/ EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN GREECE DURING THE MINOAN, MYCENAEAN, AND LYRIC PERIODS By DwiGHT Grafton Burrage A THESIS Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College in the University of Nebraska in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Greek Lincoln, Nebraska 1920 THB COCKLB PRINTINO CO. OMAHA. NKB. Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2008 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/educationalprogrOOburrricli EDUCATIONAL PROGfilBgS jIN ipEllEiCE DURING THE MINOAN, MYCENAEAN, AND LYRIC PERIODS By DwiGHT Grafton Burrage A THESIS Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College in the University of Nebraska in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Greek Lincoln, Nebraska 1920 THB COCKLE PRINTINO CO.. OMAHA, NEB. 3s PREFACE The subject, Educational Progress in Greece during the Minoan, Mycenaean, and Lyric Periods, was suggested by the theme which the writer had taken for his master's thesis, Homeric Education. At first the plan was to include in the larger work the earlier paper, rewrit- ten and adapted to its position as a part of a greater whole; but the decision was finally made to have the doctor's thesis cover only new ground, though an hiatus might be left in the description of the chronological development of education in early Greece. Conse- quently we shall pass somewhat abruptly from the Mycenaean to the Lyric period. A definite date had to be selected, down to which we should carry our investigation. 525 B. C. was adopted, not because it marks the end of the production of lyric poetry by any means, but because Pindar and Aeschylus, who belong to the new age, were born about this time. Tragedy too was now coming into existence and was to be the most characteristic form of poetry in the fifth century. Again the object of our study is to trace the development of education in the early time, before Greece had made her great achievements along the line of government, learning and aesthetics. In the last years of the sixth century Greece was already emerging from obscurity and rapidly taking the position that she was to maintain in the next two and a half centuries. We wish to confine ourselves to the early days of the development of Greek education, a field for which there is little contemporary evidence, but which is attractive on account of the freshness, simplicity, and freedom from convention that mark the age. We are greatly indebted to Provost James T. Lees of the Uni- versity of Nebraska for inspiration and for guidance in our prepara- tion of this thesis. His suggestions have been very valuable in shap- ing the work as a whole and likewise in the matter of details. We gladly express our appreciation of his interest and kindly assistance. 39.5 7 '3 INTRODUCTION The history of no country is complete unless it deals to some extent with the means used to hand down from one generation to another the accumulated learning and the institutions of the past, to mould the young so that they may realize the ideals that are char- acteristic of the people, and to train all to take an active part in the political, social, and religious life of the nation. This may be con- sidered education in the broader sense of the word, but it includes not only the work of the schools and the definite instruction given by the parents to their children, but also all those influences that tend to develop the mind and to fit man for greater usefulness. With this conception of education in mind we turn to early Greece, before and after the dawn of history, to study how this training and these influences manifest themselves. Many have written of Greek education, dealing with a later period, when the states were seeking consciously to train the young so as to attain their national educational ideals, when philosophers were theorizing on the subject, and when different pedagogical sys- tems were coming into conflict, but our period for investigation is a much earlier one. Such a subject must deal with an age when the training of the young was more unconscious, when there was much less direct instruction, and when there was little of theory. It must consider the ideals for the training of the young and the means used to accomplish this end. It must examine the subject matter of instruc- tion and it must seek the earliest indications of formal education. This study is to be carried back to prehistoric times. We must learn what we can of education in the Minoan period and in the Mycenaean Age, before we endeavor to trace its further evolution after 776 B. C., the first authentic date in Greek history. The same general outline may perhaps best be followed in taking up the education of each period. First we shall consider the ideals of education and the means employed and then its subject matter, including intellectual, physical, and religious training. In treating of the later part of the lyric period we shall depart from this outline, as with the rapidly developing civilization of that age, it seems best to cover the ground by studying the educational bearing of certain movements that were characteristic of the time. Finally we shall 2 Educational Progress in Greece note in review the most striking features of the periods studied and their significance in the history of Greek education. We begin with the epoch of Aegean civilization, which includes both the Minoan and Mycenaean periods. EDUCATION IN THE PERIOD OF ^GEAN CIVILIZATION In the study of this period the hooks that have been most useful have been the following : R, M. Burrows' Discoveries in Crete, H. R. Hall's Aegean Archaeology, Crete the Forerunner of Greece by C. H. and H. B. Hawes, J. Baikie's Sea-Kings of Crete, the articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th. Edition, on Crete (ancient) by A. J. Evans and on Aegean Civilization by D. G, Hogarth, the articles by A. J. Evans in the Annual of the British School at Athens, Vols. VI- XI, R. Dussand's Les Civilizations Prehelleniques dans le Bassin de la Mer Egee, A. J. Evans' Scripta Minoa; and of especial value for the Mycenaean Age, Schliemann' s Excavations, by C. Schuchhardt, and The Mycenaean Age by C. Tsountas and J. I. Manatt. Other books which have been used to a less extent are listed in the general bibliography. We need not discuss at length the origin of the people who devel- oped the earliest civilization in Hellenic lands. ^ They seem to have been a non-Aryan people coming from the East or South, who made Crete their first great center. Thence their civilization spread to the smaller islands and to the mainland of Greece. In the latter place important cities arose, when the centers on the island of Crete were already in a state of decline. Gradually Aryan tribes from the North came down into Greece. At first they adopted the civilization they found and in return gave their language to the land. We may name these first comers of the Aryan race, Achaeans. But they were fol- lowed by barbarous hordes, who overran Greece and almost oblit- erated the earlier civilization. The Achaeans that were not slain or enslaved fled, as best they could, to the coast of Asia Minor, carrying with them the remembrance of their past glory. The new inhabitants, the Dorians, as they were later called, had in the course of time to develop a new civilization, influenced very little by that which it superseded. It is the education of those people who developed the earliest civilization in Crete, on the islands of the Aegean, and on the main- land of Greece that we wish first to discuss. Almost nothing was known of this civilization until the last fifty years. The Lion Gate at Mycenae, the walls of Tiryns, and the so- 'For discussion of this point see Hogarth in article on Aegean Civilization in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th. Edition, and Chap. XI in Crete the Forerunner of Greece by C. H. and H B Hawes. For bibliography on this subject see Botsford and Sihler: Hellenic CivUizaeion p lie' under (g). ' * ' 4 Educational Progress in Greece called treasuries of Atreus and Minyas have never been buried. The ancient Greeks believed that they were constructed by foreigners and this view was accepted till comparatively recent times. Between 1870 and 1890 Dr. Schliemann's excavations at Troy, Mycenae, Or- chomenus, and Tiryns^ presented the evidence of a civilization little dreamed of by scholars of an earlier date. In 1900 and the years following Dr. A. J. Evans' discoveries in Crete,^ supplemented by those of other archaeologists, have added much more to our knowl- edge of the prehistoric Aegean people. A careful study of all that has been excavated in the different layers on these sites, taken in connection with the known chronology of Egypt, has resulted in giving us some idea of the relative dates for the rise of the larger cities and for the building activity devel- oped, and for the progress in art. We may state these approximately as follows:^ Before 3000, B. G Stone Age 3000—2000, B. C. Early Bronze Age Early cities at Troy 2000—1500, B. C Palace at Cnossus Great prosperity of Crete Shaft-graves at Mycenas 1500 — ] 200, B. C. Destruction of palace at Cnossus Palaces built at Tiryns and Mycenae Mycenasan Troy Bee-hive tombs in Greece 1100, B. C. Dorian Invasion The name, Minoan period, is given to the eighteen centuries from 3000 to about 1200. A little before 1600 the Mycenaean Age begins and continues till about 1200, contemporaneous with the lat- ter part of the Minoan period, with its centers however on the main- land of Greece. As the excavations have yielded more and more material for study, it has become increasingly plain that in this early age there arose a highly developed civilization and such civilization implies education. It will be our purpose to discuss first the education of 'For these excavations and their results see Schuchhardt : Schliemann's Excavations and Tsountas and Manatt: The Mycenaean Age, besides Schliemann's own books, Ilios, Ithaka, Mycenae and Tiryns. ^Annual of British School at Athens, VI-XI. 'Adapted from table at end of Fimmen's Zeit und Dauer der Kretisch-Mykenischen Kultur. Period of Aegean Civilization 5 the Minoan period and then to take up briefly that of the Mycenaean Age, so far as it differs from Minoan education. MINOAN EDUCATION In the first place we shall consider the ideals or object of Minoan education, then the means of education, and finally its subject mat- ter. Above all the education of these people of Crete and the nearby islands was undoubtedly practical. The cities that have been un- earthed were busy commercial places.^ There was trade by land and sea. Builders had attained great skill, as is indicated by the elab- orate palaces constructed. Aesthetic ideals were also realized in their attainments in art. H. R. Hall in his Aegean Archaeology makes this statement concerning Minoan culture: "Of all civilizations of the world it was in some ways the most artistic, the most aesthetic."- Now the skill displayed in these activities must have been passed from one generation to another by some system of education. We may easily conjecture from our familiaritv with other early people that this knowledge was handed down from father to son by direct instruction and that certain occupations were hereditary. Perhaps the apprentice system too may have been in use to some extent. Furthermore the discovery of tablets of clay inscribed with linear script has established the fact that the early Cretans had a sys- tem of writing. We shall discuss this more at length later. We are concerned at present with the manner in which this art was imparted to others by those who practised it. Instruction in reading and writ- ing can easily be given to a number at once. Hence it is possible that schools may have existed in that early day. In fact Dr. Evans thinks he has found a school-room in the palace at Cnossus. We give this description of it in his own words: "Several small rooms are enclosed within this area, the most interesting being that which occupies its northwest corner. Along the south wall of this room ran a low stone bench, at the west end of which stood a square pillar coated with stucco, the upper surface of which was hollowed into a bowl-like cavity. At the other end of the bench was another lower pillar of rough stone, perhaps originally plastered over, with a similar cavity — the one pillar being of a height to be used by a man, the other by a child. Opposite this bench and •See chap. HI, Hawcs: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece. =Page 254. 6 Educational Progress in Greece pillars, against the north wall, was another similar stone bench, and the masonry rising behind it at a somewhat higher level gave the appearance of a second. This, however, according to the explana- tion adopted above, should probably be regarded as part of an outer wall of solid masonry. . . . Along the side walls of the room are two more stone benches, which have a distinct inward slope as they recede from the south wall, an arrangement which inevitably recalls that of a modern class-room. The name of 'school-room' has there- fore been provisionally given to this chamber as a distinctive title. May we, perhaps, imagine that the higher and lower stucco bowls were used, by master and pupils respectively, for keeping moist the clay lumps, out of which were moulded the tablets that serve as a vehicle for the linear script, and that the art of writing was here imparted to the Palace youth ?"^ Dr. Evans is cautious in expressing his view, but it seems rea- sonable. Further, if there was one school, it is likely that there were more. If no similar room has been found at Phasstus and elsewhere, it does not follow that such rooms did not exist, for benches and pillars could easily be obliterated, especially if they were made of less lasting materials than those used at Cnossus. At best the methods of instruction of this early people are a matter of conjecture, but we know more of what they had to study. The subject matter that was taught may be taken up under three heads — intellectual, physical, and moral. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION The archaeological discoveries in Crete and other seats of this ancient civilization show attainments made along lines that furnish material for instruction in our modern schools; for instance writing, which has already been referred to, was highly developed in the Minoan period and might well have been taught in the schools. The earliest form of writing was pictographic symbols on gems and seals.^ This developed into a hieroglyphic system and from the latter linear script was derived. This has been found in various places in Crete and some traces of it have been found also in Melos and Thera.'' Later this form of writing was superseded by a different ^Annual of British School at Athens, VII, 1900-01, p. 96. ''Kor diitcussion of Minoan wriiing see llvans: Hcripta Minoa, for a brief account see Hall: Aegean Archaeology, pp. 211-229; for a bibliography of the subject see Botsfurd and Sihicr: Hellenic Civiliiation, p. 116, under (e). 'Evans: Scripta Minoa, pp. 34-35. Period of Aegean Civilization 7 form at Cnossus, somewhat similar, but distinct from it, which how- ever has not been found elsewhere.^ The Cretan linear script ran from left to right. Of the appear- ance of its most advanced form Dr. Evans writes: "The characters have a European aspect. They are of upright habit, and of a simple and definite outline, which throws into sharp relief the cumbrous and obscure cuneiform system of Babylonia. Although not so cur- sive in form as the Hieratic or Demotic types of Egyptian writing, there is here a much more limited selection of types. It would seem that the characters stand for syllables or even letters, though they could in most cases also be used as words."^ Aside from gems the great bulk of our inscriptions in this writ- ing is on clay tablets, originally unbaked, but burned (and so pre- served to us) by the fire that destroyed the palace at Cnossus. These tablets seem to contain records and business memoranda,^ though they have not yet been deciphered. If there was a literature in this language, it was doubtless inscribed on papyrus or skins with ink.* Some cups bear inscriptions made in ink with a reed pen.^ The use of such a pen would suggest that other writing materials were em- ployed more convenient than clay. That the use of writing was not confined to business purposes is shown by the discovery in the Dictaean Cave of a libation table inscribed with the linear script.^ Here it had evidently a religious use. Its appearance on the cups mentioned above and on some large jars^ and in graffti on the walls of the palace at Hagia Triada^ would indicate that it entered into the life of the people. And the fact, already mentioned, that this style of writing is found in various places in Crete and on some of the islands indicates that it was some- what widely spread. All this goes to show that not a few of the Minoan people must have learned to read and write. On many of the tablets containing linear script numbers are also found. From these it has been discovered that the Cretans possessed a decimal system with numbers running as high as 10,000.^ The Cretans used scales, for these are represented on Cnossian tab- 'Ib., p. 38. ='Ib., p. 39. Hb., p. 21. *Hall: Aegean Archaeology, p. 217. °Evang: Scripta Minoa, p. 29. «Ib., p. 15. 'lb., p. 33. Hh., p. 36. ^Evans in article in Encyclopaeria Britannica on Crete. 8 Educational Progress in Greece lets.^ Weights have also been discovered, some equalling the light Babylonian talent. Nineteen ingots of bronze in one place had all practically this weight.^ Pieces of gold beaten in the form of ox- heads and small pieces of gold and silver, one of the latter bearing a mark upon it resembling a symbol, suggest a rudimentary system of coinage.^ Of course the construction of such a building as the palace at Cnossus implies the use of definite measures. Conditions therefore were such that a man taking part in the life of his city must have needed instruction in elementary mathematics and we can hardly doubt that the sons of well-to-do families did not fail to get this training. Furthermore D, C. Hogarth points out that there must have existed a complicated system of bookkeeping in the pal- ace at Cnossus.* As has been said before, the tablets found at Cnos- sus seem to have been business documents. They were laid away in chests. Some were endorsed on the back.^ In a house of a mer- chant at Zakro five hundred seal-impressions were discovered." Cer- tainly some training must have been required along business lines. The aesthetic found a place in the old Aegean education as well as the practical. Music was cultivated to some extent and art had reached a state of high development. As for the music our evidence is scanty but important. Besides a representation on a stone of a woman blowing a conch-shell' and the figure with the sistrum on the "Harvester Vase,"® neither of which would indicate a high form of music, we have the paintings on the sarcophagus from Hagia Triada." On one side is a repre- sentation of religious rites, undoubtedly in honor of the dead. Among the worshipers is a man holding in his hand a lyre similar in form to that of classic times with seven strings. On the other side of the sarcophagus there is also depicted a, scene in which figures stand by an altar. One of these is playing upon the double flute. This instru- ment apparently had fourteen openings, eight being visible and the remainder covered by the hands of the player.^" On the "Harvester Vase," already mentioned, a procession is 'Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, p. 16. -lb., p. 15. "lb., pp. 16-17. 'Article in Encyclopaedia Britannica on Aegean Civili^tion. "Evans: Scripta Minoa, p. 42. ''Baikie : Sea-Kings of Crete, p. 224. 'Lagranse: La Crete Ancienne, p. 63. •Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, p. 36. "Baikie: Sea-Kings of Crete, pp. 127-128. "lb., p. 12C. Period of Aegean Civilization 9 represented and three of the company have their mouths open as though they were singing.^ These glimpses of what constituted the music of that age show us the two principal instruments of the historic period fully devel- oped and some form of choral singing and furthermore music as having its part in religious rites. To play the seven-stringed lyre or the double flute or to sing acceptably in a chorus required training. Such training would be a part of the education of the Minoan people, whether it was general or specialized. Listening to such music would also have an educational influence on others than the performers. As for the art of this age, there are three things that impress us — its variety, the abundance of artistic objects, and the originality and spirit of the artists. The variety can briefly be indicated by quoting from C. H. and H. B. Hawes: "Painting, engraving, sculp- ture, bas-relief, architecture, the carving of precious stones, gold- chasing, moulding, inlaying, and bronze repousse, all were at- tempted."^ The painting appears on the walls of palaces and on vases. The palaces themselves are good examples of the architecture. Sculpture is rarely employed except for small objects like idols and votive off"erings. Reliefs are found to a limited extent. Gem-cutting and metal-work were especially characteristic of the art of this period, the latter developing along many lines. It is hard for us to conceive of the abundance of artistic objects that the people of this age must have possessed. Time, conquest, and the indifference of later inhabitants militated against the survival of any works of art. Yet they have come down to us by the hundreds. The palace of Cnossus alone has yielded up a wealth of objects. Fragments of decorated vases, made in this period, have been found not only about the Aegean Sea, but also in other lands bordering on the Mediter- ranean, whither they were carried in commerce.^ When so much has survived three thousand years, how prolific must have been the art of Cnossus or Hagia Triada in the days of their glory ! Nor was this art crude. The wonderful designs on Cretan vases derived from vegetable and animal forms show a high degree of decorative skill. The wall-paintings in many cases attain to an excellence that is almost incredible for so early a period. While undoubtedly this art gained an initial impulse from Egypt, at its best it shows a direct ^Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, p. 36. ^Crete, the Forerunner oj Greece, p. 110. ^Evans in article in Encyclopaedia Britannica on Crete. 10 Educational Progress in Greece inspiration from nature. The figures are full of life, not the staid, conventionalized forms of Egyptian or Mesopotamian art. What then is the bearing of all this on the education of the people? In the first place many persons were engaged in making these varied works of art and they had to be trained for it. Again that such objects were produced indicates not only high ideals and efficient training in the artist, but also a public that could appreciate such masterpieces. Also art would be a factor in the education of the youth growing up amid such surroundings. Something ought to be said also of industrial education. First let us make a concise statement of the different industries in which these people engaged. From the facts before us we may then be able to draw inferences. Let us begin with the building trades. Stone was quarried and walls were built of it. The great palace at Cnossus shows the educa- tion and skill of its builders.^ Parts of the structure were several stories in height. In fact private houses seem to have been often of two stories or even three, as is shown by some plaques found at Cnos- sus representing a town^ and also by the remains of a village at Gour- nia.' Engineering skill was shown in the construction of a most surprising system of drains in the palace at Cnossus.* The Minoan people were doubtless equally successful in the working of wood. Of course we have no remains in this material, but a whole kit of carpenters' tools was found in a house in Gournia, quite similar in shape to the tools of today.' At Hagia Triada was discovered a large saw that must have belonged to a lumberman.^ Wood was evidently used to some extent in the interior of the pal- aces.'^ From the picture of houses on the plaques above referred to it would appear that sometimes timber was used in the walls of pri- vate houses.* Of the success of the Minoan people in metal-working we have already spoken. Bronze was chiefly used — copper mixed with ten per cent of tin.** Gold was the precious metal most extensively em- *For deicription of the palace see Annual of British School at Athens, VI-XI. For a briefer statement see Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, chaps. IV, V. 'Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, p. 20, Annual of British School at Athens, VIII, pp. 15-17. 'Hawes I Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, chap, VII. 'Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, pp. 8-9. 'Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, p. 37. "lb., p. 37. 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, p. 123. •Baikie: Sea-Kings of Crete, p. 217 *Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, pp. 38-39. Period of Aegean Civilization 11 ployed, though some objects were made of silver. Very little iron has been brought to light in the excavations. This period lies still in the bronze age.^ Various methods of working metal were em- ployed. At Gournia was found on a forge a block of schist with moulds for casting chisels, nails, and awls cut into its sides.^ Small bronze objects were apparently made by the cire perdue process.^ Repousse and inlaid work were employed, the most striking examples being the Vaphio cups and the inlaid dagger-blades from Mycenae. These were found to be sure on the mainland of Greece, but they are believed to have been of Cretan origin.* In all these kinds of metal work the greatest skill was shown, indicating a high degree of edu- cation. In manufacturing of course little was done, but vases were made in large quantities and exported. The potter's wheel was used.^ Spinning and weaving were carried on, as is shown by the large number of spinning-whorls and loom weights found.^ Maritime occupations must have given employment to many. A number of representations of ships have come down to us^ and the facts that Cnossus had no walls shows that its rulers must have controlled the sea. Trade was carried on over the sea extensively, as appears from the finding of fragments of Minoan vases in various places on the shores of the Mediterranean.^ Large deposits of murex shells, mingled with other remains of this period," indicate the use of the famous purple dye, the credit for whose discovery has been given to the Phoenicians. Agriculture was somewhat developed, as is shown by the early pictographs. "Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, the plough, the barred fence, milk-vessels suspended from yokes, are among the oldest pic- lure signs."^° Sickles and stone mortars indicate the use of grain,^^ while the room of the olive-press in the palace at Cnossus^^ and a room at Palaikastro, which evidently contained a wine-press, afford proof of the cultivation of the olive and the vine.^^ 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, chap. HI. ^Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, p. 97. 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, p. 67. *Ib., p. 55, Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, pp. 124, 127. »Ib., p. 40. "lb., pp. 27, 37. 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, p. 255. ''Evans in article in Encyclopaedia Britannica on Crete. ^Annual of British School at Athens, IX, pp. 276-277. '"Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, p. 36. "lb., p. 36. '-Baikie: Sea-Kings of Crete, p. 222. •^Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, p. 105. 12 Educational Progress in Greece It was a busy industrial world into which a child of the Minoan Age was born. He grew up amid scenes of varied labor. He might try his hand at several different occupations. He would see those about him busied in other ways. Whatever educational value is de- rived from dealing directly with the concrete in everyday life must have been gained by these people, who came in contact with a life at once simple and full of activity. Any factor that tends to broaden the mind may be considered intellectual education. So it may be well to investigate to what extent the people of Minoan Crete came in contact with the rest of the world. As has been remarked before, Crete was a great sea power and its commerce extended out over the sea in many directions. Let us see what proof there is for this statement. In Egyptian tombs processions of Cretans have been represented bearing gifts.^ Dr. Evans states that pieces of Cretan vases have been found in Egypt and the land of the Philistines and he even goes so far as to say that southern Italy and Sicily show traces of Minoan influence and in late Minoan times from the Spanish coast to the Troad, in Asia Minor, Cyprus, and Palestine, from the Nile to the mouth of the Po similar forms of Minoan civilization were diffused.^ On the Aegean sites themselves evidence has been found. A bronze statuette of an Egyptian god was discovered in the Dictaean Cave.^ The pres- ence of gold, silver, and ivory suggest commerce. Hence we may infer that life even in this early period was not altogether provin- cial. Man learned through influences coming from foreign lands. PHYSICAL EDUCATION We now turn to the physical education of the Minoan people. Among their amusements and in their preparations for war we shall find evidence of the training of the body. In the first place we may notice dancing. A fresco in the palace at Cnossus shows a group of dancing girls.* Possibly the theatral areas in the palaces at Cnossus, Phaestus,^ and Gournia*^ were made that spectators might watch some such form of entertainment. These rude theatres were formed by flights of steps overlooking a paved 'Hall : Aegean Archaeology, pp. 58-59. "Encyclopaedia Britannica, article on Crete. ^Annual of British School at Athens, VI, p. 107. •Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, p. 60. "Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, p. 28. 'Hawet: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, p. 93. Period of Aegean Civilization 13 floor. It might be that these were for boxing exhibitions.^ A vase from Hagia Triada shows boxers in various positions^ and another relief found in Cnossus shows similar scenes.^ A more vigorous form of athletic exercise however was the bull-grappling, represented per- haps best in a wall-painting in the palace at Cnossus.* It consisted in seizing a bull by the horns, as he made his attack, and vaulting over his back. It required the greatest agility as well as practice and courage. Hunting is a branch of sport that affords amusement, exercise, and training for war at the same time. The following from Hall's Aegean Archaeology is suggestive along this line: "The Aegean was also a hunter, as we know from his pictures of the chase and his wor- ship of the deities of venery. His wild-goat or ibex . . . was a splendid quarry, and in mainland Greece the lion may still have fallen to his sword. ... He domesticated the dog for the chase."^ To what extent training for war was recognized as an object of physical education it would be hard to say. The lack of protecting walls at Cnossus'' would indicate that while there may have been fighting on the sea, the island was reasonably safe. Apparently the people lived a peaceful life without fear of warlike invasion. The fact that the palace was burned and sacked^ however indicates that war could enter and do its destructive work. The weapons found on Cretan sites show that the island was not wholly unprepared for such attacks.^ Weapons and representations of warriors are found, which indicate the methods of fighting. The chariot, spear, sword, dagger, bow and arrow were used.® These weapons imply skill and strength and long training on the part of the warriors. Their use required muscles obedient to the will and not the mere pulling of a trigger. Hence a splendid physique would be developed. ^Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, pp. 5-6. 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, pp. 61-62. ^Annual of British School at Athens, VU, p. 95. ^Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, pp. 21-22. ''Pages 235-256. "Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, p. 11. 'Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, p. 68. ^Baikie: Sea-Kings of Crete, p. 225. "Hall: Aegean Archaeology, pp. 247-252. 14 Educational Progress in Greece MORAL EDUCATION We have very little evidence in regard to the ideas of morality of the Minoan people. The bull-grappling may indicate cruelty; the worship of the great eastern goddess (Astarte)^ and the fact that she is often represented by little nude idols- may denote licentiousness; the almost oriental luxury of life in the palace may show degeneracy.' On the other hand the lack of walls in the Cretan cities would seem to prove that the people were not given to revolt and their industry and skill are shown in the results of their labor. Of their ideals beyond this be know little or nothing. Their religion, as is usual with primitive people, probably had little connection with morality. What we know of it certainly does not make it appear an incentive to right action. Even so religion may be a factor in education. It will be well therefore for us to consider briefly what their religion was like. In the first place the Minoan people apparently believed in the future life, as is attested by their surrounding the body in the grave with various articles such as were of use in this world, as for exam- ple, arms.* As to their objects of worship the principal deity seems to have been the great mother goddess.^ Doves are associated with her in her capacity as queen of the air. Sometimes she is represented with wild beasts, as a goddess on earth, and sometimes her form is twined with snakes, indicating a chthonian divinity. ** There was also a male deity subordinate to her. The double axe appears to be his emblem.' The later Greeks apparently identified their Zeus with this god and told how he was born in Crete.*^ Other sacred figures appear as mon- sters with mixed animal forms, as a woman's body with a bird's head or an animal's legs, the head and breast of a woman and a butterfly's wings." We must next ask where and how these deities were worshiped. We are dealing with a period so early that we must not assume the use of temples. Certain caves were considered holy places. In the 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, p. 150. 'Dussaud: Les Civilizations Prehelleniques dans le Bassin de la Mer Egee, p. 363. 'Hall: Aegean Atchaeology, p. 254. ♦Kairbanks: Greek Religion, pp. 198-199. 'Hail: Aegean Archaeology, p. 150. ' "Fairbanks: Greek Religion, p. £09. 'For different views concerning this point see Burrows: Discoveries in Crete, pp. 112-114, and Hawcs: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, pp. 137-138. "Hall: Aegean Archaeology, pp. 147-148. 'Dussaud: Let Civilizations PiehelUniques dans le Bassin de la Mer &gee, pp. 380-385. Period of Aegean Civilization 15 Dictsean Cave a sacrificial table was found and numerous votive offerings,^ Small shrines seem to have been the commonest places of worship. In the center of the town of Gournia was an enclosure twelve feet suqare. Here were found a terra-cotta figure of a god- dess twined with snakes, a three-legged altar-table, horns of conse- cration, and a piece of a vase with the figure of the double axe upon it.^ In the palace at Cnossus there was a room that must have been a shrine, as is shown by the objects found in it.^ Such rooms have been excavated also in other Cretan palaces.* Some representations of worship have come down to us. The worshiper stands with one hand raised to his brow.^ Sacrifices were offered and libations poured." The scenes on the Hagia Triada sar- cophagus, already mentioned, would indicate that music was used in connection with the ritual, at any rate when it had reference to the dead.^ Such in brief are the facts we possess in regard to the religion of the Minoan period. We should add that those who worshiped and performed the duties that their religion required of them undoubtedly found here something of educational value. In our discussion of the subject matter of education we have seen that it included reading, writing, arithmetic, business forms, music, art, industrial education, physical training, the arts of war, and moral and religious instruction. Lmited though it may have been in each of these fields, the remarkable thing is that these early people had so much to pass on to each new generation. 'Fairbanks: Greek Religion, p. 200. -Hawes: Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, pp. 97-98. 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, p. 154. ^Fairbanks: Greek Religion, p. 202. 'Hall: Aegean Archaeology, pp. 67-68. ^Baikie: Sea-Kingt of Crete, p. 250. 'lb., p. 128. 16 Educational Progress in Greece THE MYCENAEAN AGE Up to this point we have been considering education in the Minoan period. We now turn to the Mycenaean Age to continue our investigations, to trace the development in the subject matter that was taught and the methods of instruction employed. The question arises whether these may be regarded as unchanged during the Mycenaean Age. This latter period comes near the close of the age of Aegean civilization, when the chief centers were to be found on the mainland of Greece. We may inquire what relation its culture bore to that of the earlier epoch. H. Dussaud answers this question in these words: "La civilisation mycenienne apparait aujourd'hui comme le prolongement, quelques-uns disent la decadence, de la civilisation minoenne contemporaine des palais de Cnosse et de Plmestos"^ In general the culture and therefore the education were much the same. Some peculiarities there were, due to the different loca- tion of the Mycenaean centers and the later date of their civilization, but at this time the mainland of Greece obtained its inspiration for the higher things of life from Crete and the term, Late Minoan, is often made to include the Mycenaean Age. H. R. Hall in his Aegean Archaeology says that the latter part of the Mycenaean period was so strongly influenced by the contemporary Cretan culture that their products were practically identical.^ We need then in discussing Mycensean education to note only those points of difference suggested by archaeological discoveries made on the different sites, remembering however that the fact that similar objects may not have been found in Crete and on the main- land of Greece does not necessarily mean that they did not exist in both places. The, ideals of education and the methods of instruction were doubtless similar, since the civilization shows so great similarity. In considering the subject matter of education we are met at once by the fact that very few traces of linear writing belonging to the Mycenaean Age have been found on the mainland of Greece. J. I. Manatt writing in 1896 says: "In Greece at least the Mycenaean epoch has been pretty thoroughly explored, and this exploration has yielded us a great mass of monuments — utensils, ornaments and other products of Mycenaean art; and these afford negative proof against 'Z.e« CitiilUations PrehelUniques dans le liassin de la Mer Egee, pp. 199-200. ''Page 5. Period of Aegean Civilization 17 the existence of writing. Of all the finds at Mycenae itself only three objects bear inscriptions."^ We must remember that this was written before Dr. Evans' discoveries in Cnossus. In view of these the natural inference would be that writing must have been carried to Greece along with the other arts. H. R. Hall maintains that the fact that so few traces of writing have been found in Mycenae is due only to chance.^ On the other hand K. J. Beloch in his Griechische Geschichte states his belief that the apparent lack of the use of writing in Mycenaean Greece was owing to the fact that trade had not developed enough at that time so that the need of this means of communicaion was felt.^ This much may be said: the scarcity of inscriptions found on the mainland compared with their abundance in Crete would show that, if writing were employed at all in the Mycenaean centers, its use was far less general than in Crete. From this we may form our opinion as to its place in Mycenaean education. We have no evidence of the use at this time of a decimal system on the mainland such as was developed in Crete, but simple arithmet- ical operations were performed, as is shown by the presence of scales in one of the shaft-graves at Mycenae.* It has been pointed out in The Mycenaean Age by Tsountas and Manatt that scales are needed especially when coinage does not exist.^ In art Mycenaean Greece was a worthy successor to Crete. In reliefs in stone and in metal work it perhaps surpassed the latter. Nothing has been found there to compare with the lion-gate relief. Other examples are the slabs found above the shaft-graves.'' From these same graves we get objects that show the metal- worker's skill. Browne in his Homeric Study enumerates the articles in one grave : — six diadems, fifteen pendants, eleven neck-coils, eight hair orna- ments, ten gold grasshoppers with gold chains, one butterfly, four griflSns, four lions, ten ornaments with stags, ten with lions, three intaglios, two pairs of gold scales, fifty-one embossed ornaments, and more than seven hundred ornaments for attaching to clothes. These were all of gold. There were other objects of silver or of silver plated with gold and of bronze and besides beads cut from •Tsountas and Manatt : Mycenaean Age, p. 284. ^Aegean Archaeology, p. 212. 3Vol. I, p. 125. *Schuhchhardt : Schliemann's Excavations, p. 205. ^Page 105. °Schucbbardt: Schliemann's Excavations, pp. 167-176. 18 Educational Progress in Greece amber.^ Add to these the objects found in other graves and on other sites and we have a variety of metal work that indicates something of the training and education necessary for the Mycenaean artist. We must not forget too the wall paintings and the pottery found on Mycenaean sites. In passing it should be said that some of this art may have been the work of Cretans brought to Greece at the behest of princes living there- and some artistic objects may have been imported.^ Though we may grant this, still the abundance of works of art found in the Mycenaean centers indicates the skillful and pro- lific labors of the native artists as well. The industrial education of the Mycenaean Greeks may be rated as high as that of the Cretans, though their achievements may differ. The walls of Tiryns containing enormous stones that had to be transported a considerable distance, the construction of the cham- bers in these walls, the ashlar construction formed of dressed stone at Mycenae, the palaces on both citadels, and the beehive tombs be- speak the skill of the builders. The drainage canals at Lake Copais* and the stone bridges in the Peloponnesus^ show considerable ad- vance in engineering. These bridges and the roads leading to them indicate the estab- lishment of trade routes overland. Commerce by sea is proved by the finding of Mycenaean fibulae in Italy, Hungary, Bosnia, and Swit- zerland.'' This contact with the inhabitants of other places would have a broadening influence on the minds of any people, as their commerce also benefited the Cretans. Agriculture is another educational factor. It was somewhat developed at this time. Of domesticated animals we know that the Mycenaean Greeks had the cow, the horse, the ass, the goat, the sheep, the dog.^ Crops were grown. Grain and peas have been found in large storage jars in the Mycenaean stratum at Troy, as well as small mills for grading the grain.^ Difference in climate may have made agriculture in Mycenaean Greece unlike in some respects what it was in Crete, but in both places civilization was influenced for good by the existence of a farmer class. Physical training was probably much the same in the Minoan 'Page 251. 'Dussaud : Les Civilizations PreheUiniques dans le Bassin de la Mer tgee, p. 200. *Hall: Aegean Archaeology, p. 55. ' *T8ounta8 and Manatt: Mycenaean Age, pp. 374-375. "lb., p. 36. •lb., p. 359. 'lb., p. 352. •lb., p. 353. Period of Aegean Civilization 19 and Mycenasan periods. The sport of bull-grappling is depicted in a fresco from the palace at Tiryns^ and other frescos from the same place represent hunting scenes,^ Warfare on land was probably more common on the mainland of Greece, as is indicated by the citadel walls of Tiryns and Mycenae, while Cnossus has none. Citizens must have been trained to fight. Weapons have been found in graves and are represented in numerous works of art. Of these we may mention the Warrior Vase,^ which shows armor more like that of the later Greeks, but on the inlaid dagger-blades, which are however perhaps Cretan works of art, large shields similar to the Cretan ones occur. In religion a greater development may be shown in the Myce- naean Age, for now apparently the temple appeared. On a little gold ornament discovered at Mycenae there is an unmistakable representa- tion of a temple.* At Troy and at Neandria nearby the ruins have been found of what may once have been such buildings.^ Worship had seemingly become better organized and therefore we may assume that religion had a more prominent part in education. The female goddess is often represented, but the male divinity, who seems to have been peculiarly Cretan, has a very subordinate place. Thus we have noted briefly the principal points of dissimilarity in those educational factors arising out of the civilization of the Mycenaean and the Minoan periods. They are not very marked. This shows that we are dealing with the same general period. For the sake of completeness, however, we have sought to discuss by itself the education of the Mycenaean Age. 'lb., p. 51. ^Hall: Aegean Archaeology, pp. 190-194. ^Tsountas and Manatt : Mycenaean Age, opposite p. 190. ^Schuchhardt : Schliemann's Excavations, pp. 199-201. ^Tsountas and Manatt: Mycenaean Age, pp. 306-307, 20 Educational Progress in Greece CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EDUCATION OF THE PERIOD OF AEGEAN CIVILIZATION We have tried in the preceding pages to reconstruct from the sources that we have at hand the education of the Aegean period. The question might arise — in what does it differ from the education of other primitive people or from that of other nations of that epoch? First we may consider the primitive peoples of other times. Take the early Germans as pictured by Tacitus. Where is the art, the extensive building activity, the numerous written documents? WTiere is the contact with other people, the sea-faring life, the devel- opment of varied occupations? We find them no more among the American Indians or among the tribes of central Africa. If we call the people who developed the Aegean civilization primitive at all, they certainly were unlike the examples of such nations which imme- diately occur to the mind. If we compare them with the ancient Egyptians, we would feel that there was a different atmosphere in Crete and Mycenae than in the land of the Nile. In Egypt autocracy flaunts itself, the power of the priests is as great as that of the king and the whole country is bound by religious conservatism, which controls all life and art. We have not found these characteristics among the people of the Aegean Age, and it would go without saying that education in the two coun- tries would differ very radically, when the spirit of the one was so totally unlike that of the other. Perhaps in a greater degree we would note a difference between the Aegean peoples and those of Mesopotamia. The kings of the latter country lived in oriental seclusion, but the palace of Cnossus had its central court easy of access for the people and at Tiryns and Mycenae the citadel, of which the palace was a part, served as a place of refuge for the people of the surrounding villages in time of war. Again compare the stiff, conventional, heavily draped forms of Assyrian art with the lion hunt on the dagger-blade from Mycenae or the scenes on the Vaphio cups, so full of life as they are. Can we hesitate to give the preference to the education of a people who could produce works of art so free from all the fetters of convention and so instinct with vitality? Phoenicia may next be considered. It was like Crete the home of a sea-faring people, but all agree that the Phoenicians were not characterized by great originality, that they were a carrying nation. They took what they pleased from other nations, adapted it to their Period of Aegean Civilzation 21 uses and then carried it far and wide through their commerce. The civilization of the Aegean peoples had far more of an indigenous nature. So if we compare the education of the two nations as judged by results, we would say that in the one case it made them skillful adaptors and in the other awakened a spirit of originality. So we maintain that education in Greece during the period of Aegean civilization was something distinct from that of other prim- itive peoples and from that of the nations about them, that in its spirit it was democratic, original, and vital and developed the whole man, giving him mental alertness, physical training, and some moral and religious instruction. i THE EARLY LYRIC PERIOD In our discussion of the education of early Greece let us pas* by that of the Homeric Age, which has been discussed by the writer in an earlier paper, and take up the consideration of the educational development during the lyric period. We may begin with what has been commonly taken as the first authentic date in Greek history, 776 B. C., and close with the year 525. As the earlier part of this period differs much from the latter in its nature, its culture, and its spirit, we shall do well to divide the period into two parts, making the year 610 the point of division, for at about that date there was almost a renaissance in the aesthetic, intel- lectual, and spiritual life of the Greek people. In taking up the discussion of this early lyric period we shall note first some of the points of difference between it and the Homeric Age, next we shall try to trace the educational ideals of the people and the means used to realize those ideals. Then as we did with the Minoan period, we shall consider the subject matter of education along intellectual, physical, and moral lines and finally we shall discuss the date of the first appearance of schools. For the years immediately following 776 B. C. our sources are even more limited than they would be for the Homeric Age. For the latter we have the long epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, but in the succeeding epoch we have only fragments of the Epic Cycle, the whole of the Hesiodic Works and Days and Theogony, the Ho- meric Hymns, and fragments from the early elegiac, iambic, and lyric poets. In addition to these contemporary sources there are statements made by Herodotus and Thucydides, there are biographies of early heroes by Plutarch and others and more or less incidental references in Plato, Aristotle, and other writers. A short bibliography of the modern works which we have used most follows: K. J. Beloch: Griechische Geschichte. G. Busolt: Griechische Geschichte. A. Fairbanks: Handbook of Greek Religion, K. J. Freeman: Schools of Hellas. G. Grote: History of Greece. A. Holm: History of Greece. J. P. Mahaffy : History of Classical Greek Literature. E. Meyer: Geschichte des Alter tums. 22 Early Lyric Period 23 W. Mure: Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece. K. Schmidt: Geschichte der Pddagogik. The names of other works used will be found in the general bibliography. Following our outline given above, we shall now consider some of the changes that were taking place, especially those that would affect education. In the first place civilization was advancing. G. W. Warr in his Creek Epic points this out with reference to the Works and Days as follows: "As regards civilization, though the Hesiodic society is poor on the material side compared with the Homeric, it is far less primitive. In Homer we have the 'common field' along with the king's temenos, or great pastures tended by thralls with occasional allotments: in Hesiod land is held in private property, divided by bequest (36-7) and freely bought and sold (336-41). Iron is in common use, and it stands as the symbol of the age itself. Justice is administered in a regular agora, where the idler 'listens' for amusement. There is similar significance in the mention of the club-feast (773), the tav- ern (493), the courtesan (373), the mendicant (26), the night- robber (605). Slavery and piracy, the inevitable incidents of Ho- meric warfare, have declined; the word 'thrall' has lost its old meaning, for the poorest laborer is a freeman. Hesiod himself, lastly, represents a middle class of yeomanry which has no counter- part in the Homeric Age."^ One important feature in the evolution that was taking place was the change in government. The Homeric monarchies were becoming oligarchies in most of the states. This meant the extension of power to a greater number and if a ruler needs to be an educated man, then in an aristocratic government all the nobles need ability and train- ing to enable them to maintain their standing and to take their part in the government. M. W. Duncker in his History of Greece dwells particularly on this. He says that the high ideals of nobility among the aristocracy led to the instruction of their youth in gymnastic and martial exercises, in songs and choruses, and in intercourse with older men. The nobles need help from the gods, so their youth received a religious education, consisting in the learning of religious poetry and music and of the wise maxims found in the elegies. They 'Warr: Greek Epic, p. 233. 24 Educational Progress in Greece practised singing the choral lyric and then took part in the worship of the god. So the young nobles would receive, on account of their station and the duties to devolve upon them, an education that in- cluded intellectual, physical, and moral features. "The result of this training is agility, strength, and beauty of body and a noble temper and attitude of the soul."^ This training was much like that of the Homeric Age, but it was now extended to a larger number. In the home life of the people there were changes affecting their education. The position of woman seems distinctly lower. After reading of Andromache, Penelope, Arete, and Nausicaa in the Homeric poems, one notes a marked difference in the concep- tion of woman in the writings of Hesiod and Semonides of Amorgus. Hesiod tells the familiar story of Pandora in the Works and Days.^ The story also appears in the Theogony.^ Scholars are not agreed as to whether the latter poem was composed by Hesiod,* but if it was not, it belongs to his school and is of a not much later date than the Works and Days. If it is by another author, it strengthens the case against the Boeotian women, for it shows that such views were not confined to one man. In the account in the Theogony this statement is added: o)9 S'ai/TO)? avSpecrcrt kukov Ovrjrolci yvvaiKaii Zevf infn^pefieTr]'? 6riK€.' "But the high thundering Zeus thus brought an evil upon mortal men, woman." Semonides of Amorgus lived perhaps a generation after the Theogony was composed. In his famous satire on women he com- pares different classes to a hog, a fox, a dog, to mud, to the sea, to a donkey, a pole-cat, to a thoroughbred horse, an ape, to a bee.** For only the last class does he have a good word. His ideal for woman seems to be the drudge, who devotes herself to the work of the house- hold. He sums up the whole matter by saying: Zeis /ctX." "For if some one also having woe in that heart of his, which is filled 'Beloch: Griechische Geschichte, I, p. 411. "Strubo: Geography, XIII, p. 618. "FraymentB, No. 4. *Mure: Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, III, pp. 40-41. "Holm: History of Greece, I, pp. 241. "Page 59. ^A Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, III, p. 64. <>Lmei 98-103. Early Lyric Period 33 with fresh sorrow, is distressed, being grieved at heart, and then a bard, a servant of the muses, sings the renowned deeds of former men and the blessed gods, who hold Olympus, soon he forgets his sorrow, nor does he remember at all his cares, but quickly the gifts of the goddesses have diverted his thoughts." Then too there were the short lyric songs intended for one voice, that were soon to reach perfection in the work of Alcaeus and Sappho. Every accomplished man was expected to be able to sing or recite poetry, when the occasion demanded.^ Philochorus states that the Spartans had the custom that each man should sing a poem of Tyrtacus at meals, when they were in the field.^ There were besides choruses in which a number took part. At Sparta all the citizens had to participate in the choruses at public festivals.^ Training was required for this service and this became more exacting, as the choral odes became more complicated. Here we can see direct instruction in music, an important element in education, and from this the young women were not excluded, for there were the parthenia, lyric odes composed especially to be sung by choruses of women.^ In architecture^ and art*^ this period was one of preparation. Shortly after 600 the development was to be very rapid. Before that date we may see only the beginnings. The progress of archi- tecture was marked by the replacing of the Homeric rampart with stone walls," by the erection of the first treasure-house at Delphi by Cypselus, tyrant of Corinth,^ and by the development of temple building, with the Heraeum at Olympia as an early example, con- structed of sun-dried brick and with wooden columns and archi- trave.^ Just as the period was closing, the construction of two large temples was begun, one the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the other that of Hera at Samos.^° This activity shows the artistic, re- ligious, and industrial development of the people and indicates an advance in their education. As for sculpture in the round, which is barely mentioned in the 'Grote: History of Greece, IV, p. 94. ''Athenaeus, p. 630. »Grote: History of Greece, IV, 84-85. *Jevon8: History of Greek Literature, p. 128. 'For the early Greek temple see Fowler and Wheeler: Greek Archaeology, pp. 133-140. *For art in this period see Gardner: Handbook of Greek Sculpture, pp. 77-93, and Collignon' Historie de la Sculpture Grecque, I, pp. 101-126. 'Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, II, p. 600. '^Duncker: History of Greece, II, p. 344. •Fowler and Wheeler : Greek Archaeology, p. 110. ^"Tiraayenis : History of Greece, I, p. 113. 34 Educational Progress in Greece Homeric poems,^ progress was being made. The xoana,^ which had doubtless long served as temple statues, were now imitated in stone,^ and even marble statues were being made for votive offerings. Such a statue we have in the rude figure dedicated to Artemis by Nicandra of Naxos, one of the earliest works of Greek art that have come down to us.* In reliefs some bronzes from Olympia show mythological scenes. One has also figures borrowed from eastern art, as the griffin, indi- cating influence from the older civilizations on Greece. These bronzes belong probably to the early years of the sixth century.^ Some of the Spartan grave reliefs may be a little older,** but the art that made both bronzes and grave reliefs possible must have developed before 610 B. C. Skill was displayed very early in metal working. In Crete the technique in metals in the eighth century surpassed that of the main- land of Greece,^ and Samos early in the sixth century was famous for its bronze.* The poets of the period were familiar with various works in metal. In the Theogony we have a description of the crown of Pandora. a/x^t he 01 aT€(f>dvr)v ')(^pv(Tir]v K€Vol. I, pp. 264-308. 36 Educational Progress in Greece taught their sons the trade, so skill appeared in certain families, but as the development was rapid, others were called in. These also taught their sons. The work of slaves was used. Many slaves could carry on the industry more economically than a few. Consequently big establishments grew up. Greek ships went to Egypt, Phoenician ports, and the Pillars of Hercules. A means was soon devised for dragging the small ships in use across the Isthmus of Corinth. Inter- nal trade was also carried on. Piracy was common and small islands suffered from it. The culture of the olive was becoming more and more important. Fisheries were common. The ordinary worker on the soil had a hard life. Great land-owners reaped the profits. Beloch's description shows that industries were becoming spe- cialized. No longer did the citizen by his own skill supply himself with everything that he needed. Expert workers were required and these had to have special training. So industrial education advanced during this period. In the preceding pages we have tried to show what constituted the subject matter of study from the intellectual point of view dur- ing the early lyric period. We have next to discuss the physical education of the people of this age in their amusements, their sports, and their training for war. PHYSICAL EDUCATION The physical education of this period was largely a counterpart of what it had been in the Homeric Age. We shall however note some changes. As dancing was a form of amusement in the earlier period,^ so it appears now. It is associated especially with singing as in the choral dance described in the Shield of Heracles. Toiye fiev av iraC^omei utt' opxn^y'^ '^'^^ aoi^y.'^ "Some moreover sporting in the dance and song." The rhythmic movements accompanying the choral lyrics became more complicated along with the music and the structure of the ode. Consequently the dancing as well as the singing required careful training on the part of the participants. In athletic sports the same contests were in vogue as during the Homeric Age, but we find also that the pentathlon was intro- niiad, XVIII, 11. 590-60«. 'Line 282. Early Lyric Period 37 duced into the Olympic games about 700 B. C.^ This was a com- bination of five events, running, jumping, hurling the discus and javelin, and wrestling.^ The only new thing here is the combina- tion, for all of these events are mentioned in the Homeric poems. A great incentive for athletic training however had been added in the establishment of the Olympic games. These probably date back to the preceding period, but only as a local contest.^ In the seventh century these games had become a national contest, for then Greeks from Asia Minor, Sicily, southern Italy, and Thessaly participated.* So the whole Greek world felt the stimulus to athletic training that hopes of a victory at Olympia would give. Contests for boys were added,^ so that an incentive was given to begin one's training early. Nor was Olympia the only place where such games were held. At the Ionic festival at Delos athletic contests were introduced. The composer of the first Homeric Hymn mentions these, although he was more interested in the poetical contest. ol 8e ere Trir/fjba'y^iTj re Kal op'^rjOfiai kuI aotSrj fiVTjcrdfievoi Tepirovaiv.^ "And they (the lonians who have gathered) take pleasure in recall- ing thee with boxing and dance and song." It was probably only as this festival at Delos declined that the Olympic games became important throughout Greece.^ Doubtless there were local games at various places. The other national games, the Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, were not founded till the sixth century.* The educational influence of these festivals and games, aside from the physical training which they stimulated, should be mentioned. Large numbers of people from all parts of the Greek world, touching shoulder to shoulder, obtained a broader outlook on life. They developed a feeling for the unity of the race, while at the same time in the rivalry of the contests they lost nothing of their local patriotism. In hunting probably little change had taken place since Homeric times, except that there had been an improvement in the weapons, as the use of iron became much more extended. But in war the old style of fighting, depicted in the Iliad, had passed away. The chariot ^Holm: History of Greece, I, p. 237. 'Gardiner: Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals, pp. 359-371. *Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, H, p. 373. Mb., p. 540. ^Gardiner: Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals, p. 80. "Lines 149-150. 'Cox: General History of Greece, pp. 47-48. ^Uolm : History of Greece, I, p. 242. 38 Educational Progress in Greece had disappeared in battles. No longer did the noble approach the enemy to engage in single combat with an opposing chief, but the lines of citizen soldiers advanced in close ranks, each heavily armed in full panoply. Light-armed soldiers were employed for skirmish- ing. Cavalry were little used except in northern Greece till much later.^ This manner of fighting required the training of the whole body of citizens and not of the nobles alone, so physical education was doubtless extended to a far larger number than in the earlier period. Again men had to be trained to act together and thus the social element entered in. Sparta was the state that carried this method of fighting to its perfection. Just when its famous system of training was adopted, we cannot say, but by the end of the seventh century at least. Spartan discipline must have been developing. There is no need to describe it here.^ Every school boy has learned of the rigorous training, the hardships, and suffering to which the Spartan boy was subjected from the age of seven to make him an able fighter. We should note tliat this physical training was thoroughly organized. Officers of the state had general charge and under them young men between the ages of twenty and thirty had the direct control and teaching of the boys.^ Here was a school organized on the model of an army with a definite object to attain — the development of the efficient sol- dier and patriotic citizen. Nor was the training wholly physical, for music had its place in the instruction of the youth and eventually perhaps, reading and writing.* The Spartan system was an interest- ing experiment in education. It developed the best soldiers in Greece, but otherwise it was not a success, for Sparta failed again and again to make proper use of the advantages that her army had gained, because she did not have leaders with the intellectual training neces- sary to make them wise statesmen. 'Gardner and Jevons: Manual of Creek Antiquities, pp. 630-645. "See Plutarch's Lije oj Lycurgus. "Abbott: History of Greece, I, pp. 211-212. *lb., p. 212. Early Lyric Period 39 MORAL EDUCATION As we turn to a consideration of the ideas of religion that were taught to the rising generation in this period, we note at once that there is more of regularity, of organization, and of form than in the Homeric Age. The stories of the gods and of their origin had been reduced to a system in the Theogony. The erection of temples was now also common. The first Homeric Hymn, the earliest in the col- lection, going back possibly to the eighth century,^ speaks of a tem- ple as though these buildings were not at all unusual. . . . . o S' dWrjv 'yalav ai^eTat^ i] K€V ahrj ol^ Tev^aadaL V7]6v re koI aXaea SevSp-^evra.^ "And he (Apollo) will come to another land, which will please him, to prepare his temple and wooded groves." We have already no- ticed that by the end of the period large and magnificent temples were being built. Worship had also become more elaborate, as is indicated by the long choral odes sung in honor of the gods. Another change in religion that had taken place is seen in the greatly increased importance of the oracle at Delphi.^ We have already mentioned the games and festivals, to which people thronged. Other popular movements in religion are found in the introduction of the worship of Dionysus, orgiastic in character,* and also the worship of Demeter at Eleusis, at first perhaps merely a fertility ritual, but developing into the Eleusinian mysteries.^ The participa- tion of the people in the different forms of worship left its impres- sion on their lives and was an important part of their education. The question arises whether the teachings of religion included the inculcation of moral ideas more than it had done in the Homeric Age.^ Progress is not great at first, but Hesiod in the Works and Days asserts again and again that the gods punish injustice, as in the following passage: addvarot pd^ovTaL ocroi tTKoXirjo'L hiK-rjciv dXKr)\ovv re decav re Trapai^acrCa'i ei^errrovaaL kt\* "These goddesses (the Fates) following up the transgressions of both gods and men, never cease from their terrible anger before they bring an evil punishment upon the one who sins." Oracles sometimes had a moral content. Mahaffy states that these were the only other form of moral instruction aside from the teachings of the poets during the seventh and sixth centuries.® Tyrtaeus quotes such an oracle. After enjoining respect for the kings and the old men and obedience to the laws, the oracle con- tinues, bidding the citizens fivdel(r0ai 8e to, KaXa Kal epSeiv iravra Bitcata fxrjBeri ^ovXeveiv ryhe iroXei {^Xa^epov).^ "To speak what is noble and to do all things that are just and not to plan any thing (injurious) to this city." Here Apollo requires noble works and just deeds from the common citizens in addition to the civic duties of obedience and regard for the city. And in gen- eral Holm in his History of Greece says that whenever oracles related to morals, it was along the line of moderation and avoidance of extremes.^ We have referred to Mahaffy's statement in which he includes with the oracles the poets also as moral teachers of Greece. The literature of the period is full of maxims. Especially is this true of the Works and Days. Hesiod, addressing himself to Perses, gives one maxim after another, urging him to devote himself to work. Toward the close of the poem the advice he gives is more general •Vol. I, pp. 100-101. •■'lb., p. 107. "lb., p. 110. *LineB 220-222. 'Social Life in Greece, p. 356. "Fragmentt, No. 2, 11. 9-10. 'Vol. I, p. 233. Early Lyric Period 41 and apparently intended for a wider circle. There is a series of these maxims beginning with line 695. It may be that some or all of these are interpolations.^ If this is so, it shows just as plainly, if not more so, the tendency of the poets of this age to indulge in these pithy sayings. Many of these maxims of the Works and Days are excellent, as for instance: or avTM KUKoL rev^et avrjp aWa> xaKa T€i^a)v 17 Be KUKT) fiovXr] tw ^ovKevaaim KaKUTTr}.^ "A man doing evil to another does evil to himself and evil counsel is worst for the one who gives it." The spirit of this poem on the whole however shows worldly wisdom rather than a high morality.^ In the lyric poets we have exhortations in loftier strain — in Calinus* and Tyrtaeus' the call to be brave and to fight for one's fatherland, in Archilochus^ encouragement to endure misfortunes calmly; and even in Semonides, the cynic, we find these words: el 8' ifiol iriOouiTOy QVK av KUKMv ip^/xcv ouS' eV dXyeaiv KUKola^ e'xpv7€ .^ "For he made the law that all the sons of the citizens should be instructed in letters, with the city furnishing the pay to the teachers." The date of Charondas is uncertain, but it is generally placed in the seventh century.^ Now Mure in connection with this passage points out that Aristotle in his Politics, Book II, ix, p. 69 Tauchn. states that Charondas had nothing in his laws differing from those of other early law-givers except the penalties he set for false testimony. If then the provision for public education given above was really in his laws, it is likely that it appeared in those of other law-givers of the period.^ We have already referred to the necessity that rested upon the nobles to be educated so as to maintain their position as a class and as individuals. In the seventh century this necessity would be espe- cially strong, for the people were beginning to assert themselves, and besides single nobles were in some cases making themselves supreme and establishing tyrannies. The need for education would doubtless bring about the establishment of schools for the chil- dren of the aristocracy. In view of the evidence presented we feel there is good ground for believing that schools had been in existence in Greece for at least a generation before the close of the seventh century. Here we close our discussion of the period from 776 to 610. We have studied the education of this age, have learned something of the methods used and have considered the subject matter of edu- cation. Finally we have discussed the date of the establishment of the first schools. We turn now to the years following to trace the development from 610 to 525 B. C. ^Bibliotheca Hutorica, XU. 12, 5. 'Holm: History of Greece, I, p. 362. 'Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, HI, p. 449, note 2.. THE LATER LYRIC PERIOD We shall not follow the same outline in dealing with this new era that we have used with other periods. Schools are now estab- lished in Greece and this fact makes unnecessary a continuation of much of the former method. In the second place, it becomes im- possible to consider adequately the subject matter of education, for it now increases rapidly in bulk. Instead of discussing in detail all these points included in the outline previously used, we shall rather take up some of the important movements of this epoch and show their bearing on education and close with a statement of what was being done in the schools at the end of the period. First let us say a word in regard to this new age. It opens with something like a renaissance. Suddenly the Greek world about 600 B. C. made new achievements in government, in literature, in philos- ophy and science, in architecture and art.^ The era so strikingly ushered in was marked by the rule of tyrants in many states^ and by movements in the direction of democracy.^ The industrial and commercial activity continued,* but new colonies were no longer founded in so great numbers. One reason for this was that in the East the further advance of the Greeks was checked by the rising power at first of Lydia^ and later of Persia.® Similarly in the West the Carthaginians were resisting more effectively what they consid- ered encroachments on their domain.'^ These facts established a new international situation. In Greece itself Sparta was the most powerful state. The rise of individualism in the earlier period had its effects on all activities in the lives of the Greeks. Literature continued to show it. It appeared in art in the signing of the artist's name to his statue or his vase^ — in government in the democratic movements — in industry in greater specialization on the part of the workman — in religion in the feeling that personal relations with the deity were necessary,^ and in education in the growing insistence that every citizen should receive training. Literature, art, and archi- tecture flourished. Science and philosophy had their rise. Taking ^This was the age of Solon, Alcaeus and Sappho, and Thales. Greek temples at Ephesus and Samoa were constructed and the Chest of Cypselus was carved. ^Holm: History of Greece, I, pp. 261-263. Mb., pp. 258-260. *Belooh: Griechische Geschichte, I, p. 357. "Busolt: Griechische Geschichte, II, pp. 459-461. "lb., pp. 514-518. 'Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, II, p. 695. *Beloch: Griechische Geschichte, I, p. 309. •Fairbanks: Handbook of Greek Religion, pp. 231-232. 45 46 Educational Progress in Greece all this into consideration, we may truly call this era a period of development and not only of development, but also of a good degree of achievement. Contemporary literary sources to use in our study of the years from 610 to 525 are very limited. The later Homeric Hymns and fragments from the elegiac, iambic, and lyric poets and from the early philosophers are about all that we have. However we have far more information about this period from later writers than we da of the years before 610 B. C. We also have considerable archaeolog- ical evidence dating from this time, ruins of buildings, statues, reliefs, vases, coins, «nd inscriptions. The modern authorities we have used are the same as for the early lyric period. It would be well before we go further in the discussion of this period to note what the schools were like at its beginning. Our chief source for this information is Aeschines' reference, in his oration against Timarchus, to the laws of Draco and Solon. This has already been mentioned. It is generally assumed that Aeschines refers here far more to Solon than to Draco.^ From this passage from the Timarchus referred to^ we learn that the schools and palaestras should not open before sunrise or remain open after sunset. From this we would infer that schools were in session most of the day and as Aeschines is speaking here of the morals of school-boys, it would seem that training in the pa- laestra was part of their education along with the study at school. Again the pedagogue is mentioned, which would indicate that already at this time in Athens the children were attended to and from school by a slave selected for the purpose. Further the choregus who is to select the cyclic chorus of boys and have general charge of their training must be over forty years of age. While this training in the cyclic choruses was not part of the educational system, still for those participating there was valuable instruction in singing and dancing. As each cyclic chorus consisted of fifty, this advantage was extended to a goodly number. From Plutarch we learn that Solon required that every father should teach his son a trade, if he wished his son to care for Iiim in his old age.^ So industrial education accompanied or followed the training in the schools. 'Freeman : Schools of Hellas, p. 68. ^Sections 9-11. "Life of Solon, chap. XXII. The Later Lyric Period 47 Solon also encouraged physical exercise by constructing the first gymnasiums in Athens, the Academy and the Cynosarges,^ and by establishing a reward of 500 drachmas to a winner at Olympia and 100 for a winner in the Isthmian games.^ This much we have of the legislation of Solon dealing with Athenian education. From a very different source we have proof of the existence of music schools in the sixth century. An Athenian vase of that period depicts such a school. If there were any question about it, it is removed by its resemblance to an undoubted representa- tion of a music school on a fifth century vase.^^ We have then the school, the palaestra, and the music school, although the last may have been, in early times at least, identical with the first, the instruction in music being given during part of the day. Reading and writing would be taught. Passages from Homer* and probably from other poets would be studied. The boy would learn to play the lyre and to sing. In the palaestra he would be trained in the ordinary athletic contests that were used in the public festivals.^ We turn from the discussion of Athenian education to that of other states. Sparta's training has already been referred to. In the time of Solon it probably had most of the peculiarities for which it was noted. In Sparta the education was carried on by the gov- ernment. It was required of all Spartan boys, and the expenses were borne by the state, while at Athens the schools were private venture institutions, but were supervised by the state.*' Cretan education was similar to that of Sparta with emphasis laid on the physical side. However the Cretan boy did not enter upon his rigorous military training till the age of seventeen.^ Of the schools of other parts of Greece at this time we know little, but if Athens had schools, it is likely that Corinth, Sicyon, and the larger cities of Asia Minor and Italy and Sicily had them, for these after Sparta were the foremost Greek cities, of the period. Athens was only coming to have equal importance with them. One of the localities where culture had made rapid progress was 'Davidson : Education of the Creel: People, p. 73. 'Plutarch: Life of Solon, chap. XXIII. ^Freeman : Schools of Hellas, pp. 52-53. *Mahaffy: Old Greek Education, p. 37. Tor details of instruction at a later date see Davidson : Education of the Greek People, pp. 65-63. "Drever: Greek Education, p. 22. ^Bury : History of Greece, p. 138. 48 Educational Progress in Greece the island of Lesbos with its principal city, Mytilene. Terpander and Arion are said to have been natives of this island and here lived at the time of Solon the lyric poets, Alcaeus and Sappho, and the states- man, Pittacus, one of the Seven Wise Men. So Lesbos may well have been a center of culture about the year 600 B. C. It was not far from this date that Sappho had her famous school at Mytilene. This school was for young women. The Aeolians, espe- cially those of Lesbos, gave more freedom to their women than did the lonians and therefore such an institution was possible here, while it would not have been at Athens in the same period.^ It is to be noted however that there were girls from Ionian cities among her pupils. We have preserved to us the names of fourteen places from which young women came.^ Of these most were from the mainland of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, but there was at least one from Greece. So we have at this early date a school for girls, attended by many from a distance. We raise the question just what this school was and for what it existed. F. B. Jevons in his History of Greek Literature refers to it as a "school, following, 'fringe,' coterie, or club." He says that the object of their meetings was literary and artistic, and personal affec- tion was the basis of the relations between the teacher and pupil.^ Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in his book, Sappho und Simonides, de- scribes the school thus, "Ihr Haus ist ein Musensitz, den auch nicht die Trauer entweihen darf, die Jungfrauen der Umgegend kommen, bei ihr musische Erziehung zu sucheri, sie dichet ihnen das Hochzeitleid, dichtet den Gottern Cultlieder"* Culling from the different frag- ments of Sappho that have come down to us, especially from the re- cently discovered ones, he enumerates as follows the "Freuden dieses Kreises :" to pick flowers, to adorn themselves, sweet sleep when they had danced themselves tired, participation in the festivals, visits to all the shrines, where in dance and song they brought to fulfillment what they had prepared for in the house of their teacher.^ When her pupils left Sappho, they made use of their education elsewhere. One of the recently discovered fragments has these lines referring to a former student then in Sardis. •Wright: Short History of Greek Literature, p. 100. "Patrick: Sappho and the Island of Lesbos, chap. V. •Page 138. ♦Page 73. "Paue 51. The Later Lyric Period 49 iwv Se Avhaiaiv ifMirpeTrerai yxjvai- Kea-aiVy «? ttot' aeXico , SvvT09 a poSoScLKTvKo^: aeXdwa irdvra ireppe^oia' darpa.* "But now she is prominent among the Lydian women, as when the sun sets, the rosy-fingered moon is superior to all the stars." So the influence of the school went forth even to barbarian cities. And Sappho's was not the only institution of the kind in Mytilene, for one was presided over by Andromeda, a former pupil of Sappho's who later became a rival, and another was conducted by Gorgo.^ So the education of women was cared for in one Greek city. But so far as we know the situation in Mytilene was unique. In general women of the higher classes were living more and more a retired life in their own homes, seldom appearing in public except at festivals.^ At Sparta they had physical training that they might bear healthy children, and they also sang the parthenia in choruses,* as has been already stated. But we must conclude that for the ordinary Greek woman of this period there was little intellectual training. She learned from her mother how to perform the domestic duties that were to fall to her lot, and beyond that she had very little education.^ The early years of the sixth century, which we are now consid- ering, might be called the age of tyrants in Greece, for while the tyrannies in the different states were not wholly contemporaneous, at no time did the tyrants flourish more than during the first half of this century. In many ways their control of their cities had lasting results on the life of the people, results that affected education pro- foundly. So it will be well for us to consider some of the features of this movement.^ Most of the tyrants furthered the development of their states. Murte in his Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, referring to this period says, "A freer course was opened to the traffic of social and civilized life in the different states of Hellas, both with each other and with the great neighboring monarchies. It was the obvious interest of the Greek political usurpers to maintain friendly relations, not only among themselves, but with foreign powers ^Fragments Berlin, No. 5, 11. 6-9. ^Wright: Short History of Greek Literature, p. 100. HJardner and Devons : Manual of Creek Antiquities, pp. 342-343. *Grote: HUtory of Greece, II, pp. 384-385. "Freeman: SchooU of Hellas, p. 48. ,„ oo n i o- . „ 'For account of tyrannies in Greece see Grote: History of Greece, III, pp. 18-28; Holm: History of Greece, I, pp. 261-263; Beloch: GriechUche Geschichte, I, pp. 347-371, 402-427; Busolt: Griechische Geschichte, I, pp. 625-«l; Meyer: Geschichte des AUertums, II, pp. 608-613. 50 Educational Progress in Greece and the result was a more extended cultivation of those branches of elegant art and science in which the Oriental nations were still in advance of the Greeks."^ Beloch in his Griechische Geschichte refers also to the economic and spiritual betterment of the people under the tyrants. He says that now for the first time the government realized its duty for the well-being of the citizens and the furthering of business and industry,^ Many of the tyrants were patrons of art and literature, inviting to their courts men of renown in other states. Some were great builders. Again religion was fostered by the tyrants, temples were erected, festivals established and more splendor added to the forms of worship. The tyrants who were especially prominent in the early part of the sixth century were Periander of Corinth and Clisthenes of Sicyon; a little later came Polycrates of Samos, Theagenes of Megara, and Pisistratus of Athens. Under each of these their respective cities developed along material, intellectual, and aesthetic lines. Perhaps we can appreciate best what the states owed to their tyrants, if we take the example of Pisistratus' rule in Athens for further consideration.^ He gave attention to the state religion, he fostered the worship of Demeter at Eleusis, he established the Diony- siac festival and the Panathenaea, which became the great glory of the city.* He also was interested in Orphism and was its patron.^ He developed the taste of the lower classes, furnishing intellectual and social amusement," as in the festivals already mentioned; the latest lyric poems were sung and Homer was publicly read.'^ He encouraged literature; according to tradition he had a commission of three learned men collect the Homeric poems and edit them. However that may be, there is better authority for the statement that his son, Hipparchus, had passages from Homer recited in their proper order at the Panathenaic festival.^ Under the Pisistratidae there came to Athens Lasus of Hermione, a musician, and Anacreon of Teos, who had previously been at the court of Polycrates, and iVol. Ill, p. 384. •Vol. I, p. 357. *For rule of Pisistratus gee Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, II, pp. 771-777, 783-791; Busolt: Grietchiche Geschichte, II, pp. 295-400. 'Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, II, p. 785. "Holm : History of Greece, I, p. 412. "Mahaffy: Social Life in Greece, p. 87. 'lb., pp. 87-88. "Busolt: Griechische Geschichte, II, p. 373. The Later Lyric Period 51 Simonides of Ceos.^ Pisistratus "probably also collected the works of other poets, — called by Aulus Gellius (N. A. vi, 17), in lan- guage not well suited to the sixth century B. C. a library thrown open to the public."^ He was a great builder. During his rule there were constructed an entrance to the Acropolis,^ the outer peristyle of the temple of Athena Polias,* the hall for the mysteries at Eleusis,^ a temple of Apollo,^ and there was started the great temple of Olympian Zeus south-east of the Acropolis.^ Under Pisistratus sculpture developed. Achermos of Chios, Aristion of Paros, and Philermus either came to Athens or made statues that were brought there.^ During his rule the pediment- group of the temple of Athena Polias was made, representing the battle of the gods and giants.^ The statues of the "maidens" found on the Acropolis belong largely to the period of his rule or that of his sons.^** With the encouragement of the tyrants industry developed, especially along the line of vase-making.^^ While this development was most marked at Athens, there was great prosperity in many other cities under the rule of their tyrants. We have now to ask ourselves in what ways did these condi- tions affect education. In the first place, intellectual and aesthetic interests, which have their part in the subject matter of education, found in many a tyrant a patron. In a growing state these are often developed under great difficulties because of poverty and lack of encouragement, but when a ruler shows his interest and gives lavishly in money that the highest ideals of poetry, music, architecture, and art may find expression, great impetus is given to study along these lines. Again when the leading poets, musicians, architects, and sculp- tors of the Greek world were gathered at the court of a tyrant, the association of these with each other would tend to give all a more liberal education. In fact Wilamowitz says that Simonides obtained his poetic training at the court of the Pisistratidae at Athens and >Ib., II, pp. 378-379. =^Grote: History of Greece, IV, p. 110. 'Busolt: Griechische Geschichte, II, p. 338. *Ib., p. 338. 'Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, II, p. 785. 'Busolt: Griechische Geschichte, II, p. 342. 'lb., p. 342. «Ib., p. 336. "lb., pp. 339-341. "lb., p. 336. "lb., pp. 331-335. 52 Educational Progress in Greece adds this: — "Dort hat Simonides am Hofe des Hipparchos die hohe Schule der Poesie und namentlich der Musik durchgemacht."^ Then too we find here learning valued for its own sake. Schol- ars were given an importance that they scarcely had before. In fact the term scholar could hardly be applied to any Greek before the bejrining of the sixth century. Such a man was Onomacritus. According to tradition he was asked by Pisistratus to head the commission that was to edit the Homeric poems, and he is said to have collected the prophecies of Musaeus^ and to have been a leader in the Orphic religion.^ Tradition also states that his col- leagues, with whom he revised the text of Homer, were Orpheus of Crotona and Zopyrus of Heraclea.* If there is any truth in this statement, the tyrant gathered about him learned men from distant cities. The so-called library also would be an encouragement to scholarship, for it placed at the disposal of those who were inter- ested, resources that they could not hope to own themselves. While we have no definite evidence for it, it would not seem unlikely that the tyrants may have favored existing schools or established new ones, since they had so much at heart the intellec- tual development of their people. At any rate the prosperity enjoyed under the tyrants made money more plentiful and so made it pos- sible for more people to place their children in the schools. The intellectual and political development of the common people too would tend to lead more persons to desire the advantages of an education. Consequently whatever political evils may have been involved in the rule of the tyrants, we cannot but believe that it was a real benefit to the cause of education. The development of literature and art under the tyrants has been mentioned. We ought to consider a little further what was accomplished along these lines during the whole period from 610 to 525, for education is directly concerned with the achievements of poets, architects, and artists. Starting with poetry^ we find that in 610 Mimnermus was probably still composing his elegies.^ A little later Solon used ^Sappho und Simonides, p. 139. 'Meyer: Geschichte des Alter turns, \\, p. 786. 'Holm: History of Greece, I, p. 411. ' Mb., p. 412. Tor the poetry of the period see the brief account in Wright's Short History of Greek Literature, pp. 76-85, 95-104, 108-118. For a longer account see Mure: Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, III, pp. 209-396. 'Mure: Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, HI, p. 332. The Later Lyric Period 53 the elegy for political purposes. Alcaeus and Sappho were con- temporaries, who developed the personal lyric. Choral lyric poetry was produced by Stesichorus of Himera and at Corinth by Arion. The latter organized the dithyrambic chorus, which by the close of the sixth century had developed into the drama. The personal lyric was continued by Anacreon and many inferior writers, while The- ognis produced elegiac poetry full of aphorisms. Phocylides of Miletus also composed aphorisms, while Hipponax of Ephesus was a satirist. The last of the Cyclic poems, the Telegonia of Eugammon of Cyrene^ and the most of the shorter Homeric Hymns^ belong to the sixth century. Some of the philosophers wrote in verse. Simo- nides, the great writer of epigrams, was beginning his work at the close of the period in 525. Prose was also beginning to appear in the works of the logographers, who from the middle of the sixth century wrote of the legends connected with particular places.' Though we do not hear much about it, oratory was doubtless being developed, except perhaps in states ruled by tyrants. In this brief survey we should observe how widely extended was the interest in poetry. In addition to the poets in Greece many writers were from the islands. On the mainland of Asia Minor Miletus has its author and Sicily is represented in Stesichorus, while Eugammon lived in far off Africa. This diffusion of litera- ture points to a very widespread culture among the Greeks and per- haps to the existence of schools very generally throughout the Hel- lenic world. So too with architecture and art, the fact that they flourished at this time shows that the taste of the people was being raised, so that they appreciated such things. Furthermore the many works of art about them would be an aid to education. This period was a great building era. Perhaps at no other time were so many temples erected by the Greeks.* Some of these have already been mentioned. The list included the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the temple of Hera at Samos, the oldest temples at Selinus, the temple of Apollo at Corinth, and the temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In other fields of architecture we have •lb. H, p. 289. 'Sikes and Allen: Homeric Hymns, p. 230. 'Jevons: Greek Literature, pp. 297-299. *Beloch: Griechische Geschichte, I, pp. 420-421. For further account of this building activity, see pages cited and those immediately following. 54 Educational Progress in Greece the hall of ceremonies at Eleusis and also the treasure-houses at Olympia and Delphi. In sculpture the advance was perhaps not so rapid.^ It took longer to get free from archaic imperfections. We have the line of so-called ApoUos, each showing advance over the preceding one. There are also the seated figures at Branchidae and statues of the draped female type culminating in the "maidens" of the Acropolis. There should be mentioned too the porus and early marble sculp- tures also found on the Acropolis, For reliefs there are the metopes of the two earliest temples at Salinus, the "Harpy"-tomb reliefs, and, coming from the close of the period, the so-called "Man of Marathon." These are a few representative sculptures of those ta be found in our museums, which of course altogether constitute but a small fraction of the works originally produced. In vase-painting there was a continued advance.- The geo- metric style had given way to the black-figured vases and soon after the middle of the sixth century the red-figured vases first appeared.^ Athens became the great center for the manufacture and sale of pottery. All these works of art show a rapid progress that was the result of careful observation and training. Besides the artistic education this implies there was also the growing culture of the people, which was in part the cause and in part the result of the activity along aesthetic lines. The rise of philosophy* about 600 B. C. indicated the efficiency of the earlier education and the schools of philosophy became the higher institutions of learning in the sixth century. Here also was developed in part the subject matter of later instruction. So it will be well for us to review briefly the work of the early philosophers. Philosophy begins in Greece with the Seven Wise Men, who lived about 600. Grote says of them that they were the "first per- sons who ever acquired an Hellenic reputation grounded on mental competency apart from poetical genius or eifect,"^ Their philosophy however was a certain worldly wisdom rather than scientific inves- tigation or speculation in the field of metaphysics. Aside from the 'For the sculpture of the period, see Gardner: Handbdok of Creek Sculpture, pp. 94-202. -For vase-painting of the period, see Walters: History of Ancient Pottery, I, chaps. IX, X. ^Busolt: Griechische Geschichte, U, pp. 331-335. *For an account of the rise of philosophy, see Fairbanks: The First Philosophert of Greece. For a brief account, see Grote: History of Greece, IV, pp. 3ii0-399. 'History of Greece, IV, p. 96. The Later Lyric Period 55 use that was made of their aphorisms, they cannot have contributed much directly to education. This statement however is not true with respect to one of their number, Thales of Miletus, who was the first of the physicists, those philosophers of the sixth and early fifth centuries who directed their studies especially toward nature. The great step in advance made by the first of these men can hardly be overemphasized. Before this the phenomena of nature were considered to be due directly to the presence of the gods in the universe. The Theogony presents the early view of the origin of things on earth. But Thales and his successors turned from all this and sought in nature itself the causes of all phenomena.^ He is said to have traveled in Egypt and Chaldea, seats of ancient learning.^ In the former country we are told that he ascertained the height of the pyramids from the length of their shadow.^ In Chaldea he may have learned the method of determining the time of eclipses, for he is said to have foretold the eclipse of May 28, 585 B. C* The Greek scholars of the fourth century ascribed to him the first beginnings in geometry, astronomy, and the study of nature.^ Of his researches Bury writes, "He sought for a common substance, a single principle which should explain the variety of nature and reduce the world to unity and system; it is a small matter that he found this principle in water: it is his eternal merit to have sought it."^ Thales was the pioneer and deserves especial attention. With respect to the other philosophers we shall note only the facts that concern education most closely. Anaximander, also of Miletus, comes next in order after Thales. He was more metaphysical than Thales.^ He made geometrical experiments.^ He was the first also to draw the coast-lines on a tablet, probably of brass, making a map of the lands about the Aegean. This marks the beginning of rational study of geography in Greece.^ We mention in passing Anaximines of the school of Thales, who Mb., p. 380. Hh., p. 383. ^Holm: History of Greece, I, p. 346. «Ib., p. 346. 'Grote: History of Greece, IV, p. 384. "History of Greece, p. 222. 'Grote: History of Greece, IV, pp. 386-387. ''Holm: History of Greece, 1, p. 347. "Grote: History of Greece, IV, p. 387. 56 Educational Progress in Greece made air the source of all things/ and Pherecydes of Syros, said to have been a teacher of Pythagoras^ and the earliest Greek prose writer,^ Most of the other early philosophers, if they wished to hand down their views to posterity in writing, used the medium of poetry. Another philosopher of a slightly later date than Anaximander was Xenophanes of Colophon, who went to Italy a little after the middle of the sixth century and founded the Eleatic school. This school held that nature was one unchangeable and indivisible whole permeated with God.* He assumed a critical attitude toward the anthropomorphic view of the gods held by his contemporaries, as is shown by certain fragments of his poetry, which have come down to us.^ He also found fault with the undue honors bestowed on successful athletes.** His revolutionary attitude and his independent criticism were doubtless much needed factors in the education of his time. A far greater influence was exerted on education by Pythagoras, who in Schmidt's Geschichte der Pddagogik is called the educational theorist of the Dorians, the first great star in the heaven of peda- gogy.^ Born about 580 in Samos, he is said to have traveled to Egypt, Babylon, and Persia. In 529 he settled in Crotona and estab- lished his school there.^ As he left no written statement of his views,'' it is hard to tell just what they were, for later additions to his philosophy were handed down under his name, but this much appears certain, that he believed in immortality and the transmigra- tion of souls.^° We however are more interested in the school or brotherhood that he formed. Each prospective pupil was examined as to his moral qualities. When admitted, the pupil had to pass through a novitiate, during which time he was not allowed to speak and never saw the master, who lectured behind a curtain.^^ The students lived together in the same group of buildings.^- Their life was ascetic.^'* They were given physical training and were taught 'Holm : History of Greece, I, p. 348. ='Grote: History of Greece, IV, p. 390. »Ib., p. 97. Mb., pp. 387-388. Tragments, Nos. 16, 17. "Fragments, No. 2. 'Vol. I, pp. 516-517. "lb., pp. 517-519. "Painter: History of Education, p. 43. '"Mayor: Sketch of Ancient Philosophy, p. 9. "Schmidt: Geschichte der Pddagogik, I, pp. 523-524. '=lb., p. 522. "Mayor: Sketch of Ancient Philosophy, p. 9. The Later Lyric Period 57 music and especially mathematics.^ This subject Pythagoras de- veloped in a peculiar way, giving a mystical value to numbers that seems to us quite fantastic.- Moral and religious instruction was also given. ^ Besides these branches physics, geography, metaphys- ics and medicine were taught.* Harmony in all things was insisted upon and pupils and teacher lived in relations of the greatest friend- liness.^ The brotherhood was established in other cities of Magna Graecia, but its whole tendency was aristocratic.^ It incurred the wrath of the common people and schools were destroyed and mem- bers slain or driven out. Pythagoras himself met with persecution, but the manner of his death is uncertain.^ This school of Pythagoras is one of the most interesting experi- ments in education that was made in early Greece and though the brotherhoods were soon broken up, the teachings of Pythagoras and his educational methods had a lasting influence on Greek education. Of later philosophers, who flourished after 525, we shall not speak. Enough has been said to show the great advance in educa- tion that was due to the rise of philosophy. The early philosophers in the attitude that they took toward nature and man laid the founda- tion for future educational theory.^ The subject matter of instruc- tion was greatly extended in astronomy, mathematics, physics, and metaphysics. The philosophers, gathering pupils about them, thus established higher schools, in which no one was too old to learn. Add to this the stimulus that was given to learning, the intellectual curiosity that was aroused in regard to the facts of nature, and the enthusiasm that was evoked for knowledge, and we shall realize that the work of the early philosophers was one of transcendent impor- tance in the development of Greek education. In the realm of religion too movements were taking place that were afi^ecting the intellectual life of the people. While the state worship was still maintained with an ever increasing magnificence, there were cravings that it did not satisfy. Adolf Holm says, "Every one supplemented the deficiency according to his inner needs by the ceremonials of the mysteries, by philosophical theology, or by 'lb., p. 8. =Ib., pp. 10-12. ^Painter: History of Education, pp. 47-48. nb.. p. 47. ^Schmidt: Ceschichte der Pddagogik, I, pp. 522-523. "Grote: History of Greece, IV, pp. 404-407. 'lb., pp. 409-410. ^Schmidt: Ceschichte der Pddagogik, I, p. 582. 58 Educational Progress in Greece a combination of both."^ We have discussed philosophy, it remains for us to take up briefly the Eleusinian Mysteries and Orphism. The Demeter worship^ was the first to become established. One of the Homeric Hymns, the Hymn to Demeter, was composed in honor of this worship, while it was still local.^ The hymn prob- ably belongs to the seventh century.* When Athens gained control of Eleusis, it took over these religious rites or mysteries.^ Grad- ually the cult spread throughout Greece and many from distant regions came to be initiated." The performance of the mysteries involved the acting of a drama or pantomime, but probably not much instruction.^ The celebration of these rites by the initiates "touched their emotions, not their intellects."^ They believed in immortality, but thought that they alone were assured of happiness in the other life." Their hope was based not so much on moral purity as on ceremonial cleansing and their trust in the efi&cacy of the ritual and their own emotional experience.^" Orphism^^ had its origin about the time of the rise of philoso- phy.^^ It is defined by G. Busolt in his Griechische Geschichte as a characteristic union of Greek speculation and Greek ritualism with traces of the Thracian Bacchus-cult.^^ Dionysus was its great god and there are indications of a monotheistic and pantheistic belief.^* The soul is divine, imprisoned in the body.^^ Immortality and the transmigration of souls were taught.^*' Blessedness could be obtained only by ceremonial purity and asceticism. No meat must be eaten. ^^ Strange foreign rites were employed in initiation, but with spiritual meaning.^^ Brotherhoods were formed in different places. Athens was the most important center and Onomacritus was an Orphic leader there.^" ^History of Greece, I, p. 411. 'For an account of the Eleusinian Mysteries, see Fairbanks: Handbook of Greek Religion, pp. 128-137. •Grote: History of Greece, IV, p. 69. 'Moore: Religious Thought of the Greeks, p. 64. Hb., pp. 65-66. «Ib., p. 66. 'Busolt: Griechische Geschichte, II, p. 360. 'Moore: Religious Thought of the Greeks, p. 70. "lb., pp. 70-71. "lb., p. 73. "For an account of Orphism, see Fairbanks: Handbook of Greek Religion, pp. 244-248, and Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, II, pp. 734-749. "lb., p. 753. "Vol. II, pp. 362-363. "Fairbanks: Handbook of Greek Religion, p. 245. "lb., pp. 245-246. »«Ib., p. 246. •'Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums, II, p. 745. '^Fairbanks: Handbook of Greek Religion, p. 246 •'Moore: Religious Thought of the Greeks, p. S3 The Later Lyric Period 59 Religion resulting in action is seen in the waging of the First Sacred War early in the sixth century against the robbers who molested pilgrims on their way to Delphi. Grote says of this war, "The destruction of Cirrha by the Amphictyons is the first historical incident which brings into play, in defence of the Delphian temple, a common Hellenic feeling of active obligations."^ What effect then would these religious movements have on edu- cation? Any deep emotional experience, any aspiration after bles- sedness, any feeling of personal obligation, especially if it results in action, has a profound effect on the intellectual as well as the religious and moral nature of man and forms a part of all true education. We have now reviewed some of the most important movements that affected education in the sixth century down to the year 525 B. C. It remains for us to discuss education, as it was at that date. How general was education? How were the schools conducted? What were they teaching at that time? The information that we have along these lines belongs to a later date and mostly concerns Athens alone. But it may help us in understanding what was the educational status of the Greeks twenty-five years before the close of the sixth century. First let us notice a passage in the Crito of Plato. Socrates rep- resents the laws as personified and saying to him: ^ ov KaXw Trpoaerarrov ^fimv ol iirl roirrow rerayfievot vo/jLOLy TrapayjeXXovrei tw irarpl rat (rat ae ev fiovatKy Kul yvfivaa-TLKrj TraiSeveLv;'' "Or did not those of us laws in charge of these things order well in bidding your father to educate you in music and gymnastics?" So Plato intimated that when Socrates was a boy, education was compulsory at Athens and that it consisted of music (in its broader sense) and gymnastics. As Socrates was born about 470, this would refer to a period a little more than fifty years after 525. Educa- tion must have been well advanced and quite general at the earlier date, if within sixty years it was required of all Athenian citizens. The division into music and gymnastics dates from much earlier times and was undoubtedly in use in the sixth century.^ There is a familiar passage in Aristophanes' Clouds, in which ^Hutory of Greece, II, p. 270. -Crito, p. 50, D. ^Davidson: Education of the Greek Peopk, p. 63. 60 Educational Progress in Greece the Just Argument describes the old education. We quote from that: Xe'^o) roiwv rrjv ap')(aiav iraiZeiav w? SieKctTO «t\.' "I shall show then how the old education was carried on. ... In the first place one should not hear a boy mumbling his words at all, then it was necessary to walk through the streets in good order to the house of the cithara-player, the boys of the same city-district together lightly clad, even if it was snowing hard. Then he taught them to learn a song, . . . either 'Pallas, the terrible sacker of cities,' or 'Some far-reaching sound,' pitching high the music that the fathers handed down, . . . but if any of them played the buffoon, . . . he was given a good thrashing . . , and in the home of the trainer it was necessary for the boys, when sitting down to put the thigh forward. . . . These are the means through which my education reared the men who fought at Marathon." As the battle of Mara- thon was fought in 490, the education of the men who took part in the combat must be placed from ten to twenty years earlier, which would bring the date back nearly to 525. However Aristophanes must not be held to any too accurate a consideration of dates. He merely is presenting the education of the good old days perhaps with some idealization. What we note in the portions of the passage that we have given is in the first place the discreetness and modesty with which the boys were obliged to act. Discipline was severe. We do not get much information about what was taught except the learn- ing of a song. Those mentioned were popular songs of two dithy- rambic poets.^ Besides the music school that of the gymnastic trainer is mentioned. Our next passage is from Plato and presents the education of the Athenians toward the close of the fifth century, a hundred years or more after the date we have taken as the end of the period of our study. The description includes some features that we are already familiar with and as this is the case, it may be that other features hark back to the earlier period. At any rate the passage will show us what the education that developed so rapidly in the sixth century became at a later date. Plato begins with the early instruction of the children at home by the nurse, the mother, the pedagogtie, and the father. There they are shown the distinction between right and wrong and are taught 'Lines 961-986. 'Note on 1. 967 of the passage cited in Humphreys' edition of the Clouds. The Later Lyric Period 61 obedience, even by threats and blows if necessary. Plato then con- tinues : Mero. Se raxna et? BiBacrKoXav ird^iirovre^ ktXj* "And after this, sending them to the teachers, they (the parents) enjoin upon these to care for the morals of the children much more than for both letters and music. And the teachers are concerned for this and when moreover the boys learn to read and are about to understand the written word, just as formerly the spoken, they place before them on the benches poems of good poets to read and oblige them to commit these to memory and in these poems there are many warnings and many descriptions and praises and encomiums of good men of ancient times, in order that the child may earnestly imitate and seek to become such. Moreover the cithara-players act in a similar manner and are concerned for virtue and that the young may do nothing wrong. And in addition to this, when the boys learn to play the cithara, they teach them too poems of other good authors, the lyric poets, setting them to music and they make the souls of the children familiar with both the rhythms and harmonies that they may be more cultured and, coming to have more rhythm and har- mony, may be useful both for word and deed. . . . Still in addi- tion to this the parents send them to the trainer, in order that, hav- ing their bodies in better condition, they may be obedient to a useful purpose and may not be compelled to be cowardly on account of the weakness of the body both in war and in other activities. . . . And when they go out from school, the city obliges them both to learn the laws and to live in accordance with them." We see here the three divisions of education again — letters, music, and gymnastics. We find the study of poetry and the com- mitting of it to memory and the singing of lyric poems to the accompaniment of the cithara. In this passage the emphasis is laid on moral instruction, which seems to have pervaded all the work of the schools. If this was true in Plato's time, it is likely that in the earlier and more virtuous period before the Persian Wars the same stress was laid on this feature. However the training of the ephebi, or youths from eighteen to twenty, mentioned at the close of the passage undoubtedly was better developed in the fifth cen- tury than in the sixth. But that they were organized at the earlier date seems likely, for Lycurgus says that the Greek army at Plataca ^Protagoras, pp. 325 D-326 D. 62 Educational Progress in Greece in 479 repeated an oath that was modeled upon that which the ephebi took, when they became citizens.^ It may be well in this connection to give the wording of the oath that we may see something of the ideals that Athens had for her youth. "I will not bring dishonor to these holy weapons, and will not desert the comrade who stands side by side with me, whoever he may be. For the holy places and the laws, I will fight singly and with others. I will leave my country not in a worse, but in a better condition by sea and land than I have received it. I will willingly and at all times submit to the judges and to the established ordi- nances, also not allow that any one should infringe thereon or not give due obedience. I will reverence the ancestral worship. Let the gods be witnesses of this."^ The passages that we have quoted have had to do primarily with Athens. One incident that Herodotus mentions throws a little light on education at Chios at the beginning of the fifth century. rovTO Be ev Ty ttoXi top avrov tovtov ')(p6vov ktX.^ "But in the city at this same time, a little while before the naval battle, while some school boys were being taught letters, the roof fell upon them, so that of the hundred and twenty boys only one escaped." The surprising thing in this passage is the number of pupils men- tioned as attending the school. With one hundred and twenty con- siderable organization was needed and a number of teachers re- quired. This was no small school, where a single master would have charge of ten or a dozen boys, but an institution that might bear some resemblance to a modern city school. Education must certainly have been well developed and popular in Chios a few years after the close of the period under discussion. To these quotations from ancient writers may be added some suggestive statements by modem authors, that will not be out of place here. First we quote from William Mure, who in discussing the early use of writing in Greece speaks as follows: "Besides the anxiety of each citizen to secure to his descendants the elementary qualifications for the duties or privileges of his order, it was also the concern of the common parent, the state, to place all her children on an equal footing in these important respects."* ^Leocrates, chaps. 18-19. ■-'As quoted by S. S. Laurie: Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education, p. 271, based on Sto- baeus: Florilegium, 43, sec. 43. 'Book VI, chap. 27. *A Critical History oj the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, III, p. 448. The Later Lyric Period 63 The second quotation deals with the subject matter of education and is taken from Crete's History of Greece. "Down to the generation preceding Socrates, the poets continued to be the grand leaders of the Greek mind: until then nothing was taught to youth except to read, to remember, to recite musically and rhythmically and to com- prehend poetical composition. The comments of preceptors, ad- dressed to their pupils, may probably have become fuller and more instructive, but the text still continued to be epic or early lyric poetry."^ Finally we give a suggestion of Mahaffy's that we may judge of the early education by its fruits. "The fact that Aeschylus was appreciated proves that Athens had attained intellectual culture fit for a great democracy."^ Can we not go even farther than does MahafFy and say that Creek education at about 525 B. C. produced an Aeschylus and also a Pindar, that whatever native talent they possessed was called forth and developed by their training in the schools and by the stimulating influence of their environment. No better testimonial to the efficiency of the education of the sixth cen- tury can be asked than the existence of so many distinguished men as there were at the beginning of the fifth. By this criterion of judg- ment it stands approved. We have discussed the education of the lyric age in its earlier and later periods. At first there were no schools, but there was real education none the less in the home and in connection with civic life and the requirements of religion. The subject mat- ter of education was increasing. Poetry was produced. Art was developing. Then as writing came into more general use among the people, schools were established. Improvements were made till in time we have the schools described by Aristophanes and Plato. The rule of the tyrants with their patronage of art, architecture, and literature, the rise of philosophy and of a more personal form of religion — all contributed to the means of education existing in the Greek states. The training that the schools afforded, the require- ments of civic life, and the environment of a cultured society were factors in an education that made the young man capable of taking his part in the activities of the community and of appreciating the finer things of life to an extent that astonishes us. »Vol. IV, p. 97. ^Social Life in Greece, pp. 89-90. CONCLUSION As we have discussed at the close of each portion of our work the educational value of the training of the young during the period, we need not speak at length upon this subject. Rather let us empha- size the most striking essentials that we have already noted and see if we can find any real unity pervading the educational ideals and the means of realizing those ideals which characterized the successive periods. Furthermore we may state that we are offering no new and striking theories in regard to Greek education. In the period of Aegean civilization we may make some claim to be pioneers in the study of the archaeological evidence with the sole view of dis- covering what the education of those people may have been. In the lyric period we have remarshalled and reclassified facts often cited, so as to give a picture as complete as possible of those influ- ences in school and out that were moulding the Greeks of that age. We depart from views expressed by others only to the extent of rais- ing the question, if schools did not exist in Greece a considerable length of time before the close of the seventh century, the date ordi- narily assigned. That point has been discussed at length elsewhere. Our great aim has been to collect and present the facts and the evi- dence on which we may base our conception of education in the early days of Greece — a period that in most histories of education, if it is touched upon at all, is treated merely as a preliminary to a dis- cussion of the schools of the fifth century and the theories of Plato and Aristotle. Having made this explanation, we proceed to state what seem to us the most striking features in the educational development of early Greece. In the period of Aegean civilization we are impressed with the fact that its culture is unique, utterly unlike that of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Phoenicia. Therefore education, direct and in- direct, must have diff"ered from that of the countries mentioned. In the lyric period we note the early rise of schools and the great emphasis placed on the aesthetic as well as on the intellectual and the physical. Perhaps in this last point we s^e one of the factors that will tend to unify all Greek education. The dagger-blades from Mycenae, 64 Conclusion 65 the Shield of Achilles, if we should include the Homeric Age, the "Maiderxs" of the Acropolis, together with the treasures of Greek art of the later days, all point to a similarity of cultural ideals that affected the education of all periods. Again the training was for active life. We cannot conceive of anything appearing in early Greek like the monastic learning of the Middle Ages. Even the Greek philosophers were men of affairs. Greek education was practical and fitted men to live in the Greek world with its varied interests. The note of progress sounds through it all. We have here no Egyptian conservatism nor Chinese memorizing of the classics handed down from a hoary antiquity. Constant advance was made and wel- comed. Everywhere there was promise for the future. The whole man was trained. Physical education played an im- portant part in historic Greece and probably also in the period of Aegean civilization. Music, dancing, poetry, art, religion, and in- dustrial training were all factors in education and intense speciali- zation was almost unknown till a comparatively late date in Greek history. We add one more characteristic, which is strikingly Hellenic, delight in what is simple and beautiful. It is seen in some of the wall-paintings at Cnossus. It is the charm of the Iliad and Odyssey, and it continues to appear in a thousand ways, even when life was becoming more complex in Greece. This spirit pervading Greek education and culture gives an impression of freshness and spon- taneity to the masterpieces that Greek genius has bestowed upon the world. To most men Greek education means the theories of the philos- ophers or the teaching of the sophists. Important as these are, it is an interesting and valuable study to go back to the times when Greek ideals were forming and to trace the educational development of a people in the days when life was comparatively simple and men were living near to nature and were unspoiled by convention. Such study shows us that even in that early epoch the training of the young was broad, was developed along aesthetic lines, but was at the same time practical and essentially Greek. BIBLIOGRAPHY History Abbott, E. Beloch, K. J. Bury, J. B. Busolt, G. Cox, G. W. Curtius, E. Duncker, M. W. Grote, G. Holm, A. Meyer, E. Greek Literature Browne, H. Columbia University — Lectures Croiset, A., and Croiset, M. Evelyn-White, H. G. Jebb, R. C. Jevons, F. B. Lawton, W. C. Mahaffy, J. P. Mure, W. Paley, F. A. Patrick, Mary M. Sikes and Allen Symonds, J. A. Waltz, P. Warr, G. W. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, U. Wright, W. C. 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I ^^BKSrTVCCAUBOKNIALIBKARV '"^^ccnts'on first day oTecd 9Jul'52GD 'JUL !OApr'57AS JUK3 I960 200ct'6nA OCT ? ^961 ) 9 \Qf)] |i,21^6^«;:i2}^A2012Bl6)4120 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subjea to immediate recall. Kinw jUNlSl^es^^ ^ECCfX ^^B j»N nm ^tm i-OAN de:pt ^ T^ ^1 owe &» 'r m\ 2 6'?^ NOV 2 2 1982 fiECCiR. JAI^04'83 LD 21A-45m-9,'67 (H50678l0)476B General Library University of California Berkeley