tubal-cain, Naainah. 8180 Lamech " The first to He invent- He discover. She intio- 30T4 Death of Adam, aged 930 years. build a Tent ed the Harp ed the mode duced the 3017 Knoch translated. for habita- and the Or- of preparing artsof/S[pi7- 294S Xoah born. tion, and to gan, or wind and using ri'ing and 24CS The building of the Ark commenced. use cattle for and stringed iron, brass) Weaving. 2348 THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 315i purposes of instruments and other B. C.] husbandry. of music. Metals. * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- maritan Pentateuch places the Creation B. c. 4700; the Septuagint, 5872; Joaephns, 4658; the Talmudists, 5344; Sculiger, 3950 ; Petuvius, 39S4; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enumerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and re" inotest date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted as the most generally received standard. t No dat>>s are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column. They -e, however, contemporary with those in the other column. THE TABULAR VIEWS ARE OONTINITKD ACROSS TWO PAGES AT THE SAME TIME; BO TUA CONTEMPORARY EVENTS IN DIFFERENT NATIONS MAT BE SEEN AT A GLANCE 716 THE V.'OIILDS PROGRESS. SECOND PERIOD (Dispersion of Mankind )- PROSRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. SACRED HISTORY. 2317 2247 Wine made by Noah from the grape. Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. Confusion of languages at Babel. stronomical observations begun at Babylon. 2347. The descendants oi Noah dispersed through the earth : those of Shem probably in .Via. of J lain in Africa, and of Ja[ her Europe. 2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend ants of Ham. 2247. The building of Babel.* 2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son o( Gush, uml Grandson of Ham. NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son oi Shem. 2122 Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. 2100 Sculpture and Painting employed to com- memorate the exploits of Osymamlyas. 2095 Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science of Geometry begin to be cultivated. 1 >W Ohing Hon? teaches (he Chinese the art of Husbandry, and the method of making Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 1996. Abraham bom. 1921. The call of Abraruun. + The cnronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan |ncoi *abel 531 years after the deluge. Our knowledge of Grecian chronology begins in 776 B. o. the first recorded Olympiad. Till then wo give the most approved mythological dates. THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 427 years. The Deluge to Abraham. PROFANE HISTORY. (/n this period traditional and uncertain.) ASIA. AFRICA. EunoFB. 2207 CHINA. The first imperial dynasty of Hia begins. Fphi (who is perhaps Nnah him- self) is mentioned as the first Chinese monarch. 2124 Belus reigns in BABYLON. [Some suppose Belus 10 be the Nimrod of Scripture. If BO, there is a discrepancy of 121 years be'ween the sacred and profane chronologies.] The orisin of the kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh, and of the Assyrian empire, is variouslystaied by the chron- ologists. See Sacred Hist.] 2069 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Nineveh. 2059 He establishes the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 2017 Serniramis enlarges and embel- lishes Bahylon^ and makes it tfie seat of empire. [By others placed 2107 u. c.] WE Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi' opi-s, and India. M37 The Arabs seize Nineveh. (7) 2188. Misraim (Mcnes), the son of Ham, builds Memphis, in EGYPT, and begins the E- gyptian monarchy. 2111. THEBES founded by Btisiris. .2100. psymandyas, the first warlike kins, passes into Asia, and conquers Bactria. 2085. Egypt conquered by the shepherd kings of Phenicia, who hold it 260 years. 2089. SICYON. the first kir-f- dom of GREECE, founded by Egialus, or Inachus. 21M8. A colony of Pheniclam land in Ireland. (?) 2042. Uranus arrives in Greeco 193S Lake Moeris constructed.) Revolt of the Tttaiw War of the Giant* 718 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. THIRD PERIOD (The Abrahamic or PatriarM.}- PKOORESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. i920 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 589) 1822 1582 1580 1534 lsX)6 l97 119) Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. Mention invents the Egyptian alphabet. Atlas, the astronomer. The chronology of the Amndelian marbles begins. The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. Book of Job written about this time. (?) Tbejlute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. Amphictyon eives interpretation to dreams and draws prognostics from omens. Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. SACRED HISTORY. THE JEWS. 1921. Abraham called. 1920. goes into Egypt. 1912. delivers Lot from captivity, a:id r ceivesthe blessing of Melchizedec. 1909. Ishmael born. 1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. God renews his covenant with Abraham. 1890. Isaac bom. 1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in sacrifice. 1856. Isaac married. 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 1739. His name changed to Israel. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1706. Jacob arid his family settle in Egypt. 1702. End of the seven years' famine. 1699. Death of Jacob. 1635. Death of Joseph. 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 1574. Aaron born. 1571. Moses born. 1531. Moses flees into Midian. 1513. The supposed era of Job. 1491. God appears to Moses in a burning butt at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to uelivei the Israelites. The Ten Plagues in Egypt. Institution or the Passover. The EXODUS of the Israelites from Egypt. THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 719 Abraham to Moses. (430 years.) PROFANE HISTORY. (Still fabulous or uncertain.) EUROPK. I7C6 China. The 2d Imperial dy- nasty begins. AFRICA. 1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 1556. Uameses-Miamum reigns in Egypt. 1856. Inachin, the Pheniciar> plants a colony in ARGOS. 1807. Phoronona reigns ii Argos. 1764. Ogyges reigns in Boeotia. 1707. Apis, king ol Argos. 1732. The Ogygean Deluge in Attica. 1711. The city of Argos built by Argus, the son of Niobe. 1710. A colony of Arcndians emigrate into Italy umlei CEnotrus. CEnotria after- wards called Magna Grecia. 1641. Criasus succeeds h-* father, Argus. 1556. ATHENS founded \\ Cecrops. 1552. Triopas. king of Argo* The kingdom divided, Poly caon reisning in Messenia. 1546. TROY (bunded by SCA mander. 1529. Deluge of Deucalion ii\ Th'essaly. 1520. Corinth founded. 1516. Sparta founded, and th kingdom of Lacunia, or La cedemon. 1507. The Areopagus establish ed in Athens. 1506. Crotopas succeeds to thi 1 throne of Argos. 1504. Deucalion arrives in At tica. The kingdom of Mess* nia commenced by Polyraon 1493. THEBES in Uoeotia founded by Cadmus, a Phe nician, who introduce thf alphabet inu Greece. 720 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. FOURTH PERIOD. (The Mosaic or Theocratic) SACRED HISTORY. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. 1430 i486 Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greek; Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. The fabulous or traditionary Hermes-Trit megistus placed about this period. 1453 1370 1356 Bacchus, god of wine. Olympic Games first celebrated m Greece. Apollo, god of music and poetry. Bucklers used in single combat invented by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- pus. 1284 1263 1263 1240 1824 Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled in music. The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the council of Anij)hictyons. Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the first naval expedition on record. Musctus, a poet. The axe wedge, wimble and lever, also masts and sails for sivips invented by Daedalus of Athens. The game of Backgammon invented by Pa la- in ides of Greece 1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypl The law given at Mount Sinai. 1471. Rebellion of Koran, Dathan, and Abtraos 1453. Aaron dies. 1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies 1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua. 1443. Joshua dies. 1405. Oihniel judges Israel. 1390. The tribe of Benjamin *Imoit ext net. 1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 1325. Ehud kills~Eglon, and delivers Israel. 1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with ai ox goad. 1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canswn. 1285. D'-jorah and Barak defeat the Canaan- ites Sisera killed by Jael. 1252. Irael enslaved by the Midiantes 1249. Gideon, with 3011 men, defeats t'.ie Mi dianitea. 1209. Ahimelrch judses Israel 1206. Tola judges Israel. 1103 Jair, judge of liraeL THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 396 years. Moses to Saul. 721 PROFANE HISTORY. {Still uncertain.^ Uardanus, kng of Troy, builds Dardania. Ericthonius reigns in Troy. Cuehanrishathaim, king of Mesopotamia. (See Scrip- tu-'t.) Teucer, king of Troy. Troas, king of Troy. Ilus, son of Troas, founder of Ilium. Laomedon, king of Troy. Phenicia: TYRE founded. Second Assyrian Dynasty : Mithreaus or Ninus II. Troy taken by the Argonauts. Hercules arrives in Phrygia. Argon, a descendant of Hercu- les, first king of LYUIA. Priam, king of Troy. Tautanas. king of Assyria. The TROJAN WAR begins. Troy taken, 408 years before the 1st Olympiad. Teutaeus, king ot Assyria. Trojans migrate into Italy. 31 AFRICA. 1491. Pharaoh and his army drowned in the Red Sea. 1485. Egyptus reigns, and gives name to the country. 1376. Sethos reigns in Egypt iS3. Carl Tyrians H?e foundel by the Sthenelus reigns in Argoa. 1474. Danaus usurps the king- dom of Argos. 1463. Danmonii invade Ira- land. 1457. The kingdom of Mycene begins under Perseus, late king of Argos. 1453. Olympic games first ce- lebrated at Ells. 1438. Pandion begins to reign at Athens. 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 1397. CORINTH becomes a kingdom under Sisyphus. 1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 1376. The Isthmian games in- stituted. 1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- troduced. 1283. jEgeus reigns in Attica. 1266. Oedipus, king of Thebes. 1263. The Argoriautic Expe- dition. 1257. Theseus unites the cities of Attica under one govern- ment. 1243. The Arcadians conducted, by Evanderinto Italy. Mu saeus, a poet. 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 1225. First Theban War- Euristhenes and f'roclts kings of l.acedemon. 1222. Hercules celeb.aies the Olympic Raines. 1216. War of ihe Epi^omi or 2d Theban War. 1213. Helen carried off" by Theseus, is recovereJ by Castor anil Pollux, and mar- ries Menelaus. 1204. Helen elopes with Paris. 1 1S2. .iEneas lands in Italy. 1176. Salamis founJeil by Teucer. 1170. Epirus: Pyrrhus Neon- to'"nus. 722 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fourth Period. ( The Mosaic or T/teocratic.} PROGRESS OP SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. SACRED HISTORY. THE JEWS. I la 1 (X Mariner's compass said to be known in China. (1) A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- she, (?) 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines ant Ammonites. Samson born. Eli judges a portion of Israel. 1143. Jepluha defeats the Ammonites, and becomes judge of a part of Israel. 1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the jawbone of an ass. 1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. 1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO NARCHY. Saul anointed king of Israel THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 396 years. (Continued.) Moses to Saul. PROFANE HISTORY. (Still fabulous or uncertain.) AFRICA. EUROPE. 1152. Alba-Longa built bj Ascanius. 1141 1139 1122 1109 Temple of Ephesus burnt by the Amazons. Thinaeus, king of Assyria. China : 3d dynasty; Tchcoo. Dercylus, king of Assyria. 1124. JSoliari migration. THEBES, the Capital of Bceotia, founded. 1104. Return of the Heraclulse. End of the kingdom of Mycene. 724 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. FIFTH PERIOD. (The Monarchical.}-- SACRED HISTORY. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. THE JEWS. 1015 Minos give* his tow* to Crete. 1095. Saul, King of Israel. 1085. David born. 1062. David kills Goliath. 1055. Death of Saul. Dajpd reigns in Hebron over Judah ; Ishboshfl'th .retailing in Maha- naiin. over eleven tribes. 1048. Ishbosheth slam. David made king over all Israel. 1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to the Euphrates, on the East, the Reel Sea, on the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 1036. Solomon born. 1023 Revolt and death of Absalom. 1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of David. 1016. David dies. 1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the temple. 1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. 1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan- tic, via Straits qt Gibraltar : builds Tad- mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec. and other cities. 985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wivei 975. dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. JUDAH. 975. Rehoboam, king. 971. Shishak plunders the temple. 958. Abijah, king. 955. Asa, king. 954. 963 ISRAEL. Jeroboam, king. Nadab, king. Baasha, king. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 507 years. Said to Cyrus. 725 I Oil 9SC PROFANE HISTORY. ASIA. The Ionian emigrants settle in Asia Minor. Alliance between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. Samoa built. SUskak plunders Jerusalem. EUROPE. 1088. End of the kingdom oi Sicyon. 1070. Heremon, from Gallicia, conquers Ireland. 1069. Codrus devotes himseli for Athens. 1060. Athens governed by Archons. Alliance between Solomon and Pharaoh. 986. Utica built. 978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- ture, and supposed Sesos- tris,) king of Egypt. 976. Capyr reigns in k h Longa. 726 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fifth Period. (The Monarchical.} SACRED HISTORY. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY AND TUB ARTS. THE JEWS. Breastplates invented by Jason. Homer's poems brought into Greece. Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta. Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of Argos. Prophecies of Jonah. Carpets in use for tents. The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels with three banks ot oars. First recorded Olympiad and beginning of authentic chronology in Greece. Sculpture first mentioned in profane history an Egyptian an. I! ic first eclipse of the moon observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon. The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama into India. Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 12 months insteadof 10 as before. Augurs instituted bv Numa. Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- t. -Saul to Cyrus. (Continued.) PROFANE HISTORY. Homer born. (?) Jonah preaches to the Nine- vitea. Arbaces, king of Assyria. Media revolts. Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. Pul, kiug of Nineveh. Sardanapalus, king of Nine- veh. Media subjected to Assyria. Alyattes, king of Lydia. ERA OF NABONAZZAR. Assyrian empire destroyed. Meles, king of Lydia. Pharnaces, king of Cappado- cia. Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- ria and part of Israel. Candaules, king of Lydia. Shalmanezer king of Nine- veh, takes Samaria, and car- ries the Ten Tribes into captivity. Gyges usurps the throne of Lydia. Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. MEDIA becomes a kingdom under Dejoces. Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. Babylon and Nineveh under Eaarhaddon. AFRICA. 869. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa. 825. The dynasty of the Ta- nites in Egypt ; begins with Peterbastes. 781. The dynasty of the Saites in Egypt. 737. Sebacon invades Egypt. EUROPE. 935. Bacchus, king of CoriDlh. 916. Calpetus, king of Alba. 903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 895. Tiberinus drowned in tlu river Albula, which is thence called the Tiber. 64. Romulus, King of Alba Longa. 845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 814. The kingdom of MACE DON founded by Caranus. 808. Procas, king of Alba. 794. Numitor, " " 794. Amulius, " " Olam Fodla, king in Ire- and. (1) 769. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 753. BUILDING OF ROME Catania founded by a co- lony from Chalcis. 747. Union of Romans and Sabines. 743. 1st Messinian War. 716. Romulus murdered by th senators. 715. Numa Pompilius. 713. Gela in Sicily foundeti 703. Corcyra built by the Co rinthiare. 685. 2d Messinian Wwr 728 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. Fifth Period. (Tlie Monarchical.)- PiioGHESs OF SOCIETY AND THE ARTS. SACRED HISTORY. THE JEWS. 677. Mm.asseh carried to Balyloa, : &fUl> wards restored. Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind; Interpreters instituted by Psam- melicus; children educated in the language and manners of Greece. Se-Matsien's history of China begins. The Spnerical form of the earth and the true cause of lunar eclipses taught by Tholes, who discovers the electricity of amber. Periander encourages learning at Corinth. Draco frames his bloody code of laws at Athens. Pharaoh- Necho oegins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 1:20,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends out a Phoenician fleet which, sailing through the Straits of Babelrnandel, returned the third year by the Straits of Gibrultar, thus circumnavigating Africa. 640. Ammon, king of Ju ah. 641. Josiah. king of Judah. Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh-No- cho. 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to Egypt. Jehoiakim, king. 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM bj Nebuchadnezzar. 60J Thales' prediction of a ilar eclipse accom- plished. (See Asia.) Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that of Draco. The Pyt/tian dames at Delphi. 598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three Month* and is carried captive to Bahylon. Zedekiah, king. 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaklea. 588. CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH completed. JERUSALEM DESTROYED the teu pie burnt. ObudiaJt prophesies. riE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 507 years. Saul to Cyrus. (Continued.) 729 PROFANE HISTORY. ASIA. AFRICA. EUROPE. 67(5 047 031 626 619 Ardysus n., king of Lydia. Holofernes, Assyrian general. Phraortes, king of Media. Saracus, king of Babylon and Nineveh. Phraortes conquers Persia, Armenia, &c. Cyaxares, king of Media. Sadyaites, king of Lydia. Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- racus. The Scythians invade Lydia and Media. Alyattes II., kin of Lydia. Nineveh a second time destroy- ed. Nabopolassar, king of Baby- lon. Pharaoh-Necho defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- sium, on the Euphrates. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 601 690 Daniel interprets the king's dream. \ solar eclipse predicted by Thales separates the Medes and Lydians in battle. (New- ton's C/trora.,585.) B irth of Cyrus. Astyages of Media drives out the Scythians. 31* 660. Psammeticus, king Egypt. Memphis becomes the capital of the kingdom. 678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma- cedon. 672. Tullus Hostilius, king ol Rome. 668. Messina in Sicily founded 666. Alba destroyed. 664. Sea fight between the Corinthians and Corcyreana. 658. BYZANTIUM founded. 640. Ancus Martius The port of Ostia built. The Latins conquered by the Romans. Philip, 1st king of Mace- don. 629. Periander rules at Co- rinth. 616. Tarquinius Pnscus, king of Rome. 610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt. 600. Psammis, king of Egypt. 602. .Slropus, king of dare- don, conquers Illy rib. 594. Pharaoh-Hophra, king of 594. Solon, Archor f A'Jts Egypt. 730 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SIXTH PERIOD. (The Persian.)- c PROGRESS OP SOCIETY. 585 E78 Money coined at Rome by Ser- vius Tulliua. 540 535 o-C BiiJ Deposnus and Scyllis open a school of statuary a.1 Athens. Ncuicrates given to the Greeks by Egypt as a factory. Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- bited cities. First comedy acted at Athens on a cart, by Susarion and Dolon. Dials invented by Anaximan- der of Mile'.us. Anaximenes, Cleobulus. 559. Handwriting on the wal at Belshazzar's feast. The Corinthian order of ar- chitecture invented by Cali- machua. Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- sopher. Simonides, Anacreon, poets. hesfiis performs the first In gedy al Athens. Learning encouraged at Ath ens. First pulilic Horary founded Confucius the Chinese philo- sopher. The Doric issued by Darius. 536. Edict of Cyrus for the RE- TURN of the JEWS. Joshua, Zerubbabel. 535. Rebuilding of the tem- ple begins Zechariah, Ilaggai. 516. Dedication of the seconj 582. Nebuchadnezzar mra Elam takes Susa. 572. Tyre taken by Nebuc ,-tati nezzar 569. Nebuchadnezzar loei&f his reason is deposed. New Tyre founded. 562. Croesus, king ol LytUa. Solon and jE*opat his court. 561. Evil-Merodach, king ol Babylon. 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzai killed in the night. Cyaxares II. (Darius) king of Media. Cyrus the Persian assist* him. Asia Minor subjected to Croe BUS. 546. Sardis taken oy Cyrus. Crtrsus made prisoner. TH E LYDIAN KINGDOM END- ED. 538. BABYLON TAKEN by Cyrus. 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE founded by CYRUS, com- posed of Assyria, Media and Persia. 529. Cambyses, king of Per- sia. 52. Darius HystupM, cio( of Persia. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 258 years. Cyrus to Alexander tJie Great. 731 581 571 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- Bzzar, Apries taken prisoner, and strangled m his palace. Amasis, king connection be- tween Greece and Egypt. Pythagoras visits Egypt Psammenitus, last king of Egypt. Invasion of Cam- byses, who defeats the Egyptians at Pelusium, and takes Memphis. EGYPT BECOMES A PERSIAN PROVINCE. GREECE. 585. Death of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. 582. Corinth becomes a repub- lic. 560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Ath- ens. 549. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt by the Pisis- tratida?. 547. Amyntas, king of Mace- don. 539. The Phocians emigrate to Gaul and build Massilia (now Marseilles). 527. Pisistratus dies. 522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- ntos. 514. Hipparchus killed. 510. The Pisistratidae expelled. Democracy established at Athens Statues erected to Harmodius and Arisiogiton, leaders in the revolution. ROME, ETC. 578. Servius Tullius, king of Rome. 567. Conquest of the Etruriau by Rome. 565. First census of Rome : 84,700 citizens. 534. Tarquimus Superbus, king of Rome. 530. CADIZ built by the Car- thaginians (near the ancient Tarshish). 732 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. Sixth Period. (TJie Persian. PHJORESS OF SOCIETY. THE JEWS. ASIA. Abolition of the Regal Govern- ment, and establishment of Republic at Rome. Heraclitus, Theano, Prota- goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- phers. Corinna, poetess. The Phoenician letters carried to Ireland from Spain. Pythagoras teaches the doc- trine of celestial motions. The temple of Minerva built. The Etrurians excel in music, the drama and architecture. jsc/iylus, Pindar, poets. Simonides, of Cos, obtains the prize at Olympia. for teach- ins a system of Mnemonics, which he had invented. Empirics instituted by Acron, of Agrigenlum. Thucydldes born. Sophocles, the tragic, and Plato, the comic poet. Voyage of the Carthaginian* to Britain for tin 483. Joachim, High Priest 458. Esther. 457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem, collects the Jewish Scrip- tures : and 463. writes the Chronicle*. 508. Darius conquers India 500. The lonians revolt from Persia and bum Sardis. 490. Darius sends an army ol 500,000 men into Greece. 487. Artabazes, king of Pon- tus. 486. Xerxes, king of Persia. 481 The expedition of Xerxes into Greece. 480. The family of Archean- actes, from Mytilene, settle in Bosphorus (now Circas- sia.) 478. Death of Confucius. China distracted by internal wars. 166. Persians defeated by e and land. (65. Xerxes assassinated. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longiraa mis,) king of Persia. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 733 258 years. Cyrus to Alexander. (Continued.) 487 48<1 , Dictator. ROM?: AND ITALY. 509. Tlie Tarqums eipelled lioin Rome. BRUTUS AND COLLATINGS first CONSULS 01 Rome. 507. Second census of Rome, 130,909 citizens. The Capitol finished. -War against the Tarquins and their ally Porsonna. 491. Coriolanus ia n ished. 8. At the request of Ma mother, Coriolanus wiih- drawsthe Volsci from Rome. 485. Gelon. tyrant of Syracuse. 483. Quaestors appointed. 30. The Carthaginians de- feated by Gelon. 479. Syracuse governed iy Hiero. 477. The 300 Fabii slain. 467. Thrasybulus succeed? Hiero, and is expelled foi his cruelty. Democracy in Syracuse. 461. Earthquake at R<"ne. 456. Cincinnatus Dio't * 734 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS TJte Sixth Period. (The Persian.) B.O PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, BTC. THE JEWS. ASIA. The Britons inflict punish- ment of death by drowning in a quagmire. mpfAnclfH, Parmenides, Arixtippus, and Antis- theneM, philosophers. Phidias the finest sculp- tor of antiquity. Euri- pides, gains the first prize in tragedy. The Battering Ram invented hy Anemones. Aristophanes, prince of an- cient comedy. Melon begins his lunar cycle. Socrates, the greatest of hea- then moralists. Hippocrates, of Cos, the father of medicine. Thucydides, Ctcsias, histo- rians. Democritus, the laughing phi- losopher. 445. Walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah. Sect of Samaritans, An eclipse of the sun causes the defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse Thucydides 1 history ends, and Xenophon's begins. 449. Persians defeated at 9ft- lamis in Cyprus. Peace with Greece. 438. Spartacus takes pom* sion of the Bofphonw. 425. Xerxes IL k. of Persia 424. Darius II. k. of Persia. 404. Artaxerzean. king of Persia. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 735 258 years. Cyrut to Alexander. (Continued.) GREECE. ROME, ETC. Amyrtaeus, king of Egypt, shakes off the yoke of Per- sia. 407 The Carthaginians send 300,' 0"0 men into Sicily. 454. Perdiccas, II., king of Ma- cedoii. 449. Cimon dies. 448. First Sacred War. 447. Athenians defeated at Che- roncea. 440. Pericles takes Samoa. 437. Amphjpolis planted by Athenians. 436. Corinth at war with Cor- cyra. 432. Revolt of Potidaea from the Athenian confederacy. 431. The Peloponnesian War. Invasion of Attica. 430. The Plague at Athens. 429. Pericles dies, having gov- erned Athens 40 years. 425. An earthquake separates the peninsula of Eubcea from the main land. 424. Exile of Thucydides. Campaign of Brasidas in Thrace. 420. The 90th Olympiad. Alcibiades effects a treaty between the Athenians and Argives. 416. Nicias, general of the Athenians. War in Sicily . 413. The Athenians alarmed by an eclipse. Their army in Sicily destroyed. 413. Archelaus, king of Mace- don. 411. Athens governed by the 400. Alliance of Sparta with Persia. 411. Alcibiades at the court of Tissaphernes. 410. Alcibiades defeats the Spartans. 408. Capture of Byzantium. 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians, 404. takes Athens, and establishes the 30 ty- rants End of the Peloponnesian War. Death of Alcibiade*. 451. Decemviri the laws * the 12 tables. Virginia killed by hei father. 446. Syracuse reduces Agrl- jentum. 445. Military Tribunes. 444. Office of Censor in.sti- tuted. 440. Famine in Rome. 437. The Veii defeated. 434. War with the Tuscan*. 433. The temple of Apollo d dicated. 431. The Erjui and Vo.eci d feated. 736 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. Tfo Sixth Period. (The Persian.} u.c, PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, ETC. Gitapidtee. invented by Diony- sius. Cynics, sect of philosophers Ibunded by Antittthenes. 388 Plato, the philosopher. Philoxenes, the poet. Treatise on conic sections by Aristaus. Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates and ISCKUS, orators. THE JEWS. A celestial globe brought into Greece from Egypt." Philippics of Demosthenes. Commerce of Rhodes with Africa at d Byzantium 366. Jeshua slain by Johan- nan in the inner court ot the temple, for which a heavy fine is laid on the daily sacri- fices. 401. Cyrus the younger de- feated. Retreat o/ the 10,000 under Xenophon. 400. The city of Deihi found ed. 387. The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia. 383 BITHYNIA becomes kinadom. Mithrirlates 1st, king al PONTUS. 362. AriobarzaneskingofPon- tus. Revolt of the Persian governor in Asia Minor. 361. Darius Ochus. or Artax- erxes III. king of Persia. 360. CAPPADOCIA become* a kingdom under Ariaratliw L TME WORLD'S PROGRESS. 737 258 years. Cyrus to Alexander. (Continued.) AFRICA. GREECE. ROUE AND ITALY. 373 362 360 The Carthaginians land in Italy. Tachos, king of Egypt. Agesilaus, the Spartan, aids The Egyptians. Voyages of the Carthaginians under Hanno. 401. Thrasybulus expels the 30 tyrants. Death of Socrates. 399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- cedon. 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 395. Corinthian War begun. Battle of Coronea. 382. Thebes taken by Phcebi das. 380. Thebes delivered by Pelo pides and EPAMINONDAS. 100th Olympiad. 377. Spartan fleet defeated at Naxos. 372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- loponnesus, swallowed up by an earthquake. 371. Battle of Leuctra. Alexander II., king of Ma- cedon. Predominance of Thebes. 370. Perdiccas III., king of Macedon. 364. Pelopidas killed in-battle. 362. Battle of Mantinea, death of Epaminondas. DECLINE OP GRECIAN REPUBLICS. 360. Philip II., king uf Mace- don. defeats the Athenians at Methone. The Macedonian phalanx. War of the tllies against Athens. 358. Philip takes Amphipolis and loses his right eye by an arrow from Astor. 357. The 2d Sacred War. 356. Philip conquers Thrace and Illyria. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. A L E X A N D E R " the Great" born. 400. Siege of Veii begun. 397. Lake Alba drained 391. CAMILLUS, Dictator, take* Veii, after a siege of len years. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls, under Brennui The Capitol besieged. Camillus delivers his coun- try. 386. Damon and Pythias. 384. M. Manlius (Japitolinua thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 379. The Voted defeat 0)4 Romans. 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- beian consul. Camiltus, the fifth time Dictator. 371. The curule magistrate* appointed. 362. Curtius leaps into a guli in the Forum. 357. Dionvsius, the jrounfa* expelled from SyracuM. 738 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SEVENTH PERIOD. (The Grecian.) .o PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC- Aristotle, the logician and phi- losopher, founder of the Pe- ripatetics; ^Etc/tines, ora- tor. Demosthenet ; Icetaa, of Syra- cuse. The Lyceum built in Attica. 3*1 Alexander spares the house of Pindar. The revolution of eclipses first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian. Caustic painting or the art of burning colors into wood or ivory, invented by Gau- sias, a painter of Sicyon. The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus 10 the Euphrates. Apeiles, the painter ; Calis- thenes, philosopher. Menander, tlie inventor of the new comedy. Lysistratus invents moulds from which to cast wax figures. First work on mechanics, writ' ten by Aristotle. Diving Bttl first mentioned. THE JEWS. Alexander enters Jerusa- lem. On seeing Jaddus, the High Priest, clad in his robes, he declares he hail seen him in a vision, invit- ing him to Asia, and pro- mtsing him the Persian em- pire. He goes to the Tem- ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- vuh, and departs. 320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews into Eypt. Onias I. 336. Milhridates II., kirg Pontus. 334. Battle of the Granicvs. 333. Battle of Issus. Parthia, Baciria ; Hyrcania.Sogiliana. and Asia Minor, conquered by Alexander. 2. Tyre subdued after seven months' sieg. Damascus taken. Gaza surrenders. 331. Battle of Arbela. The Persian army totally defeat- ed. 330. CONQUEST of the PER SIAN EMPIRE. 329. Thalestris. queen of the Amazons, visits Alexander, with a train of 300 women. 328. Alexander extends hii conquest to ihe Ganges. 323. Alexander dies at Baby- ton. 322. Perdiccas takes Car fa- docia. 320. Eumenee Jefealed by A* UgonuB. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 739 184 years. Alexander to tJie Fall of Greece. GREECE MACEDON. HOME, ETC. 34J Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, and pillages its temples. 540 The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon. 332 Egypt conquered by Alexan- der. Alexandria built. 83 Ptolemy I (Soter, son of La- 353. The Phocians defeated by Philip. 348. End of the Sacred War. Philip takes Olynlhus. 346. Philip admired to the Amphictyonic Council. 345. Duras buried by an earth- quake. 343. Thrace tributary to Mace- don. Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander. 341. Philip makes war upon Athens. 340. lays siege to Byzantium. Timoleon recovers Syra- cuse, expels Dionysius, the tyrant, and defeats the Car- thaginians at Agrigentum. 38. Philip defe at Cheronea. 336. Philip is murdered by Pausanias. ALEXANDER III., sur- named the Great. He rava- ges Greece, destroys Thebes, sparing the house of Pindar. 335. h chosen generalissimo of Greece against Persia. 334. invades Persia, and after several great battles (see " Asia ") subdues the Per- sian empire and Egypt, and inarches into India. thaginians at Agrigentum. 338. Philip defeats the Greeks 330. jEschines, the orator, banished. 325. Demosthenes banished. 323. Death of Alexander. The Grecian citii-s revolt from Macedon. Demosthe- nes recalled. 322. The Greeks defeated by sea and land near Cranon. Death of Demosthenes. 321. Antipater, regent. 319. Polysperchon succeeds Amipaier, and proclaims liberty to the Grecian cities- .Til. Dion put to death, an Syracuse usurped by ty- rants. 345. Twelve cities ir Cainr*- nia buried by an earth [iiake. 343. Samnian War, whi ;h con- tinues 53 years. 340. P. Decius oevote* hm> self for his country. All Campania is subdued. 332. The Caledonian mo- narchy (Scotland) founded by Fergus I. 325. Papirius Cursor, Dictate*. 321. The Samnites make thi Romans pass under the yokt. 320. The Samnites defeated al Luceria. 740 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Seventh Period. (The Grecian.)- i.e. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. Commerce of Macedon with India, through Egypt. The Appian Way constructed. The Gnomon invented to measure altitudes. Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 311. Judea subject to Ar.tigo- nus. 301. Judea under the domi- nion of the Ptolemies. Euclid, of Alexandria, the celebrated mathematician. Zeno, founder of the S/oics; Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ; Epicurus, of the Epicu- reans. Bion, of Borysthe- nes, philosopher. The great Chinese Wall built. The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor, and the time first divided into hours. Fabius introduces painting at Rome. The Colossus of Rhodes built by Chares, of Lindus. Theocrites, the father of pas- loral poetry. Dionysius, the astronomer at Alexandria, begins his era. He found the solar year to consist of 3t'io days, 5 hours, and I '.' minutes. The Septuagint translation of 284. The sect of the Sadduceet. the Old Testament, begun at Alexandria, by order of Pto- lemy Phil iclel phus. 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator 311. Seleucus Nicator retakes Babylon. Era of the Seleucidte. 310. Eumeles usurps the throne of Bosphorus, putting to death all his brothers. After a reign of six years, is murdered. 305. War in India, against Sandrocottus. 301. Battle of Tpms. Antigo- nus killed. ALEXANDER'S EM PIRE DIVIDED in foui parts. Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander. Lysimachus. Milhridates 111., king ol Pontus. 291. Seleucus founds Antioch Edessa, and Laodicea. 285. The Scythians invade Bi>spnorua. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 741 184 years. (Continued.) 307 306 Agathocles is defeated by the Carthaginians. Peace between Sicily and Car- thage. GREECE. 318. Phocion put to death by the Athenians. 317. Cassander assumes the government of Macedon. Demetrius Phaleri us gov- erns Athens. 315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes^ and founds Cassandria. 312. Epirus: P y r r h u s II., the greatest hero of his lime. 306. Democracy established at Athens by Demetrius. 304. Athenians repulsed from Rhodes. 303. Demetrius Poliorcetes, general of the Grecian States. 300. Rest -ration of Democracy at Athens. 291. Death of Cassander. Alexander and Antipater succeed. 296. Siese of Athens, by De- metrius. 294. Demetrius murders Alex- ander, and seizes the throne of Macedon. 287. Athens revolts from De- metrius. 286. Pyrrhus expelled from Macedon. 2M. The Achaean Republic. ROME, ETC. 317. Syracuse and Sicily ustup ed by Agathocles. 312. War with the Etruscan*. 310. The Carthaginians defeat Agathocles, and besiege Sy- racuse. 18. Fabius Maxima* defeats the Samnites. 303. Establishment of Tribus Urbana. 300. First Plebeian High Priest 290. End of the Samnit* WM. 286. Law of Hortensius, fc| which the decrees of tn people had the force of thoM of the senate. 742 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Seventh Period. (The Grecian.) .o. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. THE JEWS. ASIA. 983 The Pharos built at Alexan- dria, the first light-house on record. Philetaerus, of Pergamus, pa- tron of the arts, especially Architecture. Alexandria, the resort of the learned, and centre of trade. Chariots armed with scythes, aid fortified camps, in use. 276 First society of critics formed. 867 866 264 866 Ptolemy makes a :anal from the Nile to the Red Sea. Silver money first coined. The Parian Chronicle com- posed. Gladiators first exhibited at Rome. Berosus, the historian of Ba- hylon. The armillary sphere invented by Erastosthenes. who made the first attempt to determine the length of a degree. Greece instructs the Romans in the arts and sciences. 248. Onias II. high priest 282. The kingdom of PER- GAMUS (bunded by Phile- wtrus. 281. Lysimachus defeated and killed by Seleucus. Anlio- chus Soter succeeds Seleu- out 266. Ariobarzar.es III., king ill Pontus. 262. Antiochus Soter def;atJ at Sardis. 256. Kingdom of PAR I HI A founded by Arsaces. 255. The fourth imperm. dy nasty of China begins 252. Mithridates IV., be. *g4 in his -apit;il by the Gnaw. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 743 184 years. (Continued.) GREECE. ROME, ETO. Ptolemy Philadelphia king of Egypt. 2 abolish the Jewish religion, and commits great cruelties. 167. Matthias, High Priest. 165. JUDAS MACCABEUS ex- pels the Syrians, and puri- fies the temple. 161. Judas kills Nicanor is succeeded by Jonathan. First treaty with the Ro- mans. 158. Jonathan compels the Bac- chides to withdraw is mur- dered by Tryphon. 150. Jews take Jopra. 172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha nes) king of Syria. 171 declares war against Puv lemy Philomater." 170. An irruption of Tartan into China. 166. Prusias, khgof lithyma. 164. Antiochus Epiphanes died. 16-.J. Demetrius Soter, king of Syria. Miihridates Philopater, king of Cappadocia. 157. Mithndatea V., king o- Pontus. 153. Ariara'hes VII., king o Cappadocia. 150. Alexander Bala kills Da metri us,and takes the throne 149. Prusias, of Bithynia. til. ed by his son Nicometio* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 749 184 years. (Continued.) GREECE. ROM'S, ETC. 174 Ca'.O e embassy to Carthage. 178. Perseus, king of Mace- don. 171. Third Macedonian War. 168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- na, by Patilus Emilius MACEDON BECOMES A RO- MAN PROVINCE. 165. Romans enter Achaia. 170. Ti be rius and Cumt Gracchus. 167. Census 327,038. 155 Embassy of Diogenes, Carniades, and Critolaus to Rome. 152 jM issinissa defeats the Cartha- 15'2. Andriscus usurping the ginians. government of Mnccdon, is 15) UO Joint reign of Philomater and Pliyscon in Egypt. CARTHAGE TAKEN destroyed. and conquered by Meteilus. 147. Metellus defeats the Acli- sans in Greece. 146. Corinth taken and de- stroyed by Mnmmiu*. GREECE becomes a RO- MAN PROVINCE under the name of Achaia. 155. Romans unsuccessful Spain. 151. Defeat of Ga'.ba. 49. THIRD PUNIC WAR. Conquest of Carthagr an j of Corinth. Greece annexed to the Roman empire. 750 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. EIGHTH PERIOD. (The Raman.} i.e. 116 H3 133 130 120 116 UO PIIOORESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. Alexandria, the centre of com- mfrce. ffipparchus begins his new cycle of the moon. Toothed tchcels applied to the clepsydra by Cte.sibius. Learning and learned men liberally patronized by Ptol- omy Physcon. Dioaonu and Satyrus, peri- paieiics ; Nicander. physi- cian arid poet ; Lucius Ac- cius, tragic poet ; Arislobu- lus, the Jewish peripatetic. Equestrian order, a distinct class. Revival of learning in China. The theory of eclipses known to the Chinese. L. Cmlius Antipater, histo- rian ; LucilHus, the first Roman satirist; Apollodo- rus, of Athens, chronologic ; Castor, of Rhodes, chrbno- k'sist; Anthenton, philoso- pher. Fira sumptuary late at Rome. THE JEWS. 142. Simon, High Priest 135. End of the Apocrypha. Jerusalem besieged by An- tiochus IV. 130. John Hyrcanus delivers Judea from the Syrian yoke : reduces Samaria and Idu- mea. 108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- ria. 107. succeeded by his son Aristobulus, who first as- sumes the title of king. 105. Alexander Janneus at war with Esrypt takes Ga- za. Rebellion excited by the Pharisees. 137. Antiochus IV., (Sidtte*,) king of Sy ria. 134. Antiochus invades Judea. 130. Antiochus IV. defeated and killed in a war with Par- thia. 129. Demetrius II. (Nicator) regains Syria. 123. Milhndates the Great, kir.g of Pontus. III. Jfithridates conquer* Bcr- thiit, Bo.-phorus, Col Jli* &c. THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 751 1 46 years. Fall of Greece to l/te Christian Era. UG 140 Commerce of the world cen- tres at Alexandria. Piol'.iniy Pnyscon becomes soie king ol Egypt by the death ol" Fru.omaier. i20 Ptolemy Physcon driven from his throne I'or his cruelly. 128 Pesiilence in Esypt. 123 Caraiase rebuilt. 118 i)eain of Micipsa, king of Numidia, anil the assassina- tin of lliempsal byJugur- tlm. U6 Ptolemy Lathyrus, king Eeypt. 1121 Jugurthiue War. Alexander 1 . king of Egypt. Jugurtha is defeated and stir- rentiers Nuuutlia to the Ro- Hiililf.. ROMAN EMVIRB. In the East. 133. PERGAMUS, a Roman Province. 118. DALMATIA, a Roman Province. In Europe. 141. Numantian War. 140. The Picts from the norta of England settle in th< south of Scotland. 135. Servile var in Su-Jf. i3d. lSi!!iisTiii:i des'.voyed by Scipm: SPAIN BECOMBS A ROMAN I'UOVINCB. Death of Tiberius Grac- clius. 123. Tribunate of a i u i Gracchus. 113. First great migration of the German naliuns. 100. War of the Teutoni anl Cnnbii. 105. Numidia. becvmcs a Ro- wan province by /he duftat of .luyiirihc.. 101 'I'lit:' Teninni ilefoat 80.000 Rnmiins on 'he banks of t!ia Rhone. 102. M a r i u s vi<;tnriou over the Teuioni and Ambro nes at AqiicE Sexue. 101. M.irius anil Catullus de- feat the Cimbri. 100. Marius buys his sixth co& sulate. Banishment of Metellua 752 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. TJie Eighth Period. (The Roman.)-' 1.0 PROGRESS OF gonurr, ETC. THE JEWS. Libraries of Atttnt sent to Rome by syi ia. Decline of Agriculture in Italy ; corn supplied from the provinces. Posidonius calculates the heisht of the atmosphere to be about 800 stadia. Zeno, of Si Jon, the Epicurean ; AjitUimn of Alhtsns; Alex- ander Pulijphistur.{\ie srram- mariun ; Phutiug Gnllus, rhetorician ; Q. Valerius Antias, Roman historian ; Q. Hortensiuji, orator. The cherry tree brought to Europe from Asia by Lu- cullus. 'J'Krmlius Vurro writes three books on agri- culture. The Romans possess gold miner) in Asia Minor, Mace- donia, Sardinia anil Haul ; and productive silver mines in Spain. The first water mitt described near a dwelling of Mithri- dates. Eliony introduced at Rome by Pompey. Vikratuiiilitya kins of Ozene, in Iii'lia. patron of literature ;it his court flourish Ame- ra Sin/en, lex-fcosranher: Vararucht, grammarian ; Kalidasa, poet. 79. Alexandra, widow of Jan- neus, governs Judea. 70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, deposed by his brother Aris- tobulus. 67. Aristobulus and Hyrc.-miis appeal to Pompey, wlio en- ters Juilea and takes Jerusa- lem, and restores Hyrcanus to the priesthood. 63. JUDEA A ROMAN FftO V1NCB. 93. China sti' submits to th Han dyna-My ; S e in a t - z i n , Emperor. 97. Mil hridates conquers Cap- padoeia. 95. Cappadocia declaied free by Rome. Ariobarzunea elected king. 94. Antioohus, king of Syria, defeated . y Seleucus. 93. Tigranes, king of Arme- nia. 9. Pontus at war with Rome. 86. Mithridates takes Bythi- nia and several Roman'pro- vinces. 83. Tigranes made king o( Syria. 75. By the death of Nicome- des Uythinia becomes it orovince. 70. Damascus possessed ty the Romans. !). Mitliridiiies and Tigranes ileleiiiol by Luiuilliw. J6. Mnhridates defeated by Pompey. 05. Antiochus XII. defeated by Pompey. The race of the Seleucidw becomes ex- tinct. Ariobarzanes II., kin of Cappadocia. An earthquake in Bophoriu lays in ruins several towns. 1-1. Dejotarus, kin? of Gal.itw, seizes Armenia Minor. >3. Pharraaces, kiugofPontu* THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 753 146 years. (Continued.) ROMAN EMPIRE. 97 By the death of Ptolemy Apion, CYRBNE becomes a Roman province. In Asia and Africa. 97. Annexation of Gyrene. 82 Revolt in Upper Egypt. Thebss destroyed. Alexander II., king of Egypt. 89. Mithridatic War; Sylla commands the Roman army. !. The Athenians seek as- sistance from Mithridates against Rome. . Athens, reduced by famine, is taken by Sylla. 83. Second Mithridatic War. 82. Sylla plunders the temple of Delphi. In Europe. 99. L u s i t a n i a conquered by Dolabella, and becomes a Roman province. Birth of Julius Csesar. 91. Social War in Italy. P Sylla defeating thi Marsi and Peligni, puts aa end if ihe Social War. Civil War between Ma- rius and Sylla. 82. Sylla defeats Marius, and is created perpetual dictator. SO. T ULIUS CAESAR'S FIRST 79. Pompey defeats Dc-1 CAMPAIGN. mitius in Africa. 75. Bythinia a Roman Province. 74. Third Mithridatic War under Lucullus. Ptolemy Auletes, king of 66. Metellns subdues Crete. P o n t u s becomes a Roman Province. 65. Syria, a Roman Province. 77. Sertorius revolts in Spam and defeats Metellus and Pompey. 73. War of Spartacus, the gla diator. 71. Spartacus defeated by Cras sus. 70. Pompey and Cras sus Consuls. 69. Census 450,090. 65. M. T. CICERO, Consul. 63. C a ta line's Conspl- , racy detected and sup I pressed by Cicero. 32* 754 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Eighth Period. (The Roman.) .a. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. Magnificent houses of tilt nobles; marble theatre of Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- tators. Cicero, statesman and orator ; So/lust, historian; Lucre- tius and Catullus, poets; Appl/oiiius, of Rhodes, rhe- torician ; Aristomedes, of Crete, grammarian ; Andro- nicus, of Rhodes, peripate- tic philosopher. Iron chain cables used by the Veneti. A water mill on the Tiber at Rome. The Alexandrian library (400,- 000 vols.) burnt. The year of confusion so called because the calendar was altered by Sosigenes. Catsar reforms the Calendar, by introducing the solar in- stead of the lunar year. First Julian year. Vitru- vius. l he greatest Roman ar- chitect. dtrnehuA Nepos, historian ; rian Sicttlus, histo- THE JEWS. .ASIA. 53. Crassus plunders the tem- ple of 10,000 talents. 48. Antipater, the Idumean, is made lieutenant in Judea by Cffisar. 43 Judea oppressed by Cras- sus. Malichus poisons Arrti- pater. 40. Herod the Great, son of Antipater, defeats his rival, Antigonus, and Parcorus. the Parthian takes Jerusa- lem marries Mariamne i." made king by the Romans. 53. Parthian War. Tho To- mans defeated. Craw- J slain. 49. The era of Antioek. 47. Battle of Zela. PhaiBT conquered by Caesar. 44. A comet s*en in dim* 39. The Parthians, under Pai corns, defeated by Venn dius. Darius, king of Pontus. 33. Ariobarzanes dethroned bj Marc Antony. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. J4G years. (Continued.) 755 68 43 loiemy goes to Rome, Bere- lice reigns in his absence. Tl.e African War. Scipio a v'Juba defeated at Thap- si:s Caio wills himself at l-iica. Ptolemy Dionysius Crowned in the Nile. Caesar rebuilds Carthage. Cleapatra jwisons her brother ai J reigns alone ROMAN EMPIRE. East. 53. Crassus defeated and killed in Parthia. 48. Thessaly becomes the seat of war. The Athenians de- clare for Caesar against Pom- pey. Battle of Pharsalia: Pom- pey, defeated by Caesar, flees into Egypt, and is slain there. 47. Caesar lakes Alexandria, and conquers Egypt. Cae- sar victorious at Zela, in Asia. 45. Corinth rebuilt by Caesar. Wen. 60. First Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, and Juliui Caesar. Sciold, first king of Den- mark. Boh a fierce son of Odin. 58. Clodius procures the ban ishment of Cicero. The Helvetii defeated by Julius Caesar. 57. Cicero recallea. S a 1 lust expelled from th senate. Gylf, king of Swe- den. 55. Caesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Gei- mans and Gauls, and IN VADES BRITAIN. 54. Caesar's second invasion of Britain. 52. Pompey, sole consul. 51. Caesar completes the con- quest of Gaul, which be- comes a Roman province. 49. Caesar passes the Rubicon, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy marches into Spain and forces Pompey's troops to surrender. I. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 45. Caesar perpetual dictator he subdues the two sons of Pompey, and acquires the sole power. 44. Casar assassinated in the Senate House. 43. Second Triumvirate : Octavius Caesar, Marc An- tony, and Lepidus. Cicero proscribed and murdered. 42. The Battle of Philijrpi :~ Antony and Octavius defeal Brutus and Cassiua. 756 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Eighth Period. (The Raman.) .c. PROORESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. Golden age of Roman litera- ture. The revenue of the empire amounts to about 40 millions sterling. Fi rat standing ar- my in Rome. Direct trade ol Rome with India. Silk and linen manufactories in the empire. Temple of Janus at Rome closed there being now a general peace. Treasures of Egyptian art brought to Rome. The Pan- theon built. HORACE, VIROIL, Tibullus, Propertius, poets; Varrus and Tucca, critics; Livy, historian ; Macenas, minis- ter of Augustus, patron of literature; Strabo, geogra pher; jEmilius Macer, of Verona, poet ; Agrippa, war- rior, ajiJ patron of the arts. Worship of Isis at Rome. Pantomimic dances intro- duced on the Roman stage. constructed by Aqueducts Agrippa. Dedications of bf>ks first in- troduced. The legions distributed over the provinces in fixed camps, which soon erew into cities among them were Bonn and Mayence. The ca!en* Ger manicus. 4. Cymbeline, king of Brita'n PA11T II. MODERN CHRONOLOGY, THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. Epochas or Periods. (. From the Christian Era ) Period of the Ten Persecution to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 j Christians. Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 ( " Northern Invasions. Flight of Mahomet, 622 J " J^'Man and Belisariu,. <* Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 \ " Saracen Empire. V Battle of Hasting^ 1066 ( " New Western Empire. VI ) Founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 { VII J Taking of Constantinople, 1453 ( Tamerlane, WiMiffe, and ff*~ *IH ) " TVie Reformation; Discoveriet " Edict of Nantes, " 1598 ] and Inventions. IX * " The English C'ommontrenltk Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, " 1718 1 and Wars of Louis XIV. X ) " American and French Rivn.v " Cattle of Waterloo, " 1815 \ lions. il i " European Revolutions, l.itti* " present time c.1865.) \ lure and the Arts. 760 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. MODERN CHRONOLOGY. PERIOD 1st. (The Ten Persecutions.) PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. SACRED. The BIRTH OF CHRIST -.{see p. 44.) Herod Antipas being at this time letrarcn of Galilee. 8. Christ reasons with the doctors. Celsua Uua the physician; Phizdrua, the fabu- ist ; Veliius Paterculua, Roman hislo- The Druids in Germany. Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. Seneca, moral philosopher. Valerius Maximus, historian. Appion, of Alexandria, erammarian, called the "Trumpet of the World." 48 60 A census being taken by Claudius, the em- peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome are found to amount to 6,900,000. (Univ. ///.) I More than three times the number AT London at present.} Cotumella, born in Spam; left twelve books on husbandry. 25. Pontius Pi/ate, governor 01 Judea. 26. John the Baptist begins his ministry. 27. Christ baptized by John 28. at the marriage in Cana. Matthew called. 29 Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and two." 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- day, April 3. at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection, Sunday, April 5; Ascension. Thursday. May 4. . St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 40. The disciples first called Christiana at Antioch. 41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 44. St. Mark writes his gospel. Death of St. James. 45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at A then 52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Csesa rea. 57. pleads belore Felix. 69. pleads before Festus, and appeal* M OMc. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 761 306 years. Prom the Christian Era to the reign of Constantino. ROMAN EMPIRE. East. Caiiu Cesar makes peace with the Parthians. 1 2<5 Germanicus conquers Cappadccia. Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. Thrace becomes a Roman province. West. Tiberius returns to Rome. 3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. Caius Csesar dies. 6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser, got erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- vince. 9. The Germans, under Arminiuii, defeat an 3 kill Varrus. Ovid is banished to Tomos. 14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and n succeeded bv Tiberius. 19. The Jews banished from Rome. Th M'ircomanni conquered by Drusus. 21. The theatre of Pompey destroyed by 3r. 26. Tiberius retires to Caprsea. 31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death, 33. Conquest of Mauritania. S7. Tiberius dies, aged 78. -Caligula. (noted for his profligacy and folly.) 41. Caligula assassinated by Chereaa. Claudius' succeeds to the tnrone. 43. invades Britain with his general, Pla tius. 45 Vespasian, general in Britain. 48. Census of the city, 6,900,000. 1. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, eo- quered and brought to Rome. N e r o ,^ a profligate and bloody tyrant 55. poisons Britanicus. 56 Rotterdam built. 69. Nero's mother, Agrippinm, put to <**& by his order. T82 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern : Period I. 306 vian PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. SACRED AND ECCLESIASTICAL. 67 60 Nsrc's golden palace built ; of great extent, inclosing fields, ? Mediterranean and Northern Seas. Diocletian's Oriental form of government the monarchy considered hereditary nomi- nation of Caspars as co-rulers. Diocletian's balha, containing 3,000 benches of white marble, while the walls were domed with paintings. 251. St Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. M nastic life originates about thU tune. Dispute between the churches of ROOM and Africa about baptism. 259. Pope Dionysius. 263. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, dei ii divinity of Jesus Christ . Pope Felix L 272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 274. Pope Eutychianes. Manes originates the heresy of the Man*- chaeans rejects all thesacrainen's ; refuses allegiance to temporal sovereigns, dec. 283. Pope Caius. The Jewish Talmud arm Targum .-ons posed. Paul, the Theban, the first hermit. Hell gious ceremonies multiplied. Pagan ritet imitated by the Christians. 286. Ifierax, chief of the Hierarians ; assert* that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and denies the resurrection Christian Era to Constantine.] THE JVORLD b PROGRESS. 769 ROMAN EMPIRE. 251 East. HUNS o> i the Caspian Sea. 209 200 261 2C4 SJG9 273 The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. Persia : Sapor's victory over the Roman arms. The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and Cssarea. Odenatus, king of Palmyra he is succeeded by his wife. Zen obi a, who reigns with the titles of 1 Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, and Asia Minor. Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who destroys her magnificent capital, and carries her to Rome. 280 The Persians lefeated by Probus. 251.- West. Callus' purchases a peace with the Goths. Con- federacy of the Franks between the Rhint and Elbe. great pestilence prevails in the empire. 253.- 254.- E m 1 1 1 a r. u a . Valerian. is successful against the Germans and Goths. 256-69. Four great piratical expeditions ef the Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and flayed alive by the Persians. G al 1 i e n u s . Period of the 30 tyrants. The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 264. Alliance with Odenatus. 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Gotha and Scythians. 268. Gallienus killed at Milan. Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,(X 269. dies at Sirmium. Jotha. 270.- - Aurelian, ^g (a great warrior.) 271. defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 273 reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to obedience. The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. Dacia eiyen up to the barbarians. 275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. An interregnum of 6 months. Tacitus, (a descendant of the historian,) reigns with wisdom 6 months. 277.- Probus, (a warlike prince.) obtains several victories over the barba- rians. The Franks permitted by Probus to settle in Gaul. 282. Probus slain by his soldiers. C ar u s killed by lightning. Carinus and Numerianu*,' (effeminate and cruel.) 288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. 284.- Diocletian 1 33 sends ambassadors to China. "The Era of Diocletian," or of "the martyrs," Auffust 29. 287. Britain usurped by Carausius, who reigns 7 years. The empire attacked by the torth- ern barbarians, and several pronnces usurped by tyrants. Maximianui, a col- league of the Emneror. 70 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern : Period I. 306 yean. 290 304 PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. The Gregorian code. ffregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; Elius, Sparlianus,an&. Vopiscus, historians ; Tre- bellius Polio. ECCLESIASTICAL. 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. Pope Marcellinus 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 304. Arnobius, of Africa, C. P., converted 'rom idolatry. The prettorian guard broken up by Constan- tlne. MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.-170 yean 306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Consiantius. 310. Pope Eusebius. Arius excommunicated. 311. Pope Malchiades. 314. Pope Sylvester I. 319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantino the Great. 3.TO Foundation of Constantinople by Constantino the Great. Celebrated dome of St Sophia: the splendor of the court so great that it cost more than the legions. Constantinople becomes the seat of an and literature. 310 357 Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to Ivive flourished about this time. Eutropiug and Marcettintig, historians ; Jam- btictu and Eunapius, Greek historian. 325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th, 325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, who condemn A nanism. Eusebius, bishop of Cccsarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- rian. Lactantius. Athanasius, Arius, Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the reign of Constantino. 336. Pope Marcus. 337. Pope Julius. Eleventh persecution. Saints invoked, the cross reverenced, and incense used by the Christians. 341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumaintius. 356. Pope Felix II. St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianztn ol Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. P. Elius Donatus. bishop of Carthage. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem. Monasteries m Tnebais. Christian Era to Conslantine.\ THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 771 ROMAN EMPIRE. Ecat. Narsis, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- potamia, and Assyria. Alexandria taken by Diocletian. Hormhdaa, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. West. 291. The Franks make themselves masters oi Batavia and Flanders. 293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 296. Britain restored to the emperor. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em pire to Constantius and Galeriut. From Constantine to Odoacer. The first general council a Nice. The seat of government removed to Constan- tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on May llth, 330. Great famine and pestilence in Syria. Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- persed over the empire. Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, 306. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, ^g (first Christian emperor.) Licinius, Maximian, and Mcucentius, nil three colleagues. Constantino defeats the Franks. 312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 314. Civil war with Licinius. 319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- tianity. 321. appoints the observance of Sunday. 322. defeats and banishes Licinius, and be- comes sole emperor. 325. abolishes the combats of gladiators and assemblies. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- ples to be destroyed. Constantius, Constans,and Constantine.' 150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an earthquake. Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an extensive empire. Gallus put to death by Constantius. Constantius dies at Tarsus. A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. EASTERN EMPIRE extending from the lower Danube to the con- fines of Persia. 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and killed by Constans at Aquilea. 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentiua. 357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at Strasburg. JL 361. Julian, the Apostate ^jgj? attempts in vain to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. 303. is slain in a war with the Persians. Jovian. 364. Death of Jovian, anduie accession oi Valentinian and Valens, under whom the EMPIRE is DIVIDED : WESTERN EMPIRE, extending from the Caledonian ramparu to the for of Mount Atlas. 772 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period II. 170 year* A.B. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 380 302 396 412 125 133 Aureliua Victor, author of lives of celebrated Romans. Prudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe- maticians. Claudian, Latin poet. Macrobiua, Platonic philosopher. Theodosius establishes public schools, and at- tempts the restoration of learning. Tt Theodtiian code published. 373. The Bible translated into the Gothic laa guage. 379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much enlarged. 381. The second general Council of Ccnsian- tinople. 384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate, for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 385. Pope Syricius. 392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constao tinople; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan; St. Jerome, St. Martin, emd. St. Augustine, ' Christian Fathers.' Image worship. The Christian hier- archy begins. 401. Pope Innocent I. 412. Cyn7, bishop of Alexandria; Isidore and Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Orosiu*. a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and Pelagius, a British monk, who denied origi- nal sin, >fcc. 416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the African bishops. 417. Pope Zozimus. 418. Pope Boniface I. 422. Pope Celestine I. 429. Nestoriua, bishop of Constantinople, to knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ 431. Third general Council at Ephesus. 432. Pope Sixtus III. St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in In land. 435. Nestorianism prevails in the East 440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 443. The Manichaan books burned at ROOM 415. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. Constantine to Odo&cer.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 364 376 373 379 3SS 392 394 395 $03 420 Hi EASTERN EMPIRE. V al ens . IIUNGAR if, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by the Huns, from whom it is named. The Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by Valens 10 settle in Thrace. Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near Adrianople. - T h e o d o s i u s the Great. gg a zealous supporter of Christianity. Theodosius defeats Maximus, the tyrant of the western empire. WESTERN EMPIRE. 364.- Valentinian I. Hf elected by the army. 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are d feated by Theodosius. 375.- G r a t i a n gains a victory over the Germans; suc- ceeds to (he eastern empire on the death ol Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. Gratian killed at Lyons. 379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- via, and defeat the Vandals. 383.- Valentinian II. ' is dispossessed by Maximus, hut is re- stored by Theodosius ; makes Treves his capital. 384. is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a Gaul, commander of the army. Theodo sius becomes sole emperor of the East and West. Complete down fall of Paganism. Theodosius defeats Eugeriius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. A read i us . -Theodosius a child ; Athenius, minister. Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. Persian War. Armenia divided between the Persians and Romans. A 2 rent part of Constantinople destroyed by fire. Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from the western empire. H o n o r i u s . 401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS. 403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, Gaul, &c. 410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goth* under Alaric. 412 Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 414. The'Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- louse. 417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths. 420. FRANKS : Pharamond, theii first king, on the lower Rhine. 424. Valentinian III. 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 423. ^Etius, the Roman general, defeated bj the Franks and Goths. Franks : Clodion, king, extends hia COB quests to the river Somme. 433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," formr an immense empire from China to the At- lantic. 437. jEtius defeats the Goths. 439. The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 441. The Roman territories invaded fey th Huns, Persians and Saxons. 445. The famous embassy from Britain, wU> citing aid against the Picts. 774 THE WOIILU'S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period //.-170 yeart PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 450 Zozimus and Olympiodorus, Greek histo nans. 468 47J The principle established that every accused person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain Eric being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- narchy. The tottering empire of the west was finally overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the great event which precedes the middle or "dor A ages." The form of the old Roman government remained the senate, the consuls, &c. but Italy, ravaged by a succession of wars, plagues, famines, and every form of public tyranr-v and domestic slavery, was nearly a desert 447. Eutychts assorts the existence of only one nature in Jesus Christ. 449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa ; and Eusebiua, bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 450. Sozomen and Theodoret, ecclesiastical historians. 451. The fourth general Council at Clialr.edon, at which Eutycheanism and NestorianUm are solemnly condemned 461. Pope Hilarius. 465. Pope Simpliciua. Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Con stantinople, Alexandria, Armoch, and Jeru salem all striving for the supremacy. The church now begins to assume a politi cal aspect. From Cmittantine to Odoacer.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 775 EASTERN EMPIRE. WESTERN EMPIRE. 160 M a r c i a n , ' 157 4C1 a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual tribute to the Huns. Leo I . , (the Thracian,) iperor ever crowned by th< 448. Franks : Merovoeus 1st, king of the Me- rovingians. JEtius defeats the Huns. 451. The arrival of the Saxoni in Britain, under Hengist and Horsr 452. The city of VENICE founded. 455. Valentinian assassinated by -Petronius Maximus. Hg A v i t u s . f first emperi War with the Goths. .e patriarch. -M a j o r i a n . 458. Franks : Childeric I., conquers as fai as the Loire and takes Paris. Peace with the Goths ; Theodoric is received from them as a hostage. 461.- 467.- Se v e r u s . ' Athenius. (The last three emperors slain by Ricimer.) 468- Spain : The Visigoths, under Eric, esta blish their kingdom. 472.- O 1 y b i u s. Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- tinople. 473.- Glycerius.^ 474 175 Z e n o . a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- racies. Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, and invades the empire. He ravages Thrace. 474. Julius Nepos. 475. Romulus Aueustulus. 476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king o the Herulii : END of the WESTERN EMPIRE. 1228 years after the building of Rome ; and commencement of the kingdom cf Italy un- der Odoacer. 776 THE WORLDS PROGRESS MODERN: PERIOD m. 146 win 498 601 611 613 614 616 631 533 PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. ETC. Use of the feudal system in France, under Clovis. ' Theodoric introduces the architecture of Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- bylon. Burgundian laies published, being a collec- tion of the rights and customs of the Bur- gundians. The Salic law established in France. Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- tinople. The Christian Era proposed and introduced by Dionynius, a monk. 483. Pope Felix III. excommunicated by Acaciua, bishop of Constantinople. 484. Christians persecuted by Huntric, king of the Vandals. 492. Pope Ge.asius L 491. The Roman Pontiff' mtserts kit suprt macy. 496. Christianity introduced into France. The schools of Athens suppressed. The fables of Pilpay translated into Persian. Chess introduced into' Persia from India. J'Mtinian's pandects and code of laws. Architecture: the church of Si Sophia luilt at Constantinople. Proelut, a teamed PlatoniK. ECCLESIASTICAL. 513. Christianity embraced by the Panua king, Carbades. 514. Pope Hormisdas. 519. The orthodox bishops restored by .'urtin. 523. Pope John I. 525. The Arian bishops deposed. 626. Pope Felix IV. Extreme Unction introduced. 529. The Order of Benedictine monlu in stituted at Mon'.e Cassino, near Naples. 530. Pope Boniface II. 533. Pope John II. 535. Pope Agapetus. 636. ' r Sylvester I. Separation of the Armenians from the OiMt church. 538. Poj e Vigilius. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 777 - Oan.acer tt Mahomet. [ The " Middle or Dark Ages" begin here.} EASTERN EMPIRE. EUROPE, generally. An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the greater part of Constantinople. eno makes Theodoric general and consul. Anastasius I The Green and Blue factions. The emperor's persecution of the Catho lies, and protection of the Manichasans, oc casions a rebellion beaded by Vitalianus. The empire ravaged and the imperial army destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. Long walls built to protect Constantinople from the Bulgarians. A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 killed. Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet is consumed "by the burning glass of Proclus. Anastasius killed by lightning. -Justin I. ,1 a peasant of Dalniatia. Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire. JUSTINIAN I., celebrated far his code of laws and the victories of his generals, Beliaarius and Narses. Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- roes. quells i conspiracy in Constantinople. defeat* the Vandals in Africa, subdues Sicily, takes Naples. takes Rome, defeats the Ostroeroths in Italy. the 'Huns in Thrace, and 33* 481. FRANCE : C 1 o v i s I . ,f| of the French monarchy. 434. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain. 485. France : Battle of S o i s s o D i gained by Clovis. 487. Britain : The Saxons defeated by Prinoi Arthur and Ambrosius. 490 : Italy : ravaged by the barbarians. Britain : kingdom of Sussex. 491. France : Clovis subdues Thuringia. 493. Italy : c onquered by Th e o d o r i c , kin? of the Ostrogoths. Odoa- cer put to death. 499. France : Clovis concludes a peace with Theodoric in Italy. 500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. 507. ovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 510. France : Clovis makes Paris his capital 511. France : Clovis dies. Childebert I. IBP 512. The HERULII settle in Tfuace. 516. The Christian Era adopted. 517. Getae ravages Illyricum, Macedon, Ac. 619. Britain : Prince Arthur defeated a1 Charford by Cerdic, Who begins the third Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 522. Spain : Amalaric, the first Gothic kirg, who establishes his court in Spain his capi- tal, Seville. 530. Britain : kingdom of Essex. 531. Spain: Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 532. Burgundy conquered by Childebef. 536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogrotta, ders his possessions in Gaul to the king. 537. Italy conquered by BeHsariu*, 778 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [Modern : Period III. 146 years I'KOGKESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 55V 680 684 636 CSS WO 697 Th? manufacture of silk introduced from China by the monks. Procopius. a Roman Historian the last of the classic writers. The Saxon laws ; the king's authority limit- ed by thu Wittenagemut. Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the servile. Trial by ordeal. Christianity introduced among the Picts by Columbi. The old Roman municipal system in Italv overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards and the feudal system established. Written laws compiled among the nations of German origin first by the Visigoths in Spain. Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- tecture of churches, with much grotesque sculpture. The Latin language ceases to be spoken in Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in Spain. The origin ofjiefg. The Roman Catholic faith established in Spain. Gregory of Tours, the father of French his- tory. Brctwalila, king of England, converted to Christianity. AfaJhus, a Grecian historian. Oildas, the first British historian. Evagrias, ecclesiastical historian. Cassiodo- rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to Theodoric. The Saxons, having conquered England, it relapsed, in a great measure, into the state of barbarism, from which it had been par- tially raised by the Romans. 540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged but one will in Jesus Christ. 552. The Fifth general Council at Couitanu nople 555. Pope Pelagius L 557. The church of St. Germain de Prea, bulk at Paris. 560. Pope John III. The Tritheists acknowledge three Gods, and deny the resurrection. 573. Pope Benedict L 575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. Great increase of miracles. 578. Pope Pelagius II. 590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. The doctrine of purgatory first taught.- Mass introduced. 398. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 504. Pope Sabianus, or Sahinian. 606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head of the church by Phocas. The title of Uni versal Bishop assumed. The Waldenses refuse submission tc Horn* Prom Odoacer to Mah&met.} THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 779 EASTERN EMPIRE. EUROPE, GENERALLY. 640 642 548 54 i) 552 554 558 561 502 503 565 569 574 570 578 582 670- 600 Vitiges at Ravenna. North Africa, Cor- sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern empire. Plague at Constantinople during three months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. The Lombards settle in Pannonia, The Turkish monarchy founded in Asia. Siege of Petra. Nurses defeats and kills Totila. Italy governed by Greek exarchs. A plague extending over Europe and Asia, and lasting nearly 50 years. Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. " restored: he quells a conspiracy. Great fire in Constantinople the city nearly destroyed. Justinian dies. Justin 1 1 . i Belisarius dies in prison. The TURKS first mentioned in history. They send embassies to Justin, and form an alliance. Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- ernment. Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. -Tiberius 11.1 Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and almost to the Caspian Sea. The Avars flourish under Baian invade the Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, Poland, and Prussia. P h o e a s. wf a centurion, elected king. The empire invade! by the Persians. 539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 542. Britain : Prince Arthur murdered in Cornwall. 550. POLAND a dukedom Lech, its first duke and legislator. His brother, Zech, first duke of Bohemia. The Greeks form settlements on ths Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 556. Civil wars in France. 558. France : C 1 o t a i r e I . TJ& 559. Britain : the Saxon Heptar- chy commences. 560. Britain : the kingdom of Northumbria, formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues mist ol the Saxon kings. 661. France : C haribert I. fg 565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, undei Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 571. Britain : Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 575. " East Anglia formed into a king- dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- gin of the name England. 583. Spain : the Suevi subdued by the Visi- goths. France : C 1 o t a i r e II. f 586. Britain : the kinsrdqm of Mercia founded. Spain : Recared, king. 588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 589. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 591. Britain : Elhelbert, king of Kent, gains the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda III. Italy : the Lombards, under Autharis, successful against the Greeks and Franks. 595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by the Sclavonians. 596. France : Thierry II., king of Burgurdy. 597. Britain : Christianity introduced by w. Augustine. 600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 607. Britain : Supremacy of the Pop* M knowledged. 780 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern : Period III 146 yean PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, ETC. The aristocracy acquire great power in France, somewhat restrained by the mayors of the palace. Rite* anil superstitions increase in all Europe. Relics sought for, and worshipped. Lita- nies addressed to the Virgin. The burning of candies by day. Exorcisms, &c. Hereditary Jiefa. Aristocratic class. 615 S;cundus, historian of the Lombards. 617 1 Ethelbert publishes the first code of laws in I England. ECCLESIASTICAL. 606. Pope Boniface HI. 607. Pope Boniface IV. The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to Goo, the Virgin, and the Saints. 609. The Christians massacred by the Jew ' Antioch. 618. Pope Boniface V. MODERN: PERIOD IV. 178 years. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. ECCLESIASTICAL. 620 632 CJO Isadoras, historian of Spain, grammarian and philosopher. Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta- blished in the East. In the Caliphs were united the highest spiritual and regal autho- rity. Christianity introduced into China. In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- cal architecture; circular arches intro- duced; churches built at Canterbury, Glas- tonbury, St. A 1 bans, Winchester, &c. In civil architecture, forts and castles Conis- boroush Castle in Yorkshire ; Castletown in Derbyshire. le power, proposes to marry Charlemagne is dethroned by Nicephotus. Tlw Saracens ravage Thrace. puts him to death, 725. France : Charles Martel crosses thi Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 727. Britain : Ina, king of Wessex, begins the tax called Peter's pence, to support * col- lege at Rome. 732. France : Charles Martel gains a great victory over the Saracens near Tours. 740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- covered by the Pope. 742. France : C h i 1 d e r i c III. W 752. France : End of the Merovingian line of French kings. -Pep in le Bref,l first of the Carlovingian line. 753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large army against the Lombards. Italy : Ravenna a dukedom. 756. Spain : Separated from the Caliphate . Abderhama. 761. Spain : Froila, grandson of Pelagius, builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of hi* kingdom. 768. France: CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo- man, until 771. 774. Charlemagne invades Italy; defeats Didier, king of Lombardy, and annexes Iialy to his empire. End of the Lombard king- dom. 778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated at Roncesvalles. 779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, and the Saxons. Charlemagne conquers the Avari. attempts to unite the Rhine and the Danube. 787. Britain : First recorded invasion of Ihs Danes : The -Sea Kings and Viking*. 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Hunt. Sweden conquered by Iva Viafama 786 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD. V. The Middle Ages. -266 yean 4.D. 1 PROGRESS OP SOCIETY. ECCLESIASTICAL. NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 800 Agriculture and horticul- ture encouraged by Charle- 500. The Pope separates from the Eastern Empire, and 800. NEW EMPIRE of the WEST founded by Charle- * magne; both flourish in becomes supreme Bishop of magne, who is crowned at Spain under the caliphs. the Western. Rome, by the pope, king of Italy, Germany, and France Gold mines worked in Spain. 801 Paul Warefredus (Diaconus) Charlemagne reforms the the historian. church. 80S Haroun al Raschid, courting his alliance, presents Charle- magne with a. striking clock. This clock was adorned with Many bishoprics founded. Great increase of monastic 302. Charlemagne receives an embassy from Nicephorus and from Haroun al Ras- chid. automaton figures, which institutions. moved and played on va- rious musical instruments. Fine Arabian breed of horses introduced into Spain. 804 Alcuin, of York, a pupil of Bede, forms schools at Tours patronized by Charle- 806. Charlemagne di- vides the empire be- magne. tween his three sons. Transient revival of learning under Charlemagne. 808. First descent of the NOR MANS upon France. Eginhard, historian, secre- tary to Charlemagne. 813 The reign of Mamun (caliph) is regarded as the Augustine age of Arabian literature. 313. Insurrection at Rome against the pope. 313. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 28. 814. L o u i s 1 . 9 (Debonaire) an inglorious 816. Pope Stephen V. 817. " Paschal I. and turbulent reign. 817. Louis divides the empire The College of Cardinals founded. between his three sons. 320. Invasion of the Normans. 824. Pope Eugenius II. Christianity in Denmark and Sweden. 628 St. Mark's Church at Venice 327. Pope Valentine. 828. " Gregory IV. j DUlIt. Missionaries sent from 829 Turpin, archbishop, to whom France to Sweden. is attributed the famous " De Vila Caro'i Magni el Rolandi." 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a monk of Corbey, father of the doctrine of transub- 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of Louis, associated in the gov- ernment. stantiation. This doctrine disowned by the English 340. L o t h a i r e . w Church. Ratramus and Scotus Eri- 841. defeated by his brothers, Louis and Charles, in the gena, theologians, holding much the same opinions as Luther. battle of Fontenoy. Division of the empire. France: C ha rli iT^f (the Bald>. Ger. : L o u i B I . & ournamed the Ger man. Italy: Lothaire @ with imperial dignity. The Normans plunder Rouen, and advance to Paris THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. (A. D. 800-1 06t v Charlemagne to William the Conqueror. 787 A.D. EASTERN EMPIRE. N icephorus .^g The Saracens ravage Asia Minor, capture Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus to pay a tribute. Michael I. ^f (Caropaltes) ; at war with the Bulgari. L e o V .^Hp (the Armenian). Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c. ravage the empire. Michael 1 1 . W (Balbus or the Stammerer). Constantinople besieged by the Saracens. The Bulga- rians raise the siege. The Saracens obtain possession of Crete, and name it Can- dia. T h e o p h i 1 u s . f|g -Michael III. (the Drunkard). ENGLAND. 813. Egbert, king of Wessex, defeats the Britons. J27. The seven king- doms of the Hep- tarchy united by Eg- bert, king ofWessex, under the name of ENG- LAND, or the Land of the Angles. E g b e r t . f|f Invasion of the Danes. 838. Ethel wol f,W a weak prince. Scotland : Kenneth, king of the Scots, defeats and ex- tirpates the Picts, and be- comes sole monarch. The Danes return, and ravage the country unmo- lested, and bum the city of London. Ethelwolf makes a pilgri mage to Rome. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 801. DENMARK become. kingdom under Gotricu* 818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa- tron of learning. 320. First dismemberment of the Arabian monarchy. The dynasty of the Taherites founded at Khorassan. 826. The Danish prince, Ha- rold, is baptized at Ingel- heim. 833. Motassim, caliph. He builds Saumora, which he makes the seat endence on the caliphs, un- ler Ahmed. 874. Iceland, a republic, found ed by the Normans. 875. NORWAY: Harold Harfrage, first king. 866. The Scythians Mice Cr alia. 89. Hungary: Arnad lyw the foundation of the kinjr dom. 790 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period V. (A. D. 800-1 066.) 266 years, 4.0. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. Oxford University found- ed. Alfred the Great esta- blishes a regular militia and navy, and the mode of trial by jury ; institutes/airs and markets. Johannes Scotus Erigenu, a learned philosophical writer. England divided into coun- ties, hundreds, and tithings. The county courts, held monthly, become the great safeguard of the civil rights of Englishmen. Hired troops substituted for the feudal. The bridge founde I Cam- The Anglo-Saxon monarchy rises into importance. AzojM, Arabian astronomer. Printing invented among the Chinese (?) Cordova, in Spain, becomes the seat of Arab learning, science, industry, and com- mrce. Its celebrated schools of gcometry.astronomy, che- mistry and medicine, toge- ther with its equally cele- brated poets and philoso- phers, render it famous throughout the world. Luitprand, the historian. Mints established in Kent or Weasex. ECCLESIASTICAL. 891. Pope Formosus. 896. " Boniface VI. " Stephen VII. 6. " John IX. Veneration for saints anil a passion for relics prevail. 900. Pope Benedict IV. 903. Leo V. 905. " Sergius IIL 912. The Normans in France embrace Christianity. 914. Pope John X. 921. The Bohemians embrace Christianity. 928. Pope Leo VI 929. " Stephen VIII. Eudes, monk of Cluni. 931. Pope John XI. Mere children elevated to the highest offices in the church. 936. Pope Leo VII. 939. Stephen IX. 943. Pope Martin III. FRANCE. GERMANY, &c. 890. Arnold, emperor of Ger- many, takes Home. 898. Fr.: Charles III.Bff (the Simple). 899. Ger.: Louis III. Invasion of the Hunga- rians. Contests between the no- bles and bishops 9 1 2. France : R o b e r t , d uke of Normandy. The Normans, under R o 1 1 o , establish them- selves in Normandy. Ger. : Conrad I.fg (the empire becomes elective). 919 Ger. : Henry I.^J (the Fowler), fust ol the Saxon line. 921. France : Robert I. de- feated and killed by his brother at Soissons. 923. France : Rudolph elect- ed duke. Italy: Hugo, count ol Provence, oppresses the aris- tocracy, who call to their aid Berenger. France : Civil ware. 929. " Charles dies a prisoner at Peronne. 936. Ger. : O t h o I .\ (the Great). Fr. : L o u i i (the Stranger). IV 940. Burgundy, a fief empire. Ckarlenagne to William l.\ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 791 EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 81)0 8'J7 Southern Italy subject to thi Greek empire. War with ihe Bulgarians, Lombards, and Saracens the latter take the island o Samoa. 804 1 Russian expedition under Oleg, against Constantino pie. 910 91? 919 891. Invasion of the Danes. The first land tax. 901. E d w a r dfg? (the Elder), the first who takes the title of " Rex An- glorum." War with the Danes. -Constantino VII. f^. associates his (bur sons, so that there are five emperors. Constantinople besieged by the Bulgarians. Roman us, general of the fleet, usurps the empire, with his three sons, Christopher, Ste- phen, and Ai -Constantino VIII.W?- 942 MS Romanus gains a naval victory over the Russians, who, led by Igor, enter the Black Sea with 10,000 ships or ca- noes. Naples annexed to the empire. The empress Helen usurps the throne. 924. A t h e 1 s t a n . W 934. by the victory of Bru- nanbureh, he becomes king of all Britain. 940. E d m u n d I .' brother of Athelstan. 900. Scotland : Constantini III. 901. Italy : The r e p u b 1 i c of Venice and Genoa founded. 908. The race of Fatimites in Egypt. 910. Spain : Kingdom of Leon founded by Garcia. 912. Spain : Abderrahman III. the greatest Arab prince pi Spain builds the splendid city and palace of Zehra. 914. Spain : Ordogno II., king of Oviedo, makes Leon his capital. Commencement of the heroic age in Spain. 921. Poland : Lesko IV. " Zemormysl. 923. Spain : Fruela, king of Leon. 924. " Alphonzo IV. 927. " Rauiiro II. 930. Denmark : Harold VI, firs' Christian king. 932. 4rnolf of Bavaria, de- feate.l near Verona. 933. Norway : Eric, king his cruelty leads the people to revolt. 940. Spain : Ramiro, king ol Leon, defeats ihe Moors, un- der Abderrahman, in the bafc tie of Simaacus. 792 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period V. (A. D. 800-1066.) 266 years. A.. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY. The mercantile character raised by a law of Athelstan, that a merchant who made three voyages over the high seas with a ship and cargo of his own, should enjoy the rank and privileges of a thane. The figures of arithmetic brought into Europe by thi Saracens. Silver mines in the Hartz Mountains. Manufactories of linens and woollens in Flanders, which becomes the seat of western commerce. Geber, Arabian astronomer. Suidas, grammarian and lexi- cographer. Rhazes, Arabian physician. The Saxonfleet, consisting of 360 sail, in three squadrons, makes the circuit of the island, under the command of king Edgar. Abbo, monk and astronomer. 981 Albirunius, Arabian geogra- I pher. 982 Greenland discovered by the Norwegians. Aimoin, historian. Dublin much frequented for trade, also many places on the Baltic. ECCLESIASTICAL. 946. Pope Agapetus II. 955 Baptism of Olga, and con- version of Russia to Chris- tianity. 956. Pope John XII. Quarrel with the emper- ors respecting investiture. 959. St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, attempts to reform the church enforc- ing clerical celibacy. The influence of the monks greatly increased. 963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by Roman citizens. 964. Benedict V. elected by a council. 905. John XIII. Poland receives Christianity under Miecislus. 972. Pope Benedict VI. 973. Boniface VII. : deposed and banished for his crimes. 974. Domnus II. 975. Benedict VII. 984. Pope John XIV. 986. John XV. 989. Christianity propagated in Russia by waldimir they hold to the Greek church. FRANCE, GERMANY, .a. tician. A rigid police establiehed in England. The curfew. Norman French, taught in All the schools, and made use of in all legal proceedings. Literature patronized in the East by Melek Shah. Fortress of Newcastle and of Carlisle built. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, fcnso I. cap- tures Saragossa. 1120. Rivalry between Eng- land and France com- 1125. Germany: Lothaira 1 1 .yp? opposed by Fre- deric, and Conrad, dulco of Suabia. ^066-1229. Continued.1 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 801 EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1099 1104 1109 1111 1118 Order, learning, and corn merce revive. By the courage and talents o: the Comneni, the empire is feared or respected by the nations of Asia and Europe. Invasion by the crusaders : great numbers pass through Constantinople. Battle of Doryteum, which secures the march of the crusaders through Asia Mi- nor. Acre taken by the crusaders. TripoIIs taken by crusaders. Berytus and Sidon taken by the crusaders. John I., f^y (Comne- nus),a noble prince : reforms the manners ot his people. Tyre taker, by the crusaders. 34* 1093. Scotland .-Malcolm III invades England, and i slain near Alnwick Castle by Roger de Mowbray. 1094. Scot. : Donald Bane king. William again invade; Normandy. Sci'd. : Duncan usurp the crown. William quarrels with Anselm, archbishop of Can terbury. 1098. Scotland : Edgar puts out Donald's eyes and de thrones him. 1100. William II. accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. H e n r y I . $jg (Beauclerc,) grants the Eng- lish a charter, and marries Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting the Norman and Saxon in- terests. 101. Robert, duke of Nor mandy, invades England. 106. Henry invades Norman dy ; takes Robert prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai. Scotland : Alexander I. 107. Henry quarrels with An- selm. 120. Shipwreck and death of Prince William and 140 no- blemen. 124. Insurrection in Norman- dy suppressed. Scotland : David I. pro- motes civilization. 1095. Hungary: Colomac. 1096. Egypt: takes Jerusalem. Mustali, As eighth Fatimite caliph. II 1097. Baldwin founds UM principality of Edessa. 1099. Jerusalem taken by th crusaders, under Godfrey who is elected king. 1102. Poland : Boleslas III 105. Denmark : Nicholas 106. Italy : Venice, Genoa, and Pisa greatly enriched by the crusades. 109. Norway: Segurd's ex pedition to Palestine. 117. Persia : Sanjar subdue* Khorasan and Samarkand. 119. War between Pisa and Genoa. 120. Italy : Rise of th house of Guelph. Zengi, governor of M sul, a great prince 802 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period VI The Middle Age*. A.D PROORBSS OP SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY & SPAIN. 1112. Spain- Alfonzo Vfl., king, Leon and Castile. Aristotle's logic comes into 1127. makes war against repute. Roger, king of Sicily. 1130. Innocent II. and Anacle- I tus, rival popes. 1134. Spain : Garcia IV., king of Navarre. Ramiro II., king of Arra- gon. 1135. Lothaire in Italy cap- ture of Amalfi. 1137 Pandects of the Roman law (Justinian,) discovered at 1137. A pretended Messiah in France. 1137. Fr. :-Louis VII. 9 (le Jeune). Amalfi, and the study of the 1138. another in Persia. 1138. Germany: H o 8 civil law revived. of Suabia: Conrad I. 1139. Second Lateran, or tenth general council. 1139. Portugal becomes a king- dom. Henry of Besar.con, 1140 Qratian collects the canon law. king. William of Malmsbury, Eng- lish historian. 1143. Pope Celestin II. L141. Germany and Italy. Dissensions of the G u e J f s Vacarius teaches civil law at 1144. " Lucius II. and G hi be lines. Oxford. 1145. " Eugenius HI. Otho, bishop of Friesengen, historian, introduces the~pe- ripatetic philosophy into Germany. 1147.TheSecondCrusade excited by St. Bernard, and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre- deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France. Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, travels from Spain to India, by Constantinople, and re- 1149. France: Louis divorces his queen, Eleanor, who turns through Egypt, marries Henry of Anjou. af- terwards king of England; thus Guienne and Poitou are lost to France. 1150 The magnetic needle known 1150. Spain : Sancho V., king in Italy. of Navarre. Suidas. lexicographer. 1152. Germany and Italy : Eben Ezra, of Toledo, Jewish historian. 153. Pope Anastasius IV. .154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng- Frederic I., ^g lishman, Nicholas Breaks- (Barbarossa). 1155 Arnold, of Brescia, condemn- peare). ed and burnt. Eustathius, commentator on Homer and Dionysius Per. 1157. Spain : Castile and Leon divided under Ferdi- nand II. and Sancho II. 1558 Banli of Venice established. 1158. Germany : The empe- Fairs at Leipsic. ror Frederic receives the title of king of Bohemia at London contains 40,000 inha- the diet of Ratisbon: con- bitants quers Poland, and makes ii tributary. Poem of the did. 159. Pope Alexander HL Victor IV., antipope. Colleges' :f theology, philoso- 160. Order of the Carmelites instituted. phy and law at Paris. English commerce confined to the exportation of wool. A woollen manufactory esta- blished at Worsted, and soon The Waldenses and Albigenses begin to ap- peanr 164. Pascal III., antipope. 1162. Frederic destroys Milan. Spain : Allbnic D, king of Arragon. after at Norwich. 167. Rome taken by Frederic BalNtrosn. 168. Oalistus III., antipop*. 1066-1229. Continued.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 803 EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1143 1148 1155 1156 Manuel Commenus. Ws Edessa being retaken by the Turks, gives rise to the second crusade. The Normans, under Roger, arrive before Constantino- ple ; are repulsed by Manuel. The Greeks reduce Apulia and Calabria. Manuel forms the design of conquering Italy and the western empire, but fails. Kelso, Melrose, and Holy rood house founded. 1127. Matilda, the king' daughter, marries Geoffrej Plantagenet. 1135. 8tephenf|? of Blois. 1136. Matilda asserts her righ co the throne ; David, king of Scotland assists her. 1138. is defeated in the " bat- tle of the Standard." 1141. Stephen made prisoner at the battle of Lincoln. Civil war: Stephen and Matilda. 1149. Henry Plantagenet in vades England. 1154. Henry II. (Plantagenet). 158' Thomas a Becket intro- duced to the king's notice by Theobold, archbishop of Canterbury becomes chan- cellor and preceptor of the prince. 159. Becket sent as ambassa- dor to France. .162. made archbishop of Canterbury opposes the king. .164. resists the constitutions of Clarendon flies '> France. 166. Scotland : William. 1130. Sweden : Ragwald I 1133. " Magnus I. 1139. PORTUGAL becomes Sweden : Suercher II. [147. Russia: the city ol Moscow founded. 150. Denmark : The coast* infested with pirates. 150. Sweden : Eric X 157. Denmark : Waldemar I. 158. Venice a great maritime power. 162. Sweden : Charles VT1 1167. Italy : League of the Italian cities to preserve their liberties. 804 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VI. The Middle Ages. A.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. 1175 1177 1178 1189 1190 1196 ECCLESIASTICAL. Foundation of the military order of Santiago. Circuit Judges appointed in England. 1178. Innocent HI., antipope. The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks during his visitation. The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore- runners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh Gene- ral Council, and severely per secuted. 1179. Third Lateran, or Ele- venth General Council. Robert Wace, first French poet. Translation of his Hist, des Rois d'Angleterre, by Layamon, the first Eng- lish composition. John Tzetes, Greek gramma- rian. Maimonides, of Cordova, one of the most learned of the Jews. Henry, of Huntington, and William, of Newbury, his- torians. Rainulph de Glanville makes a digest of laws and customs of England. Dreadful massacre of the Jews at the coronation of Richard I. Teutonic order instituted. Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author of a Life of Saladin, in Ara- bic. The Jews become the princi- pal bankers of the world. Order of the Holy Trinity in- tituted in Germany. 1181. Pope Lucius m. 1185. Pope Urban III. 1187. Pope Gregory VHI. 1187. Clement III. FRANCE, GERMANY, & SPAIN. 1170. France: The Walden- ses. They derived theil name from Peter Waldo, t merchant of Lyons. 1 174. Frederick's fourth expe dition into Italy. 1176. Frederick defeated al lh battle of Legnano. 1178. Henry, the Lion, duke of Saxony, deposed, and Saxony divided. 1180. Fr.: Philip II. ,1 (Auguste). 1183. The Peace of Constance re-establishes the independ- ence of Italian republics. 1188. Spain: Alfonzo IX. king of Leon. 1190. Third C r u s a d e ied by Philip Ausustus, of France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba- rossa. 1 190. Ger. : H e n r y V I . W emperor and king o r luFj and the Sicilies. 1191. Pop* Celestine HI. 1198. Pope Innocent III. 1196. Richard Coeur de Lion seized and retained in cap tivity. 1198. Philip, of Suabia, and Oiho, of Saxony, dispute the crown; the former sup ported by the Ghibelines and the latter by the Guclfa 1066-1299. Continued.] no. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 805 EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1180 1133 1185 -Alexius II. Andronicus I. -Isaac II. 1 1190 1195 (Angelus). The empire invaded by the Bulgarians. Iconium taken by Frederick Barbarossa, bu*. afterwards restored. Alexius Angelus,* usurper and tyrant. 1170. Becket returns to Eng- land, and is murdered at the altar. 1172. Henry conquers Ireland. 1174. Treaty of Falaise, in which William agrees to do homage for Scotland. Henry makes a pilgri- mage to the shrine of Becket. 1171. Egypt : SALADIN, sul tan. He extends his domi- nions in Egypt, and Con- quers Syria, Assyria, Mesa potamia, and Arabia. 1174. Poland : Miecislaus 111 1175. Portugal a fief of tt Holy See. 1178. Poland :--Casimir, (th Just; 1182. Denmark : Canute. 1183. Saiadin lakes Aleppo, and deposes the sultan of Mosul. 1185. Portugal : Sancho I. 1136. Saiadin directs all his efforts against the crusader*. 1187. gains the victory o Tiberias, and takes Jerusa. lem, which leads to 1190. The third crusade. 1191. Kingdom of Cyprni founded. 1191. Acre taken by the cm saders. 1193. Richard defeats Saiadin in the battle of Ascaion ; but, abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of thtM years. 1189. Richard I. (Cojur de Lion). He en gages in the third crusade. 1193. John attempts to seize the crown in the absence of Richard. 1193. Saiadin dies. 806 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VI. The Middle Ages. A.B. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY & SPAIN 1203 1209 1222 The power ol the pope supre me Rome mistress of the world, and kings her vassals The University of Bologna contains 10,000 students. Ville Hardouin, historian. Sato Grammaticu8,hiatorian. University of Paris founded. The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted. 1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of Prance. 1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, and Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They taka Constantinople. 1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce. The works of Aristotle, im- ported from Constantinople, condemned by the council of Paris. Period of the Troubadours in France ; the Minstrels in England; and the Minne- singers in Germany. University of Padua founded. Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. Bitter persecution of the Albigenses. The doctrine of transub- slantiation and auricular confession established. 1215. Fourth Lateran, and twelfth General Council against the Albigenses, and all heretics. 1216. Pope Honorius III. 1217. The fifth crusade by Andrew II., king of Hun- gary. 1227. Pope Gregory IX. 1229. The Inquisition at Tou- louee. The Scripturts forbid- den to all laymen. Normandy reunited to France. 1210. Germany : Otho place i under the ban of the pope. 1212. FrederickII.1 Spain : The Christiana gain the battle of Navaa de Tolosa. 1215. Otho loses the battle of Bovines. 1217. Spam- Ferdir and, king of Castile. 1223. Fr.: Louis V.. I. (The Lion). Crusade against the Al- bigenses. 1226. Fr. : L o u s X S (Saint). 1227. Germany : Crusade of the emperor after being ci communicated. 1230. Spain : Castile anJ Leon united by Ferdinand III., who tal'es Cordova* Se- ville. Cadiz, fee. from tht Moors. 1066-1299. Continued.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 807 EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1204 1206 -Alexius IV. The crusaders plunder Con- stantinople. Baldwin, count of Flanders. -Henry II. 1216 321 Peter Robert i228 John of Brienne,fgf king of Jerusalem, and em- peror. -Baldwin II.' Richard, returning home in disguise, through Ger- many, is imprisoned. Is ransomed by his subjects for 10,000 marks. declares war against France. 1199. Richard cies. 1200. John, Iff (Lackland.) 1201. Prince Arthur supported by France. 1207. The kingdom laid under an interdict. 1208. John excommunicated. London obtains the right to elect its own Lord Mayor. 1213. The pope declares John a usurper. John submits to hold his crown as a vassal of the pope. 1214. Scotland : Alexander II. 1215. Magna Charta signed at Runny mede. 1216. Henry III. (4th Plantagenet.) Earl of Pembroke, pro- tector. [224. Henry's province of Poitou seized by the king of France. 1202. Denmark : Waldemw II. Poland : Lesco, (the white). Livonia : Institution ol the order of short swords to conquer the Prussians. 1206. Genghis Khan subdues the north of China 1210. Italy : First war of Ve- nice and Genoa. 1213. Russia : Jurje II. 1214. Frederick cedes to Den- mark all the provinces be- yond the Elbe and Eiser. 1216. Tartary : Overrun by the hordes of Genghis Khan. 1217. Norway : Haco V. 1222. Two Greek kingdoms in Asia, Nice and Trebizond. John Ducas, emperor of Nice. Hungary : Charter ol Andrew II. Foundation o( the national liberty. 1229. First expedition of Henry into France for the recovery of his estates. 1233. First discovery of coal at Newcastle. 1234. Italy : War of the Lom- bard cities with Frederick ol Germany. 1236. Dreadful invasion ol Europe by the Mongols, ur> dar Batn Khan. 808 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period Vl. The Middk Ages. A.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY '>. The Black Prince aids Peter the Cruel, of Castile, to recover his throne. 1369. A new war with France ; unsuccessful. 1371. Scotland : Robert II. the House of Stuart. 1376. Death of the Black Prince. 1377. Richard II. f|f First Speaker of the House of Commons. 1378. Fruitless invasion of France. Insurrection of Wat Ty- ler. 1382. The king marries Anne, daughter of Charles IV. 1384. The Scots, assisted by France, invade England. 1385. The English burn Edin- burgh. 1388. Battle of Otterbourne. 1390. Scotland : Robert III. Persecution of the Wick- \\6tes. 1398. Henry, of Lancaster, banished. House of Lancas- 1399. Henry IV.^ Richard II. deposed. 1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen- dower, and 1403. of the Percys, who are defeated at the battle of Shrewsbury. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1362. Italy : War betwt Pisa and Florence. 1369. Tartary : Tamerlane makes Samarcand the capi- tal of his new empire. 1370. Poland : Extinction ol the royal race of Piasts. 1378. Italy : Silvester de Me- dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- rence. 1380. Russia : Dimitri Ivano- vitsch victorious over the Tartars, near the Don. 1382. The Tartars sack Mw- cow. 1381. Persia: Invaded by Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken. Pyramids ol human heads. 1335. War between Austria and Switzerland. 13S6. Battle of Sempach : the Austrians defeated. 1387. Denmark & Norway : Margaret, ggf the Semi- ramfs of the north. 1391. Italy: Pisa falls under the yoke of the Visconti. 1395. Tamerlane overruns Kif.chak and Russia 1397. Union of Calmar, form- ing Denmark. Sweden, and Norway into a single mo- narchy. 1399. Invasion of India by Tamerlane. 820 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [p e > iod VII - The Middle Ages.- JL.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE, GERMANY, & SPAIN Hodrigo, of Zamora. Spanish historian. University of Leipsic found- ed. Thomas a Kempis. John Huss. Jerome, of Prague. First Portuguese colonies on the coast of Africa, Madei- ra, &c. George of Peurbach, astrono- mer at Vienna. Peter d'Ailly, theologian. The arts promoted in Italy by Cosmo de Medici. England increases her trade with the Mediterranean. Michael Walhgemuth, Ger- man painter, (teacher of Durer). Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter. INVENTION OF PRINT ING at Mayence. John Mdller Regiomontanus, German astronomer and mathematician. 1404. Pope Innocent VII. 1406. " Gregory XII. 1409. The council of Pisa de- poses Gregory and Bene- dict, and elects Alexander V. ; neither will yield, so that there are three popes at once. 1410. Pope John XXIIL 1414. Council of Constance. 1416. John Huss. and Jerome, of Prague, burnt by the Council of Constance. 1417. Pope Martin V. 1407. France : Murder of Louis, Duke of Orleans. Spain : John II., kuij of Castile. 1410. Spain : Ferdinand, king of Arragon. Yustef III., king of Granada. 1410. Fr. : Civil war between the parties of Orleans and Burgundy. Germany : Death of Robert. 1411. S i g i s m u n d , (king of Hungary),^f empe- ror. 1413. France: The French defeated by Henry V., of England, at Agincourt. 1416. Spain : Alfonzo V., kinf of Arragon and Sicily. 1419. Sigismund succeeds to the Bohemian crown. 1422. France : Death of Char les VI Henry VI. pro- claimed at Paris king ol France and England. Charles Vll.flf-* at Poitiers. 1427. Orleans besieged by (he English. 1429 saved by J o a n o I Arc. Charles crowned at Rheims ; makes a vain at- tempt to gain Paris. 1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- soner and burnt as a witch. 1431. Germany : Sigismund visits Italy, and is crowned emperor by Pope Eugeniat IV. 1435. Peace of Arras, between France and Burgundy. 1436. Franre : Recovery of Paris. 1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, estab'ishe* the liber ties of the French church. 1429. Pope Clement VIII. at Avisnon, resigns, and ends the " Schism of the West." 1431. Pope Eugenius IV. Council of Basle. 1299-1453 : 154 years. Continued ] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 821 EASTERN EMPIRE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere. .40; Solyman I., Sultan of the Turks. Mohammeu I., Sultan of i Turks. Amurath II. Sultan of the Turks. John VII. 14: w The emperor visits Italy to obtain help against the Turks submits to the pope. 1406. Scotland .-James 1. 1413. Henry V .fjj| 1414. claims the French crown. 1415. gains the battle of Agincourt. 420. Treaty of Troyes.-Henry marries Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and is de- clared heir to the French crown. 422. Death of Henry V. Henry VI.^ 424. The Duke of Bedford defeats the French at Ver- neuil. 427. besieges Orleans. 429. The sie^e raised by the Maid of Orleans. 431. she is taken prisoner and burnt. 435. Death of the Duke of Bedford, followed by the loss of all the English pos- sessions in France, except Calais. 436. War with Scotland. 437. Scotland : James II. 1406. Italy : - Pisa cor quered by Florei ce. Subjugation of Padua and Verona by Venice. i412. Italy: Sack of Rom by Ladislas, king of Naples. Denmark, Norway, &c. : Eric VII., ofPomerania.flJ 415. Conquest of Ceuta, by the Portuguese. 419. Bohemia : Hussite war. 420. Discovery of Madeira by the Portuguese. 424. Bohemia :-Death of John Ziska, the Hussite leader. Italy : VVar of the Duka of Milan against Florence. 429. Florence: Cosmo di Medici, patron of the arts and sciences. 431. Italy : Second war ot Venice and Milan. 434. Poland :-Vladislas IIL 436. Italy : Third war be- tween Venice and Milan. 437. Portugal : Expedition into Africa. 438. Portugal : Alfonso V., 822 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period VII. The Middle Ages. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ECCLESIASTICAL. FRANCE. GERMANY k SPAIN. 1414 1446 1147 1448 1460 Leonardo da Vinci, sculptor, architect, and painter dis- covers perspective. Pet. Perugino, founder of the Roman school of painting, teacher of Raphael. Library of the Vatican, found- ed. The Azores discovered. Alain Chartica, French poet. Flourishing period of Flan- ders' trade. All European nations have warehouses at Bruges and Ghent. Book trade at JMuyence. let. 1447. Pope Nicholas V. 1448. Concordat of Aschaffen- berg, by which the liberties of the German church are compromised. 1438. Germany : House of Austria: Albert II. (king of Bohemia and Hun- gary-) 1440. Ger. :-F rede ric III. France : The dauphin, (Louis XI.), rebels but U pardoned. 1444. establishment of tho companies of Archers, tho first national standing army. 1446. Germany : War with Hungary, for refusing to give up the young prince, Vladislas. 1451. Expedition of Frederic to Rome. 1453. Austria made an hersdj- tary duchy by Frederic. End of the Trench and English wars. 1299-1453. 154 yeai s. Continued.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 823 EASTERN EMPIRB. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 14*3 >444 Insurrection of S marriage Granada. 1493 First printing press at Copen- 1493. Perkin War- with Anne. by Gimzale hagen. beck, pretends to de Cordova. be Richard, duke 1494. Invasion Discovery The second voyage of Colum- bus. A Spanish colony at of York defeated on Blackheaih. of Italy. o f A me r i- ca, by Co- Hispaniola. lumbus . 1497 The discoveries of John and 1497. Cabot makes 1498. Louis 1498. Vasco 8 Sebastian .Cabot. discoveries in A- J9 d e G a m a merica. ,,- XII .& doubles the 1498 Third voyage of Columbus. Cape of He discovers Trinidad and 1499. Earl of 1499. in- Good Hope. the Continent. Warwick, last vades Italy and reaches Lisbon, the great seat of trade. of the Planiage- conquers India. Venice declines. nets, executed. the Milanese Maritime enterprises greatly extended. Duchy. Sir Thomas Mare's Utopia, published. Nicholas Machiavelli, states- 1500. Treaiy with Ferdi- man and historian. nand, of Ara- 1499 Amerigo Vespucius's voyase. Fourth voyage nf Columbia. Raphael. Michael Angela, Ti- gnn, for the conquest and partition of 1506. Colurr- tian, Corregio, painters. 1503.: Naples. bus dies ai James Valladolid. St. Peter's, and other magni- marries 1507. Cardinal ficent churches built. 1509. H e n r y Marga- Ximenes ft ret, of Board oi viii .^jjy Brig- 1510. The American and. Council of trade at Se- joins the League Tours, to ville. of Cambray. support the i515 The cele' rated tapestry, after 1513. Invasion of the Scots. Battle of king against the Hoiy Raphael ; Cartoons woven Flodden the king League. in the Netherlands. and chief Scots killed. 1513. : 1517 LUTHER, Erasmus, 1515. W o 1 s e y , James 515. Fran - Melancthon , and other chancellor and car- V. reformers. dinal. ci s I -as - Roger Ascham, tutor of queen 1520. The Emperor invades Elizabeth. Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- man drama. visits England. Meeiing of Henry and Francis at the taly victory of Marigna- no Genoa 1516. Char 'Field of the Cloth and Milan JX Copernicus, discovers the true system of the Uni- verse his great work, De Orbium Ccelestium Revolu- tiombus. of Gold." 1521. The Reformed doctrines opposed by Henry, in his book i n the Seven SacraMents he submit. 516. Concor- dat with the pope.insiead ol pragma- tic sanction. king ol all Spain, and the Nether- lands. 1519. Con 1522 Firs.t complete circumnavi- gation of the globe, by Ma- gellan receives the title of " Defender of the Faith." 521. First war with Char- les V. quest o I Mexico by C o i c e s . 1453-1598.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 827 i.D. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. THE WOULD, elsewhere. 1438. India : Sekander Lodi, king of Delhi. 1492. Poland: John Albert. AMERICA discovered by Co- lumbus. 1492. Pietro II. succeeds his father. Lo- <* renzo, in Flo- 14*; --Maximilian I .ffig rence. 1493. Wars 1493. Spanish colony at Ilia Pope Alex- with Egypt, paniola. ander VI., Hungary, (Borsia.) and Venice. 1494. Expedi- tion ol Char- les VIII. in- to Italy. 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- 1499. Amerigo pucius. South American Vespucius's coast explored. voyage to America. 1500. Partition 4, of Naples ISOl.Polaiul : Alexander. |g between France and Spain. 1502. Ismail Shah Sooftrnakea 160&. Florence: Machiuvetli, Secretary ol 1503. Peace with Venice. himself sole sovereign of Persia. 502 University of Wittenburg. Slate. 1503. Naples 1505. War with annexed to i eisia. the Spanish 1506. Poland : Sigismund I. Pope Pius III. 1512. Selim I., $H (the Great.) .508 1512 Maximilian enters Italy to be crowned by the pope, joins the League of Cam- bray. divides the empire into ten circles. Pope Ju- lius II. 1508. League of Cambray against Ve- nice. thrones arid puts to death his father. 1514. The Per- sians defeat- 1509. Bohemia: Louis,f|g 3 years old. 1510. America: Settlement 1510. Holy ed at Kalde- at Darien. League to roon. Me- .511. America : Cuba con- expel the French. sopotamia and Kurdis- quered. :512. America: Florida 1511. Council tan added to discovered. of Pisa. 1513. Pope the empire. 1516. Cairo 1513. South Sea first reached by Balboa. LEO X . taken by 1517 COMMENCEMENT OF (de Medici.) patron of li- siorm. Ma- meluke do- 1516. Hungary and Bohemia : 1518 THE RSFORMATION. Luther summoned before the terature and arts. minions an- nexed to the Louis II. ^ff diet of Augsburg. The build- ing of St. empire. 1520. Soliman, 1517. India : Ibrahim Lodk king ol Delhi 1519 CHARLES V .f? Peter's com- iJift 1517. America: First patem 11 of Spain. The archduke Ferdinand, mar- menced. 1519. Cardinal Magnificent.) for importing Kegroes~ granted by Spain. ries Anne, sister ol Louis de Medici 1521." Belgrade 1518. Corsairs in Algiers. whence the accession of Bohemia ar.d Hungary to the House of Hapsburg. holds rule in Florence. 1522. Pope tak:n by stnrm. 1522. Rhodes 1519. MEXICO conquered bj the Spaniards, under Co* tes. Diet of Worms. Adrian VI. capitulates. S28 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [1 eriod VIII. I.D PROSRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. SCOT- LAND. FRANCE. - SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Xavier plants Christianity in India. Ariosto, Italian poet. 1525. Franci defeated am taken pri- soner at Pa via. 1527 Albert Durer. 1527. Second F.rst work on military archi- war with tecture. Charles V. 1529. Sir Thomas 1529. Treaty o More, Lord Chan- Cambray. cellor. Rise o Great en- Cranmer, archbi- couragemen 1530 Jorgens invents the spinning shop of Canter- given loans wheel for spinning flax. bury. and sciences. Rabelais, French humorist. The Lou- vre com- menced. 15^2. The king mar- 532. Calvin ries Anne Boleyn. preaches. 1533 Botanic Gardens at Padua. Third French war. Siege of Marseilles. 530 Ignatius Loyola founds the order of the Jesuits. 1535. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More beheaded. Henry excom- municated by the 333 633 Papal bull declaring the Ame- rican natives to be rational beings. The diving bell invented. Pope .536. marries Jane Seymour. Sup- pression of the smaller monaste- 536. : Spread of the lefor- nation. 538. Truce ol Nice lor 10 536. ACCUJSI tion of' Mi Ian. CALVIN founds the Univer- sity of Geneva. Pins first used by Catharine Howard, queer; of England. John Knox, Scottish Relbr- ries. Pro- estants persecu- ed. years. Attempt to recover pow- er in Italy ; hence the 540. Portu- gal : Lis- bon,the mar ket of ths world. A jommercial treaty between Portugal and Japan. 543 Henry invades France takes 542. : Mary . 542. Fourth French war. 542. Com- mercial trea- ty between Boulogne. BB Portugal Hid 544. French fleet Jan of 544. Peace of Japan. Mi' Veedles first made. Vasalius's work on Anatomy. gain a victory over the English, off the Isle of Wight, irran, egent. Crespy. France gives up Italy. 51; levival of Stoicism, by Justus 547. Edward 547. Henry Lipsius. 'alestrina, founder of Italian church music. Somerset invades Scotland defeats The fa- lous Catha- Giacomo Carisimi. the Scots at Pin- rine de kie. Medici, *ki Orange trees introduced into Europe. Formal esta- blishment of Pro- queen. testantism. 1453-1598.J THE WORLDS PRCGRESS. A.O GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1523. Clemen 1523. Sweden : Revolt under VII., pope. Gtistavus Vasa . Tho Danes expelled. Union of Calmar dissolved. Denmark and Norway Frederic I.gg 1625 General insurrections of the 1525. Spain ac- 1525. Albert, duke of Prussia peasantry, under Thomas quires the Miinzer. ascendency by the victo- ry of Pavia. /52G Charles marries Isabella, of 1526. Invasion Portugal. of Hungary Death ol Frederic, of Saxony. 1527. The Me- dici expelled ir,29 The Turks invade Germany. Diet of Spires. Luther- from Flo- rence. 1529. Invasion olGermany ans first called Protestants. Siege o League of Smalcald. 1530. Medici Vienna. The Otto- 1530. Malta giver to ihe restored. Charles V. man navy formidable knights of Rhode; crowned at under the Bologna. command 01 Burbarossa : 1532. Union of Norway and Denmark. 1533. Conquest of P e .r u , by Cortes. 1534. Paul III., pope. 1535. who Russia : Ivan IV., (the Terrible). seizes Tu- nis. The emperor, Charles V., 1536. Cortes discovers Califor- restores the nia. 1537. Cosmo Moorish de Medici, king. 1538 Congress of Nice between the duke of Tus- Emperor, the Pope, and the king of France. cany. 540. Investi- ture of Mi- lan confer- red by Char- '.es V. on 541. Destruc- Philip. tion of an ar- M3 War in alliance with England mament, led by Charles 543. First standing army in Sweden. against France. V. agairst Algiers. 1545 Diet of Worms. .645. Council 545. South America: Mine* 164(5 War of the Smalcaldista. of Trent. of Potosi discovered. (647 Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- 547. The Turks in- ny. vade Persia, and capture Ispahan. 548. Poland : Sigismmul II. BS (A Jgustus). 830 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period F///.. M, PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. SCOT. LAND. FRANOB. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Scatiger, Philologist. 1549. The English ifturgy comple led and establish Montaigne, French Essayist. ed by act of Par llament 1552. Fifth war with Char 1533. Northurnoer les V. land intrigues to settle (he crown on Lady Jane Grey his daughter-in law. Mary .^g Catholicism re- stored. 1554. The queen marries Philip, oi Spain. Lord Dud- ley and Lai ly Jane Grey executed. 1554. Cerent, in India, lost. 556. Charles abdicates 1555. Bloody perse- cution of Protes- Philip n.& m Cardan, Italian philosopher. Sealing wax comes into use in Europe. tant*. 1557. War with France to support Spain. Calais lost. 1558. ELIZA- 1560. Ca- holic- siu abo- ished )y par- 1557. The ? rench defeat- ed at St. iili'Iilln. 358. at Gra- velines. 557. Portu- gal : Sebas- an 559. Peace 01 BETH. 'gjf lament. Chateau Foundation of Jesuit Colleges Vlary Cambresis. in opposition to Protesiant Schools. The first at Co- imbra, in Portugal. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Secreta- narries ..ord >arn- F r a n c i s tary of Slate. ey. sa oO'J Only two carriages in Paris- horses and litters generally used. Protestantism established. The Puritans begin to rise. 565. : levolt of Pro- estants . 567. : Duke of Guise, min- ister. 560. Char- 50ii SnuflTfirst brought into France. )arnley murde I'- lesIX.9 Knives first made in Eng- land. di he ueen names arl of 562. Religious liberty grant- d 10 the Hu- 564. Acquisi- tion of th Philippines. Both- guenots. well is First civil ethron- eligious war Torquato Tasso Ghiarini, d and mpri- oned at .iochle- Huguenots upported by England de ieated at ) re u x 567. Duke ol Alva, gover- nor of the Netherlands. poets. en. 5(57. The se- a m e s cond war. Huguenots f | tig} defeated at Camoent, Portuguese poet. 1568. Mary, queen St. Denys. of Scots, takes re- fuse in England and is imprisoned. 569. routed Thomas Tallit, English mu- sician. 1570. Civil wars of the Desmonds in in Ireland. 570. : ,ennox , 'egent. at Jarnac. C o n d e killed. i70. War wi'h the Turks. Na- val victorj at Lepaata ^453-1598.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 831 .D. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. THE W >RLD, elsewhere. 1550. Julius 1361 Treaty of Passau secures reli- III., pope. 1551. Tripoli gious liberty to the Protes- taken from tants. the Maltese Fruitless siege of Mentz. knights. 1552. Invasion of Hungary. * 1553. War with 1553. >ew Mexico diaccYwad Persia. Building of by t' ie Spaniards. the mosque of Solyman- yah, at Con- stantinople. 1555. Marcel- 1556 Charles abdicates. lusll., pope. 14M. India: Jelaleddin Ak- Paul IV., >ar, a patron of science and (Caraffa) iterattire, aided by his min- rope. isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh Faizi. raises the Mogul em pire to its greatest splendor. )&58 Ferdinand I .wj king of Hungary and Bohe- mia. Coronation by the pope relin- quished. 1559. Pius IV. 1559. Naval 1559. Denmark and Norway (Medici) victory of Jl pope. Galves, gain- Frederic II. ^g Peace of ed by Dra- Chateau gut. Decrease of the influence Cambresis Military of the Hanse townu. terminates power if . the French the Turks at 1560. Sweden : Eric XIV. fj IsM M aximilian II. *j wars in Italy. Tranquil- lity for 66 its greatest height, un derSoliman. years. 1562. Council 1562. War with Russia and of Trent re- 1565. Unsuc- Poland. An Ftigi^sh am- assembled. cessful siege bassador in Pewia. 1566. Pius V., of Malta. 1566. Death of 1564. Coligny gtnds a colony of Husuenotp to Florida pope. 15C9. Florence, Soliman at tho siege of destroyed by the Spaniards. [568. Prussia: Alber' Frede a grand du- Sigeih. < chy ' Selim II. lie ?B? Cosmo ft < d e M c (1 i - as Sweden:- John I'l.ggf - C i , declared grand duke of Tuscany, by Pius V. 1570. War of Venice with .270 Peace ol Stetin, between the Porte. Denmark, Norway, and 1571. Cyprm reduced by the Turks. Battle of Sweden. 157 1 Russia devastated by th khan of Crim Tartary.- Lepanto. Moccow burnt. 832 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. \Pe>iod A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. SCOT- LAND. FRAKOE. SPAIN ANB PORTUGAL. 1572. Massacre of St. Bar- tholomew. 1573 Cervantes, author of Don 1573. Peace ol Quixotte. Rochelle. Titian, and Paolo Veronese, painters. . 1574. Hen- ry HI. |f Fifth war with the II u- suenots. 1576. The Ca- tholic League. 1677 Sir Francis Drake's voyage round the world. 1578. The queen 1577. Sixth re- ligious war. (578. Port : sends help to the revolted Nether- Henrv ^w- Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia. lands. ' 1580. Portugal 1581. : falls uiulei Gow- Spanish do- 1582 Gregorian Reformation of the rie's minion. Calendar. 1583. Levant Com- conspi- pany chartered. racy 1584. Raleigh's co- lony in Virginia. against the king. 1585 Greenland discovered by Sir 1585. War with Francis Drake. Spain. 1586 Tobacco first brought to Eu- rope. 1586. Sir Philip Sidney killed at Zutphen. 1587. The Queen of 1588 First newspaper in England. Scots beheaded. 1588. The Spanish armada destroyed. 1588. Revolt of Paris. 1588. Defeat of the Spanish 1589. Alliance with Henry II. in aid of Protestantism. Troops sent to France. 1589. House of Bour- bon : II E N R Y armada. 1589 English volunteers umler Drake and N orris, ^Jjla repulsed I V . THf from Lisbon. 1690 Telescopes invented by Jan- 1590. : 159U. Sie^e of sen, a German. The Paris, raised cing by the Spa- Tajso, Italian poet. The Carnicci, celebrated pain- 1593. Act for reli- gious conformity. names Anne, Of l)eu- niards. 1593. Henry abjures Pro- ters. In England : Spenser, SHAKSPEARE, Bnau- 1594. Sir John Haw- kins's Voyages. nurk,. testantism. 1594. Jesuits banished. 1595. War with mnnl & Fletcher, Ben Jon- son. Adapter invents loga- rithms. Lord BACON, celebrated phi- 1596. Cadiz taken, and the Spanish fleet burnt, by the earl of Essex. Sir Robert Cecil, minister. Spain con- tinued. 1598 Peace Df Vervius. Ministry of Sully: 1593. Phi p losopher. restoration of order. Lope de Vega, dramas and novels. Kepler, Tycho Brahe, astro- nomers. 1599. Troubles in Ireland : Revolt of O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. EDICT OP NANTES granting toleration to Protestants. 1453-1598.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. A.D. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. THE WORLD, elsewhere 1572. Gregory XIII., pope. 1573. Cyprus yielded to the Porte ; peace with Ve- 1574 Florence: Frances Ma- nice. 1574. Murad 1574 Poland : Henry, of Va ria succeeds j4 lois. ff|? Cosmo. III. ^f 1575 Poland : Stephen Ba- 1676 Rodolph II. 1576. War with thori.^g king of Bohemia and Hun- Persia. gary. 1578. Alliance of Sweden and Poland against Russia. 1:379. Commencement ofthe Republic of 1580. Charles I580.Warwith HOLLAND, by the union Emmanuel, the Druses at Utrecht: duke of Sa- in Syria. William, Prince voy. of Orange, stadthol- 1583. First der. trade with England. 1584. North America: First English colony found- ed in Virginia, by Sir W. Raleigh. 1585. Sixtus 1585. Persia acquires power V.,pope, under Abbas the Great. The imperial authority disre- garded by the princes of the empire, who wage war among the uselves. active and energetic corrects abuses in the church ; Holland : Maurice, of Orange, stadtholder. 1586. Battle of Ziuphen: death of Sir Philip Sidney. restores the 1589. Predato- 1588. Denmark : Christian Vatican li- ry incur- f':*.. brary. sions of the IV. ' azza di San clines ; de- rity. Marco built feated at at Venice. Gran re- volt of Wal- lachia. 1598. Russia: Boris Godu 1597. Moham- *& med leads his nov,Bf begir.6 a n>iw troops, and dynasty. defeats the Sigismund lands in Swe Germans at den, to re-establish his pow Agria. er but is defeated, and r turns to Poland. 834 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD IX. 120 vears.- A I). PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. ENGLAND. FRANCE. "US English East India Compa- 1601. Earl of Essex be- headed. ny four*de\_ ^t 1603. James I ,-l Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 1624. New Am- j 1624 Ministry Iti'ii Massinger, the dramatist. sterdam set- 1625. C h a r 1 e s l.@ of Cardina,' lt&6 Kapler's " Ast: momia Nova led by the Dutch. R i c h c Celestis." Buckingham, prime lieu. Torricetli invents the barome- minister. ter. ier The Parian marbles brought 1627. Boston found- 1627. War with France, in support :> to England by the earl of ed. the llufue. Ar indei. nots. Roche ll 1629. Wouter Van 1629. No parliament for reduced by 1630 Gazettes first published in Twiller, gover- eleven years. famine af- Vonics. nor of New Am- 1630. Peace with France. ter a siege of sterdam. ten moa'.hm. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1698-1718. Edict of Nantes to t/te death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 835 A.D. SPAIN AND FORTU- UAL. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. THB WORLD, elsewhere. 1604. Sweden : Charles IX. ^ 1605. Leo XI., 1605. Revolt in 1605. India : Jehangir, sol pope. Syria and tan. Paul V., Caramania, 1606. Truce of Co- pope. under the morra, for twenty pasha of years, with the Aleppo. Porte. 1006. Com- mercial 1608. Protestant treaty with union, under Fre- France and deric, the elector Holland. 1609 Expul- sion of palatine. 1610. The Catholic League, under the 1609.Tuscany : Cosmo II. Tobacco first brought to Turkey. 1609. India : Arrival of Haw- kins, first English envoy from the East India Com- the duke of Bavaria. pany. Moors. 1612. Matthias. Sweden : G u s t a v u s 1613 War of the & Leghorn, . , . , oe* Mont- the empori- 1611. Sweden: War with ferrat succes- sion in Italy. 1615. Truce of Co- morra confirmed. 1618. The Thirty Years' War um of the Levant trade. Denmark. Calinar and His- by lost. Axel Oxenstiern, minister. Russia devasta- ted by Poles and Tartars. Russia : Michael Ro- begins. 1619. Ferdinand 1617. Musta- manoff, czar. J|L JL 1615. Denmark: First stand 1 1 . i*g 1618. Conspj. pha I. jUs" ing army 1621 Dutch 1620 Victory of the racy of Bed- mar, the 1618. Osman 1616. India : Sir Thomas Roc ambassador from James I war. White Mountain. Spanish en- ft* of England. Spain sup- near Prague. Massacre of voy, to re- duce Venice Great Per- Sweden predominates in the north. puns Austria. Philip Prague. The Pro- tes'.ant religion to- tally suppressed. under sub- jection to Spain. sian victory at Shibli. 1620 War with 1618. The Synod of Dort- Arminius condemned. Settlement of Tanquebar, J^i Poland, and in Coromandel. 1 V ; .*i^ 1621. Gregory unsuccess- t62t (Jefeat ol Span- fleet off' 1626. Victory of Til- ly over Christian IV., of Denmark, XV., pope. Tuscany : Ferdinand II. 1623. The fa- ful invasion of Poland. 1623. Murad 1621. Dutch West India Com- pany incorporated. 1622. Persia : Ormuz gained from the Portuguese by hn Lima, by the at Lutter. 1628.Wallenstein mous library of the Pala- help of the English. 1625. Netherlands : He-,ry 162D Dutch. Naval war recovers all the shores of the Bal- tic, except Stral- tine at Hei- delberg, sent to Rome. restores tran- quillity. Frederic. Breda, taken bj Spinola. 1630 wiih Eng- land. Peace sund. 1629. Gustavus Adol- phus lands in Ger- many. Diet of 1628. General Italian war on the death of the duke 1625 Truce with the em- pire renew- ed. 1627. Persia : Shah Soon L 1629. Peace of Lubeck. with Ratisbon. Wal- of Mantua. Eng- lenstein dismissed, land. succeeded by Til- 836 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX. A.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. ENGLAND. FRANCS. 1630 Lotteries for money first men tioned. The Dutch sol masters of Bra 1630. Wentworth, earl o Strafford, minister. 1631 Calico first imported into Eng laud. zil. 1632. Maryland Laud, archbishop o Canterbury. 1631. Treaty with fe'wo settled by a colo 1633. The king visits den and :hs ny under Lord Baltimore. Scotland is crowne( at Edinburgh. popular pi in- ces against the emper or. 1635. Connection. 1635. Alliance settled. Guada- with Holland loupe and Mar- against Spain, tinique, by the for the par- French. tition of the Edward Co*e, the great ju- Austrian Ne- rist. therlands. 1.636 Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish dramatist. Flourishing period of flower trade in "the Dutch cities. 637. Maine and New Hampshire colonized. Harvard Col- lege founded. 1637. Tret ties in Scot- land, caused by Char- les's plan to overthrow the Scotch presbyterian church, and enforce 1636. Alliance withSweder- against Aus- tria. Invasion of Gascony by Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- ters. episcopacy. 639. War with Scotland. the Span- iards, and of 1640. Parliament assem- Picardy, by bled dissolved with- the Impe- out effecting any thing. The Scotch invade rialists, who threaten Pa- 1638 The Jansenists, founded by England take posses- sion of Newcastle. ris. 638. Invasion 1639 1640 Jansenius, bishop of Ypres. Printing in America. First Swedish manufactories. Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and Claude Lorraine, French 639. First print- ing office in Ame- rica, at Cam- bridge, by Sam. Green. The Long Parlia- ment, Nov. 3. Impeachment of Straf- ford and Laud. of Spain, siege ol Fon- tarabKi. 640. Turin ta- ken by the painters. 640. Whole num- ber of emigrants French. The first to New England Louis d'ors 1641- Coffee brought to England by Nat. Conopius. previous to this, 21,000. 641. Strafford beheaded. Courts of Star Cham- struck. 641 Alliance with Portu- ber and High Commis- sion abolished. Rebel- gal against Spain. Ca- lion of Roger Moore in Ireland. Massacre of talonia and Rousillon re- Protestants by Irish Ca- volt, and sub- nit to France. 642. Ci'vil Wai and Revolution . 642. Cinq Mars and de Rise of Roundheads Thou be- and Cavaliers, toth of headed. the popular party. 1643. Louis Battle of Edgehill, inde- cisive. XIV.W-. 1543 Condd and Turenne, the great- es. generals of the age. 643. Confedera- tion of the colo- nies of New 643. Royalists victorious at Carlsgrane defeated at Newbury. Solemn (the Great.) Anne, of Austria, re- England, for mutual defence. leazue and covenant be- tween the Scotch and English parliaments. gent. Victory of Roscroi ovei the Span- iards, by Conde. Ministry o Cardinal Ma zarine. 1598-1718.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 837 4.D. SPAIN AND PORTU- GAL. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1631. Sack of Mag- 1631. Peace of deburg, by Tilly. Chierasco. Gustavus Adol- The influ- phus takes May- ence of France 1632. Sweden : Christian ence. increases. .tf^Bl 1632. Defeat and death of Tilly, at 1634.Murad ir. queen. ^8j 1632. Sweden: Oxenstiena, Lech. Gustavus vades Pei- regent. takes Munich. sia takes Russia: War with Po- Wallenstein again Falreeze. land ; two years' siege ol in command. Bat- Smolensko. --Russian ariuy tle of Lutzen. capitulates, and the Polish Victory and death king advances to Moscow. of Gustavus Adol- 1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- phus. 1635. Peace of Prague vantageous to Russia. with Saxony. 1636. Swedes victo- 1636. Peace with Poland rious at Wittstock. renewed. 1637. F erdinand 1637. Troubles tSia on the Tar- II I. gg tar frontier; Galas successful against the Swedes. Azoph taken by the Cos- 638. Bernhard. of Backs. Saxe Weimar, de- Bagdad ta- feats' the Imperial- ken by the ists at Bheinrield Turks. 1639 Loss of the Ja- panese takes Brisac. 1639. Battles of Ol- nitz and Brandiez, gained by the Swe- All the con- quests of Ab- bas recover- ed. 1639. Holland. Great na lal victory by Van Tromp, ever the Spanish fleet ID th Downs. trade. dish general, Bau- ner. 1640 Portu- 1640. Prussia- Fre- 1640. Ibrahim. 1640. India : Madrai fo.auled gal re- gain deric William. els by the English. her in- depen- dence, under John IV. duke of Bragan- za |if 1642. The Swedes de- feat the. Austrians at Leipsic. 1642. Recap- ture of Azoph from the Cos- sacks. 1643. invade Hoi- stein, and compel the Dares to desert Austria. '838 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Peiiod IX. 120 ycats. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. GREAT BRITAIN. FltANUB. Des Cartes, French philoso- 1644. Battle of Maraton pher. Moor royalists defeat- * ed. 1645. Battle of Naseby. 1645. : Mar 1646 Air guns invented. 1646. Thomas May hew, preach- er to the Indians, 1646. The king seeks re- fuge in the Scottish camp. shalTureniM takes TrevM. shipwrecked. 1647. Peter Stuy- 1647. is delivered up to vesant, governor parliament for 400,000. of New Amster- dam. 1648 Engraving inmezzctinto, im- proved by Prince Rupert. 1645. Cambridge platform adopt- 1648. Cromwell routs the Scotch, under Harnil- 1648. Faction! of the Fron ed. ton. The presbyie- de ; dissen- rians expelled from sions foment- parliament, which re- ed by Cardi- ceives the name of " the nal d e R e t z . Rump." 1649. J. Winthrop, 1649. Trial ant! execution 1649. Court re- governor of Con- of the king. moves lo S'.. necticut. Uerniiiins." THE COMMONWEALTH. Siege of Pa- ris. 1650 Railroads with wccden rails, near Newcastle. 1650. Settlement of North Carolina. 1650. Cromwell subdues Ireland. 1650. C o n d e , C o n t i , and The Scots proclaim L o n g u e - Charles II. He v i 1 1 e . im- 1651. enters England is prisoned. defeated at Worcester, Turenne Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- ney, English writers. 1652. John Cotton and escapes to France. 1652. Naval war with flees to the Spaniards. 165^. Maza- died. Holland. Blake, rine retires A s c o u g h , and to Sedan. P e n a , English ad- Conde flies Le Seur and Le Brun, French mirals. to Spain. painters. 1653. Long parliament 1653. Mazarine dissolved by Crom- enters Paria well. " Barebone's par- in triumph. liament" summoned. OLIVER CROM- WELL, Lord Pro- tector. Milton, private secre- tary to Cromwell. 1654 Air pumps invented. 1654. Peace of Westmin- ster. Alliance with Holland. lf%5 About this time flourish Mo- Here, La Fontaine, Cor- neitte, Madame de Sevig- 1655. E. Winslow died. 1655. War with Spain. Jamaica conquered by Penn. ne, Rochefoucault, Racine, Boileau, and Pascal, in France. 1658. Death of Cromwell. R ichard Crom- well, Protector. 1659. Peace cf the Pyre- nees. Mar- Velasquez and Muri'lo, Spa i- ih painters. riage of Lou- is XIV. to Maria The- resa, of Spain. 1508 -1718.1 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 839 A.D SPAIN AND POKTU- GAL. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. THE \\ ORLD, elsewhere. 1C44. Invasion of 1644. Innocent 1644. Naval victory of lh Hungary, by Ra- X., pope. Swedes over the Danish coezi the empe- fleet. ror forced to yield 1645. War with 1645. Sweden: Peace of to the demands of Venice. Bromsebro with Denmark. the protestants. Candia, the 1646. Revolt of theatre of Naples, un- war. der M a s - 1647. Netherlands: William saniello. II. China : The Tartans place a prince of their own on the throne the first o( the present dynasty ol'Tsing. 1648. PEACE OF 1648. Moham- 1648. Poland : The Ukraine WESTPHA- med IV. Cossacks revolt, anil cut the LIA, signed at Polish army to pieces. Munster, between JS France, the em- John Cassimir.fjjg pire, and Sweden. The principle of a balance of pow- er in Europe first recognized. 1650. Moham- med Riopri- li, grand vi- zier. 1653.Naval de- 1653. Holland : J o h n d feat by the Venetians in the Archipe- Witt, Grand Pensionary ; De Ruytei, admiral. lago. 1654. Defeat and death ol 1654 Brazil Tromp. recover- Sweden: Christina re ed froin signs. Charles X., 1st oi the JLi 1665 Dutch. War with Eng- 1657. Leopold 1655. Alexan- der VII., pope. 1657. War with Racoezi, lor the House of Deux Ponts.fjg Poland: War with Rus- sia. 1657. Denmark : War againsr land. ' I JK aiding Swe- the Swedes, who overrur HB den against Denmark, and menace Cc- Poland. penhasen. 1658. Denmark : Naval vie tory over the Swedes. Denmark : Peace of Roa kilde. 840 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX. 120 ij(.u,rs. 4.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. ENGLAND. FRANCE. 1659. Richard resigns. 1661. Death o! Hump parliament call- Mazarine. ed, but soon expelled. Colbert, Restoration of comptroller- the Stuarts. general of Jk finance. 1660 Charles II. S? Lvonct, Hyde, earl >>i Le Te'llier. Clarendon, chancellor 1662. Disputet and prime minister. with the pope 1661. New parliament. 6000 troops Alliance with Portuga . sent against 1662 Logwood first cut in the bay of Honduras. 1662. Marriage with Ca- therine, ol Portugal. the Turks in Hungary. 1663. Canada made Act ol Uniformity. 1664. French Salvalor Rosa, landscape a royal colony. Dunkirk sold to France. East India Company. 1666. Acade- painter. 1663. Elliot's In- 1664. War with Holland. mie des Sci Huygens, Dutch astronomer. dian Bible prin- ted. 1664. New York 1663. Naval victory by the duke of York. Great Plague in ences Louvois 1667. War with Spain. Lou- 1665 Persecution of Jansenists in occupied by the English. London. is claims Spanish Ne- 1666 Chain shot invented by De Witt. 1666. Great Fire in Lon- don. therlands lor his wile in- 1666 Canal of Languedoc, from the Mediterranean to the Atlan- vades Bel- gium. tic. 1668. Peace o Aix la Cha pelle with Spain. 166? Gobelin tapestry manufactory in Paris. 1667. ceded to 1667. Peace of Breda. 1672. War with Holland. them by the peace ol Breda New York ceded to England. 1673. French ambassador Banishment of the at Ispahan. earl of Clarendon. 1674. The 1668 Triple league Eng- Dutch de- land, Sweden, and Hol- feated at the i670 Bayonets invented at Bay- I67i'). Conclusion of land, against France. 1670. The Cabal min- battles of Sinsheitu m onne. Orrery invented. Foundation of the Academy of Architecture, and the Hotel des Invalides, at Pa- the ' American treat) ' between England and Spain. istry. Secret treaty with France. and ,M ii 1 hau- sen. Tu- renne rava- ges the Pala tinate. ris. 675. Death ol Casaini, Italian astronomer and mathematician. 1672. War with Holland in conjunction with France. Turenne at SasUach. Influenca J.) Herbelot, Pascal, Bour- daloue, La Bruynre, Mai- branc/te, French writers. 1673. Ministry of Danby. Test Act passed. 1674. Peace with Holland. of Pere la Chaise, the king's con- lessor. 1676 Christopher Wren, architect, commences St. Paul's. Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch 1675. King Phi lip's War in New England. 1677. Victory over the Prince of Orange at painter. William Temple, historian. Butler, Waller, and Dryden, English poets ; Henry More, Leighton, Baxter, B i ' * 1677. Maine pur- chased by Massa- chusetts. 1678. The Popish Plot. M out- Cassel. 1678. Peace of Ni me- g u e n with Holland and oyle. Mannar t, architect ; Giradon, culptor, of France. Spain re- stores tiai quillity to Europe. 1598-1718.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 841 A..D SPAIN AND PORTU- GAL. GERMANY. ITALY. OTTOMAN EMi-IRE. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1661 Invasion of Por- 1660. Demark : Peace of Co tugual. 1661. War penhagen. The Swede! with Aus- restore Bornholm, and Dron tria. theim. Revolution in Denmark. Sweden .-Charles XI. ^Sf Peace of Oliva. Prussia acknowledged ir dependent. 1660. Poland .-Great victory 1662. Invasion of Marshal John So of Hungary. b i e s k i over the Tartars l663 Victory of the 1663. The Diet per- manent at Ratis- Portu- bon. guese 1664. Montecuculi over the victorious over the Span- Turks at St. Go- iards at thard. Estre- mas. 660 Spain : - Charles 1665. The Tyrol uni- ted to Austria. 1667. Holland : Peace of Bre- 1067 Portu- gal: llevolu- ion at 1667. Clement IX., pope. 1669. Candia taken from Ve- nice by Kio- da : loss of New Nether- lands. 668. First embassies from Russia to France and Spain. India : Rise of the Mah- Lisbon, ting de- Dosed. Peace with prili. the Porte. ratta power. Sevajee takea and sacks Surat. Pedro 1670. Cosmo 670. Den. : Christian V.gf I Hit? III., grand ESS duke of Tus- 1668 1669 Peace of Lisbon with Spain. Nitard, the Je- cany. War between Ge- noa and Sa- voy. Clement X., pope. 1672. The Sul- tan invades Poland. 1673. defeat, ed by Zo- 672. Sea fight between the Dutch fleet, under De Witt and De Ruyter, and tho English and French fleets- Dutch defeated. suit, dri- ven 673. War of Austria 674. Kevoltof Medina in briski, at Choezim. Den. : William III. from Spain. nnd France. 1675. Turenne and favor of France. 674. Poland : Johr Sobies- 1673 War Montecuculi op- 676. Messina 1676. Peace of J;L with posed on the blockaded by Zurawno ki.^gf France to pro- tect Hol- land. Rhine. Victory of Consarbruck over the French, under Crequi. Treves taken. the Dutch and Spanish fleets. Death of De Ruyter. with PoJand. 1678. First war 675. The Swedes invad Brandenl>ur2. 677. Battle of the J.nnd, V tween the Swedes an/1 Pane* 1676. General revolt Innocent XI. with Russia, of Hungarians un- Sipe. on account der Emeric. eath of the of the Cos- atheist, Spi- sacks. noza, 36 842 THE WORLD'S PROGR.ESS. [Period IX 120 years. AD. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. GREAT BRITAIN. FRANCE. Bernini, Italian sculptor. Rise of the names of France, the 1S61 Museum tor Natural History, at London. Whigs and Tories. most formi- dable powel Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. in Europe. 3 Pcvmy pust established in Lon- ilim. 1683. "Ryehouse Plot." Execution of Lord 1683. Invasi m of the Span- I Kempfer's travels in Japan. John Banyan, ' Pilgrim's Progress." Russel and Algernon Sydney. In this reign the Roy- ish Nether- lands. 1684. Truce ol 1 al Society of London Katisbon fur was instituted by Wil- twenty years kins, bishop of Chester. with Spain. Bombay ceded to 1686. Sir Edmund England. Andros, governor of New England. 1685. Revo- 1688 General sup- cation of pression of char- Rebellion of Mon- the Edict ter governments. mouth. in England, and of Nantes. 1689. Montreal de- Argyle, in Sco land, stroyed by the both defeateil and exe- 1696 Otto Von Guericks, inven- tor of the air-pump anil electrical machine, died. Five nations Leisler usurps the government of cuted. Judse Jeffries. 1680. The king favors the 16S7 Telegraphs invented. Newton's Principia, publish- New York. 1G9J. The English settlements of Catholics. 1687. re-establishes the Court of High Com- 1690 G. Batt. Lully, fiom Flo- rence, founder of French opera music. Arc/i. Corelli, celebrated vio- linist arid composer at Rome. White paper first made, in So.henectady, N. York, Ca.-co, Me. and Salmon Falls, N. H., destroyed by a party of French. Port Royal, No- mission. 1688. "REVOLUTION o v 1688." The Whigs and Tories unite in ap- plying to the Prince of Orange, who lands in England with 15,000 1638. War ot Spain the Empire, Hol- land, Savoy, and England against Leibnitz, German philoso- pher, founds the Academy of Sciences a. lierlin. va Scotia, redu- ced by Sir Wil- liam Phipps. men the king flees to France. Iu39.-William III. France. 1089. Grand al- liance against 1692 16M3 it>92 First opera in London. Purcell, English musician. 'Bank of England. Telescopes, first reflecting one made on the principles of Sir Isaac Newton. Expedition against Canada, unsuc- cessful. 1691. Sch uy ler defeats the French at La Prairie. and Mary II .^g War wiili France. James 11. lands in Ireland besieges Lon- donderry. 1690. William in Ireland. France, head- ed by Wil- liam III. 1690 Naval victory ovei the Dutch and English 1692 Witchcraft superstition in New- England. Battle of the Boyne. off Dieppe. James defeated, returns Victory of 1692. New Hamp- to France. Luxemburg. John Locke and Sir Isaac shire purchased 1691. Limerick taken, and at Fleurus. Newton in England. by Allen. William acknowledged. 169i!. Marshal Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, N. York: Leis- 1692. Invasion of Eng- Lux em- in France. ler executed. land undertaken by the burg de- 1693 Bank 'if England. 1693. N. York : French in favor of feats William Episcopacy in- James. Naval viciory at Steenkirk, troduced. by the Dutch and Eng- and William and lish. 1693. at Ne- Mary's College 1693. Bank of England in- uvinden. founded. corporated. Institution of 1697. Kidd's pira- 1694. Death of queen the order of cies. Mary. St. I.ouis. 1697. General peace o f R y s w i c k 1698. First partition treaiy, between between France, Erig France ao 1696 Phct-jhorua discovered. 1699. French colo- ny in Louisiana. land, and the Empire to dispose of the crown of the allies. Gold mines in Spain. Brazil. 1699. Visit of Peter the Great. 598-1718.J THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 843 - SFA.'.N AND Poari'- y the | > BB " 1706. French over the Saxons and Rus- allies. driven from sians at Traverstadl. 1706 Port. : John V. Italy by prince Eu- A- gene. 1707. All the 1707. Russia : Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. binglish Spanish pos- 1708. Charles invades Russia, and Por- sessions in crosses the Dnieper, and is tuguese enter Madrid. 1710. Treaty of the Italy aban- doned to the allies. 1709. Charles XII. takes refuge at 1709. defeated at Pultowa. Sweden at war with Den- mark. Hague between England. Holland, and the Empire. Bender hence war with Russia. Poland : Frederic Augus- tus re-ascends the throne. 1712. Victory of the Swedes at 1* I 1 Charles 1711. Charles Gadebusche. /il leaves ,-ii.. 1713. Prussia : Frederic Wil SpainoT becom Ministry of Count Ham I A ing Em- Linzendorf. peror. 1713. Pragmatic sanction., vesting the succession to Austria in the daughters of Char- 1714 Barcelo- na taken by Ber- wick. les. 1714. Peace of Ras- tii.lt and Baden with France. 1714. War of the Porte. Venice with 1714. Russia : Naval victory over the Swedes. Aland and Finland conquered. Albero- ni, prime 1715. Corinth Turks the taken by the Emperor joins 1715. Netherlands Barrier treaty ol Antwerp with Aus tria. minis- ter of Venice sie ge of Corfu raised on the news of their Sweden: Return of Char- les Prussia and England Spain. 171b. cleleat at the battle of join the alliance against him. Peterwar- den. 1718. Charles XII. invadei 1717. Defeat of C'rusca loss Norway ; is killed at th siege of Fredericshall. of Belgrade. Sweden: Ulrica Eleo 1718. Quadru- 1718. Peace of Passarowitz, ple alliaice between the Porte, Venice, nora W? against Spain. and Hunga ry. 846 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD X. 97 ytars. H.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. ENGLAND. 1724 725 1728 1729 1733 1740 Cotton Mather. " Magnolia," and Increase Mather, Hist, of War with Indians. Inoculation introduced by Lady Montague. The same year introduced into Boston by Dr. Boylston. Academy of Sciences at Paters- burg. The " Appellants," in France, headed by the Cardinal de Noailles, appeal from the bull ' Unigenitus," to a ge- neril council ; but without effect. Behring's Strait discovered. Balloons invented by G usmac. In England : In France : Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous- Young, seau, Le Thompson, Sage, Rollin, Walls. Lord Montesquieu. Butin, '-. Holberg, Danish drama- tist. 1719. First Philadelphia news paper. 1721. First New-York news paper. 1723. Vermont settled. Increase Mather, died. 1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 1727. Great earthquake in New-England. 1728. Cotton Mather, died. Discovery of diamond mines in Brazil. 1729. The Carolinas separated. 1732. Birth of Washington. 1733. Savannah founded. America, at Boston. 1740. Tennessee first explored. 1742 Invasion of Florida by Indians and Spaniards re- pulsed. 17!9. Unsuccessful attempt to invade Scotland by the Span- iards. "The South Sea Scheme." 1720. ' Bursting of the South Sea bubble." 1721. Sir Robert Walpole'f ministry continues. 1725. Leaj: e ofHerrenhauser., 1727. George I. dies at Osna- burg. George 1 1 .flB^ 1728. Pese of Pardo witn Spain 1729. Treaty of Seville, bt 1731. Treaty of Vienna with Holland and the Empire. 173V. War with Spain, 1740 Porto Bello taken by Ad- miral Vernon Anson's troy- age round the world, and capture of the Manilla JJ leon. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 847 1718--1815. Death of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. A.D. FRANCE. SPAIN AND PORTU- GAL. GERMANY. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1719. Italy : Sicily invaded by the Spanish. 1720. Peace of Stockholm. Tranquillity restored in the r.. rth Sweden : Thb queen abdicates in favor of her husband. 1721. Italy : Innocent XIII., pope. Frederic, fg Peace of Nystadt wiih Russia Russia: Pe'.er assumes the title l7>* The king assumes "Emperor of all the Russias." the government. 1721. Turkey : Mahommed Effendi, am- Dul'e de Bourbon, bassador to Paris. rakisier. 1723. China: Christians expelled. 1723 Italy : John Gaston, (de Medici), grand duke of Tuscany. 1723. Turkey : The Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia. 1724. Italy : Benedict XIII., pope. 1724 Conrrets of Cam- 1725. Russia: Catharine I., widow of bray between F-ngland, Francs, Prussia, ami Hc.!l.nd. 1725. :- Alliance 1734. : of Vienna, Spam, iind Austria. Peter jf 1725. Turkey : Partition treaty for sci7 ing the north and west provinces A 1726 Ministry (,( Cardi- Con- Persia. nal F I e u r y . quest of 1726. Russia : Alliance with Austria. and Sic<- 1726. Turkey : First printing press brought from Paris to Turkey. Iv by Don 1727. Russia : Treaty with China Oat lew. Prtrr II ^Ss? 1727. Turkey : Peace of Bagdad. 1728. Denmark: Fire at Copenhagen, tm Congress of So.s- so.as dissolved, destroys the public library. colony of Danes in Greenland. without effecting jjk any thing. 1730. Denmark: Christian Vl.fjpf tween England, France, and Hol- 1733. War of the Po- lish succession ; Austria. Russia, 1730. Italy Clement XII., pope. Russia : Anne jig land. and Denmark. 1735. Preliminaries of Viennarnot con- cluded till 1733 1733. Poland : Frederic Augustus 11 *jg The diet elect Stanislaus, but are compelled by the Russian army to elec'. 1740. War of the Aus- Frederic. 1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantztc, es- 733 .734 1710 1741: War of the Polish succession : France. Spain, and Safdi ua. Conquest of Lor- raine. War of the Aus- trian succession Marshals Belle isle and Broglio : defeated by the 1739. : War with Eng- land, for infrac- tions of the Asi- trian succession. Maria The- resa succeeds to the hereditary States. 1741. The French. Saxons, and Bava- rians, overrun Aus- tria, take Prague, and crown Charles VI. emperor, ^g Treaty of Bres- lau wiih Austria. 1743. The French capes to Koningsbers. 1734. Turkey : Turks driven from Per- sia by Nadir Shah. 1736. war with Russia and Austria. 1737. Italy : Francis, of Lorraine, gram duke of Tuscany. 1739. India : Invaded by Nadir Shafc who takes and plunders Delhi. 1739. Turkey : Turks defeated nea Choezim. 1740. Italy : Benedict XIV., pone Turkey : The Turks invade Persi are repulsed by Ashraf. -peace of Belgrade. allies at Dettin- ento driven across the gen. treaty Rhine. 848 THE WORLD'S [Period X. 97 y<-ars. A.O. PROORESS OF SOCIETY, etc. AMERICA. GREAT BRITAIN. Frederic the Great makes 1744. Naval victory over the great improvements in mili- tary tactics imroduces./Zy- ing horse artillery. Durante and Leo. celebrated 1745. Louisburg and Cape Breton taken from France French and Spanish fleets in the bay ol Hieres. 1745. Scotch rebellion Char- les Edward lands in Scot musicians. by the English. land. Handel, and Seb. Bach, musi- 1746 he is defeated at Cul- cal composers. loden. 1747 Indigo first produced in Caro- 1747. David Bramerd and 1747. Victories over the French lina. Benjamin Coleman, died. off Belle-isle and Cape Finisterre. 1748 Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- 1748. Peace of A i x la rian. 1749. English settlement in mutual restitution of con '750 Dr. Franklin's discoveries in Nova Scotia. electricity. 1752 England iniroduces the "New 1752. The new style intro- 1753 Style " Calendar. British Museum founded. duced ; the year hereafter commences Jan. 1. 1752. Hostilities be'ween Eng land and France on the boun 1754. Washington's mission to the French. 1755. Defeat of Braddock. British. 1756. Oswego and Ft. Granbv A Ian Ram- Helvetius, Fr. say, Racine. Fr. taken by the French. 1756 "Seven Years' Subsidiary alliance with Shenslone, GeUert, Ger. Gray, Winckle- Collins, mann, Ger. A 'eenside, (Jtiurcfiill. 1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap- tured. Prussia. Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m Pitt, the elder. 1757. Victory of Plassey, ir. India. 1758. Repulse of Abercrombie at Ticomleroga. Fort Du Quesne taken. 1759. Invasion of Canada 1759. Naval victories over the death of Wolfe Quebec Lagros, and off Brest. taken. Surat. in India, taken Capture of Niagara, from the Dutch. Crown Point, and Ticomle- j& roga. 1760. G eoTe III . f|f John Ryabrach, sculptor. Hogarth, Wilson, Sf Joshua 1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 1762. War with Spain. 17GJ Reynolds, painters. Potatoes first planted in Conquest of Havana, Trinidad, and Manilla. France, by Turgot. 1763. End of the " Old French 1763. Peace of Parii Nietmhr'a travels in Arabia. War." 1765. " American Stamp Act " Wesley Sf Whi/efield preach. resisted in Massachusetts 1761 Philadelphia Medical School, and Virginia. 1765. Bengal ceded to the Eas" 1766 first in America. Wai Us and Carteret's voyage First Colonial Congress at New-York. India Company by th treaty of Allahab*!. of discovery in the South 1 Seas. 1718-1815.J THB WORLDS PROGRESS. 849 A.D. FRANCE. SPAIN AND PORTU- GAL. GERMANY. THE WORLD, elsewiere. 1744 War declared . against England 1740. Prussia : F RBDERIC II .f and Austria. (the Great.) Prussia increase* in in> 1745 Battle of Fontenoy, 17-1"). Charles dies at portance. War with Austria. allies defeated. Munich. Russia : Ivan V. '.746 The French victo- 1746. : House o 1 1741. Sweden : War with Russia. rious by land, Ferdi- Lorraine: Swedes driven out of Finland. but unsuccessful nand VI. jft *s by sea. tib Francis l.jf Russia : Elizabeth. Wf 1747 War with Holland. fegg husband of Maria 1743. Peace of Abo with Sweden. Theresa. 1743. Turkey : War wilh Persia. Defeat near Erivan. 1744. India : Hostilities between Frenck, and English. 1744. Italy : Savoy occupied by Frencl and Spaniards, who take 1745. Parma, Milan, and Placentia. Genoa bombarded by the English. 1746. French and Spaniards driven frona Lombardy. 1746. Denmark .-Frederic V.HIf 1747. Netherlands : William IV. Persia: Revolution: Nadir. Shah murdered. 1751. Holland: William V. stadtholdei Denmark: Ministry of Count Bert* C, h n n fi 11 *> 1748 Peace of Aix la Cha- storff. muuffia pel le; Spain, and Prussia Sweden : House of Holstein Got- the on ly gainers by the torp : war. .jJL. 1756. Seven Years' Adolphus Frederic. gj War of Austria 1754. Italy : The Corsicans, under Paoli, and Prussia. revolt against Genoa. daries of Nova Sco- tia. Invasion and conquest of Saxo- 1754. Turkey : Othman HI. 1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- 1:53 Influence of Ma- dame de Pompa- dour. ny, by Frederic II. Alliance with France. tinople. 1756. India: Calcutta taken by the Na- bob of Bengal. War!" Capture of Minor- ca from the Eng- lish. 1757. Prussians vic- torious at Prague, Rossbach, Lessa, and Breslau. .757. Turkey : Mustapha III. 757. Prussia : Russian invasion. 758. victory of Londorf. 1758. Italy : Clement XIII., pope. The French take 1759. Prussia : The king defeated al 1757 Invasion of Hano- Verdun and Bre- Kunnersdorf. ver. men. 760. Battle of Liegnitz. Berlin taken. 1758 Defeat at Crefeldt. on the Rhine. 175S.French defeated at Crefeldt, 1759. and at Miurien India: Shah Alim II. Siege and capture of Pondicherry, by the English. French off Cape Attempt to invade Ireland. 1759 : Charles HI JL Victory at Max- en over the Prus- sians. Dresden re- Kingdom of Mysore founded by H y d e r A 1 i . 1760 Loss of all Canada. taken. 762. Russia : Peter IIL^Is ( si * I7C-T The Bourbon Fa- 176U. Great victory months). mily Compact. Siege and capture of Belleisle, by at Torgan, by Fre- deric. 1762. Prussians victo- C atharine 11 .^g, 764. Poland : Stanislaus Poniatowski the English. rious at Freiburg. 1763. Peace of Hu- 765. India , Treaty of Allahabad. Establishment of a British empire between France, Spain and Eng- bertstrug. 1765. Joseph II. 765. Italy : Peter Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany. JL land. sJL 766. Denmark : Christian VII. W? 1764 Expulsion of the CB 766. Power of the Mamelukes inEgyfX Jesuits. revived under Rodvan and Ali Bejr. 36* 850 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 'Period X. 97 years. l.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN 1766. American Stamp Act repealed New ministry under the Earl of Chatham. i767 first spinning machine in England. 1767. First war with Hyder Ali in My- sore. 1768 Cook's first voyage of discovery. 1768. Boston occupied Bruce discovers the source of the Nile. by the British troops. Royal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua Reynolds, first president. 1769 Letters of Junius. 1769. Daniel Boone ex- 1570 Whitefield dies at Newburyport. plores Kentucky. 1770. Lord N > r t b , prime minister. 1771. The Falkland 1772. Hancock, S. Islands ceded by Adams, and P a Spain to Great Bri- trick Henry, tain. promote the revolu- tion. 1773. Tea destroyed at Boston. .774 Captain Cook discovers New California. 1774. Continental Con- 1774. The Boston Port 1774 The SPINNING- JENNY, invented by Robert gress at Philadelphia. Bill passed. 1774. Warren Hastings, Arkwright. governor general ot India. !774 The Improved STEAM ENGINE, by Watt and Bolton. 1775. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR: April 19, Skirmish at 1775. Lord North's Lexinsum. " conciliatory mea- June 17,"B;utle of Bun- sures " rejected by ker's Hill the colonies. Fresco tt, Put- nam,ra cap- tured. Meletulez Val- Wellington vie dez, Spanish War against Algiers de- torious at Waterloo, June 18 poet. clared. I718-1815.J THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 857 FRANCE. GERMANY. Victory of Jena over the Prussians. Berlin decree. War with Russia. Battlu of Friedland. P e a c e of Tilsit. Invasion of Portu- gal. French ir Spain defeated at Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wei- lesley. Battle of VVagra m Napoleon inarries Maria Lou- ise. Continental peace ex- cept with Spain. Birth of the emperor's son; created king of Rome. Soult victorious in Spain takes Badajos ; is defeated by the English at Albuesa. RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. Battles of'Smolensko and Bo- rodino. * Moscow entered by Napoleon's army and bun >d by the Russians. Victories of I, u t z e n , Bautzen, and Dres- den, over the allies. Battle of Leipsic The allies enter Paris. \apoleon abdicates, and retires to Elba. H r. use of Bourbon restored: Louis XVIII. Bonaparte returns from Elba. The hundred days. Napoleon victorious at Ligny. BATTLE OF WATERLOO. The allies enter Paris. Bonaparte banish- ed to St Helena. Peace of Vienna. Metternich, minis- ter. 1812. Austria in alliance with France against Russia. 1813. War of German inde- pendence. Austria joins the Coali- tion. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine, loses his whole army. 1815. German League. Congress of V i en na. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1806. Holland : Louis Napo- leon, king. Prussia at war with Franc* in alliance with Russia. 1807. Ottoman Empire : Mus tapha IV. 1808. Spain : Ferdinand VII. " Joseph Napoleon. Naples : Murat. Denmark : Frederic VI. Ottoman Empire : Mali moud II. 1809. Sweden : Charles XIU 1810. South America: VE- NEZUELA declared inde- pendent. 1811. NEW GRENADA d clared independent. 112. INVASION OP RUSSIA by Napoleon. BURNING OF MOSCOW. K u l o s o f f pursues the retreating French. Poland: Diet of War- saw : the Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. 1813. South America : B o 1 i v a r drives the Span iards from Caraccas 1814. Union of Holland antf Belgium. Peace of Kiel Swe'ilen, and England. Union of Sweden ar.a Norway as two kingdoms under one monarch. 1815. Netherlands: William The "Holy Al- liance' 'Russia, Prus- sia, and Austria. 858 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD XI. 50 years.- PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1821 1822 1823 1824 1820 New corn law in England. Polytechnic institution at Vi- enna. Man u factories introduced into Poland. The family of Rothschilds conies into notice at Frank- fort. Aboliiion of the slave trade by the congress of Vienna. Second United States Bank chartered for 20 years, capi- tal $35,000,000. Public schools established throughout Russia. Belzoni penetrates the second pyramid of Gheza. Abolition of predial bondage in Bavaria and Wirteinberg. 1816. United States Bank in- corporated. Indiana admitted. 1817. .Tames Monroe, 5th President. Mississippi ad- mitted. 1818 Illinois admitted. War with the Seminoles. 1816. Bombardment of Algiers The Dey compelled v make peace and abolish slavery. 1817. Lord Exmouth's expe- dition to Algiers first passage of the Atlantic by steam, by the Savannah New- York to Liverpool. Rise of mechanic institutions in England. Hieroglyphics deciphered : ChampoUion. Sir William Herschel died. Huskisson'g /ree trade system in England. First manufactory in Egypt, established by Mehemet Ali. Inland navigation of the United States : the great Erie Canal opened. Mail-posts in Prussia. Steam navigation on the Rhine. General financial panic in England. Vast increase of periodical literature in England, France, Germany, America, &c. Alexander Volta dies, disco- verer of the Voltaic battery. 1820. Maine admitted. 1821. Monroe re-elected. Missouri admitted Slavery compromise. 1824. Lafayette's visit. Erie canal opened. Protective tariff. 1825. J. Q. Adams, 6th President. 1820.- Seorge I V . W 1823. Canning ministry. The Ashantees in Afiio* defeated. 1825. Commercial treaty with Prussia. 1827. Treaty of London kr favor of Greece. 1828. Wellington ministry, Disturbances in Ireland THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 859 1815-1865 FRANCB. 1.16 1821 182? Congress of Aix la Chapelle. France joins the " Holy Alliance.' Death of Napoleon at St. He- lena. -Charles X.I West sent to Algiers. AUSTRIA, &c. 1821. Congress of monarchs at Laybach. Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia. Alexander Ypsilanti de- feated and carried prisoner to Austria. THE WORLD, elsewnere. 1316. Portugal -John VI. ^ in Brazi. Union of Naples and Sicily. 1817. Republic of the Ionian Islands. India : The cholera com- mences its ravages. 1818. Sweden : Charles XIV. (Bernadotte.) India: The Mahratta power completely over- thrown, and the British sue ceeds. 1819. South America: Re- ublic of COLOMBIA :- I o 1 i v a r , President. 1821. Hayti : B o y e r , em- peror. South America: PERU and GUATEMALA inda- pemlent. 1822. BRAZIL declared inde. pendent. Mexico : Iturbide, em- peror. Greek Revolu- tion. Declaration of Indepen- dence. Massacre of Scio. 1823. Italy : Leo XII., pope, 1824. Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi. 1825. Russia : N i c h o 1 a * 1826. War with Persia. Greece : Missolonghi taken by the Turks. 1827. Treaty between Rus.-v.-j and the Porte respecting Greece. Greece : B a 1 1 1 e of N a v a r i n o . Portugal : Maria de Glo- Rebellion in favor of Don Miguel as regent. 328. War between RussU and the Porte. 860 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period A'/. 50 yean,. * AC PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. In ENGLAND : FRANCS : Jeremy Ben- Cuvier. t/uiin. Talma, trage- Tho'nas Chal- dian. mers, Thomas Dick. Segur, La Place, 1827. Treaty of London u favor of Greece. W. Kirby, Beranger, Hallam, Lamartine. Lingarrl, Wordsworth. GERMANY: 1828. The Wellington minis- Southey, try. Disturbances in Ire- Campbell, nf Mayerbenr, land. Moore, Leigh Hunt, Kotzebu&, Gall, Mrs. Humans, Bulwer, Sptirzheim. 1829. General Jack- 1829. Catholic emancipation. ' Barry Corn- wall." SWEDEN : son, 7th President of the United States. Cap:ain Ross' voyage to discover a North West pas- Tegner, sage. RUSSIA : Daldyren. Kuramsin, ITALY : Somorokov, Dmietriev, Rossini, Krilov. Paganini. U. S. A. 1830. Treaty between the 1830. William IV.^g 2V. Webster, Wheaton. United States and the Porte. Earl Grey, minister. Irving, Kent, Difficulties with China. Conper, Story, 1831. Lord John Rus- Flint, Galtatin, s e 1 ' s Reform Bill intro- Win, Livingston, duced. Marshall, Channing. Cholera first appears in England. 630 Liverpool am, Manchester Railroad opened. .831. The king of the Nether ands makes his award on the w The two Landers succeed in tracing the Niger from Lake Tchad to the ocean. The first newspaper in Con- stantinople. The Factory North Eastern Boundary, be 1832. War with the Winneba- goes and other Indian tribes. Cholera in New- York. tween the United States and the British provinces. 1832. Reform Bill passed. Bill in Engla d, limiting the Nullification in South Caro- hours oi la bo r for children. lina. General Jackson's ce- 6.U Reform Bill in England: fSttension of Suffrage. Trade unions in England, France. Germany, Switzer- lebrated proclamation. 833. General Jackson re-elect- ed to the Presidency. Removal of the Depo- 1833. Captain Ross returns from his voyage of disco- very. land. &c. sites of the United States LdiJ Giraid Colleg s. at Philadel- from the U. S Bank. 3i phia, and the University o! New- York, commenced. De Tocqueville's History of Democracy in America. 834. The President censured by the Senate for removing the Deposites. 1834. Sir Robert Peel Premier. Difficulties il Canada. Iwiitisition abolished in Spain. 835. Great Fire in New- York. B3G Slavery aboli ihed in the British colon its. Boston and Lowell Railroad 36. The national debt of the ISJii completed. James Smithson, of London, United States being paid, the surplus revenue is divided bei) ueal lies 100,000 to the among the States. United Stale i lor the esta- blishment of an Institution "for the increase and diffu- sion of knowledge among Treaty with Morocco. 337. The independence of Texas acknowledged. 1837. Victoria -~ men." ISiti The Luxor obelisk erected at Martin Van Buren, Paris. 3th President. 1815-1865.J THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 861 A D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &c. THE WOULD, elsewhere. 1827 A French fleet sent to Algiers. . 1829 Algiers taken. 1829. Italy :-Pius VIII., pope. Algiers taken by the French. VENEZUELA independent, General P a e z , President. 1830 Three Days' Revo- lution, July 27, 28, and 29. Lafayette, commander of the National Guard. 1S30. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, ainl is declared independent in August. 1830. Polish struggle fo r nation- al i t y , begins November 19. Charles X abdicates. L ouis Philippe I. Brazil : Revolution ; Don Pedro II. si? JjL 1831. Belgium :L e o p o 1 d I .@ (House of Orleans. )yjg The Poles victorious at Prayo. Italy: Gregory XVI., pope. Poland: Warsaw capitulates to Rus- sia. 1832 Ministry of Marshal S o u 1 1 . 1832. The kingdom of GREECE founded : , T SffiS Poland: The Insurrection crushed; 5000 families sent to Siberia. University of Warsaw abolished. 1833. The Em- 1833 Spain -Isabella ^ peror of Rus- Don Carlos claims the throne. sia visits the Emperor of Austria. Portugal : A constitutional monarchy. Egypt : Mehemei Ali acknowledged by the Sultan. Mexico : Santa Anna, President. MB5 Death of Lafayette. 1834. Quadruple alliance England, France. Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel and Don Carlos. 1835. The Plague in Egypt. 1836 Insurrection attempted by Louis Napoleon at Stras- 1836 Spain : The Queen Regent adopts the constitution. burg. Texas : Battle of San Jacinto, SanU Ferdi- Anna taken prisoner. nand l.ffe China: A decree to expel all liritidi ard other barbarian merchants. 8.32 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years. A.D. PROOUESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITA.N. 1837 S. F. B. M o B 3 B takes out a patent for his Elec- 1838. The Exploring Expedi- tro-magnetic Tele- tion sails. g r a p h, (Invented 1332 ) Suspension of specie payments by the Banks in the United I83y. Disturbances on the ' disputed territory," be- 1839. The Biitish take posse* sion of Ghuzne. States, in May. tween Maine and New- Brunswick. l339|The Daguerreotype invented in Paris. Improvement of the condition of the Jews in Russia. An Antarctic Continent disco vered by the United States 1840. The uniform Penny Exploring Expedition. Postage system esta.jlishel 1810 Penny postage system in Eng- Marriage . f Queen Vic- land. toria to Prince Albert o< Saxe Cobourg. Persecution of the Jews at War with Chi; a, to en- Damascus. force the opium trade. War in Syria : Great Wheatstone's Electric Tele- Britain taking part with Austria and Turkey. Lord graph patented in England. Palmerston's foreign policy excites the ill-will 01 France. 1841. W. H. Harrison, 1841. The war with China 9th President. ended : $6,000,000 received He dies April 4, j ust one as a ransom for Canton month alter his inaugura- tion. John Tyler, sue. ceedshim,as 10th President. Congress meets in extra session, May 31. Sub-Treasury Act re- pealed, Aug. 9. Bankrupt Act passed, August 18. 1842 The Crct m Aqueduct in New- 1842. The Dorr Insurrection York completed. in Rhode Island. Treaty between the Uni ted States and England, settling the north-eastern boundary. Treaty of peace witb Bain'.-t electro-magnetic Tele- graph patented in London. China. 1843. Great "Repeal" agitation in Ireland. The Bri'ish gain posses- sion of Scinde. 1844 " Anti-renlism n o.viached in the State of New- York. 184*. Texas annexed to the United States. Anti-rent riots in New- 1844. Daniel O'Connell's trial and imprisonment the sen- tence reversed by the He USA York. of Lords. .946 A srreat defection from the Ro- mish church, under the 1845. Treaty with China. James K. PoVk, 1845. Sir John Franklin sett* in search of the north WMI preaching ot Range, in Ger- llth President. passage. many. Lord Itosse'f Telescope 1816. War with Mexi- co : Gutta Percha in use. Hostilities commence on 1646 Completion of the Thames the Rio Grande, April 24. Tunne 1 . March 25. Battle of Palo AIM, Mi The Planet Neptune, pre- May8. dicted by Le Verrier, dis- Battle of Resaca de k covered by Dr. Galle, of Palma, May 9. Berlin, Sept. 23. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 863 4.D. FRANCE. AUSTRIA, his year, 300,000. 1848. Civil war in Ireland. John Mitchell, tried and condemned to transporta- tion, May 26. eon the United States and Great Britain. Habeas Corpus Act su pended in Ireland, July 25. Smith O'Brien arre< and condemned, Aug. 5. Return of KOM'I axpi dition, NOT. 1515-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 865 FRANCE. AUSTRIA, &c. THE WORLD, elsewhere. burg, Chartres, &c. Michelet's Lectures interrupt- ed by the ministers, Dec. Abd-el-Kader captured, Dec. 22. Debate on the Reform Bill, Feb. 8. Proposed Banquet at Paris, abandoned, Feb. 'il. REVOLUTION COM- MENCED, Feo. 22. Barricades erected, Feb. 23. Louis Philippe abdicates and flies, Feb 24. Provisional government esta- blished. Lamartine, Provisional President, Feb. 24. French Republic proclaimed, Feb. 26. Meeting of the National As- sembly, May 4. Bloody Insurrection in Paris, June 23-25. Cavaignac, military dictator, June 24. Paris in a state of siege. New Constitution adopted. Nov. 4. Louis Napoleon Bo- naparte, elected Pre- eiitnt, Dec. 10. 1847. Austria takes posses- sion of Cra- cow. against the 1847. Prussia : Frederic William granU I constitution, Feb. 8. Hayti : Soulouque, President, March 2, Algiera Abd-el-Kadei made a prisonet to France, Dec. 22. 1848. Sardinia : Charles Albert protests encroachment of Austria, and calls out aa army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. ' Naples : Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. Sardinia: Charles Albert proclaims* constitution, Feb. 8. Bavaria .-Disturbances on account ot Lola Monies the king abdicates in favor of his son, -Maximilian II. ' March 22. Charles Albert The Ban Jella- chich ap- pointed gov- ernor of Hungary, Oct. 3 Insurrection at Vienna, Oct. 6. 1848. The Em- peror leaves the city. The Hungarian army advan- ces within 6 miles of Vi- enna, Oct. 11. Wind*sch- gratz ap- pointed com- mander of the imperial army. enters Milan, March 23. Denmark : Revolt of Schleswig-Hol- stein, March 26. Sicily declared independent, April 3. Hoi land receives a constitution, April 17. Poland : Unsuccessful revolt at Cra- cow, April 25. Sicily: The Duke of Genoa elected king, July 10. India": Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16 Armistice signed between Denmark Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. India : The British make an unsuc- cessful attempt on Moultan. Sicily : Messina bombarded and taken. Sept. 2. Hungary : K o s s u t h appointed Pre sident of the Defence Committee, an i Diet* tor, Oct. 37 866 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. {Period XL 50 years A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. 1849 1S50 A new planet discovered by Gasparis, at Naples. Magnetic Telegraph lines in Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, England. Magnetic Clock, invented by Dr. Luc/ce, at Cincinnati. UNITED STATES. 1849. Zachary Taylor, 12th President. use in the United States in 1849, 10,000 miles. Rail Roads 6,000 " Emigration from Europe to America, during this year, at the rate of 1000 a day. Great agitation on the Slavery Question in the United States Congress. The Pekin Monitor, a new paper, printed in China The Sultan of Turkey, grants permission to the Jews to build a temple on Mount Zion. A University founded at Syd- ney, New South Wales. Deaths in 1850 : U. 8. A. I EUROPE. A. Jitdson, 'Wordsworth, 8. M. Fuller, Jeffrey, M L. Davis. Neander, Zschokke, Berzelius, Balzac. 1850. John C. Calhoun died at Washington. Attempted invasion of Cuba: 600 adventurers un- der Lopez, repulsed at Car- denas, May. Death of Gen. Taylor, July 9. Millard Fillmore, 13th President. Cali fornia ad- mitted, 31st State. Texas boundary settled, by the payment of 10,000,000 dollars to Texas. New-Mexico and Utah admitted as Territories. Bill for the arrest of fugitive slaves passed by Con- gress. Slave trade in (he District of Columbia abolished. GHEAT BRITAIN. 1849. Mi-ultan. in India, takisa Jan. 3. 1850. The war jri Lahore fitt ished, anil th-. Punjaub an- nexed to the British crown. A British fleet block adet the ports of Greece, tc en- force the alleged claims o( British subjects. Sir Robert Peel die* July 2. Haynau. "the Austria* butcher," chastised by tb draymen in London, Sjipt. 1815-1865.J THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SG7 ..p. FRANCE. AuSTStA, &C THB WOULD, elsewhere. The Emperor issues a pro- clamation against the city. Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. Rome : M a z z i n i ' s proclamation, The Imperial- Oct. 29. ists take pos- Prussia: The king prorogues the As- session oi Vi- sembly, Nov. 9. enna, Nov. The Burgher Guard of 3flin refuse to 2. give up their arms. The city in a state oi siege, Nov. 12. . , Rome : Count Rossi, the Pope's prime- minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. India: Great battle near Ramnuggur, Ferdinand ab- Nov. 22. dicates, Dec. Rome : The Pope escapes in disguise, 8. Nov. 24. Francis Hungary declared independent, Dec. 1849. India: Moultan taken by the British, Joseph 1gg Jan. 3. Italy: The Grand Duke of Tuscany flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, Feb. 9. 1849. A new Rome : Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. Constitution Sicily: A new Constitution conceded promulgated March 4. by Naples, March 6. Sardinia : Charles Albert defeated by Brescia taken Radetsky, March 21 again totally defeated by Haynau, at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the March 30. throne in favor of his son, India : The Punjaub annexed to tne British Empire, March 29. Italy : Insurrection in Genoa, April 1, Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April 26. Rome : The French army arrives un- der the walls of Rome, April 29. Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, June. Rome surrenders^ the French, July 2. Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. Rome : The government placed in the hands of the Pope : s commissioners, Aug. 3. Gorgey traitor ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. Kossuth escapes into Turkey. I860 Louis Philippe dies in Eng- land. Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. 1850. Rome: The Pope returns, April Greece disputes the claims of Great Britain for losses of British subjects: n forced to submit. v China : The Emperor Tau-Kwang, dies: Sze-hing f|? s.icceeds. THE wpRLD's PROGRESS. [Period XL- 50 yean PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 1850 )n the subject of the Mobbing of Marshal Ha/nau during a visit to a London brewery, notes pass between Austria and Great Britain, termi- nating in a threat of retalia- tion on the part of the latter, Sept. Nov. A Memorial for the annexa- tion of Canada to the U. 8. received in five hours tho signatures of 300 merchants, landowners, and profes- sional men, in Montreal, Oct. 10. Woman's Rights Con- vention, held at Worcester, Mass., Oct 23. Worth- West Passage discov- ered by Capt. McClure (Br. Navy) in the Investigator, Oct. 26. The British Consul at Charles- ton calls the attention of the Governor of South Ca- rolina to a law of that State, under which British sea- men (colored) are impris- oned when they enter her ports for trade or In dis- tress, Dec. Deaths in 1850: U. *. A. J. C. Oalhoun, Senator, U. 8. 8am. Miller, D.D. Z Taylor, President, U. 8. A. 1850. CALIFORNIA admitted as a State, Sept Fugitive Slave Sill passed, Sept. DisunionMeetings held at Natchez (many present op- posed to disunion); at Yazoo City (resolutions proposed voted down), Oct. 7; at Nashville (this convention passed resolutions recom- mending a congress of slavehoiding States), Nov. 19. Union Meetings held at Mobile, Dayton, and New York, in Oct. ; at Philadel- phia, and Manchester, N. H., in Nov.; and at Bath, Me., in Dec. The Advance and Rescue. American vessels in search of Sir J. Franklin, com- pletely fastened in the ice, Sept 13. In their northerly drift reach lat 75 23', Oct 1. Conventions held to amend the Constitutions of theStatesof Indiana (Oct. 7), Virginia (Oct 14). Maryland (Nov. 4), New Hampshire (Nov. 6). Lopez and others tried at New Orleans for engaging In an expedition against Cuba, Dec. 17. Webster replies to Hiilse- mann on the rights of neu- tral nntiona, Dec. 21. 1850. Great excitement and agitation in England respect ing a dispute on doctrine be tween the Bishop of Exeter and the Uev. Dr. Gorhain. one of his clergy. The Privy Council's decision in favor of the latter afterwards rati- fied by the Courts. Searches for Sir J. Frank- lin the North Star returns to Spithead unsuccessful, Sept 28. The Prince Albert arrives at Aberdeen with tli i intelligence that traces \i his party had been found at Cape Reilly and Beechy Island, at the entrance lo Wellington Channel, Oct. I. Appointment by tli Pope of several Roman Cn- tholic bishops and arcl- bishops in England, causes great excitement, and ai indignant letter from Lord J. Russell, the premier, Nov. English forces defeat*! by the Caffres in South Africa, with considerabU loss, and obliged to retreat to their fort, Dec. 29. 1S16-1865.J THE WOKi^D S PROGRESS. 809 KBANCB. !850 President creates his uncle i Jerome a Marshal of France, Jan. 1. 800 Soldiers drowned at An- ;iers by fall of a bridge, Ipr. 15. French Ambassador recalled from London, in conse- quence .f a difficulty con- nected with an English claim on Greece, May 16. New Electoral Law, restrict- ing the right of suffrage, passed, May 81. Arrangement with England on the Greek dispute, June 81 Dotation Bill, giving the Pre- sident 2,160,000 francs ($405,000) per annum, passed, June 24. AUSTRIA, etc. 1S50. Prussia: The King takes the oath required by the Con- stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to assassinate him, May 22. Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, Sax- ony, and Wurtemburg. to main- tain the German Union, Feb. 27. Wurtemburg denounces the insidious ambition of the King of Prussia, and announces a league between Wurtemburg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under the sanction ot Austria, March 15. Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian league, June 80. Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2. A Congress of Deputies from I the States included in the Prus- TIIE WORLD, elsewhw*. sian Zollverein opened at Cas- sel, July 12. Prussia refuses to join the restricted Diet of Frankfort, Aug. 25. Difficulties occurring Hesse-Cassel, between the Elec- tor and his people, in regard to the mode of taxation, Austria and Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite parts in the struggle, Sept. Nov. Austrian ultimatum deliv- ered at Berlin, directing that Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight days, dissolve the ErfurtLeague, and recognize the Diet, etc., re- plied to by the Prussian King's signing the order calling out the whole military force of the mo- narchy, Nov. 6. The Russian Ambassador at Vienna announces that the Czar " would consider the continu- ance of the Prussian policy in the Electorate as a casus belli" Nov. 11. Treaty of Amnesty an- nounced at Berlin. Dec. 3. France protests, and Great Britain remonstrates, at Vienna, against the proposed extension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps, Deo. 1S50. Denmark: Bloody but indecisive battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schlesvvig Holsteiners, July 25 Yucatan : Battle, near close of the year, between the White* and Indians; latter vic- torious; 800 Whitet killed. 870 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years. L D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 85! Jas. Richardson, the African 1851. General Quitman of 1S51. A strong force of Caffres traveller, dies at the village Mississippi arrested for al- attacks Fort White, Cape of of Unqurta, six days distant leged violation of the neu- Good Hope repulsed, loss from Kouka, the capital of trality law of 1818, by set- 20 killed. The Caffre chief. Bornou, March 4 ting on foot a military ex- Hermanns, with a body of pedition against Cuba. He Caffres and Hottentots, at- resigns his office of Gover- tacks Fort Beaufort, but is nor. Feb. 3. repulsed, he and his son Erie Canal Enlargement killed, his band completely A Company of Gipsies from Bill defeated in the N. Y. routed. 3,000 Caffres attack England arrive in Cecil Senate by the withdrawal or the Colonists and their allies county, Maryland, U. 8., resignation of 12 democratic near Fort Hare ; driven bringing with them all their members, Apr. 16 ; but back with the loss of 100 wandering habits and pecu- afterwards passed by a new killed, Jan. . Col. Somer- liarities, March. Legislature. set captures and burns Fort Minot's Ledge Light- Armstrong, 9J Caffres killed, house. Boston Harbor, car- 230 taken prisoners, Feb. ried away. It was last seen 2S. The Hottentots of th standing about 3 o'clock. Theopolis Mission Station P.M., April 16. in Lower Albany, join in Arrest of a notorious the insurrection, M.ny 3.1. band of desperadoes in Mi- They are defeated in actions chigan, Apr. 21. with the English troops on Initial point of the Boun- the 3d and 5th of June. dary between the United The Russell Ministry re- States and Mexico establish- sign, Feb. 22: but after- ed on the right bank of the wards resume office, the According to the evidence of Mr. Bainos before a Com- mittee of the House of Com- mons, there were in Great Britain 13,193 places of wor- ship dissenting from the tenets of the Established Church, to which may be added Roman Catholic Cha- pels, 597, minor sects and Jews. 550; total noncon- formist churches, 14,840. Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations Rio Grande del Norte, in 32 22 north latitude, and 219.4 meters from the center ol the bed of the river, by the American and Mexican Commissioners, and a mon- ument erected recording the same. April 24. President issues a procla- mation, warninsall persons within the jurisdiction ol the United States not to aid or engage in any expedition against the Island of Cuba, Earl of Derby not having succeeded in forming a Cabinet. The Prohibited Affinity Marriage Bill lost in tlia House of Lords, F'sb. 2,1; Lord Campboll and the F- clesiastical Bench vcting against it. inaugurated by Quen Vic- toria, May 1. Apr. 25. Convention of Delegates Wyld's monster globe erected in London ; em- from tho Southern Rights Associations of South Caro- ployed 800 men nearly 80 days in fitting up the inte- rior. lina meets at Charleston, May 5; and adjourns after resolving that. ' with or without cooperation, they are for a dissolution of the Union," May 8. Erie railroad opened Daguerre, the discoverer of the Dttyuerrean or Photo- graphic Art, dies, aged 61, July 10. from New York city to Dunkirk, 469 miles, by President Fillmore, Daniel Webster, etc., May 15. Riot, with loss of life, at Hoboken, N. J., between The Oath of Abjuration (Jew) Bill passes the British Germans and " short-boy" rowdies from New York, House of Commons, with May 26. only verbal protests from Serious conflagrations in the objecting minority, July 8; but is refused a second California. San Francisco alone suffers by them in reading in the House of Mav and Ju ne to t ne amount Lords, July 17. of $12,000,000. 1816-1865.] THE WORLD 8 PROGRESS. 871 A.D. FRANCO. AUSTRIA, etc. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1851 Ministry lesign, Jan, 8. 1S51. Denmark: The Government oi Presidential Dotation Bill, Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Com proposing an additional missioners of the Germanic Confedera grant of 1,800,000 francs, tiom Jan. 10. rejected in the Assembly, The Austriane complete their mili- Feb. 18. tary possession of Hamburg Jan. 81, and the new government issues its pro- clamation, declaring its resumption ol the seisnorial rule of the King' of Den- mark, Feb. 2. Danish mining operations in Green- land produce large quantities of copper ore. yielding about 60 per cent. The Austrian Government and the Ottoman Porte come to the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu- gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, amona them Kossuth md Bathyany, Feb. 17. Charles L. Brace, an Am- Australia: Discovery of largo gold erican, arrested fields near Bathurst, Feb. and imprisoned East Indies : Fort of the celebrated. in Hungary, on E irate Sultan of Soloo destroyed by tho a charge oi panish Government of Manilla, Feh. "being a mem- 20 o. ber of the de- mocratic corn- Hawaii : The difficulties betweeiv mi 1 1 e e, an the Hawaiian and French Governments agent of Uj- are arranged according to the terms of a hazy and Cretz, "mutual declaration," published at Ho- and of travel- nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign ing with revo- relations and M. Perrin, the French lutionary writ- commissioner, March 25. ings, tc spread revolutionary movements," May 23. The Sub-Committee of the Assembly appointed by the Committee of Revision to authenticate petitions, re- ports, that up to July 1, the petitions had been signed Inauguration of Rauch's co- lossal statue of Frederick the New Granada : Congress adjourns. It passed a law abolishing slavery in the republic, to take effect January 1, 1852. May 29. by 1,123,165 persons, thus Great at Ber classified : For revision. lin, May 81. 741,011 ; for revision and prolongation of powers, 870,51 1 ; for prolongation of powers, 12,lu3 July 5. The Ger- manic Diet, in Italy : An earthquake destroys Mel fl, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about. 100 answer to Lord miles 8". E. of Naples, and other towns Palmerston's in its vicinity. Seven shocks occurred protest against within 24 hours. Melfl was separated annexing the by a ravine from Mount Volture, upon non-Germanic which are many extinct craters. Not provinces of less than 8,000 persons are said to hav Austria to the perished. July 14. Germanic Fe- deration, says, The question of revision of " That no fo- the Constitution again ta- reign interfe- ken in the Assembly, when rence should be Ecuador : Gen. Diego Novoa. I*resi- a minority was declared 97 allowed in a dent of the Republic, seized and put less than tho three-fourths purely German on board a government vessel by Gen, required by the Constitu- question ."July Urblna. who assumes the admin etrs tion, July 19. 17. tion of the Government. J-jly 17. 872 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XI.-~ 50 yvs5&jnj BarLijKuie 01 ters lesns juvpbity, Jan. J2. 1852. The Empe- ror of Russia visits the Em- peror of Aus- tria at Vienna, May 8. ments from the various ships of war of all nations in the harbor, Feb. 3. The allied army enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18. Urquiza, Director of the Argentine Confederation, deposed, ^-ept. 10. The Chamber of Representatives of Buenos Ayres declares the rivei Parana open to the navigation of all na- tions, Oct. 13. Belgium: Formation of a new mi- nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party under M. de Brouckcre, Nov. 1. The law against the liberty of the press is adopted in the Chamber of Representa- tives, Dec. 1. Cuba: The police of Havana disco- ver and capture the press of the paper, M The Voice of the People," with the materials and forms for the fourth num- ber. The proprietors and employes are arrested, Aug. 23. The barque Cornelia, having cleared at Havana, is brought to and boarded at the month of the harbor. and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few days after, the United States mail steam- ship Crescent City is refused permission to land her passengers and mails at Ha- vana, and ordered to quit the port Captain -General Canedo objecting to the purser of the vessel, Mr Smith, alleged to be the reporter of false news to the New York papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres- cent City again enters Havana harbor, with Mr. Smith as purser. Gov. Caiicd* refuses to allow passensers or mails to be landed, and forbids all intercourse be- tween the ship and shore. The Captain protests to the American Consul, antf leaves the harbor. 876 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years.- 4.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GUEAT BRITAIN. \ 1368 1852. Southern Eights conven- tion at Montgomery, Ala., passes resolutions against Great floods in the United making resistance to the States, Marc i, April, Sept, compromise measures an and Dec. ; in England, Nov. issue of their party, and and Dec. ; an the conti- against intervention, March nent of Europe, Sept 5. Riot during election at St. Louis, April 5. 1852. Submarine telegraph Telegrrrphu across the Eng- First national agricultu- wires coated with gutta lish Channel ral convention assembles at percha, laid across St. Washington, D. C., consist- George's Channel from Ho- ing of 151 members, repre- ly head, a distance of eighty Earthquakes in Cuba August senting 22 States, and the miles, completing the com- 2 and Nov. 5 6; in Manilla District of Columbia, orga- munication between Lon- and adjacent :tarts, Sept. 16, nised by the choice of don and Dublin. June 1. Oct. 18; at Acapulco, Dec. Marshal P. Wilder, of Mass., 4; in the Ea. >tern Archipe- president. June 24, lL-o, Nov. 27 and Dec. 21. Convention for revising Queen Victoria issues At Stafford House, in London, the Constitution of Louisi- her proclamation against some English ladies, headed ana, July 5. " Roman Catholic ecclesias- by the Duch ess of Suther- Kossuth continues to be tics' wearing the habit of land, adopt an address to feted in different cities, and their order, exercising the the women if America on finally quits the country rites and ceremonies of tne the subject of negro slavery. under the name of Alexan- lion i;ui Catholic religion in It subsequently receives der Smith, July 16. highways and places ol 576,000 sign iitures. Nov. Henry Clay dies, June public resort" June 15. 26. 29. Obsequies celebrated at New York with great pomp and magnificence, Punishment of Death re- July 20. stored in Tus cany. Great Britain insists upon the convention of 1818, re- specting North American fisheries, being carried out by the United States, and sends armed vessels to the coast Fall in England of the protec- of New Brunswick, etc. The United States government tionist mini 5try ot Lord dispatches the war steamer Mississippi, with Commodore Derby and Mr. D'Israeli. Perry on b"ard, to the disputed fishing grounds; some after an existence of nine sixty fishing vessels are boarded, and furnished with in- months Dec. 20. formation and advice. July Aug. Commodore McCauley. commander of the United States naval forces in the Pacific, by proclamation, withdraws his protection from American vessels pro- ceeding to the Lobos Is- Duke of Wellington dlo^ Sept. 14. His funeral obse- quies take place in London Deaths in 1852. lands for guano, Oct. 18. This difficulty with Peru with great pomp, Nov. 18. U.S. EUROPE. settled by the withdrawal H. Clay, Thos. Moore, of American pretensions, Nov. 15. 8. Nott, Schwartzen- M. Stwtrt, D. Drake, J. II. 1'aine, H.Gi-eenough, Amos Law- berg, Pradier, Wellington, Dr. Mantell, D'Orsay, Daniel Webster dies, Oct 24. Funeral solemni- ties celebrated at Boston with much state, Nov. 15. Fall of the Protectionist ministry of Lord Derby and Mr; D'Israeli, after an exist- ence of nine months, Dec. rence, Lee. The United States de- 20. Milledoler, J. Vnnderli/n, D. Welmter, J.L. Kinfjaley, J. P. Norton. clines the tri-partite con- vention respecting Cuba proposed by England and France, Dec. 1. By a decree of the Go- vernor Ueneral of British India, tbt) province of Pe git is an n >">>! to the British Immigration, 375,000. dominions, Pec. 20. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 877 FEANOE. AUBTKIA, etc. THE WOKLI>, elsewhere. "resident Bonaparte com- mences his tour through Southern France, Sept, 16. Visits the Chateau D'Am- boise, and releases Abd-el- Kader, who had been a prisoner for five years, Oct. 10. Returns to Paris, ma- king a pompous entry into the city, Oct. 16. decree of the President convokes the Senate for Nov. 4, for the purpose of deliberating on the restora- tion of the empire. Oct. 19. he Senate decrees the re- establishment of the em- pire, subject to the ratifica- tion of die people. Nov. 7. The vote is taken through- out France and Algeria. Nov. 21 and 22; result 7,824.189 in favor of reestab- lishing the empire, against 253,145 negative, and 68,326 void ballots. The Senate goes in a body to St. Cloud, to announce offi- cially the result of the elec- tion to Louis Napoleon, ant hall him Emperor, Dec. 1. At the Hotel de Ville, In Paris Louis Napoleon is publiclj proclaimed EMPEROR OF THK FEKNCH, under the name of NAPOLEON III Dec. 2. 1852. Greece : Signing of a convention in London by the five powers, England, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in reference to the affairs of Greece. None but a prince of the Greek religion is hereafter to ascend the throne of Greece. Nov. 18. Hawaii: Eruption of Manna Loo; lasts several weeks. Feb. India: The Burmese evacuate and burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un- der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men, Nov. 21. Italy : The Grand Duke of Tuscany, refuses to give audience to an English Protestant deputation in favor of Ross and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25. The punishment of death Is rees- tablished in Tuscany, for treason, crimes against religion, murder, and robbery with violence, Nov. 10. The Pope addresses a letter to thfi King of Sardinia, strongly adverse ti- the bill under consideration in the Pied montese parliament, permitting mar riages without religious ceremonies; h. is consequently withdrawn by the mi nistry, Dec. 20. At Rome, Bishop Ives, of Nort> Carolina, U. 8., formerly an Episcopa lian, is received into the Catholic Church by the Pope, Dec. 26. Liberia : President Roberts attacks and gains possession of the native chief Beyer's principal town, Jan 15. A treaty of peace between the courts of Vienna and Rome is ratified, stipulating that the former shall main- tain in the territories of the Pope, 12,000 infantry and 1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid by the Papal government. Nov. 10. Mexico: Carvajal attacks Camargo and is defeated, Feb. 21. The French Count Boulban de Ra ousset, who led an enterprise upon So- nora, is defeated at Hermosillo, and his expedition completely overthrown, Nov. 1. Spain: A priest, aged 63, attacks with a dagger, and wounds the Queen of Spain, on her return from celebrating at the cathedral a Te Deuin for the birth of her child, Feb. 2. He is tried, convicted, degraded from his priestly office, and suffers death from the gai te, 7th. Ninety-five Americans belonging to the Lopez expedition, who had been sent to Spain, arrive at New York, March 13, having been liberated by the Queen. The Cortes dissolved by royal de- cree, for having elected De la Rosa, tin anti-ministerial candidate their presi- dent, Dec. 2. 1852. TheEmpe ror of Austria visits the King of Prussia at Berlin, Dec. 17. Prussia: The bill for bi ennial parlia- ments becomes a law, Dec. 23. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GREAT BRITAIN. 1853 firmans accorded to all sub- jects of tho Porte (not Mus- sulmans) confirming their religious rights, June 22. The first Norwegian railway openev July 4. The American expedition un- der Com. Perry arrives al Japan, July 8. On the 14th he lands and delivers to the Imperial commissioners the letter from the American President ; a few days after leaves the island, to return in the spring. Over 60,000 pilgrims enter Atx-la-Chapelle, to visit the exhibition of the relics, Ju lylT. 853. Caloric ship Ericsson makes her trial trip to the Potomac, Jan. 11. Adverse decision of Na- poleon, arbiter between the United Slates and Portugal, in case of the. General Arm- strong, read at Washington. Jan. 17. Franklin Pierce and William B. King declared duly elected President and Vice- President for four years from 4th March next, Feb. 9. , W. R. King sworn In as Vice- President, at Cumbre, Island of Cuba, Consul Sharkey administering the oath, March 24. Second American Arctic expedition leaves New York, May 81. Important amendments to the city charter of Now York, restraining the power of municipal officers in money matters, adopted by a vote of 36,672 in favor, 8,851 against, June 7. Crystal Palace at New York opened in presence ol the President of the United States, etc., July 14. 1853. Mr. Ingersol, American envoy, feted at Liverpool and Manchester, Jan. 4-7. Sandilli and other Caffre chiefs send in their submis- sion to General Cathcart, thereby closing the war, Feb. 10. Peace concluded, March 9. Doncaster church, built in 1070, destroyed by fire, Feb. 28. Warlike stores, supposed to be for Kossuth, seized, April 14. ' Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au- thoress of " Uncle Tom's Cabin," received at Stafford House by many of the no- bility and statesmen ol England, May 7. Dublin Industrial Exhl bition opened, May 12. The "strike" at Stock- port ceases, and 20,000 men resume labor, having ac- complished thoir object, an advance of ten per cent, in their wastes, August 8. Si- milar strikes occur at Leeds, Kidderminster, and otliei cities. 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 879 FRANCE. The Pantheon at Paris re- oj ened as the Church of St. Genevieve, Jan. 3. Jussia, Austria, and Prussia, at last acknowledge Napo- leon III. Emperor of the French, Jan. 11. Jarriage of the Emperor and Eugenie de Montijo, Count- ess de Teba, celebrated at Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris. Amnesty granted to 4,312 political prisoners and exiles, Jan. 30. Jeneral St. Priest, and many other legitimists, secretly arrested in 1'aris, on the charge of political commu- nication with the Count of Chambord, and some of having sent false intelli- gence to foreign journals, Feb. 5. Application is made by the French government to the English for Napoleon's will, Feb. 17. Subsequent- ly granted. Funeral of Mine. Ravmil at Paris, the occasion of a formidable socialist demon- stration. 40,01)0 persons inarch in procession to Pcre la Chaise, March 13. Fleet sent to Turkish waters, March 20. A peaco address, signed by 4,000 English merchants, bankers and traders, is pre sented to Napoleon III. at the Tuilieries, by English- men, March 28. A bill restoring capital pun- ishment for attempts on the life of the Emperor, or to subvert the Imperial go- vernment, is passed, May *& AUSTRIA, etc. 1S53. Austria of- fers herself as a mediator be- tween the Turks and Montenegrins, Feb. 1. Attempt on the life of Em- peror of Aus- tria at the ram- parts of Vien- na, Feb. 18. Baden: Prof. Gervinus tried for high treason, in pub- lishing his "In- troduction to the History of 19th century." Sentence, ten months' im- prisonment, and book to be destroyed, March 5. Prussia : Democratic conspiracy dis- covered at Ber- lin, March 29. Austria re- cals her minis- ter from Berne, May 20. THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1852. Switzerland : The Canton of Ticino suppresses the order of Capuchin monks, and expels all of that order under 65 years of age, Nov. 25. Turkey : War breaks out between the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. 15. 1853. Belgium: A maritime congress as- sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23. Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir-apparent of the throne, and th< Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23. Canada and New Brunswick: Ga- vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal ; riots ensue: military called out; June 6-9. The first sod of the European and North American Railroad turned at St. Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of 25,000 persons, Sept. 14. China : Nankin taken by the rebels ; Tartar garrison (20,000) massacred : March 19. Amoy captured, May 19. Denmark: Parliament prorogued, and a "'fundamental" law issued, by which the government becomes hereaf- ter an absolute one, July 19. Hawaii: Small-pox rages, having carried off since May 1,805 out of a po- pulation of 60,0) )0 persons, Aug. 81. Holland : The first chamber adopts the much-disputed law on religious li- berty, Sept. S. India: Battle of Donabew, in Bur- mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon, March 19. Italy : An insurrection breaks out at Milan, but is vigorously suppressed by Radetsky, Feb. 6. The property of the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques- tered till they can prove they are not implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000 Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy, Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro- versies between Austria and both Sar- dinia and Switzerland, follow Sardinia solemnly protesting April 10. , The i'ope prohibits the circulation [ .s^~ of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini- \S ons, May 10. Guerazzi tried at Florence for high treason, and found guilty, June 11. Conspiracy in liome, 146 arrests, Aug. 15. Order signed for immediate release of Miss Cunningham at Lucca, Oct. 9. New church, built for the Wal- denses, opened and consecrated at Turin, Dec. 15. Mexico: Now revolution; Arista resigns the presidency, Jan. 5. Santa Anna iiaving been elected President, is received in Mexico with great enthusiasm, April 17. SSO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years. A.D PROORKSS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATUS. GREAT BRITAIN. 1853. Great heat throughout 1853. Naval Review at Spit- the country thermometei head, in presence of the every where 100 Fan. Queen, Aug. 11. Deaths from it in New York city in four days, 400, Aug. 11-14. Queen Victoria risiU Ireland, Aug. 29. Remaining portion oi "Table Rock," at the Falls of Niagara, breaks off, Sept 9. Deputation from the Protestant Alliance, headed (853 A great national horse-show mt Springfield, Mass, U. S. by the Earl of Shaftesbury, waits upon Lord Clarendon. Oct. 19-21. "Great Republic," ves- to state the case of Miss sel of 4,000 tuns, largest Cunningham, arrested at merchantman In the world, Lucca for distributing Ita- launched at East Boston, lian Bibles, etc., and to Mass., Oct 4. urge the government to procure her immediate li- beration, Sept 28. A depu The first Presbyterian Ciilnese tation of clergymen anc- church organized at San Captain Gunnison am others, headed by Sir Cul Francisco, U. 8., Nov. 6. party massacred by th Indians in Utah, Oct. 26. ling Eardley, wait upo) Lord Clarendon and thanK him acd the government for the exertions which ha been made, Oct. 27. Inauguration of the Washington aqueduct Duel between 8oul6 anc President Pierce turns the De Turgot, American and first turf, Nov. 9. Bronze statue of Sir R .- French ministers to Spain, bert Peel erected in fro *< Dec. 18. of the Royal Infirmary << Manchester, Oct. 3. A mob of men and wo- men demolish the railroac track near Erie, Penn., Dec. 9, and repeat the outrage, Captain Inglefleld, of the Cholera prevails In Europe. Dec. 27. Phoenix, arrives from the Arctic regions, with the news of the discovery ol the North-west Passage, on Yellow fever epidemic Oct. 26, 1850, by Captain In the States bordering on Gulf of Mexico, carries of MeClure of the Investiga- tor, Oct. 7. Several new asteroids discov- from 12,000 to 15,000 per- ered, raising the number to sons. 27, between the planets Mars aad Jupiter. The first stone of a Ro- Bedini, the Papal Nun- man Catholic cathedral Dathsinl85S: cio, tries to influence the Roman Catholic laity to give up their church property to the Bishops, but does not laid at Shrewsbury, by Bishop Brown the young Eiirl of Shrewsbury giving 15,000 towards its erection U. 8. EUROPE. succeed. He quits the Deo. 12. O. B. Adams, Arago, country ignoininiously. JitnitViSmith, Von Buch, W. R. King, Dacres, The Dublin Exhibition S. Sates, Mre. Ople, Sim. Oreen leaf. Wardlaw. Immigration, 868,000. building is formally opened as a winter garden, by the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess St Germain* Dec. 15. 1815-1866.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 881 1868 FRANCE. Plot to assassinate the Empe- ror, while on his way to the Opera Comique, discovered at Park, July 7. A Roman cfrcns of great size discovered at Tours, Aug. 81. The Duke de Nemours, on behalf of the entire Orleans House, effects a reconcilia- tion with the Count de Chambord, NOT. 17. Inauguration of the statue of Marshal Ney, on the spot where he was shot, and the anniversary of his execu- tion, Dec. 7. AUSTRIA, etc. 1858, AnAnstrian war vessel ir the port of Smyrna, seizes and attempts to carry off Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee, travel- ing under an American pass- port, who claims protec- tion of Ameri- can flag. An American fri- gate places ttw Austrian un- der her guns, and Koszta's release is impe- ratively de- manded, June 21. Austrian go- Tern men t pro tests against proceedings of Captain Ingra- ham at Smyr- na, in a circu lar addressed to the Europe- an courts, Aug. ugh THE WORLD, elsewhere. 1868. Persia: Earthquakes destroy 8bi- raz, (12,000 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Tehe- ran, July 11. Peru .-Difficulty at Chincha Island* between Peruvian commandant and American shipmasters, Aug. 17. 10. Portugal : Maria (Queen) dies, NOT, Spain: New and stringent law against liberty of the press published, Jan. 2. Queen Isabella, in commemo- ration of her birth-day, orders three screw-frigates to be constructed, to be called after the three queens from whom she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra- gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10. Venezuela: Earthquake at Cumana; 600 persons killed, July 15. Switzerland: Insurrection in Fri- burg by the Jesuit party speedily sup- pressed, April 22. 1, and through Its envoy ad- dresses a note to the Ameri- can govern- ment on the same subject, Aug. 29. EASTERN AFFAIRS. WAB BKTWEKN TTEKF.T AND RUSSIA. Prince Menschikoff sent by the Emperor of Rus- sia with demands which are rejected by the Porte, May 21, June 15. The Russians cross the Pruth, 120,000 strong, June 21-28. The Porte addresses a protest to the Russian cabinet against the occupation of the Principalities, July 14. The Conference of Vienna draw up the celebrated " Vienna note," for the Joint acceptance of Russia and Turkey, July 26. Russia at once accepts; Turkey re- quires modifications, Aug. 20; which Russia will not ac- cede to, Sept. 14. Military congress at Olmntz, Sept. 20. The note is dropped, Sept. 80. Turkey declares war against Russia, Oct. 8. Hostilities commenced on the Danube, Oct. 30. Turks capture Fort St. Nicholas in the Black Sea, Oct. 81. Turks defeat Russians at Oltenitza, NOT. 4. Russia declares war against Turkey, Nov. 11. The Anglo-French fleet enters the Dardanelles, Oct. 4, and the Bosphorus, Nov. 15. Turks beaten and massa- cred at Sinope by Russians, Nov. 80. The Vienna Con- ference continues its efforts to effect an arrangement be- tween the belligerents, Dec. Decided manifestation of the people of Constantinople in favor of war, Deo. 21. Russians uniformly victorious in Asia. The religions fana- ticism of both parties is aroused. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years, 1854 PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. Deputation of " Friends" pre- sents to the Emperor o Russia a peace memorial, Feb. 10. Complete equality before the law secured to all subjects of the Porte, without dis- tinction of creed, by treaty, March 12. Commercial treaty concluded between the United States and Japan, March 28. In Turkey, the possessions of the Mosques to be declared the property of the State from March 27. The first rattwoM is opened in Brazil, the Emperor and Empress being present at the inauguration, April 80. The changes introduced in the Ottoman Empire by the in- fluence of the Allied Pow- ers, amount to a revolution in its social condition. Marked Increase in the num- bers and prosperity of Christians in Turkey ; Mo- hammedan population, ex- cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy- ing out. Cross raised in Catholic burying ground belonging to the French, in Turkey. UNITED STATES. 1854. The steamer San Fran cisco founders at sea; 240 U. S. troops washed over board; the rest of 700 res- cued by the Three Bells Kilby, and Antarctic, Jan 5. Astor Library openec foruse of the public, inNew York city, Jan. 9. Outrages on the railroad near Erie, Pa,, renewed by mobs of women, Jan. 17, 81. Skirmishes between U. S. troops and Apache and Utah Indians, March 5, SO. Certain sections of the " Maine Liquor Law" deci- ded to be unconstitutional iu Massachusetts, March 13. Miss Dir's bill for ame- liorating the condition of the indigent insane, vetoed, April 20. Great flood in the Con- necticut river, hundreds driven from their dwel- lings, May 1. Mass meetings at Bos- ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, N. H., Feb. 27; New York, May 13, against the Ne- braska bill, which, bow- ever, becomes a law, May 80. Riots in Michigan, April 17; at Boston, (attempt to rescue a fugitive slave,) May 26 ; at New York and Brooklyn, (papist interfe- rence with street-preach- ing,) May 28, June 4, 11. Ban Jnan, Nicaragua, bombarded and burnt by the U. B. sloop-of-war, Cy- wio, July 18. GREAT BRITAIN. 1854. Parliament opened by Queen, who expresses a de- sire that exertions for an amicable settlement of the Eastern difficulties should be persevered in, Jan. 81. The Queen reviews th fleet on its departure for the Baltic, March 11. A day of humiliation and prayer observed, April 26. Launch of the "Royal Albert," the Queen chris- tening the vessel, May 18. Crystal Palace at dcnham opened by Queon, June 10. By- 1815-1865.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 8 S3 4.D. FRANCB. AUSTRIA, etc. THK WORLD, elsewhere. 1854. Brazil : San Salvador destroyed Iff nn earthquake, causing n loss, in les than one minute, of 200 lives, and fci,000,000 of property, April 16. 1854. Alliance, Canada: Parliament House at Que- offensive and defensive, be- bec burnt, including government library and philosophical apparatus, Feb. 1. tween Austria and Prussia, India: The Ganges Canal, f. work signed April of vast magnitude opened, April 8. 20. Day of humiliation and prayer for success of the British arms, observed at Bombay and all over India, by the na- tives, as well as the Europeans, July .16. Italy : Shocks of earthquake in the country between Florence and Koine, May. 1864 The Emperor and Empress attend the first agricultural exhibition ever held in Pa- Railway from Lusa to Turin inau- gurated in presence of King and Queen of Sardinia, etc., May 22. ris, Jane 9. Mexico : Battle of Guyamas, be tween some Frenchmen under Count . Raousset de Boulbon and the Mexicans, July 13. The Count is defeated, taken prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. Russia: An imperial ukase calls out nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por tion of the Empire, May 9. Spain : Earthquake at Fiana, crum- bling down the greatest part of the Al- cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors. and causing large chasms in nearly all the streets, Jan. 13. Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti- sans demand of the municipal authorities that the price of provisions be reduced, and wages increased, March 31. The insurrection of the people at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the Rivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- tero enters the city, and is received with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,00( defenders of the barricades defile before the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- ing herself on the balcony, July 81. Dona Maria Christina, the Qneen Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- der escort of troops, but against the will of the people. She was indebted to the State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. Turkey: Fire at Constantinople, 400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- ings, April & The Emperor reviews a dl- Banquet given by the Sultan to vision of troops about to proceed to the Baltic, -Inly IS. Prince Napoleon, May 8. Fire at Varna, destroys 180 house* and vast quantities 3f militarv stores, Aug. 10. 884 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 yean A.D. PROGRESS OP SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GKBAT BEIT AIM. 1854 The Sultan issues a firman foi 1854. Grisi and Mario, the two the construction of a church most renowned lyric ar at Scutari, 8< >pt. tists of the old world, arri v At New York, Aug. 19. Deatht in 1864. ' U.S. EUKOPE. N. B. Blunt, Anglesea, * : ; t. Jacob Bur- Bodisco, nett, John Davis, Cockburn, Forbes, Extensive drought pre- vails several weeks. Com. Downes, Jameson, J. Harring- Maitland, ton, lust sur- Mellout, vivor of bat- Montgomery, tle of Lex- Paixhans, ington. Mrs. E. Jud- son. Pelllco, Plunkett, Rubini, Cholera prevails, June- Nov. ; yellow fcrer prevails, Bin/wn Wain- wrtffht. flchelling, Mme. Sontag Aug.-Nov. Mrs. C. South Hi Talfourd, Immigration, about 600,000 Wilson, 3t. Arnaud, Oenman, "Ostend Conference" be Lockhart. tweeu Buchanan, Mason "Immacidatt Conception o the Virgin" proclaimed as a dogma by the pope, Dec. 8. Soule, Oct 10, 11. Law passed for the en- listment of foreigners in the British service, Deo. 22. 1866 1855. Panama railroad com- pleted, first train on It Jan. 1856. Southern Commercia Convention at New Orleans, 1865. Tislt of the Emperor and Empress of France. 28. Jan. 8. April 16. Financial panic in California, 8oul6 quits Madrid Jan. Death of Lord Raglan, Feb. 81. Commander-in-chief at Se- Suspension Bridge tA Niaga- U. 8. 8. Waterwitch fired bastopol, June 23. ra flrst crossed, March 14. on, on the Paraguay, Feb. 1. The Queen and Prince Albert visit the Emperor Difficulty In Phila. abont slaves of J. II. Wheeler o: N. Carolina, July 18. U. 8. Dist. Court in Wis- consin pronounces the Fu- gitive Slave Law unconsti- Louis Napoleon at Paris. Aug. 18. tutional, Feb. 8. Election riot at Lonlsvllle, Ky., between Americans and foreigners, Aug. 6. Convention at Lawrence, Kansas, Aug. 14. Walker (filibuster) takes Possession of Granada, Oct 6. Kansas : Convention at Topeka, Oct 28. Passmore Wl liamson re- leased from jail (where he hud been thr i-e months In the Wheeler S!TO COM), NOT. a 1815-1865.] THE WORLD 8 PROGRESS. 885 FBAMOB. AUSTRIA, etc. THE WOBLD, elsewhere. 1854. Saxony: 1854. Venezuela: Slaves emancipated, April 25. The King thrown from his carriage at Innspruck, and killed, Aug. 10. EASTKRN AFFAIRS. The Anglo-French fleet enters the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Turks defeat Russians at Citate, Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue through the Vi- enna Conference, Jan. Russian ambassadors quit Lon- don. Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and French ambassa- dors dismissed St. Petersburg;, Feb. 16. England and France resolve tt7nmmon Russia to evacuate the Prin- cipalities by the 80th A pril; Feb. 28. Russians cross the Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo- French ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Russia refuses a reply. England and France declare war against Russia, March 28. Counter declaration of war by Russia against England and France, April 12. Convention between England and France, April 18. Odessa bombarded, April 22. Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Russians raise the siege of Silistria, June 28, and re-cross the Danube, July 7. Russians defeated by Turks at Rutschuk, July 12 and \8. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to th Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Russians at the Alma, Sept 20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fire opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Russians repulsed, Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Russians again repulsed, Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31. 1855. Subscriptions to the 1855. Russia : Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 3. French loan of 500 millions of francs amount to 2,000 millions of francs, offered by 177,000 persons. The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea ot Azoph, May 24. Death of Don Carlos, claimant of the Spanish throne, March 10. Indust'l Exhibition open- ed at Paris, May 15. The allies repulsed In an assault on the outposts of Sebastopol, June 18. Kars invested by the Russians, June 28. FALL OF SEBASTOPOL The Malakhoff carried by the French, Sep. 8. Terrific attack of the Rus- sians on Kars repulsed, Sep. 99. Mexico: Santa Anna abdicates. Aug 9. Car- rara chosen tc succeed him. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years. A.D, PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. GBBA.T BRITAIN-. >*>5 Deaths 1855. Proclamation against Jtlibus 1S55. Visit of the terim by President Pierce. Dec Kins; of Sardinia to U. 8. EUROPE. 8. England. Nov. 3(1. S. H. Cone, Sir H. Bishop, British Arctic vessel Resolute Captain McClure receives the re- Abbott Law- rence, Silk Bucking- bam, found and brought to New London by an American whaler, Dec. 23. ward of 5,000 for discovery of " tht Jjtm C. Spen- Jos. Hume, N. W. passage* cer, T. R. Beck. Miss Mitford, Nicholas I, and is knighted NOT "Currer Bell." Sir W. E. Par- ry. Lord Raglan, ! SamL Rogers, 1 Ans. Roths- child, Lord Truro. Launch of the stm. Adriatic (the largest yet afloat) at N. Y., April f. Y 1 IS6 1856. N. P. Banks, jr., of Mass., elect- ed Speaker of House of Represent. I of UT S., after a contest of 9 weeks, by plurality of 3 votes, Feb. 2. Gubernatorial contest in Wiscon- 1 I sin, Jan. Fob. Mr. Fillmore nominated for Pres't by Amer. Con. at Phila., Feb. 22. Personal Assa lit on Senator Free State Legisl. at Topeka, Sun me i- of Ma-s.. in the U. Kansas, elect Reeder and Lane as S. Senate by Brooks of S. delegates to Congress, Feb. 8. Ca., May 22. Kansas Investigation Committee appointed, March 19. Padre Vigil recognised as Minist. from Nicaragua, May 14. President's message announcing Submarine Telegraph cable difficulty with Brit. Gov. on enlist- laid from Ca I>e Breton to ments in the U. S., May 29. Newfoundland, July 12. Buchanan nominated for Pres't by Dem. Con. at Cincinati, June 7. BurHnghame's acceptance of Brooks's challenge, July Brooks and Keitt re-eleeted Fremont nominated for Pres't by Repub. Conven. a* Phila^ June IT. H. Repres. U. S. pass a bill ad- mitting Kansas under Topeka Con., July 8. to Congress from S. C., July Topeka legislature dispersed by 28. U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, iudley Observatory Imiujr. July 4. at Albany. Ai IK. 28. John W. Geary confirmed as Gov. 'reston S. Brooks, the as- of Kansas, July 81. saulter of Sun aner, publicly Whitefleld and Reeder both re- welcomed and presented jected by H. Repres. as delegates with a cane, at Columbia, from Kansas, Aug. 1. 8. C., Aug. 29. Extra session of Congress ad- Brit, fleet lioin Charles Sumne r received in journed Aug. 80. bard and partiall) Boston with public hon- Municipal electiot riot at Balti- destroy Canton or*. Nov. 8. more, 9 *., Oct 8. China. Oct 23. N. Y. and JV 'ewfoundland U. 8. troops in Ka isas arrest and Telegraph Kn,,"1715 miles, disarm parties of emigrants from N. opened to St. John's, Nov. E.. Oct. 10. 10 Buchanan elected Pres. Nov. 4 1816-1865.1 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 8S7 A. 1 1. 1865 FBANCI. EUROPE, elsewhere. THE WORLD, elsewher*. 1866. Omar Pasha defeats the Russians at the Ingour Nov. 5. Explosion of 100,000 Ibs of powder at Sebastopol, Nov. 15. Surrender of Kars to the Russians after a famous de- fence by Gen. Williams. Nov. 25. 1S55. Meocico : Alvarez re- signs the presidency, and it succeeded by Comonfort, Deo. 1856 Peace Conference at Paris opened Feb. 25. Birth of an heir to the throne, March 16. Treaty of Peace, with Ritstia signed at Paris, Much 30. 856. Preliminaries of Peace signed at Vienna, Feb. 1. 1856. Costa Rica : Sehlessin- ger and Walker's invasion defeated, Marjh 20. Walker defeats 3,000 Costa Bicans at Rivas, Ap. Panama: Riot on the Panama R.R., 30 passengers killed, April 15. Destructive floods near Ly- ons, Ac., whole villages de- stroyed, June. The Crimea wholly eva- cnated by the Allies, July 12. Russia : Alexander II. crowned emperor, Sept. 7. Railways of 2600 miles contracted for by Government Capital, 1000 millions of francs, Oct. 28. Naplet : French and English ministers leave, Octas. Gunpowder explosion at Salonica, Turkey, 700 t and 10., July 17. Earthquake, in Egypt Syria, ana isles if Med About 1200 lives lost, and many thousand building! destroyed, Oct. 12. Granada, city of, de stroyed by Walker, NOT 20-35. 888 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL 50 years. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. UNITED STATES. BRITISH EMPIRK. 1866 Revival of the African Slave 856. Barrier Forts, near Can- Trade recommended by ton, China, destroyed by Gov. Adams In S. Ca. U. S. squadron, for an at- Arctic discovery ship Reso- tack on an American boat, lute present ed to Queen Dec. 6. Victoria by Lieut. Hart- Resolution against the stene for the U. 8. Govern- Slave Trade passed by H. ment, Dec. 30. of Reps. U. S., Dec. 16. Dtatli* in 1856 : U.S. ECKOPB. J. M. Berrien. Jno. Braham, Ogden Hoff- vocalist. man. Sir W. Hamil- Com Morris. ton, meta- J.G.Perceval. physician. Jno. C. War- Von Biela. as- ren. tronomer. , J. M. Clayton, L'd Hardinge U. S. S. Father Mat- Georste Steers, thew. naval archi- Hugh Miller. tect. Sir Jno. Ross. T. Crawford, Westinacott. sculptor. Yarrell. Louis M'Lane.iPl. Delaroche. 1657 Geo. Peabody gives $300.noO to establish a free Literary 1857. Four members of H. of Representatives of U. S. 1867. Treaty of Peace with Persia signed March 6. atid Scientific Institute at Baltimore, Feb. 12. from N. Y. and Conn, ex- pelled for corrupt conduct, Feb. 19. Palmcrston Ministry out- voted on the Chinese ques- Buchanan inaugurated tion, March 5. The Chief-Justice of the U. President, March 4. 8. proclaims that negroes have no rights which white Lord Napier recognised as British minister, March New septennial Parlia- ment meets, April 80. men are boi md to respect, 16. March 6. The DRED SCOT DECI- The Manchester Art Ex- SION delivered by Chief- hibition opened, May 6. * Dred Scot decision,' 1 '' de- nounced by the Legislature Justice Taney, March 6. 11. J Walker accepts ap- Rebellion in India begins of N. Hampshire, June 25. pointment as Governor ol Kantas. Mnroh 26. May 9 ; King of Delhi pro- claimed sovereign of India. The Atlantic Telegraph Ca- ble first joined at sen by Attempt to arrest Mayor Wood in N. Y. for an as- II AV BLOCK defeat* th re- the Niagara and Agamem- non, Aug. 6, but breaks sault on the Street Com- missioner, June 16. bels under Nena Sahib, and recaptures Cawnpore, July Aug. 11. General financial Pa- 18. nic begins with suspension Loss of thp Central America ot Ohio Life and Trust Co., The Emp. and Empreai and 450 lives, Sept. 8. Aug. 24 toria, Aug. 6. Lecmnnton Convention. Mass meeting* of unemployed Kansas, meets Sept. 7. workmen in N. Y_ Nov. 2 Suspension of Philad. Sir COLIN CAMPBELL, tb new com. -In-chief, arrive! and 10. banks, Sept. 25 and 26, fol- at Calcutta, Aug. 14. Stm. Adriatic starts on first lowed by general snspen. ol banks in I'a., Md., D. C., De'hi taken after an a voyage to Liverpool, Nov. 88. K. I Suspension of N. Y. city sault of 6 days. Sept 14. banks, Oct. 14-14, and Mas- sachusetts banks same day. / Payments resumed, Deo. 12. I 1815-1865.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 889 FBANCX. EUROPE, elsewhere. WORLD, elsewher*. 186T. Austria: Amnesty to 186T. poHtical offenders in Lom- bardy, ," Nov. 30. First railroad in Egypt. Deaths in 1858. U.S. EUKOPB. T. H. Benton. R. Brown, bo- Rob. Hare. tanist. H.W. Herbert. Geo. Combe. Freem'nHnnt " Rachel." Coin. Perry. Marshall HalL Gen. Quitinan Duchess of Gen. P. F. Orleans. Smith. Re.-chid Pa- N. W. Tavlor. cha. B. F. Butler. liadetsky. Parker Cleve- Ary Scheffer. land. Kobt. Owen. Win. Jay. Sir W. Reid, Foresti. 1859 U. 8. Agricultural Conven- 1859. New Hall of the U. 8. 1859. D'lsraeli introduces tion at Washington, D. C., Senate first occupied, Jan. new Reform Bill, Feb. 28. Jan. 3. 4. Lord Lyons, new British Siidell's bill, giving $30,000,000 to facilitate the acquisition of Cuba, introduced Jan. 10. minister at Washington, re- ceived, April 12. Sickles kills Key at Washing- Mr. McLane recognises the England protests against ton, for seduction of his Juarez government In Mex- Austrian menaces of Sardi- wife, Feb. 2 f; he is tried ico, April 4 nia, April 21. and acquitted, April 26. Southern Convention at Vick of the Slave Trade. May 11 sburgh discusses the opening English court in mourn- ing for the tyrant king of Naples (May). Great fire at \ Cey West. 110 New Parliament meets housot; loss" $2,150,000, May 80. J. E. BenuiscD May 1ft elected speaker. TeUgranut India to Eng- land. Telegrams to India acce- Several *lrs for Douglas G.P. U.James. and 8 for Lincoln, Nov. 6. Anna Jarne- This election Is made the pretext for rebellion and Jullien. "secession" of the cotton StrW. Nuptar. states S. Carolina leading, Bailen i ow n e Alabama. Holstein question. May 16. Convention July 1-13. Maryland again invaded by a July 10. Palmerston between France, Rebel raid. sustained ir. the Brazil, Italy, Portu- July 20-28. Sherman's victories at Atlanta, general elect r. n. gal, and Spain, fcr G'a. telegraph to America July 33. Chambersburgh, Pa., burnt by Be- June Oct. Catt 1 -- bels. plague in England. J oly 30. Grant's mine at Petenturgh, Va., exploded. , July 80. Secretary Chase resigns Pessenden Aug. Abd-el-Kader'e visit to England. Secretary of the Treasury, .i'lg. 8. Farragut's victory ic Mobile Bay. Sepu -McClellan nominated lor President. Aug. 15. English fleet visits Cher- Deaths in 1864: Frank. Bache.Josh'a Bates, by .Democratic Convention at <-*hieago. F-pt. 2. Atlfiita raptured by Sherman, b-pt. 19. Sheridan's vict'ry at Winchester. bourg. Aug. 30. French fleet visits Portsmouth. W. J. Fox, T. C. Oct. 19. Cedar Creek defeat made a victory Grattan, Nathaniel by Sheridan. Oct. 18. Death cf Hawthorne, Edw. Ot. 2t. Bebel raid at St. Albans, Vt. Lord Palmerston. Hitchcock, Leonard N T. 8. Lincoln re-elected President Mc- Homer, Archbishop Cleliaa resigns his command in army. Hughes, Jasmin Nov. 30. Thomas repulses Hood at Nash- (poet),C.M.Kirkland,l villc. W. Savage Land:r Dec. '.5-16. And again totally defeats him John Leech, J. B. thf.'i. Macculloch, Meyer- Dx. 13. Fort McAllister stormed, and beer, W. Curtis Noyes, Pellisier, Jo- Dec. 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman. Dec. 24-5. Butler and Sorter repulsed at siah Quincy, Edw. Wilmington. Robinson, H. B. 18to. Schoolcraft, R. B. Feb. 1. Congress abolishes slavery iy i Taney, J. G. Totten. amendment to the Constitution. Feb. 3. Lincoln and Se ward's interview with 1365 SLAVEKT ABOLISHED llebels at Fort Monroe. in the U. States. Feb. Its. Lee takes command Bebel armies, and urs".? arming i>f negroes. Feb. 22. Wilmington captured by Schofleld. Feb. 22. CharlestoL < vacuatcd by Rebels. April 1. New and higher taritf comes in force. April 2. Richmond and Petersboi-gh occupied Feb. 22. Rebel Con- by U. S. forces, after three days' fighting. gress decrees the aiming of slaves. April 6. Grant's victory at Farmville. April 9. SUBBENDEB OF LEE with his whole March Fenian out- breaks in Ireland. April 2. Death of Rich- army. ard Cobden. April 12. Mobile taken. April 14. Fort Sumter occupied. April 14. Assassination of President Lin- coln and attack on Seward. April 15. ANDKEW JOHNSON sworn in as President. Death! in 1865 : Bishop April 18. Sherman's convention with John- Brownell, Adm. Du- ston. pont, Val. Mott, April 25. Johnston's surrender. Edw. Everett, Mrs. April 26. Booth, the assassin, shot. Gaskell, 8ir W. J. May 4. Gen. Dick Taylor surrenders. May 6. Reform Hooker, Kiss May 10. Jetf. Davis captured. League meeting (sculpt.), Leopold I., May 26. Kirby Smith surrenders in Texas. in Hyde Park in Ab. Lincoln, Or. de nance of Go- Lindley. END OF THE BEBELLION. vernment. 1815 -1865.] THE WORLD 8 PROGRESS. 903 1804 FRANCE. May 22. Death of Marshal Pellisier. May 20. Convention between France and Japan signed. EUROPE, elsewhere. 1864. March 10. Louis II., King of Bavaria. April 18. Duppel taken by Prussians. June 1. Ionian Isles made over to Greece. July 8. Prussians take Al- Sept.15. Franco-Italian Con- vention signed French troops to quit Rome in two years. Florence made the capital of Italy Riots at Turin in consequence, Sept. 21- 22. Oct. 30. Peace between Den- mark and the Allies, to whom Schleswig and Hoi- stem are surrendered, Prussia retaining posses- sion of them. WORLD, elsewhere. July 18. China : Nankin taken (" a heap of ruins ") l>y Gor- don for the Imperialists. March 31. Valparaiso bom- barded by Spanish fleet. Famine in Bengal and Madras. 1865. May 7. JJayti: Military . Bis- marck's circular asserting necessity of material guaranties from France ; 19, Paris completely invested ; 21, Versailles surrenders ; Favre reports failure to agree with Bismarck ; 23, Durnouf gets out of Paris with mails by balloon; levee en manse in French de- partments ordered ; 28, Strasburg capitulates ; red republican rising put down at Lyons. Oct. 7. Gambetta escapes from Paris by balloon ; 9, organizes a government at Tours ; 7, great sortie from Metz repulsed ; 10, 11, red republican attempt to establish the commune at Paris de- feated ; 11, Germans take Orleans ; 16, take Soissons ; 21, French sortie from Mont Valerien (Paris) repulsed ; 27, Metz and army surrendered by Bazaine ; 29, Germans take Dijon ; 31, riots in Paris ; commune established for a moment, but dislodged. Nov. 4. Germans have taken 11 towns, 3,653 guns. 155 mitrail- leuses, nearly 600,000 chassepots, 90 eagles, about $20.000,000 in money ; hostilities continue in various parts of France : 24, Ger- ' mans take Thionville ; 27, take La Fere ; 28, occupy Amiens ; 30, great sortie of 120,000 men from Paris ; they retreat, Dec. 2. 910 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PBOGBESS OF SOCIETY. UNITED STATES. BRITISH EMFIBB. 1870 1870 187 1871 Sspt. 22. Old Catholic meeting at Bonn, a gainst new dogma o infallibility. Dec. 28. Gradual slave- emancipation law passed in Brazil Deaths, 1871 : G. Tick- ner ; Alice andPhcebe Gary; Gen. R. An- derson ; R. Cham- bers; Schamyl, the Circassian chief; Omer Pasha; Thai- berg ; Herschel ; Au- ber ; G. Grote ; Prin- cess Belgiojoso ; Paul de Kock; R. Bent- ley ; C. Babbage ; Sir R. Murchison ; Mar- shal Benedek ; G. Hudson ("railway king"). 1870 1871 Jan. 12. Great meeting in New York for Ital- ian unity. f Apr. 6. Report of commissioners to St. Dom ingo, in Senate. May 26. Treaty for Alabama claims commis- sion, etc., ratified. June 4. U. S. army on peace footing 36,284 men. be June 10. Statue of S. P. B. Horse unveiled in N. Y. June 29. Polaris expedition sails for North Pole. July 12. Riot in New York, Romanists against Orangemen: 62 killed, 117 wounded. July 16. First exposure of Tammany Ring in N. Y. Times. 1 Oct. Great fires in Minn., Wise., and Mich. forests. Oct. 8-9. Great fire at Chicago ; 18,000 build ings destroyed ; $200,000,000 lost Nov. Russian Minister Catacazy dismissed for discourtesy to U. S. authorities. 1870 1871 Apr. 3. 8th census taken. July 20. Purchase of army commissions stopped by royal warrant. of Sept 30. South Ken- sington Exhibition closed (open since May 1). 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 911 FBASCE. EUBOPE, elsewhere. WOBLD. elsewhere. 1870 1870 1870 Dec. Obstinate fighting by the army of the Loire ; other hostilities ; Germans mainly successful ; 11, Gambetta's government moves to Bordeaux. 1871 1871 1871 Jan. 1-10. Bombardment of Jan. 2. King Amadeo arrives at Ma- drid. Paris ; hostilities in other parts of France continu- ing ; mostly German suc- cesses; 19, great sortie of June 16. 25th anniversary of pope- 100,000 men from Paris repulsed : 23, Trochu re- signs ; 24, Vinoy governor of Paris ; 28, Paris capit- ulates : 30, Bourbaki's army of 80,000 driven into Switzerland and "in- terned ; " treaty of peace, ceding Alsace and part of Lorraine, and to pay Ger- many $1,000.000,1)00; pre- liminaries signed Feb. 26. Feb. 18. Thiers becomes exe- cutive. March 1-3. German troops enter Paris, and remain 48 hours. Treaty concluded May 10, ratified by French Assembly, May 18. March 18. Insurrection at Paris, and commune estab lished there ; 20, regular government at Versailles ; 28, government of the com- mune proclaimed at Paris. April 2. Military operations begin between government tind commune ; 4, com- munist insurrection sup- pressed at Marseilles. May 14. House of M. Thiers destroyed by commune ; 16, column Vendome pulled down; 21, government troops enter Paris and oc- cupy part : 23-24, Tuileries, Hotel de Ville. etc., burned by communists ; 28, fight- ing ends and communists suppressed ; about one- fourth of Paris burned, and loss of property through commune, $160,- 000,000 ; 29, decree disarm- ing Paris. Sept. 1. Thiers made Presi- dent for 3 years ; 20, Ger- mans evacuating forts around Paris. Nov. 28. Communist leaders shot. Dec. Said to be sixteen poli- tical parties ; 19, Due d 'Au- male and Prince de Joinville take seats in the Assembly. Feb. 8. Complete amnesty for politi- cal offences in Austria. dom of Pius IX. celebrated at Rome. Nov. 18. Uniform coinage law en- acted in Germany. 1870 1871 June 11. TJ. S. and French storm Corean strongholds and pun- ish Coreuns for in- HlltS. Oct. 1. Military revolt in city of Mexico ; suppressed with much bloodshed. 912 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PROGRESS or SOCIETY. UNITED STATES. BBITISH EMFIBB. 1872 1872 1872 Aug. 6. Spain prepares Jan. 16. General amnesty bill passed, to free slaves in June 17. Boston peace jubilee opens. Porto Rico and July 10. Dem-ocrats and Liberals join to nom- Cuba. mate Greeley for president. Aug. 22. International Aug. 19. Judge Barnard removed and dis- statistical congress qualified, for corruption in office, at St. Petersburg. Sept. Geneva award (Alabama claims) an- ;pt. 8. Australia con- nounced. nected by submarine Oct. 23. Island of San Juan awarded to U. S. telegraph with the Nov. 5. Grant re-chosen president. Indo-European tele- graph system. Oct. 16. Railway op- ened from Yokoha- ma to Yeddo, in Ja- pan. Deaths, 1872: J. Gil- lott; Due de Per- aigny ; Abp. Spal- diug; John Poole ; J. Mazzini ; Rev. F. D. Maurice ; Lord Dalling; C. Lever; J. G. Bennett; Rev. N. McLeod ; L. Feu- erbach ; Charles XV. of Sweden; Mrs. Parton (''Fanny Fern"); T. Gautier-. Sir J. Bowring; Gen. Halleck ; \V. H. Seward ; H. Gree- ley. 1873 1873 Jan. 1. European cal- endar introduced in- to Japan. 1872 Feb. 29. Arthur O'- Connor presents an empty pistol at the Queen. March. Agricultural laborers' strike in Warwickshire. June. Strikes in va- rious trades. Sept. 14. Final Ala- bama award. Nov. 5. New com mercial treaty signed with France. Nov. 24. Serious ill- ness of Prince of Wales ; begins to recover Dec. 14. 1873 Jan. Modoc war begins. Feb. Fighting and disturbances in New Or- leans. May 5. Treaty of Great March. Credit Mobilier scandal in Congress. Britain with Zanzi- Apr. 11. Gen. Canby and others murdered by 1874 bar to suppress slave trade. Deaths, 1873; Napule- on III. ; M. F. Mau- ry ; Rev. T. Gutli- rie ; C. Knight ; Ba- ron Liebig ; W. C. Macready ; Dr. Liv- ingstone ; A. Man- zoni ; F. von Ram- mer ; H. Powers ; M. Odillon-Barrot; Duko of Brunswick ; Mrs. Mundt; Sir E. Land- seer; Sir H. Hol- land ; U. Ratazzi ; S. P. Chase. 1874 June 22. Telegraph op- ened between Great Britain and Brazil. Modocs. June. Modocs surrender. Nov. Excitement over execution by Spaniards of Americans from steamer Virginius. 1873 Jan. Strikes of col- liers ; coal very scarce. JuneJuly. Shah of Persia visits Eng- land. 1874 to J Feb Women'? whiskey-war ; women try stjp liquor-selling, by prayer, etc., in Ohio and N. . 1874 an. 23. Duke of Edinburgh marries Grand Duchoas Marie of Russia. 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 913 FRANCE. EUROPE, elsewhere. WOULD, elsewhere. 1872 1872 April 23. Law against the " International " society. Sept. Government is estab- lished at Paris. Oct. 6. Pilgrim ages o: some 20,000 persons to Lourdes. ov. 5. New commercial treaty signed with Great Britain. 1872 Jan. Insurrectionary movements be- gin in north of Spain. Apr. 1. Tercentenary of Dutch inde- pendence observed. f May 1. University of Strasbnrg re- opened (closed by French, 1792). llay 2. Don Carlos enters Spain ; 6, flees back to France, t June 12. Jesuits expelled from Ger- many. July 18. 1000th anniversary of King- dom of Norway celebrated. July 31. Extradition treaty signed, Belgium and Great Britain. Sept. 30. Revolt in Montenegro. Dec. 18. Coinage made uniform in Denmark, Sweden, nnd Norway. Dec. 31 . Diplomatic relations broken off between the Pope and Germany. 872 ilarch 1. War between Honduras and San Salvador. itarch 26. Attempt to assassinate the Mika- do of Japan. July 22. Military re- volt at Lima ; Presi- dent Balta killed. Aug. 17. Japanese em- bassy in England. 1873 1873 Feb. Letter of Comte de Chambord. destroying aU hope of Bourbonist fusion. March 15. Convention for complete evacuation by Germans on payment ol whole indemnity. May 24. Thiers and his min- istry resign ; 26, MacMahon chosen president by the assembly. Aug. 2. Germans have left France, except Verdun ; 6, the Orleanists recognize Comte de Chambord as chief. Sept. 5. Last instalmont o1 German indemniu paid ; 13, Germans leave Verdun 16, last Germans leave France. Nov. 20. MacMahon's term made 7 years. 'Dec. 12. Bazainc condemned to death for surrender o: Metz ; commuted to 20 years' imprisonment. 1874 1874 March 16. Imperialist dem onstraiion at Chiselhurst 1873 Feb. 9. Extradition treaty signed, Italy and Great Britain. Feb. 11. King Amadeo of Spain ab- dicates. May 1. International exhibition at Vienna opened. Oct. 21. Jesuits expelled from their convents and colleges at Rome. 1873 Feb. 23. Emperor Toung-Chi of China assumes government. March 25. Netherlands declare war against Atchinese. 1874 1874 Apr. 18. Revised constitution adopt- Feb. 5. British force ed in Switzerland. at majority (18 years) of i July 23. Extradition treaty ratified, prince imperial. I Netherlands and Great Britain. 39 under Sir Ci. Wolsc- ley occupies Ooomas- sie. 9U THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. A.D. PROGRESS OF SOCTETT. UNITED STATES. BRITISH EMPIBE. 1874 1874 1874 1874 Aug. International Apr. 22. President Grant vetoes bill for in- Feb. 21. Gladstone congress at Brussels convertible paper money. ministry out ; D' Is- on laws of war. July. Beecher scandal breaks out. raeli succeeds him. Sept. 15. Internation- Aug. 17. Riots at Austin., Miss., negroes and May 13-21. Visit of al postal congress at whites ; so-called negro insurrection also in Czar of Russia. Berne ; adopts & sys- Aug., at Trenton, Tenn. tem Oct. 7. Sept. Centennial of meeting of colonial dele- Deaths, 1874 : Ex-pres. gates at Philadelphia. Fillmore ; C. Sum- Sept. 18. Gov. Kellogg of La. deposed by a ner ; F. Guizot ; rising of whites ; restored by U. S. forces. A. von Rothschild; Oct. 27. Triennial Episcopalian convention : Chang and E n g canon against ritualism. (Siamese twins) ; Dec. Senate passes bill to resume specie pay- Dr. D. E. Strauss; ment Jan. 1, 1879. J. Michelet. 1876 1875 1875 1875 Jan. Civil registration Feb. 4. Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty March 9. Moody and and civil marriage with Canada. Sankey, the reviv- adopted by law in Feb. Civil rights bill (for negroes) passed. alists, arrive in Germany. Apr. 19. Centenary of Lexington. London ; sail (on May 20. International June 17. Centenary of Bunker Hill. return) Aug. 4. convention at Paris July 2. Beecher trial ends. Jury disagrees (9 Sept. 27. Railway ju- for adopting metric to 3 for Beecher). bilee at Darlington. system. 13 nations Sept. 30. First American Cardinal (McClos- Sov. 25. Government represented. key) received at Rome. purchase of Suez May 23. P e o p 1 e of Oct. Inflationist defeats in Ohio and Iowa. canal shares an- Switzerland adopt nounced. civil marriage by vote. Nov. 28. Italian gov- ernment buys the Northern Italian railroads. Deaths, 1875 : Ex-pres. Johnson ; A. Helps ; \ E. Pereire; E. Qui- net ; Toung-Chi, em- peror of China. 1879 1878 1876 1876 Feb. 1. International Jan. 1. Centennial year, great demonstrations May 1. Queen pro- courts in Egypt be- in Philadelphia. claimed Empresi gin to sit. March. Minister Schenck resigns in con- of India. Feb. 6. Turkey replies sequence of Emma Mine scandal. to Andrassy note, April. Senate rejects R. H. Dana's nomina- promising reforms, tion as minister to England. which are decreed Apr. 14. Lincoln monument, erected by ne- 14th. groes, unveiled at Washington. March 9. Egyptian in- May 10. International exhib. opened at Phila. vading force beaten June 16. Hayes and Wheeler nominated at by Abyssinians. Cincinnati. Oct. 27. Capt. Nares's June. Winslow released at London ; extradi- Arctic expedition re- tion treaty thus ended. turns ; reports that June 25. Custer and his command ambushed North Pole cannot and destroyed by Sioux. be reached. June 29. Tilden and Hendricks nominated at Dec. 21. New penal St. Louis. code adopted for July 9. Hamburg (S. O.) massacre of negro German Empire. militiamen by Butler and others. Deaths, 1876 : Vice- Aug. 1. Gen. Belknap, ex-secretary of war, pres. H. Wilson ; F. impeached for corruption, but acquitted by Deak; Reverdy John- 35 to 25 in Senate (two-thirds must con- son ; Abdul- Ariz, ex- vict). sullan of Turkey ; Aug. 2. Colorado admitted into the Union. Gen. Santa Anna ; Oct. 17. President Grant's proclamation C. Perier; Cardinal against unlawful combinations to affect elec- Antoaelll. tions in South. 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 915 1874 1875 FBANCE. 1874 Aug. 31. Vendome column restored. 1875 Feb.-March. Constitutional changes in a republican direction. June 23. Destructive floods at Toulouse. Dec. Reports on trial of com munists shows 9,596 con- victions and 110 death sentences. 18761876 Jan. French revenue for 1875 $500,000,000, said to be the largest ever receiv< by any government. Feb.-March. Republican ma- jority elected to Chambers. Nov. 3. France announces her neutrality in the Rosso- Turkish war. Dec. 12. New ministry under Jules Simon. EUROPE, elsewhere. 1874 Dec. 31. Alfonso, son of Queen Isa bella, proclaimed King of Spain enters Madrid and assumes govern ment, Jan. 14, 1875. 1875 Oct. 6. Turkey announces suspension of payment on half the interest o her public debt 1876 Jan. 31. Andrassy note presented to Turkey, suggesting reforms, arch 20. Triumphal entry of Al- fonso into Madrid, the Carlist in surrection being suppressed. iay 6. Assassination of French and German consuls at Salonica in Tur- key. Jay. Risings in Bulgaria, cruelly put down by Turks. Jay SO. Sultan Abdul- Aziz deposed ; Murad V. succeeds. Tuly9. Turkey repudiates payments on public debt until better times. Aug. 31. Sultan Murad deposed ; Ab- dul Hamid II. succeeds. Jov. 1 . Six weeks' armistice between Turkey and Servia. WOKU), elsewhere. 1874 Feb. 13, King of Ash- antee makes peace. Feb. 22. Bishop of Per- nambuco condemned to 4 years' imprison- ment for disobedi- ence to law. Feb. 26. Insurrection at Nagasaki, Japan. 1875 Apr. 5. Island of Sag- halien ceded by Ja- pan to Russia. May 18. Seven Chilian towns of 30,000 popu- lation, destroyed by an earthquake. 876 Feb. 20. Khokand an- nexed to Russia, aa Ferghana. July 17. Gen. Canal president of Hayti. Oct. 31. Terrible cy- clone in Bengal ; im- mense loss of prop- erty and life. Dec. 10. Baez, Presi- dent of St. Domingo. 916 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PBOOBESS OF SOCIETY. UNITED STATES. BBITISH EMPIEE. 1876 1876 18771877 1876 Nov. 7. Presidential election ; Hayes and Wheeler chosen by 185. to 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. 1877 Deaths, 1877: Tayler Lewis; J, L. Mot- ley ; (jen. Changar- nier ; Dr. Muhlen- berg. 1876 1877. Jan. U. S. Government commission report Jnly2-9. Pan-Presby- Darien canal practicable. Jan. Extradition treaty signed with Spain. Jan. 8. Two governors (Nicholls and Kellogg) inaugurated in Louisiana; Kellogg main- tained by U. S. troops. Jan. Fourteen fishing schooners, overdue at Gloucester, Mass., given up for lost with all on board. Jan. Moody and Sankey opened meeting in Boston. Apr. 10. U. S. troops evacuated South Caro- lina state house ; Gov. Chamberlain has to yield to Hampton. Apr. 24. U. S . troops evacuate state house at New Orleans ; Kellogg government yields to Nicholls. June 6. Civil suit against P. B. Sweeney com- promised for $400,000. June 29. Pres. Hayes's letter prescribing that national office-holders must not be managing party officials, nor be assessed for party expenses. July. An Indian war under chief Joseph breaks out in Idaho. terian confereno* at Edinburgh. 1867-1877.] THE WORLD'S PBOGBESS. 917 FBANOK. EUEOPE, elsewhere. WORLD, elsewhere. 1876 1877 1876 1877 1876 1877 1876 Jan. 18. Turkey rejects proposals o: the European powers. Jan. 23. New Turkish constitution proclaimed. Apr. 24. Eussia declares war against Turkey, and enters Roumar.ia. May 21. Jubilee at Rome, 50th anni- versary of Pope's episcopate. June. Russians cross the Danube at Galatz ; 25, at Hirsova. July 6. Over 120,000 Russians have crossed at Sistova. July. The German quarrel with Rome has caused the deposition of 4 bish- ops and 6 archbishops; expulsion of 600 persons (120 priests) from Cologne alone ; vacancy of 476 parishes in 7 bishoprics alone. .f F 1877 'eb. Diaz is in posses- sion of power in Mexico ; ex-president Lerdo escapes to Sail Francisco. May 9. Great earth- quake and tidal wave, coast of Peru; loss, $20,000,000 and 600 lives. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO UNIVERSAL HISTORY. N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of coarse, Intended to include every name mentioned in history, bat merely the most important in theiz several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full lists are given in their proper place. This list may be useful In two ways, viz. . First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World'* Progress ; " and Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- temporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. Thus : SOCRATES, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. 0. The tablet on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life. MILTON was born A. D. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; six yeara after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended the throt.c ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden; two years before Louis XIIL became king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America ; Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moliere, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. He died A. D. 1671, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles IL was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be found at a glance, on referring to the tables. ABBREVIATIONS. See list in the Introduction. Bar. {Barbarian) includes several different nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Chritt are indicated by B. o. ; all others are A. D. In tome cases the dates are necessarily left blank. NATION. KAMI AUD PBOFESSION. BORN. DIED. Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian . . . . . f. 1188 Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest . . . . B. c. 1570 1468 Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician . . . f. 622 Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali) 1813 1864 Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . . 1662 1623 Amer. Abbott. Benjamin, distinguished educationist . . 1763 1849 Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . 1808 Amer. Abbott, Jno. 8. C., historian and biographer . . . 1806 Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . . . 1806 1866 Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey .... 1822 Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer . . . 1810 1866 Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels . . 1804 1849 Nor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician ... 1802 920 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIED Sp. Abenezra, an astronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &O. . 1119 1174 Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary . . 1784 1860 Bcot. Aberc.-ombie, John, author of IntellectualPowers' . . 1781 1844 Eng. Abeioromby, Bir .Ralph, dailitary commander . . 1738 1801 Eng Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer . 1764 1831 FT. Ablar.court, N. P. D., translator of the Classics . . 1606 1664 Fr. About, Edmoud, novelist, traveller, &c. ... - Jw. Abra.'-im, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation . B. c. 1995 B. c. 1821 Fr. Abrantes, duchess d', biographer . : , J ; . . 1784 1838 Dan. Absalom (real name A xcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. 1128 1203 Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet . . 561 324 Syr. Abulfcda, the geographer . >'..' v i' > . 1273 1346 Rom. Accius", or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) . B. c. 171 ItaL Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic . . . 1229 Ger. Accum, Fred., operative chemist (in England) . .'>i X d ' . 1769 1838 Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 1834 Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . B. c. 1100 Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 3d cent. ItaL Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher . . . 1803 Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 1232 Eng. Adam. Alexander, schoolmaster and author . . 1741 jgog Eng. Adim ; Robert, an architectural author . . . 1728 1754 Amer. Adams, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. 8. . . 1735 1S26 Amer. - , John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. . 1767 1848 Amer. -- , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic . 1726 1808 Eng. Add'son Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 1672 1719 Ger. Adelung, John 0., philologist and lexicographer . . 1732 1808 Eng. Ado) i)h us, John, author of history of England, &c. . . 1766 1845 Ire. Adrain, Robi-rt, mathematician (at Now York, &c.) . . 1775 ,343 Rom. Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) ... 76 138 Eng. .(Elfri:., archbishop of Canterbury, author cf Anglo-Saxon works - 10C6 Gr. .JSii'in, the historian and rhetorician ' v ' . . ieo Gr. ^r^as, son of Priam, king of Troy . . . t B. o. Ils3 Gr. ' ^Sschines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates . Gr. -- , orator . . . B . o. 393 B. c. 323 Gr. ^Esop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . . f. B. o. 600 Rom. jEtius, military commander (defeated AttUa) . . 45^ Rom. Africanus, Julius, historian .... 232 Bp.Moor - , Leo, author of travels in Africa . . . 1437 152? Gr. Agamemnon, " the king of kings'* . . . B. o. 90i Gr. Agathius, historian and poet . . . . ggg Swiss. Agassi/, Louis, naturalist .... 1807 Gr. Agesilans II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt, and Greeks) B. o. 361 Bcot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne . . 771 3^ Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . . . B . . 2 51 Bng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible . . jglO Rom. Agrieola, Cneius Julius, military commander . . .40 98 Ger. Agrieola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomlanc . . 1490 1660 Rom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Jade* . .40 94 FT. - , Cornelius, philosopher, &.o. ... 1486 1535 E. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist . . , . jgjg 1^47 Pers. Abasuerus, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) . , t B. o. 456 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 921 AT1OK. MAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Aikiii, John, M. D., an elegant writer, editor of poets, Leonard, an historian .... 1369' i4!4 Ital. , Peter, a satirist . . . . . 1492 1056 Eng. Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy -governor of Virginia 1572 "339 Pruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer ... 1779 Span. Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet ... 1565 1613 Spun. , Bartholomew, historian ... 1566 1631 Scotch. Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman . . 1678 1748 Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet ... 1474 1533 Mex. Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . . . 1802 1855 Or. Aristarchus, of Samoa, mathematician and philosopher . f. B. o. 280 Or. , grammarian and critic . . . B. c. 160 Qr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman . . . . B. o. 467 Or. , -lElius, an orator and sophist ... 12U 186 Or. , one of the fathers of the church . . . f. 127 Or. Arlstippus, of Cyrene, philosopher, founder of the CyreniacB f. & 0. 894 Or. Aristcmenes, a warrior and patriot . . . f. B. o. 662 THB "WOBLD'8 PliOGKESS. NATIOV. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. aiu Gr. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . . . B. o. 389 Or. Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics . B. o. 384 Gr. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect . 438 Eug. Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 1732 1792 Fr. Arlinoourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist ... 1789 1856 Ger. Armiiiius, the deliverer of Germany . ;<;:t*<:> . . 1560 20 1610 Eng. Artnstrjig, John, M D., poet .... 1709 1779 . Tnrm r*mml "tntrrrrmTl Tlnrt tiinfnritin 1 -,- O 1843 Ital. Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour . *.*.-.! ., ,-rfuiii . 1220 Ifr. , Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet . . 1718 1805 Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer ... 1710 1778 Gr. Arnobius, a defender of Christianity . . f. 803 PniBS. Arnim, L. A., poet and novelist .... 1781 1831 Amei. Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . 1740 1801 1555 Eng. , Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. . 1822 1795 1842 Aug. i om 8 > ' ' e) gan |. 1B ' r * 1* *" P g* 18UO 1853 i!*ng. , Aflomas xv., auiiior 01 classical LCXL-UUOKB . . Scot. Arnott, i7iei, popular scientific writer .... 1788 Gr. Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . . f. 140 Eng. Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts . . 1823 Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . . f. a , c. 250 Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia .... B. o. 426 TT fYlnnflpr nf tVlfl nnv T^rpinn IriTir-rlnTYl Flem. Artevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader . . 1832 Eng. Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . . 472 642 Amer Arthur. Timothy 8., author of tales and essays . . 1809 Eng. Arnndel, Thos. H., earl of, importer of tbe Arundelian marbles 1616 Eng. Asbnry, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States . 1745 1816 Eng. Aschain, .icger, a learned writer .... 1515 1568 Bar: Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general .... B. C. 220 Eng. Ashburton, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . 1774 1848 Amer. Ashvnnn, John K., jurist, professor of law . . . 1800 1833 Eng. Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield . . 154", Gr. Aspasia, the accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . * . Eng. Asse.-, John, historian ..... 009 Ger. Ast, George A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum* . . 1778 1*41 Ger. Aetor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York . 1763 1848 Amer. A'chison, David, t., senator, United States, from Missouri . 1807 Gr. AtVianar-iuB, St., oie of the fathers of the church . . 296 371 Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher ..... f. 177 Gr. Athenais, Empress o f the West and authoress, called also Eu- doxia . .../-. . . 9 > Gr. Atheneeus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . . 190 Bar. Attalus, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of parchment . . . . . . B. c. lj* : } r . - Bhodius, mathen-atician . . . . I B. 0. 173 tfpg. Atterbury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy . 1662 1781 ?.ora. Atticus, a knight and author (works lost) . . B. o. 109 B. o. 3J y.. Aaber, D. F. Ji., famous musical composer . . . 1784 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 925 RATIO*. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, MET. Swiss. Aubignfi J. H. Merle d', historian of Reformation . . 1794 Eng. Auckland, William, lord, statesman . 1=1) Fr. Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . 1797 loil Fr. Augercau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com '. . 1767 1816 G.Jew. Anerbach, Berthold, novelist . . . 1112 Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church . 354 480 , the Apostle of the English 1st archbishop of Cante .'b.Try 604 Rom. Augustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the West . . 476 Rom. Augustus, Caius Julius Csesar Octavius 1st emperor . j". o. 63 14 Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India ... 1618 1707 Bom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet . . . 394 Eng. Austen, Jane, novelist . ... 1775 1800 1817 Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas . 1836 Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus republican military commander . 17,3 180C Ara. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author ... 1197 Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York 1797 Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physic an and author ... I/SO 1037 Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &c. . 1804 Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist . . 1813 1865 Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer . . . 1736 1845 Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author . 17<^ 1866 B Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist . . 17 iO Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author . . 1734 1797 Port. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . . iuV,"i 1724 1806 Or. Bacchylldes, lyric poet . . . . 13-C. 450 Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer . . 1806 1867 Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian . . 1790 Eng. Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author . . 1796 -i.nv'r. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . . , 1724 1806 Amer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare .... Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher 1802 Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge . 1214 1292 man ....... 1561 1626 Dan. Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature . 1735 1804 Bug. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay . . 1584 1622 Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . . 179? Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, Ac. . . lc-1 1857 y. -XT iu . jrrjiTTi miTiin ind li*Yi(*nTn"vnhrT 1742 Enc Philip James poet nuthor of F^stns Er.g. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist . . 178'/ Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 1649 :i708 Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist .... 1762 1361 Be-' t. M^ittho^" phyiciftn und anatomist 1761 i323 Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader In the revo- lution . . .<.< . '-. fi 1736 1793 En?. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician . . 1774 U44 Amer. Bainb ridge, William naval commander -_; (Princeton) 1774 i33l 926 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. KA1Y01T. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBS. DIED Amer. Balrd, Robert, D. D., author of travels . . . 1798 1868 Soot. , Sir David, military commander 1757 1828 Tark, Baja'*t, sultan conquered by Tamerlane . . . 1413 Amsr. Baker, Edward D., U S. senator and general . (Ball's Bluff) 1811 1861 lial. Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer . , 1782 Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America . 1617 Fr. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East . . 1206 Irish. Balfe, ">/m. Michael, musical composer . . 1808 Scot. Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . . 1259 1314 Scot. Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott . 1833 Amer. Ballou, Hosea, nniversaliat minister and author . . 1771 1852 Eng. Baltimore, Qeo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland . 1582 1632 Fr. Baluc, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XL . Fr. Balzac, Iloiiore de, novelist . . . 1799 1860 Amer. Bancroft, George, historian of the U. S., secretary of navy, &c. . 1800 Swe. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . . 1596 1641 Irish. Banlm, John, novelist "'' . "'- - . . 1800 1842 Amer. Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 1778 1862 Amer. Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 Eng Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Koyal Society . 1743 1820 Fr. Baraguay d' Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France . .1795 Fr. Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . . 1782 PruBB. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age 1721 1740 Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . 1743 1825 Turk. Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers . 1518 Amer. Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army 1751 1788 Fr. Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer . . . 1674 1728 Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . . Va. 1775 1842 Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . Va. 1783 1841 Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 1648 1690 Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer author of Travels, &c. . 1716 1789 Eng. Bai ham, Richard Henry, humorist ' Ingoldsby Legends ' 1788 184J Amer. Barker, Joseph, noted financier .... 1779 Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet ... 1756 1812 Amer. Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator . . 1811 ^mer. Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. 1798 Bng. , Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar ... 1664 3712 Amer. , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . . 1818 Dutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) . . . 1647 1619 Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . 1759 1818 Fr. Ban-as, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution . 1755 1829 Eng. Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America . . 1726 1802 Irish. Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author . . . 1767 1834 Amer. Barren, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) . 1768 1851 Eng. , Isaac, a divine and mathematician . . 1630 1667 Eng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . 1764 1848 Ivish. Barry, John, the first American covnmodore . . . 1745 1803 Ens. , Sir Charles, architect ot houses of parliament . 1795 1860 Amer. , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . . Va, 1785 1834 Oer. Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa ... 1821 Fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharals,' fto. . . 1716 1791 Amer. Bartlett, John R*, author of explorations, *o . . 1805 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 927 ATIOK, NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIED. Amer. Bartlett, Josiah, statesman, gov. N. H., &c. . . . 1729 1708 Eng. , Wm. H., artist and author . . . 1809 1854 Amor. Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist . 1769 1815 Eng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet . . . 17*4 1849 Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist . 1V-1 1777 Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . . 326 37P Eng. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher . . 1706 177 Fr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - . . 1653 1721 Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman . 1758 1839 Fr. Bastiat, Frederick, political economist . . 1?C1 18V Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . . . 1790 Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, . 17*8 1864 Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . . . 1662 1764 Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. . . 1684 1776 Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer . 1713 1780 Hang. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman . . . 1"07 1854 Hung. , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) . . 180:5 1849 Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity . ISt/v Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . . 1792 Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author . . 1615 1691 Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander ... 1476 1534 Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer . 1767 1815 Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer . . . . . 1627 Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist and historian . . 1694 1738 Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle'B Dic- tionary') . . . . . . 1647 1706 Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet .... 1797 1839 Eng. Seattle, James, L.L.D., poet .... 1735 1803 Fi. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland . . 1837 Fr. , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com., viceroy of Italy, &c. . . . . -7 1824 Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . . 1733 1799 Fr. Beaumont, EHede, mineralogist and geologist . . . l'iS Eng. , Francis, dramatic writer ... 1>55 1616 Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian ... l'i_4 17s!) Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher . 1716 175C ItaL Bern' o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature . . 1470 1542 Eng. Bemb: r, John, a gallant admiral .... 1650 17^2 Ital. Benedict, St., one of the originators of monasteries . . 480 547 Ital. , XIII., pope, theological writer . . . 1649 1728 Ital. , XIV., " u 1675 1758 Fr. Benes.et, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (died in America) 1713 17*4 Ger. B>ng3l, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist . 1687 1752 Eng. Bengar, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs . 1778 1827 Amer. Benjamin, Park, poet, lecturer andjonrnalist . . . 1809 1864 Sp. Jew , of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East . . 1173 Bar. BenKdad, king of Syria . . . . . B. c. 895 Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist ... 1800 Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . . .1612 1601 Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer f 1742 1832 Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar . . 1662 1742 Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian . . 1782 1858 Fr. B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . ' . . 178i 1857 Fr. Be rc-nger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist . . Ii85 Egypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria B. c. 1st to 3d cent Q-ir. Ferghana, Henry, mathematician and geographer . . 1797 Bwe Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal ... 1786 17*M 3el. Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . 1802 Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher . . 1684 1753 , William, governor of Virginia ... 1661 Fr. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer '' ' ' . . I'OS Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. . .' :64 1844 Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . . 1838 189" Amer. , Francis, governor of Massachusetts . . . 1771 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 929 ATIOB. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DTKD, Dutch. Bernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author . 1751 Fr. , St., preacher of Crusades and author . . 1J91 11"# Fr. , Simon, engineer and military commander . 1779 * ';J Amer. Berrien, John McPherson, U. S. Senator from Georgia . 1781 * 'A Fr. Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' in 11 vols. 4to . . . . . 1681 ^"51 Fr. Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles XL, (assassinated) 1778 1820 Fr. ' , Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 1798 Amer. , Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 186? Fr. Berrycr, Pierre A., statesman .... 1790 Fr. Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander . 1753 '.'.8J.S Fr. Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . . 1748 1823 Fr. Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army . . 1778 1 B 44 Eng. Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Phillipsburg) 1670 1'84 8we. Berzelius, John James, chemist .... 1776 Ger. Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer . . . 1784 Fr. Bessieres, duke of Istrin, military commander, (killed at Lntzen) 176> .1813 Amer. Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet . . 1805 1867 Eng. Betterton, Thomas, famous actor .... 17% 1810 ItaL Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer . l';18 1801 En'. Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius' . 1781 Eng. Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver . . 1753 1828 Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer . . , "51P 1605 Fr. Bezout, mathematician ..... 1730 17S3 ItaL Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author . . 1662 1799 Gr. Bias, one of the seven sages . . . . f. B. c 606 Fr. Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist . . 1771 ISO" IrUh. Bickerstaft', Isaac, dramatist . . . . 1733 1787 Ens. Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . . . r.786 1?50 Amer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy . 1783 1*48 Eng. , John, an eminent Socinian writer. . . 1315 ]<562 Amer. , Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy . . 1750 1778 Amer. , " , financier and li.ierateitr . . . 1786 1844 Biela, Willinm, baron von, astronomer . . 1.782 1856 Am-'. Bigelow, John, medical writer .... ..987 Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian ..... 7<1 .;S4l Gr. Bion, pastoral poet . -Tf" ... i. c, 309 Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniao) . . . B. 2. 240 Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician .... 1774 186i Eng. Biibeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions . 1776 1841 Anr er. Bird, Robert M., M. D., novelist .... 1803 1854 Amer. Bir-3v, James G., anti-slavery politician . . . 1792 1,857 Fr. Biro:., . ike of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) 1561 1303 Eng. Bish }, Sir Henry R., musical composer . . . 1775 r&C-i Amer. Bissell, "William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico 181" Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer ... 175P 180> Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author ... 1767 *.79J S^an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the name of tho Cid ..... 1040 iOCJ Scot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh . . 178J In. Am. BlaeV Hawk, Indian Chief .... 1768 f 1838 B-ig. Black stone, !3ir William, an eminent lawyer and author . 1723 17M 930 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. WATIOlf. SAME AND PROFESSION. BORH. BIKi Eng. Blackwell, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States . 1821 Scot. Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician . . . 1718 1809 Amer. , FranoiB P., journalist and politician . . . 1791 Amer. , Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers . . 1821 Scot. , Robert, a divine and poet .... 1699 1777 Amer. Blake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &o. . . 1788 1857 Eng. Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . , . 1599 1651 Boot. Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journalist . . 1803 1845 Amer. Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist . . 1757 178? Irish. Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur . 1789 1840 Eng. Bloomfleld, E.V., classical scholar . . . 1788 184P , Robert, a poet ..... 1766 1828 Prus. Blucher, a celebrated military commander . 1742 1819 Ger. Blum, Robert H , publicist and politician ... 1807 1848 Swe. Blumcnback, John Fred., naturalist . . . 1752 1840 Brit Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni ... 6* Ital. Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy . 1313 1373 Ital. Boccalina, a satirist ..... 1556 161? Fr. Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist . 1509 1567 Fr. Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . . . . 1530 1599 Eng. Bodley, Sir Thos., founder of library . . 1544 1612 Ger. Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author ... 1575 1624 Ger. Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist . . Dutch. Boerhaave, oneof the most eminentof modern physicians . 1668 1738 Rom. Boethius, a statesman and philosopher . . . 455 526 Ger. Bogatzky, Ohae. Henry theologian, (' Golden Treasury') . 1690 1744 Fr. Bohemond, a Norman adventurer .... 1111 Eng. ' Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor . . . Ital. Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') . 1434 1494 Fr. Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet ... 1636 1711 Fr. Boisaard, Jean J., fabulist . . . . . 1743 1831 Fr. Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies ... 1694 1 758 Fr. , d'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 1756 1826 Eng. Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., '< . . 1507 15S6 Eng. Bolingbroke, Henry 8t. John, poet and deistical writer 1678 1751 Coloni. Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . . . 1785 1831 Fr. Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia . . 1784 1859 Fr. , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain . . 1768 1844 Fr. , Louis, ex-king of Holland . '', . 1778 1846 Fr. , Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and emperor ..... 1808 Fr. . , Lucien, Prince of Canino . . . 1776 1840 Fr. , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon . . 1750 1836 Fr. - i , Napoleon, emperor of France . . . 1769 1821 Amer. Bond, William 0., astronomer . 1789 1859 Eng. Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants . 1569 Swiss. Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist . . 1720 1793 Eng. Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician . 1840 Eng. .John, " . . 1821 Fr. Bonpland, Airne, traveller and botanist . . . 1840 Eng. Booth, Ju n ius Brutue, tragedian . . . 1796 1852 Amer. Boooc, Daniel, the fl-st settler in Kentucky ... 1730 1823 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 931 JC1TIOJC. NAME AND PROFESSION. EOEIT. DIBB. G-er. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar . 1731 ItaL Bregli, philosopher and mathematician 1507 Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian . 1781 ItaL Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools . . 1736 1SOJ Ital. Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VI. . 1608 167fl f ItaL , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VI. 15th Cent. L-**'' ItaL Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer . . 1538 1584 Eng. Borrow, George, author of Gipsies of Spain' . 1803 Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist . . . 1759 1821 Eng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral . . 1711 1761 ItaL Boscovitcb, mathematical and philosophical writer . . 1711 1787 Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France . . . 1810 186- Fr. BoBsuet, James B., a divine and historian . 1627 1704 Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician 1730 1814 Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . . . 1676 1733 Eng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson . 1710 1795 Eng. Bosworth, Joseph, D. I)., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer . 1788 Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian , s H . . 1766 1837 Ital. Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian '835 .Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician. .... 1802 Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader In the new revolution . 178C 1823 Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist . . 1740 1S21 Fr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author . 1729 1811 Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander 1344 1711 Fr. Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian 1658 1752' Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . , . 1728 1809 Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer . 1700 1780 Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist .... 1822 Fr. Bourdaloue, a noted preacher ... 1632 1 704 Fr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician ... 1799 1854 Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author ... 1616 1680 .?r. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France * 1773 1846 Fr. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet . . 1747 Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon ... 1834 Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer ... 1807 Fr. Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist ... 1802 Ger. Bouterwek, Fred., Hist. Spanish Literature' . . 1766 1329 Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author ... 1787 1851 Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &o. . . 177S 1838 Eng. Bowi'ler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. . . 1754 1825 Amer. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman . . 1727 1790 Amer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain . 1752 1811 Amer. Bowen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author . 1811 J3ng. Bowles, William Lisle, poet .... 1762 1850 Eng. Br-vring, James, statesman, poet and linguist . . 1792 Scot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet . . 1562 1601 Eng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher . . . 1719 1804 Fr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer . . ' ; 'i . 1667 1729 Fr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Parii) . . 1776 1850 Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher . . . 1626 1691 Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician . t . 1680 177fl Amer. Bozinan, John Leeds, historian and jurist . . . 1757 1821 932 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS. . NAME AND PROFESSION. BORS. DIED Amer. Brace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller . . 1828 Amer. Brtckc-nridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist . . 1786 Eng. Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed In Virginia . 1715 1758 Amer. Bradford, Alden, author of 'History of Massachusetts' . 1715 1753 Amer. , Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phila. 1686 1742 Amer. - , William, attorney-general of the U. S. . c*, v 1755 1795 Amer. - , William, first printer in Pennsylvania t -..., 1659 1753 Amer. - , William, second governor of Plymouth eolony . 1588 1657 Eng. Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician . . 1692 1762 Air.er. Eradstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley . 1612 1672 Eng. Bradwardiue, mathematician and theologian . 1349 Eng. Brady, Robert, physician and historian . . . 1709 Dan. Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer 1546 1661 Amer. Brainard, David, misionary to the Indians . . 1718 1747 Amer. - , J. G. C., a poet . , . 1697 1826 N.A.In.Brant, Joseph (Thayendanega), a Mohawk chief . . 1742 1807 Fr. Brautdme, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler . 1540 1614 Mrr. Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot . . . 1692 1854 Eng. Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist . . . (abt.) 1800 Amer. Breckinridge, John, D. U., theologian . . . 1797 1841 Amer. -- , John C., Vice-Pi esident U, S. . . . . 1821 Amer. - , Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian . 1800 . . 1612 168J Amer. , Richard, colonel, an officer in the Revolution . 1791 Amer. , "Wm. Allen, poet ... . . . 1825 Amer. , Wm. O., statesman and general . 1793 Ger. Buttman, Philip C., philologist .... 1761 1829 Eng Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, legisl. and philanth. . . 1788 1845 Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer . . 1564 1629 Ger. , John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer . 1599 1644 Amor. Byles, Mather, clergyman and author ... 1706 1788 Eng. Byng, Honorable John, admiral .... 1704 1757 Eng. Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet ... 1788 1828 Eng. .Honorable John, admiral .... 1723 1786 Eng. , Lady Noel, wife of the poet .... 1793 1860 C. Fr. Cabct, Etienne, communist ..... 1788 1860 En?. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer at North America . Eng. , Sebastian (son of John), navigator . . 1477 1557 Port. Cabra), Pedro Alvarez, navigator ... 1500 Span. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos . 1810 Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator . . . . f. 1456 Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . . . 1450 Scot Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, Ac. '. . 1742 1808 Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher . 1769 1821 Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet ... 680 Amei Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . . 1743 1186 Rom. Caesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author . BO. 100 B.C. 44 Ital. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer . . 1743 1791 Fr. Cailliand, Frederic, traveller . . . . 1787 Fr. CiilW, Rene, 'Voyage a Timboucto,'**. . . . 1881 936 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ATIOH NAME AND PROFESSION BORX. DIKO Ital. C.ijetan, ?-:irdinal, diplomatist and author . . 1510 1593 (jr. Calaber, ,,-iintus ... . . t, 260 Erig. Calainy, EJ.rrund, Presbyterian divine and author . . 1600 1668 Span. Calderonce la B;irca, Don Pedro, dramatist . . . 1600 1687 Amer. Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author . . 1772 1853 Amer. ( Rev. James, revolutionary patriot . . . 1734 1781 Ital. Calepino, Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 language* . 1435 1511 Amer. Calbt un, John C., senator of the United States . . 1782 1850 Rom. Caligula, Roman Emperor ^ . . . . 12 11 Gr. CalipptiT, astronomer and mathematician . * f. B. c. 330 3er. Calixtus, Geo., Lutheran theologian . . . 1586 1656 Gr. CaUinachus, a poet . ' . . . B. c. 150 Gr. Callnjhenes, philosopher and historian . , . B. o. 328 Fr. Cii'n.st, Augustine, an erudite divine and author . 1672 1757 Ital. Ct.'ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author . . 1699 1768 fie. O.lonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state . . 1734 1802 "St, Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation . . 1509 1623 Amer. Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author ... 1803 Amer. , Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) 1676 Sfr. Cambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist . . 1753 1824 Eng. Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George III. . . 1774 1850 .Pcrs. Cambyses, second king of Persia , B. o. 521 Lng. Caniden, William, an eminent antiquary and historian . 1551 16?3 Scot. Cameron, Richard, ' Covenanter, 1 founder of Cameronians 1660 Scot. , Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel .... 1719 lort. Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country . 1517 1579 Fr. Campan, Jeani.e L. II. J., educationist aud author . . 1752 1822 Amer. Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect . . 1792 Scot. , George, a divine and author . . . 1709 1796 Scot. , John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' Ac. . 1708 1775 Scot. , John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich . . 1678 1743 Scot. , John, lord chancellor, jurist, ' Lives of Chancellors ' 1778 1861 Scot. , Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c., Lord Clyde . 1791 1863 Scot. , Thomas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch,' &c. . . 1777 1844 Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . ... 1722 178fl Fr. .Campieton, John G. de, dramatist . . . 1656 1723 Pr. Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian ... 1610 1688 Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . 1770 1827 Fr. Canrobert, Franc. C., general in Crimea . . . 1809 Ital. Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher .. i... . 1805 Dan. Canute, King of Denmark and of England, 'the Great' . 995 1036 Fr. Curefigui-, A. n. A., historian . . . 1799 Eng. Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . 1713 1781 Span. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian . . . 1754 1810 Gr. Capo d' Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . . 1776 1831 Bom. C.iracnlla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . . 188 217 Ital. Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson . . 1770 1799 Brit Caractacue. prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. . (alt) 100 Brit. Camusius, usurper of Empire in Britain . . . 250 293 Ital. Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician 1501 1570 Eng. Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava . 1797 Fr. Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist . . 1720 1781 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. HATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. USD, Fr. Careme, Murk Antony, famous cook . . . 178^ '.& Eng. Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars' MM 1773 Eng. Carew, Thomas, poet ... . 1589 ? 1G>9 Amer. Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales ... 1822 Y:* -ff _! **, ^.-.4.1, tvan 1'itni* 1598 if.f l fillg. 1 y ' . , ' ., * mo -UvA mer. ' M^fif - ' ^hV * th e ?!!. "! ,. v V. * V I7fin ':< \O 1 ' It r ' wniiMt* i! ^IVJ^.. 1S 6r ' * . 1 JUU 1761 1-jOtf 1 ^ P Q Ital. Carissimi, James, musical composer ... . 1600 1'.- A Irish. Carleton, Wm., novelist . , . 1798 Irish. o- r 1 TT -:K*~ _. ~n/9,*.k on/-l An .A f /~*~- Ida 1724 1803 Ital. Carli, John Riaaldo, count de, author ... 1720 17^9 Eng. Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author . 1802 1834 Eng. C,;_ * _.l _1 :_; 3 q; T ; 4. 1768 1840 , >-ir jiviiiiiOiij , pnysicidn aud meuicai writer . Span. Carlos, Don, son of Philip IL, (hero of Schiller's tragedy) 1545 1788 1568 1856 Ger. Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico . 18 Scot. Scot Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times* . . 1721 1803 Or. Ctu-neades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy, . B. 0. 218 B. 0. 128 Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . . 1753 1823 Eng. Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author . . 1780 1 Q 1840 Fr. Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician . . v Jo 1800 1836 Gua. Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . . 1814 Amer. Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep. . 1737 1832 Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . . . 1717 1806 Amcr. Eng. , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller . . Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . . . . 1535 1830 1608 Ger. Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology . . 1789 Amer. Carver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony . . 1732 1780 Amer. Eng. Gary, Henry P., poet, translator of ' Dante' . . 1772 1621 1840 Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian . 1474 1564 Amer. Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist ... 1782 1866 Amer. Cassin, John, ornithologist .... 1813 Fr. Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . . 1625 1712 Ital. Cassiodorus, MMHJUS Aur. statesman and historian . 470 616 Rom. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar . . B. 0. 42 Eng. Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer . . 1606 1685 Ital. Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . . 1468 1525 Port. Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal . . 1355 Ital. Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist . . . . 1782 1849 Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist .... 1680 1749 Rus. Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great . . 1682 1727 Rus. II., empress the " Great " and the vicious . 1729 179(5 Span. En p- . 1483 1638 1536 1703 H 6- It. Fr. de Medici, wife of Henry II. of Franc* . . . 1521 1619 1542 1689 Eng. 1548 Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator . . B. 0. 63 40 938 THE WOEL1S PBOGKESS. VAIIOK, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. D1H. Fr. Caiinat, Nicholas, military commander . . 1637 1711 Amer. Cailin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . Rom. Cuto, Mar jus Portius, the censor, statesman and author B. 0. 232 B. 0. 147 Bom. , Marcus Porci us, of Utica, statesman . B. o. 95 B.C. 46 Rom. Catullus, Cains Valerius, poet . . . B. 0. 86 Fr. Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician .---i :? . . 1780 1867 Fr. Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist * . 177-3 1807 Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the 'Holy Court* . 1583 1661 Fr. Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 . 1802 1857 Ital. E. Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Phiios. . 1749 1809 Eng. Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . . . 1691 1754 Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer . . 1505 1557 Eng. , Thomas, navigator .... 1564 1591 Ital. Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman . . 1809 1861 Eng. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England . 1410 1492 Fr. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer . . 1720 1765 Fr. Cazales, James A. M. de, au eloquent orator . . . 1752 1805 Eng. Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer .... 1748 1810 Eng. , Robt., earl of Salisbury, statesman . . (abt.) 1550 1612 Eng. , Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman . . . 1520 1598 Rom. Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 2d cent. Gr. Cecrops, 1st king of Athens .... (abt.) B. c. 1500 Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music . 1500 1570 Bom. Celsus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician . f. 30 Gr. , an Epicurean philospher . ! "-.,':-P) . . f. 50 Ital. Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . . 1599 Rom. Censoring, a critic and grammarian . . . . f. 240 Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer . . . 16S7 1723 Span. Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of 'Don Quixote* . 1547 1610 ItaL Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . . 1783 1856 Ital Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author . . . 1730 1808 JSng. Chalmers, Alex., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' Ac. . 1759 1854 Scot. , George, miscellaneous writer . . . . 1744 1825 Scot. , Thoma.-:, D. D., theologian and political economist . 1770 1846 Scot Chambers, Robert, publisher and author . * 1802 Eng. , Sir William, an arehitect ... 1726 1796 Scot , William, publisher and author ... 1800 Fr. Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . 1820 Ger. ChamisBo, A. von, author of ' Peter Sehlemihl,' &c. . . 1781 FT. Champollion, the younger, ' Monuments de 1'Egypte,' &c. 1790 1831 Fr. 1 Figeac, historian and antiquary . . . 1779 Amer. Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer . " ,' 1790 1858 Amer. , William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist 1780 1842 Amei. , William Henry, Unitarian minister and author . 1810 Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor . * . . 1781 1841 Amer. Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator . 1814 Eng. Chapman, George, poetical translator . . 1557 1634 Eng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer ... 1727 1801 Fr. Chaptal, J. A, C., chemist ..... 1756 1832 Fr. Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of France . 742 814 Ger, Charles V. the Great, Bee Prescott's History, *c. . . 1600 1580 8w. Oharlei XII., king, a celebrated warrior . . . 1682 176i BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 939 KATl>ir. NAME AND PROFESSION. En,1 1669 . 176 1 : 1820 B. 0. 280 207 . 0-ti 407 . ier,s 1718 17S1 1764 . 1671 175T . B. 0. 105 E C. 43 1754 1S01 B. o. J4 f. B. 0. 466 f. B. 0. SV . 1734 1799 . 1818 . 1713 176J 1703 1767 178S 182; 1703 :.w 1800 940 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NAT1QX. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. MBl- Amcr. Clark, Louis Gaylord, editor of 'Knickerbocker* . 1800 An:*-. , Willis Gay lord, poet and est-ayist . . 1810 1341 Arr tr. , Wra., general, explorer of Rocky Mountains . 1770 183? EjLg. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theulogian and commentator . 1760 1833 Eng. , Dr. Edward Dauiel, traveller and mineralogist . 1767 1821 Amer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author . . 1810 Eng. , Mary Cowden, author of ' Concordance to Shakespeare,' Ac. 1809 Amer. , McDonald ' the crazy poet,' . . . 1798 1842 Eng. , Rev. Samuel, 'Annotations on the Bible' . . 1627 1701 Eng. , Samuel D., '-heologian and philosopher . . 1675 172>> E:i. , Sir James, medical author .... Entf. Clurkson, Thomas, philanthropist * 1761 1846 Ron". Claudius, Appius, decemvir ... . . B.C. 450 Eng. Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee . 1627 1701 Span. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . . . 1720 1793 Amer. Ciay, Cassius M., anti-slavery politician . . 1810 Amer. , Clement C., ex-senator of U. 8. from Alabama . . 1789 Amer. , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . . . 177T 1852 Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist . 1715 1773 Amer. Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state * . 1796 1K5<* Or. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . . . f. 260 Amer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist . . 1780 1>5S Amer. CU-mens, Jeremiah,U. S. senator from Alabama . 1814 Clement, the n:itne of 14 popes and 3 antipopes Gr. , of Alexandria, a ' father of the church * . 220 Gr. Clementi, Muzio, musical composer . . 1832 Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . . , 559 Ital. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue . . B. o 442 Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . . . B. c. 30 Swiss. Clerc, Jean le, theological writer . . . 1656 1736 Fr. Ait . , Laurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mutes . . 1785 Amer. Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York . 1769 183 Amer. , James, general Amer. Rev. .... 1736 181S Amer. , George, governor of New York and vice-president of U. 8. 1739 ''Wt Eng. i, live, Robert, lord, military commander . . . 1725 177 i Fr. Cloquet, Hyppolite, (brother of Jules), anatomist . . 1787 Fr. Clot, or Ulot-Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt . 1795 Amer. Cobb, Lyman, lexicographer and author ... 186S Eng. Cobbett, William, political writer . . 1762 1835 Eng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer . . 1804 1865 Eng. Gobham, Sir Jno. Oldcastle, lord, martyr . . 1360 1417 Eng. Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander . . 1775 1860 Eng. Oodrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral ... 1770 1851 Eng. Coffin, Sir laaao. admiral, (b. in UTantncket) . . 1759 1839 Eng. Cogan, Thomas, physician and miscellaneous writer . . 1736 1818 Jffing. Ccke, Sir Edward, a learned judge . . . 1549 1634 Fr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . . . 1619 1683 Amer. Coiburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, Ac. . , 1793 1823 Amer. , Zerah, precocious arithmetician . . 1804 1840 4mer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &o. . 1688 1778 Amer. , Cadwalladnr D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &o. 1769 1834 ;d ng. Coleridge, tfartley, author and poet . . . 1707 18*9 BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 941 WATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. UIKD. Bag. Coleridge, Henry Nelson, litterateur . . (sbt.) 1800 184S Eng. , Sarah, daughter of Samuel T., author . . 1803 1852 Eng. , Samuel T., poet and metaphysician . ." 177" 1&34 Fr- Coligni, Gaspard de, admiral . . . . l f 17 1573 Eng. Collingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral ... 1743 1810 Bug. Collins, William, a popular poet .... 1720 1758 Eng. Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) . . 1673 1747 Eng. , George, dramatic writer .... 1733 1784 Eng. , George, (tae younger), dramatist . . 1762 1836 Fr. Colombat,de 1'Isere, medical writer ... (abt.) 1800 Amor. Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer . . 1789 '857 Eng rC^C., author of 'Lacon' ..... 1773 1832 Amor. i , Q-eoige H., author of Tecumseh,' &o. . . 1818 1847 Amer. , Walter, Rev. author of voyages and travels . . 1797 1851 Ital. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America . 1441 1506 Scot. Combe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer . . 1797 1847 Scot. , George, phrenologist and philosopher . . 1778 1858 Tr. Comines, Philip de, statesman and historian . . . 1445 '609 Mex. Comonfort, Ygnacio, President of Mexico . . 1812 Amer. Comstuck, John L., author of popular school-books . . 1789 1358 Fr. Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of "Positiveism" 1798 T.857 Amer. Conant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic . . 1802 Span. Concha, Jose de la, capta n-general of Cuba . . 1800 Fr. Conde, Louis IL of Bourbon .... 1621 1688 Fr. Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer . 1715 3.780 Fr. Condorcet, M. J. A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician . . 1743 '^94 Amer. Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman . . 1785 1855 Chin. Confucius, a celebrated philosopher . . B. c. 550 Eng. Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the ' Congreve rocket * . 1772 1828 Qr. Conon, an Athenian general . . . . a. .;. 390 Amer. Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet . . . IS'li 1856 Fr. Considerant, Victor, socialist philosopl er . . 1805 Scot. Constable, Archibald, publisher of Scott's poems, miscellany, &o. 1776 1827 Fr. Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician . . 1767 I.830 Gr. Constantiue, (the Great), the first Christian emperor . 274 337 Gr. , VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author . 905 959 Gr. , XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 1453 Ir. Am. Conway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Revolution a ' cnbaler,' &c. . (abt. 1778 Eng. Conybeare, William D., clergyman and geologist . 1787 1857 Eng. -, William G-. (son of the above), author of ' Life of St. Paul' 185T Eng. Cook, Eliza, poetess ..... 1818 Eng. , James, a celebrated circumnavigator . . 17i8 1776 Eng. Cooke, George F., an eminent actor ... 1756 1812 Eng. , George Musgrove, ' History of Party* . . 1814 186* Amer. , John Esten, novelist and poet ... 1830 Amer , Philip P., poet ..... 1816 18SO Eng. , T. P., actor . ..... 1786 1864 Eng. Cooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . 1792 1853 Amer, , James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789 1851 Amer. , Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Instiiu*4 1791 Amer. , Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . . 1725 178J Big. 8ir A-siley Fax'.on, physician and medlcr". wr'.ter . 1768 184! 942 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS NATION. HAME AND PROFESSION. EOBS. BUD: Eg. Cooper, Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) . 1759 184 Eng. , Thomas A., actor ..... 1776 J84 Irish. Coote, Sir Eyre, commander in India . .' . 1726 178S Pruss. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the Pythagorean system of the universe . . . 1473 1543 Eng. Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lynuhurst (born in Boston, U. 8.) 1772 1863 Fr. Corday d'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution . 1768 1783 Ger. Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century before Christ Rom. Coriolanus, Cains Marcius, a warrior . . ' ''.-' ' "',"' B.C. 488 Fr. Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer . 1788 ItaL Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance . 1467 1561 Eng. Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York ' ". , 1723 Fr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . ''"''.'.'* 1606 1684 Fr. , Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist . 1625 1708 Fr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian . 1718 Eng. Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India 1738 1806 Bpan. Cortez, Fernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico .' . 1485 1554 Amer. Corwin, ThomaH, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio . 1794 Ital. Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . . . 1519 1594 ItaL " 1L " " " . 1590 1621 Ital. " ILL " "... 1642 1723 ItaL Coeta, Paolo, litterateur ..... 1771 1836 Eng. Costello, Dudley, author and journalist ... 1803 1865 Irish. , Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs . .^ 1815 Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 1370 1440 Ger. Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman ... 1764 1832 Eng. Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord chancellor . . 1781 1851 Fr. Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist .... 1773 1807 Eng. Cottle, Amos, versifier . '. . . . 1800 Eng. , Jos., publisher ' Recollections of Coleridge . . 1770 1853 Eng. Coiton, Charles, humorist and poet ... 1630 1687 Amer. , John (of Boston), a learned divine ... 1585 1652 Eng.. , Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general . 1773 1866 Fr. Coulomb. Charles Augustine de, philosopher . . . 1736 1806 Fr. Hag. Courayer, P. Francis le, Homan Catholic theologian . 1681 1776 Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist .... 1772 1826 Fr. , Paul Louis, political writer . . . 1774 1826 Fr. Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author . . 1725 1784 Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian . . ' ._" . 1627 1707 Fr. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician ... 1792 1867 Eng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible . . 1485 1566 Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet . . . . .1618 1667 2Cng. Cowper, William, lord chancellor .... 1664 1728 Eng. , William, poet ..... 1731 1800 Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet. . 1818 Amer. , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman . . 1793 Amer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . . . 1756 1824 Eng. , William, traveller and historian ... 1747 1828 Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poems . . 1818 Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms ,,'" 1778 1854 Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet . , 1754 1833 Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer . 1728 17W BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 943 VATIOW. HAMS AND PROFESSION. BORN. Eng. Cramer, 7. Baptist, musical composer * 1771 185S Eng. -- , Francis, " " . . . 1772 184? Amer. Cranch, "Wm jnrtst, judge U. S. District Court D. 0. . 1779 1855 Eng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . . 1489 1551 Eng. Crashaw, Richard, poet and divine . . . 1650 Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander B. o. 53 Amer. Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist . . 1772 1834 Fr Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet . . 1674 176J Ger. Ci-euzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary . . 1771 1858 Fr. Oevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian . . 1693 1768 Croesus, King of Lydia, famed for riches . . . B. o. 6th Cent. Eng. Croft, Wm., musical doctor and composer . . . 1657 1727 Irish. Croker, John Wilson, statesman and author . 1780 1357 Irish. - , Thos. Crofton, author of ' Fairy Legends,' &o. . 1798 1854 Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . , 1780 1360 Eng. Cromwell, Oliver, military commander and statesman . . 1599 1658 Eng. - , Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey . 1490 "640 Eng. Crowe, Catherine, author of 'Nightside of Nature* . . Eng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature . . 1780 Eng. < , Robert, humorous artist . . . 1794 1856 Scot Cruden, Alexander, author of a 'Concordance to the Bible* 1701 1770 Eng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher . . . . 1617 10f8 Amer. Cuffee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain . 1759 1818 Scot. Cullen, William, an eminent physician ... 1712 1730 Eng. Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer . . 1732 1811 Eng. -- , William Augustus, duke of, military commander . 1721 1765 Scot. Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author . 1810 Scot. - , Rouallyn W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author . 1820 Soot. Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. . . 1768 18*2 Irish. Curran, John Pbilpot, a celebrated barrister and orator . 1750 IS" 1 ? Amer. Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U. 8. . 1809 Amer. - , Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist . . 1812 Amer. - , Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critio . . 1824 Rom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. ... Amer. Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist ... 1800 Amer. Cushman, Charlotte 8., actress .... 1816 E. Am. - , Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth . . 1580 1615 Amer. Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington . 1781 1857 Fr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalist* . 1769 1832 Fr. - , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist . . 1773 1838 Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church . 258 Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer . S76 444 , of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author . . 315 380 - , St., the apostle of the Sclav! ... 822 Pcre. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire . . B.C. 559 Pers. - ( the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia . _. o. 400 PoL Czartoryaki, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation . . 1770 186C D Fr. Dader, Anne, a celebrated clasfdcal scholar . . i651 1721 Fr. Dag-nerre, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyplng . . 1788 1851 Amer. Dahlgren, John A., naval officer and author . . 944 THE WORLD'S PBOGBESS. HATI01T. SAME AND PROFBS8IOX. BOR5. DIBD. Amer. Dahlglen, CoL TJlr'.c, mil it. officer .... 1842 1864 Swe. Dahlman, Fred O., historian .... 1785 Amer. Dale, Richard, commodore in Revol. war . . 1756 182- Bwe. Dalin, Glaus von, the father of Swedish poetry . . 1708 1753 Amer. Dallas, Commodore A. J., naval commander ... 1791 1844 Amer. , Geo., M., vice-pres. U. 8. and diplomatist . . 1792 Amer. , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. 8. . . 1759 1817 Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . . . 1768 1844 Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer . . 1699 1778 Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator . . . 1652 1711 Amer, Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, fcc. . . 1813 Amer. , Richard H., poet and essayist . . 1787 Amer. , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller . . 1815 Amer. , Samuel L., agricultural chemist . . 1795 Venet. Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice . . . 1110 1205 Amer. Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author ... 1752 1835 Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist ..... 1790 1845 Eng. , W., B. A., author of pictorial works on India . 1837 Ger. Dannecker, sculptor ('Ariadne,' &c.) . . 1758 1841 ItaL Dante Alighieri, the sublimest erf the Italian poets . 1265 1321 Fr. Dan ton, Geo. Jacques, leading revolutionist . . . 1759 1794 Ital. Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. Y.) 1749 1838 Eng. D'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . . . 1752 1840 Eng. Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked . 1815 1842 Amor. Darlington, Wm., botanist and politician ... 1782 Eng. Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist . . Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander . 1705 1766 Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur . . . 1761 1840 Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm, dramatist . 1605 1688 Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius . 1808 1840 Amer. Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet . . 1823 1838 Amer. Davies, Charles, mathematician .... 1798 , Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer 1724 1761 Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian . . . 1576 1031 Amer. Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism . 1826 Amer. , Charles H., mathematician and naval officer . 1807 Amer. , Jefforson, general and U. 8. senator from Mississippi . 1808 Eng. , John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits . 1605 Amer. , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, &o. . . . 1766 1850 Fr. Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte's generals . . 1770 1823 Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist ... 1778 1829 Amer. Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England . 1611 1668 Amer. Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman ... 1807 Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. 8. to France . . 1758 1789 Amer Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American -vars 1751 1829 A me: , De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician . . 1820 Fr. Debruce, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer . 1731 1782 Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist .... 1778 1841 Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore In the U. S. navy . 1779 1820 Eng. Decker. Thomas, dramatic poet . . . 1638 Eng. Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer . . 1627 1618 Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . . . 1661 17JJ BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 945 ATJOJf. HAMB ASD PROFESSION. BOmH. PIBD. G. Am. UeKalb, John, baron, maj.-gen. in Am. revol. army . 1782 1780 Eng. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist . , .' 1796 1855 Fr. Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer . , 1749 1822 Ampr. Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop West New York 1797 186- Fr. Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist . . . . 1794 1S43 Fr. Delille, James, a celebrated poet . . . 1738 1813 Fr. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer . 1688 1768 Swiss. Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution 1740 1806 Swisz. Delnc, Jean Andr6, natural philosopher 1727 1817 PoL Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt . 1791 1864 Gr. Demetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman . B. c. 345 B. 0. 28^ Bn OP 1 ^ Gr. Democritus, a celebrated philosopher . . .B.C. 460 . 19. Pruss. Die'bitsch-Za'baJkaiisky, count, military commander 1785 1S31 Qer. Diffenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author . 1792 1847 Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander . 1775 1825 Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ' Athenaeum* . 1810 1864 Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist .... 1802 Maced. Dinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c. . . f . B C. 350 Rom. Diocletian, Valerius, emperor ; . . . . 245 313 Gr. Dio-Ohrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher . . f. B . C.30 Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible . 1576 164* Gr. Diodorus Sicnlus, a historian . . . . f. B .0.10 Gr. Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher. . . . B. 0.413 B. 0. 323 /"i_ 1 ort'n- V!~ A^VA. vrr. , .Ljtieriiius, uiograpue. . . Gr. Dion-Cassius, author of Roman History * . . . 155 Gr Dionysius, a geographer ..... f. 140 Gr. , of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church . 265 f]r tbr \rpnTlirntr Imrnrd 'VtTirnin.n Olrri'tliii A D 1st A ' ' th Id t 't f " O 430 ** ** Q * ? ' 7 r. , ee er, jra o yracuse . . B. D. \J. N | ' -1 ^ ' ' H ' l_+*a. 0.367 wm B. c. 343 (jr. , me younger, iy rani 01 csyracuse B. Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, ' Curiosities of Literature' ... 1767 1848 Amer. Dix, D^r'-thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums . Amer. , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, dec. . Eng. Dixon, Vlliam Hepworth, author and critic . . 1821 Amer. Doane, -jreo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &c. . 1799 is:, Eng. Dobell, S^diey, poet . ' . . . . 1824 Eng. Dodd, Dr. V'illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) 1729 1777 Eng. Doddridge, f hi?Jp, a gifted and pious divine and writer . 1702 1756 Eng. Dodsley, Robert, publisher and author . . . 1703 1T64 Ger. Doebererme-, 7 "W., chemist . . 1780 Span. Dominic De -Juzman, founder of preaching friars . . 1170 1221 Rom. Domitian, e-nperor ..... 52 96 Scot. Don, David, ootanist ..... 1800 1840 Ital. ' Donatello (^T-cneto di BeHodi Bardi) sculptor . 1383 1466 Ital. Donizetti, Graetano, musical composer ... 1797 1848 Eng- Donne, John, poet and theologian . . . 1573 1631 Eng. Donovan, jSdward, writer on natural history ... 1798 1837 ItaL Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) . 1468 1560 Amer. Dorr, Thomas "W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island 1805 1854 Fr. En. D'Orsay, Gouiit Alfred, author, artist, and ' beau ' . 1798 1852 Hind. Dost-Mohsmmed, emir of Caboo . - . 1785 1863 Eng. Douce, Frr ncis, antiquarian and author ... 1762 1834 Scot. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . . 1474 1817 1521 Soot. . : Sir Howard, general, military and naval author 1776 1861 A jir D tpTllifMi \rnnld TTnitrd ^titrn nrmtTir from Tllinnlfl 1813 1 v. 1 Amer. Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher .... 1777 lODl 1834 Amer. Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy . 1786 1855 Amer. Down'ng, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening and horticulture ..... 1815 1853 Amer. Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 1772 1856 Ctr. Draco, an Athenian legislator ... t 623 Eng. Drake, Dr. Nathan, physician and essayist . . 1766 1831 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 94" RATION. MAKE AND PROFESSION. BORN. r ) T F.-' Amer. Drake, Joseph Rodman, poet ... 1795 1S2C Amer. , Samuel G., historian of the Indians, Boston, &o . 1798 Eng. , Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator . 1545 159fl E. Am. Draper, John W., chemist and physiologist . 1811 Eng. Drayton, Michael, poet, ' Poly-olbion ' . . . 1563 16?'.! Dutch. Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer . . 1572 1634 Eng. Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author 1765 JtiSJ Vr Drouyn de 1'Huys, Edward, statesman . . . 1805 Fr. Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer . . 1773 I85 f , Scot. Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights . 1797 1S40 Eng. , Sir Wiliiam, scholar, author and diplomatist . 1760 1835 Scot. . , William, poet ..... 1585 1.649 Rom. Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany . B. c. 38 Eng. Dry den, John, an eminent poet .... 1631 1700 Amer. Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' . 1760 1835 Fr. Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist . 1610 1688 Fr. Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian .... 15th cent. Fr. Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . . 1803 Fr. Duchcsne, Andrew, a historian . . . 1584 1640 Fr. Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian . . 1704 1722 Amer. Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician 1823 Eng. Dugdale, Sir William, antiquarian author . . . 1605 1686 Fr. Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander ... 1314 1380 Fr. Duhalde, Jean B., geographer ... 1674 1743 Fr. Dumas, Alexandra, novelist, traveller, &c . . . 1803 Fr. , Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist . 1824 Fr. , J. B., chemist . . , _. ,; ' .- . 1800 Fr. Dumont d'Urville, J. S. C., circumnavigator . . 1790 1842 Fr. Bumont, John, traveller and political writer ... 1726 Swiss. , P. S. L., writer on legislation . . . 1759 1829 Fr. Domouriez, Oharlea Francis Duperier, military commander . 1730 1823 Scot. Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon 1 1774 1851 Scot. , William, poet . . . . H65 1535 Scot Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral ... 1731 1804 Scot. , William, logician and translator . . 1714 1760 Scot. Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman . 1741 1811 Scot. Dundonald, Earl of, ( Lord Cochrane ') admiral . . 1775 1860 Amer. Dunglisson, Robley, M. D., medical author ... 1798 Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian ... 1766 1839 Eng. Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer ... 1731 1783 Scot. Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . . . J.274 1308 Eng. Dunstan, Saint, abbot of Glastonbury and politician . . 925 988 Fr. Dnpin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . . . 1783 1865 Fr. , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . . 1784 Fr. , Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian . . 1637 1719 Fr. Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &., (at Philadelphia) . 1760 1844 Amer. Dupont, Samuel Francis, admiral. . . 1803 1865 Fr. Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . . , 1778 1835 Fr. Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . . , 1610 1638 Amer. Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engrave? ... 1798 Amer. Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author . 1800 6er. Durer, Albert, painter and engi aver . . . 1471 1521 948 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. K/.TIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Amer. Durfee, Job, priest and author .... 1790 1841 Eng. Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author .... 1628 1723 Eng. Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada . 1792 184C Fr. Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friuli, military commander ' . 1772 1813 Amer. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer . . 1752 1817 .Amer. , Theo., author and journalist ... 1765 1849 Amer. , Theo., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian . 1866 Amer. Duyckinck, Evert Aug. , author and critic . . 1816 Amer. , Geo. Long, author and critic ... 1823 1863 Scot. Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . . . 1797 Eng. Dyer, John, poet, ' The Fleece . . . . 1700 1758 Eng. Dymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist . 1796 1720 Amer. Kastbnrn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. . . 1801 Eng. Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critic . . 1793 Amer. Eaton, Amos, botanist ..... 1776 1842 Amer. , Wm., military officer and consul in Africa . . 1764 1811 Ger. Sckenian, John Peter, litterateur . . 1792 1852 Amer. Eckford, Tlenry, eminent shipbuilder .... 1775 1832 Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian 1674 1730 Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist ..... 1767 1849 Eng. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior ... 1330 1376 Amer. , i-ola B., theologian and miscellaneous author . . 1802 Bug. Edwards, 3>yan, an historian .... 1743 1800 Amer. , -Vohn W., jurist and writer on spiritualism . . 1799 Ainer. , Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician . 1703 1757 , Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist . . . , W. F., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) 1777 Ger. Eginhard, in historian, biographer of Charlemagne . . 771 840 Flem. Egmont, 7 amoral, count, patriot and martyr . . 1552 1568 Ger. Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist ..... 1795 Ger. Eichbom, E C., theologian and jurist ... 1781 1854 Eng. Eldon, L^:J, lord chancellor of England . . . 1750 1838 Scot. Elgin, T., :3ruce, earl of, diplomatist remover of ' Elgin' marbles 1771 1841 Eng. Elizabeth, queen ...... 1533 1603 Amer. Eliot, Sam ael, author of ' History of Liberty' . . 1821 Eng. Ellenboro-zgh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice . . . 1750 1818 Eng. , Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India . 1790 Amer. EMery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence . . 1727 1820 Eug. Ellesoere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author . 1800 1857 Amer. Ellet, Eliza F., biographer and critic ... Amer. Elliot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians'. . . 1604 1690 Eng. Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . . (abt.) 1795 Amer. Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter . . . 1812 Amor. Charles Wyllys, author of 'History of New England' . 1817 Eng. , Ebenezer, poet ' Corn Law Rhymes' . . 1781 Amer. , J. D., commodore ia American navy . . 1785 1845 Amer. , Stephen, naturalist .... 1771 183C Amer. Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman and author . . 1815 Kng. , Sir Henry, anticiary and author ... 1777 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 949 KATIC1C. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. Dli.Q Eng. Ellis, "Wm. Rev., missionary and author . . (abt.) 1795 Eng. Elliston, Robert W., actor .... i771 Amer. Ellsworth, Elmer E., military officer in Union army . . 183T Amer. , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. 8. 1745 Eng. Elmes, James, architect and author , . 1782 Scot. Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . . 1778 185S Fr. Elseler, Fanny, danseuse ..... 1811 Dutch. Elzevir, Louis M. G. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries Amer. Embury, Emma E., poet . . . 1806 1863 Amer. Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author . . . 179T Amer. , Ralph Waldo, poet and essayist '..> 1803 Eng. "William, a distinguished mathematician . . . 1701 1782 Irish. Emmet, Robert, 'United Irishman' (executed) . . 1780 1803 Irish. , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator . 1764 1827 Amer. Emmons, Ebcn, geologist and author . . 1798 1863 Amer. , Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . . 1746 1840 Gr. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . . Encke, John Francis, astronomer ... 1791 1S65 Amer. Endicott, John, governor of Massachusetts . 1589 1665 Ger. Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist . . 1804 1849 Eng. Enfleld, "William, miscellaneous writer . . 1741 1797 Fr. Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) . 1772 1804 Fr. Eon du Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and -claier . 1728 1810 Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . . B. c. 363 Gr. Epictetus, a stoic philosopher . . . . f. 40 Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of pLLo. rpi-is . B.C. 342 B. o. 371 Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and g. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer .... 1620 1651 /-mer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist . . 1790 1847 Amer. , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author . . 1794 1865 Cer. Ewftld, Geo. H. A von, orien^ist and theologian . . 1803 - v 'n.Am, Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics . ' . 1792 Amer. Ewing, Th -.3., statesman and jurist . . . 1789 Eng. Exmouth, ^dw. Pellew, viscount, admiral . . . 1757 1838 Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer ... 1773 1854 Sng. , Frederick Wm., Eoman Catholic priest and theological author ...... 1815 Rom. FabinB, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior ... B. c. 204 <3er. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer . . 1668 1736 Ital. , John Ohriatian, a celebrated entomologist . 1742 1807 Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer . . . 1732 1803 Eng. Fabyan, Robo.l, chror'-der .... 1450 1515 Ital. Faceiolato, 01 "accicUti. Jac., philologist . . . 1684 1760 Pruss. Fahrenheit, Qtvoriel Paniel, an experimental philosopher . 1686 1736 Eng. Fairfax, Edwr-.-d, poet, -.-anslator of Tasso . . . 1633 Eng. , Thon.as, lo>-i, a general in the civil war . . 161 1 1671 Kng. Falconer, "William, a pr-et, ..... 1730 1769 Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) . . 1355 Eng. Falkland, Luci'ir '"!a-T. viscount, politician and author . 1610 1643 Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Kicnard, poet and diplomatist . . 1608 1636 Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist ..... 1790 1867 Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet . . 1588 1647 ling. Farmer, Hugh, tho -logian ..... 1714 1787 Amer. Farnham, Mrs. Eli^-a W., traveller and philanthropist . 1815 J864 Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist . . . 1678 170" Amer. Farrar, Jolin, rcetL-o ^atician and author ... 1779 ]853 'r. Faucher, Leon political economist .... 1803 1864 fr. Fanriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author . 1772 1844 Oer. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing ... 1466 Vr. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician . . . 1809 Lug. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator . . . 1632 1693 Amer. Fay, Theo. 8., author and diplomatist ... 1807 Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer . . 1632 1698 Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East . . 1799 Amer. Felton. Cornelius C., scholar and critic, president of Harvard College . . . 1807 1862 Fr. Fe-iS.on, Francis de Sallgnac de la Motto de, an able writer and one of the most virtuous of men . " , . . 1351 JTIJ B-re. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist . . 1743 jjgf BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 951 RATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DTED. Scot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher . . 1724 1816 Scot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, dec. 1710 1.76 Scot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art . , 1808 Span. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . . 1652 VKi Scot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist . ( 1782 1854 Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, c:\rdlnal, archbishop of Lyons . 1763 1839 Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist ?''.! 1771 1837 Amer. , Win. Pitt, U. 8. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas. 1806 Ger. Feuerbach, Ludwig, philosopher and author . . 1804 Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist . ,1775 1833 Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer . 1701 1764 Ger. Fichte, John G., philosopher .... 1762 1814 Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher ... 1433 1499 Amer, Field, Cyrus W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph . . 1819 Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate . . . 1805 Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author . 1822 Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors . , 1787 1855 Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist . 1707 1754 Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria . . 1547 Amer. Fillmore, Millard, 13th president U. 8. . . 1800 Amer. Finney, Charles G., preacher and theological writer . . 1792 Pers. Fird usi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses . . 940 1020 Amer. Fisk, "Wilbur, president Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &o. . 1792 1839 Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . . 1743 1 798 Horn. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul . . B. 0. 230 B. o. '17 Rom. , Caius, general, consul, and censor of tribune . s. o. J7 Eng. Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal . . . 1646 71S Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet ..... 1633 1688 Zng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-ccnformist divine . . 1627 16.il Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate ... 1632 1710 Ger. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist ..... 1801 Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist .... 1785 1857 Bcot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoan, statesman and author . . 1658 1716 Eng. , Giles, poet ..... 1580 1627 Eng. , John, a dramatist . . . . 1576 1G25 Eng. , Phineas, poet ..... 1584 1650 Fr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman . 1653 1743 jr. , Claude, a divine and historian ... 1640 1722 Amer. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian . . . 1780 . 1840 Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer . 1755 1794 Ger. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . , . 1802 Ger. , John G., lexicographer .... 1788 1855 Ger. Follen, 0. T. C., theologian and philologist (in U. S.) . . 1796 1846 Fr. Fonblanqne, J. 8. M., jurisprudence . . 1787 1865 Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer . 1657 1757 Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author . . . 1806 1863 Eng. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor . . . 1721 1771 Eng. Forbee, Edward, naturalist and author ... 1815 1864 Eng. , John, M. D., medical writer .... 1787 An-jer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian . . 1790 ItaL Forcelliui, Giles, a Lalin lexicographer . . . 1688 Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic author . . 1586 164t 952 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN Amer. Holyoke, Kdward Aug., physician and naturalist . . 1728 1829 Scot. Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, 'Criticism' . . lfi96 1782 Scot. , John, a divine, dramatist and historian . . 1724 1808 Gr. Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished B. o. 907 Eng. Hone, Wra., author of ' Every Day Book,' and political works . 1779 1842 Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer . . . 1724 1818 Eng. , Thomas, poet and humorist .... 1798 1846 Dutch. Hoogvliet, Arnoid, a poet .... 1687 1763 Eng. Hook, Robert, a mathematician .... 1635 1702 Eng. , Theo. E., novelist and humorist ... 1788 1841 Eng. Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history . . 1690 1763 Eng. Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist . . 1818 T* IT T?irTilTr1 in rinirtrnt rlivlnn _ Enjr Sir ^V J botinict 1MB Ifoe 1600 Eng. Hoole, John, a poet and translator ... ioo 1717 J885 1803 Eng. Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . . 1495 1555 Eng. Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, " Anaetasius ' . . 1770 1831 Amer. Hopital, Michel de 1', chancellor of France . . 1505 1578 Atne . Hopkins, Ezek., first commodore TJ. S. Navy . . . 1718 1803 Atne . , Mark, clergyman and author ... 1792 1802 4 _^ a ..,~t ,, >rninp t *3!! - * *^- 1721 1803 ATTIC . , i.fiTnutij au e em uiv ,nc and antnor . Ame . , Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence . 1707 1785 Ame . Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independence and author 1737 .791 Ame . , Joseph, jurist and statesman . . . 1770 1841 Rom. Horace, Qnintus Flaccus, eminent poet . . . B. o. 65 B. 0. 1 41 962 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATICN. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. BIKO, Flem. Horn, Philip de Mont, count of, soldier and statesman . 1622 1568 Eng. Home, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich 1730 1792 Eng. , Richard H., poet and essayist . . . 1803 Eng. , Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian . 1780 1862 Eng. Homer, Francis, statesman and essayist ... 1778 1817 Eng. , Leonard, geological writer . . . 1785 1864 Eng. Horeley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician . . 1736 1806 Rom. Hortensius, Quintus, orator . . . B. o. 114 B. c. 60 Arner. Hosack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer . . 1769 1835 Heb. Hosea, prophet ...... 8th cent. B. c. Fr. Houdin, Robert, conjurer . . . 1805 Fr. Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptor .... 1741 1828 Fr. Houssaye, Arsene, miscellaneous writer . . , 1815 Amer. House, Samuel G., physician aud philanthropist . . 1801 Amer. Houston, Sam., general, governor, and ex-governor of Texas 1793 1862 Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist . . . 1726 1790 Amer. , John Eager, revolutionary soldier and statesman . 1752 1827 Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines . . 1819 Eng. , Geo. Aug., general in colonial war . . 1724 1758 Eng. , Richard, lord, earl, admiral .... 1725 1799 Eng. , Sir Wm., oommander-in-chief in America . . 1814 Eng. Howell, James, author of 'Letters' .... 1596 1666 Eng. Howitt, Mary (wife of Wm.), novelist and poet . . 1804 Eng. , William, traveller, essayist, &c. ... 1795 Eng. Howley, William, archbishop of Ca; terbury . . .1765 1848 Eng. Hoyle, Edmund, writer on games .... 1672 1769 Swiss. Huber, Francis, naturalist .... 1750 1831 Fr. Hue, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author . . 1813 1860 Eng. Hudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river . . 1611 Fr. Huet, Peter Daniel, an erndite prelate and author . . 1630 1721 Ger. Hufeland, Chris. W., medical author . . . 1762 1536 Fr. Hngh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of French kings . 946 996 Irish-Am. Hughes, John, Catholic Archbishop N. Y. . ,. 1798 1864 Fr. Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman . . 1802 Amer. Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer.), &c, 1775 1845 Amer. , Wm., general in War of 1812 .... 1753 1825 Ger. Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm, bai-on, statesman and author . 1767 1835 Pruss. , F. H. A., baron, traveller, geographer, and nat. phil. 1769 1859 Scot, Hnme, David, an historian and philosopher . . . 1711 1776 Eng. , Jos., statesman and reformer ... 1777 1855 Amer. Humphrey, Heman, theologian and author ... 1779 1859 Amer. Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist ... 1753 1818 Hung. Hunnlades, John, a celebrated warrior . . . 1400 1456 Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author and journalist . . . 1804 1S58 Eng. , James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist . . . 1784 1859 Eng. , Leigh, poet and essayist . . . . 1785 1859 Amer. , Thomas 8., chemist and geologist . . 1826 Scot. Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author . . 1728 1792 Amer. , Robert M. T., TJ. 8. senator from Virginia . 1809 Eng. Huntlngton, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodist* . 1707 1791 JSng. , Wm., Antinomian preacher ... 1744 1SU Arner. -, Jeded. V., poet and novelirt ... 1815 BIOGRAPHICAL LNDBX. 963 ATIO1C. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Amer, Huntlngton, Fred. D., clergyman and author 1819 Kng. Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &o. , . 1726' 1808 Eng. Huskisson, Rohon William, able statesman 1769 1830 (Jer. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer . , 1376 14ta Irish. Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer . 1694 1747 Amer. Hutchinson, Anne, founder of X. E. Antinomians . . 1643 Eng. , John, Colonel (Life by his widow) . . 1617 1664 Amer. , Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass, and historian 1711 178C Ger. Ilutten, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer . . 1488 1523 Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician . 1737 1823 Scot. , James, a geologist and philosopher . 1726 1797 Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author . . . 1629 1706 Fr. Hyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician . . , 1776 1867 Ind. Hyder A\i, a celebrated warrior . . . 1717 1782 Gr. Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher . . . . 370 416 Jew. Hyrcanvu T. and IL, high priests , , 1st and 2d cent . lambllchnB, Neo, Platonic philosopher . . A. D. 4th cent. Turk. Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt . 1789 1848 Gr. Ibycns, a lyric poet . . . , f. B. o. 650 Span. Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits . . 1491 1556 , Saint, primitive father of the church . . 107 , St., patriarch of Constantinople . . 779 877 Eng. Inch bald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist . 1756 1821 Port. Inez de Castro, qneen of Portugal . . 1356 Amer. Ingersoll, Charleu J., statesman and historian . . 1782 1862 Amer. , Joseph R., statesman and lawyer . 17S6 Scot. Inglia, Henry D., traveller and author 1795 1836 Eng. Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar . 1774 1850 Amei. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter . . 1801 1846 Amer. , John, journalist and litterateur . . . 1850 Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . . 402 to 1687 Irenaeus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author "'"' 2d cent. Eng. Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Tour * . . . - . 1750 1800 Eng. , W. H., author of the ' Shakespeare Forgeries' . 1777 1835 Gr. Irene, a Byzantine empress . . . . , 752 803 Eng. Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of his generals 1610 1651 Amer. Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels . . 1810 Amer. , Peter, author (brother of Washington) . . 1771 1838 Scot. , Rev. Edward, theological writer . . . 1792 1834 Amer. , Theodore, author of ' Conquest of Florida' . 1809 Amer. , Washington, historian and essayist . . , 1783 1859 Amer. , William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . . 1766 1821 Span. Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus . 1451 1604 Span. II., qneen of Spain . . 1830 Gr. Isaeus, an orator . . . B. c. 418 Eeb. Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophet* B. o. (\bt) 800 Fr. Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist . , 1792 1857 Gr. Isocrates, an orator . . . B. 0. 436 Span. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico . . . 1784 1821 964 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. WATIOV. NAME AMD PROFESSION. BORN. KKD, Amer. Ives, Levl S., ex-protestant episcopal bishop of North Carolina 1797 Amor. Izard, Ralph statesman (of South Carolina) . 1742 1804 Amer. Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist. , 1805 Amer. , James, eminent physician .... 1777 Amer. , Gen. Andrew, military commander, president TT. 8. 1767 1845 Amer. , Patrick T., eminent merchant ... 1780 1847 Amer. , Thomas Jonathan (' Stonewall '), rebel general . 1826 1863 Eng. , William ('of Exeter') musical composer . . 1730 1803 Heb. Jacob, the Patriarch . . . . . B. a 1836 B. o. 1689 Ger. Jacob!, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, Ac. ... 1743 1819 Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist ... 1764 1847 Fr. Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer- .... 1770 1840 FT. Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom . . 1752 1834 Fr. Jacquernont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . . . 1801 1832 Dutch. Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist ... 1727 1817 Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar ... 1750 1817 Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian ... 1801 1860 Amer. , Henry, philosophical writer .... 1811 Amer. , John Angell, congregational clergyman and author 1785 1859 , St., the Elder, apostle .... 44? , St., the Less, " . . . . 66? Eng. Jameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art ... 1797 1860 Scot. , Robert, naturalist and author ... 1774 1854 Pers. Jami, or Djami, poet ' .^ . . . 1414 1492 Scot. Jamieson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author . . 1759 1S38 Fr. Janin, Jules, litterateur ..... 1804 Dutch. Janaen, Cornelius, founder of a sect ... 1585 1638 Ital. Jannarins, patron saint of Naples .... 272 305 Amer. Jarves, James J., traveller and author ... 1818 Amer.' Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologist . . 1786 1851 Fr. Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet , . 1798 1864 Amer. Jasper, William, heroic soldier of the Revolution . . 1750 1779 Amer. , John, a distinguished patriot and statesman . 1745 1829 Amer. Jay, William, judge, anti-slavei-y philanthropist . . 1779 1858 Eng. , Wiliam, D. D., religious writer . . . 1769 1853 Fr. Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine . . , 1412 1431 Ger. Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician . 1763 1825 Irish. Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer . . 1736 1775 Amer. Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pros, of the U. S. 1743 1826 Scot. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic . . . 1773 I860 Eng. Jeffreys, George, infamous judge ... 1648 1689 Hind. Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthropist . 1783 1859 Anst. Jellaohich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia . . 1S01 1859 Eng. Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier ... 1770 1828 Eng. Jenkyns, William, non-conformist (' on Jade ') . . 1612 1686 Bag. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innocnlation . 1749 1823 Eng. Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 1 704 1787 Scot. Jerdan, 'William, journalist ..... 1782 Heb. Jeremiah, prophet . . . . . t. B. c. 678 671 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. RJLTIOV. IAMB AND PROFESSION. BOUH. DIED Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church 424 Gr. , of Prague, reformer, companion of HUM . . 1416 Eng. Jen-old, Douglas, essayist . . . * . 1782 185) Eng Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral . . 1774 1823 Elite. Jewell John, learned prelate and author . . 1522 1571 Eng. Jewsbury, Maria J., essayist . , . 1833 Fr. Joan of Arc, 'the greatest of heroines' . . . 1410 1431 ItaL Joanna, queen of Naples ... * Heb. Joel, the prophet . . . . . f. B. o. 800 HoL Johannes Secundus (Johannes Evorard;, poet . . 1511 1534 Fr. Johannot, Tony, artist and designer .... 1803 1859 Heb. John, the Evangelist . . . . . 100 Eng. , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster . . 1340 1399 Ger. , king of Saxony and author . . . 1801 PoL , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general . . 1629 1696 Eng. , Edward, historian of JST. England . . . 1600 1673 Eng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty . 1649 1708 Eng. , Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' . 1709 1784 Amer. , Alex. B., philologist and miscellaneous writer . 1786 Amer. , Andrew, president U. 8. . . . 1808 Amer. , Reverdy, jurist and statesman ... 1796 Amer. , Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. 8. 1780 1850 Amer. , Samuel, first president Columbia College and author . 1696 1772 Amer. , Walter R.. physicist .... 1794 1852 Tr. Amer. Johnson, Sir "William, general and governor in North America 1715 1744 Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . . . 1803 1862 Scot. , Alex. K., geographer . . . 1804 Scot. . , George, writer and naturalist* . . 1798 1855 Scot. , James F. W., chronicler and agricultural author . 1796 1865 Fr. Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler . . . 1224 1319 Fr. , Francois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe . 1818 Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi . 1730 ItaL Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer . . 1714 1744 Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer ... 1775 Heb. Jonah, the prophet . . - . . f. B. o. 862 Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas . 1798 1858 Eng. , Inigo, an eminent architect .... 1572 1652 Amer. , Jacob, commodore in the U. 8. navy . . 1770 1850 Scot. , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States . 1736 179i Eng. , Owen, ^architect and decorator . . . 1809 Eng. , Thomas By mer, writer on anatomy and physiology 1810 Eng. , Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer . 1746 1794 Eng. , Eev. William, of Nayland,' Hutchinsonian divine . 1726 1800 Eng. , William, divine and author ... 1726 1800 Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist . . 1574 1637 IceL Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian ... 1704 17S9 Irish. Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. . .1762 1814 Dan. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author . . 1779 1830 Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author . . 1698 1770 Fr. Josephine, empress of the French (born in Marti nlco) . 1761 1*14 Jew. Josephua, celebrated historian and warrior ... 87 91 Heb. Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of the Israelites B. o. 1504 966 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. WAT.OH NAME AND PHOFKSSI05. BOBN. DIED, Heb. Joslah, 17th king of Judah . . ' . * . c. 647 . o. 608 Heb. Jotham, king of Judah . . . . . B.C. 783 a. o. 742 Fr. Joufiroy, Theo. B., metaphysician and statesman , . 1790 1842 Fr. Jourdan J. B., marshal of France . . 1762 1831 Jovianus, Flavius O., emperor . . 364 Ger. Juan, or John, of Austria, don, -warrior ... 1546 1578 Mex. Juarez, Benito, statesman and president ... 1807 Juba, king of Numidia . . . . . B. C. 46 , king of Mauritania and historian . . . . B. o. 18 Jew. Judab, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talrnudist . . 129 194 Heb. Judas Maccabeus, patriot . . . . . B. o. 160 Amer. Judd, Sylvester, author of ' Margaret ' . . . 1813 1853 Amer. Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India ... 1788 1850 Amer. , Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above . . 1789 1826 Amer. , Emily Chnbbuck, third wife of above, and author ('Fanny Forester') ..... 1817 1854 Amer. , Sarah Boardman, second wife of above . . 1803 1845 Dan. Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral . . . . 1629 1697 Jugurtha, Numidian king .... B. c. 104 Bom. Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author, < Apos- tate' ....... 331 363 Fr. Julien, A. J., orientalist .... 1799 Swiss. Jullien, Louis G., musical composer, &c. . . 1812 1860 Hind. Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul . 1816 Ger. Junge, Joachim, philosopher . . 1587 1657 Ger. Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author . . . 1740 1817 Dutch. JuniuB, Adrian, voluminous writer . . 1512 1575 Pr. Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes/military officer . 1771 1813 Fr. , Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &o. . . 1784 1839 Fr. Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist ... 1748 1836 Gr. Justin Flavius, A. J. ' the Elder,' Byzantine emperor . . 450 627 Horn. , Latin historian . . . . . B. o. 200 Gr. , Martyr, one of the fathers of the church . .91 165 Or. Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor . 482 565 Rom. Juvenal, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satirists . 128 Ger. Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian . . 1651 1716 Ger. Kaestner, Abraham Gotbelf, mathematician and astronomer . 1719 1799 Fr. Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 1717 1780 tiwe. Ealm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... 1716 1770 Kumehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Sandwich Islands . ... , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine . . 1684 1768 Fr. Larrey, Dominique J., baron, surgeon and author . . 1760 1842 Fr. La Salle, Robt. C., sieur de, navigator and author . . 1635 "687 Span. Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and historian . . . 1474 iJJl'iJ Fr. , biographer of Napoleon, &c. . . . 1762 1843 Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian . 1800 Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer 1470 15(9 Eng Latham, John, ornithologist .... 1740 18*1 Eng. . , Bobert G., philologist and ethnologist . 1812 41* 970 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORS, DIED Eng. Land, "William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition . 1573 1641 Soot. Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History . 1784 1848 Amur. Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war . 1756 1782 Amer. , Henry, patriot and statesman ... 1724 1792 Fr. Lavalette, M. C., count de, military commander . . 1769 1830 Fr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV . 1644 1710 Swiss. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist . . 1741 1801 Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . . 17 43 1794 Scot. Law, John, financier of the 'Mississippi Bubble* . 1671 1729 Eng. , "Win., religious and mystical author . . . 1686 1761 Ainer Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . . . 1792 1855 Amer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist . . 1786 1852 Amer. , James, captain in U. 8. Navy ... 1781 1813 Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh . 18i7 Amer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . . . t 1792 Eng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist . . 1777 1860 Amer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to "Washington, diplomatist . . 1760 1826 Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet .... 1729 1807 Swiss. Leclerc, John, eminent critic ..... 1657 1736 Amer. Le Conte, John, naturalist .... 1784 Amer. , John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) . 1825 Amer. , John, M. D., naturalist, (Georgia) . . 1818 Fr. Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician ... 1808 Amer. Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman . 1751 1788 Amer. Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman .... 1740 1782 Amer. , Charles, officer in the Revolution ... 1730 (?) 1782 Amer. , Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . . . (abt.) 1890 Amer. , Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence . . 1734 1797 Eng. , Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . . . 1750 1824 Amer. , Henry, general in Revolutionary War . . 1756 1816 Amer. , Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies . . 1808 Amer. . Richard Henry, pres. of Congress ... 1732 1791 Eng. , Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar .... 1783 1852 Eng. , Sophia, Miss, novelist . . . . 1750 1824 Eng. Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. ... 1817 1864 Fr. Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France 1755 1820 Amer. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and litterateur . . 1797 1843 Fr. Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . 1753 1833 Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer . . 1802 1840 Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher . 1646 1716 Eng. Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth . 1532 1588 Eng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . . 1752 1842 Scotch. Leighton, Robert, able prelate . . . . 1613 1684 Amer. Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer ... 1691 Amer. Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . . 1824 Eng. , John, eminent divine and author . . 1691 1768 Irish. , Thomas, eminent divine and author ... 1772 1788 Pol. Lelewcl, Joachim, historian ... 17S6 Fr. Lemaltre, Fred., actor . . . . 1798 Eng. Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of 'Punch ' . . 1809 Eng. Lempriere, John, biographer and lexicographer . . 1824 Fr. L'Knclos, Ninon de, noted courtezan . . , 1915 1684 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 971 RATION MAKE AMD PROFESSION. BORN. DIkD Dutch. Lennep. David J. van, jurist and poet ... 1774 Dutch. , Jan van, poet and novelist ... 1802 Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in N. Y.) ... 1710 1804 Fr. Lenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer . 1772 1043 Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors . ItaL Leo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts. 1475 1521 Ger. Leo, Henry, historian .... 1799 Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thermopylae . f. B. c .491 Ger. Leopold L, king of the Belgians .... 1790 186- Ger. I, emperor of Germany .... 1640 1705 Ger VI, " " . . . . . 1747 T192 a or 11, " " 1707 Rom. Lepidus, noted Roman family . . . B. c. &wl 200 36 Ger. Lepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egyptologist . . 1811 Russ. Lermontotf, Michael, poet ..... 1811 1841 Fr. Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist ... 1798 Fr. Leroy de Su Arnaud, J. A., marshal of France, general in chief 1801 1854 Fr. Lesage, Alain Rene, novelist and dramatist, ' Gil Bias ' . 1668 1747 Eng. Leslie, Charles Robt., artist and author ... 1794 1859 gcot. , John, bishop, theological writer ... 1570 ITfift 1671 Fr. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist .... It DO 1805 1832 Ger. Lessing, Gotthold E., critic and author ... 1729 1781 Amer. Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author ... 1815 Eng. L' Estrange, Sir Roger, political writer ... 1616 1704 Fr. Leuret, Francis, anatomist ..... 1797 1851 Fr. Le Vaillant, Franc, traveller and ornithologist . . 1753 1824 Irish. Lever Chas. Jaa., novelist ..... 1806 Amer. Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author . . 1803 1836 Fr. Leverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer .... 1811 Amer. Le Vert, Octavia W., authoress .... 1820 Scot. Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher . 1813 Eng. Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author . . 1817 Amer. Lewis, Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence . A mar. . Mflinr-ftftn. Mori/an, militarv ^nmmanrtAr- inriaf Arn 1713 \-7t.i 1803 1 OOfl Eng. , Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer. Monk Lewis . 1773 1818 Amer. - , Meri wether, soldier, explorer, and author . . 1774 Amer. - , Samuel, educationist .... 1799 1554 Eng. , Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman . 1806 Amer. , Taylor, classical scholar and author ... 1802 Bcot. Ley den, John, author ..... 1775 jsil Fr. L'Hdpital, Michel de, chancellor of France . . 1504 1573 Ger. Iiichtenberg, George C., experimental philosopher . 1742 1790 Amen Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born in Berlin) 1800 Ger. Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist .... 1803 Russ. Lieven, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . . 1784 1857 Eng. Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author ... 1735 1814 Dutch Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and author . 1735 1814 ItaL Liguorl, Alfons M. de, saint and theological writer . 1696 1787 Eng. Lilly, George, dramatist ... , 1693 ITSfl Eng. - , John, the Euphuist dramatic writer . , . 1653 1600 Eng. - , William, astrologer ... 1002 1681 972 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. JOHN. DII Dutch. Iiimborch, Philip, theologian and author . . 1633 171J Amer. Lincoln, Abraham, statesman, 16th president of the U. 8. . 1809 1865 Ainer. , Levi, attorney -general of the U. 3. (from Mass.) . 1733 1749 1 "7CO 1810 1821 Swe. Liud, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist ... . 17o 1821 Bug. Lindley, John, botanist .... 1799 Eng. Lindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of TravelB, &c. 1812 Scot. , Sir David, poet .... (abt) 1480 1556 Swe. Ling, Peter E., physiologist and poet . . 1776 1839 Eng. Lingurd, John, author of ' History of England' . . 1771 1851 Fr. Linguet Simon N. H., political writer and historian . . 1736 1794 Swe. Linnaeus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists . 1707 1778 Lipsiuti, Justus, critic . . . . 1547 1606 Eng. Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 1801 1S42 Eng. Listou, John, comic actor . ... 1776 1846 Hung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano ... 1811 Eng. Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist . 1481 Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 1781 1840 Amec Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author . 1811 Eng. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier . 1770 1828 Amer. Livingston, Brockholst, soldier and jurist . . 1757 i nf\A 1823 . " ' TJUJl! < V T^-J J? T J , ' ITvl 1718 1836 1778 Amer. , Robert R., statesman and jurist . . 1747 1 70^1 1813 Scot. Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa . I i-o 1815 1790 1866 Rom. Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian . . . B. o. 59 A. D. 17 Span. Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &o. . . 1756 1823 Eng. Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author . . . 1729 1783 Fr. Lobau, count, marshal of France . . . 1770 1838 Eng. Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician . 1632 1704 Scot. Lockhart, J. GK, critic and novelist, editor of' Quarterly' . 1794 1854 Eng. Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits' 1756 1S39 lud. Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief . . 1780 Amer. , James, colonial statesman and author . . . 1674 1751 Amer. , John A., major-general in Sherman s campaign, AT. C Eng. Lofft, Capel, author . . . . . 1751 1824 Irish. Lola-Monte/, Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer 1824 1861 Lollard, "Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne . 1S22 RUBS. Lomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian . . 1711 1765 Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman . 1769 12 Amer. Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author . 1784 Amer. Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist . . 1807 Or. Longinus, Dionysius Caseius, critic and philosopher . f. B. c. 250 Eng. Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house . 1699 1756 Amer. Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author . . 1790 ft. Longueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . . . 1619 1678 Amer. Long-worth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer . . 1782 1S63 Amer. Loi>mis, Elias, physicist, astronomer . . , 1811 Span. Lope de Vega, Carpio Felix, poet and dramatist . 1562 1638 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 973 ICATI01C. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIF.D Fr. Lorraine, Oharles de, cardinal and politician . 1524 1574 Amer. Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist ... 1813 Boot. London, J. C., voluminous writer on horticulture, agrioultuie, and architecture ..... 1783 1813 Eng. , Mrs. Jane W., horticultural writer ... 1800 1858 French. LOUTS, the name of eighteen kings of Franc* . Louis I., the Debtmnaire . . . . . 778 84C - IX., Saint ..... 1215 1270 XL, ethofhonseofValois .... 1423 148? M XIL, 8th " . 1462 1515 1601 1643 * XIV., 3d "..... 1638 1715 " XV., 4th " ..... 1710 1774 " XVt. ..... 1754 1793 1785 1795 ' XVIIL ...... 1755 1824 1S37 1773 1850 XT. ~~^~ - Jrhiiippe, King of the r rench ... Fr. Napoleon. Sec Bonaparte. Scot. Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason . . 1667 1747 Amer. Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist ... 1811 1802 1864 1837 Irish. Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer ... 1797 Irish. Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon . . 1769 1844 Amer. Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author ... 1782 1S01 Amer. , James Russell, poet and critic ... 1819 Amer. , John, lawyer and philanthropist ... 1769 1799 1840 ioo Amer. , John, jr., rounder of Lowell Institute . 1810 1000 Amer. Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union . 1722 1800 Amer. , William J , statesman .... 1782 1861 Eng. , William Thomas, 'Biblio- Manual' ... 1843 Eng. Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author . . 1710 178T Span Loyola, Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits . . 1491 1556 Eng. Luoan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . . 1800 If(-. In XT..,-. A vTTVll T + ;n tmpt 019 Gr. Lucian, celebrated writer . . . . 120 O/ 210 Rom. Lucilins, the earliest Roman satirist . . . B. c . 148 B. 0. 191 Ger. Lucke, Gott C. F., theologian .... 1792 1855 Rom. Lucretius. Caius Titus, eminent poet . . B. a 95 Rom. Luc nllns, wealthy warrior .... B. c. 115 B. O. 49 Eng. Ludlow, Edmund, republican judfre of Charles L . . 1620 1693 Span. Lnlly, Raimond, ' the enlightened doctor' . 1235 1316 Amer. Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist .... 1789 1839 Amen Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist . . Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation . 14S4 1548 Irish. Lnttrell, Henry, poet ..... 1851 Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, military officer .... 1628 1695 Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator . . . B. c. 898 ]ng. Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) ... 1375 1461 Scot. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller . . 1797 Amor. Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independence . 1749 l"7f 974 THE WOELD'S PBOGBESS. WATIOX. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORX. DIBtt Amer. Lynch, "William P., captain U. 8. navy, author of Dead Sea, fco. 1805 Eng. Lyndhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston) . 1772 Amer. Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist ... 1797 1849 Amer. , Matthew, politician ..... 1746 1822 Ainer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at "Wilson's Creek . 1819 1861 Or. Lysander, famous Spartan general . . . . E. c. 395 Gr. Lvsias, orator . . . * . .B.C. 459 Gr. Lyeimachus, one of Alexander's generals . B. c. 360 B. c. 281 Eng. I.yttleton, George, lord, poet and historian . 1709 1763 B. Fr. Mabillon, Jean, ecclestaetical author .... 1632 1707 Scot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . . 1756 1836 Irish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist .... 1737 1806 Eng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman 1800 1859 Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman . .- 1768 1838 Eng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer . . 1733 1791 Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11 tb century . . . Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . . . 1819 Irish. MacClure, Sir B.. J., discoverer of North-west passage . 1807 Amer. Macconnell, John L., novelist .... 1826 Amer. Maccorst, David J., political writer ... 1797 1855 Scot Maccosh, James, clergyman and author ... 1810 Scot. Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician . 1789 1864 Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . . 1826 Amer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army Eng. McCulloeb, John, M. D., geologist, &c. . . . 1773 1835 Scot. Maediarmid, John, author ..... 1779 1808 Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine ... 1720 1790 Fr. Maodnna'd, S. T. A,, marshal of France . . . 1765 1840 Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. 8. Navy, victor on Lake Champlain ..... 1783 1825 Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander dnion Army . . .1818 Amer. Macduffle, Geo., U. 8. senator from South Carolina . . 1788 1851 Scot Macgillivray. Win., naturalist .... 1796 1852 Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . . 1797 1857 ItaL Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . . 1469 1627 Scot. Maokay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 1812 Amer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. 1734 1817 Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels . 1803 1849 Bcot. Mackenzie, Henry, tho A ddison of the North . . . 1745 1831 Irish. Mackenzie, Robt. 8., journalist, &c. . . . . 1809 Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist . . . (bt ) 1810 Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . . 1766 1333 Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist ... 1690 1796 Scot Macknight, James, divine and author .... 1721 1800 Aust Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general . 1752 1828 Amer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist ... 1786 1857 Scot Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician .... 1698 1741 Amer. Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Court . 1785 Ecg. MacLean, L. E. L., (Miss Landon), poet and novelist . 1804 1835 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 975 JUTION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED Irish. Mac.ise, Daniel, historical painter . . , . 1811 Amer. M;icleod, Alex., clergyman and author . . , 1774 183k Amer. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . , , 1821 Scot. Maclure, William, geologist, &c .... 1763 1840 Fr. MacMahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal . . 1807 Scot. MncNab, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman . . . 1798 Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. Y.) . 1763 1841 Amer. Macomb, Major-General Alex., military commander . 1782 1841 Amer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years 1757 183't Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer . . . 1738 1796 Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion . . 1828 1864 Eng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian .... 1793 Scot. M aerie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 1772 1835 Eng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author ... 1801 Ger. Maddler, Johann Henry, astronomer .... 1794 Amer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . . 1751 1836 Welsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . . 12th edit. Span. Madoz, Pascuale, statesman and author . . . 1806 Rom. Maecenas, Caius C., minister of Augustus and patron of literature B. o. 9 Ital. Maflei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. . . . 1675 1755 Amer. Maffltt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . . 1794 1350 Irish. Magee, "Wm., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) . . 1765 1831 Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator . . 1521 Fr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist .... 1783 1855 Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 1793 1842 Fr. Magnan, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France . . 1791 1864 Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author . . . 1810 Bar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which hears his name ...... 569 632 Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople 1430 1480 Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian .... 1610 1686 Jew. Maimonide*, Moses, celebrated rabbi ... 1131 1204 Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen ... 1635 1719 Ital. Maio, Angelo. discoverer and editor of Latin classics . Ital. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . . 1753 1821 Eng. Maittnire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . . 1668 1747 Heb. Malachi, the prophet . . . . B. c. 5th cent. Swiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author . . 1787 1864 Amer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author . . . 1799 Scot. Malcolm, Sir John, 'History of Persia and India' . . 1769 1833 Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, metaphysician ... 1638 1715 Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) . . 1721 1794 Ital. Malibran, M. F., Madame, vocalist .... 1808 1836 Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet .... 1555 1628 Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer .... 1702 1765 Swies. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian .... 1730 1807 Eng. Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . . . 1746 1820 Eng. , Jas. H.H., (son of above), statesman . 1807 Eng. , William of, historian .... 1143 Eng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . . 1741 1S12 ItaL Malphlghi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist . . 1628 1694 Eng. Maltby, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist . . 1770 1861 976 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. RATIO*. 5AMK AND PBOFESSIOH. BOBS. DJKD. Ger. Malte Tirun, Conrad, poet and geographer . . . 1375 1821 Ger. , M., geographer . , . Eng. Malthus, T. R., political economist . , . 1766 188- Ital. Mamiant, Terenze, count, statesman and author . . 1799 Eng. Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author . . . 1300 1372 Pers. Manes, or Manichseus, founder of the Manichaean sect . 239 21 Ital. Manfred, prince of Tarenturn, king of Two Sicilies . (aht.) 1231 Ital. Manin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . . . . 1804 1857 Amer. Mann, Horace, statesman and educationist . . . 1793 1859 Eng. Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author ... 1812 Eng. Mansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian . . 1815 Ger. Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior ..... 1585 1624 Amer. Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . ... 1803 1862 Scot. , Wm. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman . . 1705 1793 Eng. Mantel!, G. A,, geologist .... 1790 185- Ital. Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author . . 1447 1517 Ital. , the Younger, printer and author . . 1547 1597 Ital. , Paulus, (son of Manutius), printer . . . 1512 1574 Ital. Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi ... 1784 Fr. Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist ... 1754 1793 Bom. Marcellus, Marcus Olaudius, general . . . B. c. 267 B. c. 208 Ital. Marco Polo, Venetian traveller .... 1256 1323 A.irer. Marcy, "Win. Learned, statesman . . . . 1786 1857 PC'S. Mardonius, Persian general in Greece . . . B. o. 479 Vf. Margaret of AngoulSme, queen of Navarre . . 1492 1549 JB>. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England . . lii>9 1481 Qer. Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 1530 Dan. Margaret, queen of Denmark, &c., 'Semiramis of the North ' . 1353 1412 Fr. Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1552 1612 Aust. Vlaria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 1847 Span. Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (born at Naples) . 1806 Ital. Vlaria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1574 1642 Span. Mariana, John, celebrated historian .... 15';7 1624 Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany . . . 1717 1780 Fr. Marie-Amelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . . 1782 Fr. Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . 1755 1793 Fr. Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . . . 1821 Ital. Mario, Giuseppe, m;irquis of Candia, vocalist . . 1810 Amer. Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution . 1795 Horn. Marius, Gains, famous general and demagogue . . B. c. 153 B. o. 86 Eng. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior . . 1650 1722 Fr. Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and traveller . ,*. . 1773 1852 Fr. Marmontel, John Francis, celebrated writer ... 1723 1799 Eng. Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatic poet . . . 1564 1593 Amer. Mapes, James J., agriculturist .... 1865 fi. Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi . 1637 1675 -Fr. Marrast, Annand, journalist and politician . . . 1800 1852 Fr. Mars, Mademoiselle, actress ... 1778 1847 Eng. Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . . . 1755 18M Eng. Marsh, Anne, novelist ..... (abt) 1800 Amer. Marsh, Geo. Perkins, phik'ogist and diplomatist . . 1801 BIOGRAPHICAL INDBX. 977 9 ATI OH. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. PUD. Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer 1758 1888 Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician .... 1794 1847 Amer. Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., biographer . . 1755 183i Eng. Marshman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author . 1767 1637 Eng. Marston, John, poet and dramatist . . . (abt.) 1570 1634 Kom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist ... 40 100 Eng. Martin, Benj., optician and author . 1704 1782 Fr. Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian ' . . . 1704 1782 Amer. Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian - . 1810 Eng. Martinean, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress ... 1764 1846 Eng. , James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author 1800 Prus. Marios, Ivan P., sculptor .... 1753 1835 Span. Martine^dela Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur . 1786 Ger. Mai tius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller . . Eng. Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia . . 1781 1812 Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist . . . 103? 1671 ItaL , Peter, reformer and theologian . . 1500 1561 Eng. Marvell, Andrew, author and statesman ... 1621 1678 Eng. Mary I., first queen regnant of England "... 1515 1558 Eng. , II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange . . 1662 1694 Scot. Stuart, queen of Scots ..... 1542 1587 Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller ... 1792 1848 Eng. Maseres, Francis, 'baron,' mathematician ... 1731 1824. Eng. Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer .... 1732 1811 Amer. Mason, George, statesman ..... 1726 1792 Amer. , Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman . . . 1768 1848 Amer. , John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces . . 1600 1672 Eng. , John, divine and author .... 1706 1763 Amer. , John. M., eminent divine .... 1770 1829 Amer. , John, M., senator from Viiginia, rebel . . Amer. , John Y., statesman and minister to France . . 1795 1859 Amer. , Lowell, mnsical teacher and composer . . 1792 Eng. , William, divine and poet .... 1725 1797 Ind. Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags . . . 1661 Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals . 1758 1817 Eng. Massey, Gerald, poet ..... 1828 Fr. Massillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . . . 1663 1742 Massinissa, king of Numidia .... (abt) B. o. 240 B. o, 148 Scot. Masson, David, biographer and essayist ... 1823 Eng. Maunder, Samuel ' Treasury of Knowledge ' ... 1790 1849 Amer. Mather, Cotton, divine and author ... 1663 1728 Amer. , Increase, clergyman and author ... 1639 1723 Irish. Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance ' . . 1790 1856 Eng. Mathias, Thorrias, author of 'Pursuits of Literature' . . 1750 1835 Eng. Matthew of Westminster, historian ... 13th cent. Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist . . . 1776 183J Amer. ' Matthias ' (Kobert Matthews), religions impostor . . 'abt/ 1790 183- Fr. Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . . 1791 Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet . 1782 1825 Eng. Muundrell, Rev. Henry, traveller in the East . . . 1650? 1710 Fr. Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. . 1698 ]"59 Hoi. Maurice, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, gtadtholder . 1667 1621 978 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. VATIOX. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author . Eng. , Thos. Rev., history of Hindostan, Herman, author of travels, romances Scot. Gr. Ger. Ger. Port. BORN. DUD 1805 . 1755 1821 . 539 602 1806 . 1746 1817 . 1758 1837 . 1790 1755 1829 . 1459 1519 (shot) 1834 1867 . 233 1795 i onQ 1851 . 1 OUl? 172S 1762 , hu- . (abt) 1812 . 1720 1766 . 1G02 1661 . 1709 . 1809 . 1815 1789 . 1867 . 1796 1857 . 1511 1535 . 1519 1574 . 1389 1464 :g 1448 1492 1769 1849 . 1747 1810 . 1497 1560 . 1779 1848 . 1799 1841 1710 1799 1666 1743 . 1545 1G22 -, Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author Menunder, comic poet .... Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer --, Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher Mendez-Pinto, Femam, adventurer, unjustly famed for lying - Span. Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman Ger. Mengs, Anton Raf:iel, painter and writer on art . Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . . . Mentchikoff, Alex., prince, statesman . . , Alex., 8., admiral Ger. Russ. Buss. Ger. Ger. Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of 'Mennoniteg' Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian . . Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer . . Airr. Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary w . 1809 1729 1510 1503 1728 1623 1672 1789 1798 1512 172C 1607 B. c. 290 1847 1786 1580 1575 1779 1698 1769 1561 1594 1777 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 979 NATION. SAME AND PROFESSION BORN. TOBP. Amer. Meigs, Return J., revol. officer . . . 1740 1828 Amer. Meri am, Ehen, statistician and meteorologist 1794 1861 Fr. Aieiimee, Prosper, novelist . . 1800 Eng. Merivale, Charles, historian Eng. , John Herman, poet . . 1779 1844 Swiss. Merle d'Aubigne, J. H., D. D., historian ... 1794 Fr. Merovaeu#, founder Merovingian dynasty . . . 411 457 Fr. Mery, Joseph, poet and novelist . . 1798 Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of ' Mesmerism ' . . . 1734 1815 Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet . . . 1698 1782 Eng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada . . 1783 1846 Bom. Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians . . B. c. 250 69 Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist . . 1773 1859 Dutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic . . 1579 1639 Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer . . . . 1791 Eng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. R., antiquarian author . * 1783 1848 Fr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian . . . . 1610 1682 Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist ... 1774 1849 Gr. Miaulis, naval commander 1772 1835 Heb. Micah, the Prophet . . . . . f. B. o. 750 Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian . . . . 1839 Ger. Michaelie, John David, learned orientalist and critic . . 1717 1791 Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian , 1767 1839 Fr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (' Sylva Americana') ... 1746 1802 Fr. Michel, Francisque, archasologist .... 1809 Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian . . . . . . 1798 Ger. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical writer . . . 1801 PoL Mickie-wicz. Adam, poet . . . , . 1798 1855 Eng. Mickle, William J. poet, translator of ' Lusiad," 4to. . 1734 1788 Eng. Middleton, Conyere, divine and elegant writer . . . 1683 1750 Amer. , Arthur, patriot and statesman . . . 1743 1787 Eng. , Thomas, dramatist .... 1627 Amer. Mitnin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary-war . . 1744 1800 Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian ..... 1795 Port. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal 1802 Amer. Milbum, William Henry, 'blind preacher' and author 1823 Scot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist 1775 1836 Eng. , John Stuart, political philosopher . . . 1806 Eng. Millais, John Everett, 'pre-Raphaelite 1 painter . . 1829 Amer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c., (' I'll try, sir') . 1776 1851 Eng. , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests . 16S4 1738 g co t. , Hugh, geologist ...... 1802 1856 Amer. , William, founder of the Millerites,' or second adven lists 1781 1849 Fr. Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet ..... 1782 1816 Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, naturalist, &c ... 1759 Eng; Millman, Henry Hart, Rev., poet and historian . . 1791 Fr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian . . . 1726 1785 Eng. Mills, Charles, historian ...... 1788 1826 Fr. Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist . . 1800 Eng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman . . 1809 Eng. Milner, Joseph, author of 'Church History' . ( 1744 1797 Amer- Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman . . 1773 1844 980 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIEU Gr. Miltiades, illustrious Athenian general . , B. 0. 48S Eng. Milton, John, the Homer of Biitain . . 1608 1674 Fr. Mini6, Claude E., inventor of the Mini6 rifle-bullet . . 1810 Amer. Minot, George R., historian ...... 1758 1803 Rom. Minutius-Felix, Marcus, Christian writer ... 3d cent. Mex. Miramon, Miguel, military leader .... (abt.) 1830 1867 Span. Miranda, Francis, revolutionary general ... 1750 1818 Fr. Mirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated character in the 1749 1791 Fr. Mirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist .... 1776 1854 Amer. Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general . 1810 186- 1822 1818 Amer. , Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist . 1763 1831 TJ, T*v,rtrt rl ')'"' C"3 1 ^~1. " *3 ~ ? + :~ nncQ 1845 Eng. Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist ... 1 ICO 1786 1855 Eng. , Rev. John, editor of poets, .... 1781 1734 1859 1827 Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior . . . . B. c. 123 B 0. 64 Ger. Mitscherlich, E., chemist ..... 1794 1863 Ger. Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman ... 1787 Turk. Mohammed-AH, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) 1769 f. 1650 1850 Ger. Mohler, Johann Adam K., catholic theologian . . 1796 Ger. Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist ..... 1774 1839 Scot. Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . . 1798 1851 JFr. Molle, M. L., comte, statesman . . . . 1781 1855 Hoi. Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and raturalist . . 1822 Eng. Molesworth, Sir William, statesman and author . . 1810 1855 Fr. Moleville, Anthony F. deBertrand, count de, historian . 1754 1817 Fr. Moliere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist ... 1622 1673 Span. Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author ... 1585 1600 Scot. ' Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist .... 1714 1799 Eng. Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman . . 1265 Eng. Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer . * 1608 1670 Swiss Monod, Adolphe, ' reformed pastor ' and author . . 1802 1856 S T" I? A .' V ( lfWtn itA -r.natr\t** t T> ' 1794 1863 oWlss. ; J-T. .neu* nc&, r mtupasior ii jrans ... Amer. Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president U~i+. Mcx. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns . 1471 ilex. II, last Atzec emperor . . 1480 1520 Fr. Montfaucon, Bern, de, arcbseologist and author . * 1655 1741 Eng. Montgomery, James, poet . . . 1771 1854 Amer. , Richard, intrepid military officer . . 1737 1778 Eng. , Robert, poet ..... 1807 1855 l-'r. Montbolon, comte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon . 1783 1853 Fr. Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . . . 1493 1567 Ital. Monte, Vincent, poet ..... 1753 1828 Fr. Montmorency, noble family of France . . . 10th to 19th century Fr. Mompensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &o . . 1627 1693 Scot. Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader . . 1612 1661 Amer. Moore, Geo. H., author ..... Amer. , Frank H , author . . . . Amer. , Clement C., writer of verses, Ac. . . . 1779 1863 Amer. , Jacob Bailey, journalist and author ... 1797 1853 Scot , John, miscellaneous author . . . 1728 1802 Scot. , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna . 1761 1809 Ital. Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer .... 1526 1555 Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . . . 1744 1833 Eng. , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher . 1614 1687 "St. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general ... 1763 1818 .Amer. Morfit, Campbell, chemist and author . . . 1820 Amer. Morgan, Daniel, brig, gen., in revolutionary war . . 1736 1802 Amer. , Jno. Henry, rebel flllibuster general . . Eng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &e. . . 1780 1858 Eng. , Sir Henry J., buccaneer . . 1637 1690 Eng. Morier, James, novelist, ' Hajji Baba' Ac. . . 1780 1849 Eng. Moruington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer . 1720 1784 Fr. Morny, Chas. A. count of, minister of Napoleon III. . . 1811 1866 Amer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player . . 1837 Eng. Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . . 1703 1784 Amer. Moms, Geo, P., poet and journalist . . . 1802. 1864 Amer. , Gouverneur, distinguished statesman . . . 1752 1816 Amer. , Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence . 1726 1798 Amer. , Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier 1703 1806 Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist . 1782 1834 Eng. , Robert D. D., missionary and philologist . . 1782 1834 Amer. Morse, Jedodiah, geographer and statistical Tvriter . 1761 1827 Amer. , Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph . . 1791 Amer. , Sidney E., journalist and geographer . . 1794 Fr. Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi ... 1768 183S Scot. Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent . . . 1530 1581 Amer. , John, signer of Declaration of Independence . (Penn) 1724 1777 Amer. , Samuel Geo.. anatomist and ethnologist . . 1799 1851 Amer. , Wm. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (7) . 1819 Heb. Moses, lawgiver of the Jews . . . B. 0. 1571 B c. 1451 Ger. Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian . . 1695 175& Scot. Motherwell, William, poet .... 1797 1836 Amer. Motley, John Lothrop, historian .... 1814 Amer. Mott, Lucretia, minister of 'Friends' and philanthropist . 1793 Amer. -, Valentine, surgeon and author . * . 1786 1801 982 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOV. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBS. DIED Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit . . 1660 17 11 Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet . . . . f. B. c. 160 Ainer. Moullrie, Wm., general and statesman . . . 1731 1805 Mouradgea, D'Ohason, Armenian historian . . 1740 1807 Amer. Mowatt (Ritchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress . (abt) 1826 Ger. Mozart, C. "W. T., eminent composer . . . 1756 1792 Eog. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Nat ural History, &o. 1777 1842 Ger. Muller, C. O., historiau, archaeologist classical scholar . . 1797 1840 Swiss. Muller, John von, celebrated historian, 'Universal History' 1752 1809 Ger. , John, physiologist ..... 1801 1S58 Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. F., proverbial for 'stories' . . 1720 1797 Eng. Manden, Jos. 8., comedian ..... 1758 1832 Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of Naples . 17T1 1815 ItaL Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian .... 1672 1750 Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator . . 1727 1805 Scot. Murray, Alex., self-taught linguist .... 1775 1813 Scot. , Hugh, geographer (Encyclo) . . . 1779 1846 Scot , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent ... 1531 1570 Eng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher . . 1778 1843 Amer. , Lindley, grammarian .... 1745 1826 Amer. , Wm., Vans, statesman .... 1761 1803 Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet . . . . f. B. 0. 1243 Fr. Musset, Louis C. A. de, poet . . . . 1810 1857 N. &.ssyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeans . . fl. B. o. 747 Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . . . . fl. B. C. 626 1'ers. Nadir Shah, or Thatnas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king . . 1688 1747 Heb. Xahum, prophet . . . . . f. B. c. 7th cent. Irish. Napier, Ohas. Jas., general in India, &c. . . . 1782 1853 Scot. , John, baron, inventor of logarithms . . 1550 1617 Eng. -, , Sir Charles, admiral ..... 1786 1860 Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) .... 1769 1821 Fr. , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) . . .1811 1832 Fr. , III., (Louis Napoleon), emperor ... 1808 Eng. N ares, James, musical docto v , composer ... 1715 1783 Eng. , Rev. Edmund, 'Thinks I to myself . . 1T62 1841 Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor . 567 Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman . . 1795 Eng. Nash, Richard, styled ' Bean Nash ' . . . . 1674 1761 Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general ... 1567 1625 Pers. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer .... 1201 1274 Span. Navarrete, Martin F. de, 'Collect of Voyages' . . 1765 1844 Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the 'History of the Puritans,' &e . 1678 1743 Amer. , John, novelist ..... 1794 Amer. , Joseph C., litterateur . . . . .1807 1848 Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian . . 1789 1850 Gr. Neaichus, admiral and voyager . . . B. o. 4th cent. Chald. Nebux.hadne7.zar, king of Babylon . . B. o. 462 Fr. Meeker, James, eminent financier and statesman . . 1732 1804 , Madame J. C., wife of James, essayist . 1739 1704 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 983 IUTIOM NAME AND PROFESSION. BOEN. LED, fing. Neele, Henry, poet and miscellaneous wr;ter . . . 1798 1828 Swiss. Neff, Felix, apostle of the Alps .... 1798 1829 Heb. Nehemiah, governor of Judea . . . . 1. B. c. 444 Eng. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral . . 1758 1808 Horn. Nepos, Cornelius, historian . . . . . B. c. 3C Bom. Nero, infamous emperor . . . 37 68 Rom. Nerva, emperor ...... 32 98 Buss. Nesselrode, Charles B., count, statesman and diplomatist . 1780 1862 Gr. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, founder of Nestorians . 439 Ger. Neukomm, Sigism. cbevalier, composer . . . 1778 1857 Ger. Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. 1782 Eng. Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer . . 1725 1807 Eng. , Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers . . 1642 1727 Eng. , Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) . . 1704 1782 Fr. Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave* . . 1769 1815 Gr. Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . . . 14bh cent. Russ. Nicholas 1., emperor, (1825-55) .... 1796 1855 Eng. Nichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist . . 1807 1863 Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic . . Eng. , William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 1753 1815 Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer . 1786 1842 Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author . ._ , 1733 1811 Eng. Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary .... 1799 1848 Ger. Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian ... 1776 1830 Ger. , Carsten, celebrated traveller . . . 1733 1815 Pol. Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author . 1756 1841 Eng. Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . . Amer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist 'Register' ... 1777 1839 Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist ..... 1787 Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . . 1851 Ger. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . 1770 1826 Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist ... . . .1783 1844 Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author . . Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman . 1797 186." Eng. North, Francis, 1st lord Guilford, 'lord keeper' . . 1637 168i Eng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . . 1732 1791 Eiig. Northcote, James, artist and biographer . . . 1746 3837 Amer. Norton, Andrews theological, Unitarian author . . 1790 1835 Eng. , Hon. Mrs., poetess . . . . Amer. Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher . . 1834 1859 Amer. , Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author 1773 1866 Eng. , John, poet and translator .... 1751 1826 Ger. Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . . 1772 1801 Eng. Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) . . 1781 1861 Amer. Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . . 1805 1864 Irish. Nugent, lord, author of 'life of Hampden,' &c. . . 1850 Bom. Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f. B.C. 714 Span. Nunez, Alv a C. de Vaca, explorer ... 1564 O. Eng. Gates, Titus, infamous pretender of the 'Popish plot* . . 1619 1701 Fr. Oberlin, John Fred., philanthropist . . . 1740 t83# 984 THE WOBLD'S PBOGBESS. KATIOH. XAHE AND PEOFES3IOM. BORN. DIED. Irish. O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet .... 1888 Itish. , Wm. Smith, political agitator ... 1806 186- Irish. O'Connell, Daniel, political agitator .... 1775 1841 Irish. O'Connor, Fergus, chartist orator .... 1795 185a Eng. Ockley, Simon, orientalist . , . 1678 1720 Arab. Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . .\ . 267 Fr. Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman .... 1791 Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy .... 493 Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch., discoverer of electro-magnetism . . 1777 1851 Eng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . . . 1698 1785 Irish. O'Keefe, John, dramatist .... 1748 1833 Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist ..... 1778 1851 Ger. Olbers, H W. M., astronomer .... 1S40 Eng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham .... 1360 1417 Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author . 1797 1851 Span. Olivan, don Aless., publicist ..... Amer. Oimsted, Denison, professor, astronomer, &c. . . 1791 1859 Ger. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian ... 1796 1839 Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . 581 644 Irish. O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author . . 1778 1836 Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons . . 1691 1768 Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education . . 1771 1853 Gr. Oppian, poet ...... f. 150 Dutch. Orange, "William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 15S4 Dutch. , William IL, prince of, stadtholder . . . 1626 1650 Dutch. , William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England 1650 1702 Span. Orflla, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist . . 1787 Origen, one of the fathers of the church ... 185 253 Fr. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of Kgalite,' guillotined . . 1747 1793 FT. , Fer. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe . 1810 1842 Buss. Orlofl', Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . . . 1734 1783 Eng. Orme, Robert, historian of India .... 1728 1801 Eng. Ormond, James Butler duke, of, statesman . . . 1610 16S3 Gr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes styled the 'father of poetry' . Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy . . 1676 1731 Irish. , Boger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author . 1621 1679 Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author . . . 1717 1783 Amer. Osgood, Frances, poetess .... 1812 1850 Amer. , Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author . . 1812 Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer 1502 1580 Scot. OtfBian, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century Egypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt .... (abt.) 1500 Amer. Otis, James, patriot and statesman .... 1725 1772 Amer. , Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist . . . 1767 1848 Ger. Otho L, king of Greece (born in Bavaria) ... 1815 1867 Eng. Ottley, Wm. Young, writer on art . . . 1771 1836 Eng. Otway, celebrated dramatist, ' Venice Preserved ' . . 1651 1685 Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France . . . 1767 1847 Eng. Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist .... 1769 1844 Ger. Overbeck, Fred., founder of modern religious school of art 1783 Eng. Overbury, Sir Thos., (poisoned in the Tower) . . . 1681 1612 Bom. Ovid, Fublius N wo, poet . . . . B. c. 43 17 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 985 RATIOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. VIED. Span. Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West Endies' 1640 Amer. Owen, David Dale, geologist .... 1807 1860 Eng. , John, independent theologian . 1618 1683 Eng. , Eichard, surgeon and naturalist ... Welsh. , Robert, political theorist .... 1771 1800 Amer. , Robert Dale, statesman and author * . Eng. Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author . . . 1717 1797 P. Amer. Paine, Elijah, jurist ...... 1757 1842 Amer. , Elijah (son of above), jurist . . . 1796 1853 Auier. , John Howard, dramatist, ' Home, Sweet Home ' . 1791 1851 Amer. , Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot ... 1731 1814 Amer. , Robert Treat, son, poet, . . . .1773 1811 Eng. , Thomas, political and deistieal writer . . 1736 1809 JTr. Paixhan, general, inventor of guns bearing his name . . 1782 1854 Ven. Paez, military commander and president Venezuela . 1787 ItaL Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist .... 1784 1835 Eng. Paley, William, eminent divine and author . . 1745 1805 Eng. Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author ... 17S8 1861 Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist . . . . 1730 1815 Fr. Palissy, Bernard, 'the Potter' .... 1510 1590 Ital. Palladio, Andrew, architect .... 1518 1580 Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist ... 1741 1811 Eng. Palmerst on, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . . 1784 1865 Ger. Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer .... 1729 1812 Ital. Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general . . 1726 1806 Can. Papineau, L. J , politician and patriot ... 1789 Rom. Papinian, ^Emilius, civil lawyer .... 145 212 Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., alchemist ... 1493 1541 Eng. Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist .... 1812 1S62 Fr. Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe . 1838 Eng. , Matthew, historian .... 1259 Scot. Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller .... 1771 1804 Amer. Parker, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 1810 1860 Eng. Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author .... 1759 1829 Ital. Parma, Alexender Farnese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands 1546 1592 Irish. Parnell, Thos., poet and divine .... 1679 1717 Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . . 1746 1825 Eng. , Thomas, lived 152 years . . . 1483 1635 Eng. Parry, C apt. Edward, Arctic navigator ... 1790 18J6 Amer. Parsons, Theophilus, jurist ..... 1750 1813 Amer. , Theophilus (son), jurist .... Amer. Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist . . Atnei. , Mrs. Sarah, 'Fanny Fern,' authoress . . 1811 Fr. Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer . . 1623 1662 Russ. Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of "Warsaw, general . . 1782 18J6 Eng. Pasley, Gen. Sir Chas. W.,. engineer .... 1781 1861 Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . . 1767 1862 Ger. Paasow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) 1786 183* Rom. Paterculus, Cuius Velleius, historian . . (abt.) B. o. 30 . 42 986 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOHN. DIKD. Eng. Patinore, Coventry, poet ... 1823 Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland .... 372 493 Eng. , Simon, bishop of Chichester, Bible commentary . 1626 1707 Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) .... 1552 1623 Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles .... 65? Fr. , St. Vincent do, Catholic missionary . . . 1576 1669 Amer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . . 1779 I860 Eom. Paulus-^Emilius, Lucius, fell at Cannsa . . . B.C. 216 Gr. Pausanias, spartan commander . . . B. o. 470 Gr. , topographical writer . . . . f. (abt.) 120 Eng. Paxt on, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect . . 1802 1865 Eng. Payne, Eoger, noted book-binder .... 1739 1797 Amer. Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine . . 1783 1827 Amer. Pcabody, Eliz P., educational writer ... 1802 Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer . . 1799 1848 Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician . . 1858 Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester, ' On the Creed' . 1613 1686 Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria II.) . 1837 1S6- Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal . . 1834 Eng. Peel, Sir Kobert, 1st baronet, cotton manufacturer . . 1750 1830 Eng. , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman ... 1850 Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) .... 1552 1598 Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect . . S54 Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias . . . 757 Fr. Pelissier, A. J. J-, duke of Malakoff, marshal . . 1794 1864 Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot .... 1789 1854 Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general . . . B. o. 364 Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist .... 1807 Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of . . . 1621 Eng. Penn, Granville, author ..... 1761 1844 Eng. , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania 1621 1670 Eng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania . 1644 1718 Eng. . Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary . . 1726 1798 Ital. Pepo, William Florestan, general ... 1780 1S55 Amer. Pepporell, Sir William, general . . . 1697 1759 Ital. Pepoli, Charles, litterateur .... 1801 Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, axithor of ' Diary' . 1632 1703 Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated . . 1762 1812 Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic . . 1795 1857 Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, ' Religious Ant, Poetry* 1728 1811 Fr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . . 1605 1670 Eng. Pereiren, Jonathan, M. D., 'Materia Medica' . . 1804 1853 Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer . . . 1710 1736 Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman . . B. c. 490 B c. 429 Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist . . 1735 1864 Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) 1599 1660 Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. . . . 17G6 1849 Kng. , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist 1764 1854 Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator . . 174L 1788 Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . . . . 1777 188J Amer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, ('Japan') . . 1795 1858 Amer. , Oli ver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy . . 176 181$ BIOGB-JPHICAL INDEX. 987 NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIBD. Fr. Persigny, Jean Q. V., politician and diplomatist . 1808 Horn. Persius, Flaccus Aulus, satirist . - . , 34 61 Ger. Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life by son) 1772 1843 Rom. Pertinax, emperor ...... 126 193 Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 1745 1827 Russ. Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior . . . 1672 1725 Fr. the Hermit, first mover of the crusades . 1050? 1115 Eng. Peters, Hugh, ' fanatic '..... 1599 1600 Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, warrior . . 1658 1735 Ger. Petermann, August H., geographer . . . Amer. Petigrew, James Louia, of S. 0., Union statesman . . 1789 1863 Petion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti . . . 1770 1818 Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets . 1304 1374 Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. andhi.-torian 1778 1854 Ger. Pfeiffer, Ida, traveller and author . . . 1795 1858 Bom. Phsedrus, fabulist . . . . . . f. 30 Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess . . . 1726 1795 Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . . . B. o. 383 B. 0. 336 St., of Neri, founder of the Oratory . . 1515 1595 Eng. Phillimore, John G., author on law . . . 1809 1865 Eng. Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist . . . 1749 Eng. , John, poet 'Splendid Shilling' ... 1676 1708 Eng. , Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . . 1768 1840 Jew. Philo-Judasus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria . . f. A. D. 40 Qr. Philopcemen, celebrated general . . . . B. o. 253 B. o. 183 Eng. Phipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts . 1651 1695 Gr. Phocion, eminent Athenian general . . .B.C. 400 B. C. 318 Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople . . 815 891 Amer. Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . . . 1768 1837 Ital. Piazzi, Joaeph, astronomer .... 1746 1826 Fr. Picard, Uouis Benedict, dramatist and novelist . 1769 1824 Fr. Pichegru, Charles, eminent general .... 1761 1804 Amer. Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman . . 1746 1829 Amer. , John, philologist . . 1772 1846 Swiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer . 16o5 1724 Eng. Pictou, Sir Thomas, general .... 1815 Amer. Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. . . 1804 Rom. Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea . . . 38? Amer. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist . 1825 Amer. , William, distinguished orator and diplomatist . 1765 1822 Gr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets . . . B. o. 522 B. o. 442 Scot. Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author . . 1758 1826 Span. Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, navigator, dUcovered Brazil . f. 1500 Amer. Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 1789 1821 Fr. Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit . . . 1689 1773 Gr. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens . . . . B. c. 527 Amer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician . . 1765 1841 Eng. Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator ... 1699 ] 748 Eng. , "William, 1st earl of Chatham, statesman . . 1708 ]778 Eng. , Wil iam, celebrated statesman, sou of Lord Chatham . 1759 1806 Gr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages . . B. o. 650 B. c 670 Ital. Pins IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) . . . 1782 988 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, NATION Span. Eng. Gr. Rom. Eng. Boin. Rom. Egypt. Irish. Gr. Ind. Eng. Amer. Ger. Amer. Fr, Eng. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Eng. Ital. Gr. Port Eng. Fr. Rom. Span. Pol. Ind. Eng. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBV. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . . . 1475 Platoche, James R., dramatist and miscellaneous writer . 1796 Plato, illustrious philosopher, founder of the Academic sect B. o. 430 Plautus, comic poet . . . . B. o. 227 Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 1749 , Lyon, chemist, (born in Bengal) . . . 1819 Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 23 , the younger, warrior and author . . .61 Plotinns, Platonic philosopher .... 203 Plunkct, W. C., lord chancellor of Ireland ... 1765 Plutarch, celebrated biographer . 50 Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. . . . Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator . . , D. K., learned prelate and traveller . . Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . . Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist Poinsett, Joel R., statesman, diplomatist, and author Poisson, D. S., mathematician Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman . Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. . . . Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general . 1604 . 1704 1811 1796 1773 1781 1500 1780 1611 1795 1806 1799 1250 B. c. 205 Pollok, Robt., poet, ' Course of Time ' . . Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller . Po'ybius, eminent historian Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author . Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman .... 1699 Pomfret, John, poet ..... 1667 Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . . . . 1772 Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior . (' The Great.') B. o. 106 Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America . . . 1460 Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . 1763 , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . . 1732 Pontiac, Indian chief ..... 1712 Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' &o. ... , Matthew, able divine and author ... . 1624 Eng\ Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet .... 1688 Amer. , John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist, 1823 Porphyry, Platonic philosopher .... 233 Eng. Person, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic . . 1759 Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher ... 1540 Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist .... 1781 Amer. , David, commodore, U. S. Navy . . . 1780 Amer. , David D., rear-admiral .... 1776 Eng. , Jane, novelist, . . . . . Eng. , Sir Robert Ker, author of 'Travels,' &o. . . 1780 Eng. Porteus, Beilby, eminent prelate .... 1731 Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, and educa- tional author ..... 1800 A i .HT. Horatio, D. D., episo. bishop of New York . . Kng. , John, archbishop of Canterbury. ' Gr. Antlq.' . 1674 1541 B. c. 347 B. c. 184 1819 79 115 270 1854 120 1617 1691 1765 1856 1851 1840 1558 1847 1741 1840 1864 1827 1323 B.C. 123 160 1782 1703 1764 B. c. 48 1521 1818 1769 1779 1744 304 1808 1616 1832 1843 1850 1843 1808 1863 1747 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 989 A1IOV. HAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator . . 1721 1S04 Eng. Irish. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist . t - . 1787 1795 1866 1841 Russ. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist . 1768 1841 Eng. Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, poet . . . . 1802 1839 Amer, Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer . . 1759 1837 Amer. Preble, Edward, commodore in the U. S. Navy . . 1761 1807 Amor. Prentiss, Sargent 8, lawyer and politician, famed for eloquence 1810 1850 Amer. Prescott, Wm. Hickling, historian .... 1796 1859 Amer. Preston, Wm. 0., U. 8. senator for South Carolina . . 1794 1860 Eng. Rncr Price, DK R., writer on civil liberty ?'' 1728 1747 1791 1829 JMJg. Eng. Prideanx, Humphrey, learned divine. . . 1648 1724 Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy . . 1799 1851 "Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer . . 1733 1804 Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England . . 1687 1758 Eng. Piingle, Thos., poet and traveller .... 1789 1834 Eng. Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist . 1788 1864 Bug. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman .... 1664 1721 Eng. Pritchard, J. C., ethnologist, Natural History of Man' . 1785 1848 Rom. Probus, Marcus Aurelius, emperor .... 232 282 Ital. Procida, John of, patriot . . . 1225 1303 Gr. Probus, a Platonic philosopher . . . . 410 4S7 Procv ~>ius, historian ..... 410 487 Rom. , Antliemius, emperor . . . . 472 Eng. Tariff Proctor, Miss Ade aide A., poetess . . . 17S7 1864 C'Ug. Rom. Propertius, Sextus Aureiius, poet . . . B J o { . o. 52 B 0. 12 Fr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist . . 1809 1865 Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary . 1609 1669 Fr. Psalmanazar, George, literary impostor . . . 1679 1763 Egypt Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer . 70 Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &o. . 1785 Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian . 1632 1794 Eng.- Pugin, Augs. Welby, architectural writer . . . 1S11 1852 Pole. Ital. Pnlaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service . . 1747 1779 1487 Hung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author ... 1814 Eng. Parcel!, Henry, musical composer .... 1658 1695 Eng. T'U ,..; AA 1 ** nn *... 1682 i -^ nos., nj \ er ... Eng. Purchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage . . 1577 1628 Amer. Pursh, Fred., botanist ..... 1774 1820 Eng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites ' . . 1800 Amer. Putnam, Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution . 1718 1790 Amer. "Pnfllo Tlirtrtrt RoftloV ~*" '""*!" 1738 1824 , ivuiiis, pjoneer senior 01 wnio . Eng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, 'Art of Eng. Poesie' . 1600 Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate .... 1745 1813 Bug. Pym, John, republican politician .... 1584 1643 Amer. Pynchon, "Wm., f junder of Sprinefield, MaB. . . 1591? 1.62 Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect . . f. B. 0. 300 Pyrrhus, king of Epirm . .... B. o. 27J Gr. Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher . . . B. 0. 586 B. c. 497 990 ras WORLD'S PBOGEESS. WAI/OK. KAMF. AND PROFESSION. BORIC. 1 1KB. Eng. Qaaln, Jones, M. D., anatomist .... 1861 Eng. Quaries, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems' . 1592 1644 Fr. 1857 Quekett, John, microscopist ... 1815 1861 Fr. Quesne, Abraham du, admiral . . . 1610 1688 Quesnel, Peter, 'History of Jesuits' . . . 1699 1774 Belg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician . 1796 Span. Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet ... 1580 1645 Eng. Quin, James, actor ...... 1G93 1766 Fr. Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist ... 1655 1668 Amer. Quincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author . . 1772 1864 A mpT* TftHnh Tr f*T TDivnr nf TlftrtnTi finrl fininfMcr 1802 Fr. Quinet, Edgar, liti&rateur ... . 1803 Span. Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian . . 1772 1857 Rom. Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator . . . 42 122 Rom. Qu'.ntus-Curlius, historian . . . f. time Vespasian 1st Cent. Amer. Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi . . 1799 1858 R Fr. Rabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . . . . 1483 1553 Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist . . . 1589 1699 Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress .... 1820 1858 Eng. Radcliffe, Anne, romance -writer, ' Mysteries of TJdolpho' . 1764 1823 Aust. Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander in Italy . . 1766 1858 Eng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector . 1788 1863 1R9A JVlg. Amer. Rafinesque, S. C. J., botanist .... 1784 J.OZO 1842 Dan. Rafn. C. C., historian and antiquary .... 1795 Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea . 1788 1855 Amer. . Raguet, Condy, political economist .... 1784 1842 Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Snndsy schools' . 1785 1811 Eng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, ' a man illustrious in arms and literature' . . . - . . . 1552 1618 Hind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist .... 1776 18:)3 Scot. Rarr.say, Allan, poet ..... 1685 1758 A *. 1749 1812 jvmer. Span. Ramun'o, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages' . . 1485 1557 Amer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman . 1773 1833 Amer. Ger. Ranke, ^Leopold, historian . . . . 1795 Fr. Kaoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller . - 1790 neb. Raphali, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher . . 1798 Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England' . 1661 1725 Rnpp, Oeo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists . . . 1770 1847 Pan. R:isk, E. C., philologist and lexicographer . . 1784 18SI Fr. Raspr.il, F. V., chemist and radical statesman . 1794 PruM. Rnuch, Fred. A., metaphysician ... 1806 1841 Ger. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . . 1781 Amer. Rawle, William, jurist . . . 1759 1831 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 991 NATIOS. HAVE AND PROFESSION. BORX DIED. Eng. Rawllnson, Sir Henry C., geographer and orientalist . . 1810 Eng. Bay, John, naturalist and author . . . 1628 1701 Fr. Raynal, "William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher . 1713 1796 Bcot. Reach, Angus B., journalist and author . . . 1821 Amer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral . . . 1863 Eng. Reade, Charles, novelist . . . . . Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . . . . . 1777 1849 Eng. Tiedding, Cyrus, journalist and author ... 1785 Amer. Redfield, William C., meteorologist .... 1789 1867 Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief ... 1759? 1830 Amer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist ... 1808 1854 Eng. , Isaac, critic and editor .... 1742 1807 Amer. , Joseph, general in revolution ... 1748 1786 Amer. , Win. B., politician and author ... Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopedia &o. . . 1743 18?5 Eng. Reeve, Clara, novelist, 'Old English Baron' . . 1723 1803 Eng. , John, comic actor ..... 1799 1838 Eng. , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher , . 1814 1865 Fr. Regnard, John Francis, comic writer . . . 1647 1709 Fr. Regnault, Henry Viet., chemist .... 1810 Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist ... 1788 Irish. Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist .... 1818 Bcot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologist, 'Use of Storms' 1791 1858 Amer. -, Samuel O., naval commander .... 1783 1S61 Scot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician . . . 1710 1796 Ger. Relnhaid, Francis V., (founder of Christ.) . . . 1753 1812 Fr. Remusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist ... 1788 1832 Fr. Rene, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily .... 1409 1480 Eng. Kennel, Major J., geographer and traveller . . 1742 1830 Scot. Rennie, John, eminent erg : neer and architect . 1761 1821 Amer. Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army . . . 1825 1862 Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener . , . 1702 1818 Turk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey . . 1802 1858 Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, ministerof Louis XV. . 1614 1679 Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer . . 1779 1859 Amer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg . 1820 1863 Eng. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance . 177:2 1S23 , Joseph Lewis, (on International law) . . 1812 1862 Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian . . 1700 Eng. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer . . . * 1850 Eng. Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England . . 1157 1199 Eng. III, king, killed at Bosworth . . 1550 1485 Eng. Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet) . . 1775 1861 Scot. , James, traveller in Africa . . . 1851 Eng. , Samuel, eminent novelist . . . 1GS9 1761 Scot. , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer 1787 1865 Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plepsis, cardinal and duke, statesman 1585 1642 Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. . . 1763 1825 Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prof. martyr . . 1500 1555 Span, Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . . 1783 1826 Ital. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer . . 1313 13'H Ital. Riatori, Adelaide, actress . . 1821 992 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. HA MB AND PROFESSION. BORN. P.T8D, Eng. Ritchie, Leitch, journalist and author . . . 1800 186J Amer. Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, 'Richmond Enquirer' . 1778 1854 Eng. Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . .1752 1803 Amer. Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer . . 1731 1798 Ger. Ritter, Aug. H., ' History of Philosophy . . 1791 Ger. - , Charles, geographer .... 1779 1858 Span. Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet 1791 Amer. Rives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist . . Amer. Rives, John 0., journalist, ' "Washington Globe' . . 1796 1864 Amer. Rivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. Y. . . 1724 1802 Scot. Roberts, David, landscape painter and author . . 1796 1864 Scot Kobertson, William, celebrated historian . . 1721 1793 Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. L., 'the terrorist' of the revolution . 1759 1794 Amer. Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist 1794 1864 Scot. Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) 1763 Fr. Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal . . 1725 1807 Fr. Rochcfoucauld-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la . . 1747 1827 Fr . Rochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader ... 1773 1794 Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore U. 8. navy ... 1771 1838 Eng. Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral . . 1717 1792 Eng. Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman .... 1802 Eng. Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic ... 1806 Amer. -- , Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow . Eng. - , Samuel, poet ..... 1763 1855 Eng. Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist . . 1779 Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author . 1733 1793 Fr. - , M.J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . . 1754 1793 Fr. Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian ... 1661 1741 Eng. Romaine, William, divine and author . ... 1714 179S Eng. Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . . 1757 1818 Rom. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome . . . B. o. 718 Ger. Ronge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer . 1813 Eng. Rooke, Sir George, admiral ..... 1650 1708 Span. Rosa, don Francisco Martinez de la, statesman, poet, historian &o. 1789 Span. Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . . 1793 Rom. Roscius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent . . B. a. 61 Eng. Roscoe, Henry, biographer ..... 1800 1836 Eng. -- , William, biographer and miscellaneous writer . 1751 1831 Eng. Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . . 1G33 1684 Ger. Rose, Gustave, chemist ..... 1795 Eng. - -, Hugh James, ' Biograph. Diet.' . . . 1795 1838 Eng. - , Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . . . 1775 1843 Ital. Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &o. . 1800 1843 Amer Rosecrans, W. S., gen. in Union army . . . 1819 Get. Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phil- osophy ...... 1805 Ger. Rosenmuller, E. F. C., orientalist .... 1768 1835 Ital. Hosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic ... 1783 1854 Eng. ROBS, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator ... 1777 1858 Eng. - , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer ... 3800 1863 Eng Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer * . 1800 Ital Rossini, Joachim, musical composer * . 1792 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 993 ATIOir. HAMB AND PROFESSION. BORN. Dim tKT.d w.Rothschild, Meyer Ansehn, founder of the great banking-house 1780 182] , Anselm at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and Solomon, tons of Meyer Anselm Rothschild . . Gei, Rotteck, Chas. "W. R. von, historian .... 1775 1840 Fr. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet .... 1670 1741 Fr. , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer . 1712 1778 Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . . 1673 1718 ItaL Rubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist .... 1795 1854 Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet .... 1789 Amer. Rum ford, Benjamin Thompson, count, officer (in foreign service) and philosopher ..... 1753 1814 Amet. Rumsey, James, inventor . . . . 1743 1792 Ger. Rupert, prince, warrior ..... 1619 168 Anier. Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807 Amer. Rash, Richard, diplomatist .... 1780 Eng. Rush-worth John, ' Historical Collections ' . . . 1607 1690 Amer. Rusk, Thos, J., U. S. senator from Texas ... 1803 1857 Eng. Ruskin, John, writer on art ..... 1819 Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters* 1636 1723 Eng. , Lord "William, one of the martyrs of liberty . . 1641 1683 Scot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern ' . 1808 Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author . 1792 Scot. , William, historian of modern Europe . . 1746 1794 Irish. , William H., Times correspondent and author . . 1821 Amer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman .... 1749 1800 Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman ... 1739 1800 Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral .... 1607 1679 Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquary, ' Federa ' . . 1713 S. Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist ... 1790 Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition . 1672 1724 Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . . 1613 1684 Fr. , Sylvester, baron 'de, orientalist ... 1758 1838 Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet . . . . . .1175 1296 Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . . 1567 1587 Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt ... 1822 1863 Fr. Saint-Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal ... 1798 1854 Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution . . .1735 1813 Fr. Bt. Hilaire. Auguste de, botanist . . , . 1799 1861 Fr. , Gtoff. S., naturalist and anatomist . . 1772 1844 Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of 'Paul and Virginia,' &o. 1736 1814 ItaL St. Real, Caesar Vichard abbi de, historian . . . 1639 16S3 Fr. St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher . . 1760 1823 Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral ... 1734 1823 Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales ... 1790 Eng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author . . . 1827 Bar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior * 1137 1103 Eng. Bales, George, historian and translator of the Koran . . 1680 1738 Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman . 1550 1619 Rom. Saliust, Caius Crispus, historian . . . f. B. 0. 86 B. o. 3fi 42* 994 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. NATIOS. JIAMK AND PROFESSION. Pr. Salmasius, Claudius, scholar and author Fr. Salvandy, N, A., comte de, statesman . . . F*. Salverte, miscellaneous writer . , Heb. Samson, judge of Israel * . . . Heb. Samuel, last judge of Israel . . Phoe. Sanconi.itho, philosopher and historian . . Fr. Sand, George (Madame Duclevant), novelist Amer. Sanderson, John, litterateur .... A\ner. Sands, Robt. C., poet and litterateur . . Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, e;ui of, naval officer . Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer . Hex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president Or. Sappho, poetess . . . . Chafd. Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh . . . . Ital. Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian Saul, 1st king of Israel . . . . . Sauley, Louis F. J., count de, antiquarian . . Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral .... Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . . . . Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . . . - , Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . . BORK. 1588 1795 1771 Heb. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Eng. Fr. Ger. Ital. . B. o. 12th Cent. B. c. llth Cent. . f. B. c. 760 1S04 . 1785 1844 1790 1832 . 1623 1672 1600 1667 . 1798 f. B. C. 606 . B.C. 8761 1522 1623 B. c. 1055 1807 1757 1677 1740 1767 1697 1750 1779 1452 Savage, Richard, poet .... Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,' 'Letters on Egypt' . Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law . Savonarola, Jerome, monk, fumed for zeal and eloquence . Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 1096 Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior . . . 1600 Dan. Saxo-Grarnmaticus, historian .... 1134 Fr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say . 1794 Fr. , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy . . 1767 Amer. , Thomas, naturalist ..... 1787 Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian . . 1540 ItaL - , Julius Caesar, learned critic .... 1484 Scandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer ... Eng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Abinger, jurist . . . Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist ... Ger. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . . . Swe. Scheele, Charles Win., eminent chemist .. Ger. Schelling, Fred. Augs., novelist .... Ger. - , Fred. W. J., philosopher ... Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . . Pruss. Schill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer . Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C., eminent historian and dramatist Beliimmelpenninck, Mary A., 'Mem. Port Royal' . Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist . . - , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian . Ger. Ger. Ger. Ger. Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian Bcnlosser, M. S. F., historian ... Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian . . .. Amer. Schofldd, major-genera. 1 and governor Virginia . Ger. Bcholl, historian ...... 1540 1769 1610 1764 1742 1760 1775 1773 179 1778 1767 1772 1768 1776 1736 1766 1836 1730 1799 1743 1788 1801 1498 1750 16S9 1208 1832 18,4 1C09 1558 1467 1600 1844 1600 1780 1839 1854 1809 1805 1856 1845 18-29 1834 186 179 1889 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX; 995 ATIOW. NAME AND PBOFESSIOH. BOBN. DIED Dutch, bchomberg, Armand Frederick, warrior . 1619 1691 Ger. Schomburgk, Sir liobert H., naturalist and traveller . 1804 1861 Amer. Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 1864 Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 1838 Dutch. Bchrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer ... 1615 1667 Ger. Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior . . 1661 174T Dutch. Schumacher, H. C., astronomer .... 1780 1850 Ger. SchUiZ, C. G., critic and litterateur .... 1747 Amer. Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution . . 1731 1804 Ger. Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general ... 1771 1820 Ger. , prince F., premier of Austria . . 1800 1852 Ger. Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian . . 1576 1649 Rom. Scipio, -/Emilianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) . B.C. 128 Rom. , Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) B. 0. 189 Scot. Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician . . 1291 Eng. , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , . . 1747 1821 Scot. , Sir "Walter, one of the moat eminent, voluminous and popular writers of modern times .... 1771 1832 Amer. , Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chiefU. 8. army 1786 1869 Fr. Scribe, Eugene, dramatist .... 1791 1861 Fr. Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman . 1775 1851 Eng. Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate ... 1693 1768 Dutch. Secundus, John, Latin poet .... 1511 1536 Amer. Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 1790 1867 Amer. , John, (of Conn.) Union general . . 1815 1864 Amer. , Theodore, statesman and political economist . 1780 1839 Amer. , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . . 1811 1859 Eng. Sedley, Sir Charles, poet .... 1639 1701 Fr. S6gur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer . . 1753 1830 Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian ... 1584 1654 Scot. Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer t . 1723 Scot. Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) . . Chald. Semiramis, queen of Assyria . . . f. B. C. 1250 Rom. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, philosopher, statesman and moralist B. o. 2 65 Eng. Senior, Nassau W., political economist ... 1790 1864 Ger. Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography . 1771 1834 Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian ... 1490 1572 Amer. Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman ... 1779 1852 Rom. Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander . . B. o. 73 Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin . 1509 1553 Egypt, Sesostris, king of Egypt .... f. B. 0. 1500 Fr. 86 vigne, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer . 1627 1696 Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . . . 1747 1808 Amer. , William H., statesman, U. S. senator from N. Y., sec of state 1801 Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 1640 1692 Eng. Bhaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 1688 Eng. , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, Characteristics * 1671 1713 Eng. Shakespeare, John, orientalist .... 1774 1858 Eng. , "William, the greatest of dramatic poets . 1564 1616 Eng. Sharp, Granrille, philanthropist . . . 1734 1813 Scot. , James, nrcht. St. Andrews, assassinated . . 1618 1679 Kng. Shaw, George, naturalist ... . 17(1 1819 996 THE WORLD'S PEOGBESS. VATIOX. HAME AND PROFESSION. BORH. CIgT, Amer. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion . , 1740 18!ii Amer. Shedd, "W. G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critic . Eng. Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . 1787 1863 Eng. Shelley, Mary W. widow of P. B., the poet, novelist . . 1798 1851 Eng. , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . . 1792 1822 Eng. Shenstone, William, poet . <, 1714 1763 Amer. Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department Eng. , Richard Brinsley, dramatist and orator . . 1751 1816 Eng. , Thomas, actor, and author ... 1722 1788 Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, bishop ofLondon . . . 1678 1761 Amer. Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . . 1721 1793 Amer. , John, U. S senator from Ohio ... Amer. , William T., general . . . Eng. Sherwood Mrs., novelist . . . . . 1775 1852 Irish. Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist . . 1792 1851 Eng. Shirley, James, dramatist ..... 1594 1666 Eng. Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval officer . 1650 1705 Amer. Shubrick, John Templar, naval officer ... 1778 1815 Amer. , William B., rear admiral ... Eng. Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Old and New Tesament' 1754 Eng. Sibbes, Richard, theologian, 'Bruised Reed' . . 157T 1635 Eng. Sid dons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses . 1755 1831 Eng. Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman . . 1757 1844 Eng. Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . . 1620 1683 Eng. , Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author . . 1554 1586 Qer. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and botanist . . 1796 Amer. Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-66 . . 1824 Amer. Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . . . 1791 1865 Amer. Sllliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . . . 1779 1804 Amer. , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist . . Eng. Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor . 1759 1836 , Simon Sty lites, Syrian Ascetic . . .392? 461? Amer. Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet . . 1806 Gr. Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet . . B.C. 660 ? Or. , of Eos, lyric poet . . . . 550 ? Scot. Simpson, Robert, mathematician .... 1687 1768 Eng. .Thomas, " ... 1710 1761 Eng. Sinclair, Catharine, authoress .... 1800 1864 Hind. Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere 1779 1839 Swiss. Sismondi, J. C. L., historian .... 1773 184? Eng. Skelton, John, poet laureate to Henry VIII . . 1450 P 1529 Ger. Sleidan John Pbilipson, historian .... 1506 1656 Kng. Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist ... 1660 1752 Scot. Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy 1723 1790 Scot. , Alex, poet ..... 1830 Eng. , Charlotte, poet ..... 1749 1806 Amer. , General Samuel, military commander and statesman 1752 1839 Eng. , Horace, poet, 'Rejected Addresses,' Ac. . . 1779 1849 En?. , James, poet, " " . . 1775 183 Eng. , John, History Viginia' . . 1679 1631 Eng. , John Pye, theological writer 1774 1851 Ajner. , Joseph, Mormon prophet . . . 1806 1844 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 997 NATION. SAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng. Smith, Rev. Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist . , 1768 1841 Eng. , Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . . . 1759 1828 Eng. , Sir William Sidney, military commander . 1764 IStO Eng. , T. South-worth, writer on sanitary reform . . 1790 1861 Eng. , William, classical scholar and author . . 1814 Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U S.) 1835 Scot. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian . . 1721 1771 Eng. Bmytb, Win., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer . 1764 184& Eng. , Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer . . 1788 1865 Eng. Soane, Sir John, architect and virtuoso . . . 1753 183T Pol. Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, warrior . . 1629 1698 Ital. Bocinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect . . 1539 1594 Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers . B. c. 470 B. c. 400 Or. , ecclesiastical historian . . 5th cent., A. D. Span. Soils, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . . 1610 1686 Heb. Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs B. o. 975 Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . . f. B. c. 598 Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer . . 1650 1716 Eng. Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer ... 1790 Eng. , Wm., poet, 'The Chase' .... 1692 1743 Ger. Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist . . 1804 1854 Gr. Sophocles, eminent tragic poet . . . B. C. 495 B. c. 404 FT. Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the 8. College at Paris. 1201 1274 Amer. Soule, Pierre, TJ. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist Fr. Soulie, Frederick, novelist and dramatist . . . 1800 1847 Soulouque, Fanstin, ex-emperor of Hayti ... 1789 Fr. Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of France and statesman ..... 1769 1851 Eng. South, Robert, eminent divine .... 1638 1716 Amer. Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator IT. 3., N. Y. . 1787 1842, Eng. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) . . 1750 1814 Eng. Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet . . * 1662 1746 Eng. Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . . . 1787 1854 Eng. , Robert, poet, historian, biographer . . 1775 1843 Fr. Souvestre, Emile, essayist ..... 1806 1854 Fr. Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . . 1800 1858 Gr. Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian .... 450 Amer. Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer . . . (abt.) 1794 1866 Eng. Speke, Civpt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . . 1827 1864 Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . . 1561 1643 Eng. Spence, "Wm., entomologist ..... 1783 1860 Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York . * 1765 1843 Eng. , earl of, statesman ..... 1758 1835 Amer. , John C., jurist and sec. navy . . . 1788 1855 Eng. , Wm. R., translator . . . . .1770 1834 Eng. Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . . . 1553 1598 Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior ... 1571 1630 Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheistt) . . . 1633 1877 Ger. Spohr, Lonis, musical composer . . 1783 Atner. Spooner, Shearjashub, (Diet of Painter*) ... Ger. Sprengel, Kent, botanist ..... 1766 1889 Eng. Spurgeou, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman 1834 998 THE WORLD'S PROGBESS. HATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOIIN. Ell J Qer. Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston) . 1776 1831 Amer. Sprague, Charles, poet ..... 1791 Amer. , Win. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian . 1795 Amer. Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary . . . 1820 Bug. Staokhouse, Thomas, divine and author. Hist Bible '. . 1680 1753 Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress . 1766 1817 Fr. , Madame, talented writer . . . .1693 1750 Eng. Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N.E. . 1584? 1658 Eng Stanfleld, Clarkson, marine painter .... 1798 1867 Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor . . 1753 1816 Eng. Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller . . . 1776 1839 Eng. , Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian 1805 Amer. Stanton, Edwin M., sec: etary of war .... Amer. Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Eevolution . 1728 1822 Bom. Statius, Publius Pepinus, poet . . . . 61? 96? Eng. Staun ton, Sir Geo. L. * Embassy to China'. . . 1737 1801 Irish. Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist . . . 1671 1729 Eng. Steevens, Geo., ' Comment, on Shakespeare ' . . 1736 1800 Eng. Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author . . 1789 1859 Fr. Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers . 16th tent. Amer. , John L., traveller and author . . . 1805 1, V 52 Eng. Stephenson, George, engineer .... 1788 1848 Eng. .Robert, M . . . 1803 1859 Scot. Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic . . 1806 1844 Ger. Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author . . 1806 Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer . . . 1713 1768 Eng. Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms .... 1549 Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the American cause ...... Amer. Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor .... 1749 Amer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England . . 1784 Amer. Stewart, Charles 8., Rev., chaplain in the U. S. Navy and author 1798 Boot. : , Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer . . 1753 1828 Amer. Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian . . . 1727 1795 Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of "Worcester and author . 1633 1699 Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red Jacket' ..... 1793 1844 Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist .... 1766 1885 Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . . 1779 1846 Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian .... 1525 1605 Amer. Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic .... Amer. , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist ... 1814 Kng. Stowell, lord, jurist ..... 1746 1836 Gr. Strabo, eminent geographer . * . . . 19 Eng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . . 1593 1641 Eng. Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist . . . 1798 Qer. Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ' Life of Jesus' . 1808 Ger. , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author . , 1786 Eng. Strickland, Agnes, historian of 'Queens of England' . 1806 Eng. Strype, John, theologian, biographer and historian . 1643 1787 Buss. Struve, Fred. Geo. \Vm., astronomer ... 1793 1864 Bcot, Stuart, Gilbert, historian . . . . . 1742 1788 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 999 RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Eng, 8ti art, James, architect and author . . . 1713 1788 Amer. , James E. B., Confederate general , 1S32 ? 1864 Amer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . . . 1780 1851 Bug. 8t urge, Joseph, philanthropist ... 1S5J Ger. Sturm, Christopher C., theol. writer, ' Reflections,' &c. . 1740 1786 Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands . 1602 1682 Fr. Sachet, Louis Gabriel, celebrated marshal . . . 1772 1826 Eng. Suckling, Bir John, poet and dramatist . . 1613 164] Fr. Sue, Eugene, novelist ..... 1SOS 1851 Bom. Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior . . . . 37 Rom. , TranquilluB Caius, historian . f. 100 Dan. Sulim, Peter Fred., eminent historian . . . 1728 1798 Gr." Suidas, Greek lexicographer ... abt. 1000 Amer. Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer . . . 1744 180i Amer. , John, revolutionary general . . . 1740 1795 Amer. , Win. LL. D., political writer . . . 1774 1839 Fr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman 1560 1641 Amer. , Thomas, portrait painter .... 1783 Amer. Summerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher . . 1798 1826 Amer. Samner, Charles, U. 8. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist 1811 Amer. Edwin Vose, Union general .... 1796 1863 Eng. John Bird, archbishop of Cantc-rbury and author , 1780 1862 Amer. Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. 0. . . 1734 1832 Eng. Sunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman . , 1641 1702 Eng. Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet . . ' . 1515 1547 Eng. Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet . . . 1779 1834 Eng. Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. IIL . . . 1773 1843 Eng. Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury . . 1755 1828 RUBS. Buvaroff, or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel war- rior .... ... 1730 1800 Eng. Swain, Charles, poet ..... 1803 Dutch. Swnmmerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . . . 1637 1681 Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect ... 1689 1772 Irish. Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist .... 1667 1745 Eng. Swinburne, Algernon, poet .... AnuT. Swinton, Wm., critic and historian, ' Army of Potomac* . . Eng. Sydenham, C. W- Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &o. . 1793 1841 Rom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and brutal usurper . B. 0. 137 B.C. 78 Eng. Syms, Michael Col., ' Embassy to Ava ' , . . 1809 Afric. Syphax, Numidian prince . . . . . B. o. 201 T Rom. Tacitus, Cains Cornelius, eminent historian . . 56 185 Rom. , Marcus Claudius, emperor . . 200 ? 276 Swe. Taglioni, Marie, danzueae .... 1804 Eng. Talbot, Jno., 1st earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . . 1373 1463 Amer. , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . . 17oO 1813 Kng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist . 1795 1854 Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist . . 1754 183S Eng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer .... 1529 1588 Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., Revol. officer .... 1754 1S35 Fr. Talma, Francis J oseph, one of the greatest of actors . . 1768 1989 1000 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND F&OFESSION. BORN. DIBB Tartar. Tamerlane, Titnur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror . . , . Amer. Taney, Roger B., chief-justice U.3. . . . . 177T 1881 Scot. Tannahill, Robt., poet ..... 1774 1810 .Span. Tapia, Eugenic, miscellaneous writer ... Eng. Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America . . 1754 1833 Ital. Tasso, Bsrnardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul . . 1493 1588 Ital. , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian pouts . 1544 159 Ger. Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic ... Ger. , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . . 1838 Amer. Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer ... 1825 Eng. , Isaac, essayist ..... 1787 1865 Eng. , Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer ... 1613 1667 Eng. , John, ' the Water Poet ' . . . . 1580 1654 Eng. , Sir Robert, sculptor and architect ... 1714 1788 Eng. , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . . 1758 1836 Eng. , Tom, dramatist . 1817 Eng. , Wm., miscellaneous writer. . . . ISOff 1849 Amer. , Zacliary, major-general U. 8. Army, victor in Mexico, pres. U.S. . . . . . . 1784 1850 Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) . . . 1813 Eng. Telford, Thomas, civil engineer .... 1757 1834 Swiss. Teli, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty . . 1354 Eng. Temple, Sir "William, statesman and writer . . 1628 1698 Amer. Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer ... 1703 1764 Amer. , Rev. Wm., famous for 'France' . . . 1705 1777 Eng. , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman aad writer . . 1804 Ger. Tennyman, William T., 'Hist, of Philosophy 1 . . 1761 1819 Eng. Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate .... 1810 Eng. Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K. B. . 1762 1833 Bom. Terence, or Terrentius, comic writer . . . , B. o. 19;! Tertullian, Q. 8. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of the Church ..... 160 245 Amer. Terry, Alfred K., of Ct., Union general, victor at Port Fisher . Eng. Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . . 1811 1863 Ger. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture .... 1752 1828 Ger. Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist .... 1812 Ger. Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of Philosophy . . . . . B. 0. 639 B. o. 513 Gr. Themistocles, eminent Athenian . . . . B. 0. 535 B. o. 470 Fr. ThonarJ. chemist and statesman . . . . Gr. Theocritus, pastoral poet . . . . . f. B. c. 285 Eng. Theobald, Lewis, comment on Shakepenre ... 1744 Gr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian ... 333 457 Rom. Theodosius, Flavius, Roman emperor and warrior . . 346 395 Gr. Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . . . B. c. 371 Span. Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer . . 1515 1582 Eng. Thesigor, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . . 1794 Gr. Thespis, poet, said to be the Inventor of tragedy . B. o. 576 Fr. Thibaudean, A. C., count, historian .... Fr. fhierry, Jas. Nioh. Augustine, historian . . 1795 1854 Ft, , Amedee a D., historian .... 1797 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. JTATIOK, NAME AJTD PROFESSION. BOUN BIED Fr. Tlners, Adolphe, historian and statesman ... 1793 Ger. Thiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, &c. . . . 1784 1860 Ger. Tliirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian . 1797 Ger. Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian .... 1799 Amer. Thompson, Benj. See Rumford .... , Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author 178?, Scot. Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer . . 1778 1849 A mpi /~on, Louis D6sir6, author and journalist . . Verplanck, Gulian C., scholar and critic ... Veriot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, historian . . . Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary ... Vespasian, Titus Flavius, warrior and emperor . . Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given to the new world ..... Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress . . Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy .... Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain . . Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - .... Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet .... Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police . . Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist . . . Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critl* . , . Villurs, Louis Hector, duke of, able general . . Villemain, Abel, Fr. politician and autaor . . . 1503 1562 1795 1654 1725 1814 1789 1684 1774 1798 1655 1684 1451 1797 1820 1819 1826 1490 1775 1820 1799 W>3 1791 1634 1712 1797 1846 1864 1759 1849 1735 1756 79 1516 1858 1855 1566 1850 1734 1004 TBS- WORLD'S PROGRESS. RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIED Eng. Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer . 1821 Fr. Vinet, Alex. E., theologian ..... 1797 1847 Horn. Virgi I, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets B. c. 70 B. c. It Ital. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary .... 1831 Ital. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . i . f. B. c. 27 Ital. Vittoria Colonna, Bcholtir .... 1490 1547 Russ. Vladimir the Great, grand duke . . . 101 Dutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leydcn . . 1647 1714 Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht .... 1619 1667 Ger. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist .... 1829 1856 Fr. Volney, count, celebrated writer .... 1757 1820 ItaL Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) . . 1745 1828 Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, philosopher, and historian ..... 1694 1778 Ger. VOBS, J. G., historical painter .... 1577 1649 W Ger. Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic ... 1794 Amer. Wad&worth, James, wealthy philanthropist ... 1768 1844 Amer. , James 8. (son), patriotic general . . 1807 1864 Ger. "Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist .... 1805 Amer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York . . 1792 1854 Eng. Wakefleld, Edward Gibbon, political economist . . 1796 1862 Eng. , Gilbert, scholar and critic ... 1756 1801 Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian .... 1762 1864 Fr. Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . . . 1810 Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer .... 1732 1807 Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury . 1801 Amer. , William, ' filibustering' adventurer . . 1824 1860 Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist . . 1817 1852 Scot. , William, patriot and hero .... 1276 1305 Irish. . , William Vincent, musical composer . . 1815 1865 Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general . . . 1583 1634 Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet . . . 1603 16S7 Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general . . , 1597 1688 Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author . . 1718 1797 Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman . . 1676 1745 Amer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist ... 1784 1858 Eng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . . . . 1536 1590 Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New York . 1815 1865 Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist .... 1600 1661 Eng. , Izaak, angler and biographer ... 1593 1683 Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. T. . . 1789 Bug. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . . 1698 1779 Amer. Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution ... 1748 18CO Bcot. Wardlnw, Rev. Ralph, theologian . . . 1780 1853 Amer. Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author . . 1764 1845 Amer. , Heniy, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author . 1794 1843 Amer. , William, novelist, Zenobia,' &c. . , . 1797 1862 Amer. Warren, John Collins, eminent surgeon . . , 1778 1856 Amer. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill . 1741 1771 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 100? ATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. "Wanen, MTB. Mercy, historian, ' American Review' Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. -, Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Year' Sir John Borlase, naval officer \Varton, Joseph, poet and critic , Thomas, poet and critic Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker' Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of U. S. . Amer. , George, the father of his country . . Amer. , "Win. Aug. officer in the Revolution . . Eng. Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer Amer. Watson, Elkanah, merchant, agriculturist, and historian . Scot. Eng. Boot. Scot. Eng. Eng. Amer. Robert, historian . . . , Richard, eminent prelate and writer . . Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer , Robert, bibliographer . . . Watts, Alario Alex., poet and journalist Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. econ. Amer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution . Eng. Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &c. . Amer. Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author . . Ger. Weber, Carl Maria \on, eminent composer . . Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic . Webster, John, dramatic poet , Daniel, statesman .... , Noah, author of English Dictionary . , Eng. Bug. AllKT. Amer. Scot. Eng. Amer. BORN. 1728 1807 1754 1720 1728 1759 1732 1752 1683 1758 1730 1737 1736 1774 1799 1674 1796 1745 1792 18i9 1786 1783 DIKfi. 1814 1822 1800 1790 1471 1829 1709 1810 1740 1842 1780 1816 1819 1819 1864 1748 1865 1796 1862 1856 1826 1813 17th cent. Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . . Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain . . Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies . Amer. Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . . . Irish. "Welh-sley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. of Ireland ... . Eng. Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman Amer. "Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author . . Eng. , Edward, theologian and scholar . , . Amer. , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaesthesia . . Scot. "Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . Eng-Am. "Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Bamp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 1782 1758 1733 1731 1821 1760 1769 1663 1815 1794 Eng. Ger. Ger. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. -, Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford Werner, Abraham Tbeophilus, mineralogist , Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist Wesley, Rev. Charles, 'Hymns' , John, founder of Methodist society "Westall, Richard, histoiical painter ... Whateley, Richard, archbishop of Duhlin, theological and edu- cational writer ...... Amer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess .... Eng. , Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Common Prayer' . Amer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . Eng. Wheatstone, Charles, electrician .... Amer. "Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College . Bng. Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educational writer 1593 1750 1768 1708 1703 1765 1787 1753 1686 1785 1802 1711 1795 1852 1843 1805 1795 1825 1852 1842 1852 1727 1S48 1845 1820 1641 1817 1823 1788 1791 1837 1863 1794 1743 1848 177 18d< 1006 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. RATIO!?. SAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. MBB Amer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist . . . 1819 Amer. Whistler, George Win., engineer of Russian railways 1800 1841 .ng. Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . . 1667 1752 Eng. Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament 1638 1726 Eng. White, Henry Kirke, poet ..... 1785 1808 , Rev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author . 1775 1841 Eng. , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church in. United States . . ... . 1747 1836 Eng. Whitefleld, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists . 1714 1770 Amer. Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin .... 1765 1828 Amer. "Whittier, John Greenieaf, poet and essayist . . 1808 Amer. Whittingham, Wm. R., epis. bp. of Maryland and author . 1805 Eng. Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London . . 1419 Eng. Wickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning star of the Reformation 1324 1384 Ger. Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer . . 1733 1813 Eng. Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian .... 1792 1836 Eng. Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author . 1805 Eng. , William, statesman and philanthropist . . 1759 1853 Amer. Wilde, Richard Henry, poet and litterateur . . 1789 1847 Eng. Wilkes, John, celebrated political character ... 1717 1791 Scot. Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter . . . 1785 1841 Eng. Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian . 1614 1672 Eng. , Sir Charles, oriental philologist . . 1836 Amer. Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author . 1757 1825 Eng. , Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist . . 1797 Eng. Williams of "Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman 1324 1404 Amer. Williams, Eleaaar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL 1787 1 1858 Eng. , Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . . . 1762 1827 Eng. , John, missionary and author . . . 1796 1839 Eng. , Major-gen. Sir Fenwick, defender of Kara . . 1800 Amer. , Otho H., general .... 1748 1794 En. Am. , Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island . . . 1606 1683 Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina . 1785 1819 Amer. Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour- nalist . . . . . . ' . 1807 1867 Scot. Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist . . . 1766 1813 Eng. , Daniel, bishop of Calcutta .... 1778 1858 Eng. , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit . 1808 1860 Scot. , John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist . 1785 1854 Eng. , Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author . . . 1846 Ger. Winckelman, John Joachim, ' History of Art ' . . 1717 1708 Anst. "Windiscbgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo . 1787 1S62 Eng. Windham, William, statesman .... 1750 1810 Ger. Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian ... 1789 1858 Swiss. Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot .... 1388 En.Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . . 1595 1655 Eng. , Forbes, physician and writer on insanity . . 1810 Aiaer. , llubbard, D.D., editor and author . . 1800 1864 Amer. , Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist . . 1789 1864 Eng. Winterhsilter, Franz Xavier, ' court painter' . . 1803 Bn.A.m.Wlnthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . , . 1588 1649 Rfi_Ain , John (son), governor of Connecticut . . 1606 167* BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1007 RATIO*. . NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Winthrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot . 1828 1861 Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general U. 8. and biographer . 1772 183d Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and author 1802 1865 Amer. Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist . . 1761 1818 Eng. Withers, George, poet .... 1590 1667 Amer. Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot . . . 1722 1794 Dutch. Witzi us, Herman, theologian ... 1636 1708 Scot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian . . . 1679 1734 Irish. Woffington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . . . 1719 1760 Eug. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet ... 1738 1818 Amer. , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence 1727 1797 Amer. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. . . 1679 1767 Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller . . 1795 1602 Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic ... 1759 1824 Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general ... 1726 1759 Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore' . . . 1791 1823 Ger. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher nud mathematician . 1679 1754 Eng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. . . 1766 1828 Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman . . 1471 1530 Eng. Wollstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author ... 1759 1797 Eng. Wood, Authony, antiquary and biographer . . 1632 1695 Eng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state . . 1716 1771 Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . . . 1789 1851 Eng. WoodMl, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) . . 1745 J822 Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer . 1773 1827 Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (see Tytler) historian . 1747 1813 Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian .... 1770 1851 Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. ... 1486? Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, * Onken Bucket ' . . 1785 1842 Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army . . . 1789 Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist . . 1720 1773 Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general ... 1710 1777 Eng. Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, 'Century of Inventions * 1667 Eng. , Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer . 1784 1865 Eng. , Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., ' Ancient Greece ' . . 1770 1850 Eng. , William, poet laureate .... 1770 1850 Amer. Worth, William J., major-general U. R. army . . 1794 1849 Eng. Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author . . 1806 1855 Eng. "Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . . . 1568 1689 Eng. Wiaxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian . . 1751 1831 Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect . . 1632 1723 Eng. Wright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Reformer' . 1796 1853 Amer. , Silas, governor of New York and senator U. S. . 1795 1847 Eng. , Thomas, antiquarian author . . 1810 Aust. Wnrmser, D. S., field-marshal in Austrian army . . 1717 174)7 Eng. Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author . . 1820 Eng. , Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . . . 1503 1540 Eng. "Wycberley, William, dramatic poet .... 1640 1715 Eng "Wycliffe, see Wicklife, reformer . . . 1324 1404 Eng. Wykeham. M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanth. 1S24 1404 Eng. Wyndham, Sir William, statesman . . . 1687 174| 1008 THE WOBLD'S PBOGEESS. KATIOH. SAME AMD PROFESSION. BOBN. D1MI Eng. "Wyse, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education . . Amer. Wj the, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot . 180 Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, 'Apostle to the Indies' ... 1506 1552 Gr. Xenocrates, philosopher . . . . B. o. 406 B c. 314 Gr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics . B. c. 540 Gr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general . B. o. 416 B c. 360 Pers. Xerxes L, king of Persia .... BO, 465 Pers. II., king of Persia . . . . B. c. 425 Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman . 1457 1517 Amer. Yale, Elihu, early patron of Yale College ... 1648 1721 Eng. Yarrell, William, naturalist and author. , . 1784 1856 Eng. Yonatt, William, author of works on the horse . . 1777 1847 Amer. Young, Alex., D. D., historian of Pilgrims . . 1800 1854 Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer .... 1741 1820 Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons ... 1801 Eng. , Charles, actor . . 1777 1856 Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 1681 1765 Eng. , Thomas, physician and philosopher . . . 1774 1829 Gr. Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. 1792 1828 Span. Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet . . 1750 1790 Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A., voluminous writer . . . 1714 1798 Heb. Zechariah, the prophet . . . . . B. 0. 520 Ital Zeno, Apostolo, eminent wnter .... 1668 1750 Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . . . B. c. 463 Gr. , founder of the sect of Stoics . . ' . B. o. 362 B. 0. 264 Zenobia, Septhnia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of the arts ...... 300 Heb. Zephaniah, the prophet . . . . . B. o 520 Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. "W. von, naturalist ... 1743 1815 Swiss. , John George, miscellaneous writer . . 1728 1795 Ger. Zinzendcrrf, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians . . 1700 1760 Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . . 1730 1788 Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher . . . Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer . . 1737 1816 Gr. Zozimus, historian . . . . . . f. 400 Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales ' . 1771 1848 Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer . . 1484 1531 (far. Zumpt, Karl, author of Latin Grammar . . 1792 1851 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 1009 ARTISTS. PAINTEKS ENGEAVEES SCULPTORS AECHITECTS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. G-r. Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. B.C. 480 Gr. Ageldas ..... Sculptor, t. B. c. 5th Cent. Gr. Agesander, sculptor of 'Laocoon and his Children' Sculptor. B. c. 5th Cent. Ital. Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. 1578 1660 Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., Sc., and Archit. 1400 1490 Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto . . , . . Painter. 1520 Gr. Alcannenes (pupil of Phidias) . . Sculptor. f. B. c. 450 Scot. Allan, Sir William .... Painter. 1781 1850 Amer. Allston, Washington . . Port, and Histor. Painter. 1779 1843 Ital. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. 1488 1530 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc., and Arch. 1174 1568 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. 1568 1609 Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter. f. B. c. 330 Gr. Apollodorus, an Athenian . . . Painter. f. B. C. 408 Ital. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 1754 1817 Gr. Aristides, of Thebes .... Painter. f. B. o. 240 Fr. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. 1640 1703 (Eight painters and engravers named Audran nearly contemporary.) B Ital. Baccio-Della Porta, fcno\m as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- meo) ..... Painter. 1469 1517 Eng. Bacon, John .... Sculptor. 1740 1799 Amer. Baker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) . . . Port. Painter. Flem. Balen, Henry van .... Painter. 1560 1632 Ital. Bandinelli, Baccio .... Sculptor. 1489 1559 Eng. Banks, Thomas . . . Sculptor. 1745 1805 Dutch. Barents, Dietrich . . . Histor. Painter. 1534 1582 Irish. Barker, Kobert, inventor of panoramas . . Painter. 1740 1806 Irish. Barry, James .... Painter. 1741 1805 Eng. Barry, Sir Chas. . . . . Architect. 1795 I860 ItaL Bartolini, Lorenzo . . Sculptor. 1777. 1850 ItaL Bartolozzi, Francesco ... Engraver. 1730 1813 Ital. Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco . . . Painter. 1469 1517 Ital. Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander Painters. 16th Century. ItaL Batoni, Pompey ..... Painter. 1708 1787 Ger. Bauer, Ferdinand ... Botanical Painter. 1826 Eng. Beechy, Sir William . . . Landscape Painter. 1753 183fl Amer. Beard, Wm. H. (N. T.) . Painter. Eng. Beaumont, Sir George H. ... Painter. 1753 1827 Ital. Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine . . Engraver. 1610 1684 . 43 1010 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. NATIOS. IAMB AND PROFESSION. BORH. D1SR Ital, Bellini. Giov., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. 1462 151? Ital. Bellini Gentine . . . . Portrait Painter. 1421 1501 Ital. Btnini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Aren't. 1598 168< Flem Berchem, Nicholas . . . Engraver. 1624 1689 Eng. Bewick. John, publisher of various works with wood- oats .... Wood Engraver. 1760 1795 Amer. Bierstadt, Albert (N. Y.) . . Landscape Painter. Eng. Bird, Edward ..... Painter. 1772 1819 Eng. Blake, William . . . Painter and Engraver. 1757 1826 Flem. Bologna, John of (in Italy) . Sculptor and Architect. 1524 1608 Eng. Bone, Henry . . . Enamel Painter. 1755 1834 Ital. Bordone, Paris ..... Painter. 1503 1588 Dutch. Both, John and Andrew ... Painters. 1610 1650, '56 Fr. Bourdon, Sebastian . . Painter and Engraver. 1616 1671 Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). . Painter. 1756 1811 Eng. Boydell, Jno. (priutseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 1719 1804 Dutch. Brentel, Francis .... Painter, fc 1635 Ital. Bramant.e D'Urbino, Francis I+, (1st of St. Peter's Church) .... Architect. 1444 1514 Amer. Brevoort, J. R. (N. T.) . . Landscape Painter. Dutch. Brill, Matthew . . . . Painter. 1550 1584 Dutch. Brill, Paul ... Landscape Painter. 1556 1626 Amer. Brown, Geo. L. . . . . Painter. Amer. Brown, Henry Kirke . . . . Sculptor. 1814 Flem. Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck . . Painter. 1370 1441 Ital. Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 1377 1444 Ital. Buonarotti,'see Angelo Eng. Burnett, James . . . Landscape Painter. 1783 1816 O ltd. Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1632 1588 Ital. Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and sons of Paul Eng. Calcott, Sir A. W. . . Landscape Painter. 1779 1844 ItaL. Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio ... Painter. 1495 1543 Or. Calimachus ... Sculptor and Architect. f. B. o. 540 Ital. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese ... Painter. 1527 1587 Ital. Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 1697 1768 Ital. Canova, Antonio .... Sculptor. 1757 )822 Ital. Caracci, Ludovico . . Painter. 1555 1619 ItaL Caracci, Agoetino .... Painter. 1558 1601 Ital. Caracci, Annibale . . . Painter. 1560 1609 Ital. Caracci, Anthony . . . Painter. 1583 1618 Ital. Caravaggio, see Angelo .... Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro with three plates to imitate drawings . . I486 1530 Fr. Casas, Louis Francis . . Painter and Architect 1756 1827 Amer. Casilear, John W. (N. Y.) . . Lands. Painter. Span. Castillo y Saavedra, Anthony . . Painter. 1603 1667 ItaL Cavendone, James ... Fresco-Painter. 1677 1508 Ital. Cellini, Benvennto, Florentine artist, author of auto- biography . . . Painter. 1500 1570 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 1011 JI4TION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Span. Cespedes.Paulde . . Painter, Sculptor, Architecl. 1538 1CO Flem. Champagne, Philip de . . . Painter. 1004 1074 , John Baptist . . . Painter. 1643 168? Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis .... Sculptor. 1781 1841 Amei. Chapman, John G. . . . . Hist. Painter. Gr. Chares ...... Painter. fc 1. 0. 300 Ft. Chaudet, Anthony Denis . . Painter and Sculptor. 1763 1810 Amei. Church, Fred. E. . . . Lands. Painter. Ital. Cignani, Carlo .... Painter. 1628 1716 Ital. Cimabue, Giov., Florentine . . . Paii.ter. 1240 1300 Ital. Claude Gelee called Claude Lorraine . . Painter. 1600 1682 Gr. Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the Medicean Venus) . Sculptor. t. B. C. 180 Ajner. Clevenger, Shobal Vail . . . Sculptor. 1812 1844 Amer. Cole, Thomas . . . Lands, and Hist. Painter. 1802 1848 Eng. Collins, William . . Lands, and Fam. life Painter. 1788 1847 Amer. Colman, Saml. (N. T.) . . . Lands. Painter. Eng. Constable, John . Painter. 1776 1837 Eng. Cooper, Samuel .... Miniature Painter. 1689 1776 Amer. Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) . Painter. 1737 1816 Ger. Cornelius, Peter von .... Painter. 1787 Ital. Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school Painter. 1493 Dutch. Cort, Cornelius ..... Engraver. 1536 Ital. Cortona, Pietro da. Tuscan ... PainteN 1596 Eng. Coswuy, Richard .... Painter. 1740 Fr. Courtois, James, known as H Eorgognone . Painter. 1621 Fr. , William (brother) . . . Painter. 1628 Fr. Couture ..... Painter. Fr. Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) . Sculptor. 1658 1731 Fr. , William . . Sculptor and Architect. 1716 1777 Fr. Cousin, John ... Paint., Sculp., etc. 1500 1590 Eng. Cox, David .... Lands. Painter. 1723 1859 Ger. Cranach, Lucas .... Engraver. 1470 1553 Amer. Cranch, Christr. P. . . . Painter. Amer. Crawford, Thomas .... Sculptor. 1814 1857 Amer. Cropsey, Jasper F. (N". Y.) . . Lands. Painter. Dutch. Cuyp, Jacob G. . . Lands, and Cattle Painter. 1568 1649 Dutch. , Albert (son of Jacob) . Lands, and Cattle Painter. 1606 1667 Dutch. , Benjamin . . Hist. Painter. 1650 Eng. Danby, Francis .... Painter. 1793 1861 Eng. Daniel, Thomas . . . . Lands. Painter. 1749 1840 Eng. , Wm .... I^ands. Painter. 1769 1837 Ger. Dannecker, John Henry, ' Adriadne,* &c. . Sculptor. 1758 1841 Amer. Darley, F. O. C. . . . Painter and Designer. 1822 Fr. David, James Louis .... Painter. 1750 1828 Fr. , Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French school) ..... Sculptor. 178 1858 Fr. Delacroix, F. V. E. . . . . Painter. 1798 1863 FT. Delaroche, Paul ... Hist. Painter. 1797 ISM 1012 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. NATION, . NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DltD Oer. Banner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. 1685 174'. Dutch. De Witt, James .... Painter. 1695 1747 Gr. Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &o.) Architect. i. B. o. 330 Ital. Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. 1616 1686 ItaL Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. 1581 1641 Ital. Donatello, or Donato . . . Florentine Sculptor. 1383 1463 Fr. Dor6, Gustavo . . . Painter and Designer. Amer. Doughty, Thomas . . Lands. Painter. 1793 1856 Dutch. Douw, or Dow, Gerard . . Familiar Life Painter. 1618 1674 Fr. Dubuffe, .... Hist. Painter. Fr. Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse . . Painter. 1611 1665 Amer. Dunlap, William . . Hist. Painter. 1768 1839 Amer. Durand, Asher B. (N. Y.) . . Painter and Engraver. Ger. Durer, Albert (aud author) . Paint., Eng., So., and Arch. 1471 1528 B Eng Eastlake, Chris. L. . . . . Painter. 1793 1865 Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 1768 1859 Eng. Eginton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on glass ..... Painter. 1737 IS OS Amer. Ehninger, John "W. (N. Y * . . . Painter. Amer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N. Y.) . . Port. Painter. Eng. Etty, Wm. . Painter. 1787 184* Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sicyon) . Painter. Dutch. Eyck, John van (said to have invented painting In oil) Painter. 1370 144! F Ita1.Am.Fagnanl, G. . . . . Port. Painter. Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . . . Lands. Painter. fing. Flaxman, John .... Sculptor and Artist. 1755 182* Eng. Finden, Wm. .... Engraver. 1787 1859 Amer. Forbes, Edwin ..... Pointer. Scot. Forrest, Robert . . . . . Sculptor. 1790 1862 Fr. Frere, Edouard . . . Genre Painter. Swiss. Fusel!, Henry (resided in England . . Painter. 1741 182J Swiss. , John G. ..... Painter. 1706 1781 G Eng. Gainsborough, Thomas . . . Lands. Painter. 1727 1788 Fr. Gerard, Fran. P. S., barot. . . . Painter. 1770 1837 Fr. , John I. (Granville) . . . Caricaturist. 1803 1847 Ital. Ghiberti, Lawrence . . . Florentine Sculptor. 1378 1456 Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving In oak . Sculptor. 1648 1721 Eng. Gibson, John ..... Sculptor. 1791 1867 Amer. Gifford, Sanford R. . . . . Lands. Painter. Pr.An.. Gignoux, Regis . . . Lands. Painter. Ital. Giordan!, Luke (the Proteus of Painting) . Painter. 1629 1704 Ital. Giorgione, Barbarelll .... Painter. 1477 1511 Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) . Paint. Sculp, and Arch. 1276 133 Fr. Glrardon, Francis ... Sculp, and Arch. 1630 1718 V:: Girodet, Trioson Aim6 Louis . . Painter. 1767 182* BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 1013 VATTOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. D1KTX Ital. Qiulio Romano (Pippi) .... Painter. 1492 1546 Fr. Goujon, John, the French Phidias . . Gculptor. 1515 1572 Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. Amer. Greenough, Horatio . . . Sculptor. 1805 1853 Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port. Painter. Fr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter. 1726 1805 Ital. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. 1590 1606 Ital. Guido, Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. 1574 1642 a Eng. Harlow, Geo. Henry .... Painter. 178T 1819 Amer. Hart, "Wm., b. in Scotland . . . Painter. 1823 Amer. Hart, Jas. M. " . . . Painter. 1828 Amer. Haseltine, W. Stanley . Landscape Painter. Eng. Haviland, John .... Architect. 1792 1859 Eug. Haydon, R. B. . . . Historical Painter. 1786 1846 Amer. Healy, Grx>. P. .... Painter. 1808 Eng. Heath, Charles .... Engraver. 1848 Amer. Hennessy, "W. I. . . . . Painter. Amer. Hicks, Thos. .... Painter. 1823 Eng. Hilton, William . . . Historical'Puinter. 1786 1889 Flem. Hobbema, Mynderhout . . Landscape Painter. 1611 1699 Eng. Hogarth, William .... Painter. 1607 17fi4 Swiss. Holbein, Hans . Portrait and Historical Painter. 1498 1554 Ger. Hollar, "Wenceslans, executed 2,400 plates . Engraver. 1607 1677 Amer. Homer, Wirslow .... Painter. Flem. Honthorst, 'jerard (called Gherarda del Notte) . Painter. 1592 1660 Amer. Hosmer, Harriet -. . . . Sculptor. 1831 Dutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) ... Entrraver. 169S 1780 Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) . Sculptor. 1746 1828 Fr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. 1736 1813 Amer. Hnbbard, Rich. W. .... Painter. Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) . . . Sculptor. 1806 Amer. Huntington, Dan. ... Painter. 1816 Eng. Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . . . Painter. 1827 Dutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) . Painter. 1682 1749 1659 1684 1716 1706 I Amer. Inman, Henry . Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1801 .840 J Amer. Jarvis, J. W. . Portrait Painter. Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. Y.> . . . Painter. Fr. Johannot, Chas. H, A. . . Painter and Designer. 1800 1887 Fr. , Tony (brother) " . Painter and Designer. Amer. Jones, Alfred, N. Y. . . . Er.graver. 1803 1952 Eng. , luigo .... Architect 1672 1653 Amer. , Thoa. D. .... Sculptor. 1014 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. SAT105. KAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Fiem. Jordaens, Jacob .... Painter. 1595 1671 Ital. Julio, Romano . . . Painter and Architect. 1492 154 Swiss. Kauffinau, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) Poetical Painter. 1747 180'' Amer. Kensett, John F. .... Painter. 1818 Ger. Kiss, August .... Sculptor. 1802 1865 Ger. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) . Painter. 1648 1723 L Dutch. Laireese, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. 1640 1711 Fr. Landon, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. 1828 Eng. Landseer, Chas. ... Painter of Genre. T7AQ 1RVJ E,~., f o: TvluTiTi T>i **._ 1 |U 1803 XOM Amer. Lang, Louis (b. in Germany) ... Painter. 1814 Eng. Lawrence, Sir Thoe. .... Painter. 1769 1830 Fr. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV.) . . Painter. 1619 1696 Eng. Leech, John . . . Humorist Artist. 1816 Gr. Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) Painter. 1618 1680 Fr. Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) . . Painter. 1617 1655 Amer. Leslie, Chas. R. (resided in England) . . Painter. 1794 1859 Ger. Lessing, Carl Fred. .... Painter. 1808 Amer. Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) . . Painter. 1816 Fr. Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . . Painter and Engraver. 1494 1538 Eng. Liverseege, Henry .... Painter. 1803 1832 Gr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) . . Sculptor. f. B. 0. 324 Amer. Malbone, Kdward G. . . . Miniature Painter. 1777 1807 Scot. Marshall, "Wra. O. . . . . Sculptor. 1813 Amer. , Wm. C. . . . . Engraver. Eng. Martin, John ... . Painter. 1789 1854 Ital. Masaccio . ..... Painter. 1402 1427 Flem. Matsys, Quintin ..... Painter. 1460 1529 Ger. Mayer ..... Sculptor. Ital. Mazzuolo, Francis .... Painter. 1503 1540 Amer. McEntee, Jervis .... Painter. Fr. MeisBonier, Justus A. . Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. 1695 1R1 R 1750 Fr. , Jean ij. .... Painter. Ger. Mengs, Anthony R. (the Raphael of Germany) . Painter. 1O1O 1729 1779 Dutch. Metzn, Gabriel . . . Familiar Life Painter. 1615 1669 Dutch. Mieris, Francis . . . Familiar Life Painter. 1635 1681 Fr. Mignard, Peter .... Painter. IfilO 1695 Amer. Mignot, Louis R. .... Painter. Amer. Mills, Clark ..... Bculptor. 1815 Swiss. Mind, Gottfried ..... Painter. 1768 1814 Ital. Morghen, Raphael .... Engraver. 1758 1838 Amor. Morse, Samuel F. B. . . . . Painter. Amer. Mount, William Sidney . . . Painter. 1807 Eng. Morelacd, George .... Painter. 1764 1804 Span. Murillo, Bartholomew ft. . . . Painter. ItilS 1682 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ABTISTS. 1015 RATIO*. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBS. DIBB. I>utch. Neefs, Poter . . . Architectural Painter. 1570 1651 Eng. Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) . Historical Painter. 1785 1835 Eng. Nollekins, Joseph . . Sculptor. 1737 1323 Eng. Northcote, James '' Painter. 1746 1831 O Eng. Opie, John ..... Painter. 1761 1807 Dutch. Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) . Familiar Life Painter. 1610 1685 Dutch. Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) . Painter. 1617 1671 Eng. Owen, William ... Fainter. 1769 1825 P Amer. Page, Wm. . . . * . Painter. 1811 Fr. Pajou, Augusttn . . . . Sculptor. 1730 1809 Ital. Palladio, Andrew . . . Architect. 1518 1580 Spaa. Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. . . Painter. 1653 1726 Ital. Pannini, Giov. Paolo . . Architectural Painter. 1691 1764 Or. Parrhasius, of Ephesus . . . Painter. 1 B. 0. 420 Amfc/. Peale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. 1741 1827 Amer. , Rembrandt .... Painter. 1778 1860 Fr. Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre) Architect. 1613 1688 Ital. Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) . Painter. 1446 1524 Swiss. Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) . . Painter. 1607 1691 BeL Peters, Bonaventura . . . Marine Piiinter. " 1614 1653 Bel. , Francis Lucas . . . Painter. 1606 1654 Bel. , John . . Marine Painter. 1635 1677 Gr. Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) . Sculptor. B . o. 498 B. 0.431 Eng. Phillips, Thomas, R. A. . . . Port. Painter. 1770 1845 Fr. Picart, Bernard .... Engraver. 1663 1733 Fr. Pigalle, John Baptist . . . . Sculptor. 1714 1785 Ital. Pietro, da Pietre . . Hist. Painter of Rome. 1671 1716 Fr. Piles, Roger de . . . Author and Painter. 1635 1709 Ital. Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) . Engraver. 1707 1778 ItaL Polidors, da Caravaggio . . . Painter. 1495 1543 Gr. Polycletus (etatue of Juno at Argos) . Sculptor. B, ,0.430 Ital. Pordenone, Regillo da ... Painter. 1484 1540 Dutch. Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) . Painter. 1625 1654 Fr. Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape painting) Painter. 1594 1665 Ital. Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) . Landscape Painter. 1613 1675 Ital. Piombo, Sebaatiano del ... Painter. 1485 154T Amer. Powers, Hiram .... Sculptor. 1805 Fr. Pradier, Jacques . . , Sculptor. 1798 1852 Aiaer. Pratt, Mathew .... Painter. 1734 1805 Gr. Praxiteles . .. . . Sculptor. f. B. o. 350 Eng. Prout, Samuel ... Water-colorist. 1783 1S62 Fr. Prudhon, of Cluny , . . Painter. 1760 1828 Fr. Puget . . Sculptor, Painter and Architect. 1622 1694 Bug. Pugin, Augustus A W. .... Architect 1811 1859 1016 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. KATIOK. WAVE AND PROFESSION. EOSN. D1BA. ItaL Raphael, d' Crbino (real name Sanzio) A prominent Painter. UN 1520 ItaL Raphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) Hist, and Port. Painter. 1552 158C Ger. Raucb, Christian David . . . Sculptor. 1781 1S59 Dutch. Remhrandt van Ryn, Paul Qeritz . . 1606 1669 Ger. Retsch, Moritz . . , . Art Designer. 1779 1859 Bag. Reynolds, Sir Joshua . . Painter 1723 1792 Eng. Richardson, Jonathan . Writer on Art and Painter. 1665 1745 Ger. Riedinger, John Elias . Animal Painter. 1695 ' 1767 Fr. Rober, Fleury ... . Painter. 1797 Scot. Roberts, David . . . . . Painter. 1796 1864 Fr. Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) Sculptor. 1746 1816 Eng. Romney, George . . . . Painter. 1734 1802 Flem. Roos, Philip Peters . . . . Painter. 1655 1706 Ital. Rosa, Salvator . . . . Painte*. 1614 1673 Amer. Rossiter, Thomas P. , . . . Painter. Fr. Roubilliao, L. F. . . . Sculptor. 1695 1763 Fr. Rousseau, James . . . Painter. leso 1693 Eng. Rowlandson, Tli. (caricature Dr. Syntax, &o.) Paint, and Eng. 1756 1827 Fiem. Rubens, Peter Paul . Painter. 1577 1646 Scot. Runciman, Alexander . . . Painter. 1736 1785 Dutch. Ruysdael, Jacob , . Landscape Painter. 1636 1684 Dutch. Ruysdael, Solomon . . . . Painter. 1616 1670 Dutch. Ryckaert, David . . . . Painter. 1615 1677 Dutch. Ryckaert, Martin . . Landscape Painter. 1591 1636 Dutch. Rysbraeck, leter ... Landscape Painter. 1657 1718 Eng. Rysbrach, John M. (works In Westminster Abbey) Sculptor. 1694 1770 8 Ital. Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) . . Painter. 1605 1685 Ital. Salvi, Nicholas . Architect. 1G99 1753 Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael . . . . Architect. 1484 1559 ItaL Sarto, Andrea del, see VanucM . . Eng. Savage, James ... . Architect. 1778 1852 Ital. Seamozzi, Vincent . . . Architect. 1550 1616 Pruss. Schadow, J. G. . . . . Sculptor. 1764 1850 Ger. Schadow, Godenhaus F. W. . . Painter. 1789 Ger. Schadow, Rudolf ... . Sculptor. 1786 1822 Dutch. Scbalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) . Painter. 1643 1706 Ger. Scheffer, Ary .... , Painter 1795 1858 Ital. Schidone, Eartolomeo . . . Pa ; nter. 1560 1610 Gr. Scopaa .... . Sculptor. B. C.460 B. C. 353 Eng. Sharp, William ... . Engraver. 1740 1824 Amer. Bhattuclc, Aaron D. . . , , . Painter. Km:. Shoe, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy . Painter. 1795 1850 Eng. Sherwin, John Keyte ... . Engraver. 1751 17M Amer. Smillie, Juries ... . Engraver. Amer. , George H. . . . . Painter. Amer. , James D. . . . . Painter. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. RATION. NAME AMD PROFESSION. BORN. DIED Amer. Smybert, John (b. in Scotland) . . . Painter. 1684 1751 Flem. Snyders, Francis . Landscape and Animal Painter. 1679 1657 Fr. Soulflot, J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. 1714 1781 Butch. Spaendonck, Gerradvan . . Flower Painter. 1716 1822 Span. Spagnoletto, Giuseppo Ribera la . . . Painter. 1589 1066 Dutch. Steen, Jan . ... Painter. 1633 1689 Amer. Stone, William O. . , . Portrait Painter. Scot. Strange, Robert . . . . Engraver. 1721 1792 ? Amer. Strickland, William . . . Architect. 1854 Eng. Btrutt, Joseph, .... Author and Painter. 1749 1803 Eng. Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. 1713 1788 Amer. Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West . Port. Painter. 1759 1828 Ger. Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) ... Engraver. 1 ItaL Teneranl, Pietro . . . . Sculptor. 1789 Flem. Teniere, David, the elder (pupil of Rut/ens) . . Paii.ter; 1582 1649 Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) . Painter. 1610 1694 Scot Thorn, Jas. (Tarn O'Shanter, &c.) . . Sculptor. 1790 1850 Eng. Thornhill, Sir Jas. . . . Historical Painter. 1676 1732 Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert .... Sculptor. 1772 1841 Ger. Tieck, Christ Fried .... Sculptor. 1776 1851 Gr. Timanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) . Painter. f. B. C. 240 ItaL Tintoretto (Venetian pupil of Titian) . . Painter. 1480 1579 ItaL , 11 (James Kobusti) . . Painter. 1512 1594 ItaL Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school . Painter. 1480 1579 Fr. Troyon, Constantino .... Painter. 1813 1865 Amer. Trumbull, John ... Historical Painter. 1756 1843 Eng. Turner, J. W. M. . . . . . Painter. 1776 1861 Eng; TJwins, Thomas, R. A. Painter. 1183 1S57 Amer. Eng. Amer. Dutch. Dutch. Dutch. D|tch. Dutch. Flem. Dutch. Dutch. Ital. Ital. Ital. Bio. Van Beest (b. In Holland P) . Marine Painter. Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arch't. Vanderlyn, John Vander Neer, Arnold Vandervelde, Adrian . , the younger -, Win., marine and battle Vanderwerf, Adrian Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait Vaneyck, Hubert Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . . Van Vitelli. Louis, a Neapolitan Vasari, George, biographer of artists Vasi, Joseph . 43* Historical Painter. Landscape Painter. Landscape Painter. . . Painter. Painter. Historical Painter. Painter. Painter. Painter. Painter. Architect. Architect and Painter. Designer and Engraver. 1672 1776 1619 1639 1633 1610 If 54 1598 1366 1370 1488 1700 1512 1710 1852 1684 1672 1707 1693 1713 164(1 1420 1441 1530 1771 1574 1783 1018 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ATIO. SAME AHD PROFESSION. Span. Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y Plena. Verboeckhoven, Eugene . Amer. Ver Bryck, C. . . Fr. Vemet, Horace . . Fr. Vernet, Joseph . . , Ital. Veronese, Paul (see Cagliarl) Ital. Verrocbio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking features in a plaster mould Eng. Vertne, George (500 plates) . Ital. Vignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter'a Ital. Vinci, Leonardo da . . Or. Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . Ital. Volpato, John . Fr. Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- ry of Charles L . Fr. Wailly, Charles de Amer. Ward, J. Quincy A. Eng. Warren, Charles, perfector of engraving on steel Fr. "Watteau, Antoine . . Amer. Weir, Eobt. W. Amer. , James F. . . Dan. Wertmuller, (P) (painted in America) Amer. West, Benjamin . . Eng. Westall, Richard . Eng. , William R. A. br. . A mer. White, Edwin . . Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . . Scot. Wilkie, David . . Eng. Wilson, Richard ... Eng. Woollett, William . . Dutch. "Wouverman, Philip . Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &c.) Eng. Wyatt, J-imes (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &c.) Eng. "Wyatt, R. J. . . [OR. BORIS. DIED Painter. i589 166fl Painter of animals. 1799 . Landscape Painter. 1813 1844 Historical Painter. 1789 1863 . . Painter. 1714 178* bod of taking , . Sculptor. 1422 1488 Engraver. 1684 1756 'eter's Architect. 1507 1575 . . Painter, 1452 1519 Architect. f B. 0. 30 . . Engraver. 1733 1802 contempora- . . Painter. 1582 1649 Architect. 1729 1798 . Sculptor. on steel Engraver. 1823 , . Painter. 1684 1721 . Painter. 1803 . Painter. Port. Painter. Painter. 1738 182(1 Historical Painter. 1781 183fl . . Designer. 1781 1856 . Painter. Landscape Painter. Familiar Life Painter. 1785 1841 Landscape Painter. ins 1782 . . Engraver. 1736 1785 Painter. 1620 1668 . . Architect. 1639 1723 s.) . Architect. 1743 1813 . . Sculptor. 1795 1850 Span. Ximcnes, Fran. Painter. 1598 166fl Hero. Yples, Charles de Painter. 1510 1563 Ttal ZaWia, Nicholas Or. Zeszis, celebrated ancient . Ber. Zincke . . . Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucohero, Frederlgo Ital. Zuocaro, or Zacchero, Taddeo , Ital. Znocarelll . . . Architect. . . Painter. Enamel Portrait Painter. . Painter. Painter. Painter. 1674 1650 o. 490 B. o. 400 1684 1769 1539 1639 1529 1669 1710 1781 PAINTING. 10 j a PAINTING. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of the Nineteenth Century. (From Bell' a Edition of Bredovfs Tables of Universal History?) 1. FLORENTINE SCHOOL. Style elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace 1240, Cimabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211, Andrea Taffl; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea Verrochio, Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, LEONARDO DA VINCI; 1469, Bartoloimneo di San Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Per uzzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 1434, Domir.ico Boccafumi ; 1488, Andrea del Sarto ; 1493. Jacopo Carrucci da Pontortno ; 149 >, Del RDSSO . 1500, Perino del Vaga; 1509, Daniel da Volterra; 1510. Francesco Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vassart; 1545, Antonio Tcmpesta; 1559, Luigi Cardi; 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Kosselli; 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garo- foli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti; 1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni; 1702, Pompeo BattonL 2. ROMAN SCHOOL carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical study of the antique and of nature; heads of the most sublime beauty; coloring and chiaro oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483, Riffsel 1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 1528, Frederico Barocci ; 1529, Tadileo Zncchero ; 1543, Frederico Zucchero; 1589, Dominico Feti; 1594, Nicholas Poussin ; 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine; 1602, CeriozM" 1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard Doghet, called Poussin or Guaspre>, i616, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco Romanell; 1623, Giacinto Brandi ; 1623, Filippo Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, Giro Ferri ; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Raffael Mengs. 8. VENETIAN SCHOOL. Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent coloring, admirable effect ; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique ; this school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Giorgiono; 1477, TITIAN (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore) ; 1480, G. A. Regillo ; 1485, Sebastiano del Piornbo ; 1510. Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Robusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinnti; 1522, Andrea Schiavone; 1R28, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Cagliari; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 1539, Dario Varotari; 1540, Felice Riccio; 1540, Jacopo Palma (II Veechio); 1544, Jac Palrna;. 1549, Giov. Contarino; 1560, Maria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo Corona; 15S6, Tiberio Tinelli; 1590, Aless. Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635, Giov. B. Langetti; 1642, Andrea POZX.O ; 1656, Franc. Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Ricci ; 1666, Ant. Balestra; 1672, Rosa Alba Carriera: 1675. Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant, Canaie; 1693, Giov. Bat Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his colo*- ing. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and many of their pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Corresgio. 1450, Francesco Franco ; 1490, F. Primaticcio ; 1494, COERF.GQIO Antonio Allogri ; 1495, Polidori CaWari ; 1504, Fr. Maz- zuol'i ; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi ; 1546, Camillo Procaccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, cAlleil Car- ravag"io; 1555, Lodov. Caracci: 1557, Agostino Caracci ; 1560, Annibate Caracci; 1560, Bartol. Schidone; 1575, Guide Reni, called Guido; 1576, Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini; 1578, Mola- 1628, Cianani; 1633, P. F. Carol! ; 1643, Lodov. Quaini; 1648, Ant. Franceschini ; 1654, Guis del Sole; 1657, Fer. Galli Babtena; 16 >5, Guis. Maria Crespi; 1668, Dotn. Maria Viani ; 1671,'Donato Creti; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti; 1691, G. P. Panini. (NEAPOLITANS, GENOME* SPANIARDS. These nations are not regarded as having founded general Schools: their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools. Neapol- itan. The painters ofthis nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected. Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310; Fil del Tesauro, 1820; 1500, and Sabbatani; 1560, Guia Cesare d'Arpino; 16lX), Aniello Falcone; 16^8, Mario Niizzi; 1613, Matteo Potri; 1615, Salvator Rosa; 1631, Luca Giordana; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nunzio Ferajoli ; 1679, Sebast. Conca, 1693 Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design. 1400, Nicli. da Vottri; 1527, Cam- biasi- 1544. G. B. Pasfgi; 1:57, Bern. Castelli; 1581, Bernardo Strozzi; 1590 Gio. Cs -lone; 161$ Benedetto Castiglione^ 1625, F. M. Borzoni; 1639, G. B. Gauli; 1664, Greg. Ferrari, 1654, Bart finidoboni; 1660, II Molinaretto; Spaniards. These painters have especially imitated the Venetian School, and often display its brilliant coloring. 1400, Alonso Berragente ; 1487, Blal 1020 PAINTING. de Pradn; 1519, Morales; 155,8, Luis de Vargas; 1532, J. F. Xlmenez de Navarete: 1550, PaMu de las Rovias; 1589, Joseph Ribera; 1599, Don Diego Velasquez de Silva; 1601, Alonso Canoj 1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1613, Bartolme Esteban de Murillo; 1617, Franc. Rizzi ; 1631, Matias de Torres; 1640. Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan ile Alfaro: 1651, Juan 0. Falco; 1663, P. di Pietri.) 5. GERMAN SCHOOL. This School having never had a common point of union, bears no general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. 1297, Th. de Matina; 1357, Theo. de Prague; 1367. N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Dtirer; 1492, Lucas Mnller: 1498, Hans Holbein; If. 5, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmor; 1550, Christ. Schwartz ; 1556, John Van Aachen : 1564. J. Eottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lys; 1574, Adam Elzheimcr; 1593, 8;im. Hofmann ; 1600. J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611, Ch. Loth ; 1616, Govaert Flink; 1618, P. Van del Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg: 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 1625, J. Lingelback; 1631, J. Hen Koos- 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher; 1640, Ab. Mignon ; 1647, M. S. Merian; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R. Hnber: 1669, Anna Waser; 1685, Balthasar Denner; 1 689, Fr. P. Ferg ; 1698, J. E. Riedenger ; 1709, Brinkman; 1712, C. W. E. Dietrich; 1728, Raffael Mengs; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 6. FLEMISH OR BELGIO SCHOOL. This School excels in coloring and in the faithful Imi- tation of nature, but does not always exhibit sufficient nobleness of design ; it produces eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name had its birtli in this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1412. 1806, Hubert Van Eyk; 1370, John Van Eyk; 1450, Qncntin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley; 1499, J. de Mabuse; 1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- bus; 1546, B. Spranger; 1548, O. Van Mander; 1550, H. Steenwyck; 1555, Denys Calvart; 1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel: 1570, P. Neefs; 1573, 8. Frank ; 1576, Fr. Sneyders; 1577, Peter Paul Rubens; 1580, David Teniers: 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Van Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Vun Artois; 1618, Gonzales Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Vaielst ; 1663, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort, 7. DUTCH SCHOOL. This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence of the chiaro oscnro ; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School 14(57, Erasmus; 1494. Luke of Leyden ; 1498, Martin Hemskerk ; 1518, An. Moro; 1564, Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol de Brey; 1585, Cornelius Poelenberg; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. D. de Heein; 16f)0, John "Wynants; 1606, Albert Cnyp ; 1G06, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn; 1608, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostadu; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel Met- zu; 1620, Philip Won vermans ; 1624, Nicholas Bergham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolph Bakhytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 1635, Jac. Ruysdael, Hobbema; 1635, Fran, Mierirs; 1636, John'Steen; 1637; Van den Heyclen ; 163S. Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 1664, John Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 16S2, John Van Hnysnm. ENGLISH PAINTERS. Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. 14SO, Hans Holbein ; 1543, F. Zucchero; 1572. Inigo Jones,; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610. W. Dobson ; 1620. Ric, Gibson; 1619. John Greenhill; 1643, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock; 1677, James Thornhill; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Rich. Wilson; 1728. Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thorn. Gainsborough; 1738, Sawrey Gilpin ; 1734, P. J. de Lontherbour? ; 1735, David Allan; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Stmtt; 1746, James Northcote; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Rdnagle; 1751. William Hamilton; 1752, Wm. Beechey : 1755. Thorn. Stothard ; 1759, Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1.774. Edward Bird f 1776, John Constable; 1786, Will. Hilton; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow; .Tho- mas Daniell; 1785, David Wilkie; 1786, R. B. Haydon; , A. W. Calcott ; 1789, W. Etty. 8. FRENCH SCHOOL. The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the differ e.nt Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics : they are in general more successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the most n inner- ons and flourishing school of all. 1490, Fran. Primaticcio; 1496, Rosso de Rossi; 1502. J. Cousin ; 15S2, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Pousin ; 1600. Claude Lorraine; 1600. Le Valentin; 16(10, James Blanchard ; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Senr ; 1619, Charles le Brnn; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644. John Jonvenet; 11567, Joseph Vivien 1667, Nicholas Berlin; 1667, Anth. Hivally; 1684, Ant Wattean : 16S8, Francis Le Moine : 16'W Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natolre; 1794, F. Bonchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vie* 1729, J. B. Desnays; 1766, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1567, A. L. Girodet University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which It was borrowed.